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FEB  21  1997 


The  Catholic  Encyclopedia 


VOLUME    ELEVEN 
New    Mexico-Philip 


THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


AN    INTERNATIONAL    WORK    OF    REFERENCE 

ON     THE     CONSTITUTION,     DOCTRINE, 

DISCIPLINE,  AND   HISTORY  OF  THE 

CATHOLIC    CHURCH 


EDITED  BY 

CHARLES   G.  HERBERMANN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

EDWARD    A.  PACE,  Ph.D.,  D.D.         CONDE    B.  PALLEN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

THOMAS   J.  SHAHAN,  D.D.  JOHN    J.  WYNNE,  S.J. 

ASSISTED    BY   NUMEROUS  COLLABORATORS 


FIFTEEN  VOLUMES  AND  INDEX 
VOLUME  XI 

SPECIAL     EDITION 

UNDER   THE   AUSPICES    OF 

THE  KNIGHTS  OF  COLUMBUS  CATHOLIC  TRUTH  COMMITTEE 


mew  13orf? 
THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  PRESS,  INC. 


Nihil  Obstat.  February  1,  1911 
REMY  LAFORT,  S.T.D. 


Imprimatur 

+JOHN  CARDINAL  FARLEY 

ARCHBISHOP   OF   NEW   TORE 


Copyright,  1911 
By  Robert  Appleton  Company 

Copyright,  1913 
By  the  encyclopedia  PRESS,  INC. 

The  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholio 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  by  copyright.    All  rights,  includ- 
ing the  right  of  translation  and  reproduction,  are  reserved. 


Contributors  to  the  Eleventh  Volume 


AHAUS,   HUBERT,   S.T.D.,   Ph.D.,   St.  Joseph's     BARRY,  WILLIAM  CANON,  S.T.D.,  Leamington, 
College,  Mill  Hill,  London:  Orders,  Holy.  England:  Oxford  Movement;  Parables. 


AHERNE,  CORNELIUS,  Rector,  Professor  of 
New  Testament  Exegesis,  St.  Joseph's  Col- 
lege, Mill  Hill,  London:  Pasch  or  Passover. 

AHERNE,  JAMES,  South  Omaha,  Nebraska: 
Omaha,  Diocese  of. 

ALDASY,  ANTAL,  Ph.D.,  Archivist  of  the  Li- 
brary OF  THE  National  Museum,  Budapest: 
Oldh,  Nicolaus. 

ALL.ARIA,  ANTHONY,  C.R.L.,  S.T.D.,  Abbot  op 
S.  Teodoro,  Lector  of  Philosophy  and  Theol- 
ogy, Genoa:  Peter  de  Honestis;  Peter  Fourier, 
Saint;  Peter  Nolasco,  Saint;  Peter  of  Arbues, 
Saint;  Peter  of  Verona,  Saint. 

ALMOND,  JOSEPH  CUTHBERT.  O.S.B.,  Supe- 
rior of  Parker's  Hall,  Oxford:  Oates's  Plot; 
Oblati;  Olivetans. 

AMADO,  RaMON  RUIZ,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  Ph.L.,  Col- 
lege of  St.  Ignatius,  Sarria,  Barcelona: 
Orense,  Dincese  of;  Orihuela,  Diocese  of;  Osma, 
Diocese  of;  Oviedo,  Diocese  of;  Palencia,  Diocese 
and  University  of;  Pamplona,  Diocese  of. 

ANGLIN,  HON.  FRANCIS  ALEXANDER,  K.C., 
Puisne  Judge,  Supreme  Court  op  Canada, 
Ottawa:  Ontario. 

AREXDZEN,  J.  P.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  M.A.  (C-intab.), 
Profe.ssor  of  iSacred  Scripture,  St.  Edmund's 
College,  Ware,  England:  Occult  Art,  Occult- 
ism. 

ATTERIDGE,  ANDREW  HILLIARD,  London: 
Periodical  Literature,  Catholic,  England. 

AUGUSTINE,  FATHER,  O.S.F.C,  Franciscan 
Capuchin  Monastery,  Dublin:  Nugent,  Fran- 
cis. 

AUSTIN,  SISTER  MARY  STANISLAUS,  St. 
Catharine's  Convent  op  Mercy,  New  York: 
O'Reilly,  Hugh. 

AVELING,  FRANCIS,  S.T.D.,  London:  Phenom- 
enalism. 

BACCHUS,  FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  B.A.,  The  Ora- 
tory, Birmingham,  England:  Pachomius,  Saint; 
Pammaehius,  Saint;  Pamphilius  of  Cacsarea, 
Saint;  Pantsnus;  Paul  the  Hermit,  Saint;  Paul 
the  Simple,  Saint;  Peter  of  Alexandria,  Saint; 
Philastrius,  Saint. 

BANDELIER,  AD.  F.,  Hispanic  Society  of  Amer- 
ica, New  York:  Pedro  de  Cordova. 

BANGHA,  ADALBERT  V.,  S.J.,  Member  of  the 
Catholic  Philosophical  Society  of  Thomas 
Aquinas  (Budapest),  Innsbruck,  Austria: 
Pdzmdny,  Peter. 

BARNES,  Mgr.  ARTHUR  STAPYLTON,  M.A. 
(,OxoN.  AND  Cantab.),  Cambridge,  England: 
Passion  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the  Four  Gospels. 

BARRETT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Buckie,  Scotland: 
Ogilvie,  John,  Venerable. 


BAUMBERGER,  GEORG,  Knight  of  the  Order 
OF  St.  Sylvester,  Editor-in-Chief,  "Neue 
ZtJRicHER  J^achrichten",  Zurich:  Periodical 
Literature,  Catholic,  Switzerland. 

BAUMGARTEN,  Mgr.  PAUL  MARIA,  J.U.D.. 
S.T.D.,  Rome:  Old  Catholics. 

BECHTEL,  FLORENTINE,  S.J.,  Professor  op 
Hebrew  and  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Louis 
University,  St.  Louis:  Noe;  Paralipomenon, 
The  Books  of;  Pharao. 

BENIGNI,  Mgr.  UMBERTO,  Prothonotary 
Apostolic  Partecipante,  Professor  op 
EccLESi  ASTiCAL  History,  Pontificia  Ace  ADEMi  A 
DEI  NoBiLi  Ecclesiastici,  Rome:  Nicastro; 
Nicosia;  NicoteraandTropea,  Diocese  of;  Nocera, 
Diocese  of;  Nocera  dei  Pagani,  Diocese  of;  Nola, 
Diocese  of;  Non  Expedit;  Norcia,  Diocese  of; 
Noto,  Dioc&se  of;  Novara,  Diocese  of;  Nusco, 
Diocese  of;  Ogliastra,  Diocese  of;  Oppido  Mamer- 
tina.  Diocese  of;  Oria,  Diocese  of;  Oristano,  Dio- 
cese of;  Orvieto,  Diocese  of;  Osimo,  Diocese  of; 
Ostia  and  Velletri,  Diocese  of;  Otranto,  Arch- 
diocese of;  Pacca,  Bartoloinmeo ;  Padua,  Diocese 
and  University  of;  Pagano,  Mario;  Palermo, 
Archdiocese  and  University  of;  Palestrina,  Dio- 
cese of;  Parma,  Diocese  of;  Paruta,  Paolo; 
Passaglia,  Carlo;  Passionei,  Domenico;  Patti, 
Diocese  of;  Pavia,  Diocese  and  University  of; 
Penne  and  Atri,  Diocese  of;  Periodical  Literature, 
Catholic,  Italy;  Perugia,  Archdiocese  of;  Pesaro, 
Diocese  of;  Pescia,  Diocese  of. 

BERTRIN,  GEORGES,  Litt.D.,  Fellow  of  the 
University',  Professor  of  French  Litera- 
ture, Institut  Catholique,  Paris:  Olivier  de 
la  Marche;  Ozanam,  Antoine-Fr(5d(Sric. 

BEWERUNGE,  H.,  Professor  of  Church  Music, 
Maynooth  College,  Dublin  :  Organ. 

BIHL,  MICHAEL,  O.F.M.,  Lector  op  Ecclesiasti- 
cal History,  Collegio  San  Bonaventura, 
QuARACCHi,  Florence:  Orbellis,  Nicolas  d'; 
Pacificus  of  Ceredano;  Pacificus  of  San  Severino, 

Saint. 

BLANC,  JOSEPH,  S.M.,  Nukualofa,  Tonga 
Islands:  Oceania,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

BLANCHIN,  F.,  O.M.I.,  S.T.D.,  Oblate  Scholas- 
ticate,  Ottawa,  Canada:  Oblates  of  Mary 
Immaculate. 

BLENK,  JAMES  H.,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Archbishop  op 
New  Orleans,  Louisiana:  Penalver  y  Cardenas, 
Louis. 

BOUDINHON,AUGUSTE-MARIE,S.T.D.,D.C.L., 
Director,  "Canoniste  Contemporain",  Pro- 
fessor OF  Canon  Law,  Institut  Catholique, 
Paris:  Nomination;  Nomocanon;  Notaries; 
Notoriety,  Notorious;  Ordinariate;  Ordinary; 
Parish;  Parochial  Mass;  Penitential  Canons. 

BOWDEN,  HENRY  SEBASTIAN,  The  Oratory, 
London:  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  The. 


CONTUIHUTOUS  TO  THE  ELEVENTH   VOLUME 


BRAUN,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  St.  Ic.natius  College, 
Valkenuuku,  Holland:  Pallium;  Pectorale.    - 

BRAlXSnEHGER,  OTTO,  S.J.,  St.  Ignatius  Col- 
lege, A'alkenbuuo,  Holland:  Peter  Canisius, 
Blessed. 

BRfiHIER,  LOUIS-RENfi,  Professor  op  Ancient 
AND  Medieval  History,  University  of 
Clermont-Ferhand,  Pi'y-dk-Dome,  France: 
Nogaret,  Guillauine  dc;  Pnlirofjntphy;  Pastou- 
roaux,  Crusade  of  the;  Peter  do  Blois;  Peter  the 
Hermit. 

BREXNAX,  M.  H.,  Devil's  Lake,  North  Dakota: 
North  Dakota. 

BRIDGE,  JAMES,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Oxon.),  Liverpool, 
England:  Xorris,  Sylvester;  Persecution. 

BROWN,  CHARLES  FRANCIS  WEMYSS,  Locn- 
ton  Castle,  Perthshire,  Scotland:  Perugia, 
University  of. 

BRUCKER,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Editor  op  "Etudes", 
Paris:  Parrenin,  Dominique. 

BRUNAULT,  J.  S.  HERMANN,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of 
Nicolet,  Province  op  Quebec,  Canada: 
Nicolet,  Diocese  of. 

BRUXET,  FRANCIS  XAVIER,  Vice-Chancellor, 
Archdiocese  of  Ottawa,  Canada:  Ottawa, 
Archdiocese  of. 

BLTITON,  EDWIN,  S.T.D.,  F.R.Hist.Soc,  Vice- 
President,  St.  Edmund's  College,  Ware, 
England:  Nicholson,  Francis;  Noble,  Daniel; 
Northcotc,  James  Spencer;  Norwich,  Ancient 
Diocese  of ;  Odo,  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
burjs  Ofifa,  King  of  Mercia;  Old  Hall  (St.  Ed- 
mund's College);  Oldham,  Hugh;  Palmer,  Wil- 
liam; Pandulph;  Panzani,  Gregorio;  Paulinus, 
Saint,  Archbishop  of  York;  Pecock,  Reginald; 
Penal  Laws,  I.  In  England,  II.  In  Scotland; 
Pendleton,  Henry;  Peyto,  William. 

BYRNE,  JEROME  FRANCIS,  Superior  General, 
Brothers  of  St.  Patrick,  Tullow,  Ireland: 
Patrician  Brothers. 

CABROL,  FERNAND,  O.S.B.,  Abbot  op  St. 
Michael's,  Farnborough,  England:  Nocturns; 
None;  Occurrence;  Octavarium  Romanum;  Oc- 
tave; Office,  Divine;  Office  of  the  Dead;  Pax  in 
the  Liturgy. 

CALfeS,  JEAN,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Old  Testament 
Exegesis,  Enghien,  Belgium:  Osee. 

CALLAN,  CHARLES  J.,  O.P.,  S.T.L.,  Professor 
OF  Philosophy',  Dominican  House  op  Stud- 
ies, Washington:  Orthodoxy. 

CAMERLYNCK,  ACHILLE,  S.T.D.,  Member  op 
the"Soci£T6  Belge  de  Sociologie", Professor 
OF  Sacred  Scripture  and  Sociology,  Episco- 
pal Seminary-,  Bruges,  Belgium:  Philemon. 

CARROLL,  JAMES  J.,  S.T.D.,  Bishop  of  Nueva 
Segovia,  Philippine  Islands:  Nueva  Segovia, 
Diocese  of. 

CASTETS,  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Philosophy  and 
Political  Science,  St.  Joseph's  College, 
Trichinopoly,  India:  Nobili,  Robert  de'. 

CHAPMAN,  JOHN,  O.S.B.,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Prior, 
St.  Thomas's  Abbey,  Erdington,  Birmingham, 
England:  Novatian  and  Novatianism;  Optatus, 
Saint;  Papias,  Saint;  Patrology;  Paul  of  Samo- 
sata;  Peregrinus. 


CHISHOLM,  JOSEPH  ANDREW,  K.C,  M.A., 
LL.B.,  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia:  Nova  Scotia. 

CLUGNET,  JOSEPH-LfiON-TIBURCE,  Litt.L., 
Bourg-la-Reine,  Seine,  France:  Ouen,  Saint; 
Perpetuus,  Saint. 

CONWAY,  KATHERINE  ELEANOR,  Boston: 
O'Reilly,  John  Boyle. 

COSSIO,  ALUIGI,  S.T.D.,  S.S.D.,  J.U.D.,  Bacca- 
laureus  and  Licentiatus  of  the  University 
OF  Padua,  Rome:  Paulinus  II,  Saint,  Patriarch 
of  Aquileia. 

CRAM,  RALPH  ADAMS,  F.R.G.S.,  F.Am.Inst. 
Architects,  President,  Bo.ston  Society  of 
Architects,  Boston:  Niche;  Palladio,  Andrea. 

CRATIN,  SISTER  M.  MAGDALEN,  Baltimore, 
Maryland:  Oblate  Sisters  of  Providence. 

CRIVELLI,  CAMILLUS,  S.J.,  Professor  op  Gen- 
eral History,  In.stituto  CiENTfFico,  City  of 
Mexico:  Periodical  Literature,  Catholic,  Mexico. 

CROFT,  Mgr.  WILLIAM  PROVOST,  P.A.,  V.G., 
DiocESE  OF  Nottingham,  Lincoln,  England: 
Nottingham,  Diocese  of. 

CROFTON,  K.,  New  York:  Parahyba,  Diocese  of. 

CRONIN,  Mgr.  CHARLES  JOHN,  S.T.D.,  Vice- 
Rector,  English  College,  Rome:  Petitions 
to  the  Holy  See. 

CROW,  FREDERICK  AIDAN  CANON,  O.S.B., 
Llanishen,  Cardiff,  Wales:  Newport,  Diocese 
of. 

CUTHBERT,  FATHER,  O.S.F.C,  Crawley,  Sus- 
sex, England:  Persico,  Ignatius. 

D' ALTON,  E.  a.,  LL.D.,  M.R.I.A.,  Athenry,  Ire- 
land: C'Connell,  Daniel;  O'Fihel}',  Maurice; 
O'Hanlon,  John;  O'Neill,  Hugh;  O'Neill,  Owen 
Roe;  O'Reilly,  Edmund;  Ossory,  Diocese  of; 
O'SulIivan  Beare,  Philip;  Penal  Laws,  III.  In 
Ireland. 

DALY,  JOSEPH  J.,  S.J.,  Professor  of  English 
Literature,  Ateneo  de  Manila,  Philippine 
Islands:  Nueva  Cdccres,  Diocese  of. 

DEASY,  JOHN  A.,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  Cincinnati, 
Ohio:  Ohio. 

DEDIEU,  JOSEPH,  LiTT.D.,  Institut  Catholique, 
Toulouse,  France:  Peter  of  Auvergne;  Peters- 
sen,  Gerlac. 

DEGERT,  ANTOINE,  Litt.D.,  Editor,  "La 
Revue  de  la  Gascoigne",  Professor  of  Latin 
Literature,  Institut  Catholique,  France: 
Nicolas,  Auguste;  Noailles,  Louis-Antoine  de; 
Nonnotte,  Claude-Adrien;  Ossat,  Arnaud  d'. 

DELAMARRE,  LOUIS  N.,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in 
French,  College  op  the  City  of  New  York: 
Nic6ron,  Jean-Pierre;  Paris,  Alexis-Paulin;  Paris, 
Gaston-Bruno-Paulin;  Perrault,  Charles. 

DELANY,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  New  York:  Obedience; 
Occasions  of  Sin;  Omission;  Parents;  Perjury. 

DEVINE,  ARTHUR,  C.P.,  St.  Paul's  Retreat, 
Mount  Argus,  Dublin:  Passionists;  Passionist 
Nuns;  Passions;  Paul  of  the  Cross,  Saint;  Per- 
fection, Christian  and  Religious. 

DE  WULF,  MAURICE,  Member  of  the  Belgian 
Academy,  Professor  of  Logic  and  Esthetics, 
University'  op  Loua'ain:  Nominalism,  Realism, 
Conceptualism. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  ELEVENTH  VOLUME 


DOUGLAS,  ROBERT  MARTIN,  M.A.,  LL.D., 
Greensboro,  North  Carolina:  North  Carolina. 

DRISCOLL,  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  New  Rochelle, 
New  York:  Nicodemus;  Ointment  in  Scrip- 
ture; Onias;  Oriental  Study  and  Research; 
Ozias;  Patriarch;  Pectoral;  Pharisees. 

DRISCOLL,  JOHN  THOMAS,  M.A.,  S.T.L., 
Fonda,  New  York:  O'Callaghan,  Edmund 
Baily. 

DRUM,  WALTER,  S.J.,  Professor  op  Hebrew 
AND  Sacred  Scripture,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Parallelism;  Patrizi,  Francis  Xavier; 
Paul  of  Burgos;  Pereira,  Benedict;  Perrone, 
Giovanni;  Pesch,  Tilmann. 

D'SOUZA,  ANTHONY  XAVIER,  Bombay,  India: 

Passos  (Santos  Passes). 

DUBRAY,  C.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.B.,  Ph.D.,  Professor 
OF  Philosophy,  Marlst  College,  Washing- 
ton: Nourrisson,  Jean-FeH.\. 

DUHEM,  PIERRE,  Professor  of  Theoretical 
Physics,  University-  of  Bordeaux:  Orcsmc, 
Nicole. 

DUNN,   JOSEPH,   Ph.D.,   Professor   of    Celtic 

Languages  and  Literature,  Catholic  LIni- 
versity  of  .\merica,  Washington:  O'Braein, 
Tighernach;  O'Growney,  Eugene;  O'Hussey, 
Maelbright. 

EGAN,  ANDREW,  O.F.M.,  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy, The  Friary,  Forest  Gate,  London: 
Pecham,  John. 

ENGELHARDT,  ZEPHYRIN,  O.F.M.,  Santa 
Barbara,  California:  Padilla,  Juan  de;  Palou, 
Francisco;  Pareja,  Francisco;  Payeras,  Mariano; 
Perez,  Juan. 

ESPINOSA,  AURELIO  MACEDONIO,  M.A., 
Ph.D.,  Profes.sor  of  the  Spanishuaengag  L, 
Leland  Stanford  University,  San  Francisco, 
Californi.a.:  New  Mexico;  Penitentes,  Los 
Hermanos. 

EWING,  JOHN  GILLESPIE,  M.A.,  New  York: 
Newton,  John. 

FANNING,  WILLIAM  H.  W.,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Church  History  and  Canon  Law,  St.  Louis 
University,  St.  Louis:  Obreption;  Oratory; 
Papal  Elections;  Parish,  In  English  Speaking 
Countries;  Pension,  Ecclesiastical. 

FENLON,  JOHN  F.,  S.S.,  S.T.D.,  President,  St. 
Austin's  College,  Washington;  Professor 
OF  Sacred  Scripture,  St.  Mary's  Seminary, 
Baltimore:  Olier,  Jean-Jacques. 

FERET,  p.  canon,  Saint-Maurice,  France: 
Paris,  University  of. 

FISCHER,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Geogra- 
phy and  History,  Stella  Matutina  College, 
Feldkirch,  Austria:  Nicolaus  Germanus;  Orte- 
liu3  (Oertel),  Abraham. 

FLAHERTY,  MATTHEW  J.,  M.A.  (Harvard), 
Concord,  Massachusetts:  O'Meara,  Kathleen. 

FLOOD,  JAMES,  New  Norcia,  Australia:  New 
Norcia. 

FORD,  JEREMIAH  D.  M.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Profes- 
sor of  the  French  and  Spanish  Languages, 
Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Massachu- 
setts: Ojeda,  Alonso  de;  Parini,  Giuseppe; 
Pellico,  Silvio;  Petrarch,  Francesco. 


FORGET,  JACQUES,  Professor  of  Dogmatic 
Theology  and  the  Syriac  and  Arabic  Lan- 
guages, University  of  Louvain:  Nicole, 
Pierre. 

FORTESCUE,  ADRIAN,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Letch- 
worth,  Hertfordshire,  England:  Nikon, 
Patriarch  of  Moscow;  Nilus,  Saint;  Nilus  the 
Younger;  Nonnus;  (Ecumenius;  Offertory;  Orate 
Fratres;  Oremus;  Orientius;  Orsisius;  Orthodo.\ 
Church;  Orthodoxy,  Feast  of;  Palladius;  Patri- 
arch and  Patriarchate;  Paulicians;  Peter  Mon- 
gus. 

FOX,  WILLIAM,  B.Sc,  M.E.,  Associate  Profes- 
sor OF  Physics,  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York:  Nollet,  Jean-Antoine;  Palmieri,  Luigi; 
Peuerbach,  Georg  von. 

FREELAND,  JOHN,  Bedford,  England:  North- 
ampton, Diocese  of. 

FRERI,  Mgr.  JOSEPH,  D.C.L.,  Director  General 
IN  THE  L^nited  States  of  the  Society'  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  New  Y'ork: 
Peter-Louis-Marie  Chanel,  Blessed. 

FUENTES,  VENTURA,  B.A.,  M.D.,  Instructor, 
College  of  the  City  of  New  Y'ork:  Perez  de 
Hita,  Gincs. 

GABRIELS,  HENRY,  S.T.D.  (Louvain),  Bishop 
of  Ogdensburg,  New  York:  Ogdcnsburg, 
Diocese  of. 

GARESCHE,  EDWARD  FRANCIS,  S.J.,  St. 
Louis  LIniversity,  St.  Louis:  Nicholas  of 
Tolentino,  Saint;  Nicolas,  Armella. 

GEDDES,  LEONARD  WILLIAM,  S.J.,  St.  Beu- 
No's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Person; 
Personality. 

GERARD,  JOHN,  S.J.,  F.L.S.,  London:  Perry, 
Stephen  Joseph. 

GEUDENS,  FRANCIS  MARTIN,  C.R.P.,  Abbot 
Titular  of  Barlings,  Corpus  Christi  Priory, 
M.\NCHESTER,  Engl.ind:  Norbert,  Saint;  Park, 
Abbey  of  the. 

GHELLINCK,  JOSEPH  DE,  Professor  of  Pa- 
trology  and  Medieval  Theological  Liter- 
ature, Louvain:  Petau,  Denis;  Peter  Cantor; 
Peter  Comestor;  Peter  Lombard. 

GIETMANN,  GERARD,  S.J.,  Teacher  of  Classi- 
cal Languages  and  ^Esthetics,  St.  Ignatius 
College,  Valkenburg,  Holland:  Niessen- 
berger,  Hans;  Nimbus;  Oppenordt,  Giles-Marie; 
Orme,  Philibert  de  1';  Perrault,  Claude;  Peruzzi, 
Baldassare. 

GILLET,  LOUIS,  Paris:  Painting,  Religious;  Peru- 
gino. 

GILLOW,  EULOGIO  GREGORIO,  S.T.D.,  Arch- 
bishop of  Oaxaca,  Mexico:  Oaxaca,  Arch- 
diocese of. 

GLOUDEN,  ATHANASE,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D.,  Profes- 
sor     OF      LlTEH.\TURE,      CoLL^GE      St-MiCHEL, 

Editor,  "  Le  Patriote",  Brussels:  Periodical 
Literature,  Catholic,  Belgium. 

GOYAU,  GEORGES,  Associate  Editor,  "  Revue 
DES  Deux  Mondes",  Paris:  Nice,  Diocese  of; 
Nimes,  Diocese  of;  Normandy;  Odo,  Bishop  of 
Bayeux;  Ollc-Laprune,  L6on;  Oran,  Diocese  of; 
Oriflamme ;  Orleans,  Councils  of ;  Orleans,  Diocese 
of;  Pamiers,  Diocese  of;  Paris,  Archdiocese  of; 
P(?rigueux,  Diocese  of;  Periodical  Literature, 
Catholic,  France;  Perpignan,  Diocese  and  Uni- 
versity of. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  ELEVENTH  VOLUME 


GRATTAX-KLOOD,    W.    H.,    iM.R.LA.,    iMus.D., 
llosKMoiNT,  ENM.sroKTiiY,  Ikki.and:  O'Hanan,  . 
Thouiiis;  O'Loglili-n,   Michael;  O'Reilly,   Mylcs 
William  Patrick;  Periodical  Literature,  Catholic, 
Ireland. 

GREY,  P'RANCIS  W..  LL.D.,  Ottawa,  Canada: 
Ottawa,  University  of. 

HAGEX,  JOHN  C...  S.J.,  Vatican  Observatory, 
Rome:  Nicholas  of  Cu.sa;  Paul  of  Middelburg. 

HANDLKY,  MARIE  LOUISE.  New  York:  Niccola 
Piisano;  Nola,  Giovanni  Muiliano  da. 

HANNA,  EDWARD  J.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Dog- 
m.atic  Theology  and  P.athology,  St.  Ber- 
nard's Se.minary,  Rochester,  N.  Y.:  Penance. 

H.\N8EN.  NIELS,  M..\.,  Copenhagen,  Denmark: 
Olaf  Haraldson,  Saint. 

HARENT,  STftPHANE,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Dog- 
.M.\Tic  Theology,  Ore  Place,  Hastings,  Eng- 
l.and:  Original  Sin. 

H.VRTIG,  OTTO,  As.sistant  Librarian  of  the 
Royal  Library,  Munich:  Nubia. 

HASSETT,  Mgr.  MAURICE  M.,  S.T.D.,  Harris- 
burg,  Pennsylvania:  Orans;  Orientation  of 
Churches;  Palm  in  Christian  Symbohsm;  Paph- 
nutius. 

HEALY,  PATRICK  J.,  S.T.D.,  Assistant  Profes- 
sor of  Church  History,  Catholic  University 
OF  America,  Washington:  Nicolaites;  Para- 
bolani. 

HECKMANN,  FERDINAND,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of 
Church  History,  Franciscan  Monastery, 
W.\shington:  Nicholas  Pieck,  Saint;  Peter 
Baptist  and  Twenty-five  Companions,  Saints; 
Peter  de  Regalado,  Saint. 

HENRY,  H.  T.,  Litt.D.,  Rector  of  Roman  Cath- 
olic High  School  for  Boys,  Professor  of 
English  Liter.^ture  and  of  Gregorian 
Chant,  St.  Charles  Seminary,  Overbrook, 
Pennsylvania:  Nunc  Dimittis;  O  Antiphons; 
O  Deus  Ego  Amo  Te;  O  Filii  et  Filia;;  O  Salu- 
taris  Hostia;  Range  Lingua  Gloriosi. 

HERBERT,  JOHN  ALEXANDER,  Assistant  in 
the  Department  of  MSS.,  British  Museum, 
London:  Odo  of  Cheriton. 

HIGHLEY,  MONT  F.,  Assistant  Attorney  Gen- 
eral, Oklaho.ma  City,  Oklahoma:  Oklahoma. 

HILGERS,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Rome:  Novena. 

HOEBER,  KARL,  Ph.D.,  Editor,  "Volkszeitung" 
AND  "Akademlsche  Monatsblatter",  Co- 
logne: Otho,  Marcus  Salvias;  Pertinax,  Publius 
Hehaus;  Pescennius  Niger. 

HOFMANN,  MICHAEL,  S.J.,  Professor  of 
Canon  I,aw,  University  of  Innsbruck,  Aus- 
tria: Nille.s,  Xikolaus. 

HOLWECK,  FREDERICK  G.,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri: Our  Lady,  II('lp  of  Christians,  Feast  of; 
Paschal  Tide;  Passion  of  Christ,  Commemora- 
tion of  the. 

HUDLESTON,  GILBERT  ROGER,  O.S.B.,  Down- 
side Abbey,  Bath,  England:  Ninian,  Saint; 
Obedientiaries;  Odo  of  Cambrai,  Bles.sed; 
Peterborough  Abbey. 

HUGHE-S,  JAMES,  Liverpool,  England:  Nugent, 
James. 


HULL,  ERNEST  R.,  S.J.,  Editor,  "The  Exami- 
ner", Bombay,  India:  Par.sis  (Parsees). 

HUNTER-BLAIR,  SIR  I).  ().,  Bart.,  O.S.B.,  M.A., 
Fort  Augustus  Abbey,  Scotland:  O.vford; 
Oxford,  Uni\ersity  of;  Periodical  Literature, 
Catholic,  Scotland. 

HYDE,  DOUGLAS,  LL.D.,  Litt.D.,  M.R.I.A., 
Frenchpark,  Co.  Roscommon,  Ireland:  O'Car- 
olan,  Torlogh;  O'Conor,  Charles;  O'Curry, 
Eugene;  O'Daly,  Donogh  Mor;  O'Dugan,  John. 

HYVERNAT,  HENRY,  S.T.D.,  Professor  op 
Semitic  Languages  and  Biblical  Archeology, 
Catholic  University  of  America,  Washing- 
ton: Persecutions,  Coptic. 

INGOLD,  A.  M.  P.,  Director,  " Revue d' Alsace", 
Colmar,  Germany:  Oratory,  French  Congre- 
gation of  the. 

ISENRING,  JOHN  JAMES,  O.S.F.S.,  Childs, 
Maryland:  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales; 
Orange  River,  Vicariate  ApostoUc  of. 

JARRETT,  BEDE,  O.P.,  B.A.,  (Oxon.);  S.T.L., 
St.  Dominic's  Priory,  London:  Papal  Arbitra- 
tion. 

JIMfiNEZ,  ENRIQUE,  S.J.,  Lic.Sc,  Professor  op 
Mathematics,  Instituto  de  Artes  t  Indus- 
trias,  Madrid:  Periodical  Literature,  Catholic, 
Spain. 

JONES,  ARTHUR  EDWARD,  S.J.,  Correspond- 
ing Member  of  the  Minnesota,  Ontario,  and 
Chicago  Hlstorical  Societies;  Hon.  Member 
OF  THE  Missouri  Historical  Society;  Member 
OF  THE  International  Congress  of  Ameri- 
canists; Archivist  of  St.  Mary's  College, 
Montreal:  Petun  Nation. 

JOYCE,  GEORGE  HAYWARD,  S.J.,  M.A. 
(Oxon.),  St.  Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph, 
Wales:  Papacy. 

JUNGUITO,  F.  X.,  Bishop  of  Panama:  Panama, 
Republic  and  Diocese  of. 

KAMPERS,  FRANZ,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Medie- 
val and  Modern  History,  University  op 
Breslau:  Notker  Physicus;  Notker,  nephew  of 
Notker  Physicus;  Notker,  Provost  of  St.  Gall; 
Otto  I;  Otto  II;  Otto  III;  Otto  IV;  Pepin  the 
Short;  Peter  de  Vinea. 

KAUFMANN,     CARL     MARIA,    Editor     "For- 

SCHUNGEN  ZUR  MONUMENT.     Th.  UND  VERGLEICH- 

enden  Rel.-Wiss.",  Frankfort-on-the-Main: 
Ostraka,  Christian;  Overbeck,  Friedrich. 

KEILY,  JARVIS,  M.A.,  Grantwood,  New  Jersey: 
Penal  Laws  in  the  English  Colonies  in  America. 

KELLY,  BLANCHE  M.,  New  York:  Norton, 
Christopher;  Notre  Dame  de  Sion,  Congregation 
of. 

KELLY,  JOSEPH  IGNATIUS,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Late 
Professor  of  Law  and  Dean  op  the  Law 
School,  Louisiana  State  University,  Chicago, 
Illinois:  Pandects. 

KENNEDY,  DANIEL  J.,  O.P.,  S.T.M.,  Professor 
OF  Sacramental  Theology,  Catholic  Uni- 
versity of  America,  Washington:  Ory, 
Matthieu;  Paludanus,  Peter;  Pelargus,  Ambrose: 
Peter  of  Bergamo. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  ELEVENTH  VOLUME 


KENNEDY,  THOMAS,  B.A.  (National  Univer- 
sity OF  Ireland),  London:  New  Pomerania, 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  Osaka,  Diocese  of. 

KIRSCH,  MoR.  JOHANN  P.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OF  Patrology  and  Christian  Archeology, 
University'  of  Fribourg:  Nicephorus,  Saint; 
Nicetas,  Bishop  of  Remesiana;  Nicetius,  Saint, 
Bishop  of  Trier;  Nicholas  I,  Saint,  Pope;  Nicome- 
des.  Saint;  Notitia  Dignitatum;  Notitia  Pro- 
vinciarum  et  Civitatum  Africae;  Nuncio;  Nuncia- 
ture Kc)ii)rts;  Odilia,  Saint;  Oldoini,  Augustino; 
Olyminas,  Saint;  Ordeals;  Orosius,  Paulus;  Orsi, 
Giuseppr  Agostino;  Orsini;  Palatini;  Pallavicino, 
Pietro  Sforza;  Paschal  I,  Pope;  Paul  I,  Pope; 
Pelagia;  Peter,  Saint;  Peter  of  Sebaste,  Saint; 
Peter  Urseolus,  Saint;  Petronilla,  Saint;  Petron- 
ius,  Saint;  Petrus  Bernardinus;  Petrus  de  Natali- 
bus;  Philip,  Saint,  Apostle. 

KRUITWAGEN,  BONAVENTURE,  O.F.M.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  Ecclesiastical  History,  Convent 
OF  the  Friars  Minor,  Woerden,  Holland: 
Periodical  Literature,  Catholic,  Holland. 

LAPPIN,  HENRY  P.  A.,  O.C.C,  Carmelite  Col- 
lege, Trendre,  Ireland:  Paoli,  Angelo,  Vener- 
able. 

LATASTE,  JOSEPH,  LiTT.D.,  Superior  of  the 
Seminary,  Aire-sur-Adour,  Landes,  France: 
Pascal,  Blaise;  Pellissier,  Guillaume;  Perraud, 
Adolphe;  Peter  of  Poitiers. 

LAUCHERT,  FRIEDRICH,  Ph.D.,  Aachen  :  Nihus, 
Barthold;  Nikolaus  von  Dinkelsbiihl ;  CEcolam- 
padius,  Johann;  Older,  Aloys  Karl;  Pfefferkorn, 
Johannes;  Pfister,  Adolf;  Philanthropinisin. 

LECLERCQ,  HENRI,  O.S.B.,  London:  Nica;a, 
Councils  of. 

LEJAY,  PAUL,  Fellow  of  the  University  of 
France,  Professor,  Institdt  Catholique, 
Paris:  Paulinus  of  Pella. 

LEROY,  ALEXANDER  A.,  C.SS.P.,  Bishop  of 
Alinda,  Superior  General  of  the  Congre- 
g.\tion  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Paris:  Nigeria, 
Upper  and  Lower. 

LETANG,  H.  E.,  B.C.L.,  B.D.,  Pembroke,  Prov- 
ince OF  Ontario,  Canada:  Pembroke,  Diocese 
of. 

LETELLIER,  A.,  S.S.S.,  Superior,  Fathers  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  New  York:  Perpetual 
Adoration,  Religious  of  the ;  Perpetual  Adoration, 
Sisters  of  the;  Perpetual  Adorers  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament. 

LINDSAY,  LIONEL  ST.  GEORGE,  B.Sc,  Ph.D., 
Editor-in-Chief,  "La  Nouvelle  France", 
Quebec:  Peltrie,  Madeleine  de  la;  Periodical 
Literature,  Catholic,  Canada. 

LINEHAN,  PAUL  H.,  B.A.,  Instructor,  College 
OF  the  City  op  New  York:  Nunez,  Pedro; 
Ozanam,  Jacques;  Pacioli  (Paciuolo),  Lucas. 

LINS,  JOSEPH,  Freiburg,  Germany:  Nuremberg; 
Osnabriick,  Diocese  of;  Paderborn,  Diocese  of; 
Palatinate,  Rhenish;  Passau,  Diocese  of. 

LOEHR,  AUGUST  OCTAV  RITTER  VON,  Ph.D., 
Assistant  Director,  Imperial  Collection 
OF  Coins  and  Medals,  Vienna:  Numis- 
matics. 


LOFFLER,  KLEMENS,  Ph.D.,  Librarian,  Uni- 
versity OF  MtJNSTER:  Notker,  Balbulus;  Not- 
ker,  Labeo;  Odilio,  Saint;  Odo,  Saint,  Abbot  of 
Cluny;  Ostrogoths;  Otto,  Saint;  Overberg, 
Bernhard  Heinrich;  Pannartz,  Arnold;  Panta- 
leon.  Saint;  Paschasius,  Saint;  Paulinus,  Saint, 
Bishop  of  Nola;  Peasants,  War  of  the;  Periodi- 
cal Literature,  Catholic,  Germany;  Pez,  Bern- 
hard  and  Hieronymus;  Pforta. 

♦LOUGHLIN,  Mgr.  JAMES  F.,  S.T.D.,  Philadel- 
phia: Paschal  II,  Pope;  Paul  III;  Paul  IV,  Paul 
V,  Popes;  Philadelphia,  Archdiocese  of. 

MAAS,  A.  J.,  S.J.,  Rector,  Woodstock  College, 
Maryland:  Pentateuch. 

MacERLEAN,  ANDREW  A.,  New  York:  Northern 
Territory,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  the;  Nyassa, 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  Olinda,  Diocese  of; 
Pasto,  Diocese  of;  Pelotas,  Diocese  of;  Perth, 
Diocese  of. 

MacERLEAN,  JOHN,  S.J.,  Professor  of  Hebrew 
and  Ecclesiastical  History,  Jesuit  Scho- 
LASTicATE,  MiLLTOWN  Park,  Dublin:  O'Brua- 
dair,  David. 

McGAHAN,  FLORENCE  RUDGE,  M.A.,  Youngs- 
town,  Ohio:  Paulists;  Penitential  Orders; 
Penitents,  Confraternities  of. 

McGUIRE,  EDWARD  J.,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  New  York: 
New  York,  State  of. 

McHUGH,  JOHN  AMBROSE,  O.P.,  S.T.D.,  Lector 
OF  Philosophy,  Dominican  House  of  Studies, 
Washington:  Omnipotence. 

McKENNA,  CHARLES  F.,  Ph.D.  (Columbia), 
Vice-President,  Catholic  Home  Bureau, 
New  York:  Orphans  and  Orphanages. 

McNEILL,  CHARLES,  Dublin:  O'Brien,  Terence 
Albert;  O'Cullenan,  Gelasius;  O'Devany,  Cor- 
nelius; O'Donnell,  Edmund;  O'Hely,  Patrick; 
O'Herlahy,  Thomas ;  O'Hurley,  Dermod; 
O'Queely,  Malachias. 

MACPHERSON,  EWAN,  New  York:  Nicaragua, 
Republic  and  Diocese  of. 

MacSHERRY,  HUGH,  Titular  Bishop  of  Justini- 
anopolis.  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Eastern  Dis- 
trict OF  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope:  Orange 
Free  State. 

MacSWEENEY,  PATRICK,  M.A.  (N.U.I.),  Lec- 
turer in  English,  Maynooth  College; 
Professor  of  Modern  Literature,  Holy 
Cross  College,  Clonliffe,  Dublin:  O'Dono- 
van,  John. 

MAGNIER,  JOHN,  C.SS.R.,  London  :  Pas.serat, 
John,  Venerable;  Perpetual  Succour,  Our  Lady 
of. 

MANN,  HORACE  K.,  Headmaster,  St.  Cuth- 
bert's  Grammar  School,  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
England:  Pelagius  I,  Pope;  Pelagius  II. 

MARIQUE,  PIERRE  JOSEPH,  Instructor  in 
French,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York: 
Nothomb,  Jean-Baptiste. 

MARSH,  ERNEST,  S.C,  New  York  :  Patagonia. 

MARTIN,  CAROLINE  L.,  Rel.  of  the  Perpet^ 
UAL  Ador.,  Washington:  Perpetual  Adoration, 
Religious  of  the. 

*  Deceased. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THR  ELRMONTII   VOLUME 


MARTINDALE,  CYRIL  C,  S.J.,  B.A.  (Oxon.), 
OuK  Place,  Hastings,  England:  Oracle; 
Pnpanism. 

MARY  JOSEPHINE,  SISTER,  Notre  Dame  Con- 
VKN'T,  MiLWAVKEE,  WISCONSIN:  Notrc  Dame, 
School  Sisters  of. 

MEEHAN,  ANDREW  B.,  S.T.D.,  J.U.D.,  Pro- 
KKssoR  OF  Canon  Law  and  Liturcy,  St.  Ber- 
naud's  Seminary,  Rochester,  New  York: 
Pall;  Pax. 

MEEHAN,  THO\IAS  F.,  New  York:  Oertcl.  John 
James  Maximilian;  O'Hara,  Theodore;  O'Hig- 
gins,  .Ambrose  Bernard;  O'Reilly,  Bernard; 
O'Korkc.  Patrick  Ilenrj-;  Parmenticr,  .Vntoine- 
.Vugustin;  Periodical  Literature,  Catholic,  Uni- 
ted States;  Peter,  Sarah. 

MERSHMAN,  FRANCIS,  O.S.B.,  S.T.D.,  Profes- 
sor OK  Moral  Theology,  Canon  Law  and 
I.iTi  uc^v.  St.  John's  College,  Collegeville, 
-Minnesota:  Otlilo;  Otto  of  P:v,ssau;  Palm  Sun- 
day; P;uision  Offices;  Passion  Sunday;  Passion- 
tide;  Patroniige  of  Our  Lady,  Feast  of  the;  Peter 
Gonzales,  Saint;  Pflug,  Julius  von. 

MEYNELL,  ALICE,  London:  Patmorc,  Coventry. 

MIDDLETON,  THOMAS  COOKE,  O.S.A.,  S.T.M., 
Lector  in  Philosophy,  Villanov.\  College, 
Pennsylvania:  Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel, 
Feast  of. 

MOLONEY,  WILLIAM  A.,  C.S.C,  Notre  Dame, 
Indiana:  Notre  Dame  du  Lac,  University  of. 

MOONEY,  JAMES,  L'nited  St.\tes  Ethnologist, 
BiREAC  OF  -American  Ethnology,  Washing- 
ton: Pakawd  Indians;  Pano  Indians;  Pdpago 
Indians  ;  Peba  Indians  ;  Penelakut  Indians  ; 
Penobscot  Indians ;  Peoria  Indians  ;  Pericui 
Indians. 

MOONEY',  JOSEPH  F.,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  Prothono- 
tary  Apostolic,  Vicar-General  of  the  Arch- 
diocese OF  New  York:  NewY^ork,  Archdiocese 
of. 

MOORE,  THOMAS  V.,  C.S.P.,  St.  Thomas  Col- 
lege, Washington:  Occasionalism;  Optimism; 
Panpsychism. 

MORAN,  PATRICK  FRANCIS  CARDINAL, 
.Vrchbishop  of  Sydney,  Prim.\te  op  Austra- 
lia: Palladius,  Saint;  Patrick,  Saint. 

MORENO-LACALLE,  JULIAN,  B.A.,  Editor, 
" Pan-.\merican  Union",  Washington:  Para- 
guay; Peru. 

MULLALY,  CHARLES,  S.J.,  Tortosa,  Spain: 
Oriol,  Joseph,  Saint. 

O'BOYLE,  FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  St.  Louis 
Unh-ersity,  St.  Louis:  Omer,  Saint. 

OBRECHT,  EDMOND  M.,  O.C.R.,  Abbot  of 
Gethsemani,  Kentucky:  Obazine,  Monastery 
of. 

O'CONNOR,  JOHN  B.,  O.P.,  St.  Louis  Bertrand's 
CoNVE.NT,  Louisville,  Kentucky:  Nichohis  of 
Gorran. 

O'CONNOR,  RICHARD  ALPHONSUS,  S.T.D., 
Bishop  of  Peterborough,  Province  of 
Ontario,  Canada:  Peterborough,  Diocese  of. 

O'HAGAN,  THOMAS,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Chicago, 
Illinois:  Pardons  of  Brittany. 


O'HARA,  EDWIN  V.,  Portland,  Oregon:  Oregon; 
Oregon  City,  Archdiocese  of. 

OJETTI,  BENEDETTO,  S.J.,  Consitltor,  S.C.P.F., 

CoNStlLTOR,  S.C.C.,  CoNSULTOR  OF  THE  COM- 
MISSION ON  THE  Codification  of  Canon  Law, 
CiREcioRiAN  University,  Rome:  Palniieri,  Dom- 
eiiico. 

O'LEARY,  EDWARD,  M.R.I.A.,  Portahlington, 
Ireland:  O'Lcarj-,  Arthur. 

OLK^ER,  LIVARIUS,  O.F.M.,  Lector  of  Eccle- 
siastical History,  Collegio  S.  Antonio, 
Rome:  Nicholas  of  Osimo;  Obregonians;  Olivi, 
Pierre  Jean;  Pacificus;  Panigarola,  Francesco; 
Papini,  Nicholas;  Parkin.son,  Anthony;  Paulinus 
a  St.  Bartholoma-o;  Peter  of  Aquila. 

OTT,  MICHAEL,  O.S.B.,  Ph.D.,  PnoFESisoR  of 
THE  History  of  Philosophy,  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Collegeville,  Minnesota  :  Nicholas 
Justinani,  Blessed;  Nicholas  of  Fliie,  Blcs.scd; 
Nicholiis  of  Myra,  Saint;  Nirschl,  Joseph;  No- 
nontola;  Notburga,  Saint;  Odo  of  Glanfeuil;  Oet- 
tingcn;  Oil  of  Saints;  Olesnicki,  Zbigniew;  Oliva; 
Orlandini,  Niccolo;  Orval;  Othmar,  Saint;  Ot- 
tobeuren  ;  Our  Lady  of  the  Snow,  Feast  of; 
Pagi,  Antoine;  Palafox  y  Mcndoza,  Juan  de; 
Panvinio,  Onofrio;  Peter  Cellensis;  Peter  Fullo; 
Petit-Didier,  Matthieu. 

OTTEN,  JOSEPH,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania: 
Okegheni,  Jean  d';  Oratorio;  Palestrina,  Gio- 
vanni Picrluigi  da;  Passion  Music;  Pergolesi, 
Giovanni  Battista;  Petrucci,  Ottavio  dei. 

OUSSANI,  GABRIEL,  Ph.D.,  Professor,  Eccle- 
sia.stical  History,  Early  Christian  Liter.i- 
TURE,  AND  Biblical  Arch.eology,  St.  Joseph's 
Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  New  York:  Persia. 

PACE,  EDWARD  A.,  Ph.D.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  Catholic  University  of  Amer- 
ica, Washington:  Pantheism. 

PALMIERI,  AURELIO,  O.S.A.,  S.T.D.,  Rome: 
Nihilism;  Periodical  Literature,  Catholic,  Poland. 

PARI,  HECTOR,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  B.C.L.,  S.T.D., 
Professor  of  Canon  Law,  Woodstock  Col- 
lege, Maryland:  Pastor. 

PARKER,  E.  STANISLAUS  ANSELM,  O.S.B., 
M.A.,  Master  of  Parker's  Hall,  Oxford: 
Norfolk,  Catholic  Dukes  of;  Odo  of  Canterbury; 
Osbald;  O.sbern;  Osmund,  Saint;  Oswald,  Saint, 
Archbishop  of  York;  Oswald,  Saint,  King; 
Oswin,  Saint;  Owen,  Nicholas. 

PARKINSON,  HENRY,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Rector, 
Oscott  College,  Birmingham,  England: 
Oscott  (St.  Mary's  College);  Patron  Saints. 

PARSONS,  J.  WILFRID,  S.J.,  Boston:  Oostacker, 
Shrine  of. 

PfiREZ  GOYENA,  ANTONIO,  S.J.,  Editor, 
"Raz<^n  y  Fe",  Madrid:  Niereinberg  y  Otin, 
Juan  Eu.sebio. 

*PfiTRIDfeS,  SOPHRONE,  A.A.,  Profes.sor, 
Greek  Catholic  Seminary  of  Kadi-Keui, 
Cqn.stantinople:  Ny.ssa;  Obba;  Olba;  Olympus; 
Orcistus;  Pacandus;  Paleopolis;  Panemotichiis; 
P.anetoniiuii;  Parlais;  Parnas.sus;  Paroccopolis; 
Patara;  Pcdiiclissus;  Perge;  Pessinus;  Petinessus; 
Pha.selis;  Philadelphia. 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  ELEVENTH  VOLUME 


PFEIL,  NICHOLAS,  B.A.,  Cleveland,  Ohio: 
Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  (Cleveland). 

PHILLIMORE,  JOHN  SWINNERTON,  M.A. 
(OxoN.),  Professor  of  Humanities,  Univer- 
sity OF  Glasgow:  Paley,  Frederick  Apthorp. 

PHILLIPS,  EDWARD  C,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Woodstock 
College,  Maryland:  Odington,  Walter;  Oriani, 
Barnaba;  Pardies,  Ignace-Gaston. 

PILCZ,  ALEXANDER,  Member  of  the  French 
Academy,  Extraordinary  Professor,  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna:  Pathology,  Mental. 

PLASSMAN,    THOMAS,    O.F.M.,    Ph.D.,    S.T.D., 

St.  Bonaventure's  Seminary,  St.  Bonaven- 
TURB,  New  York:  Nicholas  of  Lyra. 

POHLE,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.C.L.,  Profes- 
sor OF  Dogmatic  Theology,  University  of 
Breslau:  Paschasius  Radbertus,  Saint;  Pelagius 
and  Pelagianism. 

POINTS,  MARIE  LOUISE, Editor, "The  Morning 
Star",  New  Orleans,  Louisiana:  New  Orleans, 
Archdiocese  of. 

POLLEN,  JOHN  H.,  S.J.,  London:  Oaths,  English 
Post-Reformation;  Odescalchi,  Carlo;  Oldcorne, 
Edward,  Venerable;  Percy,  John;  Persons, 
Robert;  Petre  Family. 

POYET,  CLAUDIO,  ParanX,  Argentine  Repub- 
lic: Parand,,  Diocese  of. 

PRAT,  FERDINAND,  S.J.,  Member  of  the  Bibli- 
cal Commission,  CollJige  St.  Michel,  Brus- 
sels: Origen  and  Origenism;  Paul,  Saint. 

PRESTAGE,  EDGAR,  B.A.  (Oxon.),  Commend.a^- 
DOR,  Portuguese  Order  of  S.  Thiago;  Corre- 
sponding Member  of  the  Lisbon  Roy'AL 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  Lisbon 
Geographical  Society,  Bowdon,  England: 
Oporto,  Diocese  of ;  Periodical  Literature, 
Catholic,  Portugal. 

RANDOLPH,  BARTHOLOMEW,  CM.,  M.A., 
Teacher  op  Philosophy  and  Church  History, 
St.  John's  College,  Brookly'n,  New  York: 
Odin,  John  Mary. 

REAGAN,  P.  NICHOLAS,  O.F.M.,  Collegio  S. 
Antonio,  Rome:  Peter  of  Alcdntara,  Saint. 

REILLY,  THOMAS  X  KEMPIS,  O.P.,  S.T.L., 
S.S.L.,  Professor  of  Sacred  Scripture, 
Dominican  House  of  Studies,  Washington: 
Nicholas  of  Strasburg;  Pagnino,  Santes. 

REMY,  ARTHUR  F.  J.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Adjunct- 
Professor  OF  Germanic  Philology,  Columbia 
University,  New  York:  Otfried  of  Weissen- 
burg;  Peutinger,  Conrad. 

ROMPEL,  JOSEF  HEINRICH,  S.J.,  Ph.D.,  Stella 
Matutina  College,  Feldkirch,  Austria: 
Parlatore,  Filippo. 

RUSSELL,  MATTHEW,  S.J.,  Dublin;  O'Hagan, 
John;  O'Reilly,  Edmund. 

SACHER,  HERMANN,  Ph.D.,  Editor,  "Konver- 

sationslexikon".  Assistant  Editor,  "Staats- 
lexikon"  of  the  Gorresgesellschaft,  Frei- 
burg, Germany:  Oldenburg. 


ST.  EUPHROSINE,  SISTER,  Montreal:  Notre 
Dame  de  Montreal,  Congregation  of. 

ST.  IGNACE  de  LOYOLA,  SISTER,  St.  Damien, 
Province  of  Quebec,  Canada:  Perpetual  Help, 
Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of. 

SALTET,  LOUIS,  S.T.D.,  Litt.Lic,  Professor  of 
Church  Hi.story,  Institut  Catholique,  Tou- 
louse, France:  Paula,  Saint. 

SALZER,  ANSELM,  O.S.B.,  Seitenstetten,  Aus- 
tria: Passion  Plays. 

SAUVAGE,  G.  M.,  C.S.C,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Profes- 
sor of  Dogmatic  Theology,  Holy  Cross 
College,  Washington:  Ontologism;  Pehsson- 
Fontanier,  Paul;  Perreyve,  Henri. 

SCANNELL,  THOMAS  B.  CANON,  S.T.D.,  Wey- 
bridge,  England:  Nicholas  V,  Pope. 

SCHEID,  N.,  S.J.,  Stella  Matutina  College, 
Feldkirch,  Austria:  Pauli,  Johannes. 

SCHEUER,  PIERRE,  S.J.,  Profe.ssor  of  Phi- 
losophy, College  of  St.  John  Berchmans, 
Louvain:  Para  du  Phanjas,  Fran5ois. 

SCHLAGER,    HEINRICH   PATRICIUS,   O.F.M., 

St.  Ludwig's  College,  Dalheim,  Germany: 
Nithard;  Nuyens,  Wilhelmus;  Ostiensis;  Otto 
of  Freising;  Otto  of  St.  Blaise;  Paulus  Diaconus. 

SCHROEDER,  JOSEPH,  O.P.,  St.  Dominic's 
Priory,  Benicia,  California:  Nicolai,  Jean; 
Niger,  Peter  George. 

SCHWICKERATH,  ROBERT,  S.J.,  Holy  Cross 
College,  Worce.ster,  Mas.sachusetts:  Pach- 
tler,  Georg  Michael;  Pestalozzi  and  Pcstalozzian- 
ism. 

SCOTT,  JOHN  ASKEW,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  Editor, 
"New  Zealand  Tablet",  Dunedin,  New 
Zealand:  New  Zealand. 

SENFELDER,  LEOPOLD,  M.D.,  Teacher  of  the 
History'  of  Medicine,  Univer.sity  of  Vienna: 
Paracelsus,  Theophrastus ;  Peru,  Ambroise. 

SHANNON,  JAMES,  Peoria,  Illinois:  Peoria, 
Diocese  of. 

SHARPE,  ALFRED  BOWi^ER,  M.A.  (Oxon.), 
London:  Pessimism. 

SIEGFRIED,  FRANCIS  PATRICK,  Professor 
OF  Philosophy,  St.  Charles  Seminary',  Over- 
brook,  Pennsylvania:  Ontology. 

SLATER,  T.,  S.J.,  St.  Beuno's  College,  St. 
Asaph,  Wales:  Obligation. 

SLOANE,  CHARLES  WILLIAM,  New  York: 
O'Conor,  Charles;  Partnersliip. 

SLOANE,  THOMAS  O'CONNOR,  M.A.,  E.M., 
Ph.D.,  New  York:  Pelletier,  Pierre-Joseph; 
Pelouze,  Th6ophile-Jules. 

SMITH,  IGNATIUS,  O.P.,  Dominican  House  op 
Studies,  Washington:  Nider,  John;  Peter 
Chrysologus,  Saint. 

SMITH,  SYDNEY  F.,  S.J.,  London:  Nonconfor- 
mists;  Non-Jurors. 

SMITH,  WALTER  GEORGE,  M.A.,  LL.B.  (U.  op 
P.),  Philadelphia:  Peace  Congresses;  Penn- 
sylvania. 


SAGMiJLLER,  JOHANNES  BAPTIST,  Professor     SOLLIER,  JOSEPH  FRANCIS,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  San 
op     Theology,     University     of     Titbingen  :  Francisco  :  Paraclete ;  Pavilion,  Nicolas ;  Per- 

Patron  and  Patronage.  severance.  Final.      "^ 


CONTRIBUTORS  TO  TIIK  ELEVENTH   VOLUME 


SORTAIS,  GASTON,  S.J.,  Assistant  Editor, 
"Eti'des",  Paris:  Orcjxgna  (Andrea  di  Clone); 
Palma  \'ecoluo;  Parmigiano,  11. 

SOirVAV,  CHARLES  L..  CM.,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D., 
Professor  ok  Sacred  Scrii>ture,  Hebrew,  and 
LiTURiiY,  Kexrick  Seminary,  St.  Louis:  OfTer- 
ings  (Oblations);  Olivet,  Mount;  Ophir;  Para- 
sceve;  Patnios;  Pentapolis;  Pentecost  (of  the 
Jews),  Feast  of;  Phasga. 

STANISFORTH,  OSWALD,  O.M.Cap.,  Lector  of 
Doum.\tic  Theology  and  Sacred  Scriituhe, 
Capuchin  Monastery,  Olton,  England:  Pascal 
Baylon,  Saint. 

SUAU,  PIERRE,  S.,T.,  Castres,  France:  Olivaint, 
Pierre;  Peter  Claver,  Saint;  Peter  Faber,  Blessed. 

TACCHI  VENTURL  LUIGL  LL.D.,  Commenda- 
tore  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown  of  Italy, 
Ro.me:  Oliva,  Gian  Paolo. 

THURSTON,  HERBERT,  S.J.,  London:  Numbers. 
Use  of,  in  the  Church;  Ordincs  Ronumi;  Osten- 
soriuni;  Paris,  Matthew;  Paschal  Candle;  Pas- 
sion of  Jesus  Christ,  Devotion  to  the;  Paten; 
Peterspence. 

TIERNEY,  JOHN  J.,  M.A.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  op 
S.^cred  Scripture  and  Semitic  Studies,  Mt. 
St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg,  Maryland: 
New  Year's  Day. 

TOKE,  LESLIE  ALEXANDER  ST.  LAWRENCE, 
B.A.,  Stratton-on-the-Fosse,  Bath,  England: 
Peter  Damian,  Saint. 

TOLTRSCHER,  FRANCIS  E.,  O.S.A.,  Regent,  St. 
Thomas's  College,  Villanova,  Pennsylvania: 
Noris,  Henry;  Paulus  Venetus. 

TRABERT,  WILHELM,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  the 
I.mperial  Roy.4l  Central  Institute  of  Mete- 
orology and  Geodynamics,  Vienna:  Pcmter, 
Joseph  Maria. 

URIBE,  ANTONIO  JOSE,  Bogota,  Colombia: 
Nueva  Pamplona,  Diocese  of. 

URQUHART  F.  F.,  Fellow  and  Lecturer  in 
Modern  History,  Balliol  College,  Oxford: 
Northmen;  Ordericus  Vitalis. 

VAILHE,  SIMEON,  A. A.,  Member  op  the  Russian 
Archaeological  Institute  of  Constantinople, 
Professor  of  S.\cred  Scripture  and  History', 
Greek  Catholic  Seminary  of  Kadi-Keui, 
Constantinople:  Nica;a;  Nicomedia;  Nicopo- 
lis  (Armenia);  Nicopolis,  Diocese  of;  Nicopo- 
lis  (Epirus);  Nicosia,  Titular  Archdiocese  of; 
Nilopolis;  Nisibis;  Notitia;  Episcopatuum;  Ole- 
nus;  Ombus;  Oropus;  Orthosia;  Ostracina;  0.\y- 
rynchus;  Palmyra;  Paltus;  Panopolis;  Paphos; 
Paralus;  Parium;  Patras;  Pella;  Pelu.sium;  Pen- 
tacomia;  Pergamus;  Petra;  Phacusa;  Pharbaetus; 
Pharsalus. 

VAN  DER  ESSEN,  LfiON,  Litt.D.,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor OF  History,  University  op  Louvain: 
Pamelius. 

VAN  DER  HEEREN,  ACHILLE,  S.T.L.  (Lou- 
vain),  Professor  of  Moral  Theology  and 
Librarian,  Grande  Sfi.vixAiRE,  Bruges,  Bel- 
gium: Oaths;  Peter,  Epistles  of  Saint. 

VAN  HOVE,  A.,  D.C.L.,  Professor  of  Church 
History  and  Canon  Law,  U.niversity  of 
LotrvAiN:  Nicol6  de'  Tudeschi;  (Economus, 
Episcopal;  Option,  Right  of;  Paleotti,  Gabriel; 
Papiensis,  Bcmardus;  Pena,  Francisco;  Person, 
Ecclesiastical. 


VERMEERSCII,  ARTHUR,  S.J.,  LL.D.,  Doctor 
of  Social  and  Political  Sciences,  Professor 
of  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  Law,  College 
OF  St.  John  Berchmans,  Louvain:  Novice; 
Nuns;  Obedience,  Religious. 

VOGEL,  JOHN,  Vicar  Provincial  of  the  Pious 

Society  op  Missions,  Brooklyn,  New  York: 
PoUotti,  Vincent  Mary,  Venerable. 

WA.^GEN,  LUKAS,  .Assistant  State  Geologlst, 
Vienna:  Pala;ontology. 

WAINEWRIGHT,  JOHN  BANNERMAN,  B.A. 
(OxoN.),  London:  Nichols,  George,  Venerable; 
Nutter,  Robert,  Venerable;  Osbaldeston,  Ed- 
ward, Venerable;  Page,  Anthony,  Venerable; 
Palasor,  Thomas,  Venerable;  Patenson,  William, 
Venerable. 

WALKER,  LESLIE  J.,  S.J.,  M.A.  (Lond.),  St. 
Beuno's  College,  St.  Asaph,  Wales:  Parallel- 
ism, Psycho-Physical. 

WALSH,  JAMES  J.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Dean  of 
the  Medical  School,  Fordham  University, 
New  York:  Nussbaum,  Johann  Nepomuk  von; 
O'Dwyer,  Joseph;  Pasteur,  Louis. 

WALSH,  REGINALD,  O.P.,  S.T.D.,  Professor 
OP  Theology,  S.  Clembnte,  Rome:  O'Daly, 
Daniel. 

WARD,  Mgr.  BERNARD,  Canon  of  Westmin- 
ister, F.R.HisT.Soc,  President,  St.  Edmund's 
College,  Ware,  England:  Oakeley,  Frederick; 
Old  Chapter,  The;  Oliver,  George;  O.xenham, 
Henry  Nutcombe. 

WARREN,  KATE  MARY,  Lecturer  in  English 
UNDER  University  of  London  .\t  Westfield 
College,  Hampstead,  London  :  Occleve, 
Thomas;  Oxenford,  John. 

WEBER,  N.  A.,  S.M.,  S.T.D.,  Professor  of  Funda- 
mental Theology  and  Church  History, 
Marist  College,  Washington:  Nicholas  II, 
Nicholas  III,  Nicholas  IV,  Popes;  Orange, 
Councils  of;  Paul  II,  Pope;  Perraaneder,  Franz 
Michael;  Peter  Igneus,  Blessed;  Petrobrusians; 
Petrus,  Diaconus;  Petrus  ALfonsus. 

WEIMAR,  ANTON,  Vienna:  Periodical  Literature, 
Catholic,  Austria. 

WELCH,  SIDNEY  READ,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  J.P., 
Editor,  "  The  Catholic  Magazine  for  South 
Africa",  Cape  Town:  Pfanner,  Franz. 

WILHELM,  JOSEPH,  S.T.D.,  Ph.D.,  Battle,  Eng- 
land: Nicene  and  Niccno-Constantinopolitan 
Creed. 

WILLIAMSON,  GEORGE  CHARLES,  Litt.D., 
Ldndiin:  Oggione,  Marco  D';  Orley,  Barent  van; 
Ortolano  Ferrarese;  Pa.ssignano,  Domenico. 

WITTMANN,  PIUS,  Counsellor  for  the  Ar- 
chives and  Archivist  for  Prince  Ysenburg- 
BtJDiNGEN,  Royal  Bavarian  Counsellor  for 
the  Archives,  Budingen,  Germany:  Norway; 
Orkneys. 

WOLFSGRUBER,  COELESTINE,  O.S.B.,  Vienna: 
Olmiitz,  Archdiocese  of;  Parenzo-Pola,  Diocese 
of. 

ZELLE,  JOSEPH,  S.J.,  Paray-le-Monial,  France: 
Paray-le-Monial. 

ZEVELY,  J.,  New  York:  Petropolis,  Diocese  of . 


Tables   of  Abbreviations 

The  following  tables  and  notes  are  intended  to  guide  readers  of  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  in 
interpreting  those  abbreviations,  signs,  or  technical  phrases  which,  for  economy  of  space,  will  be  most  fre- 
quently used  in  the  work.     For  more  general  information  see  the  article  Abbreviations,  Ecclesiastical. 


I. — General  Abbreviations. 

a article. 

ad  an at  the  year  (Lat.  ad  annum). 

an.,  ann the  year,  the  years  (Lat.  annus, 

anni). 

ap in  (Lat.  apud). 

art article. 

Assyr Assyrian. 

A.  S Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  V Authorized  Version  (i.e.  tr.  of  the 

Bible  authorized  for  use  in  tlie 
Anglican  Church — the  so-called 
''King  James",  or  "Protestant 
Bible"). 

b born. 

Bk Book. 

Bl Blessed. 

C,  c about  (Lat.  circa);  canon;  chap- 

ter; compagnie. 

can canon. 

cap chapter  (Lat.  caput  —  used  only 

in  Latin  context). 

cf compare  (Lat.  confer). 

cod codex. 

col column. 

concl conclusion. 

const.,  constit.  .  .  .Lat.  constitutio. 

cura by  the  industry  of. 

d died. 

diet dictionary  (Fr.  dictionnaire) . 

disp Lat.  disputalio. 

diss Lat.  dissertatio. 

dist Lat.  distinctio. 

D.  V Douay  Version. 

ed.,  edit edited,  edition,  editor. 

Ep.,  Epp letter,  letters  (Lat.  e.pistola). 

Fr French. 

gen genus. 

Gr Greek. 

H.  E.,  Hist.  Eccl.  .Ecclesiastical  History. 

Heb.,  Hebr Hebrew. 

ib.,  ibid in  the  same  place  (Lat.  ibidem). 

Id the  same  person,  or  author  (Lat. 

idem). 


inf below  (Lat.  infra). 

It Italian. 

1.  c,  loc.  cit at   the   place   quoted   (Lat.   loco 

citato) . 

Lat Latin. 

lat latitude. 

lib book  (Lat.  liber). 

long longitude. 

Mon Lat.  Monumenta. 

MS.,  MS3 manuscript,  manuscripts. 

n.,  no number. 

N.  T New  Testament. 

Nat National. 

Old  Fr.,  O.  Fr.  .  .  .Old  French. 

op.  cit in  the  work  quoted  (Lat.  opere 

citato). 

Ord Order. 

O.  T Old  Testament. 

p.,  pp page,  pages,  or  (in  Latin  ref- 
erences) pars  (part). 

par paragraph. 

passim in  various  places. 

pt part. 

Q Quarterly     (a     periodical),     e.g. 

"Church  Quarterly". 

Q.,  QQ.,  qusest.  . .  .question,  questions  (Lat.  qucestio). 

q.  V which  [title]  see  (Lat.  quod  vide). 

Rev Review  (a  periodical). 

R.  S Rolls  Series. 

R.  V Revised  Version. 

S.,  SS Lat.    Sanctus,    Sancti,    "Saint", 

"Saints" — used  in  this  Ency- 
clopedia only  in  Latin  context. 

Sept Septuagint. 

Sess Se.ssion. 

Skt Sanskrit. 

Sp Spanish. 

sq.,  sqq following   page,    or   pages    (Lat. 

sequens). 

St.,  Sts Saint,  Saints. 

sup Above  (Lat.  supra). 

s.  V Under    the    corresponding    title 

(Lat.  sub  voce). 

torn volume  (Lat.  tomus). 


TAHL.es  op  AHHKKVIATIONS. 


tr translation  or  translated.  Uy  it- 
self it  means  "English  transla- 
tion", or  "  tninslateil  into  Eng- 
lish by".  AVlicre  a  translation 
is  into  any  other  language,  the 
language  is  stated. 

tr.,  tract tractate. 

V see  (Lat.  vUle). 

Ven Venerable. 

Vol Volume. 

II. — Abbreviations  op  Titles. 

Acta  SS Acta  Sanctorum  (BoUandists). 

Ann.  pont.  cath Battandier,  Annuaire  pontifical 

catholiqtie. 

Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.Gillow,  Bibliograplucal  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Catholics. 

Diet.  Christ.  Antiq..  .Smith  and  Cheetham  (ed.), 
Dictionary  of  Christian  An- 
tiquities. 


Diet.  Christ.  Biog.  . .  Smith  and  Wace  (ed.).  Diction- 
ary of  Christian  Biography. 

Diet,  d'arch.  clirot. .  .Cabrol  (ed.),  IHctionnaire  d'ar- 
cheologie  chritienne  et  de  litur- 
gie. 

Diet,  de  th6ol.  oath.  .  Vacant  and  Mangenot  (ed.), 
Dictionnaire  de  ihiologie 
catholique. 

Diet.  Nat.  Biog Stephen  and  Lee  (ed.),  Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography. 

Hast.,  Diet,   of  the 

Bible Hastings  (ed.),  A  Dictionary  of 

the  Bible. 

Kirchenlex Wetzer  and  Welte,  Kirckenleri- 

con. 

P.  G Migne  (ed.),  Patrcs  Graeci. 

P.  L Migne  (ed.),  Patres  Latini. 

Vig.,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  Vigouroux  (ed.),  Dictionnaire  de 
la  Bible. 


Note  I. — Large  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  volumes.  Small  Roman  numerals  standing  alone  indicate 
chapters.  Arabic  numerals  standing  alone  indicate  pages.  In  other  cases  the  divisions  are  explicitly  stated.  Thus  "  Ra.shdall, 
Universities  of  Europe,  I.  Lx"  refers  the  reader  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  first  volume  of  that  work;  "I,  p.  ix"  would  indicate  the 
ninth  page  of  the  preface  of  the  same  volume. 

Note  II. — Where  St.  Thomas  (Aquinas)  is  cited  without  the  name  of  any  particular  work  the  reference  is  always  to 
"Summa  Theologica"  (not  to  "Summa  Philosophise").  The  divisions  of  the  "Summa  Theol."  are  indicated  by  a  system  which 
may  best  be  understood  by  the  following  example;  "  I-II,  Q.  vi,  a.  7,  ad  2  um  "  refers  the  reader  to  the  seventh  article  of  the 
tilth  question  in  the  firsl  part  of  the  second  part,  in  the  response  to  the  second  objection. 

Note  HI. — The  abbreviations  employed  for  the  various  books  of  the  Bible  are  obvious.  Ecclesiasticus  is  indicated  by 
Ecdus.,  to  distinguish  it  from  Ecclesiastes  (Eccles.).  It  should  also  be  noted  that  I  and  II  Kings  in  D.  V.  correspond  to  I  and  II 
Samuel  in  A.  V. ;  and  I  and  II  Par.  to  I  and  II  Chronicles.  Where,  in  the  spelling  of  a  proper  name,  there  is  a  marked  difference 
between  the  D.  V.  and  the  A.  V.,  the  form  found  in  the  latter  is  added,  in  parentheses. 


Full  Page  Illustrations  in  Volume  XI 

Frontispiece  in  Colour  p^^g 

New  Orleans — St.  Roch's  Chapel  and  Cemetery,  etc 14 

St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New  York 26 

Norwich  Cathedral 122 

Typical  Coins  of  Twenty-five  Centuries 152 

Daniel  O'Connell 202 

Church  of  Santa  Maria  de  Naranco,  Oviedo 364 

Oxford — Balliol,  Christ  Church,  the  Sheldonian,  and  Brasenose 368 

Basilica  of  S.  Antonio,  commonly  called  The  Santo,  Padua 384 

The  Empress  Theodora  and  her  Suite 394 

Altar-piece  of  the  Lamb,  Hubert  and  Jan  Van  Eyck,  Ghent 398 

Among  the  Lowly — Leon  Lhermitte 402 

Cathedral,  Palencia 416 

Cathedral,  Palermo 420 

Notre-Dame  de  Paris 494 

Cathedral  and  Baptistery,  Parma 504 

The  Crucifixion — From  the  Passion  Play  of  Oberammergau 530 

Louis  Pasteur  in  his  Laboratory — A.  Edelfclt 536 

St.  Paul— Ribera  (Spagnoletto) 572 

Paul  III  and  his  Nephews,  Alessandro  and  Ottavio  Farnese — Titian 578 

The  Certosa,  near  Pavia 592 

Perugia — The  Porta  Urbica  Etrusca,  etc 736 

Perugino — Madonna  with  Four  Saints,  etc 738 

St.  Peter— Ribera  (Spagnoletto) 750 

Blessed  Peter  Canisius — C.  Fracassini 758 

Philadelphia 794 


Map 

Panama 438 


THE 
CATHOLIC  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


N 


New  Mexico,  a  territory  of  the  United  States  now 
(Jan.,  1911)  awaiting  only  the  completion  of  its  Con- 
stitution and  the  acceptance  thereof  by  the  Federal 
authorities  to  rank  as  a  state.  It  lies  between  31°  20' 
and  37°  N.  lat.,  and  between  103°  2'  and  109°  2'  W. 
long.;  it  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Colorado,  on  the 
east  b}'  Oklahoma  and  Texas,  on  the  south  by  Texas 
and  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  and  on  the  west  by  Ari- 
zona. It  is  about  370  miles  from  east  to  west,  33.5  from 
north  to  south,  and  has  an  area  of  122,580  sq.  miles, 
with  mountain,  plateau,  and  valley  on  either  side  of  the 
Rio  Grande.  The  average  rainfall  is  12  inches,  usually 
between  July  and  September,  so  that  spring  and  sum- 
mer are  dry,  and  agriculture  and  grazing  suffer.  The 
climate  is  uniform,  the  summers,  as  a  rule,  moderate, 
and,  the  atmosphere  being  dry,  the  heat  is  not  opjjres- 
sive.  In  the  north-west  and  north-east  the  winters 
are  long,  but  not  severe,  while  in  the  central  and  south- 
ern portions  the  winters  are  usually  short  and  mild. 
In  the  United  States  census  of  1900  the  population 
was  141,282,  of  which  33  per  cent  was  illiterate;  in 
the  census  ofl910  the  population  was  327,396.  About 
one-half  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  Spanish  descent. 

The  soil  in  the  valleys  is  a  rich  and  sandy  loam, 
capable,  with  irrigation,  of  producing  good  crops.  It 
is  also  rich  in  gold  and  silver,  and  important  mines 
have  been  opened  near  Deming,  Silver  City,  and 
Lordsburg,  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  state. 
There  are  copper  mines  near  Glorieta  in  the  north, 
and  near  Santa  Rita  in  the  south;  while  coal  is  found 
in  great  abundance  near  Gallup,  Cerillos,  and  in  the 
north-west.  The  mineral  production  of  ISfew  Mexico 
for  1907  was  $7,517,843,  that  of  coal  alone  amounting 
to  .$3,832,128.  In  1909  the  net  product  in  coal, 
shipped  from  the  mines,  was  2,708,624  tons,  or  a  total 
value  of  $3,881,508.  A  few  forests  exist  in  the  east- 
ern plains,  and  abundant  timber  is  found  in  the  north- 
western and  central  districts.  Though  mining  and 
commerce  as  well  as  agriculture  are  now  in  process  of 
rapid  development,  New  Mexico  is  still  a  grazing 
country.  Sheep-farming  is  the  most  important 
and  lucrative  industry;  cattle-farming  is  also  of 
importance.  In  1908  and  1909  severe  droughts 
caused  the  sheep  industry  to  decline  somewhat.  In 
1909  New  Mexico  shipped  700,800  head  of  sheep;  in 

1908,  835,800;  in  1907,  975,800.     The  wool  shorn  in 

1909,  from  over  4,000,000  .sheep,  was  18,000,000  lbs., 
which  brought  an  averageof  19  cents  per  lb.,  yielding  a 
cash  production  of  .$3,420,000.  The  shipments  of  cat- 
tle in  the  same  year  amounted  to  310,326,  and  64,380 
hides  were  handled  in  the  .same  period.  Farming  is 
successfully  carried  on  in  the  Rio  Grande  and  other 
valleys,  Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  garden  products 
being  the  principal  crops.  For  the  year  1907  the  ter- 
ritorial governnor's  report  placed  the  value  of  the 
agricultural  products  at  $25,000,000,  but  this  was  a 

XI.— 1 


gross  overestimate.  The  important  manufacturing 
interests  are  those  connected  with  mining,  railroads, 
etc.  Lumbering  is  being  developed  by  capital 
brought  from  the  East,  and  large  lumber  mills  are  now 
in  operation,  notabh'  at  Albuquerque.  There  are  75 
banks  (41  national  and  34  territorial)  in  the  state, 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  .$3,274,086.  The  bonded 
debt  of  the  state  is  $1,002,000,  of  which  $89,579.49  is 
covered  by  the  sinking  fund. 

GeneralHistorv. — In  April,  1536,  there  arrived  at 
Culiacdn,  in  the  Mexican  Province  of  Sinaloa,  Alvar 
Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  Andres  Dorantes,  Alon.so  del 
Castillo  Maldonado,  and  the  nc^V"  K.sfcvanico,  the 
only  survivors  of 
the  ill-fated  expe- 
dition of  Narvlez 
whichhad  left  Spain 
in  1528.  Mendoza, 
the  Viceroy  of 
Mexico  was  fold 
astonishing  tales  l)y 
Cabeza  de  Vaca 
concerning  tlic 
wealth  of  the  couji- 
try  to  the  north, 
and  lie  forthwith 
commanded  Coro- 
nado,  governor  of 
the  Province  of 
Nueva  Galicia,  to 
prepare  an  expe- 
dition. The  preparations  went  slowly,  and  Men- 
doza ordered  Friar  Marcos  de  Niza  to  make  a  prelim- 
inary exploration  of  the  northern  country.  The 
Franciscan  left  Culiacd,n  in  1539,  accompanied  by 
Estevanico  and  a  few  Indians.  After  untold  hard- 
ships he  reached  the  famous  pueblo  of  ZuiSi,  took  pos- 
session of  all  the  surrounding  country,  planted  the 
cross,  and  named  the  territory  "The  New  Kingdom  of 
St.  Francis".  Marcos  de  Niza  is,  therefore,  rightly 
called  the  discoverer  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  He 
then  returned  to  Mexico,  and  his  narrative,  especially 
what  he  said  about  the  seven  cities  of  Cibola,  was  an 
incentive  to  Coronado,  who  set  out  from  Culiacdn  in 
1540,  accompanied  by  Marcos  and  a  large  body  of 
Spaniards  and  Indians.  Coronado  crossed  Sonora 
(now  Arizona)  and  entered  New  Mexico  in  July,  1.540. 
The  expedition  returned  in  1542,  but,  although  many 
regions  were  discovered,  no  conquests  were  made  nor 
colonies  established.  In  1563  an  expedition  was  led 
into  New  Mexico  by  Francisco  de  Ibarra:  it  is  worth 
mentioning  only  for  the  reason  that  de  Ibarra  re- 
turned in  1565  with  the  boast  that  he  had  discovered 
"a  new  Mexico",  which  was,  probably,  the  origin  of 
the  name.  Espejo  entered  New  Mexico  in  1581,  but 
accomplished  nothing.     In  this  same  year  a  Francis- 


Mexico 


NEW  MEXICO 


NEW  MEXICO 


can  Friar,  Augustin  Rodrtguos!,  entered  with  a  few 
companions,  and  lost  his  hfe  in  tlio  cause  of  (Christian- 
ity. In  15S1  Espejo  ('aUed  New  Mexico  Niieva  An- 
dalucia.  By  IMS  the  name  Nuevo  Mejico  was  evi- 
dently well  known,  since  Villagrd's  epic  is  called 
"Historia  del  Nuevo  Mejico". 

The  expediticiii.s  of  Isspejo  and  Father  Agustin  Ro- 
driguez were  followed  by  many  more  of  an  unimpor- 
tant character,  and  it  was  not  until  1.598,  when  Don 
•luan  de  Onate,  accompanied  by  ten  Franciscans  under 
Father  .\lonso  Martinez,  and  four  hundred  men,  of 
whom  one  hundred  and  thirty  were  accompanied  by 
their  wives  and  families,  marched  up  alongside  the 
Rio  Grande,  and  settled  at  San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros, 
near  the  junction  of  the  Chama  with  the  Rio  Grande, 
thirty  miles  north  of  Santa  Ft'.  This  was  the  first  per- 
manent Spanish  settlement  in  New  Mexico.  Here 
was  established,  also,  the  first  mission,  and  San  Juan 
de  los  Caballeros  (or  San  Gabriel  a  few  miles  west  on 
the  Chama  river?)  was  the  capital  of  the  new  province 
until  it  was  moved  to  Santa  F6  some  time  between 
1602  and  1616.  The  colony  prospered,  missions  were 
established  by  the  Franciscans,  new  colonists  arrived, 
and  by  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  general 
prosperity  prevailed.  In  the  year  16S0,  however,  a 
terrible  Indian  rebellion  broke  out  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Pope,  an  Indian  of  the  pueblo  of  San  Juan.  All 
the  Spanish  settlements  were  attacked,  and  many  peo- 
ple massacred.  The  survivors  fled  to  Santa  Fe,  but, 
after  three  days'  fighting,  were  compelled  to  abandon 
the  city  and  were  driven  out  of  the  province. 

Thus  was  destroyed  the  work  of  eighty  years.  The 
Spaniards  did  not  lose  courage:  between  1691  and  1693 
Antonio  de  Vargas  reconquered  New  Me.xico  and  en- 
tered it  with  many  of  the  old  colonists  and  many 
more  new  ones,  his  entire  colony  consisting  of  800  peo- 
ple, including  seventy  families  and  200  soldiers.  The 
old  \-illages  were  occupied,  churches  rebuilt,  and  the 
missions  re-established.  A  new  villa  was  founded, 
Santa  Cruz  de  la  Canada,  around  which  most  of  the 
families  which  had  come  with  De  Vargas  untler  Padre 
Farfdn  were  settled.  The  colonies,  no  longer  seri- 
ously tiireatened  by  the  Indians,  progressed  slowly. 
By  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  population 
of  New  Mexico  was  about  34,000,  one-half  Spaniards. 
The  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  centurj'  was  a  period 
of  revolutions — rapid  transformations  of  government 
and  foreign  invasions,  accepted  by  the  Spanish  inhab- 
itants of  New  Mexico  in  an  easy-going  spirit  of  sub- 
mission unparalleled  in  history. 

In  1821  the  news  of  Mexican  independence  was  re- 
ceived, and,  although  the  people  of  New  Mexico  were 
ignorant  of  the  events  which  had  preceded  it,  and 
knew  absolutelj'  nothing  of  the  situation,  they  cele- 
brated the  event  with  great  enthusiasm  and  swore 
allegiance  to  Iturbide.  In  1824,  just  three  years  after 
independence,  came  the  news  of  the  fall  of  Iturbide 
and  the  inauguration  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico: 
throngs  gathered  at  Santa  F6,  the  people  were  ha- 
rangued, and  the  new  regime  was  applauded  as  a  bless- 
ing to  New  Mexico.  When  war  was  declared  between 
the  United  States  and  Mexico — an  event  concerning 
which  the  New  Mexicans  were  ignorant — General 
Stephen  Watts  Kearny  was  sent  to  conquer  New 
Mexico.  In  1846  he  entered  the  territory,  and  Gen- 
eral Armijo,  the  local  military  chiei,  fled  to  Mexico. 
Kearny  took  possession  of  the  territory  in  the  name  of 
the  United  States,  promising  the  people  all  the  rights 
and  liberties  which  other  citizens  of  the  United  States 
enjoyed.  The  people  joyfully  accepted  American 
rule,  and  swore  obedience  to  the  Stars  and  Stripes.  At 
one  stroke,  no  one  knew  why  or  how,  a  Spanish  colony, 
after  existing  under  Spanish  institutions  for  nearly 
three  centuries,  was  brought  under  the  rule  of  a  for- 
eign race  and  under  new  and  unknown  institutions. 
After  the  military  occupation  by  Kearny  in  1846, 
Charles  Bent  was  civil  governor.     He  was  murdered 


at  Taos,  in  1847,  by  .some  Spaniards  whom  he  had 
gro.ssly  offended.  In  1847-48  Donaciano  Vigil  was 
civil  governor. 

In  1S4S,  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  New 
Mexico  was  formally  ceded  by  Mexico  to  the  United 
States,  and  in  1850  it  was  regularly  organized  as  a  ter- 
ritory (which  included  Arizona  until  1863),  and  James 
S.  Calhoun  was  the  first  territorial  governor.  The 
first  territorial  Legislative  Assenibly  met  at  Santa  F6 
in  IS.'jl :  most  of  the  members  were  of  Spanish  descent, 
and  this  has  been  true  of  all  the  Assemblies  until  the 
end  of  the  century.  Up  to  1910  the  proceedings  of  the 
Legislature  were  in  Spanish  and  English,  interpreters 
being  always  present.  During  the  years  1861-62  the 
Texan  Confederates  entered  New  Mexico,  to  occupy 
Albuquerque  and  Santa  F6,  but  Federal  troops  ar- 
rived from  Colorado  and  California  and  frustrated  the 
attempt.  During  the  years  from  1860  to  1890  New 
Mexico  progressed  very  slowly.  Education  was  in  a 
deplorable  state  (no  system  was  established  until 
1S90),  the  surrounding  Indians  continually  harassed 
the  inhabitants,  and  no  railroad  was  constructed  until 
after  1880.  In  1860  the  population  was  80,567;  in 
1870,  90,573;  in  ISSO,  109,793.  Nine-tenths  of  the 
population  in  1880  was  of  Spanish  descent:  at  pres- 
ent (1911)  this  element  is  only  about  one-half,  owing 
to  the  constant  immigration  from  the  other  states  of 
the  Union.  Since  1890  New  Mexico  has  progressed 
rapidly.  Education  is  now  enthusiastically  supported 
and  encouraged,  the  natural  resources  are  being  rapidly 
developed,  and  the  larger  towns  and  cities  have  all 
the  marks  of  modern  civilization  and  progress.  Since 
1850  many  unsuccessful  attempts  have  been  made 
to  secure  statehood;  at  last,  in  June,  1910,  Congress 
passed  an  Enabling  Act:  New  Mexico  is  to  adopt  a 
Constitution,  subject  to  the  approval  of  Congress. 

MissioN.s  OP  New  Mexico. — The  Franciscan  Friar 
Marcos  de  Niza,  as  we  have  seen  above,  reached  New 
Mexico  near  the  pueblo  of  Zuni  in  1539.  This  short 
expedition  may  be  considered,  therefore,  as  the  first 
mission  in  New  Mexico  and  what  is  now  Arizona. 
With  the  expedition  of  Coronado  (1540-42)  several 
Franciscans  under  Marcos  de  Niza  entered  New 
Mexico.  There  is  some  confusion  about  their  exact 
number  and  even  about  their  names.  It  seems  rea- 
sonably certain,  however,  that  Marcos  had  to  abandon 
the  expedition  after  reaching  Zuni,  and  that  two 
Franciscan  priests,  Juan  de  Padilla  and  Juan  de  la 
Cruz,  and  a  lay  brother,  Luis  de  Escalona,  continued 
with  the  expedition  into  New  Mexico,  remained  as 
missionaries  among  the  Indians  when  Coronado  re- 
turned in  1542,  and  were  finally  murdered  by  them. 
These  were  the  first  three  Christian  missionaries  to  re- 
ceive the  crown  of  martyrdom  within  the  present 
hmits  of  the  United  States.  Forty  years  after  the 
Niza  and  Coronado  expeditions  of  1539-42,  it  was 
again  a  Franciscan  who  made  an  attempt  to  gain  the 
New  Mexico  Indians  to  the  Faith.  This  was  Father 
Agustin  Rodriguez,  who,  in  1581,  left  San  Bartolome 
in  Northern  Mexico  and,  accompanied  by  two  other 
friars,  Juan  de  Santa  Maria  and  Fr.  Francisco  L6pez, 
and  some  seventeen  more  men,  marched  up  the  Rio 
Grande  and  visited  many  of  the  pueblos  on  both  sides 
of  the  river.  The  friars  decided  to  remain  in  the  new 
missionary  field  when  the  rest  of  the  expedition  re- 
turned in  1.582,  but  the  Indians  proved  intractable 
and  the  two  friars  received  the  crown  of  martyrdom. 

When  news  of  the  fate  of  Agustin  Rodriguez  reached 
San  Bartolome  in  Nueva  Vizcaya,  Father  Bernardino 
Beltrdn  was  desirous  of  making  another  attempt  to 
evangelize  New  Mexico,  but,  being  alone,  would  not 
remain  there.  It  was  in  1.598  that  Don  Juan  de  Onate 
made  the  first  permanent  Spanish  settlement  in  New 
Mexico,  at  San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros.  Ten  Francis- 
can friars  under  Father  Alonso  Martinez  accom- 
panied Ofiate  in  his  conquest,  and  established  at  San 
Juan  the  first  Spanish  Franciscan  mission.     Mission- 


NEW  MEXICO 


NEW  MEXICO 


ary  work  was  begun  in  earnest,  and  in  1599  Onate  sent 
a  party  to  Mexico  for  re-enforcements.  With  this 
party  went  Fathers  Martinez,  Salazar,  and  Vergara  to 
obtain  more  friars.  Salazar  died  on  the  way,  Marti- 
nez did  not  return,  but  a  new  Franciscan  comisario, 
Juan  de  Escalona,  returned  to  New  Mexico  with  Ver- 
gara and  eight  more  Franciscans.  New  missions  were 
being  estabhshed  in  the  near  puehlos,  and  prosperity 
was  at  hand,  but  Onate's  ambitions  proved  fatal:  in 
1601  he  desired  to  conquer  the  coimtry  to  the  north 
and  west,  and  started  on  an  expedition  with  a  small 
force,  taking  with  him  two  Franciscans.  The  people 
who  remained  at  and  near  San  Juan  de  los  Caballeros 
were  left  unprotected.  Civil  discord  followed,  and 
the  newly-settled  province  was  abandoned,  the  set- 
tlers, with  the  friars,  moving  south.  Father  Escalona 
remained,  at  the  risk  of  his  life,  to  await  the  return  of 
Onate;  but  he  had  written  to  the  viceroy,  asking  that 
Onate  should  be  recalled.  Oiiate,  with  a  new  comi- 
sario, Francisco  Escobar,  and  Father  San  Buenaven- 
tura, set  out  on  another  counter  expedition,  and  Es- 
calona and  the  other 
friars  continued 
their  missionary 
work  among  their 
neophytes.  New  re- 
enforcements  arrived 
between  1605  and 
1608,  in  spite  of 
Onate's  misrule.  In 
1608  Father  Alonso 
Peinado  came  as  co- 
misario and  brought 
with  him  eight  more 
friars.  By  this  time 
8000  Indians  had 
been  converted.  By 
1617  the  Franciscans 
had  built  eleven 
churches  and  had 
converted  14,000  In- 
dians. 

In  1620  Father 
Ger6nimo  de  Zdrate 
Salmer6n,  a  very 
zealous  missionary,  came  to  New  Mexico.  There  he 
worked  for  eight  years,  and  wrote  a  book  on  Chris- 
tian doctrine  in  the  language  of  the  Jemez.  By  1626 
the  missions  numbered  27;  34,000  Indians  had  been 
baptized,  and  43  churches  built.  Of  the  friars  only  16 
were  left.  In  1630  Fr.  Benavides  desired  to  establish 
a  bishopric  in  New  Mexico,  and  went  to  Spain  to  lay 
his  petition  before  the  king.  In  his  memorial  he  says 
that  there  were  in  New  Mexico,  in  1630,  2.5  missions, 
covering  90  pueblos,  attended  by  50  friars,  and  that 
the  Christian  natives  numbered  00,000.  The  mi.ssions 
established  in  New  Mexico  in  1630,  according  to  this 
memorial,  were  the  following:  among  the  Piros,  or 
Picos,  3  missions  (Socorro,  Senecii,  Sevilleta) ;  among 
the  Liguas,  2  (Sandia,  Isleta);  among  the  Queres,  3; 
among  the  Tompiros,  6;  among  the  Tanos,  1;  among 
the  Pecos,  1 ;  among  the  Toas,  or  Tehuas,  3;  at  Santa 
F6,  1 ;  among  the  Taos,  1 ;  among  the  Zuni,  2.  The 
other  two  are  not  mentioned.  However,  the  wrongs 
perpetrated  by  local  governors  exasperated  the  In- 
dians, and  the  missionaries  were  thus  labouring  under 
difficulties.  By  1680  the  number  of  missions  had 
increased  to  33,  but  the  Indian  rebellion  broke  out. 
All  the  missions  and  settlements  were  destroyed,  the 
churches  burned,  and  the  settlers  massacred.  The 
number  of  victims  among  the  Spaniards  was  400.  Of 
the  missionaries,  11  escaped,  while  21  were  massacred. 

With  Don  Diego  de  Vargas,  and  the  reconquest  of 
New  Alexico  in  1691-95,  the  Franciscans  entered  the 
province  again.  Father  San  Antonio  was  the  guard- 
ian, but  in  1694  he  returned  to  EI  Paso,  and,  with 
Father  Francisco  Vargas  as  guardian,  the  missions 


were  re-established.  Not  only  were  most  of  the  old 
missions  again  in  a  prosperous  condition,  but  new  ones 
were  established  among  the  Apaches,  Navajos,  and 
other  tribes.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  petty  disputes  arose  between  the  friars  and 
the  Bishop  of  Durango,  and  the  results  were  unfav- 
ourable to  the  missions,  which  at  this  time  numbered 
from  20  to  25,  Father  Juan  Mirabal  being  guardian. 
In  1760  Bishop  Tamar6n  of  Durango  visited  the  prov- 
ince. From  this  time  on  the  Franciscan  missions  in 
New  Mexico  changed,  the  friars  in  many  cases  acted 
as  parish  priests,  and  their  work  did  not  prove  so 
fruitful. 

During  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
during  the  last  years  of  Spanish  rule  (1800-1821),  the 
missions  declined  more  and  more  The  Franciscans 
still  remained,  and  received  salaries  from  the  Govern- 
ment, not  as  missionaries  but  as  parish  priests.  They 
were  under  their  guardian,  but  the  Bishop  of  Durango 
controlled  religious  affairs,  with  a  permanent  vicar 
in  New  Mexico.  The  Mexican  rule  of  1821-1846  was 
worse  than  the  Span- 
ish rule,  and  the  mis- 
sions existed  only  in 
name.  At  the  time 
of  the  American  oc- 
cupation, in  1846,  the 
missions,  as  such,  no 
longer  existed. 

The  missionary 
work  in  what  is  now 
Arizona  was  in  some 
fuses  that  of  the 
\(  \v  Mexican  friars, 
A  lid  from  the  begin- 
<\\t.\'i_  of  their  labours 
irinl.il  their  mis- 
M-  :iiii(ingtheZuni 
.^iiil  the  Moquis.  A 
irw  uf  these  missions, 
1 1<  iwever,  had  no  con- 
I II  -xion  whateverwith 
ilir  missionary  work 
1  )t  New  Mexico.  After 
Niza's  exploration  in 
1540,  we  know  little  of  the  missionary  work  in  Ari- 
zona proper,  until  1633,  when  Fray  Francisco  Par- 
ras,  who  was  almost  alone  in  his  work,  was  killed 
at  Aguatevi.  In  1680  four  Franciscans,  attending 
three  missions  among  the  Moquis,  were  killed  dur- 
ing the  New  Mexican  rebellion  of  that  year.  In 
Northern  Mexico,  close  to  the  Arizona  line  (or,  as  then 
known,  Pimeria  Alta),  the  Jesuits  were  doing  excellent 
mission  work  in  1600-1700.  It  was  a  Jesuit,  also. 
Father  Eusebio  Francisco  Kino,  who  explored  what  is 
now  southern  Arizona,  in  1687.  No  missions  were  es- 
tablished, however,  in  Arizona  before  Father  Kino's 
death  in  1711,  though  churches  were  built,  and  many 
Indians  converted.  The  work  of  Father  Kino  was 
abandoned  after  his  death,  until  1732,  when  Fathers 
Felipe  Segesser  and  Juan  B.  Grashoffer  established 
the  first  permanent  missions  of  Arizona  at  San  Xavier 
del  Bac  and  San  Miguel  de  Guevavi.  In  1750  these 
two  missions  were  attacked  and  plundered  by  the 
Pimas,  but  the  missionaries  escaped.  In  1752  the  mis- 
sions were  reoccupied.  A  rivalry  between  the  Fran- 
ciscans and  the  Jesuits  hindered  the  success  of  the 
missions. 

In  1767,  however,  the  controversy  between  Jesuits 
and  Franciscans  was  ended,  and  the  Jesuits  exijelled. 
The  Government,  not  content  with  their  exiuilsion, 
confiscated  the  mission  property,  (hough  the  Francis- 
cans were  invited  to  the  field.  Four  Franciscans  ar- 
rived in  1768  to  renew  the  missionary  work  and  found 
the  missions  in  a  deplorable  state,  but  they  persuaded 
the  Government  to  help  in  the  restoration  and  to  re- 
store the  confiscated  property.     It  is  to  be  observed 


NEW  MEXICO 


NEW  MEXICO 


that  these  missions  of  Arizona,  as  well  as  many  of 
those  of  Sonora  in  Mexico,  wore,  until  1873,  under  the 
control  of  the  College  of  Santa  Cruz  (just  across  the 
Arizona  line  in  Northern  Mexico),  separated  from 
17S3  to  17!)1,  and  united  in  1791.  The  two  important 
Arizona  Missions,  San  Xavier  del  Rac  and  San  Miguel 
de  Guevavi,  became  prosperous,  the  former  under  the 
famous  Franciscan,  Father  Francisco  Garc^s  from 
17l)S  to  1774.  Father  Garci^s  laboured  continually 
among  the  Indians  until  he  lost  his  life,  in  1781,  in  his 
missionary  work  near  the  Colorado  River  in  Califor- 
nia. The  missions  of  Arizona  declined  after  1800,  and 
in  1828  tlie  Mexican  Government  ordered  their  aban- 
donment. From  this  time  until  1859,  when  Bishop 
Lamy  of  Santa  F(5sent  the  Rt.  Rev.  J.  P.  Macheboiuf 
to  minister  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  Arizona,  there 
were  no  signs  of  Chri.stianity  in  Arizona  other  than 
abandoned  missions  and  ruined  churches. 

Prese.nt  Conditions  (1910). — Pending  the  full  ad- 
mission of  New  Mexico  to  statehood,  its  government 
is  still  that  of  a  territory  of  the  United  States,  regu- 
lated by  the  provisons  of  the  Federal  Statutes.  Ac- 
cordingly, t  he  governor  and  other  executive  officers  are 
appointed  by  the  executive  authority  of  the  United 
States  and  paid  by  the  F'ederal  Treasury;  the  Legisla- 
ture (House  of  Representatives  and  Council)  is  elected 
by  the  people  of  the  territory;  the  Territorial  Judi- 
ciary (a  chief  justice  and  five  associate  justices)  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  of  the  United  States  for  a 
term  of  four  years,  but  justices  of  the  peace  are  elected 
for  two  years. 

Education. — The  educational  system  of  New 
Mexico  dates  from  1890  and  is  still  in  process  of  de- 
velopment. The  public-school  system  is  governed  by 
a  territorial  Board  of  Education  consisting  of  seven 
members.  This  board  apportions  the  school  funds, 
prepares  teachers'  examinations,  selects  books,  etc. 
There  are  also  the  usual  county  and  district  officers. 
At  present  there  are  approximately  1000  public 
schools  in  New  Mexico,  with  about  50,000  pupils,  of 
whom  20,000  are  Spanish  and  100  negroes.  There  are 
70  denominational  schools,  with  5,000  pupils,  and  18 
private  schools,  with  288  pupils.  Futhermore, there 
were,  in  1908,  25  Indian  schools  with  1933  pupils. 

The  Catholic  schools  of  the  territory  number  23, 
with  about  100  teachers  and  about  1500  pupils  (esti- 
mated in  1910;  1,212  in  1908).  The  most  important 
Catholic  school  in  New  Mexico  is  St.  Michael's  Col- 
lege at  Santa  F6,  founded  in  1859  by  Bishop  J.  B. 
Lamy.  The  sisters'  charitable  institutions  (hospi- 
tals, etc.)  are  state-aided.  In  1909  the  appropri- 
ations for  these  purposes  amounted  to  .?12,000.  The 
other  denominational  schools  are  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: Presbyterian,  25;  Congregational,  9;  Methodist, 
11;  Baptist,  2.  The  territorial  (or  state)  univensity 
was  established  in  1889  at  Albuquerque.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  territorial  appropriations  and  land  revenues. 
For  the  year  1909-10  the  income  was  .$40,000.  Its 
teaching  force  consisted,  in  1909-10,  of  16  professors, 
associate  professors,  and  instructors,  and  the  number 
of  students  in  attendance  was  130.  There  are  three 
normal  schools,  one  at  Las  Vegas,  one  at  El  Rito,  and 
one  at  Silver  City;  a  military  school  at  Roswell;  a 
school  of  mines  at  Socorro;  and  a  college  of  agriculture 
and  mechanic  arts  at  Mesilla  Park — the  best  equipped 
and  most  efficient  school  in  New  Mexico,  receiving 
both  federal  and  territorial  aid  aggregating  .$100,000 
a  year  (1909-10),  having  a  teaching  force  of  40  profes- 
sors, a.ssistant  professors,  and  instructors,  and  an  at- 
tendance of  285  .students  (1909-10).  The  combined 
valuation  of  the  territory's  educational  institutions  is 
about  81,000,000,  while  the  annual  expenditures 
aggregate  S275,000. 

Religion. — In  1850,  when  New  Mexico  was  organ- 
ized as  a  territory  of  the  United  States,  it  (including, 
till  18()3,  Arizona  and  part  of  Colorado)  was  made  a 
vicariate  Apostolic,  under  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  B.  Lamy. 


In  18,53  New  Mexico  (with  exceptions  noted  below) 
was  made  the  Diocese  of  Santa  F^,  and  the  vicar 
Apostolic  became  its  first  bishop.  In  1865  this  dio- 
cese became  the  Archdiocese  of  Santa  F6,  and  Bishop 
Lamy  became  its  first  archbishop.  The  archdiocese 
includes  all  of  New  Mexico,  except  Dona  Ana,  Eddy, 
and  Grant  Counties,  which  belong  to  the  Diocese  of 
Tucson.  The  present  Archbishop  of  Santa  F6  is  the 
Rt.  Rev.  John  B.  Pitaval.  The  C.itholic  population 
of  the  territory  in  1882  was  126,000;  in  1906  it  was 
121,558  (U.  S.  Census  Bulletin,  no.  103,  p.  36).  But 
the  figures  for  1882  (given  by  H.  II.  Bancroft)  must 
include  the  Catholic  population  of  Arizona  and  prob- 
ably also  of  Colorado.  In  1906  the  Catholics  were 
more  than  88  per  cent  of  the  church  membership  of 
the  territory,  which  was  137,009,  distributed  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Roman  Catholics 121,558 

Methodists 6,560 

Presbyterians 2,935 

Baptists 2,403 

Disciples,  or  Christians 1,092 

Protestant  Episcopalians 869 

Unclassified 1,592 

Total IST^OOg 

At  present  (1910)  the  total  Catholic  population  of 
New  Mexico  mav  be  estimated  at  not  less  than  about 
130,000,  about  120,000  being  of  Spanish  descent.  No 
definite  statistics  are  available  on  this  last  point.  The 
large  Catholic  population  of  New  Mexico  is  due  to  its 
having  been  colonized  by  the  Spaniards,  whose  first 
thought  on  founding  a  colony  was  to  build  churches 
and  estabhsh  missions.  The  recent  Cathofic  immi- 
gration has  been  from  the  Middle  West,  and  this  is 
largely  Irish. 

Catholics  distinguished  in  Public  Life. — The  fact 
that  until  about  the  year  1890  the  population  of  the 
territory  was  mostly  Spanish,  and  therefore  Catholic, 
is  the  reason  why  most  of  the  men  who  have  figured 
prominently  in  the  history  of  New  Mexico  have  been 
Catholic  Spaniards.  Among  the  more  prominent 
may  be  mentioned:  Donaciano  Vigil,  military  gov- 
ernor, 1847-48;  Miguel  A.  Otero,  territorial  secretary, 
1861;  delegates  to  the  Federal  Congress,  Jos6  M.  Ga- 
llegos,  1853-54;  Miguel  A.  Otero,  1855-60;  Francisco 
Perea,  1863-64;  .Jose  F.  Chaves,  1865-70;  Jos6  M. 
Gallegos,  1871-72;  Trinidad  Romero,  1877-78;  Mari- 
ano S.  Otero,  1879-80;  Tranquilino  Luna,  1881-82; 
Francisco  A.  Manzanares,  1883-4.  The  treasurers 
and  auditors  from  1863  to  1886  were  all,  with  but  one 
exception.  Catholic  Spaniards. 

Legislation  affecting  Religion. — (1)  Absolute  free- 
dom of  wor.ship  is  guaranteed  by  the  Organic  Act  con- 
stituting the  territory,  and  by  statute  preference  to 
any  religious  denomination  by  law  is  forbidden.  (2) 
Horse-racing  and  cock-fighting  on  Sunday  are  forbid- 
den; labour,  except  works  of  necessity,  charity,  or 
mercy,  prohibited,  and  the  offence  is  punishable  by  a 
fine  of  from  $5  to  $15.  (3)  No  religious  test  .shall  be 
required  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust 
in  this  territory.  Oaths  are  administered  in  the  usual 
fashion,  but  an  affirmation  may  be  used  instead  when 
the  individual  has  conscientious  scruples  against  tak- 
ing an  oath.  (4)  No  statutory  enactment  punishing 
blasphemy  or  profanity  has  ever  been  passed  in  this 
territory.  (5)  It  is  customary  to  open  the  sessions  of 
the  Legislature  with  an  invocation  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  but  there  is  no  statutory  authority  either  for  or 
against  this  ceremony.  Until  the  present  time  (1910) 
this  function  has  always  been  diseiiarged  by  a  Catholic 
priest.  (6)  Christmas  is  the  only  religious  festival 
observed  as  a  legal  holiday  in  New  Mexico.  New 
Year's  Day  is  also  a  legal  holiflay,  but  Good  Friday, 
Ash  Wednesday,  All  Souls'  Day,  etc.,  are  not  recog- 
nized. (7)  There  has  been  no  decision  in  the  courts  of 
New  Mexico  regarding  the  seal  of  confession,  but  it  is 


NEW   NORCIA 


NEW  ORLEANS 


to  be  presumed  that,  in  the  absence  of  any  statutory 
provision  covering  the  point,  the  courts  of  the  terri- 
tory would  follow  the  general  rule:  that  confession  to  a 
priest  is  a  confidential  communication  and  therefore 
inviolable.  (8)  Churches  are,  in  the  contemplation  of 
the  laws  of  New  Mexico,  in  the  category  of  charitable 
institutions.  (9)  No  religious  or  charitable  institu- 
tion is  permitted  to  hold  more  than  $50,000  worth  of 
property;  any  property  acquired  or  held  contrary  to 
the  aliove  prohibition  shall  be  forfeited  and  escheat  to 
(he  United  States.  The  property  of  religious  institu- 
tions is  exempt  from  taxation  when  it  is  being  used 
and  devoted  exclusively  to  its  appropriate  objects, 
and  not  used  with  a  view  to  pecuniary  profit.  The 
clergy  are  exempt  from  jury  and  military  service. 
(10)  Marriage  may  be  either  by  religious  or  by  civil 
ceremony.  The  male  must  be  eighteen  years  of  age, 
and  the  female  fifteen,  for  marriage  with  parents'  con- 
sent; after  the  male  is  twenty-one  and  the  female 
eighteen  they  may  marry  regardless  of  parents'  con- 
sent. Marriages  between  first  cousins,  uncles,  aunts, 
nieces  and  nephews,  half-brothers  and  sisters,  grand- 
parent and  grandchildren,  are  declared  incestuous  and 
absolutely  void.  (11)  Education  in  the  public  schools 
must  be  non-sectarian.  (12)  No  charitable  or  reli- 
gious bequests  are  recognized  unless  made  in  writing 
duly  attested  by  the  lawful  number  of  witnesses.  (13) 
There  are  no  restrictions  as  to  cemeteries  other  than 
that  they  must  not  be  near  to  running  streams.  (14) 
Divorce  may  be  obtained  for  cruelty,  adultery,  de- 
sertion, and  for  almost  every  ground  recognized  as 
sufficient  in  any  state  of  the  tjnion.  The  party  seek- 
ing divorce  must  have  been  a  bona  fide  resident  of  the 
territory  for  more  than  a  year  prior  to  the  date  of  fil- 
ing the  action.  Service  on  the  defendant  must  be  per- 
sonal, if  the  defendant  is  within  the  territory ;  but  may 
be  by  publication,  if  the  whereabouts  of  the  defendant 
are  unknown.     Trials  of  divorce  are  without  a  jury. 

BANf'ROFT,  H.  H.,  History  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  (San 
Francisco,  18S8);  Biennial  Report  of  the  State  Superintendent  of 
Puhlic  Instruction  of  New  Mexico  (Santa  F^,  1908) ;  Blackmab, 
Spanish  InstU-ulions  in  the  Southwest  (Baltimore,  1891) ;  Compiled 
Laws  of  New  Mexico  (Santa  Ff ,  1897  and  1908) ;  Catholic  Direc- 
tory for  1910;  U.  S.  Census  Bureau,  Bulletin  no.  lOS  (Washing- 
ton, 1906) :  Enqelhardt,  The  Missions  and  Missionaries  of  Cali- 
fornia, I  (San  Francisco,  1908);  II  (San  Francisco,  1910);  Vl- 
llaqrA,  Historia  de  la  Nuem  Mcjico  (Alcald  de  Henares,  1610; 
Mexico,  1900);  Illustrated  History  of  New  Mexico  (Los  Angeles, 
1907) ;  CouES,  On  the  Trail  of  a  Spanish  Pioneer  (tr.  of  the  diary  of 
Father  Francisco  Garc^s)  (New  York,  1900) ;  Report  of  the  Gov- 
ernor of  New  Mexico  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  (Washington, 
1909) ;  Shea.  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  States 
(New  York,  1892) ;  Register  of  the  University  of  New  Mexico.  1909- 
10  (Albuquerque,  1910);  Register  of  the  New  Mexico  College  of 
Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  (Santa  F«,  1910);  Pmo,  Noticias 
histdricas  y  estadisticas  sobre  la  antigua  provincia  del  Nuevo  Mejico 
(Cadiz,  1812;  Mexico,  1839;  1849);  The  Journey  of  Antonio  de 
Vargas  and  Conquest  of  New  Mexico  in  1891-3  (MS.  in  Library  of 
the  New  Mexico  Historical  Society,  Santa  F6) ;  Publications  of  the 
New  Mexico  Historical  Society  (Santa  F6,  1898-1910). 

AURELIO    M.    ESPINOSA. 

New  Norcia,  a  Benedictine  abbey  in  Western  Aus- 
tralia, founded  on  1  March,  1846,  by  a  Spanish  Bene- 
dictine, Rudesindus  Salvado,  for  the  christianizing  of 
the  Australian  aborigines.  It  is  situated  eighty-two 
miles  from  Perth,  the  state  capital:  its  territory  is 
bounded  on  the  south  and  east  by  the  Diocese  of  Perth, 
and  on  the  north  by  the  Diocese  of  Geraldton.  This 
mission  at  first  had  no  territory.  Its  saintly  founder, 
like  the  Baptist  of  old,  lived  in  the  wilderness,  leading 
the  same  nomadic  life  as  the  savages  whom  he  had 
come  to  lead  out  of  darkness.  His  food  was  of  the 
most  variable  character,  consisting  of  wild  roots  dug 
out  of  the  earth  by  the  spears  of  his  swarthy  neophytes, 
with  hzards,  iguanas,  even  worms  in  times  of  distress, 
or,  when  fortunate  in  the  chase,  with  the  native  kan- 
garoo. After  three  years  of  unparalleled  hardships 
amongst  this  cannibal  race,  Salvado  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  they  were  capable  of  Christianity.  As- 
sisted by  some  friends,  he  started  for  Rome  in  1849  to 
procure  auxiliaries  and  money  to  assist  him  in  prose- 


cuting his  work  of  civilization.  While  in  Rome  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Port  Victoria  in  Northern  Aus- 
trafia,  being  consecrated  on  15  August,  1849.  Before 
he  left  Rome,  all  his  people  of  Port  Victoria  had  aban- 
doned the  diocese  for  the  goldfields.  Bishop  Salvado 
thereupon  implored  the  pope  to  permit  him  to  return 
to  his  beloved  Australian  blacks.  He  set  out  for 
Spain,  and  obtained  there  monetary  assistance  and 
over  forty  young  volunteers.  All  these  afterwards 
became  Benedictines.  They  landed  in  Australia  in 
charge  of  their  bishop  on  15  August,  18.52. 

Bishop  Salvado,  with  his  band  of  willing  workers, 
commenced  operations  forthwith.  They  cleared  land 
for  the  plough,  and  introduced  the  natives  to  habits  of 
industry.  They  built  a  large  monastery,  schools  and 
orphanages  for  the  young,  cottages  for  the  married, 
flour-mills  to  grind  their  wheat,  etc.  An  important 
village  soon  sprang  up,  in  which  many  natives  were 
fed, clothed, andmadegood Christians.  On  12  March, 
1867,  Pius  IX  made  New  Norcia  an  abbey  nidlius  and 
a  prefecture  Apostolic  with  jurisdiction  over  a  terri- 
tory of  16  square  miles,  the  extent  of  Bishop  Salvado's 
jurisdiction  until  his  death  in  Rome  on  29  December, 
1900,  in  the  eighty-seventh  year  of  his  age  and  the 
fifty-first  of  his  episcopate.  Father  Fulgentius  Tor- 
res, O.S.B.,  was  elected  Abbot  of  New  Norcia  in  suc- 
cession to  Bishop  Salvado  on  2  October,  1902.  The 
new  abbot  found  it  necessary  to  frame  a  new  policy 
for  his  mission.  Rapid  changes  were  setting  in; 
agricultural  settlers  were  taking  up  the  land,  driving 
out  the  sheep  and  cattle  lords,  and  absorbing  the  la- 
bour of  the  civilized  natives.  The  mission  had  now 
to  provide  for  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  white  popula- 
tion, and  Abbot  Torres  boldly  faced  the  situationby 
entering  upon  a  large  scheme  of  improvements  in  and 
around  the  monastery.  With  the  approbation  of  the 
Holy  See,  he  had  the  boundaries  of  the  abbey  extended 
to  embrace  the  country  between  30°  and  31°  20'  S. 
latitude,  and  between  the  sea  and  120°  E.  longitude — 
a  territory  of  over  30,000  sq.  miles  (nearly  as  large  as 
Ireland  or  the  State  of  Maine).  Abbot  Torres 
brought  out  many  priests  and  young  ecclesiastics  for 
the  monastery  and  parochial  work,  and  built  churches 
in  the  more  settled  districts  of  his  new  territory. 
Since  Abbot  Torres  became  superior  in  1901,  the  num- 
ber of  churches  has  increased  from  one  to  ten.  To 
foster  higher  education.  Abbot  Torres  has  erected  a 
magnificent  convent  and  ladies'  college,  and  has  in 
hand  a  similar  institution  for  boys.  He  has  already 
completed  a  large  and  commodious  girls'  orphanage. 
All  these  works  have  been  accomplished  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Benedictine  community.  Abbot  Torres 
has  not  confined  his  energies  solely  to  New  Norcia. 
He  founded  the  "  Drysdale  River  Aborigines  Mission  ", 
2000  miles  away,  in  the  extreme  north-west  of  Aus- 
tralia, an  unexplored  land  inhabited  only  by  the  most 
treacherous  savages.  This  mission  was  opened  on  12 
.luly,  1908,  with  a  party  of  fifteen  in  charge  of  two 
priests. 

Abbot  Torres  was  consecrated  bishop  in  Rome  on  22 
May,  1910.  On  the  fourth  of  the  same  month,  by  a 
Decree  of  the  Propaganda,  he  was  appointed  adminis- 
trator Apostolic  of  Kimberley,  and  had  the  "  Drystlale 
Mission  "  erected  into  an  abbey  nullius.  He  has  now 
under  his  jurisdiction  a  territory  of  174,000  sq.  miles^ 
an  area  nearly  as  large  as  five  important  states  of  the 
United  States — viz.,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  W. 
Virginia,  and  Maine.  The  present  position  (1910) 
of  the  mission  is:  churches,  10;  priests,  17  (secular,  7) 
monastic  students,  9;  other  religious,  33;  mins,  18 
high  school,  1;  primary  schools,  4;  charitable  institU' 
tions,  2;  children  attending  Catholic  schools,  3.50 
Catholic  population,  3000. 

James  Flood. 

New  Orleans,  Archdiocese  of  (Nov^  Auhe- 
Li^),  erected  25  ApriV4793,  as  the  Diocese  of  Sain^ 


NEW  ORLEANS 


NEW  ORLEANS 


Louia  of  New  Orloaiis;  raisod  to  its  present  rank  and 
title  19  July,  1S50.  Its  original  territory  comprised 
the  ancient  Louisiana  Purchase  and  Kast  and 
\\'est  Florida,  being  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Canadian  line,  on  the  west  by  tlic  Rocky  Mountains 
and  the  Kio  Perdito,  on  the  cast  by  the  Diocese  of  Ral- 
timore.  and  on  the  south  bj-  tlic  Diocese  of  Linares  and 
the  Archdiocese  of  Durango.  The  jircscnt  boundan<'S 
include  the  State  of  Louisiana,  between  the  twenty- 
ninth  and  thirty-first  degree  of  north  latitude,  an  area 
of  28,208  square  miles.  'I'he  entire  territory  of 
Louisiana  has  undergone  a  series  of  changes  which 
divide  its  history  into  four  distinct  periods. 

L  Early  Colom.\l  Pehiod. — The  discoverers  and 
pioneers,  De  Soto,  Iberville,  La  .Salle,  Bienville,  were 
accompanied  by  missionaries  in  their  expeditions 
through  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  and  in  the  toilsome 
beginnings  of  the  first  feeble  settlements,  which  were 
simply  military  posts,  the  Cross  blazed  the  way. 
From  the  beginning  of  its  history,  Louisiana  had  been 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Quebec; 
m  1696  the  priests  of  the  Seminary  of  Quebec  peti- 
tioned the  second  Bishop  of  Quebec  for  authority  to 
establish  missions  in  the  West,  investing  the  superior 
sent  out  by  the  seminary  with  the  powers  of  vicar-gen- 
eral. The  field  for  which  they  obtained  this  authori- 
zation (1  May,  169S)  was  on  both  banks  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  its  tributaries.  They  proposed  to  plant 
their  first  mission  among  the  Tamarois,  but  when  this 
became  known,  the  Jesuits  claimed  that  tribe  as  one 
already  under  their  care:  they  received  the  now  mis- 
sionaries with  personal  cordiality,  but  felt  keenly  the 
official  action  of  Bishop  St-Vallier,  in  what  they  re- 
garded as  an  intrusion.  Fathers  JoUiet  de  Montigny, 
Antoine  Davion,  and  Frangois  Busion  de  Saint-Cosme 
were  the  missionaries  sent  to  found  the  new  missions 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  In  1699  Iberville,  who  had 
sailed  from  France,  with  his  two  brothers  Bienville 
and  Sauvolle,  and  Father  Du  Ru,  S.J.,  coming  up  the 
estuary  of  the  Mississippi,  found  Father  Montigny 
among  the  Tensas  Indians.  Iber\'ille  left  Sauvolle  in 
command  of  the  little  fort  at  Biloxi,  the  first  perma- 
nent settlement  in  Louisiana.  Father  Bordenave  was 
its  first  chaplain,  thus  beginning  the  long  line  of  zeal- 
ous parish  priests  in  Louisiana. 

In  1703  Bishop  St-Vallier  proposed  to  erect  Mobile 
into  a  parish,  and  annex  it  in  perpetuity  to  the  sem- 
inary; the  seminary  agreed,  and  the  Parish  of  Mobile 
was  erected  20  July,  1703,  and  united  to  the  Seminary 
of  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris  and  Quebec.  Father  Roul- 
leaux  de  la  Vente,  of  the  Diocese  of  Bayeux,  was  ap- 
pointed parish  priest  and  r'ather  Huve  his  assistant. 
The  Biloxi  settlement  being  difficult  of  access  from  the 
sea,  Bienville  thought  it  unsuitable  for  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  pro\'ince.  In  1718,  taking  with  him  fifty 
men,  he  selected  Tchoutchouma,  the  present  site  of 
New  Orleans,  about  1 10  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  where  there  was  a  deserted  Indian 
village.  Bien\nlle  directed  his  men  to  clear  the  ground 
and  erect  buildings.  The  city  was  laid  out  according 
to  the  plans  of  the  Chevalier  Le  Blond  de  La  Tour, 
chief  engineer  of  the  colony,  the  plans  including  a 
parish  church,  which  Bienville  decided  to  dedicate 
under  the  invocation  of  St.  Louis.  The  old  St.  Louis 
cathedral  stands  on  the  site  of  this  first  parish  church, 
and  the  presbytery  in  Cathedral  Alley  is  the  site  of  the 
first  modest  clergy  hou.sc.  Bienville  called  the  city 
New  Orleans  after  the  Due  d'Orldans,  and  the  whole 
territorj'  Louisiana,  or  New  France. 

In  August,  1717,  the  Due  d'Orlilans,  as  Regent  of 
France,  issued  letters  patent  establishing  a  joint- 
stock  company  to  be  called  "The  Company  of  the 
West",  to  which  Louisiana  was  transferred.  Tlie 
company  was  obliged  to  build  churches  at  its  own  ex- 
pen.se  wherever  it  should  establish  s<'l-tlements;  al.so  to 
maintain  the  necessary  number  of  duly  appro\id 
priests  to  preach,  perform  Divine  service,  and  admin- 


ister the  sacraments  under  the  authority  of  the  Bishop 
of  Quebec.  Bienville  experienced  much  opposition 
from  the  Company  of  tlu;  West  in  his  attempt  to  re- 
move the  colony  from  Biloxi.  In  1721  Father  P'ran- 
<;ois-Xavier  de  Charlevoix,  S.J.,  one  of  the  first  his- 
torians of  Louisiana,  made  a  tour  of  New  France  from 
the  Lakes  to  the  Mississippi,  visiting  New  Orleans, 
which  he  describes  as  "a  little  village  of  about  one 
hundred  cabins  dotted  here  and  there,  with  little  at- 
tempt at  order,  a  large  wooden  warehouse  in  which  I 
said  Mass,  a  chapel  in  course  of  construction  and  two 
storehouses".  But  under  Bienville's  dircrliiin  the  city 
soon  took  shape,  and,  willi  the  eonsent  <if  the  com- 
pany, the  colony  was  moved  to  this  site  in  1723.  Fa- 
ther Charlevoix  reported  on  the  great  spiritual  desti- 
tution of  the  province  occasioned  by  the  missions 
being  scattered  so  far  apart  and  the  scarcity  of  priests, 
and  this  compelled  the  council  of  the  company  to 
make  efforts  to  improve  conditions.  Accordingly,  the 
company  applied  to  the  Bishop  of  Quebec,  and  on  16 
May,  1722,  Louisiana  was  divided  into  three  ecclesias- 
tical sections.  The  district  north  of  the  Ohio  was  en- 
trusted to  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  the  Priests  of  the 
Foreign  Missions  of  Paris  and  Quebec ;  that  between 
the  Mississippi  and  the  Rio  Perdito,  to  the  Discalced 
Carmelite  Fathers,  with  headquarters  at  Mobile.  The 
Carmelites  were  recalled,  not  long  after,  and  their  dis- 
trict was  given  to  the  Capuchins. 

A  different  arrangement  was  made  for  the  Indian 
and  new  French  settlements  on  the  lower  Mississippi. 
Because  of  the  remoteness  of  this  district  from  Que- 
bec, Father  Louis-Frangois  Duplessis  de  Mornay,  a 
Capuchin  of  Meudon,  was  consecrated,  at  Bishop  8t- 
Vallier's  request,  coadjutor  Bishop  of  Quebec,  22 
April,  1714.  Bishop  St-Vallier  appointed  him  vicar- 
general  for  Louisiana,  but  he  never  came  to  America, 
although  he  eventually  succeeded  to  the  See  of  Que- 
bec. When  the  Company  of  the  West  applied  to  him 
for  priests  for  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley  he  offered 
the  more  populous  field  of  colonists  to  the  Capuchin 
Fathers  of  the  Province  of  Champagne,  who,  however, 
did  not  take  any  immediate  steps,  and  it  was  not 
till  1720  that  any  of  the  order  came  to  Louisiana.  Fa- 
ther Jean-Matthieu  de  Saint-Anne  is  the  first  whose 
name  is  recorded.  He  signs  himself  in  1720  in  the 
register  of  the  parish  of  New  Orleans.  The  last  entry 
of  the  secular  clergy  in  Mobile  was  that  of  Rev.  Alex- 
ander Huve,  13  January,  1721.  The  Capuchins  came 
directly  from  France  and  consequently  found  applica- 
tion to  the  Bishop  of  Quebec  long  and  tedious;  Father 
Matthieu  therefore  applied  to  Rome  for  special  pow- 
ers for  fifteen  missions  under  his  charge,  representing 
that  the  great  distance  from  the  Bishop  of  Quebec 
made  it  practically  impossible  for  him  to  apply  to  the 
bishop.  A  brief  was  really  issued  (Michael  a  Tugio, 
"Bullarium  Ord.  FF.  Minor.  S.P.  Francisci  Capuci- 
norum",  Fol.  1740-52;  BLI.,  pp.  322, 323),  and  Father 
Matthieu  seems  to  have  assumed  that  it  exempted 
him  from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  for,  on  14  March, 
1723,  he  signs  the  register  "P^re  Matthieu,  Vicaire 
Apostolique  et  Cure  de  la  Mobile". 

In  1722  Bishop  de  Mornay  entrusted  the  spiritual 
jurisdiction  of  the  Indians  to  the  Jesuits,  who  were  to 
establish  missions  in  all  parts  of  Louisiana  with  resi- 
dence at  New  Orleans,  but  were  not  to  exercise  any 
ecclesiastical  function  there  without  the  consent  of  the 
Capuchins,  though  they  were  to  minister  to  the  French 
in  the  Illinois  District,  with  the  Priests  of  the  Foreign 
Missions,  where  the  superior  of  each  body  was  a  vicar- 
general,  just  as  the  Capuchin  superior  was  at  New  Or- 
leans. In  the  spring  of  1723  Father  Raphael  de  Lux- 
embourg .nrrived  to  asstmie  his  duties  as  superior  of 
the  Capueliin  Mission  in  Louisiana.  It  was  a  difficult 
task  that  the  Capuchins  had  assumed.  Their  congre- 
gations were  scattered  over  a  large  area;  there  was 
much  poverty,  suffering,  and  ignorance  of  religion. 
Father  Raphael,  in  the  cathedral  archives,  says  that 


NEW  ORLEANS 


NEW  ORLEANS 


when  ho  hmded  in  New  Orleans  he  could  hardly  secure 
a  room  for  himself  and  his  brethren  to  occupy  pending 
the  rebuiltiinf;  of  the  presbytery,  much  less  one  to  con- 
vert into  a  chapel;  for  the  population  seemed  indiffer- 
ent to  all  that  savoured  of  religion.  There  were  less 
than  thirty  persons  at  Mass  on  Sundays;  yet,  undis- 
mayed, the  missionaries  set  to  work  and  soon  saw 
their  zeal  rcwardecl  with  a  greater  reverence  for  reli- 
gion and  more  faitliful  attendance  at  church.  In  1725 
New  (Jrlcaiis  liad  liecome  an  important  settlement, 
the  CaiUK-hins  liaving  a  flock  of  six  hundred  families. 
Mobile  had  declined  to  sixty  families,  the  Apalache 
Indians  (Catholics)  numbered  six-ty  families,  there 
were  six  at  the  Balize,  two  hundred  at  St.  Charles  or 
Les  Allemandes,  one  hundred  at  Point  Couple,  six  at 
Natchez,  fifty  at  Natchitoches  and  the  other  missions 
which  are  not  named  in  the  "  BuUarium  Capucinorum  " 
(Vol.  VIII,  p.  330). 

The  founder  of  the  Jesuit  Mission  in  New  Orleans 
was  Father  Nicolas-Ignatius  de  Beaubois,  who  was 
appointed  vicar-general  for  his  district.  He  visited 
New  Orleans  and  returned  to  France  to  obtain  Fa- 
thers of  the  Society  for  his  mission.  Being  also  com- 
missioned by  Bienville  to  obtain  sisters  of  some  order 
to  assume  charge  of  a  hospital  and  school,  he  applied  to 
the  Ursulines  of  Rouen,  who  accepted  the  call.  The 
royal  patent  authorizing  the  Ursulines  to  found  a  con- 
vent in  Louisiana  was  issued  18  Sept.,  1726.  Mother 
Mary  Tranchepain  of  St.  Augustine,  with  seven  pro- 
fessed nuns  from  Rouen,  Le  Havre,  Vannes,  Ploermel, 
Hennebon,  and  Elbceuf,  a  novice,  Madeline  Hau- 
chard,  and  two  seculars,  met  at  the  infirmary  at  Henne- 
bon on  12  January,  1727,  and,  accompanied  by  Fa- 
thers Tartarin  and  Doutreleau,  set  sail  for  Louisiana. 
They  reached  New  Orleans  on  6  August  to  open  the 
first  convent  for  women  within  the  present  limits  of 
the  United  States  of  America.  As  the  convent  was 
not  ready  for  their  reception,  the  governor  gave  up  his 
own  residence  to  them.  The  history  of  the  Ursulines 
from  their  departure  from  Rouen  through  a  period  of 
thirty  years  in  Louisiana,  is  told  by  Sister  Madeline 
Hauchard  in  a  diary  still  preserved  in  the  Ursuline 
Convent  of  New  Orleans,  and  which  forms,  with  Fa- 
ther Charlevoix's  history,  the  principal  record  of  those 
early  days.  On  7  August,  1727,  the  Ursulines  began 
in  Louisiana  the  work  which  has  since  continued  with- 
out interruption.  They  opened  a  hospital  for  the  care 
of  the  sick  and  a  school  for  poor  children,  also  an  acad- 
emy which  is  now  the  oldest  educational  institution 
for  women  in  the  United  States.  The  convent  in 
which  the  Ursulines  then  took  up  their  abode  still 
stands,  the  oldest  conventual  structure  in  the  United 
States  and  the  oldest  building  within  the  limits  of  the 
Louisiana  Purchase.  In  1824  the  Ursulines  removed 
to  the  lower  portion  of  the  city,  and  the  old  converit 
became  first  the  episcopal  residence  and  then  the  di- 
ocesan chancery. 

Meanwhile  Father  Mathurin  le  Petit,  S.J.,  estab- 
lished a  mission  among  the  Choctaws;  Father  Du 
Poisson,  among  the  Arkansas;  Father  Doutreleau,  on 
the  Wabash;  Fathers  Tartarin  and  Le  Boulenger,  at 
Kaskaskia;  Father  Guymonneau  among  the  Metcho- 
gameas;  Father  Souel,  among  the  Yazoos;  Father 
Baudouin,  among  the  Chickasaws.  The  Natchez  In- 
dians, provoked  by  the  tyranny  and  rapacity  of  Cho- 
part,  the  French  commandant,  in  1729  nearly  de- 
stroyed all  these  missions.  Father  Du  Poisson  and 
Father  Souel  were  killed  by  the  Indians.  As  an  in- 
stance of  the  faith  implanted  in  the  Iroquois  about  this 
time  there  was  received  into  the  LTrsuline  Order  at 
New  Orleans,  Marv  Turpin,  daughter  of  a  Canadian 
father  and  an  Illinois  mother.  She  died  a  professed 
nun  in  1761,  at  the  age  of  fifty-two  with  the  distmc- 
tion  of  being  the  first  American  born  nun  in  this  coun- 
try. From  the  beginning  of  the  colony  at  Biloxi  the 
inimigration  of  women  had  been  small.  Bienville 
made  constant  appeals  to  the  mother  country  to  send 


honest  wives  and  mothers.  From  time  to  time  shipa 
freighted  with  girls  would  arrive;  they  came  over  in 
charge  of  the  Grey  Nuns  of  Canada  and  a  priest,  and 
were  sent  by  the  king  to  be  married  to  the  colonists. 
The  Bishop  of  Quebec  was  also  charged  with  the  duty 
of  sending  out  young  women  who  were  known  to  be 
good  and  virtuous.  As  a  proof  of  her  respectability, 
each  girl  was  furnished  by  the  bishop  with  a  curiously 
wrought  casket;  they  are  known  in  Louisiana  history 
as  "casket  girls".  Each  band  of  girl.s,  on  arriving  at 
New  Orleans,  was  confided  to  the  care  of  the  Ursulines 
until  they  were  married  to  colonists  able  to  provide 
for  their  support.  Many  of  the  best  families  of  the 
state  are  proud  to  trace  their  descent  from  "casket 
girls". 

The  city  was  growing  and  developing ;  a  better  class 
of  immigrant  was  pouring  in,  and  Father  Charle- 
voix, on  his  visit  in  1728,  wrote  to  the  Duchesse  de 
Lesdiguieres:  "My  hopes,  I  think,  are  well  founded 
that  this  wild  and  desert  place,  which  the  reeds  and 
trees  still  cover,  will  be  one  day,  and  that  not  far  dis- 
tant, a  city  of  opulence  and  the  metropolis  of  a  rich 
colony."  His  words  were  prophetic:  New  Orleans 
was  fast  developing,  and  early  chronicles  say  that  it 
suggested  the  splendours  of  Paris.  There  was  a  gov- 
ernor with  a  military  staff,  bringing  to  the  city  the 
manners  and  splendour  of  the  Court  of  Versailles,  and 
the  manners  and  usages  of  the  mother  country 
stamped  on  Louisiana  life  characteristics  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  life  of  any  other  American  colony.  The 
Jesuit  Fathers  of  New  Orleans  had  no  parochial  resi- 
dence, but  directed  the  UrsuUnes,  and  had  charge  of 
their  private  chapel  and  a  plantation  where,  in  1751, 
they  introduced  into  Louisiana  the  culture  of  the 
sugar-cane,  the  orange,  and  the  fig.  The  Capuchins 
established  missions  wherever  they  could.  Bishop  St- 
Vallier  had  been  succeeded  by  Bishop  de  Mornay, 
who  never  went  to  Quebec,  but  resigned  the  see,  after 
five  years.  His  successor,  Henri-Marie  Du  Breuil  de 
Pontbriand,  appointed  Father  de  Beaubois,  S.J.,  his 
vicar-general  in  Louisiana.  The  Capuchin  Fathers 
refused  to  recognize  Father  de  Beaubois'  authority, 
claiming,  under  the  agreement  of  the  Company  of  the 
West  with  the  coadjutor  bishop,  de  Mornay,  that  the 
superior  of  the  Capuchins  was,  in  perpetuity,  vicar- 
general  of  the  province,  and  that  the  bishop  could 
appoint  no  other.  Succeeding  bishops  of  Quebec 
declared,  however,  that  they  could  not,  as  bishops,  ad- 
mit that  the  assent  of  a  coadjutor  and  vicar-general  to 
an  agreement  with  a  trading  company  had  forever  de- 
prived every  bishop  of  Quebec  of  the  right  to  act  as 
freely  in  Louisiana  as  in  any  other  part  of  his  diocese. 
This  incident  gave  rise  to  some  friction  between  the 
two  orders  which  has  been  spoken  of  derisively  by 
Louisiana  historians,  notably  by  Gayarre,  as  "The 
War  of  the  Capuchins  and  the  Jesuits ' ' .  The  archives 
of  the  diocese,  as  also  the  records  of  the  Capuchins  in 
Louisiana,  show  that  it  was  simply  a  question  of  juris- 
diction, which  gave  rise  to  a  discussion  so  petty  as  to 
be  unworthy  of  notice.  Historians  exaggerate  this  be- 
yond all  importance,  while  failing  to  chronicle  the 
shameful  spoliation  of  the  Jesuits  by  the  French  Gov- 
ernment which  suddenly  settled  the  question  forever. 

In  1761  the  Parliaments  of  several  provinces  of 
France  had  condemned  the  Jesuits,  and  measures  were 
taken  against  them  in  the  kingdom.  They  were  ex- 
pelled from  Paris,  and  the  Superior  Council  of  Louis- 
iana, following  the  example,  on  9  June,  1763,  just  ten 
years  before  the  order  was  suppressed  by  Clement  XI V, 
passed  an  act  suppressing  the  Jesuits  throughout  the 
province,  declaring  them  dangerous  to  royal  author- 
ity, to  the  rights  of  the  bishops,  and  to  the  public 
safety.  The  Jesuits  were  charged  with  neglecting 
their  mission,  with  having  developed  their  plantation, 
and  with  having  usurped  the  office  of  vicar-general. 
To  the  first  charge  the  record  of  their  labours  was  suffi- 
cient refutation;" to  the-second,  it  was  assuredly  to  the 


NEW  ORLEANS 


8 


NEW  ORLEANS 


credit  of  the  Jesuits  that  they  made  their  plantation 
BO  productive  as  to  inaintiiin  tlu-ir  missionaries;  to  tlie 
tliird.  the  aetion  of  tl\e  liishops  of  (tuelicc  in  a])p<iiiit- 
ing  the  vicar-^eneral  and  tli;it  of  llie  Suiicrior  C'ouncil 
itself  in  sustaining  him  wast  lie  answer.  Nevertheless, 
the  unjust  decree  was  carried  out,  the  Jesuits'  prop- 
erty was  confiscated,  and  they  were  forbidden  to  use 
the  name  of  their  Societv  or  to  wear  tlieir  habit. 
Their  property  was  sold"  for  .?1S0,000.  -Ml  their 
chapels  were  levelled  to  the  ground,  leaving  exjjosed 
even  the  vaults  where  the  dead  were  interred.  The 
Jesuits  were  ordered  to  give  up  their  missions,  to  re- 
turn to  New  Orleans  and  to  leave  on  the  first  vessel 
sailing  for  France.  The  Capuchins  forgetting  their 
difTorcnce  interfered  in  behalf  of  the  Jesuits:  and  find- 
ing their  petitions  unavailing  went  to  the  river  bank 
to  receive  the  returning  Jesuits,  offeretl  them  a  home 
alongside  of  their  own,  and  in  every  way  showed  tlieir 
disapproval  of  the  Council's  action.  The  Jesuits 
deepl}-  grateful  left  the  Capuchins  all  the  books  they 
had  been  able  to  save  from  the  spoliation. 

Father  Boudoin,  S.J.,  the  benefactor  of  the  colony, 
who  had  introduced  the  culture  of  sugar-cane  and 
oranges  from  San  Domingo,  and  figs  from  Provence, 
a  man  to  whom  the  people  owed  much  and  to  whom 
Louisiana  to-day  owes  so  much  of  its  prosperity,  alone 
remained.  He  was  now  seventy-two  years  old  and 
had  spent  thirty-five  in  the  colony.  He  was  broken 
in  health  and  too  ill  to  leave  his  room.  They  dragged 
him  through  the  streets  when  prominent  citizens  in- 
tervened and  one  wealthy  planter,  Etienne  de  Bor(5, 
who  had  first  succeeded  in  the  granulation  of  sugar, 
defied  the  authorities,  and  took  Father  Boudoin  to  his 
home  and  sheltered  him  until  his  death  in  1766.  The 
most  monstrous  part  of  the  order  of  expulsion  was 
that,  not  only  were  the  chapels  of  the  Jesuits  in  lower 
Louisiana — many  of  which  were  the  only  places  where 
Catholics,  whites  and  Indians,  and  negroes,  could 
worship  God — levelled  to  the  ground,  but  the  Council 
carried  out  the  decree  even  in  the  Illinois  district 
which  had  been  ceded  to  the  King  of  England  and 
which  was  no  longer  subject  to  France  or  Louisiana. 
They  ordered  even  the  vestments  and  plate  to  be  de- 
livered to  the  king's  attorney.  Thus  was  a  vast  terri- 
torj'  left  destitute  of  priests  and  altars,  and  the  growth 
of  the  Church  retarded  for  many  years.  Of  the  ten 
Capuchins  left  to  administer  to  this  immense  terri- 
tory, five  were  retained  in  New  Orleans;  the  remainder 
were  scattered  over  the  various  missions.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  the  only  native  Louisiana  priest  at 
this  time  and  the  first  to  enter  the  holy  priesthood. 
Rev.  Bernard  Viel,  born  in  New  Orleans  1  October, 
1736,  was  among  the  Jesuits  expelled  from  the  colony. 
He  died  in  France,  1821.  The  inhabitants  of  New 
Orleans  then  numbered  four  thousand. 

II.  Spanish  Period. — In  1763  Louisiana  was  ceded 
to  Spain,  and  Antonio  Ulloa  was  sent  over  to  take  pos- 
session. The  colonists  were  bitterly  opposed  to  the 
cession  and  finally  rose  in  arms  against  the  governor, 
giving  him  three  days  in  which  to  leave  the  town. 
(See  LotJisiAN.\.)  The  Spanish  Government  resolved 
to  purush  the  parties  who  had  so  insulted  its  represent- 
ative, Don  Ulloa,  and  sent  Alexander  O'Reilly  to  as- 
sume the  office  of  governor.  Lafr^niere,  President  of 
the  Council,  who  chiefly  instigated  the  passing  of  the 
decree  expelUng  the  Jesuits  from  the  colony,  and  the 
rebelhon  against  the  (Government,  was  tried  by  court 
martial  and  with  six  of  his  partners  in  his  scheme,  was 
shot  in  the  Place  d'Ariries.     O'Reillj'  reorganized  the 

Crovince  after  the  Spanish  model,     The  oath  taken 
y  the  officials  shows  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception  was  then  officially  recognized  in  the 

Spanish  dominions.     "I  appointed  

swear  before  God  .  .  .to  maintain  .  .  .  the  mystery 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  Our  Lady,  the  Vir- 
gin Mary." 

The  change  of  government  affected  ecclesiastical 


jurisdiction.  The  Province  of  Louisiana  passed  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  the 
Right  Rev.  Jaime  Jo.s6  de  Echeverrla,  and  Spanish 
Cajjuchins  began  to  fill  the  places  of  their  French 
brethren.  Contradictory  reports  reached  the  new 
bishop  about  conditions  in  Louisiana  and  he  sent 
Father  Cirilo  de  Barcelona  with  four  Spanish  Capu- 
chins to  New  Orleans.  These  priests  were  Fathers 
Francisco,  Angel  do  Revillagades,  Louis  de  Quintan- 
ilia,  and  Alenian.  They  reached  New  Orleans,  19 
July,  1773.  The  genial  ways  of  the  French  brethren 
seemed  scandalous  to  the  stern  Spanish  disciplinarian, 
and  he  informed  the  Bishop  of  Cuba  concerning  what 
he  considered  "lax  methods  of  conduct  and  adminis- 
tration". Governor  Unzaga,  however,  interfered  in 
behalf  of  the  French  Capuchins,  and  wrote  to  the 
bishop  censuring  the  Spanish  friars.  This  offended 
the  bishop  and  both  referred  the  matter  to  the  Spanish 
Court.  The  Government  expressed  no  opinion,  but 
advised  the  prelate  and  governor  to  compromise,  and 
so  preserve  harmony  between  the  civil  and  eccelsiasti- 
cal  authorities.  Some  Louisiana  historians,  Charles 
Gayarr^  among  others,  speak  of  the  depravity  of  the 
clergy  of  that  period.  These  charges  are  not  borne 
out  by  contemporary  testimony;  the  archives  of  the 
cathedral  witness  that  the  clergy  performed  their 
work  faithfully.  These  charges  as  a  rule  sprang  from 
monastic  prejudices  or  secular  antipathies.  One  of 
the  first  acts  of  Father  Cirilo  as  pastor  of  the  St. 
Louis  Cathedral  was  to  have  the  catechism  printed  in 
French  and  Spanish. 

The  Bishop  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  resolved  to  remedy 
the  deplorable  conditions  in  Louisiana,  where  confirm- 
ation had  never  been  administered.  In  view  of  his 
inability  to  visit  this  distant  portion  of  his  diocese,  he 
asked  for  the  appointment  of  an  auxiliary  bishop,  who 
would  take  up  his  abode  in  New  Orleans,  and  thence 
visit  the  missions  on  the  Mississippi  as  well  as  those  in 
Mobile,  Pensacola,  and  St.  Augustine.  The  Holy  See 
appointed  Father  Cirilo  de  Barcelona  titular  Bishop 
of  Tricali  and  auxiliary  of  Santiago.  He  was  conse- 
crated in  Cuba  in  1781  and  preceded  to  New  Orleans 
where  for  the  first  time  the  people  enjoyed  the  presence 
of  a  bishop.  A  saintly  man,  he  infused  new  life  into 
the  province.  The  whole  of  Louisiana  and  the  Flor- 
idas  were  under  his  jurisdiction.  According  to  official 
records  of  the  Church  in  Louisiana  in  1785,  the  church 
of  St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  had  a  parish  priest,  four 
assistants;  and  there  was  a  resident  priest  at  each  of 
the  following  points:  Terre  aux  Boeufs,  St.  Charles, 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  St.  James,  Ascension,  St.  Ga- 
briel's at  Iberville,  Point  Coupee,  Attakapas,  Ope- 
lousas,  Natchitoches,  Natchez,  St.  Louis,  St.  Gene- 
vieve, and  at  Bernard  or  Manchac  (now  Galveston). 
On  25  November,  178.5,  Bishop  Cirilo  appointed  as 
parish  priest  of  New  Orleans  Rev.  Antonio  Ildefonso 
Morenory  Arze  de  Sedella,  one  of  the  six  Capuchins 
who  had  come  to  the  colony  in  1779.  Father  Antonio 
(popularly  known  as  "Pere  Antoine")  was  destined 
to  exert  a  remarkable  influence  in  the  colony.  Few 
priests  have  been  more  assailed  by  historians,  but  a 
careful  comparison  of  the  ancient  records  of  the  cathe- 
dral with  the  traditions  that  cluster  about  his  memory 
show  that  he  did  not  deserve  on  the  one  hand  the  in- 
dignities which  Gayarr6  and  Shea  heap  upon  him, 
nor  yet  the  excessive  honours  with  which  tradition  has 
crowned  him.  From  the  cathedral  archives  it  has 
been  proven  that  he  was  simply  an  earnest  priest 
striving  to  do  what  he  thought  his  duty  amid  many 
difficulties. 

In  1787  a  number  of  unfortunate  Acadians  came  at 
the  expense  of  the  King  of  France  and  settled  near 
Plaquemines,  Terre  aux  Boeufs,  Bayou  Lafourche, 
Attakapas,  and  Opelousas,  adding  to  the  already 
thrifty  colony.  They  brought  witli  them  the  precious 
Register  of  St.  Charles  aux  Mines  in  Acadia  extending 
from  1689  to  1749,  only  six  years  before  their  cruel 


NEW  ORLEANS 


NEW  ORLEANS 


deportation.  These  were  deposited  for  safe  keeping 
with  the  priest  of  St.  Gabriel  at  Iberville  and  are  now 
in  the  diocesan  archives.  St.  Augustine  being  re- 
turned to  Spain  by  the  treaty  of  peace  of  1783,  the 
King  of  Spain  made  efforts  to  provide  for  the  future 
of  Catholicism  in  that  ancient  province.  As  many 
English  people  had  settled  there  and  in  West  Florida, 
notably  at  Baton  Rouge  and  Natchez,  Charles  III  ap- 
plied to  the  Irish  College  for  priests  to  attend  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking population.  Accordingly  Rev.  Michael 
O'Reilly  and  Rev.  Thomas  Hasset  were  sent  to  Flor- 
ida. Catholic  worship  was  restored,  the  city  at  once 
resuming  its  own  old  aspect.  Rev.  William  Savage,  a 
clergyman  of  great  repute,  Rev.  Michael  Lamport,  Rev. 
Gregory  White,  Rev.  Constantine  Makenna,  Father 
Joseph  Denis,  and  a  Franciscan  with  six  fathers  of  his 
order,  were  sent  to  labour  in  Louisiana.  They  were 
distributed  through  the  Natchez  and  Baton  Rouge  dis- 
tricts, and  were  the  first  Irish  priests  to  come  to  Louis- 
iana, the  pioneers  of  a  long  and  noble  hne  to  whom 
this  archdiocese  owes  much.  In  1787,  the  Holy  See 
divided  the  Diocese  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  erected  the 
Bishopric  of  St.  Christopher  of  Havana,  Louisiana, 
and  the  Floridas,  with  the  Right  Rev.  Joseph  de 
Trespalacios  of  Porto  Rico  as  bishop,  and  the  Right 
Rev.  Cirilo  de  Barcelona  as  auxiliary,  with  the 
special  direction  of  Louisiana  and  the  two  Floridas. 
Louisiana  thus  formed  a  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Ha- 
vana. 

Near  Fort  Natchez  the  site  for  a  church  was  pur- 
chased on  April  11,  1788.  The  earliest  incumbent  of 
whom  any  record  was  kept  was  Rev.  Francis  Len- 
nan.  Most  of  the  people  of  Natchez  were  English 
Protestants  or  Americans,  who  had  sided  with  Eng- 
land. They  enjoyed  absolute  religious  freedom,  no 
attempt  to  proselytize  was  ever  made.  On  Good 
Friday,  21  March,  1788,  New  Orleans  was  swept  by  a 
conflagration  in  which  nine  hundred  buildings,  in- 
cluding the  parish  church,  with  the  adjoining  convent 
of  the  Capuchins,  the  house  of  Bishop  Cirilo  and  the 
Spanish  School,  were  reduced  to  ashes.  From  the 
ruins  of  the  old  irregularly  built  French  City  rose  the 
stately  Spanish  City,  Old  New  Orleans,  practically 
unchanged  as  it  exists  to-day.  Foremost  among  the 
public-spirited  men  of  that  time  was  Don  Andreas 
Almonaster  y  Roxas,  of  a  noble  Andalusian  family  and 
royal  standard  bearer  for  the  colony.  He  had  made  a 
great  fortune  in  New  Orleans,  and  at  a  cost  of  $50,000 
he  built  and  gave  to  the  city  the  St.  Louis  Cathedral. 
He  rebuilt  the  house  for  the  use  of  the  clergy  and  the 
Charity  Hospital  at  a  cost  of  $114,000.  He  also  re- 
built the  town  hall  and  the  Cabildo,  the  buildings  on 
either  side  of  the  cathedral,  the  hospital,  the  boys' 
school,  a  chapel  for  the  Ilrsulines,  and  founded  the 
Leper  Hospital. 

Klean while  rapid  assimilation  had  gone  on  in 
Louisiana.  Americans  began  to  make  their  homes  in 
New  Orleans  and  in  1791  the  insurrection  of  San  Do- 
mingo drove  there  many  hundreds  of  wealthy  noble 
refugees.  The  archives  of  the  New  Orleans  Diocese 
show  that  the  King  of  Spain  petitioned  Pope  Pius  VI 
on  20  May,  1790,  to  erect  Louisiana  and  the  Floridas 
uito  a  separate  see,  and  on  April  9,  1793,  a  decree  for 
the  dismemberment  of  the  Diocese  of  Havana,  I<ouisi- 
ana,  and  the  Provinces  of  East  and  West  Florida  was 
issued.  It  provided  for  the  erection  of  the  See  of  St. 
Louis  of  New  Orleans,  which  was  to  include  all  the 
Louisiana  Province  and  the  Provinces  of  East  and 
West  Florida.  The  Bishops  of  Mexico,  Agalopli, 
Michoacan,  and  Caracas  were  to  contribute,  pro  rata, 
a  fund  for  the  support  of  the  Bishop  of  New  Orleans, 
until  such  time  as  the  see  would  be  self-sustaining. 
The  decree  left  the  choice  of  a  bishop  for  the  new  see 
to  the  King  of  Spain,  and  he  on  2.5  April,  1793,  wrote 
to  Bishop  Cirilo  relieving  him  of  his  office  of  auxil- 
iary, and  directing  him  to  return  immediately  to  Cata- 
lonia with  a  salary  of  one  thousand  dollars  a  year, 


which  the  Bishop  of  Havana  was  to  contribute. 
Bishop  Cirilo  returned  to  Havana  and  seems  to  have 
resided  with  the  Hospital  Friars,  while  endeavouring 
to  obtain  his  salary,  .so  that  he  might  return  to  Europe. 
It  is  not  known  where  Bishop  Cirilo  died  in  poverty 
and  humiliation. 

The  Right  Rev.  Lms  PeiSalver  y  Cardenas  was  ap- 
pointed first  bishop  of  the  new  See  of  Saint  Louis  of 
New  Orleans.  He  was  a  native  of  Havana,  born  3 
April,  1719,  and  had  been  educated  by  the  Jesuits  of 
his  native  city,  receiving  his  degree  in  the  university 
in  1771.  He  was  a  priest  of  irreproachable  character, 
and  a  skillful  director  of  souls.  He  was  consecrated  in 
the  cathedral  of  Havana  in  1793.  The  St.  Louis 
parish  church,  now  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  cathe- 
dral, was  dedicated  23  December,  1794.  A  letter  from 
the  king,  14  August,  1794,  decreed  that  its  donor,  Don 
Almonaster,  was  authorized  to  occupy  the  most  prom- 
inent seat  in  the  church,  second  only  to  that  of  the 
viceregal  patron,  the  intendant  of  the  province,  and 
to  receive  the  kiss  of  peace  during  the  Mass.  Don 
Almonaster  died  in  1798  and  was  buried  under  the  al- 
tar of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

Bishop  Peiialver  arrived  in  New  Orleans,  17  July, 
1795.  In  a  rejjort  to  the  king  and  the  Holy  See  he  be- 
wailed the  indifference  he  found  as  to  the  practice  of 
religious  duties.  He  condemned  the  laxity  of  morals 
among  the  men,  and  the  universal  custom  of  concubin- 
age among  the  .slaves.  The  invasion  of  many  persons 
not  of  the  faith,  and  the  toleration  of  the  Government 
in  admitting  all  classes  of  adventurers  for  purposes 
of  trade,  had  brought  about  disrespect  for  religion. 
He  deplored  the  establishment  of  trading  posts, 
and  of  a  lodge  of  French  Freemasons,  which  counted 
among  its  members  city  officials,  officers  of  the  garri- 
son, merchants  and  foreigners.  He  believed  the  peo- 
ple clung  to  their  French  traditions.  He  said  that  the 
King  of  Spain  possessed  "their  bodies  but  not  their 
souls".  He  declared  that  "even  the  LTrsuline  Nuns, 
from  whom  good  results  were  obtained  in  the  educa- 
tion of  girls,  were  so  decidedly  French  in  their  inclina- 
tions that  they  refused  to  admit  Spanish  women,  who 
wished  to  become  members  of  their  order  and  many 
were  in  tears  because  they  were  obliged  to  read  spirit- 
ual exercises  in  Spanish  books".  It  was  a  gloomy  pic- 
ture he  presented :  but  he  set  faithfully  to  work  and  on 
21  December,  1795,  called  a  synod,  the  first  and  only 
one  held  in  the  diocese  of  colonial  New  Orleans. 
He  also  issued  a  letter  of  instruction  to  the  clergy  de- 
ploring the  fact  that  many  of  his  flock  were  more  than 
five  hundred  leagues  away,  and  how  impossible  it  was 
to  repair  at  one  and  the  same  time  to  all.  He  en- 
joined the  pastors  to  walk  in  the  footsteps  of  Jesus 
Christ  and  in  all  things  to  fulfil  their  duties.  This  let- 
ter of  instruction  bearing  his  signature  is  preserved  in 
the  archives  of  the  diocese,  and,  with  the  call  for  the 
synod,  forms  the  only  documents  signed  by  the  first 
Bishop  of  New  Orleans. 

Bishop  Penalver  everywhere  showed  himself  active 
in  the  cause  of  educational  progress  and  was  a  gener- 
ous benefactor  of  the  poor.  He  was  promoted  to  the 
See  of  Guatemala,  20  July,  1801.  Before  his  depar- 
ture he  appointed,  as  vicars-general,  Rev.  Thomas 
Canon  Hasset  and  Rev.  Patrick  Walsh,  who  became 
officially  recognized  as  "Governors  of  the  Diocese". 

Territorially  from  this  ancient  see  have  been  erected 
the  Archbishoprics  of  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati,  St.  Paul, 
Dubuque,  and  Chicago,  and  the  Bishoprics  of  .Alexan- 
dria, Mobile,  Natchez,  Galveston,  San  .'\ntonio.  Little 
Rock,  St.. Augustine,  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  Daven- 
port, Cheyenne,  Dallas,  Winona,  Duluth,  Concordia, 
Omaha,  Sioux  Falls,  Oklahoma,  St.  Cloud,  Bismarck, 
and  Cleveland. 

Right  Rev.  Francis  Porro  y  Peinade,  a  Franciscan 
of  the  Convent  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  Rome,  was  ap- 
pointed to  succeed  Bishop  Penalver.  But  he  never 
took  possession  of  the^see.     Some  old  chronicles  in 


NEW  ORLEANS 


10 


NEW  ORLEANS 


Louisiana  say  that  lio  was  never  consecrated;  others 
that  he  w;is.  ami  ilioil  on  the  eve  of  leaving  Rome. 
Bishop  Portion  i,8paklins's  "Life  of  Hishop  I'laget  "), 
sjus  that  he  wa-s  translated  to  the  See  of  Tarrazona. 
The  See  of  New  Orleans  remaincil  vacant  many  years 
after  the  departure  of  Bishop  I'cnalver. 

In  1798  the  Due  d'OrU'ans  ^a^ter^vards  King  Louis- 
Philipi)eof  i-'rance)  with  liis  two  brothers,  the  Due  de 
MimtpensicT  and  the  Count  de  Bcaujolais,  visited 
New  Orleans.  They  were  received  with  honour,  and 
when  Louis-Philippe  became  King  of  France  lie  re- 
membered many  of  those  who  had  entertained  him 
when  in  exile,  and  was  generous  to  the  Church  in  the 
old  French  province. 

IIL  FuKNCH  .\ND  American  Period. — By  the 
Treaty  of  San  Ildefonse,  the  Spanish  King  on  1  Octo- 
ber, ISOO,  engaged  to  letrocede  Louisiana  to  the 
French  Kepublic  .«ix  months  after  certain  conditions 
and  stipulations  had  been  executed  on  the  part  of 
France,  and  the  Holy  See  deferred  the  appointment  of 
a  bi.shop. 

On  30  April,  1803,  without  waiting  for  the  actual 
transfer  of  the  province,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  sold  Louisiana  to  the  United  States. 
De  Laussat,  the  French  Commissioner,  had  reached 
New  Orleans  on  26  March,  1S03,  to  take  possession  of 
the  province  in  the  name  of  France.  Spain  was  pre- 
paring to  evacuate  and  general  confusion  prevailed. 
Very  Rev.  Thomas  Hasset,  the  administrator  of  the 
diocese,  was  directed  to  adclress  each  priest  and  ascer- 
tain whether  they  preferred  to  return  with  the  Si^an- 
ish  forces  or  remain  in  Louisiana;  also  to  obtain  from 
each  parish  an  inventory  of  the  plate,  vestments,  and 
other  articles  in  the  Church  which  had  been  given  by 
the  Spanish  Government.  Then  came  the  news  of  the 
cession  of  the  province  to  the  United  States.  On  30 
April,  1803,  De  Lau.ssat  formally  surrendered  the  col- 
ony to  the  United  States  commissioners.  The  people 
felt  it  keenly,  and  the  cathedral  archives  show  the  dif- 
ficulties to  be  surmounted.  Father  Hasset,  as  admin- 
istrator, issued  a  letter  to  the  clergy  on  10  June,  1803, 
aimouncing  the  new  domination  and  notifying  all  of 
the  permission  to  return  to  Spain  if  they  desired.  Sev- 
eral priests  signified  their  desire  to  follow  the  Spanish 
standard.  The  question  of  withdrawal  was  also  dis- 
cussed by  the  Ursuline  Nuns.  Thirteen  out  of  the 
twenty-one  choir  nuns  were  in  favour  of  returning  to 
S[)ain  or  going  to  Havana.  De  Laussat  went  to  the 
convent  and  assured  them  that  they  could  remain  un- 
molested. Notwithstanding  this  Mother  St.  Monica 
and  eleven  others,  with  nearly  all  the  lay  sisters  ap- 
plied to  the  Marquis  de  Casa  Calvo  to  convey  them  to 
Havana.  Six  choir  nuns  and  two  lay  sisters  remained 
to  begin  again  the  work  in  Louisiana.  They  elected 
Mother  St.  Xavier  Fargcon  as  superioress,  and  re- 
sumed all  the  exercises  of  community  life,  maintaining 
their  academy,  day  school,  orphan  asylum,  hospital 
and  instructions  for  coloured  people  in  catechism.  Fa- 
ther Hasset  wrote  to  Bishop  Carroll,  23  December, 
1803,  that  the  retrocession  of  the  province  to  the 
United  States  of  America  impelled  him  to  present  to 
his  consideration  the  present  ecclesiastical  state  of 
Louisiana,  not  doubting  that  it  would  soon  fall  under 
his  jurisdiction.  The  ceded  province  consisted  of 
twenty-one  parishes  some  of  which  were  vacant. 
"The  churches  were",  to  use  his  own  words,  "all  de- 
cent temples  and  comfortably  supplied  with  orna- 
ments and  everything  necessary  for  divine  services. 
...  Of  twenty-six  ecclesiastics  in  the  province  only 
four  had  agreed  to  continue  their  respective  stations 
under  the  French  Government;  and  whether  any  more 
would  remain  under  that  of  the  Uni(r<l  States  only 
God  knew."  Father  Ha.sset  .said  thai  for  his  own  part 
he  felt  that  lie  could  not  with  projiricty,  reliii(|uish  his 
post,  and  con.sequentlv  awaited  suiicriiirorders  to  take 
his  departure.  He  said  that  the  Rev.  Patrick  Walsh, 
vicar-general  and  auxiliary  governor  of  the  diocese, 


Iiad  declared  that  lie  would  not  abandon  his  post  pro- 
vitling  he  could  hold  it  with  propriety.  Father  1  las.set 
died  in  April  1804.  Father  Antonio  Sedclla  had  re- 
turned to  New  Orleans  in  1791,  and  resumed  his  du- 
ties as  parish  priest  of  the  St.  Louis  Cathedral  to 
which  he  had  Ix'cii  apjiointcd  liy  Bishop  Cirilo.  After 
the  (session  a  dispute  arose  between  him  and  Father 
Walsh,  and  the  latter,  27  March,  180.5,  established  the 
Ursuline  Con\-ent  as  the  only  place  in  the  parish  for 
the  administration  of  the  sacraments  and  the  cele- 
bration of  the  Divine  Office.  On  21  March,  1804, 
the  Ursulines  addressed  a  letter  to  Thomas  JefTerson, 
President  of  the  United  States,  in  which  they  solicited 
the  passage  of  an  Act  of  Congress  guaranteeing  their 
property  and  rights.  The  president  replied  reassuring 
the  Ursulines.  "The  principles  of  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States",  he  wrote,  "are  a  sure  guaranty 
to  you  that  it  will  be  preserved  to  you  sacred  and 
inviolate,  and  that  your  Institution  will  be  per- 
mitted to  govern  itself  according  to  its  own  voluntary 
rules  without  interference  from  the  civil  authority. 
Whatever  diversity  of  shades  may  appear  in  the  re- 
ligious opinions  of  our  fellow  citizens,  the  charitable 
objects  of  your  Institution  cannot  be  of  indilTerence  to 
any;  and  its  furtherance  of  the  wholesome  purpose  by 
training  up  its  young  members  in  the  way  they  should 
go,  cannot  fail  to  insure  the  patronage  of  the  govern- 
ment it  is  under.  Be  assured  that  it  will  meet  with  all 
the  protection  my  office  can  give  it." 

Father  Walsh,  administrator  of  the  diocese,  died  on 
22  August,  1806,  and  was  buried  in  the  UrsuHne  chapel. 
The  Archiepiscopal  See  of  Santo  Domingo,  the  metro- 
poUtan  of  the  province,  to  which  the  Diocese  of  Louis- 
iana and  the  Floridas  belonged,  was  vacant,  and  not 
one  of  the  bishops  of  the  Spanish  province  would  in- 
terfere in  the  New  Orleans  Diocese,  though  the  Bishop 
of  Havana  extended  his  authority  once  more  over  the 
Florida  portion  of  the  diocese.  As  the  death  of  Father 
Walsh  left  the  diocese  without  any  one  to  govern  it. 
Bishop  Carroll,  who  had  meanwhile  informed  himself  of 
the  condition  of  atTairs,  resolved  to  act  unfler  the  decree 
of  1  Sept.,  1805,  and  assume  administration.  Father 
Antoine  had  been  openly  accused  of  intriguing  against 
the  Government;  but  beyond  accusations  made  to 
Bishop  Carroll  there  is  nothing  to  substantiate  them. 
He  was  much  loved  in  New  Orleans  and  some  of  his 
friends  desired  to  obtain  the  influence  of  the  French 
Government  to  have  him  appointed  to  the  Bishopric  of 
Louisiana.  However,  there  is  in  the  archives  of  the 
New  Orleans  cathedral  a  letter  from  Father  Antoine 
to  the  Bishop  of  Baltimore  declaring  that  having 
heard  that  some  members  of  the  clergy  and  laity  had 
applied  to  Rome  to  have  him  appointed  to  the  Bish- 
opric of  Louisiana,  he  hereby  declared  to  the  Bishop 
of  Baltimore  that  he  could  not  consider  the  proposi- 
tion, that  he  was  unworthy  of  the  honour  and  too  old  to 
do  any  good.  He  would  be  grateful  to  the  bishop  if  he 
would  cut  short  any  further  efforts  in  that  direction. 

Bishop  Carroll  wrote  to  James  Madison,  secretary 
of  State  (17  November,  1806)  in  regard  to  the  Church 
in  Louisiana,  and  the  recommending  of  two  or  three 
clergymen  one  of  whom  might  be  appointed  Bishop  of 
New  Orleans.  Mr.  Madison  replied  that  the  matter 
being  purely  ecclesiastical  the  Government  could  not 
interfere.  He  seemed,  however,  to  share  the  opinions 
of  Bishop  Carroll  in  regard  to  the  character  and  rights 
of  Father  Antoine.  In  1806  a  decree  of  the  Propaganda 
confided  Louisiana  to  the  care  of  BLshop  Carroll  of  Bal- 
timore, and  created  him  administrator  Apostolic.  He 
appointed  Rev.  John  Olivier  (who  had  been  at  Caho- 
kia  until  1803),  Vicar-General  of  Louisiana  and  chap- 
lain of  the  LTrsuline  Nuns  at  New  Orleans.  Father 
Olivier  presented  his  documents  to  the  Governor  of 
Louisiana,  and  also  wrote  to  Father  Antoine  Sedclla 
apprising  him  of  the  action  of  the  Propaganda.  leather 
Antoine  called  upon  Father  Olivier,  but  he  was  not 
satisfied  as  to  Bishop  Carroll's  authorization.     The 


NEW  ORLEANS 


11 


NEW  ORLEANS 


vicar-general  published  the  decree  and  the  bishop's 
lottpi-  at  t  ho  convent  chapel.  The  Rev.  Thomas  Flynn 
wmti'  I'nim  St.  Louis,  8  Nov.,  1806,  that  the  trustees 
wiiv:il>niii  1(1  install  him.  He  describes  the  church  as 
a  t;ouil  (•ur  with  a  tolerably  good  bell,  a  high  altar,  and 
conmioilious  pews.  The  house  for  the  priest  was  con- 
venient but  in  need  of  repair.  Except  Rev.  Father 
Maxwell  there  was  scarcely  a  priest  in  Upper 
Louisiana  in  1807. 

As  tlie  original  rescript  issued  by  the  Holy  See  to 
Bishop  Carroll  had  not  been  so  distinct  and  clear  as  to 
obviate  objections,  he  applied  to  the  Holy  See  asking 
that  more  ample  and  distinct  authorization  be  sent. 
The  Holy  See  placed  the  Province  of  Louisiana  under 
Bishop  Carroll  who  was  requested  to  send  to  the  New 
Orleans  Diocese  either  Rev.  Charles  Nerinckx  or  some 
secular  or  regular  priest,  with  the  rank  of  administra- 
tor Apostolic  and  the  rights  of  an  ordinary  to  continue 
only  at  the  good  will  of  the  Holy  See  according  to  in- 
structions to  be  forwarded  by  the  Propaganda.  Bishop 
Carroll  did  not  act  immediately,  but  on  18  August, 
1812,  appointed  the  Rev.  Louis  C!.  V.  Dubourg  Admin- 
istrator Apostolic  of  the  Diocese  of  Louisiana  and  the 
two  Floridas.  Dr.  Dubourg's  authority  was  at  once 
recognized  by  Father  Antoine  and  the  remainder  of 
the  clergy.  The  war  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  was  in  progress  and  as  the  year  1814 
drew  to  a  close.  Dr.  Dubourg  issued  a  pastoral  letter 
calling  upon  the  people  to  pray  for  the  success  of  the 
American  arms.  During  the  battle  of  New  Orleans 
(8  January,  1815)  Gen.  .\ndrew  Jackson  sent  a  mes- 
senger to  the  Ursuline  Convent  to  ask  for  prayers  for 
his  success.  When  victory  came  he  sent  a  courier 
thanking  the  sisters  for  their  prayers,  and  he  decreed  a 
public  thanksgiving;  a  solemn  high  Mass  was  cele- 
brated in  the  St.  Louis  Cathedral,  2.3  January,  181.5. 
The  condition  of  religion  in  the  diocese  was  not  en- 
couraging, seven  out  of  fourteen  parishes  were  vacant. 
Funds  were  also  needed,  and  Dr.  Dubourg  wont  to 
Rome  to  ask  for  aid  for  his  diocese.  There  the  Propa- 
ganda appointed  him  bishop,  18  September,  1818,  and 
on  24  September  he  was  consecrated  by  Cardinal 
Joseph  Pamfili  (see  Dubourg). 

Bishop  Dubourg  proposed  the  division  of  the  dio- 
cese and  the  erection  of  a  see  in  Upper  Louisiana,  but 
the  news  of  troubles  among  the  clergy  in  New  Orleans 
and  the  attempt  of  the  trustees  to  obtain  a  charter 
depriving  the  bishop  of  his  cathedral  so  alarmed  him 
that  he  solicited  the  Propaganda  to  allow  him  to  take 
up  his  residence  in  St.  Louis  and  establish  his  seminary 
and  other  educational  institutions  there.  He  sailed 
from  Bordeaux  for  New  Orleans  (28  June,  1817), 
accompanied  by  five  priests,  four  subdeacons,  eleven 
seminarians,  and  three  Christian  Brothers.  He 
took  possession  of  the  church  at  St.  Genevieve,  a 
ruined  wooden  structure,  and  was  installed  by  Bishop 
Flaget.  He  then  established  the  Lazarist  Seminary 
at  Bois  Brule  ("The  Barrens"),  and  brought  from 
Bardstown,  where  they  were  temporarily  sojourn- 
ing, Father  Andreis,  Father  Rosati,  and  the  semi- 
narians who  had  accompanied  him  from  Europe. 
The  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine  opened 
a  boys'  school  at  St.  Genevieve.  At  his  request 
the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  comprising  Mes- 
dames  Philippe  Duchesne,  Berthold,  Andre,and  two 
lay  sisters  reaching  New  Orleans,  30  May,  1818, 
proceeded  to  St.  Louis  and  opened  their  convent  at 
Florissant.  In  1821  they  established  a  convent  at 
Grand  Ooteau,  Louisiana.  The  Faith  made  great  prog- 
ress throughout  the  diocese.  On  1  Januari',  1821, 
Bishop  Dubourg  held  the  first  synod  since  the  Pur- 
chase of  Louisiana.  Where  he  had  found  ten  super- 
annuated priests  there  were  now  forty  active,  zealous 
men  at  work.  Still  appeals  came  from  all  parts  of  the 
immense  diocese  for  jiriests;  among  others  he  received 
a  letter  from  the  banks  of  the  Columbia  in  Oregon 
begging  liim  to  send  a  priest  to  minister  to  1500  Cath- 


olics there  who  had  never  had  any  one  to  attend  to 
them.  The  Ursuline  Nuns,  frequently  annoyed  by 
being  summoned  to  court,  appealed  to  the  Legisla- 
ture claiming  the  privileges  they  had  enjoyed  under 
the  French  and  Spanish  dominations.  Their  ancient 
rights  were  recognized  and  a  law  was  passed,  28  Janu- 
ary, 1818,  enacting  that  where  the  testimony  of  a  nun 
was  required  it  should  be  taken  at  the  convent  by 
commission.  It  had  a  far-reaching  effect  in  later  days 
upon  legislation  in  the  United  States  in  similar  cases. 

Spain  by  treaty  ceded  Florida  to  the  United  States, 
22  February,  1818,  and  Bishop  Dubourg  was  then 
able  to  extend  his  episcopal  care  to  that  part  of  his 
diocese,  the  vast  extent  of  which  prompted  him  to 
form  plans  for  the  erection  of  a  metropolitan  see  west 
of  the  AUeghanies.  This  did  not  meet  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  bishops  of  the  United  States;  he  then 
proposed  to  divide  the  Dioc&se  of  Louisiana  and  the 
Floridas,  establishing  a  see  at  Nev/  Orleans  embracing 
Lower  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  .Alabama,  and  Florida. 
Finally,  13  August,  1822,  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Mississippi  and  Alabama  was  formed  with  the  Rev. 
Joseph  Rosati,  elected  Bishop  of  Tenagra,  as  vicar 
Apostolic.  But  Archbishop  Marcchal  of  Baltimore 
remonstrated  because  in  establishing  this  vicariate, 
the  Propaganda  had  inadvertently  invaded  the  rights 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  as  the  whole  of  those 
States  except  a  small  portion  south  of  the  thirty-first 
degree  between  Perdido  and  Pearl  River  belonged  to 
the  Diocese  of  Baltimore.  Bishop  Rosati  also  wrote 
representing  the  poverty  and  paucity  of  the  Catholics 
in  Mississippi  and  Alabama,  and  the  necessity  of  his 
remaining  at  the  head  of  the  seminary.  Finally  his 
arguments  and  the  protests  of  the  Archbishop  of  Bal- 
timore prevailed,  and  the  Holy  See  suppressed  the  vi- 
cariate, appointing  Dr.  Rosati  coadjutor  to  Bishop 
Dubourg  to  reside  at  St.  Louis.  Bishop  Rosati  was 
consecrated  by  Bishop  Dubourg.  at  Donaldsonville,  25 
March,  1824,  and  proceeded  at  once  to  St.  Louis. 
In  1823  Bishop  Dubourg  took  up  the  subject  of  the 
Indian  Missions  and  laid  before  the  Government  the 
necessity  of  a  plan  for  the  civilization  and  conversion 
of  the  Indians  west  of  the  Mississippi.  His  plan  met 
with  the  approval  of  the  Government  and  an  allowance 
of  $200  a  year  was  assigned  to  four  or  five  missionaries, 
to  be  increased  if  the  project  proved  successful. 

On  29  August,  1825,  Alabama  and  the  Floridas  were 
erected  into  a  vicariate  Apostolic,  with  the  Rev. 
Michael  Portier  the  first  bishop.  The  Holy  See  di- 
vided the  Diocese  of  Louisiana  (18  July,  182f))  and 
established  the  See  of  New  Orleans  with  Louisiana  as 
its  diocese,  and  the  Vicariate  Apo.stolic  of  Mississippi 
to  be  administered  by  the  Bishop  of  New  Orleans. 
The  country  north  of  Louisiana  was  made  the  Diocese 
of  St.  Louis,  Bishop  Rosati  being  transferred  to  that 
see.  Bishop  Dubourg,  though  a  man  of  vast  projects 
and  of  great  service  to  the  Church,  was  little  versed 
in  business  methods;  discouraged  at  the  difliculties 
that  rose  to  thwart  him  he  resigned  his  see  and  was 
transferred  to  Montauban.  Bishop  Rosati,  appointed 
to  the  See  of  New  Orleans,  declined  the  appointment 
urging  that  his  knowledge  of  English  qualified  him  to 
labour  better  in  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Arkansas,  while 
he  was  not  sufficiently  versed  in  French  to  address  the 
people  of  New  Orleans  with  success.  On  20  March, 
1827,  the  papal  Brief  arrived  permitting  hirn  to  re- 
main in  St.  Louis  but  charging  him  for  a  while  with 
the  administration  of  the  See  of  New  Orleans.  He 
appointed  th<>  Rev.  Leo  Raymond  de  Neckere,  CM., 
vicar-general,  and  strongly  recommended  his  appoint- 
ment for  the  vacant  see.  Father  de  Neckere,  then 
in  Belgium  whither  he  had  gone  to  recuperate  his 
health,  was  summoned  to  Rome  and  appointed  bishop. 
Returning  to  Now  Orleans  he  was  consecrated,  16 
May,  1830.  Bishop  de  Neckere  was  born,  0  June, 
1800,  at  Wevelghem,  Belgium,  and  while  a  seminarian 
at  Ghent,  was  acceptedf  or  the  Diocese  of  New  Orleans 


NEW  ORLEANS 


12 


NEW  ORLEANS 


by  Bishop  DubourR.  He  joined  tlip  Lazarists  and 
was  ordained  in8t.  I.ouis,  ^IissouI•i,  13  October,  1822. 
On  23  February,  1S32,  lie  convoked  a  synod  attended 
by  twenty-one  i>riesls.  Regulations  were  promulgated 
for  better  discipline  and  steps  were  taken  to  form  an 
association  for  the  dissemination  of  good  literature. 

Americans  were  now  pouring  into  New  Orleans. 
The  ancient  French  limits  had  long  since  disappeared. 
Such  w;is  the  entcrjirise  on  all  sides  th;it  in  1S30  New 
Orleans  ranke<l  in  iinportance  inmiediately  after  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston.  It  \v;i.s  the  greatest 
cotton  and  sugar  market  in  the  world.  Irish  emigration 
also  set  in,  and  a  church  for  the  English-speaking  peo- 
ple was  an  absolute  necessity  as  the  cathedral  and  the 
old  I'rsuline  chapel  were  the  only  places  of  worship  in 
New  Orleans.  X  site  was  bought  on  Camp  Street 
near  Julia,  a  frame  church,  St.  Patrick's,  was  erected 
and  detlicatcd  on  21  April,  1S33.  Rev.  Adam  Kinde- 
lon  was  the  pastor  of  this,  the  first  English-speaking 
congregation  of  New  Orleans.  The  foundation  of 
this  parish  was  one  of  tlie  last  official  acts  of  Bishop  de 
Neckere.  The  year  was  one  of  sickness  and  death.  Chol- 
era and  yellow  fever  raged.  The  priests  were  kept  busy 
day  and"  night,  and  the  vicar  general.  Father  B.  Rich- 
ards, and  Fathers  Martial,  Tichitoli.Kindelon  fell  vic- 
tims to  their  zeal.  Bishop  de  Neckere,  who  had  retired 
to  a  convent  at  Convent,  La.,  in  hope  of  restoring  his 
shattered  health,  returned  at  once  to  the  city  upon  the 
outbreak  of  tlie  epidemic,  and  began  visiting  and  min- 
istering to  the  plague-stricken.  Soon  he  too  was  seized 
with  fever  and  succumbed  ten  days  later,  5  September, 
1833.  Just  before  the  bishop's  death  there  arrived  in 
New  Orleans  a  priest  who  was  destined  to  e.xercise  for 
many  years  an  influence  upon  the  life  and  progress  of 
the  Church  and  the  Commonwealth,  Father  James 
Ignatius  Mullen;  he  was  immediately  appointed  to 
the  vacant  rectorship  of  St.  Patrick's.  Upon  the 
death  of  Bishop  de  Neckere,  Fathers  Anthony  Blanc 
and  V.  Lavadiere,  S.J.,  became  the  administrators  of 
the  diocese.  In  November,  undismayed  by  the  epi- 
demic which  still  continued,  a  band  of  Sisters  of  Char- 
ity set  out  from  Emmitsburg,  to  take  charge  of  the 
Charity  Hospital  of  New  Orleans.  The  sisters  had 
come  into  the  diocese  about  1832  to  assume  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Poydras  Asylum,  erected  by  Julian  Poy- 
dras.  a  Huguenot.  Seven  of  the  new  colony  from 
Emmitsburg  were  sent  to  the  Asylum  and  ten  to  the 
Charity  Hospital.  Bishop  de  Neckere  had  invited 
the  Tertiary  Sisters  of  Mount  Carmel  to  make  a  foun- 
dation in  New  Orleans,  which  they  did  on  22  October, 
1833,  a  convent  school  and  orphanage  being  opened. 

Father  Augustine  Jeanjean  was  selected  by  Rome 
to  fill  the  episcopal  vacancy,  but  he  decUned  and 
Father  .\nthony  Blanc  was  appointed  and  consecrated 
on  22  November,  1835  (seeBLANC,  Anthony).  Bishop 
Blanc  knew  the  great  want  of  the  diocese,  the  need  of 
priests,  whose  ranks  had  been  decimated  by  age^  pes- 
tilence, and  overwork.  To  meet  this  want  Bishop 
Blanc  asked  the  Jesuits  to  establish  a  college  in  Louisi- 
ana. They  arrived  on  22  January,  1837,  and  opened 
a  college  at  Grand  Coteau  on  .5  January,  1838.  He 
then  invited  the  Lazarists  and  on  20  December,  1838, 
they  arrived  and  at  once  opened  a  diocesan  seminary 
at  Bayou  Lafourche.  In  1836,  Julian  Poydras  having 
died,  the  Asyium  wdiich  he  founded  passed  entirely 
under  Presbj'terian  auspices,  and  the  Sisters  of  Char- 
ity being  compelled  to  relinquish  the  direction,  St. 
Patrick's  Orphan  .'\sylum,  now  New  Orleans  Female 
Orphan  .\sylum,  was  founded  and  placed  under  their 
care.  In  1841  the  Sisters  Marianites  of  Holy  Cross 
came  to  New  Orleans  to  assume  charge  of  St.  Mary's 
Orphan  Boys'  Asylum.  They  opened  also  an  Acad- 
emy for  young  ladies  and  the  Orphanage  of  the  Immac- 
ulate Conception  for  girls.  The  wants  of  the  coloured 
people  also  deeply  concerned  Bishop  Blanc,  and  he 
worked  assiduously  for  the  proper  spiritual  care  of  the 
slaves.     After  the  insurrection  of  San  Domingo  in 


1793  a  large  number  of  free  coloured  people  from  tliat 
inland  who  were  slave-holders  thems<'Ivcs  took  refuge 
in  New  Orleans.  Thus  was  created  a  free  colnuicd 
))opulation  among  which  succc'ssive  cpideinics  jilayed 
havoc  leaving  agi'd  and  orphans  to  lie  cared  for.  Ac- 
cordiiiglv  in  IS  12  Hi.shdp  Hlaiie  and  Father  Kousselon, 
V.G.,  founded  the  Si.sters  of  the  Holy  Family,  whose 
duty  was  the  care  of  the  coloured  orphans  and  tlie  aged 
coloured  poor.  It  was  the  first  coloured  sisterhood 
foundeil  in  the  United  States,  and  one  of  the  only  two 
that  exist. 

Bishop  Blanc  planned  the  erection  of  new  parishes 
in  the  City  of  New  Orleans,  and  St.  Joseph's  and  the 
Annunciation  were  founded  in  1844.  The  foundation 
of  these  parishes  greatly  diminished  the  congregation 
of  the  cathedral  and  the  trustees  seeing  their  influence 
waning  entered  upon  a  new  war  against  religion. 
Upon  the  death  of  Father  Aloysius  Moni,  Bishop  Blanc 
appointed  Father  C.  Maenhaut  rector  of  the  cathe- 
dral, but  the  wardens  refused  to  recognize  his  appoint- 
ment, claiming  the  right  of  patronage  formerly  en- 
joyed by  the  King  of  Spain.  They  brought  an  action 
against  the  bishop  in  the  parish  court,  but  the  judge 
decided  against  the  trustees,  and  the  case  was  appealed 
to  the  Supreme  Court.  The  Supreme  Court  decided 
that  the  right  to  nominate  a  parish  priest,  or  the  jus 
patronatus  of  Spanish  law,  was  abrogated  in  the  state, 
and  the  decision  of  the  Holy  See  was  sustained.  But 
the  wardens  refused  to  recognize  this  decision  and 
the  bishop  ordered  the  clergy  to  withdraw  from  the 
cathedral  and  parochial  residence.  One  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  board,  who  was  a  member  of  the  city 
council,  obtained  the  passage  of  a  law  punishing  by 
fine  any  priest  who  should  perform  the  burial  service 
over  a  dead  body  except  in  the  old  mortuary  chapel 
erected  in  1826  as  part  of  the  cathedral  parish.  Under 
this  ordinance  Rev.  Bernard  Permoli  was  prosecuted. 
The  old  chapel  had  long  outlived  its  purpose,  and  on 
19  December,  1842,  Judge  Preval  decided  the  ordi- 
nance illegal,  and  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  sustained  his  decision.  The  faithful  of  St. 
Patrick's  parish  having  publicly  protested  against  the 
outrageous  proceedings,  the  tide  of  public  opinion  .set 
in  strongly  against  the  men  who  thus  defied  all  church 
authority.  In  January,  1843,  the  latter  submitted 
and  received  the  parish  priest  appointed  by  the  bishop. 
Soon  after  the  faithful  Catholics  of  the  city  petitioned 
the  Legislature  to  amend  the  Act  incorporating  the 
cathedral,  and  bring  it  into  harmony  with  ecclesiasti- 
cal discipline.  Even  after  the  decision  of  the  Legis- 
lature the  bishop  felt  that  he  could  not  treat  with  the 
wardens  as  they  defied  his  authority  by  authorizing 
the  erection  of  a  monument  to  Freemasons  in  the 
Catholic  cemetery  of  St.  Louis.  To  free  the  faithful, 
he  therefore  continued  to  plan  for  the  organization  of 
parishes  and  the  erection  of  new  churches.  Only  one 
low  Mass  was  said  at  the  cathedral,  and  that  on  Sun- 
day. Bishop  Blanc  convened  the  third  synod  of  the 
diocese  on  21  April,  at  which  the  clergy  were  warned 
against  yielding  to  the  illegal  claims  of  trustees,  and 
the  erection  of  any  church  without  a  deed  being  first 
made  to  the  bishop  was  forbidden.  For  the  churches 
in  which  the  trustees  system  still  existed  special  regu- 
lations were  made,  governing  the  method  of  keeping 
accounts.  At  the  close  of  1844  the  trustees,  defeated 
in  the  courts  and  held  in  contemi)t  by  public  opinion 
throughout  the  diocese,  yielded  completely  to  Bishop 
Blanc. 

This  controversy  terminated,  a  period  of  remarkable 
activity  in  the  organization  of  parishes  and  the  build- 
ing of  new  churches  set  in.  The  cornerstone  of  St. 
Mary's,  intended  to  replace  the  old  LTrsuline  chapel 
attached  to  the  bishop's  house,  was  laid  on  16  Feb., 
184,5;  that  of  St.  Joseph's  on  16  April,  1846;  that  of 
the  Annunciation  on  10  May,  1846.  The  Redemptor- 
ists  founded  the  parish  of  the  Assumption,  and  were 
installed  in  its  church  on  22  Oct.,  1847.     "The  parish 


NEW  ORLEANS 


13 


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of  Mater  Dolorosa  at  Carrollton  (then  a  suburb)  was 
founded  on  8  Sept.;  that  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Mary  at 
Algiers  on  IS  Dec,  1848.  In  1849  St.  Stephen's  par- 
ish in  the  then  suburb  of  Bouligny  under  the  Lazarist 
Fathers  and  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  came  into  existence. 
The  corner-stone  of  the  Redemptorist  church  of  St. 
Alphonsus  was  laid  by  the  famous  Apostle  of  Temper- 
ance, Father  Theobald  ISIathew,  on  11  April,  1850; 
two  years  later  it  was  found  necessary  to  enlarge  this 
church,  and  a  school  was  added.  In  1851  the  founda- 
tion-stone of  the  church  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion was  laid,  on  the  site  of  a  humbler  edifice  erected 
in  1848.  This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  church  in 
the  world  dedicated  to  the  Immaculate  Conception. 
The  parishes  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  in  the  upper  town 
and  of  St.  Anne  in  the  French  quarter  were  organized 
in  1852. 

The  French  congregation  of  Notre-Dame  de  Bon 
Secours  was  organized  on  16  Jan.,  1858.  In  the 
midst  of  great  progress  yellow  fever  broke  out  and  five 
priests  and  two  Sisters  of  Charity  swelled  the  roll 
of  martyrs.  The  devoted  services  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity,  especially  during  the  ravages  of  the  yellow 
fever,  in  attending  the  sick  and  caring  for  the  orphans 
were  so  highly  appreciated  by  the  Legislature  that  in 
1846  the  State  made  them  a  grant  of  land  near  Donald- 
sonville  for  the  opening  of  a  novitiate,  and  a  general 
subscription  was  made  throughout  the  diocese  for 
this  purpose.  The  sisters  established  themselves  in 
Donaldsonville  the  same  year. 

In  1843,  anxious  to  provide  for  the  wants  of  the  in- 
creasing German  and  Irish  emigration,  Bishop  Blanc 
had  summoned  the  Congregation  of  the  Redemptorists 
to  the  diocese  and  the  German  parish  of  St.  Mary's 
Assumption  was  founded  by  Rev.  Czackert  of  that 
congregation.  In  1847  the  work  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  the  diocese,  which  had  been  temporarily 
suspended,  was  resumed  imder  Father  Maisounabe  as 
superior,  and  a  college  building  was  started  on  10  June. 
In  the  following  year  Father  Maisounabe  and  a  bril- 
liant young  Irish  associate,  Father  Blackney,  fell  vic- 
tims to  yellow  fever.  The  population  of  New  Orleans 
now  numbered  over  fifty  thousand,  among  whom  were 
many  German  immigrants.  Bishop  Blanc  turned  over 
the  old  UrsuUne  chapel  to  the  Germans  of  the  lower 
portion  of  the  city,  and  a  church  was  erected,  which 
finally  resulted  in  the  foundation  of  the  Holy  Trinity 
parish  on  26  October,  1847.  In  1849  the  College  of  St. 
Paul  was  opened  at  Baton  Rouge.  On  1.3  July,  1852, 
St.  Charles  College  became  a  corporate  institution  with 
Rev.  A.  J.  Jourdan,  S.J.,  as  president.  In  1849  Bishop 
Blanc  attended  the  Seventh  Council  of  Baltimore  at 
which  the  bishops  expressed  their  desire  that  the  See 
of  New  Orleans  be  raised  to  metropolitan  rank.  On 
19  July,  1850,  Pius  X  established  the  Archdiocese  of 
New  Orleans,  Bishop  Blanc  being  raised  to  the  archi- 
episcopal  dignity.  The  Province  of  New  Orleans 
was  to  embrace  New  Orleans  with  Mobile,  Natchez, 
Little  Rock,  and  Galveston  as  suffragan  sees.  The 
spirit  of  Knownothingism  invaded  New  Orleans  as 
other  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  Archbi.shop 
Blanc  found  himself  in  the  thick  of  the  battle.  Public 
debates  were  held,  conspicuous  among  those  who  did 
yeoman  service  in  crushing  the  efforts  of  the  party  in 
Louisiana  being  the  Hon.  Thos.  J.  Semmes,  a  dis- 
tinguished advocate,  Rev.  Francis  Xavier  Leray  and 
Rev.  N.  J.  Perche,  both  afterwards  Archbishop  of  New 
Orleans.  Father  Perche  founded  (1844)  a  French 
diocesan  journal  "Le  Propagateur  Catholique", 
which  vigorously  assailed  the  Knownothing  doctrines. 
On  6  June  a  mob  attacked  the  office  of  the  paper,  and 
also  made  a  fierce  attack  on  the  Ursuline  Convent, 
breaking  doors  and  windows  and  hurling  insults  at 
the  nuns. 

In  1853  New  Orleans  was  desolated  by  the  worst  epi- 
demic of  yellow  fever  in  its  history,  seven  priests  and 
five  sisters  being  among  its  victims.     On  6  March, 


1854,  the  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  arrived  in 
New  Orleans  to  take  charge  of  St.  Joseph's  Asylum, 
founded  to  furnish  homes  for  those  orphaned  by  the 
epidemic.  St.  Vincent's  Orphan  Asylum  was  also 
opened  as  a  home  for  foundUngs  and  infant  orphans, 
and  entrusted  to  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  On  29  .July, 
1853,  the  Holy  See  divided  the  Diocese  of  New  Or- 
leans, which  at  that  time  embraced  all  Louisiana,  and 
established  the  See  of  Natchitoches  (q.  v.).  The  new 
diocese  contained  about  twenty-five  thousand  Catho- 
lics, chiefly  a  rural  population,  for  whom  there  were 
only  seven  churches.  The  Convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
at  Natchitoches  was  the  only  religious  institution  m 
the  new  diocese.  In  1854  Archbishop  Blanc  went  to 
Rome  and  was  present  at  the  solemn  definition  of  the 
dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  In  his  report 
to  the  Propaganda  he  describes  his  diocese  as  contain- 
ing forty  quasi-parishes,  each  with  a  church  and  one  or 
two  priests  and  a  residence  for  the  clergy;  the  city  had 
eighteen  churches.  The  diocese  had  a  seminary  under 
the  Priests  of  the  Mission  with  an  average  of  nine  stu- 
dents; the  religious  orders  at  work  were  the  Jesuits 
with  three  establishments.  Priests  of  the  Mission  with 
three,  and  Redemptorists  with  two.  The  Catholic 
population  of  95,000  was  made  up  of  natives  of  French, 
Spanish,  Irish,  or  American  origin,  French,  Germans, 
Spaniards,  and  Italians.  Distinctive  Catholic  schools 
were  increasing.  The  Ursulines,  Religious  of  the  Sa- 
cred Heart,  Sisters  of  Holy  Charity,  Marianites  of  the 
Holy  Cross,  Tertiary  Carmelites,  School  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame,  and  the  Coloured  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Family  were  doing  excellent  work.  Many  abuses  had 
crept  in  especially  with  regard  to  marriage,  but  after 
the  erection  of  new  churches  with  smaller  parochial 
school  districts,  religion  had  gained  steadily  and  the 
frequentation  of  the  sacraments  was  increasing. 

In  1855  the  Fathers  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Cross  came  to  New  Orleans  to  establish  a  manual  in- 
dustrial school  for  the  training  of  the  orphan  boys  who 
had  been  rendered  homeless  by  the  terrible  epidemic 
of  1853.  They  established  themselves  in  the  lower 
portion  of  New  Orleans,  and  became  inseparably  iden- 
tified with  religious  and  educational  progress.  In  1879 
they  opened  their  college,  which  is  now  one  of  the  lead- 
ing institutions  of  Louisiana.  On  20  January,  1856, 
the  First  Provincial  Council  of  New  Orleans  was  held, 
and  in  January,  1858,  Archbishop  Blanc  held  the 
fourth  diocesan  synod.  In  1859  the  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  were  called  by  Archbishop  Blanc  to 
New  Orleans  to  open  a  reformatory  for  girls.  Bishop 
Blanc  opened  another  diocesan  seminary  in  the  same 
year,  and  placed  it  in  charge  of  the  Lazarist  Fathers. 
He  convoked  the  second  provincial  council  on  22  Janu- 
ary, 1860.  Just  before  the  second  session  opened  he 
was  taken  so  seriously  ill  that  he  could  no  longer  at- 
tend the  meetings;  he  rallied  and  seemed  to  regain 
his  usual  health,  but  he  died  20  June  following. 

Right  Rev.  John  Mary  Odin,  Bishop  of  Galveston, 
was  appointed  successor  to  Archbishop  Blanc,  and  ar- 
rived in  New  Orleans  on  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  1861. 
The  Civil  War  had  already  begun  and  excitement  was 
intense.  All  the  prudence  and  charity  of  the  arch- 
bishop were  needed  as  the  war  progressed.  An  earnest 
maintainer  of  discipline.  Archbishop  Odin  found  it 
necessary  on  1  January,  1863,  to  issue  regulations  re- 
garding the  recklessness  and  carelessness  that  had  pre- 
vailed in  the  temporal  management  of  the  churches 
the  indebtedness  of  which  he  had  been  compelled  to 
assume  to  save  them  from  bankruptcy.  The  regula- 
tions were  not  favourably  received,  and  the  arch- 
bishop visited  Rome  returning  in  the  .spring  of  1863, 
when  he  had  obtained  the  approval  of  the  Holy  See 
for  his  course  of  action.  It  was  not  till  some  time  later 
that  through  his  charity  and  zeal  he  obtained  the  cor- 
dial support  he  desired.  His  appeals  for  priests  while 
in  Europe  were  not  unheeded  and  early  in  1SG3  forty 
seminarians  and  five  Ursulines  arrived  with  Bishop  Du- 


NEW   ORLEANS 


14 


NEW   ORLEANS 


buis  of  Galveston.  Among  the  priests  were  Fathers 
Gustave  A.  Rouxel.  later  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  New  Or- 
leans under  Archbishop  Chapelle,  Thomas  lleslin, 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Natchez,  and  J.  K.  Bogaerts, 
vicar-gencral  under  Archbishop  Janssens.  In  IStiO  the 
Dominican  Nuns  from  Cabra,  Ireland,  came  to  New 
Orleans  to  take  charge  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  School 
and  open  an  academy.  In  1804  the  Sisters  of  Mercy 
came  to  the  city  to  assume  charge  of  St.  .Mphonsus' 
School  and  .Vsylum  and  open  a  convent  and  boariling- 
school,  and  the  Marists  were  ofF(>r('<l  the  Church  of  St. 
Michael  at  Convent.  La.  On  12  July,  lSli4,  they  as- 
sumed charge  of  Jefferson  College  founded  by  the 
State  in  1S;3.5,  and  donated  to  them  by  Valcour.\ime,  a 
wealthy  planter.  The  diocese  was  incorporated  on  15 
Augvist.  1800,  the  legal  name  and  title  being  "The  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  of  the  Dioce.so  of  New  Orleans". 
In  ISO"  during  a  terrible  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  and 
cholera.  Fathers  Spies.sberger  and  Seelos  of  the  Re- 
demptorists  died  martvTs  of  charity.  Father  .Seelos 
was  regarded  as  a  saint  and  the  cause  of  his  beatifica- 
tion has  been  introduced  in  Rome  (190.5).  In  1806, 
o^vingto  financial  trials  throughout  the  South,  the  di- 
ocesan .seminary  wasclosed.  In  Februarj',  1868,  .\rch- 
bishop  Odin  founded  "The  Morning  Star"  as  the  offi- 
cial organ  of  the  Archdiocese,  which  it  has  continued 
to  be. 

During  the  nine  years  of  Bishop  Odin's  administra- 
tion he  nearly  doubled  the  number  of  his  clergy  and 
churches.  He  attended  the  Council  of  the  Vatican, 
but  was  obUged  to  leave  Rome  on  the  entry  of  the 
Garibaldian  troops.  His  health  was  broken  and 
he  returned  to  his  native  home,  .\mbierle,  France, 
where  he  died  on  25  May,  1870.  He  was  born  on  25 
February,  1801,  and  entered  the  Lazarists.  He  came 
as  a  no\"ice  to  their  seminary.  The  Barrens,  in  St. 
Louis,  where  he  completed  his  theological  studies  and 
received  ordination  (see  Galveston,  Diocese  of). 
He  was  an  excellent  administrator  and  left  his  diocese 
free  from  debt. 

Archbishop  Odin  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Napo- 
leon Joseph  Perche,  bom  at  Angers,  France,  January, 
1805,  and  died  on  27  December,  188.3.  The  latter  com- 
pleted his  studies  at  the  Seminary  of  Beaupre,  was  or- 
dained on  19  September,  1829,  and  sent  to  Murr  near 
Angers  where  he  worked  zealously.  In  1837  he  came  to 
America  with  Bishop  Flaget  and  was  appointed  pastor 
of  Portland.  He  came  to  New  Orleans  with  Bishop 
Blanc  in  1841,  and  he  soon  became  famous  in  Louis- 
iana for  his  eloquence  and  learning.  Archbishop  Odin 
petitioned  Rome  for  the  appointment  of  Father 
Perche  as  his  coadjutor  with  the  right  of  succession. 
His  request  was  granted  and,  on  1  May,  1870,  Father 
Perche  was  consecrated  in  the  cathedral  of  New  Or- 
leans titular  Bishop  of  .\bdera.  He  was  promoted  to 
the  see  on  25  May,  1870.  One  of  his  first  acts  was 
the  re-establishment  of  the  diocesan  seminar>'.  The 
Benedictine  Nuns  were  received  into  the  diocese  in 
1870. 

The  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  a 
diocesan  sisterhood,  was  founded  in  the  year  1873  by 
Father  Cj-prien  Venissat,  at  Labadieville,  to  afford 
education  and  assistance  to  the  children  of  families 
impoverished  by  the  war.  In  1875  the  Poor  Clares 
made  a  foimdation,  and  on  21  November,  1877,  the 
Discalced  Carmelite  Nuns  of  St.  Louis  sent  two  mem- 
bers to  make  a  foundation  in  New  Orleans,  their  mon- 
astery being  opened  on  11  May,  1878.  In  1878  the 
new  parish  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  was  organized 
and  placed  in  charge  of  the  Holy  Cross  Fathers  from 
Indiana.  On  12  October,  1872,  the  Sisters  of  Perpet- 
ual Adoration  opened  their  missions  and  schools  in 
New  Orieans.  In  1879  the  Holy  Cro,ss  Fathers  opened 
a  college  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  city.  Owing  to  the 
financial  difficulties  it  was  ncccs-sarj-  to  clo.se  the  di- 
ocesan .seminary  in  18,81.  Archbishop  Perche  was  a 
great  scholar,  but  he  lacked  administrative  abihty.  In 


his  desire  to  relieve  Southern  families  ruined  by  the 
'war,  he  gave  to  all  largely  and  royally,  and  thus 
plunged  the  diocese  into  a  debt  of  over  $tiOO,000.  He 
was  growing  very  feeble  and  an  application  was  made 
to  Rome  for  a  coadjutor. 

Bishop  Francis  Xavier  Leray  of  Natchitoches  was 
transferred  to  New  Orleans  as  coadjutor  and  Apostolic 
administrator  of  affairs  on  23  October,  1879,  and  at 
once  set  to  work  to  liquidate  the  immen.se  debt.  It 
w:is  during  the  administration  of  Archbishop  Perche 
and  the  coadjutorship  of  Bishop  Leray  that  the  Board 
of  Trustees  of  the  cathedral  which  formerly  had  caused 
so  much  trouble  passed  out  of  existence  in  July.  1881, 
and  transferred  all  the  cathedral  property  to  Arch- 
bishop Perche  and  Bishop  Leraj-  jointly,  for  the  bene- 
fit and  use  of  the  Catholic  population.  Archbishop 
Leray  was  born  at  Chdteau  Giron,  Brittany,  France, 
20  April,  1825.  He  responded  to  the  appeal  for 
priests  for  the  Diocese  of  Louisiana  in  1S43,  and  com- 
pleted his  theological  studies  at  the  Sulpician  seminary 
in  Baltimore.  He  accompanied  Bishop  Chanche  to 
Natchez  and  was  ordained  by  him  on  19  Marcli,  1852. 
He  was  a  most  active  missionarj'  in  the  Mississippi 
district  and  in  1860  when  pastor  of  Vicksburg  he 
brought  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  from  Baltimore  to  estab- 
Ush  a  school  there.  Several  times  during  his  years 
of  activity  as  a  priest  he  was  stricken  with  yellow 
fever. 

During  the  Civil  War,  he  ser\-ed  as  a  Con- 
federate chaplain;  and  on  several  occasions  he  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Federal  forces  but  released  as 
soon  as  the  sacred  character  of  his  office  was  estab- 
Ushed.  On  the  death  of  Bishop  Martin  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  See  of  Natchitoches,  and  consecrated 
on  22  April,  1877,  at  Rennes,  France;  on  23  Octo- 
ber, 1879,  he  was  appointed  coadjutor  to  Archbishop 
Perche  of  New  Orleans  and  Bishop  of  Janopolis.  His 
most  difficult  task  was  the  bringing  of  financial  order 
out  of  chaos  and  reducing  the  enormous  debt  of  the 
diocese.  In  this  he  met  with  great  success.  During 
his  administration  the  debt  was  reduced  by  at  least 
S300,(K)0.  His  health,  however,  became  impaired,  and 
he  went  to  France  in  the  hope  of  recuperating,  and 
died  at  Chateau  Giron,  on  23  September,  1887. 

The  see  remained  vacant  for  nearly  a  year,  Verj' 
Rev.  G.  A.  Rouxel  administering  the  affairs  of  the  dio- 
cese, until  the  Right  Rev.  Francis  Janssens,  Bishop  of 
Natchez,  was  promoted  to  fill  the  vacancy  on  7  Au- 
gust, 1888,  and  took  possession  on  16  September, 
1888.  Archbishop  Janssens  was  born  at  Tillburg, 
Holland,  on  17  October,  1843.  At  thirteen  he  began 
his  studies  in  the  seminary  at  Bois-le-Duc;  he  re- 
mained there  ten  years,  and  in  1866  entered  the  Amer- 
ican College  at  Louvain,  Belgium.  He  was  ordained 
on  21  December,  1867,  and  arranged  to  come  to  Amer- 
ica. He  arrived  at  Richmond  in  September,  1868, 
and  became  pa.stor  of  the  cathedral  in  1870.  He  was 
administrator  of  the  diocese  pending  the  appointment 
of  the  Right  Rev.  James  (later  Cardinal)  Gibbons  to 
the  vacant  see;  Bishop  Gibbons  appointed  him  \ncar- 
general,  and  five  years  later  when  he  was  appointed  to 
the  Archiepiscopal  See  of  Baltimore,  Father  Janssens 
became  again  administrator  of  the  diocese.  On  7 
April,  1881,  the  See  of  Natchez  became  vacant  by  the 
promotion  of  Right  Rev.  Wm.  Elder  as  Archbishop 
of  Cincinnati  and  Father  Janssens  succeeded,  ^^'hile 
Bishop  of  Natchez  he  completed  the  cathedral  com- 
menced forty  years  before  by  Bishop  Chanche.  Not 
the  least  of  the  difficulties  that  awaited  him  as  .-Vrch- 
bishop  of  New  Orleans  was  the  heavy  indebtedness 
resting  upon  the  see  and  the  constant  drain  thus  made 
which  had  exhausted  the  treasurj'.  There  was  no 
seminarj-  and  the  rapid  growth  of  the  population  aug- 
mented the  demand  for  priests.  He  at  once  called  a 
meeting  of  the  clergy  and  prominent  citizens,  and 
plans  were  formulated  for  the  gradual  liquidation 
of  the  debt  of  the  diocese,  which  was  found  to  be 


NEW  ORLEANS 


15 


NEW  ORLEANS 


8324,759.  Before  his  death  he  had  reduced  it  to  about 
$130,000.  Notwithstanding  this  burden,  the  diocese, 
through  the  zeal  of  Archbishop  Janssens,  entered  upon 
a  period  of  unusual  activity.  One  of  his  first  acts, 
March,  1890,  was  to  found  a  little  seminary,  which 
was  opened  at  Pontchatoula,  La.,  3  September,  1891, 
and  placed  under  the  direction  of  the  Benedictine 
Fathers.  He  went  to  Europe  in  1889  to  secure  priests 
for  the  diocese  and  to  arrange  for  the  sale  of  bonds  for 
the  Uquidation  of  the  debt.  In  August,  1892,  after 
the  lynching  of  the  Italians  who  assassinated  the  chief 
of  police,  the  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
founded  in  Italy  by  Mother  Cabrina  for  work  among 
Italian  emigrants,  arrived  in  New  Orleans  and  opened 
a  large  mission,  a  free  school,  and  an  asylum  for  Italian 
orphans,  and  began  also  mission  work  among  the 
Italian  gardeners  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city  and  at 
Kenner,  La.  The  same  year  a  terrific  cyclone  and 
storm  swept  the  Louisiana  Gulf  coast,  and  laid  low  the 
lands  along  the  Caminada  Cheniere  where  there  was  a 
settlement  of  Italian  and  Spanish  and  Malay  fisher- 
men. Out  of  a  population  of  1500  over  800  were 
swept  away.  Rev.  Father  Grimaud  performed  the 
burial  services  over  400  bodies  as  they  were  washed 
ashore.  Father  Bedel  at  Buras  buried  over  three 
huntlred,  and  went  out  at  night  to  succour  the  wander- 
ing and  helpless.  Archbishop  Janssens  in  a  small 
boat  went  among  the  lonely  and  desolate  island  settle- 
ments comforting  the  people  and  helping  them  to  re- 
build their  broken  homes. 

In  1893,  the  centenary  of  the  diocese  was  celebrated 
with  splendour  at  the  St.  Louis  Cathedral ;  Cardinal 
Gibbons  and  many  of  the  hierarchy  were  present. 
Archbishop  Janssens  was  instrumental,  at  this  time,  in 
establishing  the  Louisiana  Lepers'  Home  at  Indian 
Camp,  and  it  was  through  his  offices  that  the  Sisters 
of  Charity  from  Emmitsburg  took  charge  of  the 
home.  He  was  deeply  interested  in  the  work  of  the 
coloured  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  now  domiciled  in 

the  ancient  (juadr i  Hall  Room  and  Theatre  of  on(e- 

bellum  days,  which  had  been  turned  into  a  convent 
and  boarding-school.  Through  the  generosity  of  a 
coloured  philanthropist.  Thorny  Lafon,  Archbishop 
Janssens  was  enabled  to  pro\ade  a  larger  and  more 
comfortable  home  for  the  aged  coloured  poor,  a  new 
asylum  for  the  boys,  and  through  the  legacy  of  .S20,000 
left  for  this  purpose  by  Mr.  I^afon,  who  died  in  1883, 
a  special  home,  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  for  the  reform  of  coloured  girls.  The 
St.  John  Berchman's  chapel,  a  memorial  to  Thorny 
Lafon,  was  erected  in  the  Convent  of  the  Holy  Family 
which  he  had  so  befriended.  At  this  time  Archbishop 
Janssens  estimated  the  number  of  Catholics  in  the 
diocese  at  341,613;  the  value  of  church  property  at 
$3,861,075;  the  number  of  baptisms  a  year  15,000  and 
the  number  of  deaths,  5000. 

In  1896  the  Catholic  Winter  School  of  America  was 
organized  and  was  formally  opened  by  Cardinal 
SatoUi,  then  Apostolic  Delegate  to  the  United  States. 
After  the  death  of  Archbishop  Janssens  the  lecture 
courses  were  abandoned.  The  active  hfe  led  by  the 
archbishop  told  heavily  upon  him.  Anxious  to  Uqui- 
date  entirely  the  debt  of  the  diocese  he  made  arrange- 
ments to  visit  Europe  in  1897,  but  died  aboard  the 
steamer  Creole,  19  June,  on  the  voyage  to  New  York. 

Most  Rev.  Placide  Louis  Chapelle,  D.D.,  Arch- 
bishop of  Santa  Fe,  was  appointed  to  the  vacant  See  of 
New  Orleans,  1  December,  1897.  Shortly  after  com- 
ing to  New  Orleans  he  found  it  imperative  to  go  to 
Europe  to  effect  a  settlement  for  the  remainder  of  the 
diocesan  debt  of  $130,000.  While  he  was  in  Europe 
war  was  declared  between  Spain  and  the  United 
States,  and,  upon  the  declaration  of  peace.  Archbishop 
Chapelle  was  appointed  Apostolic  delegate  extraor- 
dinary to  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  and  charge  d'affaues 
to  the  Philippine  Islands.  Returning  from  Europe 
he  arranged  for  the  assessment  of  five  per  cent  upon 


the  salaries  of  the  clergy  for  five  years  for  the  liquida- 
tion of  the  diocesan  debt.  In  October  1900  he  closed 
the  little  seminary  at  Ponchatoula  and  opened  a 
higher  one  in  New  Orleans,  placing  it  in  charge  of  the 
Lazarist  Fathers.  The  Right  Rev.  G.  A.  Rouxel  was 
appointed  auxiliary  bishop  for  the  See  of  New  Orleans, 
and  was  consecrated  10  April,  1899.  Right  Rev.  J.  M. 
Laval  was  made  vicar-general  and  rector  of  the  St. 
Louis  Cathedral  on  21  April,  and  Very  Rev.  James 
H.  Blenk  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Porto  Rico  and  con- 
secrated in  the  St.  Louis  Cathedral  with  Archbishop 
Barnada  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  2  July,  1899.  Arch- 
bishop Chapelle  was  absent  from  the  diocese  during 
the  greater  part  of  his  administration,  duties  in  the  An- 
tilles and  the  Philippines  in  connexion  with  his  position 
as  Apostolic  Delegate  claiming  his  attention,  never- 
theless he  accomplished  much  for  New  Orleans.  The 
diocesan  debt  was  extinguished,  and  the  activity  in 
church  work  which  had  begun  under  Archbishop  Jans- 
sen  continued ;  returning  to  New  Orleans  he  introduced 
into  the  diocese  the  Dominican  Fathers  from  the 
Philippines.  In  the  summer  of  1905,  while  the  arch- 
bishop was  administering  confirmation  in  the  country 
parishes,  yellow  fever  broke  out  in  New  Orleans,  and, 
deeming  it  his  duty  to  be  among  his  people,  he  re- 
turned immediately  to  the  city.  On  the  way  from 
the  train  to  his  residence  he  was  stricken,  and  died  9 
August,  1905  (see  Chapelij;,  Placide  Louis).  Auxil- 
iary Bishop  Rouxel  became  the  administrator  of  the 
diocese  pending  the  appointment  of  a  successor. 
The  Right  Rev.  James  Hurhert  Blenk,  S.M.,  D.D., 
Bishop  of  Porto  Rico,  was  promoted  to  New  Orleans, 
20  April,  1906. 

IV.  CoNTEMroHARY  CONDITIONS.  —  Arclibishop 
Blenk  was  born  at  Neustadt,  Bavaria,  28  July,  1856, 
of  Protestant  parentage.  While  a  child,  his  family 
came  to  New  Orleans,  and  it  was  here  that  the  light  of 
the  true  Faith  dawned  upon  the  boy;  he  was  baptized 
in  St.  Alphonsus  Church  at  the  age  of  twelve.  His 
primary  education  having  been  completed  in  New 
Orleans,  he  entered  Jefferson  College  where  he  com- 
pleted his  classical  and  scientific  studies  under  the 
Marist  Fathers.  He  spent  three  years  at  the  Marist 
house  of  studies  in  Belley,  France,  completed  his  pro- 
bationary studies  at  the  Marist  novitiate  at  Lyons, 
and  was  sent  to  Dublin  to  follow  a  higher  course  of 
mathematics  at  the  Catliolic  University.  Thence  he 
went  to  St.  Mary's  College,  Dundalk,  County  Louth, 
where  he  occupied  the  chair  of  mathematics.  Later 
he  returned  to  the  Marist  house  of  studies  in  Dublin 
where  he  completed  his  theological  studies.  16 
August,  1885,  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  returned 
that  year  to  Louisiana  to  labour  among  his  own  peo- 
ple. He  was  stationed  as  a  professor  at  Jefferson 
College  of  which  he  became  president  in  1891  and  held 
the  position  for  six  years.  In  1896,  at  the  invitation 
of  the  general  of  the  Marists,  he  visited  all  the  houses 
of  the  congregation  in  Europe,  and  returning  to  New 
Orleans  in  February,  1897,  he  became  the  rector  of  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Mary,  Algiers,  which  was 
in  charge  of  the  Marist  Fathers.  He  erected  the 
handsome  presbytery  and  gave  a  great  impetus  to  re- 
ligion and  education  in  the  parish  and  city,  being  chair- 
man of  the  Board  of  Studies  of  the  newly  organized 
Winter  School.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Board  of 
Consultois  during  the  administration  of  Archbishop 
Janssens  and  of  Archbishop  Chapelle;  the  latter  se- 
lected him  as  the  auditor  and  secretary  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Delegation  to  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  He  was  ap- 
pointed the  first  bishop  of  the  Island  of  Porto  Rico 
under  the  American  occupation  12  June,  1899.  A 
hurricane  overswept  Porto  Rico  just  before  Bishop 
Blenk  left  to  take  possession  of  his  see;  through  his 
personal  efforts  he  raised  over  $30,000  in  the  United 
States  to  take  with  him  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of 
his  new  people.  The  successful  work  of  Bishop  Blenk 
is  a  part  of  the  history -of  the  reconstruction  along 


NEW  ORLEANS 


16 


NEW  ORLEANS 


American  lines  of  the  Antilles.  He  returned  to  New 
Orleans  as  arohhisliop,  1  July,  190G,  and  new  life  wsis 
infused  into  every  department  of  religious  and  edu- 
cational and  charitable  endeavour.  Splendid  new 
churches  and  schools  were  erected,  especially  in  the 
country  parishes.  Among  the  new  institutions  were 
St.  Joseph's  Seminary  and  College  at  St.  Benedict, 
La.;  St.  Charles  College,  Grand  Coteau,  built  on  the 
ruins  of  the  old  college  destroyed  by  fire;  Lake 
Charles  Sanitarium;  Marquette  tJniversity;  and  the 
Seaman's  Haven,  where  a  chapel  was  opened  for  sail- 
ors. The  new  sisterhoods  admitted  to  the  diocese 
were  the  Religious  of  the  Incarnate  ^\■or^l  in  charge  of 
a  sanitarium  at  Lake  Charles;  the  Religious  of  Divine 
Pro\-idence  in  charge  of  the  school  in  Broussardville; 
and  the  French  Benedictine  Sisters  driven  from 
France,  who  erected  the  new  Convent  of  St.  Gertrude 
at  St.  Benedict,  La.,  destined  as  an  industrial  school 
for  girls.  A  large  industrial  school  and  farm  for 
coloured  boys  under  the  direction  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Family  was  opened  in  Gent  illy  Road,  and  two 
new  parishes  outlined  for  the  exclusive  care  of  the 
coloured  race.  In  1907,  the  seminarj'  conducted  by 
the  Lazarist  Fathers  was  closed  and  Archbishop 
Blenk  opened  a  preparatory  seminary  and  placed  it  in 
charge  of  the  Benedictine  Fathers.  The  diocese  as- 
sumed full  charge  of  the  Chinchuba  Deaf-mute  Insti- 
tute, which  was  established  under  Archbishop  Jans- 
sens  and  is  the  only  Catholic  institute  for  deaf-mutes 
in  the  South.  It  is  in  charge  of  the  School  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame. 

New  Orleans'  priesthood,  like  the  population  of 
Louisiana,  is  cosmopolitan.  The  training  of  the 
priesthood  has  been  conducted  at  home  and  abroad, 
the  diocese  owing  much  to  the  priests  who  came  from 
France,  Spain,  Ireland,  Germany,  and  Holland.  Sev- 
eral efforts  were  made  to  establish  a  permanent  semi- 
nary and  recruit  the  ranks  of  the  priesthood  from  the 
diocese  itself.  At  various  times  also  the  diocese  had 
students  at  St.  Mary's  and  St.  Charles  Seminary, 
Baltimore,  the  American  College,  Louvain,  and  has 
(1910)  twelve  theological  students  in  different  semi- 
naries of  Europe  and  America.  Each  parish  is  incor- 
porated and  there  are  the  corporate  institutions  of  the 
Jesuits  and  other  religious  communities.  The  houses 
of  study  for  reUgious  are  the  Jesuit  scholasticate  at 
Grand  Coteau,  and  the  Benedictine  scholasticate  of 
St.  Benedict  at  St.  Benedict,  La.  The  Poor  Clares, 
discalced  Carmelites,  Benedictine  Nuns,  Congrega- 
tion of  Marianites  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Ursuline  Nuns, 
ReUgious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
Sisters  of  Perpetual  Adoration,  Sisters  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  (coloured). 
Sisters  of  Mount  Carmel,  have  mother-houses  with 
no\'itiates  in  New  Orleans.  In  early  days  there  were 
distinctive  parishes  in  New  Orleans  for  French-,  Eng- 
lish-, and  German-speaking  Catholics,  but  with  the 
growing  diffusion  of  the  English  language  these  parish 
lines  have  disappeared.  In  all  the  churches  where 
necessary,  there  are  French,  English,  and  German  ser- 
mons and  instructions;  there  are  churches  and  chapels 
for  Italian  emigrants  and  Hungarians,  a  German  set- 
tlement at  St.  Leo  near  Rajme,  domestic  missions  for 
negroes  under  the  charge  of  the  Holy  Family  Sisters 
and  Josephite  Fathers  and  Lazarists  at  New  Orleans 
and  Bayou  Petite,  Prairie. 

The  educational  system  is  well  organized.  The 
principal  institutions  are:  the  diocesan  normal  school; 
the  Marquette  University  under  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits;  7  colleges  and  academies  with  high  school 
courses  for  boys  with  180.3  students;  17  academies  for 
young  ladies,  under  the  direction  of  religious  communi- 
ties, with  2201  students;  102  parishes  with  parochial 
schools  having  an  attendance  of  20,000  pupils;  117 
orphan  asylums  with  1.341  orphans;  1  infant  asylum 
with  164  infants;  1  industrial  school  for  whites'with 
90  inmates;  1  industrial  school  for  coloured  orphan 


boys;  1  deaf-mute  asylum  with  40  inmates;  3  hospi- 
'  tals;  2  homes  for  the  aged  white,  and  1  for  the  aged 
coloured  poor;  1  house  of  the  C.ochI  Slieplierd  for  the 
reform  of  wayward  girls;  a  ScaiiKiii's  Ilaven.  The 
state  asylums  for  the  blind,  etc.,  hos|)itals,  prisons,  re- 
formatories, almshouses,  and  secular  homes  for  incur- 
ables, consumptives,  convalescents,  etc.,  are  all  visited 
by  Catholic  priests.  Sisters  of  Mercy,  conferences  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  St.  Margaret's  Daughters. 
There  is  absolute  freedom  of  worship.  The  first  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  conference  was  organized  in  1852. 

The  diocese  has  one  Benedictine  abbey  (St.  Joseph's, 
of  which  Right  Rev.  Paul  Schauble  is  abbot);  156 
secular  priests,  123  priests  in  religious  communities, 
making  a  total  of  279  clergy;  133  churches  vnth 
resident  priests  and  90  missions  with  churches,  making 
a  total  of  223  churches;  35  stations  and  42  chapels 
where  Mass  is  said.  The  total  Catholic  population  is 
5.50,000;  yearly  baptisms  include  15,155  white  chil- 
dren, 253  white  adults,  3111  coloured  children,  and 
354  coloured  adults  (total  number  of  baptisms  18,- 
873);  the  communions  average  750,180;  confirmations 
11,215;  converts,  817;  marriages,  3.533  (including  323 
mixed).  The  large  centres  of  church  activity  are 
the  cities  of  New  Orleans,  Baton  Rouge,  Plaque- 
mine,  Donaldsonville,  Thibodeaux,  Houma,  Franklin, 
Jeannerette,  New  Iberia,  Lafayette,  Abbeville,  Mor- 
gan City,  St.  Martin,  Crowley,  Lake  Charles.  The 
churches  and  schools  are  all  insured;  an  association 
for  assisting  infirm  priests,  the  Priests'  Aid  Society, 
has  been  established  and  mutual  aid  and  benevolent 
associations  in  almost  every  parish  for  the  assistance 
of  the  laity.  Assimilation  is  constantly  going  on 
among  the  ditTerent  nationalities  that  come  to  New 
Orleans  tlirough  intermarriage  between  Germans, 
Italians,  French,  and  Americans,  and  thus  is  created  a 
healthy  civic  sentiment  that  conduces  to  earnest  and 
harmonious  progress  along  lines  of  religious,  charita- 
ble, educational,  and  social  endeavour.  The  Catholic 
laity  of  the  diocese  is  naturally  largely  represented 
in  the  life  and  government  of  the  community,  the 
population  being  so  overwhelmingly  Catholic;  Cath- 
olics hold  prominent  civil  positions,  such  as  governor, 
mayor,  and  member  of  the  Bar,  State  Legislature,  and 
United  States  Congress.  A  Catholic  from  Louisiana, 
Edward  D.  White,  has  been  recently  (1910)  appointed 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  Catholics  are  connected  with  the  state  nor- 
mal schools  and  colleges,  are  on  the  board  of  the  state 
universities  and  public  libraries,  and  are  represented 
in  the  corps  of  professors,  patrons,  and  pupils  of  the 
Louisiana  State  and  Tulane  universities.  Three 
fourths  of  the  teachers  of  the  public  schools  of  Louisi- 
ana are  Catholics. 

The  laity  take  a  very  active  interest  in  the  religious 
life  of  the  diocese.  Every  church  and  convent  has  its 
altar  society  for  the  care  of  the  tabernacle,  sodalities 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  for  young  girls  and  women.  The 
Holy  Name  Society  for  men,  young  and  old,  is  estab- 
lished throughout  the  diocese,  while  conferences  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  are  established  in  thirty  churches. 
St.  Margaret's  Daughters,  indulgenced  like  the  Society 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  has  twenty-eight  circles  at 
work,  and  the  Total  Abstinence  Society  is  established 
in  many  churches.  Besides  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  the  diocese  has  confraternities  of  the  Happy 
Death,  the  Holy  Face,  the  Holy  Rosary,  and  the  Holy 
Agony;  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer  is  established  in 
nearly  all  the  churches,  while  many  parishes  have 
confraternities  adapted  to  their  special  needs.  The 
Catholic  Knights  of  America  and  Knights  of  Colum- 
bus are  firmly  established,  while  the  Holy  Spirit  So- 
ciety, devoted  to  the  defence  of  Catholic  Faith,  the 
diffusion  of  Catholic  truth,  and  the  establishment  of 
churches  and  schools  in  wayside  places,  is  doing  noble 
work  along  church  extension  lines.  Other  societies 
are  the  Marquette  League,  the  Society  for  the  Propa- 


NEW  POMERANIA 


17 


NEW  POMERANIA 


gation  of  the  Faith,  which  traces  its  origin  to  Bishop 
Dubourg  of  Louisiana,  the  Society  of  the  Holy  Child- 
hood, and  the  Priests'  Eucharistic  League.  ReHgious 
life  in  the  diocese  is  regular  and  characterized  by  strict 
discipline  and  earnest  spirituality.  Monthly  confer- 
ences are  held  and  ecclesiastical  conferences  three 
times  a  year. 

The  religious  communities  in  the  diocese  are:  (1) 
Male:  Benedictines,  Fathers  and  Brothers  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  Dominicans,  Jesuits,  Josephites,  Lazarists, 
Marists,  Redemptorists,  and  Brothers  of  the  Sacred 
Heart;  (2)  Female:  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  French 
Benedictine  Sisters,  Discalced  Carmelite  Nuns,  Sis- 
ters of  Mount  Carmel,  Poor  Clares,  Sisters  of  Charity, 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Incarnate  Word,  Sisters  of 
Christian  Charity,  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence, 
Dominican  Sisters,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Sis- 
ters of  the  Holy  Family,  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Poor,  Sisters  Marianites  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  Our 
Lady  of  Lourdes,  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Ursu- 
line  Sisters,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Sisters  of  Perpetual  Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment. Coloured  Catholics:  The  works  in  behalf  of  the 
coloured  race  began  in  the  earliest  days  in  Louisiana, 
when  the  Jesuits  devoted  themselves  especially  to  the 
care  of  the  Indians  and  negroes.  After  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits  the  King  of  Spain  ordered  that  a  chap- 
lain for  negroes  be  placed  on  every  plantation.  Al- 
though this  was  impossible  owing  to  the  scarcity  of 
priests,  the  greatest  interest  was  taken  in  the  evan- 
gelization of  negroes  and  winning  them  from  super- 
stitious practices.  The  work  of  zealous  Catholic 
masters  and  mistresses  bore  fruit  in  many  ways,  and 
there  remains  to-day  in  New  Orleans,  despite  the 
losses  to  the  Faith  occasioned  by  the  Civil  War  and 
during  the  Reconstruction  Period  when  hordes  of 
Protestant  missionaries  from  the  north  flocked  into 
Louisiana  with  millions  of  dollars  to  proselytize  the 
race,  a  strong  and  sturdy  Catholic  element  among  the 
coloured  people  from  which  much  is  hoped.  The  Sis- 
ters of  the  Holy  Family,  a  diocesan  coloured  order  of 
religious,  have  accompUshed  much  good.  In  addition 
to  their  academy  and  orphanages  for  girls  and  boys 
and  homes  for  the  coloured  aged  poor  of  both  sexes, 
located  in  New  Orleans,  they  have  a  novitiate  and 
conduct  an  academy  in  the  cathedral  parish  and 
schools  in  the  parishes  of  St.  Maurice,  St.  Louis,  Mater 
Dolorosa,  St.  Dominic,  and  St.  Catherine  in  New  Or- 
leans, and  schools  and  asylums  in  Madisonville,  Don- 
aldsonville,  Opelusas,  Baton  Rouge,  Mandevilles, 
Lafayette,  and  Palmetto,  Louisiana.  Schools  for 
coloured  children  are  also  conducted  by  the  following 
white  religious  orders:  Sisters  of  Perpetual  Adoration, 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  Mount  Carmel  Sisters,  Religious  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  Six  coloured 
schools  in  charge  of  lay  Catholic  teachers  in  vari- 
ous parishes,  St.  Catherine's  church  in  charge  of  the 
Lazarist  Fathers,  and  St.  Dominic's  in  charge  of  the 
Josephite  Fathers  in  New  Orleans  are  especially  es- 
tablished for  Catholic  negroes. 

Archives  of  the  Diocese  of  New  Orleans:  Archives  of  the  St.  Louis 
Cathedral:  She.i,  The  Cath.  Church  in  Colonial  Days  (New  York, 
1886) ;  Idem,  Life  and  Times  of  Archbishop  Carrol  (New  York, 
1888) ;  Idem,  Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Church  in  the  U.  S..  1808-85  (2  vols., 
New  York.  I'S'W;  r;M\RHE,  Hist,  de  la  Louisiane  (2  vols..  New 
Orleans,  !Mt'  7  :  *  ii  wu.evoix.  Journal  d'un  Voyage  dans 
I'Amiriqu.  >  \I  (Paris,  1744);  DE  LA  Harpe,  Jourrea/ 

Hist,  de  /'/-''  ' '"■  d^s  Francais  d  la  Louisiane  (New  Or- 
leans, 1831) .  Ki:-u.  .v..  ,u  ,le  Bienville  (New  York,  1893) ;  DlMlTHT, 
Hist,  of  Louisiana  (New  York,  1892);  Dumont.  Memoires  Histor. 
sur  la  Louisiane  (Paris.  1753);  Le  Page  dh  Pr.itz,  Hist,  de  la  L. 
(3  vols.,  Paris,  1758);  Fobtieb,  L.  Studies  (New  Orleans,  1894); 
Idem,  Hist,  of  L.  (4  vols.,  New  York,  1894);  Martin,  Hist,  of  L. 
from  the  earliest  Period  (1727) ;  King  and  Ficklen,  Hist,  of  L. 
(New  Orleans.  1900) ;  Archives  of  the  Ursuline  Convent,  New  Or- 
leans, Diary  of  Sister  Madeleine  Hachard  (New  Orleans.  1727-65); 
Letters  of  Sister  M.  H.  (1727) ;  Archives  of  Churches.  Diocese  of 
New  Orleans  (1722-1909);  Le  Propagateur  Catholique  (New  Or- 
leans), files;  The  Morning  Star  {New  Orleans,  1868-1909),  files; 
Le  MoniteuT  de  La  Louisiane  (New  Orleans,  1794-1803),  files; 

XL— 3 


French  and  Spanish  manuscripts  in  archives  of  Louisiana  His- 
torical Society;  Chambon,  In  and  Around  the  Old  St.  Louis  Cathe- 
dral (New  Orleans,  1908);  The  Picayune  (New  Orleans,  1837- 
1909),  files;  Camille  de  Rochementeix,  Les  Jisuites  et  la  Nou- 
velle  France  au  X  VHP  Siecle  (Paris,  1906) ;  Castellanos,  New 
Orleans  as  it  Was  (New  Orleans,  1905);  Member  op  the  Order 
OF  Mercy,  Essays  Educational  and  Historic  (New  York.  1899); 
LoW'ENSTEiN,  Hist,  of  the  St.  Louis  Cathedral  of  New  Orleans 
(1882):  Member  op  the  Order  of  Mercy,  Cath.  Hist,  of  Ala- 
bama and  the  Floridas:  Centenaire  du  Pkre  Antoine  (New  Orleans, 
1885);  Hardey.  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (New  York,  1910). 

Marie  Louise  Points. 

New  Pomerania,  Vicariate  Apostolic  op. — New 
Pomerania,  the  largest  island  of  the  Bismarck  Archi- 
pelago, is  separated  from  New  Guinea  by  Dampier 
Strait,  and  extends  from  148°  to  152°  E.  long,  and 
from  4°  to  7°  S.  lat.  It  is  about  348  miles  long,  from 
12 1/^  to  925^  miles  broad,  and  has  an  area  of  9650  sq. 
miles.  Two  geographical  regions  are  distinguishable. 
Of  the  north-eastern  section  (known  as  the  Gazelle 
Peninsula)  a  great  portion  is  occupied  by  wooded 
mountain  chains;  otherwise  (especially  about  Blanche 
Bay)  the  soil  is  very  fertile  and  admirably  watered  by 
rivers  (e.  g.  the  Toriu  and  Kerawat),  which  yield  an 
abundance  of  fish.  The  white  population  is  practi- 
cally confined  to  the  northern  part  of  this  section,  in 
which  the  capital,  Herbertshohe,  is  situated.  The 
western  and  larger  section  also  has  extensive  mountain 
chains,  which  contain  numerous  active  volcanoes. 
The  warlike  natin-e  of  the  natives,  who  fiercely  resent 
as  an  intrusion  every  attempt  to  land,  has  left  us  al- 
most entirely  ignorant  of  the  interior. 

The  natives  are  finely  built,  coffee  brown  in  colour, 
have  regular  features,  and,  when  well  cared  for  as  at 
the  mission  stations,  approach  the  European  stand- 
ard, though  their  lips  are  somewhat  thick  and  the 
mouth  half  or  wide  open.  While  resembling  the  south- 
eastern Papuan,  they  use  weapons  unknown  to  the 
latter — e.  g.  the  sling,  in  the  use  of  which  they  possess 
marvellous  dexterity,  skilfully  inserting  the  stone  with 
the  toes.  They  occupy  few  towns  owing  to  the  con- 
stant feuds  raging  among  them.  One  of  their  strang- 
est institutions  is  their  money  (dewarra),  composed  of 
small  cowrie  shells  threaded  on  a  piece  of  cane.  The 
difficulty  of  procuring  these  shells,  which  are  found 
only  in  very  deep  water,  accounts  for  the  value  set  on 
them.  The  unit  is  usually  a  fathom  (the  length  of 
both  arms  extended)  of  dewarra.  The  tribes  have  no 
chiefs;  an  individual's  importance  varies  according  to 
the  amount  of  dewarra  he  possesses,  but  the  final  de- 
cision for  peace  or  war  rests  with  the  tribe.  This  en- 
tire absence  of  authority  among  the  natives  is  a  great 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  government.  The  natives  are 
very  superstitious:  a  demon  resides  in  each  volcano, 
and  marks  his  displeasure  by  sending  forth  fire  against 
the  people.  To  propitiate  the  evil  spirits,  a  piece  of 
dewarra  is  always  placed  in  the  grave  with  the  corpse. 
The  celebrated  "institution  of  the  Duk-Duk  is  simply  a 
piece  of  imposture,  by  which  the  older  natives  play 
upon  the  superstitions  of  the  younger  to  secure  the 
food  they  can  no  longer  earn.  This  "spirit"  (a  na- 
tive adorned  with  a  huge  mask)  arrives  regularly  in  a 
boat  at  night  with  the  new  moon,  and  receives  the 
offerings  of  the  natives.  The  standard  of  morality 
among  the  natives  of  New  Pomerania  is  high  com- 
pared with  that  observed  in  New  Mecklenburg  (the 
other  large  island  of  the  Bismarck  Archipelago), 
where  the  laxity  of  morals,  especially  race  suicide  and 
the  scant  respect  shown  for  marriage,  seems  destined 
rapidly  to  annihilate  the  population.  In  Nov.,  1884, 
Germany  proclaimed  its  protectorate  over  the  New 
Britain  Archipelago;  New  Britain  and  New  Ireland 
were  given  the  names  of  Neupommern  and  Neumeck- 
lenburg,  and  the  whole  group  was  renamed  the  Bis- 
marck Archipelago.  The  great  obstacle  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  islands  is  their  poisonous  climate, 
neither  native  nor  European  being  immune  from  the 
ravages  of  fever.  The  native  population  is  estimated 
at  about  190,000;  the  foreign  population  (1909)  at  773 


NEWPORT 


18 


NEWTON 


(474  white).  About  13,464  acres  are  under  cultiva- 
tion, the  principal  products  being  copra,  cotton,  coffee, 
and  rubber. 

The  vicariate  .\postoUc  was  erected  on  1  Jan.,  1SS9, 
and  entrusted  to  the  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Issoudun.  Since  Sept..  190.").  when  the  Marshall 
Islands  were  made  a  separate  vicariate,  its  territory  is 
confined  to  the  Bismarck  Archipelago.  The  first  and 
present  vicar  .\postolic  is  Mgr  Louis  Cou))pe,  titular 
Bishop  of  Leros.  The  mis.sion  has  already  made  re- 
mark.ahle  progress,  and  numbers  according  to  the 
latest  statistics  1.'),2L'3  Catholii's;  2S  missionaries;  40 
brothers;  27  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Ili'art; 
55  nati\'e  catechists;  77  churches  and  chapels;  1)0  sta- 
tions (26  chief);  29  schools  with  over  4000  pupils;  13 
orphanages. 

iMonalshefle  (les  Missiorishauses  von  HillTup;  Deutsche  Kolonial- 
blalt  (190S).  suppl.  ,78sqq. 

Thomas  Kennedy. 

Newport  (England),  Diocese  of  (Neoporten- 
Sls). — This  diocese  takes  its  name  from  Newport,  a 
town  of  about  70,000 
inhabitants,  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Usk,  in  the 
county  of  Mon- 
mouth. Before  the 
restoration  of  hier- 
archial  government 
in  England  bv  Pius 
IX  in  18.50,  the  old 
"Western  District'' 
of  England  had,  since 
1S40,  been  divided 
into  two  vicariates. 
The  northern,  corn- 
prising  the  twelve 
counties  of  Wales 
with  Monmouth- 
shire and  Hereford- 
shire, was  called  the 
Vicariate  of  Wales. 
When  the  country 
was  divided  by  an 
ApostolicBricf  dated 
29  Sept.,  1S50,  into  dioceses,  the  six  counties  of  South 
^\'ales,  with  IVIonmouthshire  and  Herefordshire,  be- 
came the  Diocese  of  Newport  and  Menevia.  Mene- 
via  is  the  Latin  name  for  St.  David's,  and  the  double 
title  was  intended  to  signify  that  at  some  future  day 
there  were  to  be  two  distinct  dioceses.  The  first 
bishop  of  the  Diocese  of  Newport  and  Menevia  was 
the  Right  Reverend  Thomas  Joseph  Brown,  O.S.B., 
who  had  already,  as  vicar  Apostolic,  ruled  for  ten 
years  the  Vicariate  of  Wales.  A  further  re-adjust- 
ment of  the  diocese  was  made  in  March,  1895,  when 
Leo  XIII  separated  from  it  five  of  the  counties  of 
South  Wales,  and  formed  a  new  vicariate,  which  was 
to  consist  of  all  the  twelve  Welsh  counties  except  Gla- 
morganshire. Since  that  date  the  name  of  the  dio- 
cese has  been  simply  "Newport ",  and  it  has  consisted 
of  Glamorganshire,  Monmouthshire,  and  Hereford- 
shire. The  Catholic  population  (1910)  is  about  45,000, 
the  general  population  being  about  1,0.50,000. 

The  diocesan  chapter,  in  virtue  of  a  Decree  of  the 
Congregation  of  Propaganda,  21  April,  1852,  issued  at 
the  petition  of  Cardinal  Wiseman  and  the  rest  of  the 
hierarchy,  was  to  consist  of  monks  of  the  English 
Benedictine  Congregation  resident  in  the  town  of 
Newport.  As  the  congregation,  up  to  this  date 
(1910),  have  not  been  able  to  establish  a  house  in  New- 
port, permis.sion  from  the  Holy  See  has  been  obtained 
for  the  members  of  flic  chapter  to  reside  at  St.  Mi- 
chael's pro-cathedral,  Belmont,  near  Hereford.  The 
chapter  comprises  a  cat  hcdral  prior  and  nine  canons,  of 
whom  four  are  allowed  to  be  non-resident.  Their  choral 
habit  is  the  cuculla  or  frock  of  the  congregation  with 


a  special  almuce.  In  assisting  the  bishop  they  dispense 
~wit  h  t  he  f!/ri(//n,  and  wear  the  almuee  over  the  siirjiliee. 
The  present  bishop,  the  Right  Reverend  John  Cuth- 
bert  Iledley,  O.S.B.,  was  consecrated  as  auxiliary  on 
29  September,  1873,  and  succeeded  in  February, 
1881,  to  Bi.shop  Brown.  IIc^  resides  at  Bishop's 
House,  Llanishen,  Cardiff.  The  pro-cathedral  is  the 
beautiful  church  of  the  Benedictine  priory  at  Bel- 
mont. There  are  in  the  diocese  about  40  secular  di- 
ocesan priests,  21  Benedictines  (of  whom  15  work  on 
the  Mission),  and  14  Rosminian  Fathers.  There  are 
five  deaneries.  The  principal  towns  are  Cardiff, 
Newport,  Swansea,  and  Merthyr  Tydvil.  The  only 
religious  house  of  men  is  the  Cathedral  Priory,  Bel- 
mont, which  is  the  residence  of  the  cathedral  prior  and 
chapter,  and  is  also  a  house  of  studies  and  novitiate 
for  the  English  Benedictines.  Of  religions  women 
there  are  houses  of  Poor  Clares,  Our  Lady  of  Charity, 
the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  I'rsiilines  of 
Chavagnes,  St.  Joseph  of  Annecy,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
and  others.  There  are  four  certified  Poor  Law 
schools;  one  for  boys, 
at  T  r  e  f  o  r  e  s  t ,  and 
three  for  girls — two, 
at  Hereford  and  Bul- 
lingham  respectively, 
conducted  by  the  Sis- 
ters of  Charity,  one 
at  Cardiff,  conducted 
by  the  Sisters  of 
Nazareth.  There 
are  50  churches  in 
the  diocese,  besides 
several  school  chapels 
and  public  oratories. 
There  are  about  11,- 
000  children  in  the 
Catholic  elementary 
schools.  There  are 
four  secondary 
schools  for  girls,  and 
one  centre  (in  Car- 
dilT)  for  female  pupil 
teachers. 
*°""-^''='''  F.  A.  Crow. 

Newport,  Richard,  V'enerable.  See  Scot,  Wil- 
liam, O.S.B. ,  Venerable. 

New  Testament.     See  Te.stament,  The  New. 

Newton,  John,  soldier  and  engineer,  b.  at  Norfolk, 
Virginia,  24  August,  1823;  d.  in  New  York  City,  1 
May,  1895.  He  was  the  son  of  General  Thomas  New- 
ton and  Margaret  Jordan.  In  1838  he  was  appointed 
from  Virginia  a  cadet  in  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy, 
and  graduated  in  1842,  standing  second  in  a  class  that 
included  Rosencrans,  Pope,  and  Longstreet.  Com- 
missioned second  lieutenant  of  engineers,  he  was  en- 
gaged as  assistant  professor  of  engineering  at  West 
Point,  and  later  in  the  construction  of  fortifications 
and  other  engineering  projects  along  the  coasts  of  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Commissioned  first 
lieutenant  in  1852  and  promoted  captain  in  18.56,  he 
was  appointed  chief  engineer  of  the  Utah  Expedition 
in  1858.  At  the  opening  of  the  Civil  War  he  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  Department  of  Penn.sylvania, 
and  afterwards  held  a  similar  position  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Shenandoah.  Commissioned  major  on  6 
August,  1861,  he  worked  on  the  construction  of  the 
defences  of  Wa.shington  until  March,  1862.  He  was 
commissioned  on  23  Sept.,  1861,  brigadier-general  of 
volunteers,  and  received  command  of  a  brigade  en- 
gaged in  the  defence  of  the  city.  He  served  in  the 
army  of  the  Potomac  under  McClellan  during  the 
Peninsular  Campaign,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  heroic  condui^t  in  the  actions  of  West  I^oint, 
Gaines  Mills,  and  Glendale.  He  led  his  brigade  in 
the  Maryland  campaign,  taking  part  in  the  forcing 


NEW  WESTMINSTER  19 

of  Crampton  Gap  and  in  the  battle  of  Antietam,  and 
was  for  his  gallant  services  brevetted  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  regulars.  He  led  a  division  at  Fredericks- 
burg in  the  storming  of  Marye  Heights,  and  was 
rewarded  on  20  March,  1863,  with  the  rank  of  major- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  commanded  divisions  at 
Chancellorsville  and  Salem  Heights,  and,  at  the  death 
of  Reynolds  on  2  July,  1S63,  was  given  command  of 
the  First  Army  Corps,  whii-li  ho  led  on  the  last  two 
daysof  thebattlciircic'ttyslnirg.  OnSJuly,  lS63,for 
gailant  service  at  ticttyshurg,  he  was  brevetted 
colonel  of  regulars.  He  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
Confederate  forces  to  Warrenton,  Virginia,  and 
towards  the  end  of  1S63  was  active  in  the  Rapidan 
Campaign.  In  May,  1864,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Army  of  the  Cumberland,  and  commanded  under 
General  Thomas  the  Second  Division,  Fourth  Corps. 
He  fought  in  all  the  actions  during  the  invasion  of 
Georgia  up  to  the  capture  of  Atlanta.  For  his  gallan- 
try in  this  campaign,  especially  in  the  battle  of  Peach 
Tree  Creek,  he  was  brevetted  on  13  March,  1865, 
major-general  of  volunteers  and  brigadier-general  and 
major-general  of  regulars.  He  then  took  command  of 
various  districts  in  Florida  until,  in  January,  1866,  he 
was  mustered  out  of  the  volunteer  service. 

Commissioned  lieutenant-colonel  of  engineers  in  the 
regular  service  on  28  December,  186.5,  Newton  was 
ordered  in  April,  1866,  to  New  York  City,  where  he 
thenceforth  resided,  engaged  on  the  engineering  la- 
bours that  made  his  name  famous.  He  was  superin- 
tendent engineer  of  the  construction  of  the  defences  on 
the  Long  Island  side  of  the  Narrows,  of  the  improve- 
ments of  the  Hudson  River,  and  of  the  fortifications  at 
Sandy  Hook.  He  was  also  one  of  the  board  of  engi- 
neers deputed  to  carry  out  the  modifications  of  the  de- 
fences around  New  York  City.  The  proposed  en- 
largement of  the  Harlem  River,  and  the  improvements 
of  the  Hudson  from  Troy  to  New  York,  of  the  channel 
between  New  Jersey  and  Staten  Island,  and  of  the 
harbours  on  Lake  Champlain  were  put  under  his 
charge.  On  30  June,  1879,  he  was  named  colonel,  and 
on  6  March,  1884,  chief  of  engineers  in  the  regular  ser- 
vice with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  Among  New- 
ton's achievements,  the  most  notable  was  the  removal 
of  the  dangerous  rocks  in  Hell  Gate,  the  principal 
water-way  between  Long  Island  Sound  and  the  East 
River.  To  accomplish  this  task  successfully,  required 
the  solution  of  difficult  engineering  problems  never 
before  attempted,  and  the  invention  of  new  apparatus, 
notably  a  steam  drilling  machine,  which  has  since 
been  in  general  use.  Newton  carefully  studied  the 
problem,  and  the  accuracy  of  his  conclusions  was 
shown  by  the  exact  correspondence  of  the  results  with 
the  objects  sought.  Hallett's  Reef  and  Flood  Rock, 
having  been  carefully  mined  under  his  directions, 
were  destroyed  by  two  great  explosions  (24  September, 
1876;  10  October,  1885).  This  engineering  feat  ex- 
cited the  universal  admiration  of  engineers  ,  and  many 
honours  were  conferred  upon  him.  On  Newton's  vol- 
untary retirement  from  the  service  in  1886,  Mayor 
Grace  of  New  York,  recognizing  his  superior  skill,  ap- 
pointed him  commissioner  of  pubhc  works  on  28  Aug. 
This  post  he  voluntarily  resigned  on  24  Nov.,  1888. 
On  2  April,  1888,  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  the 
Panama  Railroad  Company,  which  position  he  filled 
until  his  death.  In  1848  General  Newton  married 
Anna  M.  Starr  of  New  London,  Connecticut.  In  his 
early  manhood  he  became,  and  until  his  death  re- 
mained, an  earnest  and  devout  member  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church. 

Powell,  List  of  Offit.ers  of  the  V.  S.  Army.  1778-1900;  Cui^ 
LUM,  Biographical  Register  of  the  Officers  and  Graduates  of  the 
U.  S.  Military  Academy;  Appleton's  Encycl,  Amer.  Biog.,  s.  v.; 
Smith,  In  Memoriam  of  General  John  Newton  (New  York,  1895). 

John  G.  Ewing. 

New  Westminster.  See  Vancouver,  Archdio- 
cese OF. 


NEW  YEAR'S  DAY 

New  Year's  Day. — The  word  year  is  etymologi- 
cally  the  same  as  hour  (Skeat),  and  signifies  a  going, 
movement  etc.  In  Semitic,  T\T^,  year,  signifies  "repe- 
tition, sc.  of  the  course  of  the  sun"  (Gesenius).  Since 
there  was  no  necessary  starting-point  in  the  circle  of 
the  year,  we  find  among  different  nations,  and  among 
the  same  at  different  epochs  of  their  history,  a  great 
variety  of  dates  with  which  the  new  year  began.  The 
opening  of  spring  was  a  natural  beginning,  and  in  the 
Bible  itself  there  is  a  close  relationship  between  the 
beginning  of  the  year  and  the  seasons.  The  ancient 
Roman  year  began  in  March,  but  Julius  Caesar,  in 
correcting  the  calendar  (46  B.  c),  made  January  the 
first  month.  Though  this  custom  has  been  univer- 
sally adopted  among  Christian  nations,  the  names, 
September,  October,  November,  and  December(i.e.  the 
seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth),  remind  us  of  the 
past,  when  March  began  the  year.  Christian  writers 
and  councils  condemned  the  heathen  orgies  and  ex- 
cesses connected  with  the  festival  of  the  SaturnaUa, 
which  were  celebrated  at  the  begi  nning  of  the  year :  Ter- 
tuUian  blames  Christians  who  regarded  the  customary 
presents — called  sirena:  (Fr.  etrennes)  from  the  goddess 
Strenia,  who  presided  over  New  Year's  Day  (cf .  Ovid, 
"Fasti",  185-90) — as  mere  tokens  of  friendly  inter- 
course (De  Idol,  xiv),  and  towards  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century  the  Council  of  Au.xerre  (can.  I)  forbade  Chris- 
tians "strenas  diabolicas  observare".  The  II  Coun- 
cil of  Tours  held  in  567  (can.  17)  prescribes  prayers 
and  a  Mass  of  expiation  for  New  Year's  Day,  adding 
that  this  is  a  practice  long  in  use  (patres  noslri  sta- 
tuerunt).  Dances  were  forbidden,  and  pagan  crimes 
were  to  be  expiated  by  Christian  fasts  (St.  Augustine, 
Serm.,  cxcvii-viii  in  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  1024;  Isidore  of 
Seville,  "De  Div.  Off.  Eccl.",  I,  xli;  Trullan  Council, 
692,  can.  Ixii).  When  Christmas  was  fixed  on  25 
Dec,  New  Year's  Day  was  sanctified  by  commem- 
orating on  it  the  Circumcision,  for  which  feast  the 
Gelasian  Sacramentary  gives  a  Mass  (In  Octabas  Do- 
mini) .  Christians  did  not  wish  to  make  the  celebra- 
tion of  this  feast  very  solemn,  lest  they  might  seem  to 
countenance  in  any  way  the  pagan  extravagance  of 
the  opening  year. 

Among  the  Jews  the  first  day  of  the  seventh  month, 
Tishri  (end  of  September),  began  the  civil  or  economic 
year  "with  the  sound  of  trumpets"  (Lev.,  xxiii,  24; 
Num.,  xxix,  1).  In  the  Bible  the  day  is  not  mentioned 
as  New  Year's  Day,  but  the  Jews  so  regarded  it,  so 
named  it,  and  so  consider  it  now  (Mishnah,  Rosh 
Hash.,  I,  1).  The  sacred  year  began  with  Nisan 
(early  in  April),  a  later  name  for  the  Biblical  abhibh, 
i.  e.  "month  of  new  corn",  and  was  memorable  "be- 
cause in  this  month  the  Lord  thy  God  brought  thee 
out  of  Egypt  by  night"  (Deut.,  xvi,  1).  Barley 
ripens  in  Palestine  during  the  early  part  of  April;  and 
thus  the  sacred  year  began  with  the  harvest,  the  civil 
year  with  the  sowing  of  the  crops.  From  Biblical 
data  Josephus  and  many  modern  scholars  hold  that 
the  twofold  beginning  of  the  year  was  pre-exilic,  or 
even  Mosaic  (cf.  "Antiq.",  I,  iii,  3).  Since  Jewish 
months  were  regulated  by  the  moon,  while  the  ripen- 
ing barley  of  Nisan  depended  upon  the  sun,  the  Jews 
resorted  to  intercalation  to  bring  sun  and  moon  dates 
into  harmony,  and  to  keep  the  months  in  the  seasons 
to  which  they  belonged  (for  method  of  adjustment,  see 
Edersheim,  "The  Temple,  Its  Ministry  and  Services 
at  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ",  x). 

Christian  nations  did  not  agree  in  the  date  of  New 
Year's  Day.  They  were  not  opposed  to  1  January  as 
the  beginning  of  the  year,  but  rather  to  the  pagan  ex- 
travagances which  accompanied  it.  Evidently  the 
natural  opening  of  the  year,  the  sijringtime,  together 
with  the  Jewish  opening  of  the  sacred  year,  Nisan,  sug- 
gested the  propriety  of  putting  the  beginning  in  that 
beautiful  season.  Also,  the  Dionysian  method  (so 
named  from  the  Abbot  Dionysius,  sixth  century)  of 
dating  events  from  the  coming  of  Christ  became  an 


NEW  YORK 


20 


NEW  YORK 


Important  factor  in  Now  Year  oalculations.  The  An- 
nunciation, with  which  Dionysiusl)i'f;;iii  the  Christian 
era,  was  lixcil  on  2.")  Mardi,  ami  lircaiiic  Xinv  Year's 
Day  forKnjilaml.  iiu'urlytinirsaiul  I'roiii  thclhirlrcnth 
century  to  1  Jan.,  1752,  wlicii  the  proscnt  custom 
was  introduced  there.  Some  countries  (c.  g.  Ger- 
many) began  with  Christmas,  thus  being  almost  in 
harmony  with  the  ancient  Germans,  who  made  tlie 
winter  solstice  their  starting-point.  Notwithstanding 
the  movable  character  of  Easter,  France  and  the  Low 
Countries  took  it  as  tlie  first  day  of  the  year,  while 
Russia,  up  to  the  eighteenth  century,  made  September 
the  first  month.  The  western  nations,  however, 
since  tlie  sixteenth,  or,  at  the  latest,  the  eighteenth 
century,  have  adopted  and  retained  the  first  of  Janu- 
ary, in  Christian  liturgy  the  Church  does  not  refer 
to  the  first  of  the  year,  any  more  than  she  does  to  the 
fact  that  the  first  Sunday  of  Advent  is  the  first  day  of 
the  ecclesiastical  year. 

In  the  United  States  of  America  the  great  feast  of 
the  Epiphany  has  ceased  to  be  a  holyday  of  obligation, 
but  New  Year  continues  in  force.  Since  the  myste- 
ries of  the  Epiphany  are  commemorated  on  Christmas 
— the  Orientals  consider  the  feasts  one  and  the  same  in 
import — it  was  thought  advisable  to  retain  by  prefer- 
ence, under  the  title  "Circumcision  of  Our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ",  New  Year's  Day  as  one  of  the  six  feasts  of 
obligation.  The  Fathers  of  the  Third  Plenary  Coun- 
cil of  Baltimore  petitioned  Rome  to  this  effect,  and 
their  petition  was  granted  (Con.  Plen.  Bait.,  Ill,  pp. 
lOosqq.).  (See  Circumcision,  Fea,st OF  the;  Chro- 
nology;  Christmas.) 

ScHROD  in  Kirchentex,,  s.  v.  Neujahr;  Welte,  ibid.,  s.  v. 
Feste;  .Abr.vh.vms  in  Hastings,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  a.  v.  Time; 
Macdon.\ld,  Chronologies  and  Calendars  (London,  1S97) ;  Eder- 
8HE1M,  The  Temple,  Its  Ministry  and  Services  at  the  time  of  Jesus 
Christ,  X,  xv;  Browne  in  Did.  Christ.  Antiq.,  s.  v.;  Harper's 
Classical  Did.  (New  York,  1897),  s.  v.  Calendarium;  Feasey, 
Chrislmastide  in  Amer.  Ecd.  Rev.  (Dec,  1909);  The  Old  English 
New  Year,  ibid.  (Jan.,  1907) ;  Thurston,  Christmas  Day  and  the 
Christian  Calendar,  ibid.  (Dec,  1898;  Jan..  1899).  For  Rab- 
binic legends  see  Jewish  Encycl.,  a.  v.  New  Year. 

John  J.  Tiernet. 

New  York,  Archdiocese  of  (Neo-Eboracensis); 
see  erected  8  .\pril,  1808;  made  archiepiscopal  19  July, 
18.50;  comprises  the  Boroughs  of  Manhattan,  Bronx, 
and  Richmond  in  the  City  of  New  York,  and  the 
Counties  of  Dutchess,  Orange,  Putnam,  Rockland, 
SuUivan,  Ulster,  and  Westchester  in  the  State  of  New 
York;  also  the  Bahama  Islands  (British  Possessions); 
an  area  of  4717  square  miles  in  New  York  and  4466  in 
the  Bahama  Islands.  The  latter  territory  was  placed 
in  1886  under  this  jurisdiction  by  the  Holy  See  because 
the  facilities  of  access  were  best  from  New  York;  it 
formerly  belonged  to  the  Diocese  of  Charleston.  The 
suffragans  of  New  York  are  the  Dioceses  of  Albany, 
Brooklyn,  Buffalo,  Ogdensburg,  Rochester,  and  Syra- 
cuse in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  Newark  and  Tren- 
ton in  New  Jersey.  All  these,  in  1808,  made  up  the 
territory  of  the  original  diocese.  The  first  division 
took  place  23  April,  1847,  when  the  creation  of  the 
Dioceses  of  Albany  and  Buffalo  cut  off  the  nort,hern 
and  western  sections  of  the  State;  and  the  second,  in 
1853,  when  Brooklyn  and  Newark  were  erected  into 
separate  sees. 

New  York  is  now  the  largest  see  in  population,  and 
the  most  important  in  influence  and  material  pros- 
perity of  all  the  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  the  Church 
in  Continental  United  States. 

I.  Colonial  Period. — Nearly  a  century  before 
Heiuy  Hudson  sailed  up  the  great  river  that  bears 
his  name,  the  Catholic  navigators  Verrazano  and 
Gomez,  had  guided  their  ships  along  its  shores  and 
placed  it  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Anthony.  The 
Calvini.stic  Hollanders,  to  whom  Hudson  gave  this 
foundation  for  a  new  colony,  manifested  their  loyalty 
to  their  state  Church  by  ordaining  that  in  New 
Netherland  the  "Reformed  Christian  religion  ac- 
cording to  the  doctrines  of  the  Synod  of  Dordrecht" 


should  be  dominant.  It  is  probable,  but  not  certain, 
that  there  were  priests  with  Verrazano  and  Gomez, 
and  that  from  a  Catholic  altar  went  up  the  first 
prayer  uttered  on  the  site  of  the  [jresent  great  metrop- 
olis of  the  New  World.  While  public  worship  by 
Catholics  was  not  tolerated,  the  generosity  of  the 
Dutch  governor,  William  Kieft,  and  the  people  of 
New  Amsterdam  to  the  Jesuit  martyr.  Father  Isaac 
Jogues,  in  1643,  and  after  him,  to  his  brother  Jesuits, 
Fathers  Bressani  and  Le  Moyne,  must  be  remembered 
to  their  everlasting  credit.  Father  Jogues  was  the 
first  priest  to  traverse  the  Slate  of  New  York;  the 
first  to  minister  within  the  limits  of  the  Diocese  of 
New  York.  When  he  reached  Manhattan  Island, 
after  his  rescue  from  captivity  in  the  summer  of  1643, 
he  found  there  two  Catholics,  a  young  Irishman  and  a 
Portuguese  woman,  whose  confessions  he  heard. 

St.  Alary's,  the  first  rude  chajiel  in  which  Mass  was 
said  in  the  State  of  New  York,  was  begun,  on  18 
November,  16.5.5,  on  the  banks  of  the  lake  where  the 
City  of  Syracuse  now  stands,  by  the  Jesuit  mission- 
aries. Fathers  Claude  Dablon  and  Pierre  Chaumonot. 
In  the  same  year  another  Jesuit,  Feather  Simon  Le 
Moyne,  journeyed  down  the  river  to  New  Amster- 
dam, as  we  learn  from  a  letter  sent  by  the  Dutch 
preacher,  Megapolensis  (a  renegade  Catholic),  to  the 
Classis  at  Amsterdam,  telling  them  that  the  Jesuit 
had  visited  Manhattan  "on  account  of  the  Papists 
residing  here,  and  especially  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  French  sailors,  who  are  Papists  and  who  have 
arrived  here  with  a  good  prize."  The  Church  had  no 
foothold  on  Manhattan  Island  until  after  1664,  when 
the  Duke  of  York  claimed  it  for  an  English  colony. 
Twenty  years  later,  the  Catholic  go\'ernor,  Thomas 
Dongan,  not  only  fostered  his  own  faith,  but  enacted 
the  first  law  passed  in  New  York  establishing  rehgious 
liberty.  It  is  believed  that  the  first  Mass  said  on  the 
island  (30  October,  1683)  was  in  a  chapel  he  opened 
about  where  the  custom  house  now  stands.  With 
him  came  three  English  Jesuits,  Fathers  Thomas 
Harvey,  Henry  Harrison,  and  Charles  Gage,  and  they 
soon  had  a  Latin  school  in  the  same  neighbourhood. 
Of  this  Jacob  Leisler,  the  fanatical  usurper  of  the 
government,  wrote  to  the  Governor  of  Boston,  in 
August,  1689:  "I  have  formerly  urged  to  inform  your 
Honr.  that  Coll  Dongan,  in  his  time  did  erect  a  Jesuite 
Colledge  upon  cullour  to  learn  Latine  to  the  Judges 
West — Mr.  Graham,  Judge  Palmer,  and  John  Tudor 
did  contribute  their  sones  for  sometime  but  no  boddy 
imitating  them,  the  colledge  vanished"  (O'Callaghan, 
"Documentary  Hist,  of  N.  Y.",  II,  23). 

With  the  fail  of  James  II  and  the  advent  of  William 
of  Orange  to  the  English  throne,  New  York's  Catholic 
colony  was  almost  stamped  out  by  drastic  penal  laws 
(see  New  York,  State  of).  In  spite  of  them,  how- 
ever, during  the  years  that  followed  a  few  scattered 
representatives  of  the  Faith  drifted  in  and  settled 
down  unobstrusively.  To  minister  to  them  there 
came  now  and  then  from  Philadelphia  a  zealous  Ger- 
man Jesuit  missionary,  Father  Ferdinand  Steinmayer, 
who  was  commonly  called  "Father  Farmer".  Gath- 
ering them  together,  he  said  Mass  in  the  house  of  a 
German  fellow-countryman  in  Wall  Street,  in  a  loft 
in  Water  Street,  and  wherever  else  they  could  find  ac- 
commodation. Then  came  the  Revolution,  and  in 
this  connexion,  owing  to  one  of  the  prominent  politi- 
cal issues  of  the  time,  the  spirit  of  the  leading  colonists 
was  intensely  anti-Catholic.  The  first  flag  raised  by 
the  Sons  of  Liberty  in  New  York  was  inscribed  "No 
Popery".  When  the  war  ended,  and  the  president 
and  Congress  resided  in  New  York,  the  Catholic 
representatives  of  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  with 
Charles  Carroll,  his  cousin  Daniel,  and  Thomas  Fitz 
Simmons,  Catholic  members  of  Congress,  and  officers 
and  soldiers  of  the  foreign  contingent,  merchants  and 
others,  soon  made  up  a  respectable  congregation. 
Mass  was  said  for  them  in  the  house  of  the  Spanish 


NEW  YORK 


21 


NEW  YORK 


minister,  Don  Diego  de  Gardoqui,  on  Broadway, 
near  the  Bowling  Green,  in  the  Vauxhall  Gardens, 
which  was  a  hall  on  the  river  fi-ont  near  Warren 
Street,  and  in  a  carpenter's  shop  in  Barclay  Street. 
Finally,  an  Irish  Capuchin,  Father  Charles  Whelan, 
who  had  served  as  a  chaplain  in  De  Grasse's 
fleet,  and  was  acting  as  private  chaplain  to  the  Portu- 


was  named:  a  letter  sent  on  8  Nov.,  1808,  by  Father 
Kohlmann,  who  was  then  acting  as  the  administrator 
of  the  diocese,  to  his  friend  Father  Strickland,  S.  J.,  of 
liOndon,  England,  says,  "Your  favour  of  the  6th  Sept. 
was  delivered  to  me  at  the  beginning  of  October  in  the 
City  of  New  York,  where  our  Right  Rev.  Bishop  Car- 
roll has  thought  proper  to  send  me  in  the  capacity 


guese  consul-general,  Don  Jos6  RoizSilva,  took  up  also  of  rector  of  this  immense  congregation  and  Vicar 
the  care  of  this  scattered  flock,  which  numbered  less  Generalof  this  diocese  till  the  arrival  of  the  Right  Rev. 
than  two  hundred,  and  only  about  forty  of  them  Richard  Luke  Concanen,  Bishop  of  New  York.  The 
practical  in  the  observances  of  their  faith.  congregation  chiefly  consists  of  Irish,  some  hundreds 

Through  efforts  led  by  the  French  consul.  Hector  St.  of  French,  and  as  many  Germans,  in  all,  according  to 
John  de  Crevecoeur  (q.  v.\  an  act  of  incorporation  the  common  estimation,  of  14,000  souls.  Rev.  Mr. 
was  secured,  on  10  June,  178.5,  for  the  "Trustees  of  Fenwick,  a  young  Father  of  our  society,  distinguished 
the  Roman  CatholicChuroh  of  the  Cily  (if.Xi'w  York."     I'or  his  l<'arning  and  piety,  has  been  sent  along  with 

in   which    Josi5   Roiz    Silva,      me.     I  was  no  sooner  arrived 

James  Stewart,   and   Henry  ,  in  the  city  and,   behold,   the 

Duffin  were  associated  with  \  trustees,  though  before    our 

him  as  the  first  board.     An  |  arrival  they  had  not  spent  a 

unexpired    lease   of    lots    at  ?  cent  for  the  reparation   and 

Barclay  and  Church  streets  ^m.  furniture     of    their     clergy- 

was  bought  from  the  trustees  ^Wk  man's  house,  laid  out  for  the 

of  Trinity  church,   Thomas  KMe  ^^'"^  purpose  above  $800.    All 

Stoughton,  the  Spanish  Con-  V'*l^»i  "^^'^   seem   to  revive  at  the 

sul-general,  and  his  partner  ^    /^  I   {  mI  '^fty  name  of  the  Society  of 

Dominick  Lynch,  advancing  j      I     ffl  Jesus  though  yet  little  known 

the    purchase     money,    one  1  j^    I  18B  m  this  part  of  the  country." 

thousand  pounds,  and  there  I       I  ^^B  ^^  h  it     rapid     progress    was 

on  5  Oct.,  1785,  the  corner-  f  S-^^fvBU.  made  he  indicates,  two  years 

stone  of  St.  Peter's,  the  first  --<i^'^      HBh  liter  when,  again  writing  to 

permanent    structure    for    a  jjWj       HSI  .rJfiSISx  ^    thf  rStrickland,on  14Sept., 

Catholic    church   erected   in      ^  IT  ■^aii^^Safe  1^10    he  tells  him:   "Indeed 

the  State  of  New  York,  was     ^&^  L    .  ^WHBi|HBfe|^^i|,.        it  is  but  two  years  that  we  ar- 

laid  by  the  Spanish  minister,      |H^ ^^--^-^^^SM^^SHSBH     '''^^'^  "^  ^'^'^  ^'^^  without  hav- 

Gardoqui.  The  church  was  ^^S^^S^^^.  H^^^^SB^S^^  '"^  ^  "^'^^  '"  ^'"^  pocket,  not 
opened    4    Nov.,   1780.   The      M^K^^       S]       lHWiMWiiffhir>^  '^'^"     °^'^    passage     money, 

first  resident  pastor  was  Fa-  lim^si^  ^^,-  HJPfflfflnllitfflfc  ^*  "  '^"^'^  ^^'^  trustees  paid  for 
ther  Whelan,  who,  however,  WBMSg^^^&  "^SB^StmmM^I^^I^^  1  at  her  Fenwick  and  me  .  .  . 
was  forced  to  retire  owing  to  ilP^^STin  HBraHWIMMlla^SSI  md  to  see  things  so  far  ad- 
the  hostility  of  the  trustees  »|i&||a||^  J  I  ^Jjiff  XTk^IT^W  '^  ^''"^'^  ^^  *°  ^®®  °°*  ""'-^  *''® 
andof  another  Capuchin,  the  tj  '  i3^  Mil  ^jMiillllliilll7  i  WjtTF*~  Cathohc  religion  highly  re- 
Rev.  Andrew  Nugent,  lipfore  Mfc^T3^  "*«;. '1  C3^  J»  f  1  T  ^P^*^' ed  by  the  first  characters 
the  Church  was  opened.  The  liOTiMteeB  ^^SSr^^S^  ^  'I  "^'M  "' th<? '''tyi  but  even  a  Cath- 
prefect  Apostolic,  the  vener-  l^r'^^^~M^S^B^W?^r^--"'Vi|y ,  ■^  olic  college  estabUshed,  the 
able  John  Carroll,  then  ^^^gSKHn^E^jJlt^  {!fff^B**ilf i  '^'^"'"'^  ^''"  furnished  both  in 
visited  New  York  to  admin-  ?MWpfBSi^^^^^^SfciP^!ti44^fc^i^  '"""  "^nd  in  the  college  im- 
ister  confirmation  for  the  laaMft^Siia|Ma|a^^^^i,,^.-  IH 1 1  taBE^^  p  ovements  made  in  the  col- 
first  time,  and  placed  the  gBHHBMH^^^^^F^^^^^^  1  U  ge  [sic]  for  four  or  five  hun- 
church  in  charge  of  a  Domin-     ^■■^^^BIHHB^^BHV'**^  '""^  dollars  ...  is  a  thing 

ican.  Father  William  O'Brien,     " — ^ — T TT. ^  3      ^v-      "     w  hich  I  am  at  a  loss  to  con- 

who  may  be  regarded  as  the  ^ld  St.  Peter  b  CHtmcH,  Barclay  br.  u,>>o)  ^^^^^    and    ^hj^h    J   cannot 

organizer  of  the  parish.  He  had  as  his  assistants  ascribe  but  to  the  infinite  liberality  of  the  Lord,  to 
Fathers  John  Connell  and  Nicholas  Burke,  and,  in  his  whom  alone,  therefore,  be  all  glory  and  honour.  The 
efforts  to  aid  the  establishment  of  the  church,  went  as  college  is  in  the  centre  not  of  Long  Island  but  of 
far  as  the  City  of  Mexico  to  collect  funds  there  under  the  Island  of  New  York,  the  most  delightful  and  most 
the  auspices  of  his  old  schoolfellow,  the  archbishop  of  healthy  spot  of  the  whole  island,  at  a  distance  of  four 
that  see.  He  brought  back  S.5920  and  a  number  of  small  miles  from  the  city,  and  of  half  a  mile  from  the 
paintings,  vestments,  etc.  Father  O'Brien  and  his  East  and  North  rivers,  both  of  which  are  seen  from  the 
assistants  did  heroic  work  during  the  yellow  fever  house;  situated  between  two  roads  which  are  very 
epidemics  of  1795,  1799,  1801,  and  1805.  In  1801  he  much  frequented,  opposite  to  the  botanic  gardens 
established  the  parish  school,  which  has  since  been  which  belong  to  the  State.  It  has  adjacent  to  it  a 
carried  on  without  interruption.     The  church  debt  at     beautiful  lawn,  garden,  orchard,^  etc."— This_  spot  is 


now  the  site  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  on  Fifth  ave- 
nue. 

We  can  judge  from  the  family  names  on  the  register 
of  St.  Peter's  church  that  the  early  Catholics  of  New 
York  were  largely  Irish;  next  in  number  come  the 
French,  then  the  Germans,  followed  by  those  of  Ital- 
ian, Spanish  and  English  origin.  There  were  enough 
Germans  in  1808  to  think  themselves  entitled  to  a 
Kohlmann  (q.  v.),  was  sent  to  take  charge.  It  was  church  and  pastor  of  their  own  nationality,  for  on  2 
at  this  time  that  the  Holy  See  determined  to  erect  March  of  that  year  Christopher  Briehill,  John  Kner- 
Baltimore  into  an  archbishopric  and  to  establish  the  inger,  George  Jacob,  Martin  Nieder,  and  I'rancis 
new  Dioceses  of  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  Werneken  signed  a  petition  which  they  sent  to  Bishop 
Bardstown,  Ky.  Carroll  praying  him  "to  send  us  a  pastor  who  is  capa- 

II    Creation  of  the  Diocese.— We  have  a  picture     ble  of  undertaking  the  spiritual  Care  of  our  Souls  i  n  the 
of  the  situation  in  New  York  when  the  first  bishop     German  Language,  whiciris  our  Mother  Tongue. 


this  time  was  .$6,500;  the  income  from  pew  rents 
.11120,  and  from  collections,  .S360,  a  year.  The  Rev. 
Dr.  Matthew  O'Brien,  another  Dominican,  the  Rev. 
John  Byrne,  and  the  Rev.  Michael  Hurley,  an  Au- 
gustinian,  were,  during  this  period,  assistants  at  St. 
Peter's.  In  July,  1807,  the  Rev.  Louis  Sibourd,  a 
French  priest,  was  made  pastor,  but  he  left  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  then  the  famous  Jesuit,  Anthony 


NEW   YORK 


22 


NEW   YORK 


Many  of  us  do  not  know  any  English  at  all,  and  those 
who  have  some  knowledge  of  it  are  not  well  enough 
versed  in  the  Knglish  Language  as  to  attend  Divine 
Serviee  with  any  utihty  to  themselves.  As  we  have 
not  yet  a  plaice  of  worship  of  our  own  we  have  made 
application  t.i  Ihr  Trustees  of  the  English  Catholic 
Church  in  this 
city  to  grant  us 
permission  to  per- 
form our  worsliip 
in  the  German 
Language  in  their 
eliurch  at  such 
times  as  not  to 
interfere  with 
tlu'ir  regular  ser- 
vices. This  per- 
mission they  have 
readily  granted 
us.  During  the 
Course  of  the  year 
we  shall  take  care 
to  find  an  oppor- 
tunity to  provide 
ourselves  with  a 
suitable  building 
of  our  own,  for 
we  have  no  doubt 


RicH-\RD  Luke  Concanen 
First  Bisliop  of  New  York 


that  our  number  will  soon  considerably  increase. 
Nothing  came  of  this  petition,  and  no  separate  Ger- 
man congregation  was  organized  in  New  York  until  a 
quarter  of  a  century  after  its  date.  But  Father  Kohl- 
mann  saw  to  it  that  another  church  should  be  started, 
and  St.  Patrick's  was  begun  "between  the  Broadway 
and  the  Bowery  road"  in  1809,  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  rapidly  increasing  number  of  Catholics  on  the 
east  side  of  the  city.  It  was  also  to  serve  as  the  cathe- 
dral church  of  the  new  diocese.  The  corner-stone  was 
laid  8  June,  1809,  but,  owing  to  the  hard  times  and  the 
war  of  1812  with  England,  the  structure  was  not 
ready  for  use  until  4  May,  1815,  when  it  was  dedicated 
by  Bishop  Cheverus  who  came  from  Boston  for  that 
purpose.  It  was  tlien  far  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city, 
and,  to  accustom  the  people  to  go  there,  Mass  was 
said  at  St.  Peter's  every  other  Sunday.  The  ground 
on  which  it  was  built  was  purchased  in  1801  for  a 
graveyard,  and  the  interments  in  it  from  that  time 
until  the  cemetery  was  closed  in  1833  numbered  32,- 
153.  Some  of  the  Catholic  laymen  prominent  during 
this  period  were  Andrew  Morris,  Matthew  Reed, 
Cornelius  Heeney,  Thomas  Stoughton,  Dominick 
Lynch,  Benjamin  Disobrey,  Peter  Burtsell,  uncle  of 
the  Rev.  James  A.  Neil,  the  first  native  of  New  York 
to  be  admitted  to  the  priesthood,  Joseph  Icard,  mer- 
chant and  architect,  Hugh  McGinnis,  Dennis  Doyle, 
Miles  F.  Clossey,  Anthony  Trapanni,  a  native  of 
Meta,  Italy,  pioneer  Italian  merchant  and  the  first 
foreigner  to  be  naturalized  under  the  Constitution, 
Francis  Varet,  John  B.  Lasala,  Francis  Cooper,  George 
Gott.sberger,  Thomas  O'Connor,  Thomas  Brady,  Dr. 
William  James  Macneven,  and  Bernard  Dornin,  the 
first  Catholic  publisher,  for  whose  edition  of  Pasto- 
rini's  "History  of  the  Church,"  issued  in  1807,  there 
were  318  New  York  City  subscribers. 

III.  The  Hierarchy. — A.  When  Bishop  Carroll 
learned  that  it  was  the  intention  of  the  Holy  See  to 
recognize  the  growth  of  the  Church  in  the  United 
States  by  dividing  the  Diocese  of  Baltimore  and  creat- 
ing new  sees,  he  advised  that  New  York  be  placed  un- 
der the  care  of  the  Bishop  of  Boston  till  a  suitable 
choice  could  be  made  for  that  diocese.  Archbishop 
Troy  of  Dubhn,  however,  induced  Pius  VII  to  appoint 
as  New  York's  first  bishop  an  Irish  Dominican,  Father 
Richard  Luke  Concanen,  who  had  resided  many  years 
in  Rome  as  the  agent  of  the  Irish  bishops  and  was 
much  esteemed  there.  He  was  prior  of  St.  Clement's 
at  Rome,  librarian  of  the  Minerva,  and  distinguished 


for  his  learning.  He  had  refused  a  nomination  for  a 
see  in  Ireland  and  was  much  interested  in  the  missions 
in  America,  about  whicli  he  had  kept  up  a  correspond- 
ence with  Bishop  Carroll.  It  was  at  his  suggestion 
that  Father  Fenwick  founded  the  first  house  of  the 
Dominicans  in  Kentucky.  He  was  consecrated  first 
Bishop  of  New  York  at"  Rome,  21  April,  1808,  and 
some  time  after  left  for  Leghorn  on  his  way  to  his  see, 
taking  with  him  the  pallium  for  Archbishop  Carroll. 
After  waiting  there  for  a  ship  for  four  months  he  re- 
turned to  Rome.  Thence  he  went  to  Naples,  expect- 
ing to  sail  from  that  port,  but  tin'  French  military 
forces  in  possession  of  the  city  detained  him  as  a 
British  subject,  and,  while  waiting  vainly  to  be  re- 
leased, he  died  of  fever,  19  June,  1810.  Finding  that 
he  could  not  leave  Italy,  he  had  asked  the  pope  to  ap- 
point the  Rev.  Ambrose  Mar^chal  to  be  his  coadjutor 
bishop  in  New  York.  The  American  bishops  cor- 
dially endorsed  this  choice  and  considered  that  the  ap- 
pointment would  be  made.  Archbishop  Carroll, 
writing  to  Father  C.  Plowden,  of  London,  25  June, 
1815,  said:  "It  was  known  here  that  before  the  death 
of  Dr.  Concanen  his  Holiness  at  the  Dr's  entreaty  in- 
tended to  assign  to  him  as  his  coadjutor  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Marechal,  a  priest  of  St.  Sulpice,  now  in  the  Seminary 
here,  and  worthy  of  any  promotion  in  the  Church. 
We  still  expected  that  this  measure  would  be  pursued; 
and  that  we  made  no  presentation  or  recommendation 
of  any  other  for  the  vacant  see." 

B. — Archbishop  Troy,  of  Dublin,  however,  with 
the  other  Irish  bishops,  proposed  to  the  pope  another 
Irish  Dominican,  the  Rev.  John  Connolly,  for  the 
vacant  see  of  New  York,  and  he  was  consecrated  at 
Rome,  6  Nov.,  1814  (see  Connolly,  .Iohn).  It  was  a 
selection  which  might  have  proved  embarrassing  to 
American  Catholics,  for  Bishop  Connolly  was  a 
British  subject,  and  the  LTnited  States  was  then  at 
war  with  Great  Britain.  "I  wish,"  wrote  Archbishop 
Carroll  to  Father  Plowden,  25  June,  1815,  "this  may 
not  become  a  very  dangerous  precedent  fruitful  of 
mischief  by  draw- 
ing upon  our  reli- 
gion a  false  opin- 
ion of  the  servility 
of  our  principles." 
Owing  to  his  own 
views  of  the  situ- 
ation in  the  din- 
cese.  Bishop  Cmi- 
nolly  did  nut 
announce  his  :i|i- 
pointment  to  lii- 
fellow-members  of 
the  hierarchy  or  to 
the  administrator 
of  the  diocese. 
Father  Kohlmann 
was,  therefore,  in 
anticipation  of  the 
bishop's  arrival, 
recalled  by  his  su- 
periors to  Mary- 
land, the  college 
was     closed,    and  John  Connolly 

the    other    Jesuits  Second  Bi.stiop  of  New  York 

soon  after  left  the  diocese.  Finally,  Bishop  Con- 
nolly arrived  in  New  York  unannounced,  and  with- 
out any  formal  local  welcome,  24  Nov.,  1815,  his 
ship  taking  sixty-eight  days  to  make  the  voyage  from 
Dublin.  In  the  diocese  he  found  that  everything 
was  to  be  created  from  resources  that  were  very  small 
and  in  spite  of  obstacles  that  were  very  great.  The 
diocese  embraced  the  whole  State  of  New  York  and 
half  of  New  Jersey.  There  were  but  four  priests  in 
this  territory.  Lay  trustees  had  become  so  accus- 
tomed to  having  their  own  way  that  they  were  not 
disposed  to  admit  even  the  authority  of  a  bishop. 


NEW  YORK 


23 


NEW  YORK 


Dr.  Connolly  was  not  wanting  in  firmness,  but  the 
pressing  needs  of  the  times,  forcing  an  apparent  con- 
cession to  the  established  order  of  tilings,  subjected 
him  to  much  difficulty  and  many  humiliations.  He 
was  a  missionary  priest  rather  than  a  bishop,  as  he 
wrote  Cardinal  Litta,  Prefect  of  Propaganda,  in  Feb- 
ruary, ISIS,  but  he  discharged  all  his  laborious  duties 
with  humility  and  earnest  zeal.  His  diary  further 
notes  that  he  told  the  cardinal:  "I  found  here  about 
13,000  Catholics.  .  .  .  At  present  there  are  about  16,- 
000  mostly  Irish;  at  least  10,000  Irish  Cathohcs  ar- 
rived at  New  York  only  within  these  last  three  years. 
They  spread  through  all  the  other  states  of  this  con- 
federacy, and  make  their  religion  known  everywhere. 
Bishops  ought  to  be  granted  to  whatever  here  is  will- 
ing to  erect  a  Cathedral,  and  petition  for  a  bishop. 
.  .  .  The  present  dioceses  are  quite  too  extensive. 
Our  Cathedral  owes  $53,000  borrowed  to  build  it.  .  .  . 
This  burden  hinders  us  from  supporting  a  sufficient 
number  of  priests,  or  from  thinking  to  erect  a  semi- 
nary. The  American  youth  have  an  invincible  re- 
pugnance to  the  ecclesiastical  state." 

He  made  a  \nsitation  of  the  diocese,  no  mean  accom- 
plishment at  that  time;  provided  churches  for  the  peo 
pie  in  Brooklyn,  Buffalo,  Albany,  Utiea    md  Pater- 
son;  introduced  the  Sisters  of  Charit\     st  utr  1  the 
orphan  asylum,  and  encouraged  the  openmg  it  p  iii  h 
schools.     He  died  at  liis  residence,  512  Bioi  1\\  i\     > 
Feb.,  1825,  worn  out  by  his  labours  and    iii\i(  tn 
Notable  men  of  this  period  were  Fxthers   Muhi  1 
O'Gorman  and  Richard  Bulger — the  lattir  tin   fii  t 
priest  ordained  in   Xew  York   (1820) — Chxiks  IJ 
Ffrench,  John  Power,  John  Farnan,  Ihonns  C    L(  \ 
ins,  Philip  Larisey  and  John  Shannahan      There  v.  i  r 
several    distinguished    converts,    including     Molh  i 
Seton,  founder  of  tiic  American  branch  of  tli    ^i  t   i 
of  Charity;  tlic  Hiv.  \irgil  Barber  and  his  wil      il 
Rev.  John  Richards,   the  Rev.  George  K(«l  \    tli 
Rev.  George  E.  Ironside.  Keating  Lawson   md  othcis 
Two  years  elapsed  before  the  next   bishop  v,  is   \p- 
pointed,  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Power  during  tint 
period  governed  the  diocese  as  adinini  trit  n     Brook 
lyn's  first  church  was  organized  durin^  tin    timr       It 
was  during  Bishop  Connnlly's  administration  also, 
that  New  York's  first  Catholic  paper  "The  Truth 
Teller"  was  started,  on  2  April,  1825. 

C. — The  choice  of  the  Holy  See  for  the  third  bishop 
was  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Dubois,  president  of  Mount 
St.  Mary's  College,  Emmitsburg  (see  Dubois,  John), 
and  he  was  consecrated  at  Baltimore,  29  October, 
1826.  The  Rev.  William  Taylor,  a  convert  who  had 
come  from  Cork,  Ireland,  in  June,  1818,  at  the  sugges- 
tion of  Bishop  England  of  Charleston,  endeavoured 
to  be  himself  made  bishop,  going  to  Rome  in  Jan- 
uary, 1820,  for  that  purpose.  This  visit  to  Rome 
being  fruitless,  Taylor  went  to  Boston,  where  he 
remained  several  years  with  Bishop  Cheverus,  re- 
turning to  New  York  when  that  prelate  was  trans- 
ferred to  France.  He  was  exceedingly  popular  with 
non-Catholics  because  of  his  liberality.  He  preached 
the  sermon  at  the  consecration  of  Bishop  Dubois  and 
used  the  occasion  to  expatiate  on  what  he  called  "dis- 
astrous experiences  wliich  resulted  to  religion  from 
injudicious  appointments",  hinting  at  coming  trouble 
for  the  bishop  in  New  York.  He  left  New  York  simul- 
taneously with  the  arrival  of  the  bishop  there,  and 
sailed  for  France,  where  his  old  friend  Mgr  Cheverus, 
then  Archbishop  of  Bordeaux,  received  him.  He  died 
suddenly,  while  preaching  in  the  Irish  college,  Paris, 
in  1828. 

None  of  the  predicted  disturbances  happened  when 
Bishop  Dubois  took  possession  of  his  see,  though  the 
abuse  of  trusteeism,  grown  more  and  more  insolent 
and  unmanageable  by  toleration,  hampered  his  efforts 
from  the  very  start.  Fanaticism  w.as  aroused  among 
the  Protestant  sects,  alarmed  at  the  numerical  in- 
crease of  the  Church  through  the  immigration  at- 


tracted by  the  commercial  growth  of  the  State.  But  in 
spite  of  all,  he  went  on  bravely  visiting  all  parts  of 
the  State,  building  and  encouraging  the  building  of 
churches  wherever  they  were  needed,  obtaining  aid 
from  Rome  and  from  the  charitable  in  Europe.  He 
found  but  two  churches  in  the  city  when  he  came;  to 
these  he  added  six  others  and  multiplied  for  his  flock 
the  facilities  for  practising  their  religion,  his  constant 
endeavour  being  to  give  his  people  priests,  churches, 
and  schools.  With  the  trustees  in  New  York  City 
and  in  Buffalo  he  had  many  sad  experiences,  but  he 
unflinchingly  upheld  his  constituted  authority.  In 
1834  he  organized,  with  the  Rev.  John  Raffeiner  as 
pastor,  the  first  German  Catholic  congregation  in  New 
York  in  a  small  disused  Baptist  church  at  Pitt  and 
De  Lancey  Streets,  which  became  the  church  of  St. 
Nicholas.  It  was  about  this  time,  too,  that  a  public 
controversy  over  Catholic  doctrine  raged  between  the 
Calvinist  ministers.  Rev.  John  Breckenridge  and  Rev. 
WUUam  Brownlee,  and  the  \iciv-'_'i'!i>M-il,   H>'v.   Dr. 


Fifth  .\venue  aad  Fiftietli  Street.  Ne 
preaent  Cathedr; 

Power,  assisted  by  Fathers  Varela,  Levins,  and  Schnel- 
ler.  It  was  followed  by  the  fanatical  attack  on  Cat  ho- 
hc  reUgious  communities  known  as  "The  Awful  Dis- 
closures of  Maria  Monk".  Dr.  Dubois  "had  then 
reached  the  age  of  seventy  and,  though  still  a  vigorous 
combatant  when  necessary,  was  disinclined  to  religious 
controversy.  Perhaps  he  did  not  understand  the 
country  and  the  people  as  well  as  the  younger  men 
who  had  grown  up  in  America;  perhaps  he  was  de- 
terred by  his  memories  of  the  French  Revolution" 
(Herbermann,  "Hist.  Records  and  Studies",  I,  Pt.  2, 
333). 

At  length  the  many  burdens  and  anxieties  of  his 
charge  told  on  the  bishop,  and  he  asked  for  a  coadju- 
tor, naming  the  Right  Rev.  P.  F.  Kenrick,  Coadjutor 
of  Philadelphia,  as  his  first  choice,  and  the  Rev. 
Thomas  F.  Mulledy,  S.J..  and  the  Rev.  John  Hughes, 
of  Philadelphia,  as  alternates.  Father  Hughes,  of 
Philadelphia,  who  had  been  his  pupil  at  Emmitsburg, 
was  selected  and  consecratcil  titular  Bishop  of  Basileo, 
7  January,  18:38.  His  youth  and  vigour  soon  put.  new 
life  into  the  affairs  of  the  Church  in  New  York,  and 
were  especially  efficient  in  meeting  the  aggn'ssions  of 
the  lay  trustees.  Bishop  Hughes  had  fully  realized 
the  dangers  of  the  system  as  shown  in  IMiiladrlphia, 
and  he  lost  no  time  in  meeting  and  crushing  it  in  New 
York.  Bishop  Dubois,  through  ill  health,  had  to  re- 
linquish the  details  of  his  charge  more  and  more  to  his 
youthful  assistant,  v/Uohv.  activity  he  warmly  wel- 
comed. Several  attacks  of  paralysis  warned  him  to 
give  up  the  management  ot-the  diocese.     His  remain- 


NEW   YORK 


24 


NEW  YORK 


ing  days  ho  spent  quietly  preparing  for  the  end,  his 
coadjutor  ever  treating  him  with  respectful  kindness 
and  sympathy.  He  died  20  December,  1S40,  full  of 
years  and  merits.  Those  of  his  assistants  who  were 
notably  prominent  were  Fatlier  Felix  \'arela,  an  emi- 
nently pious  and  versatile  priest,  an  exile  from  Cuba, 
and  the  Revs.  Jo.se]>h  Sehncller,  Dr.  Constantine  C. 
Pise,  Alexander  Mupietti,  .lolin  KafTeiner,  the  pioneer 
German  pastor;  Hatton  Walsh,  P.  Malou,  T.  Ma- 
guire,  Michael  Curran,  Gregory  B.  Pardow,  Luke 
Berry,  John  N.  Neumann,  later  a  Redemptorist  and 
Bishop  of  Philadelphia,  and  John  \A'alsh,  long  pastor 
of  St.  James,  Brooklyn. 

D. — Bishop  Hughes,  the  administrator,  at  once  as- 
sumed the  title  of  the  see  as  its  fourth  bishop,  and  is 
the  really  great  figure  in  the  constructi\-e  period  of 
New  York's  history.  "It  was  a  day  of  great  men  in 
the  civil  order",  says  the  historian,  Dr.  John  Gilmary 
Shea,  "the  day  of  Clay,  Webster,  Calhoun,  yet  no 
man  of  that  era  spoke  so  directly  or  so  effectively  to 
the  American  peo- 
ple as  Bishop 
Hughes.  He  was 
not  an  ortlinary 
man.  It  had  been 
well  said  that  in 
any  assemblage  he 
would  have  been 
notable.  He 
was  full  of  noble 
thoughts  and  aspi- 
rations and  de- 
voted to  the 
Church;  every 
plan  and  every 
proj  ect  of  his  mind 
a  i  m  e  d  at  the 
i;r(^atergood  of  the 
country".  The 
>inry  of  his  event- 
ful career  is  told  in 
a  separate  article 
(see  Hughes, 
John),  and  it  will 
sufEce  to  mention  here  some  of  the  many  distinguished 
men  who  helped  to  make  his  administration  so  impor- 
tant in  local  records.  Among  them  were  the  Rev.  Wil- 
liam Quarter,  afterwards  first  Bishop  of  Chicago,  and 
his  brother,  the  Rev.  Walter  J.  Quarter,  the  Rev.  Ber- 
nard O'Reilly,  first  Bishop  of  Hartford;  the  Rev.  John 
Loughlin,  first  Bishop  of  Brooklyn;  the  Rev.  James  R. 
Bayley,  first  Bishop  of  Newark  and  Archbishop  of 
Baltimore;  the  Rev.  David  Bacon,  first  Bishop  of 
Portland;  the  Rev.  William  G.  McCloskey,  first  rec- 
tor of  the  American  College  at  Rome  and  fourth 
Bishop  of  Louisville,  Ky.,  son  of  one  of  the  Brooklyn 
pioneers;  the  Rev.  Andrew  Byrne,  first  Bishop  of  Lit- 
tle Rock;  the  Rev.  John  J.  Com'oy,  Bishop  of  Albany; 
the  Rev.  William  Starrs,  vicar-general;  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Ambrose  Manahan,  the  Rev.  Dr.  J.  W.  Cummings, 
Archdeacon  McCarron,  the  Rev.  John  Kelly  (Eugene 
Kelly's  brother),  who  went  as  a  missionary  to  Africa 
and  then  became  first  pastor  at  Jersey  City.  These 
are  only  a  few  of  the  names  that  are  prominent. 
Among  the  notable  converts  of  this  period  may  be 
mentioned  the  Rev.  Thomas  S.  Preston,  J.  V.  Hun- 
tington, F.  E.  White,  Donald  McLeod,  Isaac  T. 
Hecker,  A.  F.  Hewit,  Alfred  Young,  Clarence  W^al- 
worth,  and  Edgar  P.  Wadhams,  later  Bishop  of 
Cgdensburg. 

E. — As  the  successor  of  Archbishop  Hughes,  Bishop 
John  McCloskey  of  Albany  was  promoted  to  be  the 
second  archbishop.  He  had  been  consecrated  Coad- 
jutor of  New  York,  with  the  right  of  succession,  in 
1844,  but  resigned  both  offices  to  become  the  first 
Bishop  of  Albany  in  1847  (see  McCloskey,  John). 
He  returned  to  New  York  in  spite  of  his  own  protests 


John  Dubois 
Third  Bishop  of  New  York 


of  unworthiness,  but  with  the  unanimous  approval 
and  rejoicing  of  the  clergy  and  laity.  He  was  born 
in  Brooklyn,  10  March,  ISIO,  and  was  therefore  the 
first  native  bishop,  as  li<'  was  i  lie  second  native  of  New 
York  to  be  ordained  to  the  priesthood.  He  was  a 
gentle,  polished,  ainialile  l)relate,  and  accomplishefl 
nuich  for  the  ]>rogre.-is  of  Catlmlie  New  York.  The 
Protectory,  the  Foundling  Asyhuii,  and  the  Mi.ssioii  of 
the  Immaculate  Virgin  for  hdineless  children  were 
founded  under  his  auspices;  he  resumed  work  on  the 
new  Cathedral,  and  saw  its  comi)lction;  the  provincial 
seminary  at  Troy  was  organized;  churches,  schools, 
and  charitable  institutions  were  everywhere  increased 
and  improved.  In  the  stimulation  of  a  general  ap- 
preciation of  the  necessity  of  Catholic  education  the 
cardinal  (he  was  elevated  to  the  Purple  in  1875) 
was  incessant  and  most  vigorous.  He  saw  that  the 
foundations  of  the  structure,  laid  ilecp  by  his  illustri- 
ous predecessor,  upheld  an  edilicc  in  which  all  the  re- 
quirements of  modern  educational  mctliods  should  be 
found.  Like  him,  also,  as  years  crept  on,  he  asked 
for  a  coadjutor,  and  the  Bishop  of  Newark,  Michael 
Augustine  Corrigan,  was  sent  to  him. 

F. — Born  in  Newark,  31  August,  1839,  his  college 
days  were  spent  at  Mt.  St.  Mary's,  Emmitsburg,  and 
at  Rome.  Ordained  in  1863,  Bishop  Corrigan  be- 
came president  of  Seton  Hall  College  in  1868,  Bishop 
of  Newark  in  1873,  Coadjutor  of  New  York  in  1880, 
and  archbishop  in  188.5  (see  Corrigan,  Michael  A.). 
He  died,  from  an  accidental  fall  during  the  building  of 
the  Lady  Chapel  at  the  Cathedral,  5  May,  1902.  It 
was  said  of  him  by  the  New  York  "Evening  Post": 
"The  memory  of  his  life  distils  a  fragrance  like  to  that 
of  St.  Francis."  By  some  New  Y'orkers  he  was  for  a 
time  a  much  misunderstood  man,  whose  memory  time 
will  vindicate.  Acute  thinkers  are  appreciating  his 
worth  as  a  civilian  as  well  as  a  churchman,  and  the  fact 
that,  for  Catholics,  he  grappled  with  the  first  menac- 
ing move  of  Socialism  and  eft'ectually  and  permanently 
checked  its  advance.  He  was  an  administrator  of 
ability  and,  socially,  a  man  of  winning  personality. 
To  the  serious  problem  of  providing  for  the  spiritual 
need  of  the  inrushing  thousands  of  European  immi- 
grants he  gave  successful  consideration.  The  splen- 
did seminary  at  Dunwoodie  is  his  best  memorial.  Its 
beautiful  chapel  he  built  at  a  cost  of  $60,000 — his 
whole  private  inherited  fortune.  During  his  admin- 
istration controversy  over  the  school  question  was 
waged  with  a  certain  amount  of  acrimony.  He  was 
regarded  as  the  leader  of  those  all  over  the  country 
who  stood  for  uncompromising  Catholic  education. 
Archbishop  Corrigan  was  also  drawn  into  conflict 
with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Edward  McGlynn,  rector  of  St. 
Stephen's  church,  a  man  of  considerable  ability,  but 
whose  radical  views  on  the  ownership  of  land  had 
brought  on  him  the  official  censure  of  Cardinal  Si- 
meoni,  Prefect  of  Propaganda.  In  the  municipal  elec- 
tion of  1886,  in  spite  of  the  archbishop's  warnings,  he 
became  the  open  partisan  of  Henry  George  who  was 
the  candidate  for  mayor  of  the  Single  Tax  party.  As 
a  consequence,  he  was  suspended,  and,  as  an  alumnus 
of  the  College  of  Propaganda,  was  summoned  to 
Rome  to  answer  the  charges  made  against  him.  He 
refused  to  go  and  was  excommunicated. — For  details 
and  text  of  official  letters,  see  Archbishop  Corrigan's 
statement  to  New  York  papers  (21  January,  1887)  and 
Dr.  McGlynn's  formal  answer  in  Henry  George's 
"Standard"  (5  February,  1887).— Dr.  McGlynn's 
partisans  organized  themselves  into  what  they  called 
the  Anti-Poverty  Society.  He  addressed  this  body 
every  Sunday  until  about  Christmas,  1892,  when, 
having  willingly  accepted  the  conditions  laid  down  by 
the  pope,  he  was  absolved  from  censure  and  recon- 
ciled by  Mgr  Satolli,  the  Apostolic  delegate.  Ac- 
cording to  a  published  statement  by  Mgr  Satolli,  the 
conditions  were  in  this  form :  "Dr.  McGlynn  had  pre- 
sented a  brief  statement  of  his  opinions  on  moral- 


NEW  YORK 


25 


NEW  YORK 


economic  matters,  and  it  was  judged  not  contrary  to 
the  doctrine  constantly  taught  by  the  Church,  and  as 
recently  confirmed  by  the  Holy  Father  in  the  encych- 
cal  'Reruni  Novarum'.  Also  it  is  hereby  made 
known  that  Dr.  McGlynn,  besides  publicly  professing 
his  adiicrciiii'  Id  all  the  doctrines  and  teachings  of  the 
Catholic  C'liun  li,  has  expressed  his  regret  (saying  that 
he  would  lie  the  lirst  to  regret  it)  for  any  word  or  act 
of  his  that  may  have  seemed  lacking  in  the  respect  due 
to  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  he  hereby  intends  to 
repair  as  far  as  he  can  any  offense  which  may  have 
been  given  to  Catholics.  Finally,  Dr.  McGlynn  has 
of  his  own  free  will  declared  and  promised  that, 
within  the  limits  of  a  not  long  period  of  time,  he  will 
go  to  Rome  in  the  spirit  and  intention  which  are  be- 
coming to  a  good  Catholic  and  a  priest."  In  1S94 
Dr.  AIcGlynn  was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Mary's 
church,  Newburg,  where  he  remained  quietly  until 
his  death  in  1001. 

Archbishop  Corrigan  made  his  last  visit  ad  Umina 
in  1890  and  after  his  return,  until  his  death  in  1902, 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  duties  of  his  high 
office.  His  death  brought  out  the  fact  that  he  was 
the  foremost  figure  of  the  community  in  the  respect 
and  affection  of  his  fellow-citizens.  His  unassuming 
personality  and  his  gentle  method,  his  considerate 
kindness  and  his  unaffected  piety  were  pathways  to 
the  love  and  veneration  of  his  own  flock.  His  stead- 
fast adherence  to  principle,  as  well  as  his  persuasive 
manner  of,  not  only  teaching,  but  also  of  acting  out 
the  doctrines  of  his  reUgion,  his  profound  scholarship, 
his  experienced  judgment,  were  ever  employed  when 
there  was  question  of  a  religious,  moral,  or  civil  import 
to  his  fellow-men.  The  truth  of  this  is  to  be  found  in 
the  testimony  of  Leo  XIII,  himself,  of  the  civil  digni- 
taries of  the  land,  of  his  brethren  in  the  episcopate, 
of  his  own  clergy  and  laity,  on  the  mournful  occa- 
sion of  his  death.  Under  the  second  and  third  arch- 
bishops, Mgr  ^\'illiam  Quinn,  V.G.,  was  a  prominent 
figure,  and  among  his  associates  of  this  era  were  Mgr 
Thomas  S.  Preston,  Mgr  Arthur  J.  Donnelly,  Mgr 
James  McMahon,  Mgr  P.  F.  McSweeny,  Fathers 
M.  Curran,  William  Everett,  W.  H.  Clowry,  Felix  H. 
Farrelly,  Eugene  McGuire,  Thomas  Farrell,  Edward 
J.  O'Reilly,  M.  J.  O'Farrell  (later  Bishop  of  Trenton), 
and  Edmund  Aubril. 

G. — As  fourth  archbishop,  the  Holy  See  confirmed 
the  choice  of  the  diocesan  electors,  and  appointed  to 
fill  the  vacancy  the  auxiliary,  the  Right  Rev.  John 
Murphy  Farley,  titular  Bishop  of  Zeugma,  who  was 
promoted  to  the  archbishopric  15  September,  1902. 
He  was  born  at  Newton  Hamilton,  County  Armagh, 
Ireland,  20  April,  1842.  His  primary  studies  were 
made  at  St.  McCartan's  College,  Monaghan,  and,  on 
his  coming  to  New  York,  were  continued  at  St.  John's 
College,  Fordham.  Thence  he  went  to  the  provincial 
seminary  at  Troy  for  his  philosophy  course,  and  after 
this  to  the  American  College,  Rome,  where  he  was 
ordained  priest  11  June,  1870.  Returning  to  New 
York,  he  ministered  as  an  assistant  in  St.  Peter's 
parish,  Staten  Island,  for  two  years,  and  in  1872  was 
appointed  secretary  to  the  then  Archbishop  McClos- 
key,  in  which  office  he  served  until  1884,  when  he  was 
made  pastor  of  St.  Gabriel's  church.  New  York  City. 
He  accompanied  the  cardinal  to  Rome  in  1878,  for  the 
election  of  Leo  XIII,  which  event,  however,  took  place 
before  their  arrival.  In  1884  he  was  made  a  private 
chamberlain;  in  1892  he  was  promoted  to  the  domes- 
tic prelacy,  and  in  1895  to  be  prothonotary  apostolic. 
In  1S91  he  was  chosen  vicar-general  of  the  diocese  by 
Archbishop  Corrigan,  and,  on  21  December,  1895,  was 
consecrated  as  his  auxiliary,  with  the  title  of  Bishop  of 
Zeugma.  At  the  death  of  Archbishop  Corrigan,  he 
was  appointed  his  succe.s.sor,  15  Sept.,  1902,  and  Pius 
X  named  him  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  in 
1904.  He  made  progress  in  Catholic  education  in  the 
diocese  the  keynote  of  his  administration,  and  within 


the  first  eight  years  added  nearly  fifty  parochial 
schools  to  the  primary  list,  encouraged  the  increase 
also  of  high  schools,  and  founded  Cathedral  College  as 
a  preparatory  seminary. 

In  the  proceedings  of  the  annual  convention  of  the 
Catholic  Educational  Association  held  in  New  York  in 
1903,  and  of  the  National  Eucharistic  Congress  in  1904, 
Archbishop  Farley  took  a  most  active  and  directive 
part.  Synods  were  held  regularly  every  third  year, 
and  theological  conferences  quarterly,  to  give  effect 
to  every  instruction  and  legislative  act  of  the  Holy 
See.  A  monthly  recollection  for  all  the  priests  of  the 
diocese  assembled  together  was  instituted.  Provision 
was  made  for  the  religious  needs  of  Italians  and  other 
Catholic  immigrants — the  Italian  portion  of  his  flock 
numbering  about  400,000  souls.  The  great  work  of 
issuing  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  owed  its 
inception  and  progress  to  his  help  and  stimulus. 
The  centenary  of  the  erection  of  the  diocese  was 
celebrated  under  his  direction  by  a  magnificent  festi- 
val lasting  a  week 
(April  27-May  2, 
1908);  the  Lady 
Chapel  of  the  Ca- 
thedral was  com- 
pleted, the  Cathe- 
dral debt  was  paid 
off,  and  the  edifice 
consecrated  5  Oc- 
tober, 1910,  Car- 
dinal V  i  n  c  e  p  z  o 
Vannutelli,  papa! 
legate  to  the 
Twenty -first  Eu- 
charistic Con- 
gress, Cardinal 
Logue,  Primate  of 
All  Ireland,  Car- 
dinal Gibbons  of 
Baltimore,70prel- 
ates,  1000  priests, 
and  an  immense 
congregation  of 
the  laity  being 
present  at  the 
Mass  of  the  day. 
Archbishop  Farley  was  given  an  auxiliary  in  the 
Right  Rev.  Thomas  F.  Cusack,  who  was  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Themiscyra,  25  April,  1904.  Bishop 
Cusack  was  born  in  New  York,  22  Feb.,  1862,  and 
made  his  classical  course  at  St.  Francis  Xavier's 
College  where  he  graduated  in  1880.  His  theological 
studies  were  pursued  at  the  provincial  seminary,  Troy, 
where  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1885.  He  was  a  very 
successful  director  of  the  Diocesan-Apostolate  (1897- 
1904)  before  his  consecration  as  bishop,  after  which  he 
was  appointed  Rector  of  St.  Stephen's  parish. 

IV. — Diocesan  Institutions. — The  Cathedral. — 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  standing  on  the  crest  of  New 
York's  most  magnificent  thoroughfare,  is  the  noblest 
temple  ever  dedicated,  in  any  land,  to  the  honour  of 
the  Apostle  of  Ireland.  It  is  an  edifice  of  which  every 
citizen  of  the  great  metropolis  is  justly  proud.  Its 
style  is  the  decorated  and  geometric  Gothic  of  which 
the  cathedrals  of  Reims,  Amiens,  and  Cologne  are 
prominent  examples.  It  was  planned  in  1853  by 
James  Renwick  of  New  York ;  construction  was  begun 
in  1858,  and  the  building  was  formally  opened  and 
dedicated  on  25  May,  1879  (building  ojierations  hav- 
ing been  susprndi  ,1,  nwiiig  to  I  lie  Civil  War,  from  18(il 
-06).  The  Hlf  1.1  III.-  c-alheihal.  flic  block  bounded 
by  Fifth  A\(iiiic.  1  iliiclh  Street,  I'ourth  Avenue,  and 
Fifty-first  Street,  has  been  in  the  possession  of  the 
church  authorities,  and  used  for  ecclesiastical  purposes, 
except  during  a  very  brief  interval  (1S21-1S2S),  since 
1  March,  ISIO.  The  block  on  which  the  Cathedral 
stands  was  purchased  at  its  then  marketable  value 


.  Augustine  Corrigan 
Tliird  Arclibiahop  of  New  York 


NEW  YORK  26 

and  thoroforo  never  was  a  gift  or  donation  from  tlie 
i-ity,  iis  lias  been  said  sometimes,  either  ignoraiitly  or 
even  with  eoiiseious  maliee.  The  eorner-stone  wa.s 
laul  on  the  aflerncM.n  of  Sunday,  15  August,  IS.OS,  by 
Arelihishop  lluglirs,  m  llie  presenee  of  an  asseml)lage 
estimated  at  one  liundrcd  tliousand.  The  address  de- 
hvered  by  t he arehl )ishop  is  reKanl,.,!  as  (ine of  t  he  most 
eloquent  and  mem(iial)lc  he  ev;T  ut  lired.  The  -al  her- 
mg  maybeeonsidercdlhelirst  pubhc  manilr-^tMli.m  of 
that  great  Calhulie  New  York  which  h.'caiii..  Ihr  uoii- 
diTand  a(hiiiralion  of  tlie  ninetci'nlli  cnidiry.  and  it 
lent  inspnation  and  power  to  the  magic  of  liis  riiiKiiig 
wurds  of  joy  and  triumph. 

St.  Patriek's  Cathedral  is  the  eleventh  in  size  among 
tile  great  ehurehes  of  the  world.     Its  dimensions  are 
as  tnllows,  tlie  Lady  Chapel  e.xcluded:  E.vterior:— Ex- 
treme length  (with  Lady  Chapel),  398  feet;  extreme 
breadth,  174  feet;  general  breadth,  132  feet;  towers  at 
base,  ._i2  feet:  height  of  towers,  330  feet.     Interior:— 
Length,  370  feet;  breadth  of  nave  and  choir  (e.xclud- 
ing  ehapels),  96  feet;  breadth  of  nave  and  choir  (in- 
cluding chapels),  120  feet ;  length  of  transept,  140  feet  • 
central  aisle,  48  feet  wide,  112  feet  high;  side  aisles! 
24  feet  wide,  54  feet  high;  chapels  18  feet  wide,  14  feet 
high   12  feet  deep.     The  foundations  are  of  verv  large 
blocks  of  blue  gneiss,  which  were  laid  in  cement  mortar 
up  to  t  he  level  of  the  surface.     Above  the  ground-line 
the  hrst  base-course  is  of  granite,  as  is  also  the  first 
course  under  all  the  columns  and  marble  works  of  the 
interior.     Above  this  base-course  the  whole  exterior 
ot  the  building  is  of  white  marble.     The  cost  of  the 
buikiing  was  about  four  million  dollars.     In  the  origi- 
nal plan  there  was  an  apsidal  Lady  Chapel,  but  work 
on  this  was  not  begun  until  20  July,  1901,  during  the 
admimstration  of  Archbishop  Corrigan.     It  was  fin- 
ished by  Archbishop  Farley  in  1906.     The  architect 
was  Charles  T.  Mathews  whose  design  was  thirteenth- 
century  French  Gothic.     This  chapel  is  56^.5  feet 
long  by- 28  feet  wide  and  56  feet  high.     The  building  of 
the  Lady  Chapel  was  started  by  a  memorial  gift  for 
that  purpose  from  the  family  "of  Eugene  Kelly  the 
banker,  who  died  in  New  York,  19  Dec,  1894     'Eu- 
gene Kelly  was  born  in  County  Tyrone,  Ireland,  25 
Aov.,   1808,  and  emigrated  to"  New  Y'ork  in   1834 
Ilere  he  engaged  in  the  drj'goods  business,  and  later 
?Ln 'i     •"'■'^'  ^^°'  ■"''lence  he  went  to  California  in 
IboO  during  the  gold  excitement.     As  a  banker  and 
merchant  there,  he  amassed  a  considerable  fortune  the 
interests  of  which  took  him  back  to  New  York  to  live 
m  1856.     He  was  a  trustee  of  the  Cathedral  for  several 
terms  and  indentified  with  the  Catholic  charitable 
educational,  and  social  movements  of  the  city      In 
the  crypt  of  the  chapel  the  deceased  archbishops  are 
buried,  and  the  vault  of  the  Kelly  family  is  at  the  rear 
01  the  sacristy  under  the  Chapel. 

Education— In  the  cause  of  Catholic  education  the 
Uiocese  of  ^ew  York  can  claim  the  proud  distinction 
01  being  the  pioneer,  the  unceasing  and  uncompromis- 
ing advocate.  In  16S5  the  .Jesuit  Fathers  Harvey  and 
Harrhson  began  the  first  Catholic  educational  institu- 
tion in  the  state;  the  New  York  Latin  School,  which 
stood  near  the  present  site  of  Trinity  Church,  Wall 
street  and  Broadway,  and  was  attended  bv  the  sons 
01  the  mo.st  influential  colonial  families,  this  school 
was  closed  by  the  fanatical  intolerance  which  followed 
the  Dongan  administration  in  1638.  In  1801  Father 
Matthew  O'Brien,  O.P.,  pastor  of  St.  Peter's  church, 
opened  the  free  school  of  the  parish  which  has  been 
earned  on  ever  since  without  interruption.  During 
the  hrst  five  years  it  was  supported  entirely  by  the 
people  of  the  parish,  but  in  1806  the  legislature  of  the 
state,  by  an  act  pa.ssed  21  March,  placed  the  school 
on  the  same  footing  as  those  of  other  religious  denomi- 
nations in  the  city;  all  of  them  received  state  support 
at  the  time,  and  Father  O'Brien's  school  received  its 
share  of  the  public  money.  After  St.  Patrick's  church 
was  commenced,  Father  Kohlmann,  S.J.,  began  the 


NEW  YORK 


New  York  Literary  Institution,  the  first  collegiate 
school  of  the  diocese,  in  a  house  on  Mott  Street  oppo- 
site the  church.  It  was  an  immediair  succ.-ss  and 
was  soon  removed  to  a  house  on  Hnj:idw:i\-  iid  'then 
111  March,  1812,  to  a  suburban  site  m  (i;,'  yi\Wae  of 
Elgin,  now  Fiftieth  Street  and  Fifth  Avenue,  the  site 
of  St.  Patrick  s  Cathedral.  Although  well  patronized 
by  the  best  families  of  the  city,  the  inability  of  the 
Jesuit  coMiinumty  to  keep  up  the  teaching  staff  forced 
the  abandonment  of  tlie  enl.Tprise  in  1815.  To  sup- 
ply traclicrs  for  girl.s,  I'ather  Kohlmann  secured  sev- 
eral Lrsuhne  Nuns  from  Cork,  Ireland,  who  arrived  in 
the  city  9  April,  1812.  Their  convent  was  located 
near  the  Literary  Institution,  and  the  Legislature  bv 
the  Act  of  25  March,  1814,  incorporated ''The  Ursu- 
li^lvo^vent  of  the  City  of  New  York",  by  which 
Christine  I- agan,  Sarah  Walsh,  Mary  Baldwin  and 
others  are  incorporated  for  the  purpose  of  teaching 
poor  children  '.  After  a  year,  as  no  other  subjects 
joined  their  community,  and  they  were  not  satisfied 
with  the  location,  which  was  too  remote  from  the  city 
tor  them  to  receive  daily  spiritual  direction  from  a 
chaplain,  these  nuns  gave  up  the  school  and  returned 
to  Ireland. 

lof^}"  ^^^u'^^''?L°{  ?,'^'*°P  Connolly  to  the  diocese 
(24  November,  1815)  St.  Patrick's  parochial  school 
was  opened  in  the  basement  of  the  cathedral      The 
Cathohc  Almanac"  for  1822  relates  that  "there  are 
in  this  city  two  extensive  Catholic  schools  conducted 
upon  a  judicious  plan  and  supported  partly  by  the 
tunds  of  the  State  and  partly  bv  moneys  raised  twice 
a  year  by  the  two  congregations".     The  report  of  the 
trustees  of  St.  Peter's  church  to  the  superintendent  of 
common  schools,  in  1824,  states  that  the  average  num- 
ber of  scholars  m  St.  Peter's  and  St.  Patrick's  schools 
Irom  their  opening  had  been  about  500  each.     These 
two  were  the  pioneer  schools  of  that  great  Cathohc 
parochial  system  of  free  schools  throughout  the  dio- 
cese which  has  been  the  example  and  stimulus  for 
Cathohc  education  all  over  the  United  States      On 
28  June,  1817,  three  Sisters  of  Charitv,  sent  to  her 
native  city  by  Mother  Seton,  arrived  "in  New  Y'ork 
from  Emmitsburg  to  take  charge  of  the  orphan  asylum 
and  school  of  St.  Patrick's  church.     In  1830  these 
bisters  of  Charity  took  charge  of  St.  Peter's  school  and 
opened  two  academies.     In  1816,  owing  to  the  con- 
flict between  the  French  rule  of  their  institute    for- 
bidding the  care  of  boys,  and  other  details  of  discipline 
which    greatly    mterfered    with    diocesan    progress 
Bishop  Hughes  received  permission  to  organize  an  in- 
dependent community  with  diocesan  autonomy     This 
was  established  ,S  December,  1S40,  with  the  election  of 
Mother  Elizabeth  Boyle  a.s  tlie  first  superior.     The 
novitiate  was  oijened  at  35  East  Broadway,  but  in 
1847  was  moved  to  Fifth  Avenue  and  One  Hundred 
and  Fifth  Street,  where  the  academy  for  girls  and 
mother-house  of  Mount  St.  Vincent  was  estabUshed 
len  years  later  the  city  took  this  property  for  Central 
Park,  and  the  community  moved  to  the  banks  of  the 
Hudson,  just  below  Yonkers,  where  the  College  of 
Mount  St.  Vincent,  and  the  headquarters  of  the  com- 
munity now  are.     There  are  about  eighteen  hundred 
of  these  sisters  teaching  in  more  than  sixty  parish 
schools  and  in  charge  of  diocesan  institutions. 

In  1841  a  community  of  the  ReUgious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  was  sent  to  the  diocese  by  Mother  Barat,  and 
established  their  first  school  at  Houston  and  Mulberry 
Streets.  A  year  later  this  was  moved  to  Astoria, 
Long  Island,  and  in  1846  to  the  present  site  of  the 
convent  at  Manhattanville,  w^here,  under  the  direc- 
tion, for  many  years,  of  the  famous  Mother  Mary 
Aloysia  Hardey,  it  became,  not  only  a  popular  educa- 
tional institution  but  the  centre  whence  radiated  most 
of  the  progress  made  by  the  Institute  throughout  the 
United  States.  When  the  first  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  arrived  in  New  York,  31  Julv,  1827,  on  their 
way  from  France  to  make  the  first  foundation  in  the 


ST.  PATRICK'S  CATHEDRAL,  NEW   YORK 


NEW   YORK 


27 


NEW  YORK 


United  States  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  Bishop  Dubois 
was  most  favourably  impressed  by  them,  and  wished 
to  have  a  community  for  New  York  also.  A  letter 
which  he  wrote  to  Mother  Barat  in  the  following 
October  expresses  this  desire  and  gives  a  view  of  his 
charge  at  that  time.  "It  was  my  intention",  he  says, 
"to  visit  you  and  your  pious  associates  in  Paris  in 
order  to  give  you  a  better  idea  of  our  country  before 
asking  you  to  establish  a  house  in  New  York.  There 
is  no  doubt  as  to  the  success  of  an  order  Uke  yours  in 
this  city;  indeed  it  is  greatly  needed;  but  a  consider- 
able sum  of  money  would  be  required  to  supply  the 
urgent  needs  of  the  foundation.  The  Catholic  popu- 
lation, which  averages  over  thirty  thousand  souls,  is 
very  poor,  besides  chiefly  composed  of  Irish  emigrants. 
Contributions  from  Protestants  are  so  uncertain  and 
property  in  this  city  so  expensive  that  I  cannot  prom- 
ise any  assistance.     All  I  can  say  is  that  I  believe  one 


As  has  been  said,  the  state  appropriation  for  educa- 
tion was  divided  at  first  among  all  schools.  Public 
education  in  New  York,  at  the  opening  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  was  denominational,  and  under  the 
direction  of  the  Public  School  Society  organized  in 
1805  "to  provide  a  free  school  for  the  education  of 
poor  children  in  the  city  who  do  not  belong  to,  or  are 
not  provided  for  by  any  religious  denomination".  In 
1808  the  name  was  changed  to  the  "Free  School  Soci- 
ety of  New  York"  and  again  in  1826  to  the  "Public 
School  Society  of  New  York",  with  power  "to  provide 
for  the  education  of  all  children  not  otherwise  pro- 
vided for".  This  society  gradually  became,  under 
the  control  of  intolerant  sectarian  ministers,  a  com- 
bination against  Catholic  interests  so  that,  when,  in 
1840,  the  eight  Catholic  parish  schools,  with  an  at- 
tendance of  about  4000  pupils,  made  a  dernand  for  the 
share  of  the  school  appropriations  to  which  the  law 


of  your  schools,  commenced  with  sufficient  money  to  entitled  them,  it  was  refused  by  the  Board  of  Alder- 
purchase  property  and  support  itself  until  the  ladies  men  after  a  memorable  hearing  of  the  Catholic  peti- 
have  time  to  make  themselves  known,  would  succeed  tion  in  the  City  Hall  on  29-30  October,  1840,  at  which 
beyond  all  our  expectations.  ...  I  have  the  sorrow  Bi-shop  Hughes  made  one  of  his  greatest  oratorical 

of  witnessing  an      efforts.     As  a  result 

abundant    harvest      |  I    of  this   contest    the 

rotting  in  the  earth,  Public  School  Society 

through  lack  of  Apos-  was  soon  after  abol- 

tolic    labourers    and  ished,  and  the  pres- 

have   a  school  then      |^p^irBB||^^^^^^^^^^Ua^^,''   !,^,^^  ,  I k e parish  schools. 

Mercy,  Sisters  of  St.     '^ .   „    ^ ?ens  of  the   Repub- 

Dominic,  School  Sis- 


St.  .Joseph's  Seminary.  Dunwoodie 


ters  of  Notre  Dame,  and  other  teaching  communi- 
ties followed  in  the  course  of  the  succeeding  years, 
until  now  (1910)  the  parish  schools  of  the  archdiocese 
are  in  charge  of  twenty-six  different  reUgious  com- 
munities, twenty-two  of  Sisters  and  four  of  Brothers. 
In  1829  an  Irishman  named  James  D.  Boylan  with  the 
approbation  of  Bishop  Dubois  attempted  to  establish 
a  religious  community  on  the  lines  of  the  Irish  Broth- 


lie,  and  the  day  will 
come  when  you  viiW  enforce  recognition". 

To  supply  priests  for  the  diocese  Bishop  Dubois  es- 
tablished a"  seminary  at  Nyack-on-Hudson,  in  1833, 
but  it  was  burned  down  just  as  it  was  ready  to  be 
opened.  Cornelius  Heeney  then  offered  the  bishop 
the  ground  in  Brooklyn  on  which  St.  Paul's  church 
now  stands,  refusing,  however,  to  give  the  diocese  the 
title  to  the  property  immediately,  and  the  design  to 


ers  of  Charity  to  teach  the  boys'  schools,  and  opened  build  in  Brooklyn  was  abandoned.     In  1838  the  es- 

two  schools.     The  attempt  failed  in  the  course  of  the  tate  of  John  Lafarge,  Grovemont,  in  Jefferson  County, 

year,  owing  to  want  of  business  tact  and  the  inimical  was  purchased  and  the  seminary  begun  there      Ihe 

spirit  of  trusteeism.     The  Christian  Brothers  opened  place  was  then  so  inaccessible  and  impracticable  that 

their  first  school  in  New  York  in  September,  1848,  in  it   was   given   up,    and,   on   24   June,    1841,  Bishop 

St.  Vincent  de  Paul's  parish,  at  16  East  Canal  Street.  Hughes,  administrator  of  the  diocese,  opened  with 

La  Salle  Academy  was  opened  in  Canal  Street  in  18.50,  thirty  students  the  new  St   John  s  seminarj-  and  mI- 

moved  to  Mulberry  Street  in  18.56  and  East  Second  lege  at  Fordham   then  a  village  just  outside  the  city. 

Street  in  1857.     Manhattan  College  was  opened  in  The  Rev   John  McCloskey,  later  Arclibishop  of  New 

1853.     These  Brothers  have  charge  also  of  the  De  La  York  and  first  cardinal  in  the  United  States,^  was  its 

Salle  Institute,  the  Cla.sson  Point  Military  Academy,  first  president      The  seminary  remained  at  Fordham 

twenty-six  parish  schools,  and  the  great  Catholic  Pro-  until  24  Oct.,  1864,  when  it  was  moved  again  to  Troy 

tectory.     Bishop  Hughes,  in  1846,  invited  the  Jesuits  where  St.  Joseph's  seminary  began  with  hfty-scven 

to  return  to  the  diocese  and  take  charge  of  St.  John's  students   transferred   from    Fordham.     The   faculty 

College  and  Seminary  at   Fordham,   which  he  had  wsus  composed  of  secular  priest 


opened  there  in  the  old  Rose  Hill  manor  house,  24 
June,  1841.  The  seminary  was  moved  to  Troy  in 
1864,  and  St.  John's  remained  as  part  of  Fordham 
University.  St.  Francis  Xavier's  College  was  begun 
at  the  school  of  the  church  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus, 
EUzabeth  Street,  in  1847.     It  was  burned  down  in 


under  the  direction  of  the  Very  Reverend  11.  Vandcr- 
hende.  Here  the  seminary  remained  until  IS'.Xi,  dur- 
ing which  period  more  than  700  priests  were  ordained 
there.  The  building  was  then  given  over  to  the  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Diocese  of  Albany  as  a  noviti- 
ate and  training-school,  and,  on  12  August,,  1896,  the 


the  following  year,  reopened  in  Third  Avenue  near  new  Provincial  seminary  at  Dunwoo.lie  was  solem^^^ 

Twelfth  Street   and  finally  located  in  West  Sixteenth  dedicated  by  Cardinal  Satolh,  then  Apostolic  delegate 

StTeet  in  18.50      Loyola  School  wius  opened  by  the  to  the  Unified  States    .  'h- -re  of  this  seminar™ 

Jesuits  in  1899  at  Park  Avenue  and  Fifty-third  street,  entrusted  to  the  bulpician_Fathers,  but  these  retired 


NEW   YORK 


28 


NEW  YORK 


in  1906.  and  the  work  was  continued  by  the  secular 
clergy  of  the  arclidiocoso.  A  further  stop  in  provid- 
ing fiicilitios  for  soiniiiarv  training  was  taken  up  by 
Archbishop  Farley  in  Soplciuber,  1903,  by  tlic  o)H'ning 
of  Cathedral  College  for  the  preparatory  studies  of 
ecclesiastical  students. 

In  the  cause  of  education  the  work  done  by  the 
Catholic  publishers  must  be  noted;  for  New  York, 
with  the  increase  of  its  Catholic  population,  dovelojied 
also  into  a  great  producing  and  distributing  centre  for 
Catholic  literature  of  all  kinds.  It  is  claimed  for 
Bernard  Domin  who  arrived  in  New  York  in  ISOo,  an 
exile  from  Ireland,  that  he  was  the  first  publisher 
of  exclusively  Catholic  works  in  the  United  .States. 
His  edition  of  Pastorini's  "History  of  the  Christian 
Church"  (1807)  was  the  first  Catholic  book  published 
in  New  York.  The  next  year  he  issued  an  edition  of 
Dr.  Fletcher's  "Reflections  on  the  Spirit  of  Religious 
Controversy",  for  which  he  had  144  city  subscribers. 
There  were  318  for  the  Pivstorini  book,  and  these  two 
lists  make  an  interesting  directory  of  Catholic  New 
York  families  at  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. Dornin  left  New  York  for  Baltimore  In  1809. 
He  was  followed  in  New  York  by  Matthew  Field  who 
pubhshed  "at  his  library  177  Bowery  within  a  few 
doors  of  Delancey  St."  the  first  American  year  book, 
"The  Catholic  Laity's  Directory  to  the  Church  Ser- 
vice: with  an  almanac  for  the  year  1817".  About 
1823  John  Doyle  began  to  pubhsh  books  at  237  Broad- 
way, and,  up  to  1849,  when  he  went  to  San  Francisco, 
he  had  issued  many  books  of  instruction  and  devotion. 
Most  of  the  Doyle  plates  were  taken  over  by  Edward 
Dunigan,  who  had  associated  with  him  in  business  his 
half-brother  James  B.  Kirker.  He  was  the  first  pub- 
lisher to  encourage  Catholic  authors  to  give  him  their 
writings.  John  Gilmary  Shea's  early  histories  were 
published  by  this  firm,  as  was  a  fine  edition  of  Hay- 
dock's  Bible  (1844)  and  many  school-books  and  stand- 
ard works.  In  1837  Dennis  and  James  Sadlier  began 
to  issue  Butler's  "Lives  of  the  Saints"  and  an  edition 
of  the  Bible  in  monthly  parts,  and  thus  commenced 
what  later  developed  into  one  of  the  largest  book 
concerns  in  the  United  States.  The  list  of  their  pub- 
lications is  as  varied  as  it  is  lengthy,  and  remark- 
able for  the  time  was  their  series  of  "Metropolitan" 
school  books.  Patrick  O'Shea,  who  had  been  associ- 
ated with  the  Dunigan  concern,  began  for  himself  in 
1854  and,  until  his  death,  in  1906,  was  a  very  indus- 
trious producer  of  Catholic  books,  his  publications 
including,  besides  a  great  number  of  school  books, 
many  editions  of  valuable  works,  such  as  Darras' 
"History  of  the  Church",  Digby's  "Mores",  Brown- 
son's  "American  Republic",  Lingard's  "History  of 
England",  Wiseman's  and  Lacordaire's  works.  Ben- 
ziger  Brothers,  in  18.53,  opened  the  branch  of  their 
German  house  that  developed  into  the  great  concern, 
covering  all  branches  of  the  trade.  Father  Isaac  T. 
Hecker,  C.S.P.,  as  part  of  his  dream  for  the  evan- 
geUzation  of  his  non-Catholic  fellow-countrymen, 
founded,  in  1866,  the  Catholic  Publication  Society. 
Into  this  enterprise  his  brother,  George  V.  Hecker, 
also  a  convert,  unselfishly  put  thousands  of  dollars. 
Its  manager  w;is  Lawrence  Kehoe,  a  man  well  versed 
in  all  the  best  ideals  of  the  trade,  who  sent  out  its 
many  books,  bound  and  printed  in  a  lavishness  of 
style  not  attempted  before. 

Charities. — New  York  gave  early  evidence  of  the 
characteristic  of  heroic  charity.  In  a  letter  written 
by  Father  Kohlmann,  21  March,  1809,  he  mentions 
"applications  made  at  all  houses  to  raise  a  subscrip- 
tion for  the  relief  of  the  poor  by  which  means  $3000 
have  been  collected  to  be  p.aid  constantly  each  year". 
New  York  then  had  only  one  church  for  its  16,000 
Catholics.  An  orphan  asyhnn  was  opened  in  1817  in 
a  small  wooden  house  at  Mott  and  Prince  Streets,  the 
"New  York  Catholic  Benevolent  Society",  for  its 
support  and  management,  was  incorporated  the  same 


year  by  the  Legislature — the  first  Catholic  Society  so 
legalized  in  the  state — and  Mother  Seton  sent  three  of 
her  Sisters  of  Charity  from  Eiiuiiitsburg  to  take  care 
of  the  children.  This  lusylum  was  moved  in  1851  to 
the  block  adjoining  the  Cathe<lral  in  Fifth  Avenue 
and  remained  there  until  this  jiroperty  was  sold  and 
the  institution  located  in  Westchester  County,  in 
1901.  A  Union  Emigrant  Society,  to  aid  immigrants, 
the  precursor  of  the  Irish  l'".migrant  Society  and  the 
Emigrant  Industrial  Savings  Hank  (see  EMKiRANT 
Aid  Societies)  wius  organized  in  1829.  St.  Patrick's, 
the  first  New  York  Conference  of  the  Society  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  was  afliliated  to  the  Paris  Council  in 
1849,  and  in  the  steady  increase  of  the  organization 
throughout  the  diocese  opened  a  new  field  for  Catho- 
lic charity.  The  sturdy  fight  that  had  to  be  made 
against  the  raids  on  poor  and  neglected  Catholic  chil- 
dren in  the  public  institutions  was  mainly  through  its 
members,  and  out  of  their  efforts,  in  great  measure, 
also  grew  the  great  Catholic  Protectory,  the  Mission 
of  the  Immaculate  Virgin,  the  Foundling  Asylum,  and 
the  more  recent  Fresh  Air  and  Convalescent  Homes, 
Day  Nurseries,  and  other  incidental  details  of  modern 
philanthropy. 

V.  Statistics. — The  following  religious  communi- 
ties now  have  foundations  in  the  diocese  (1910): 
Men. — Augustinians,  Augustinians  of  the  Assumption, 
Fathers  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  Benedictines,  Ca- 
puchins, Carmelites,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Jes- 
uits, Fathers  of  Mercy,  Fathers  of  the  Pious  Society 
of  Missions,  Missionaries  of  St.  Charles,  Missionary 
Society  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle,  Redemptorists,  Salc- 
sian  Fathers,  Brothers  of  Mary,  Christian  Brothers, 
Marist  Brothers,  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools, 
Missionaries  of  La  Salette.  Women. — Sisters  of  St. 
Agnes,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Assumption,  Sisters  of  St. 
Benedict,  Sisters  of  Bon  Secours,  Sisters  of  Charity, 
Sisters  of  Christian  Charity,  Sisters  of  the  Divine 
Compassion,  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence,  Sisters  of 
St.  Dominie,  Sisters  of  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic, 
Felician  Sisters,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order 
of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Poor  of  St.  Francis, 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  Franciscan  Missionaries  of 
Mary,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Helpers  of 
the  Holy  Souls,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus, 
Marianite  Sisters  of  Holy  Cross,  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  Sisters  of  Jesus  Mary,  Sisters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Mary,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of  Miseri- 
corde.  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  the 
Congregation  of  Notre  Dame,  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Poor,  Sisters  of  the  Atonement,  Reparatrice  Nuns, 
Religious  of  the  Cenacle,  Presentation  Nuns,  Religious 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Religious  of  the  Visitation,  Mis- 
sionary Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  LTrsuline  Sisters, 
Missionary  Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, Mission  Helpers  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

The  progress  of  the  diocese  is  shown  by  the  records 
kept  of  the  gradual  growth  of  population  which  made 
a  great  metropolis  out  of  the  small  provincial  city. 
The  notable  increase  begins  with  the  immigration 
during  the  canal  and  railroad-building  period,  after 
1825,  the  exodus  from  Ireland  following  the  famine 
year  of  1847,  and  the  German  flight  after  the  Revolu- 
tionary disturbances  of  1848.  In  1826  in  New  York 
City  there  were  but  three  churches  and  30,000  Cath- 
ohcs;  and  in  the  whole  diocese  (including  New  Jersey) 
only  eight  churches,  eighteen  priests,  and  150,000 
Catholics.  The  diocesan  figures  for  1850  are  recorded 
as  follows:  churches,  57;  chapels,  5;  stations,  50; 
priests,  99;  seminary,  1,  with  34  students;  academies, 
9;  hospital,  1;  charitable  institutions,  15;  Catholic 
population,  200,000.  In  1875  the  increase  is  indicated 
by  these  figures:  churches,  139;  chapels,  35;  priests, 
300;  ecclesiastical  students  in  seminary,  71;  colleges, 
3;  academies,  22;  select  schools,  18;  hospitals,  4; 
charitable  institutions,  23;  religious  communities  of 
men,  17,  of  women,  22;  Catholic  population,  600,000. 


NEW   YORK 


29 


NEW  YORK 


In  1900  we  find  these  totals:  churches,  259  (city, 
111;  country,  148);  chapels,  154;  stations,  34;  priests, 
676  (regulars,  227);  112  ecclesiastical  students;  60 
parish  schools  for  boys  in  city,  with  1.8,953  pupils; 
61  for  girls,  with  21,199  pupils;  parish  schools  outside 
city  for  boys,  32,  with  3743  pupils;  for  girls,  34,  with 
4542  pupils;  in  colleges  and  academies,  2439  boys  and 
2484  girls;  schools  for  deaf  mutes,  2;  day  nurseries,  4; 
emigrant  homes,  5;  homes  for  aged,  3;  hospitals,  15; 
industrial  and  reform  schools,  26;  infant  asylum,  1; 
orphan  asylums,  6;  total  of  young  people  under  Cath- 
olic care,  68,269;  Catholic  population,  1,000,000. 
The  figures  for  1910  are:  archbishop,  1;  bishop,  1; 
churches,  331  (city,  147;  country,  184);  chapels,  193; 
stations  (without  churches)  regularly  visited,  35; 
priests,  929  (secular,  605;  regular,  324);  theological 
seminary  (Dunwoodie),  1;  students,  165;  students 
(Rome),  11;  preparatory  seminary,  1;  students,  235; 
pupils  in  colleges  and  academies  for  boys,  3407;  in 
academies  for  girls,  3812;  parish  schools,  New  York 
City,  for  boys,  90,  with  27,899  pupils;  for  girls,  90, 
with  31,004  pupils;  outside  New  York  City,  58,  with 
6377  male  pupils,  6913  female;  total  in  parish  schools, 
72,193;  schools  for  deaf  mutes,  3;  day  nurseries,  15; 
emigrant  homes,  5;  homes  for  the  aged,  4;  hospitals, 
23 ;  industrial  and  reform  schools,  36 ;  orphan  asylums, 
7 ;  asylums  for  the  blind,  2 ;  total  of  young  people  under 
Catholic  care,  101,087  ;CathoUc  population,  1,219,920. 
Besides  those  for  English-speaking  Catholics,  there 
are  now  churches  and  priests  in  New  York  for  Ger- 
mans, Italians,  Poles,  French,  Hungarians,  Bohemians, 
Lithuanians,  Greek  Albancse,  Greek  Sj-rians,  Greek 
Ruthenians,  Slovaks,  Spaniards,  Chinese,  for  coloured 
people  and  for  deaf  mutes. 

Shea.  Hist,  of  Cath.  Ch.  in  U.  S.  (New  York,  1886);  Idem, 
Cath.  Ch's  of  N.  Y.  (New  York,  187S);  Ecclesiastical  Records, 
State  of  New  York  (Albany,  1902) ;  O'Callaghan,  Documentary 
Hist,  of  New  York  (.ilbany,  1849-51);  B.atlev,  Brief  Sketch  of  the 
Early  Hist.,  Cath.  Ch.  on  the  Island  of  New  York  (New  York, 
1854) ;  FiNOTTi,  Bibiiographia  Americana  (New  York,  1872) ; 
Flvnn,  The  Cath.  Ch.  in  New  Jersey  (Morristown.  1904);  White, 
Life  of  Mrs.  Eliza  A.  Seton  (New  York,  1893);  Clarke,  Lives  of 
the  Deceased  Bishops,  U.  S.  (New  York,  1872-8G);  Seton,  Mem- 
oir, Letters  and  Journal  of  Elizabeth  Seton  (New  York,  1869); 
Farley,  History  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  (New  York,  1908) ; 
Smith,  Hist.  Cath.  Ch.  in  New  York  (New  York,  1905) ;  Reuss, 
Biog.  Cycl,  Cath.  Hierarchy,  U.  S.  (Milwaukee,  1S9S);. The  Catho- 
lic Directory;  U.  S.  Cath.  Hist.  Society,  Historical  Records  and 
Studies  (New  York,  1899-1910);  Memorial,  Most  Rev.  M.  A. 
Corrigan  (New  York,  1902);  Hassard,  Life  of  the  Most  Rev.  John 
Hughes  (New  York,  1866);  Brann,  Most  Rev.  John  Hughes  (New 
York,  1893) ;  Campbell,  Pioneer  Priests  of  North  America  (New 
York,  1909-10);  Mary  Aloysia  Hardey  (New  York,  1910);  New 
York  Truth  Teller,  files;  Freeman's  Journal,  files;  Metropolitan 
Record,  files;  Tablet,  files:  Catholic  News,  files;  Brownson,  H.  F., 
Brownson's  Early,  Middle  and  Later  Life  (Detroit,  1898-1900); 
Bennett,  Catholic  Footsteps  in  Old  New  York  (New  York,  1909); 
ZwiERLElN,  Religion  in  New  Netherland  (Rochester,  1910). 

Joseph  F.  Moonbt. 

New  York,  State  of,  one  of  the  thirteen  colonies  of 
Great  Britain,  which  on  4  July,  1776,  adopted  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  and  became  the  United 
States  of  America. 

Boundaries  and  Area. — The  State  of  New  York 
lies  between  40=  29'  40"  and  45°  0'  2"  N.  lat.  and  be- 
tween 71°  51'  and  79°  45'  54"  W.  long.  It  is  bounded 
by  Lake  Ontario,  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  on  the  north ;  by  Vermont,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  Connecticut  on  the  east;  by  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  Jersey,  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the 
south,  and  by  Pennsylvania,  Lake  Erie,  and  the  Ni- 
agara River  on  the  west.  It  has  an  area  of  49,170 
square  miles,  of  which  1550  square  miles  is  water  sur- 
face. From  east  to  west  it  is  326-46  miles  in  width; 
it  is  300  miles  long  on  the  fine  of  the  Hudson  River. 

Physical  Ch.^racteristics. — The  physical  geog- 
raphy of  New  York  is  very  varied.  It  includes  the 
high  range  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains  in  the  north- 
ern part.  In  the  southern  and  eastern  part  lie  im- 
portant portions  of  the  Appalachian  system,  of  which 
the  principal  branches  are:  the  Catskill  Mountains  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson  River  below  Albany;  the 


ranges  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  which  cross  the  Hudson  at 
West  Point  and  form  the  Litchfield  and  Berkshire 
Hills  and  the  Green  Mountains  on  the  eastern  boun- 
dary of  the  State  and  in  Connecticut,  Massachusetts, 
and  Vermont,  and  the  foothills  of  the  AUeghanies  in 
the  south-western  portion.  The  highest  peak  in  the 
State  is  Mount  Marcy  in  the  Adirondacks,  which  has 
an  altitude  of  5344  feet.  The  valley  of  the  Mohawk 
divides  the  mountainous  district  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  State,  and  forms  a  natural  channel  in  which  the 
Erie  Canal  now  lies,  and  which  affords  easy  communi- 
cation by  water  and  rail  between  the  Great  Lakes  and 
the  Hudson  River  valley.  On  the  Niagara  River  is 
one  of  the  great  cataracts  of  the  world,  Niagara  Falls, 
which  is  a  mile  wide  and  164  feet  high.  The  preserva- 
tion of  its  natural  beauty  has  been  ensured  by  the 
erection  of  a  State  Park,  which  adjoins  a  similar  park 
established  by  the  Canadian  Government. 

Geologically,  the  State  of  New  York  is  most  inter- 
esting. The  Hudson  River  valley  and  the  Adiron- 
dacks form  part  of  the  Arch;ran  continent,  which  is 
regarded  as  the  old- 
est portion  of  the 
earth's  surface. 
The  Hudson  River 
rises  in  the  Adiron- 
dack country.  It 
is  navigable  for  1  .^'  I 
miles,  from  Troy  i  o 
the  sea.  The  Pali- 
sades of  thelliii  1>(  ■!; 
are  among  the  im  i.-i 
interesting  and  im- 
portant examples 
of  basaltic  rocks  in 
the  world.  The 
principal  rivers  of 
the  State,  besides 
the  great  Hudson  River  and  it.s  tributary,  the  Mo- 
hawk, are  the  Susquehanna  River,  wliich  rises  in 
Lake  Otsego  in  the  central  part  of  the  State ;  the  Dela^ 
ware,  which  rises  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Catskill 
mountain  country,  and  the  Allegheny,  which  rises  in 
the  south-western  corner  of  the  State.  None  of  these 
is  of  commercial  importance  within  the  State  of  New 
York,  all  passing  on  to  form  the  principal  rivers  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  series  of  large  inland  lakes  in 
central  New  York  form  a  marked  feature  of  its  physi- 
cal geography.  They  are  of  great  natural  beauty, 
besides  being  of  importance  for  transportation  and 
commerce,  and  many  of  the  large  cities  and  towns  of 
the  State  have  grown  up  on  their  banks.  The  land 
surrounding  them  and  the  valleys  of  the  brooks  and 
small  rivers  which  form  their  feeders  and  outlets  are 
of  remarkable  fertiUty.  The  forests  of  the  State  are 
extensive.  They  lie  principally  in  the  Adirondack, 
Catskill,  and  Blue  Ridge  country.  They  are  the  rem- 
nants of  the  primeval  forests  that  once  covered  most 
of  the  State.  The  State  has  established  by  constitu- 
tional provision  and  statutory  enactments  an  exten- 
sive system  of  forest  preserves.  They  are  the  Adiron- 
dack Preserve,  containing  approximately  1,500,000 
acres,  and  the  Catskill  Preserve,  containing  110,000 
acres.  Provision  is  made  by  law  for  increasing  their 
area  from  year  to  year.  The  beautiful  valleys  of  the 
Hudson  aiid  its  tributaries  extend  from  the  sea  into 
the  foothills  of  the  .Vdirondacks  at  Lake  George.  The 
valley  of  Lake  Cliaiiiphun  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Adirondacks  adjoins  tlic  valley  of  Lake  George,  and 
continues  it,  except  for  a  divide  of  about  two  miles  at 
its  beginning,  into  the.  Dominion  of  Canada  and  the 
St.  Lawrence  valley.  The  great  central  plain  of  the 
State,  lying  between  the  mountainous  districts  of  the 
south  and  west  and  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Adiron- 
dacks and  the  eastern  mountain  ranges  on  the  north 
and  east,  is  renowned  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil  and  the 
extent  of  its  manufactures. 


NEW   YORK 


30 


NEW   YORK 


The  only  sea-coiist  of  the  State  is  formed  by  LoriR 
Island,  and  oxtends  for  i:50  miles  from  New  York 
Harbour  to  Montauk  Point,  whioh  is  nearly  opiiosite 
the  boundary  line  between  the  States  of  Connecticut 
and  Rhode  Island.  The  waters  lying  between  bong 
Island  and  the  mainland  form  Long  bland  Sound,  one 
of  the  most  important  waterways  of  the  United 
States.  From  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Hudson 
River  at  Troy,  a  distance  of  1.51  miles  from  the  .-^ea, 
there  extends  across  the  Slate  to  bake  iM-ie  one  of  its 
great  possessions,  the  Krie  Canal,  completed  in  1,S12."). 
It  is  3S7  miles  long.  From  Troy  to  Whitehall  at  the 
head  of  Lake Champlain extends  another  of  the  .Stale's 
great  works,  the  Chamijlain  Canal,  establishing  water 
connexion  with  the  St.  Law'rence  valley  on  the  north. 
Ample  communication  by  water  from  the  Lake  States 
on  the  west  and  from  Canada  on  the  north  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  at  New  York  Bay  is  provided  by  this 
canal  system.  There  are  also  three  other  important 
interior  canals  owned  by  the  State,  the  Oswego,  the 
Ca\^lga  and  Seneca,  and  the  Black  River  canals.  In 
1909  the  goods  carried  free  on  these  state  canals 
valued  nearly  sixtj'  million  dollars.  There  is  now  un- 
der construction  bv  the  State  the  Great  Barge  Canal, 
which  it  is  estimated  will  cost  more  than  $60,000,000. 
It  is  intended  to  [jrovide  navigation  for  modern  canal 
barges  of  1000  tons  from  Lake  Erie  to  New  York  City. 

The  physical  geograjjhy  of  the  State  has  been  an 
important  factor  in  its  growth.  The  easy  communi- 
cation afforded  by  its  great  rivers  and  its  convenient 
waterways  has  made  it  the  favoured  liighway  for  do- 
mestic trade  and  commerce  and  emigration  for  more 
than  a  century,  while  its  possession  of  the  greatest 
seaport  of  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  has  made  the 
State  the  principal  gateway  for  the  world's  trade  with 
North  America.  The  ice-free  and  deep-channelled 
port  of  New  York,  lying  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson 
River,  with  its  w-ide  roadsteads  and  anchorages  and 
vast  transportation  facilities  is  indeed  the  greatest 
property  of  the  State  of  New  York.  The  port  has  a 
total  water  front  of  444  miles. 

Me.\.vs  of  Communication. — The  means  of  com- 
munication within  the  State  are  admirable. 

Railroads. — In  1907  there  were  8505  miles  of  railway 
and  3950  miles  of  electric  railway  tracks.  The  great 
railroad  of  the  St  ate  is  t  he  New  York  Central  system  be- 
tween New  York  and  Buffalo  which  provides  com- 
munication between  New  York  City  and  the  principal 
places  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  by  its  own  lines 
and  their  direct  connexions.  The  great  New  England 
system,  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
Railroad,  besides  having  its  terminal  in  New  York 
City,  crosses  the  southern  part  of  the  State  into  the 
coal  and  iron  country  of  Pennsylvania.  It  controls 
also  the  extensive  New  York,  Ontario,  and  Western 
Railroad,  extending  diagonally  across  the  State  from 
Oswego  on  Lake  Ontario  to  the  Hudson  River  at  Wee- 
hawken,  opposite  New  York.  The  Erie  system,  in  ad- 
dition to  being  one  of  the  trunk  lines  to  Chicago,  is 
probably  the  greatest  freight  carrier  in  the  Union.  Its 
passenger  traffic  around  New  York  City  is  also  of 
great  extent.  Its  terminal  is  in  Jersey  City  opposite 
New  York.  The  Delaware  and  Hudson  Railroad  ex- 
tends from  its  connexion  with  the  Grand  Trunk  of 
Canada,  at  Rouse's  Point  on  Lake  Champlain,  to  Al- 
bany, where  it  forms  a  connexion  with  a  network  of 
roads  extending  into  many  of  the  important  centres 
of  central  and  western  New  York.  The  Delaware, 
Lackawanna,  and  Western  Railroad  runs  parallel  to 
the  southern  boundary  of  the  State  in  New  Jersey  and 
Pennsylvania,  and  has  its  eastern  terminal  at  Ho- 
bokcn  on  the  Hud.son  River  also  opposite  New  York 
City.  It  extends  also  to  the  north  a  most  important 
line  from  Binghamton  to  liuffalo,  Utica,  and  Oswego. 
It  is  the  greatest  of  the  anthracite  coal  carriers.  The 
Buffalo,  Rochester,  and  Pitt.sburg  Railroad  connects 
the  three  large  cities  named  in  its  title,  and  serves  one 


of  the  important  agricultural,  manufacturing,  and 
-  mining  districts  of  the  States  of  New  York  and  I'enn- 
sylvania.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  one  of  the 
great  national  trunk  lines,  with  its  Hudson  tunnels 
and  its  new  vast  terminal  in  New  York  City,  is  one  of 
the  great  institutions  of  New  York.  Its  main  lines 
centre  about  I'hil.ulelphia.  It  owns  and  operates  in 
addition  to  ils  oilier  pniperties  the  entire  railroad  sys- 
tem of  populdus  Long  Island,  whose  wonderful  growth 
in  populalidii  and  industry  seems  but  a  presage  of 
still  niiirc  extensive  develoiMuent.  The  Hudson  Tun- 
nels imder  the  Huds(>n  River  connect  the  City  of  New 
York  with  the  terminals  of  most  of  the  railroads  on 
the  New  Jersey  side  of  the  Hudson;  recently  opened 
(1910)  tunnels  under  the  East  River  bring  the  Long 
Island  Railroad  into  direct  connexion  with  the  Penn- 
sylvania system,  and  thus  with  the  rest  of  the  conti- 
nent. These  tunnels  are  a  marvellous  achievement 
in  subaqueous  construction.  The  development  of  the 
terminals  of  these  trunk  lines  and  of  their  accessories 
especially  about  the  port  of  New  York  is  a  great  ob- 
ject lesson  in  the  astounding  development  of  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere  in  less  than  eighty  years.  The  first 
railroad  in  the  State,  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk,  was 
built  in  1831.  It  was  17  miles  long  and  ran  from  Al- 
bany to  Schenectady  on  the  Mohawk.  It  was  one  of 
the  earliest  steam  railroads  in  the  world. 

Water  Routes.  —  The  communication  by  water 
within  New  York  State  is  not  less  wonderful.  To  the 
ocean  navigation  that  fills  the  port  of  New  York  must 
be  added  the  Iraflicon  the  rivers,  lakes,  and  canals  of 
the  State  and  upon  Long  Islanil  Sound.  The  prosper- 
ous cities  and  towns  which  are  ranged  along  the  banks 
of  the  Hudson  River,  across  the  State  on  the  lines  of 
the  canals  and  lakes  and  rivers,  and  upon  the  shores  of 
Lake  Erie,  Lake  Ontario,  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
are  sustained  largely  by  it. 

Wagon  Roads. — The  improved  system  of  State  high- 
ways, begun  in  late  years,  has  given  modern  highways 
to  many  of  the  rural  districts  and  laid  out  avenues  be- 
tween the  cities.  It  is  based  upon  subventions  of 
highway  improvements  by  means  of  loans  and  aids 
from  the  State  treasury  to  the  various  local  authori- 
ties. The  growth  of  vehicular  traflnc  by  electric  tram- 
ways and  by  automobiles  has  greatly  promoted  this 
work. 

Climate. — The  cUmate  of  the  State  is  salubrious, 
and  corresponds  generally  with  that  of  the  north  tem- 
perate zone.  In  1909 — which  was  somewhat  abnor- 
mal, it  is  true — the  extremes  of  temperature  were  102° 
above  zero  maximum  and  35°  below  zero  minimum. 
For  1909  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  entire 
State  was  45.8°.  The  average  rainfall  throughout  the 
State  for  the  same  year  was  36-03  inches.  New  York 
State  is  divided  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of 
the  Unil<(l  States  into  three  climatological  districts: 

(1)  the  Hudson,  Delaware,  and  Susquehanna  basins, 

(2)  the  Allegheny  River,  and  (3)  the  Great  Lakes  and 
the  St.  Lawrence.  The  great  extent  of  the  State 
causes  very  variable  climatic  conditions  within  its 
boundaries.  In  1909  the  mean  annual  temperature 
for  one  part  of  the  Adirondack  region  was  39°  and  for 
the  vicinity  of  New  York  City  52°.  The  rainfall  dur- 
ing the  year  1909  averaged  from  18T0  inches  in  Liv- 
ingston County  to  62-7  inches  in  Jefferson  County. 
The  winters  in  the  Adirondack  country,  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  the  Champlain  valleys  arc  generally  severe, 
while  tlie  Hud.son  Valley,  Long  Island,  and  the  vicin- 
ity of  New  York  City  have  moderate  winters  and  hot 
summers. 

Population. — New  York  has  been  since  1820  the 
most  populous  state  in  the  Union.  The  Federal  Cen- 
sus returns  of  1910  place  the  population  at  9,113,- 
279;  the  State  Census  of  1905  placed  it  at  8,067,308. 
The  City  of  New  York  in  1910  comprised  4,766,883 
souls,  it  is  one  of  the  centres  of  the  population  of  the 
world.     In  a  circle  of  680  square  miles  area  with  its 


NEW  YORK 


31 


NEW  YORK 


centre  at  the  Bat  tory  (tlic  sanio  area  as  that  of  Greater 
London)  thcio  air  dwclliiis  six  millions  of  pooplo,  or 
scarcely  a  million  less  than  in  the  London  district, 
which  it  is  to  be  remembered  is  not  a  municipality. 
This  metropolitan  district  is  the  most  cosmopolitan 
community  in  the  world.  Its  urban  character  is  most 
varied  and  interesting.  One  division  of  it ,  the  City  of 
New  York  proper,  is  so  large  that  if  divided  it  would 
make  three  cities  such  as  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  and 
Pittsburg.  Yet  nearly  a  million  and  a  half  of  people 
live  outside  the  limits  of  the  city  and  within  the  indi- 
cated area. 

The  cities  of  Buffalo,  Rochester,  Syracuse,  Albany, 
and  Troy  are  the  five  next  in  size;  according  to  the 
census  of  1910  they  include  respectively  42.3,715, 
218,149,  137,249,  100,2.'53,  and  76,813  people.  In 
1905  there  were  4821  Indians  still  on  the  State  Reser- 
vations. There  were  47  municipalities  in  New  York 
in  1900  having  a  population  of  more  than  SOOO  people, 
and  in  them  6S'5  per  cent  of  the  people  dwelt.  In 
1900  there  were  3,614,780  males  and  3,6.54,114  females 
in  the  State.  There  were  99,232  coloured  people. 
1,900,425  of  the  population  or  a  little  less  than  one 
quarter  were  foreign  born.  Of  these  there  were  480,- 
026  Germans,  425,5.53  Iri.sh,  182,248  Italians,  165,610 
Russian  (mostly  Hebrews),  and  135,685  English — to 
mention  only  the  largest  groups.  The  population  of 
the  whole  State  in  1790  was  340, 1 20  by  the  first  Federal 
Census.  In  120  years  it  has  increased  more  than 
twenty-six  times. 

In  i906,  according  to  the  Federal  Census  Bureau, 
there  were  2,285,768  Roman  Catholics  in  New  Y'ork, 
forming  63.6  per  cent  of  the  total  of  3,591,974  reli- 
gious communicants  or  church  members  in  the  State 
of  New  York.  It  is  the  largest  religious  denomina- 
tion in  the  State.  However,  only  43-7  per  cent  of  the 
people  of  the  State  claimed  membership  in  any  church 
or  denomination.  In  1906  there  were  278  Roman 
Catholics  for  each  1000  of  the  population,  a  gain  of 
8-6  per  cent  over  the  figures  of  the  census  reports  of 
1890.  The  number  of  Protestant  Episcopalian  com- 
municants at  the  same  date  in  theState  was  24  for  each 
1000  of  the  population.  In  1906  the  Federal  Census 
reports  show  that  in  the  State  of  New  York  the  num- 
ber of  churches  and  halls  for  worship  was  9193,  having 
a  seating  capacity  of  3,191,267.  There  were  also 
presbyteries  valued  at  $22,283,225.  The  Sunday 
schools  were  8795  in  number  and  attended  by  1,247,- 
051  scholars.  The  entire  value  of  all  church  property 
was  $255,166,284,  on  which  the  debt  was  .$28,382,866. 
The  Catholic  Annual  for  1910  shows  the  following 
carefully  gathered  for  the  dioceses  of  New  York  State. 
All  these  dioceses,  it  should  be  noted,  are  wholly  in- 
cluded within  the  State  boundaries  and  together  com- 
prise the  whole  State; 


Dioceses 

"S  p. 

i 

1 

■a 

ll 

l^  3*0 

New  York  — 

Albany 

Brooltlyn.  .  .  . 

Buffalo 

Ogdensburg... 
Rochester. . . . 
Syracuse 

1,219,820 
193.525 
700.000 
244.739 
92,000 
121,000 
151.463 

331 
171 

195 
194 
154 
129 
106 

929 
232 
426 
346 
135 
163 

"• 

148 
47 
76 

111 
15 
54 
18 

101.087 
20,362 
78,567 
36,405 

4,079 
19,779 

9,141 

Totals 

2,722.547 

1280        2350 

469 

269,420 

These  Catholic  estimates  are  interesting  for  the  pur- 
poses of  comparison  with  those  of  the  official  docu- 
ments, and  particularly  as  being  in  advance  of  the  re- 
sults of  the  Federal  Census  of  1910,  which  are  now 
being  prepared  but  cannot  be  published  in  detail  for 
some  years  to  come.     The  present  population  of  the 


State  of  New  York,  according  to  the  census  of  1910, 
is  9,113,279,  about  one-tenth  of  the  entire  population 
of  the  United  States. 

Wealth  and  Resources. — New  York  is  the  wealth- 
iest State  in  the  Union.  The  aggregate  value  of  all 
the  property  within  the  State  in  1904,  as  estimated  by 
the  Federal  Census  Bureau,  was  $14,769,042,207,  (if 
which  $9,151,979,081  represented  real  property  and 
improvements.  The  revenue  of  the  State  Govern- 
ment in  1908-9  was  $.52,285,239.  The  City  of  New 
York  received  the  enormous  revenue  of  $368,696,334 
in  1908,  and  had  in  the  same  year  a  funded  debt  of 
$598,012,644.  _  The  resources  of  the  State  of  New 
York  lie  first  in  its  commerce,  and  then  in  its  manu- 
factures, agriculture,  and  mining. 

Commerce. — In  1908  New  Y'ork  City  was  the  third 
shipping  port  of  the  world,  being  surpassed  only  by 
London  and  Liverpool.  Its  imports  were  of  the  value 
of  approximately  780  millions  and  its  exports  600 
millions.  The  tonnage  movement  of  foreign  trade 
for  the  year  ending  30  June,  1909,  was:  entered,  12,- 
528,723 "tons;  cleared,  11,,S66,431  tons.  The  shipping 
of  the  inland  waters  and  of  the  Great  Lakes  controlled 
by  the  State  of  New  York  is  of  equally  vast  extent. 
Buffalo,  with  a  population  of  over  40(5,000,  receives 
in  its  port  on  Lake  Erie  a  large  portion  of  the  shipping 
trade  of  Canada  and  of  the  Lake  States  of  the  Union. 
The  other  ports  of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  are  simi- 
larly prosperous. 

Manufactures. — New  York  is  the  leading  State  of 
the  Union  in  manufactures.  In  1905  it  had  invested 
in  manufactures  more  than  $2,000,000,000,  and  the 
value  of  its  manufactures  products  was  approximately 
$2,.5OO,O0O,O0O.  In  the  .same  year  it  produced  47  per 
cent  of  the  men's  and  70  per  cent  of  the  women's 
clothes  made  in  the  LTnited  States.  The  value  of  its 
textile  output  in  the  same  yearwas  $114,371,226. 

Agriculture. — In  1900  there  were  in  New  York  226,- 
720  farms  of  a  total  area  of  22,648,100  acres,  of  which 
15,599,986  acres  were  improved  land.  The  principal 
crops  are  maize,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  hay.  The 
wool  clip  in  1908  was  estimated  at  5,100,000  pounds. 
The  largest  dairy  interests  in  the  United  States  are 
within  the  State  of  New  York. 

Mining. — The  mines  of  the  state  in  1908  yielded 
products  valued  at  $45,609,861 ;  the  quarries  produced 
building  stone  valued  at  $6,137,279.  The  Onondaga 
salt  springs  produced  in  the  same  year  products  of  the 
value  of  $2,136,738,  while  the  petroleum  wells  yielded 
$2,071, .533  worth  of  crude  petroleum. 

PnBLic  Debt. — The  State  of  New  York  has  no 
funded  debt  except  for  canals  and  highways.  Its  out- 
standing bonds  for  these  purposes  on  30  September, 
1909,  aggregated  $41,2,30,660.  It  has  no  direct  taxa- 
tion. It  has  a  surplus  in  its  treasury.  The  assessed 
valuation  of  the  taxable  propertv  within  the  State  for 
1909  was  just  short  of  $10,000,000,000.  The  title  of 
"Empire  State",  given  to  New  York  by  common 
consent,  is  well  deserved. 

Educational  System. — The  public  educational 
system  of  New  Y'ork  is  extensive  and  arranged  upon 
broad  plans.  It  is  governed  by  a  general  revised  stat- 
ute of  more  than  2000  sections  called  "Education 
Law",  adopted  in  1910.  This  law  provides  for  a  cen- 
tral organization  called  the  "Education  Department" 
composed  of  the  regents  of  the  Lnivrrsity  of  the  State 
of  New  York,  who  are  the  legislative  branch,  .and  the 
Commissioner  of  Education,  who  is  made  the  chief 
executive  officer  of  the  system  and  of  the  regents. 
The  work  of  the  Educational  Department  is  divided 
into  three  parts,  the  common  schools,  the  academic  or 
secondary  schools,  and  the  colleges  and  universities. 
The  head  of  the  regents  of  the  miiversity  is  the  chan- 
cellor. Executive  control,  however,  is  entrusted  to 
the  commissioner  of  education,  who,  with  his  a.ssi8t- 
ants  and  subordinates,  has  charge  of  the  enormous  de- 
tails of  the  entire  educational  system  of  the  State 


NEW  YORK 


32 


NEW  YORK 


under  the  legislative  control  of  tlio  roponta  and  tlio  di- 
rection of  the  statutes  of  tlic>Statci>asscd  by  the  legis- 
lature. The  colli'fjes  and  universities  of  the  State  arc 
separate  corporations,  formed  cither  by  the  regents  or 
by  special  statutes.  They  are  under  either  private  or 
municipal  control.  There  is  no  State  university  as 
such,  although  Cornell  University  has  been  given 
many  of  the  privileges  and  State  aids  usually  granted 
to  such  an  institution.  These  corporations  are  sub- 
ject, however,  to  the  provisions  of  the  I'iducation  Law 
and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  E<liicati()n  Department. 
The  academies  or  secondary  schools  are  also  either 
private  or  public.  The  public  secondary  schools  are 
directly  in  charge  of  the  school  boards  and  boards  of 
education  of  the  various  divisions  of  the  State.  The 
private  academies  may  enroll  themselves  under  the 
Department  of  Education,  and  receive  the  privi- 
leges of  the  public  academies  in  respect  to  examina- 
tions and  certificates  from  the  Education  Depart- 
ment. There  is,  however,  no  legal  compulsion  put 
upon  them  in  this  respect.  The  common  schools  of 
the  State  are  divided  generally  into  those  which  are 
controlled  by  the  local  boards  of  education  in  the  cities 
and  more  populous  centres,  and  tho,se  which  are  con- 
trolled by  the  local  school  officers  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple in  the  school  districts  in  other  parts  of  the  State. 
Woman  suffrage  is  granted  in  school  officers'  elections. 
In  the  great  cities  of  the  State  the  common  and  sec- 
ondary schools  are  usually  placed  in  charge  of  school 
boards  and  officers  provided  for  in  the  city  charters, 
which  are  in  the  form  of  statutes  enacted  by  the  legis- 
lature. 

In  New  York  City  is  situated  the  large  college 
known  as  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  main- 
tained at  public  expense.  It  has  the  most  extensive 
buildings  for  educational  purposes  in  the  city  and  an 
enrolment  of  more  than  3736  pupils.  On  the  Hudson, 
at  West  Point,  is  situated  the  famous  United  States 
MiUtary  Academy  for  the  training  of  officers  for  the 
army.  It  is  entirely  under  Federal  control  through 
the  War  Department,  and  has  525  cadets  in  attend- 
ance. The  professional  schools  of  the  State  of  all 
classes  are  controlled  by  the  Education  Department 
under  stringent  provisions.  Admission  to  the  secular 
professions  generally  is  granted  by  State  certificates 
awarded  after  rigid  examinations  by  State  examining 
boards.  The  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers  are 
also  either  under  departmental  control  or,  in  the  more 
populous  centres,  under  the  control  of  the  several 
boards  of  education  of  the  localities.  Primary  edu- 
cation is  compulsory  between  the  ages  of  seven  and 
Buxteen  years.  The  state  does  not  interfere,  however, 
with  the  liberty  of  choice  of  schools  by  parents.  No 
discrimination  is  made  against  parochial  and  private 
schools,  which  have  enrolled  themselves  with  the 
Education  Department:  they  receive,  however,  no 
pubhc  financial  aid,  if  the  small  grant  made  by  the 
Department  to  defray  the  cost  of  examinations  in  the 
enrolled  secondarv  schools  be  excepted. 

In  190S  there  were  1,841,638  children  between  five 
and  eighteen  years  of  age  in  New  York  State;  there 
were  1,273,754  pupils  and  .36,132  teachers  in  the  pub- 
lic schools.  The  academies  or  secondary  schools  of 
the  State  had  95,1 70  pupils  and  1.523  teachers;  the  col- 
leges and  universities  22,097  students  and  2699  teach- 
ers. There  were  12,068  public  school  buildings,  144 
public  secondary  schools  or  academies,  and  30  colleges 
and  universities.  The  appropriation  of  public  mon- 
eys for  educational  purposes  in  New  York  State  for 
the  year  1907  was  §71,838,172.  The  City  of  New 
York  alone  paid  in  1909  for  public  school  education 
$36,319,624.  Its  schools  contained  730,234  pupils 
and  had  17,073  teachers  and  directors.  The  public 
statistics  of  the  Department  of  Education  of  New 
York  available  show  that  451  parochial  schools,  be- 
sides numerous  academies  and  colleges,  were  con- 
ducted under  the  auspices  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 


New  York  in  1908.  The  number  of  pupils  in  the 
Cat  hiilie  educational  institutions  of  the  State  cannot  be 
ascertained  with  certainty.  A  large  number  of  Cath- 
olic schools  and  academies  make  no  public  reports, 
but  it  is  conservatively  estimated  that  210,000  pupils 
were  in  the  Catholic  schools  in  1908.  The  State  Edu- 
cation Department  reported  that  in  1907,  179,677 
pupils  were  registered  as  in  the  Koman  Catholic  Ele- 
mentary Schools  alone.  The  Catholic  Annual  of  1910 
est  imates  the  number  of  young  people  under  CathoHc 
care  including  the  orphans  and  other  inmates  of  char- 
itable institutions  as  269,420. 

There  are  many  excellent  high  schools  and  acade- 
mies in  the  State  conducted  by  the  Catholic  teaching 
orders  of  men  and  women  and  by  secular  priests  and 
laymen.  The  colleges  under  Catholic  auspices  are: 
Fordham  University,  St.  Francis  Xavier  College, 
Manhattan  College,  Brooklyn  College,  St.  Francis 
College,  St.  John's  College,  Brooklyn — all  in  New 
York  City;  Canisius  College  at  Buffalo,  Niagara  Uni- 
versity at  Niagara  Falls,  and  the  College  of  New  Ro- 
chelle,  a  flourishing  college  for  women  in  charge  of  the 
Ursuline  Nuns.  All  of  these  institutions  are  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Education  Department  of  the 
State  of  New  York.  In  1S94  there  was  inserted  in 
the  Constitution  of  the  State  a  provision  that  neither 
the  State  nor  any  subdivision  thereof  should  use  its 
property  or  credit  or  any  i>ublic  money  or  authorize  or 
permit  either  to  be  used  directly  or  indirectly  in  aid  or 
maintenance  other  than  for  examination  or  inspection 
of  any  school  or  institution  of  learning  wholly  or  in 
part  under  the  control  or  direction  of  any  religious 
denomination  or  in  which  any  denominational  tenet 
or  doctrine  is  taught.  The  Catholic  seminaries  for 
the  education  of  priests  are  flourishing.  The  great 
novitiates  of  the  Jesuits,  Redemptorists,  and  Christian 
Brothers,  and  several  others  maintained  by  various 
religious  orders,  are  in  the  Hudson  Valley,  south  of 
Albany.  The  seminary  of  the  Archdiocese  of  New 
York  at  Dunwoodie,  Westchester  County,  which  is  the 
monument  of  the  late  Archbishop  Corrigan,  is  one  of 
the  leading  seminaries  of  the  United  States.  The  dioc- 
esan seminaries  of  St.  John's  at  Brooklyn,  St.  Bern- 
ard's at  Rochester,  and  the  Seminary  of  Our  Lady  of 
Angels,  conducted  by  the  priests  of  the  Mission  at 
Niagara  Falls,  in  the  Diocese  of  Buffalo,  .are  of  the 
highest  standing  for  scholarship  and  training. 

Militia. — The  militia  of  the  State,  which  is  com- 
posed exclusively  of  volunteers,  numbers  17,038 
trained  officers  and  men  in  all  the  arms  of  the  military 
service.  It  is  intended  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  mili- 
tary force  in  time  of  need  by  training  volunteer  citi- 
zen-soldiers in  the  military  art.  It  is  most  liberally 
supported  by  the  State  and  most  carefully  trained  in 
co-operation  with  the  Federal  Government. 

Libraries. — The  libraries  of  the  State  are  numer- 
ous and  important.  The  Education  Department 
maintains  a  generous  system  for  the  establishment  of 
hbraries  and  provides  generous  State  aid  for  their  sup- 
port. The  great  library  of  the  State  is  the  New  York 
Public  Library  in  the  City  of  New  York,  which  in  1909 
owned  1,. 549,260  books  and  295,078  pamphlets,  in  all 
1,844,338  volumes.  It  w'ill  soon  (in  1911)  occupy  the 
magnificent  building  erected  by  the  City  of  New  York 
in  Bryant  Square  at  Fifth  Avenue  and  Forty-second 
Street,  which  has  just  been  completed.  It  is  largely 
endowed  by  the  testamentary  gifts  of  John  Jacob 
Astor,  James  Lenox,  and  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  and  re- 
ceives aid  from  the  City  Treasury. 

History. — The  territory  which  now  forms  the 
State  of  New  York  may,  as  regards  its  history,  be  di- 
vided into  two  parts.  The  first  part  includes  the 
Hudson  River  valley,  the  valley  of  the  Mohawk,  the 
land  arounfl  Newark  Bay  and  New  York  Harbour, 
and  the  western  end  of  Long  Island — which,  speaking 
generally,  were,  together  with  the  sparse  Delaware 
River  settlements,  the  only  portions  of  New  Nether- 


NEW   YORK 


33 


NEW  YORK 


land  actually  occupieil  by  the  Dutch  when  the  prov- 
ince was  granted  by  the  English  Crown  to  the  Duke  of 
York  in  16G4.  The  second  part  comprises  the  rest  of 
the  State  excluding  eastern  Long  Island:  this  was  the 
Indian  country,  the  home  of  the  Iroquois  and  the 
other  tribes  forming  the  Five  Nations,  now  mostly  re- 
membered from  the  old  romances,  but  a  savage  and 
fierce  reality  to  the  Dutch  and  English  colonists.  As 
late  as  1756  there  were  only  two  counties  to  be  found 
in  the  entire  province  west  of  the  Hudson  River.  In- 
terposed between  the  French  and  the  Dutch  (and 
afterwards  the  P^nglish),  and  brought  from  time  to 
to  time  into  their  quarrels  for  supremacy,  the  Indians 
kept  the  land  between  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Hudson, 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  truly  "a  dark  and  bloody 
ground  "  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when, 
as  part  of  the  military  operations  of  the  Revolution, 
the  expedition  of  the  American  forces,  sent  by  Wash- 
ington under  command  of  General  John  Sullivan,  fi- 
nally broke  their  power  at  the  Battle  of  Newton  near 
Elmira  in  1779. 

Although  their  military  power  was  thus  destroyed, 
the  Indians  still  remained  a  menace  to  the  settlers  in 
remoter  districts  for  many  years.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, their  opposition  was  overcome,  and  they  finally 
became  the  wards  of  the  State,  living  on  reservations 
set  ai)art  for  their  exclusive  occupancy.  A  remnant 
of  them  (4S21  in  the  year  190.5)  still  survives.  Early 
in  the  nineteenth  century  large  grants  of  land  began  to 
be  made  by  the  State  at  small  prices  to  land  companies 
and  promoters  for  the  purpose  of  fostering  occupation 
by  settlers.  Systematic  colonization  was  immedi- 
ately undertaken,  and  a  large  emigration  from  Ver- 
mont, Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  the  Dutch 
settlements  in  the  Hudson  Valley  began  to  flow  into 
the  Iroquois  country.  This  continued  prosperously, 
but  not  rapidly  until  De  Witt  Clinton,  one  of  the 
great  figures  in  the  history  of  New  York, upon  his  taking 
the  office  of  Governor  in  1818,  pressed  forward  vigor- 
ously the  long-standing  plans  for  the  construction  and 
completion  of  the  great  artificial  waterways  of  the 
State,  the  Erie  and  the  Champlain  canals.  European 
immigration  then  became  essential  to  supply  the  la- 
bour needed  for  the  success  of  these  plans.  Stalwart 
men  and  women  flocked  from  the  British  Islands  and 
Germany  in  astounding  numbers,  and  in  forty  years 
the  population  of  New  York  City  increased  more  than 
six  times  (from  33,131  in  1790  to  202,.')89  in  1830). 
The  labouring  men,  who  worked  outside  the  cities  on 
the  public  works,  with  their  families  became  settlers 
in  the  villages  and  towns  that  grew  up  along  the 
canals.  The  general  prosperity  which  succeeded  the 
successful  completion  of  these  works  and  their  opera- 
tion, and  the  consequent  enormous  development  of 
the  State's  resources,  drew  others  into  the  territory. 
The  population  of  the  State  of  New  Y'ork  itself  in- 
creased from  340,120  in  1790  to  1,918,608  in  1830. 

The  European  immigration  thus  begun  included  of 
course  a  large  proportion  of  Catholics.  Bishop  Du- 
bois estimated  that  in  1830  there  were  35,000  Catho- 
lics in  New  Y'ork  City  and  150,000  throughout  the 
rest  of  the  State  and  in  northern  New  Jersey,  made  up 
chiefly  of  poor  emigrants.  The  Irish  element  was 
very  large,  and  the  first  Catholic  congregations  in 
New  York  were  in  some  cases  almost  wholly  Irish.  To 
them  soon  came  their  devoted  missionary  priests  to 
minister  to  them  in  the  Faith  which  had  survived 
among  their  race  and  grown  even  brighter  in  the  night 
of  the  iniquitous  penal  days,  which  had  then  but  just 
begun  to  pass  away.  The  State  of  New  Y'ork,  be- 
cause of  the  uncertain  boundaries  of  the  old  Dutch 
province  of  New  Netherland,  at  first  laid  claim  to  the 
country  which  now  comprises  the  State  of  Vermont, 
and  also  to  part  of  the  land  now  lying  in  western  Mas- 
sachusetts and  Connecticut.  These  claims  were  set- 
tled by  mutual  agreement  in  due  course  and  the 
boundaries  were  fixed.  The  State  of  Vermont  there- 
XL— 3 


upon  became  the  fourteenth  State  of  the  Union  in  1791, 
being  the  first  admitted  after  the  adoption  of  the 
United  States  Constitution  in  1789.  The  first  com- 
plete State  Constitution  framed  after  the  Revolution 
was  that  of  New  York.  It  was  adopted  on  20  .\pril, 
1777,  at  Kingston  on  the  Hudson.  John  Jay,  George 
Chnton,  and  Alexander  Hamilton  were  its  principal 
framers.  The  City  of  New  Y'ork  became  the  capital 
of  the  State  after  the  Revolution,  as  it  had  been  the 
capital  of  the  Province  of  New  York  before.  Upon 
the  adoption  of  the  United  States  Constitution  in 
1789  it  became  the  capital  of  the  United  States.  Presi- 
dent Washington  was  inaugurated  there  at  Federal 
Hall  at  the  head  of  Broad  Street,  the  first  capital  of 
the  United  States.  His  house  stood  at  the  foot  of 
Broadway.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  the  Washing- 
ton Building.  In  1790  the  capital  of  the  United 
States  was  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and  in  1797  the 
capital  of  the  State  was  removed  to  Albany  where  it 
has  since  remained.  Since  1820  the  City  of  New 
Y'ork  has  been  the  commercial  and  financial  centre  of 
the  continent  of  North  America. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — On  8  April,  1808,  the 
Holy  See  created  the  Diocese  of  New  York  coinci- 
dently  with  the  establishment  of  the  American  Hier- 
archy by  the  erection  of  Baltimore  to  be  an  Archi- 
episcopM  See  with  New  Y^ork,  Philadelphia,  Boston, 
and  Bardstown  (now  Louisville)  as  suffragan  sees. 
Doctor  Richard  Luke  Concanen,  an  Irish  Dominican 
resident  in  Rome,  was  appointed  first  Bishop  of  New 
York,  but  died  at  Naples  in  1809,  while  awaiting  an 
opportunity  to  elude  Napoleon  Bonaparte's  embargo 
and  set  out  for  his  see.  After  a  delay  of  six  years 
his  successor  Bishop  John  Connolly,  also  a  Dominican, 
arrived  at  New  Y'ork  in  November,  1815,  and  min- 
istered as  the  first  resident  bishop  to  his  scattered 
congregations  of  17,000  souls  (whom  he  describes  as 
"mostly  Irish")  in  union  with  the  four  priests,  who 
were  all  he  had  to  help  him  throughout  his  immense 
diocese.  He  died  on  5  February,  1825,  after  a  de- 
voted and  self-sacrificing  episcopate,  and  is  buried 
under  the  altar  of  the  new  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral. 
During  the  vacancy  of  the  see,  preceding  the  arrival 
of  Bishop  Connolly  (1808-15),  the  diocesan  affairs 
were  administered  by  Father  Anthony  Kohlmann  (q. 
v.).  He  rebuilt  St.  Peter's  church  in  Barclav  Street, 
and  in  1809  bought  the  site  of  old  St.  Patrick'"s  Cathe- 
dral in  Mott  Street,  the  building  of  which  he  finished 
in  1815.  He  also  bought  in  1809  the  land  and  old 
residence  in  the  large  block  on  J'ifth  Avenue  at  Fif- 
tieth Street — part  of  which  is  the  site  of  the  present 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral — and  there  established  a 
flourishing  boys'  school  called  the  New  York  Literary 
Institution. 

In  1822  the  diocesan  statistics  were:  two  churches 
in  New  Y'ork  City,  one  in  Albany,  one  in  Utica,  one 
in  Auburn,  one  at  Carthage  on  the  Black  River,  all 
of  which  were  served  by  one  bishop  and  eight  priests. 
Bishop  Connolly  was  succeeded  on  29  October,  1826, 
by  John  Dubois  (q.  v.),  a  Frenchman  who  had  been 
a  fellow  student  of  Robespierre  and  was  one  of  the 
emigre  priests  of  the  French  Revolution.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  Mount  St.  Mary's,  Emmitsburg, 
Maryland — "the  mother  of  priests",  as  it  has  been 
called — and  passed  through  the  cholera  epidemic  of 
1832,  when  3000  people  died  in  the  City  of  New  York 
between  July  and  October.  He  increased  the  churches 
and  brought  to  his  diocese  zealous  priests.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  he  ordained  to  the  priesthood  at  St. 
Patrick's  in  June,  1836,  the  Veneralde  John  N.  Neu- 
man  (q.  v.),  afterwards  the  .-iuiiilly  Bishop  of  Phila- 
delphia. After  a  life  of  arduous  laliour,  trial,  and 
anxiety  both  as  a  missionary,  an  educator,  and  a  pio- 
neer bishop,  his  health  broke  down,  and  he  was 
granted  in  1837  as  coadjutor  John  Hughes  (q.  v.), 
who  justly  bears  the  most  distinguished  name  m  the 
annals  of  the  AmericanJiierarchy  even  to  this  day. 


NEW   YORK 


34 


NEW   YORK 


Bishop  Huglies  was  consecratpd  on  9  February,  1838. 
A  stroke  of  paralysis  attacked  the  venerable  liishop 
Dubois  almost  iiiinieiliately  aflerwanls.  and  he  was  an 
invalid  until  his  death  on  20  December,  IS  12,  where- 
upon he  was  sueceedeil  by  his  coadjutor  as  Bishop  of 
New  York.  In  April,  1847,  the  Sees  of  Albany  and 
Buffalo  were  created.  Bishop  .John  McCloskey  {q. 
v.),  afterwards  the  first  American  cardinal,  who  was 
then  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  New  York,  was  transferred 
to  Albany,  and  Reverend  John  Timon,  Superior  of  I  lie 
Congregation  of  the  Mission,  was  made  Bishop  of 
BufTalo.  In  October,  18.50,  the  Diocese  of  New  York 
was  erected  into  an  archiepiscopal  see  with  the  Sees  of 
Boston,  Hartford,  Albany,  and  Buffalo  as  its  suffra- 
gans. Archbishop  Hughes  sailed  for  Rome  in  the 
following  nioiilh,  and  received  the  pallium  from  the 
hands  of  Pius  IX  hinisi<lf. 

The  career  of  .Yrchbishop  Hughes  and  the  history 
of  his  archdiocese  and  its  sufTragan  sees  are  fully 
treated  under  their  appropriate  titles,  and  need  not 
be  discussed  here.  The  life  of  Archbishop  Hughes 
marked  the  great  formative  period  in  the  history  of  the 
pioneer  Church  in  New  York.  His  great  work  in  the 
cause  of  education,  in  the  establishment  of  the  paro- 
chial schools,  the  establishment  of  the  great  teaching 
and  other  religious  orders,  and  the  erection  of  semi- 
naries and  colleges  for  the  training  of  candidates  for 
the  priesthood,  as  well  as  in  the  solution  of  the  tremen- 
dous problems  connected  with  the  building  up  of  the 
churches  and  charities  and  the  preservation  of  the 
Faith,  had  a  profound  effect  upon  the  attitude  of  the 
State  of  N('w  York  towards  religious  institutions  and 
persons  and  ecclesiastical  affairs.  The  Knownothing 
movement  of  the  fifties  (see  Knownothingism)  was 
profoundly  felt  in  New  York,  but  the  number  and  im- 
portance of  the  Catholic  population  protected  them 
from  the  cowardly  assaults  made  upon  the  Catholics 
in  other  places.  The  presence  of  Archbishop  Hughes 
was  ever  a  tower  of  strength  in  the  conflict  and  in  pro- 
ducing the  overwhelming  defeat  which  this  un-Amer- 
ican movement  met.  The  only  effect  of  this  sectarian 
agitation  upon  the  legislation  of  the  State  was  the 
passage  in  18.').5  of  a  plainly  unconstitutional  statute 
which  sought  to  prevent  Catholic  bishops  from  hold- 
ing title  to  property  in  trust  for  churches  or  congre- 
gations. It  proved  of  no  avail  whatever.  In  1862, 
after  the  Civil  War  began,  it  was  quietly  repealed. 

In  1853  the  Dioceses  of  Brooklyn  in  New  York  and 
of  Newark  in  New  Jersey  were  established,  the  first 
Bishop  of  Brooklyn  being  Reverend  John  Loughlin 
and  the  first  Bishop  of  Newark  Reverend  James 
Roosevelt  Bayley  (q.  v.),  who  later  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Baltimore.  In  18fi8  the  Diocese  of  Roches- 
ter was  separated  from  Albany,  and  the  venerable  and 
beloved  apostle  of  Catholicism  in  north-western  New 
York,  Bishop  Bernard  J.  McQuaid  (q.  v.),  appointed 
its  first  bishop. 

In  1872  the  Diocese  of  Ogdensburg  was  created, 
and  in  November,  1886,  the  youngest  diocese  of  the 
State,  Syracuse.  It  is  unnecessary  to  sketch  further 
here  the  history  of  Catholicism  in  New  Y'ork  State 
during  the  incumbency  of  the  archiepiscopal  office  by 
Cardinal  McCloskey,  Archbishop  Hughes's  successor, 
and  that  of  his  successor  Archbishop  Corrigan,  or  of 
his  Grace,  John  M.  Farley,  its  present  archbishop.  It 
is  sufficient  to  record  the  continual  progress  in  the  ad- 
vancement of  Catholic  interests,  in  the  building  up  of 
the  Church,  and  in  adjusting  its  activities  to  the  needs 
of  the  people. 

Distinguished  Catholics. — The  Catholics  of  New 
York  State  have  produced  their  full  proportion  of  per- 
sons of  distinction  in  the  professions,  commercial, 
political,  and  social  life.  Of  the  ninety-seven  justices 
who  now  sit  in  the  Supreme  Court  seventeen  are  of 
the  Catholic  faith.  Among  the  justices  of  the  lower 
courts  are  many  Catholics.  Since  1880  three  mayors 
of  New  York  City  (Messrs.  Grace,  Grant,  and  Gilroy) 


have  been  Catholics.  Francis  Kernan  was  United 
States  Senator  for  New  York  from  1876-82.  Denis 
O'Brien  closed  a  distinguished  career  as  Judge  of 
the  Court  of  Appeals,  the  court  of  last  resort,  by  his 
retirement  for  age  in  1908  after  a  continuous  service 
of  eighteen  years.  The  first  Catholic  Justice  of  the 
Su])reme  Court  was  .John  R.  Brady,  elected  in  1859, 
and  loyal  sons  of  the  Church  have  been  on  that  bench 
ever  since.  Mayors  of  the  great  cities  of  the  State, 
sen.-itoi-s,  a.sscmblyman.  State  officers  and  represen- 
tatives in  Congress,  and  a  multitude  of  other  public 
officers  have  been  chosen  from  the  Cithcilic  citizen- 
ship ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  niiicdi'iilh  cen- 
tury and  have  rendered  distingui.shed  seixicc  to  the 
State.  For  many  years  the  two  brilliant  leaders  of  the 
New  York  Bar  weie  Charles  O'Conor  and  James  T. 
Brady,  sons  of  Irish  Catholic  emigrants.  In  medi- 
cine Gunning  S.  Bedford  and  Thomas  Addis  Kmmet 
kept  for  many  years  the  Catholic  name  at  the  top  of 
the  profession,  and  they  have  now  worthy  successors. 
In.tlie  great  public  works  and  industries  of  the  State 
Catholics  have  had  more  than  their  share  of  the  labour 
and  its  rewards.  In  the  commercial  life  of  New  Y'ork 
some  of  the  largest  fortunes  have  been  honourably 
gathered  by  Catholic  men,  who  have  been  most  gen- 
erous to  the  religious  and  charitable  works  of  the 
State. 

Legal. — The  State  of  New  York  has  a  constitu- 
tional government.  It  was  the  model  of  that  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  The  union  of  the  executive, 
legislative,  and  judicial  branches  of  government  under 
a  written  constitution  is  its  principle.  Its  execu- 
tive head  is  the  governor.  The  legislature  has  two 
houses,  t  he  Sen.'ite  and  Assembly,  which  meet  annually 
at  ;\ll)any,  the  State  capital.  Its  courts  are  composed 
princiijally  of  a  Court  of  Appeals  (the  highest  court) 
and  the  Supreme  Court,  which  is  divided  into  four 
Appellate  Divisions,  and  numerous  courts  of  first 
instance,  divided  into  districts  throughout  the  State. 
There  are  many  minor  and  local  courts  supplementing 
the  Supreme  Court. 

The  State  of  New  Y'ork  has  always  been  foremost  in 
the  pursuit  of  freedom  of  worship  and  religious  toler- 
ation. It  is  true,  however,  that  her  first  Constitution 
in  1777  excluded  all  priests  and  ministers  of  the  Gospel 
from  her  legislature  and  offices,  and  put  a  prohibitory 
religious  test  upon  foreign-born  Catholics  who  applied 
for  citizenship.  Herein  we  find  an  echo  of  the  bitter  in- 
tolerance of  the  eighteenth  century,  which  was  strongly 
opposed  in  the  Convention.  The  naturalization  dis- 
ability disappeared  very  soon  on  the  adoption  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  in  1789,  and,  by  .subsequent 
constitutional  amendments,  all  these  remnants  of  an- 
cient bigotry  were  formally  abolished.  It  is  remark- 
able to  find  John  Jay,  otherwise  most  earnest  in  the  fight 
for  civil  liberty,  the  leader  in  the.se  efforts  to  impose 
religious  tests  and  restraints  of  liberty  of  conscience 
upon  his  Catholic  fellow-citizens.  This  Constitution, 
nevertheless,  proclaimed  general  religious  liberty  in 
unmistakable  terms.  The  provision  is  as  follows: 
"The  free  exercise  and  enjoyment  of  religious  profes- 
sion and  worship  without  discrimination  or  preference 
shall  forever  hereafter  be  allowed  within  this  State  to  all 
manki  ml  provided  that  the  liberty  of  conscience  hereby 
granted  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  excuse  acts 
of  licentiousne.ss  or  justify  practices  inconsistent  with 
the  peace  or  safety  of  this  State."  The  statutes  of  the 
State  which  permitted  the  formation  of  religious  cor- 
porations without  restraint,  and  gave  to  them  when 
formed,  freedom  to  hold  property  and  conduct  their 
affairs  unhampered  by  the  civil  power,  are  contempo- 
raneous with  the  restoration  of  order  within  its  borders 
after  tlie  British  evacuation  in  November,  1783,  and 
were  among  the  first  statutes  adopted  by  the  legisla- 
ture in  17.S4.  The  laws  of  New  York  which  relate  to 
matters  of  religion  have  been  in  many  instances  models 
for  the  other  States.     The  Dutchmen  who  settled  in 


NEW  YORK 


35 


NEW  YORK 


New  Netherland,  and  the  other  emigrants  and  their 
descendants  who  came  within  their  influence  in  the 
Province  of  New  York,  early  learned  the  value  and 
reason  of  religious  toleration.  The  Dutchmen  in 
America  did  not  persecute  for  religion's  sake. 

The  present  civil  relations  of  the  Catholic  Church  to 
the  State  of  New  York  and  their  history  form  an  in- 
teresting study.  The  Dutch  Colony  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  was  officially  intolerantly  Protestant, 
but  was,  as  has  been  noted,  in  practice  tolerant  and 
fair  to  people  of  other  faiths  who  dwelt  within  New 
Netherland.  When  the  English  took  the  province 
from  the  Dutch  in  1664,  they  granted  full  religious 
toleration  to  the  other  forms  of  Protestantism,  and 
preserved  the  property  rights  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church,  while  recognizing  its  discipline.  The  Gen- 
eral Assembly  of  the  province  held  in  1682  under  the 
famous  Governor  Thomas  Dongan,  an  Irish  Catholic 
nobleman,  adopted  the  Charter  of  Liberties,  which 
proclaimed  religious  liberty  to  all  Christians.  Al- 
though this  charter  did  not  receive  formal  royal  sanc- 
tion, the  factof  religioustolerationwas  nevertheless  uni- 
versally recognized.  In  1688  the  Stuart  Revolution 
in  England  reversed  this  policy  of  liberality,  and  the 
Province  of  New  York  immediately  followed  the  e.\- 
amplo  of  the  mother-country  in  all  its  bitter  intoler- 
ance and  persecution  by  law  of  the  Catholic  Church 
and  its  adherents.  In  1697,  although  the  Anglican 
Church  was  neverformallyestal>li.shed  in  the  Province 
of  New  York,  Trinity  Church  was  founded  in  the  City 
of  New  York  by  royal  charter,  and  received  many 
civil  privileges  and  the  munificent  grants  of  land  which 
are  the  source  of  its  present  great  wealth.  The  Dutch 
Reformed  Churches  continued,  however,  to  enjoy 
their  property  and  the  protection  of  their  rights  un- 
disturbed by  the  new  Anglican  foundation,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Dutch  blood  being  then  largely  in  the  ascend- 
ant. This  condition  continued  many  years,  for  it  is 
a  fact  that,  when  the  Revolution  occurred  in  1776, 
the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Province  of  New 
York  were,  contrary  to  general  belief,  not  of  English 
descent. 

The  political  conditions  at  home,  and  also  the  long 
contest  between  England  and  France  for  the  control 
of  North  .America  resulted,  as  has  been  stated,  in  the 
enactment  by  the  provincial  legislature  from  time  to 
time  of  proscriptive  laws  against  the  Catholic  Faith 
and  its  adherents — laws  which  are  savage  in  their 
malignity.  Catholic  priests  and  teachers  were  or- 
dered to  keep  away  from  the  province  or,  if  they  by 
any  chance  came  there,  to  depart  at  once.  Severe 
penalties  were  provided  for  disobedience  to  these  laws, 
extending  to  long  imprisonment  or  even  death.  These 
laws  were  directed  in  many  cases  principally  against 
the  Catholic  missionaries  among  the  Iroquois,  who 
were  almost  exclusively  Frenchmen.  They  were 
adopted  also,  it  is  consoling  to  think,  against  the  pro- 
test of  many  of  the  best  of  the  colonial  legislators  and 
under  the  urging  of  authority,  and  were  rarely  en- 
forced. This  was  not  so  in  the  case  of  the  unfortunate 
schoolmaster  John  Ury,  however.  In  the  disturbances 
and  panic  of  the  so-called  Negro  Plot  of  1741  he  was 
actually  tried  in  New  York  and  executed  under  these 
statutes  for  the  crime  of  being  a  "Popish  priest"  and 
teaching  his  religion.  Although  it  is  held  by  some 
that  Ury  was  not  a  Catholic  priest.  Archbishop  Bayley 
gives  good  reason  for  believing  the  contrary,  citing 
especially  the  fact  that  the  record  shows  that  he 
never  denied  the  accusation  at  any  time,  and  therefore 
died  as  a  priest.  The  entire  body  of  this  legislation 
was  formally  repealed  at  the  first  session  of  the  Legis- 
lature of  the  State  of  New  York. 

The  condition  of  the  few  Catholics  who  dared  pro- 
scription and  persecution  in  the  province  of  New  York 
before  the  Revolution  of  1776  was  deplorable  from  a 
religious  point  of  view.  These  Catholics  must  have 
been  recruited  in  numbers  from  time  to  time  from  sea- 


faring people,  emigrants,  Spanish  negroes  from  the 
West  Indies,  and  at  least  part  of  the  7000  Acadians, 
who  were  distributed  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  in 
175.5  after  the  awful  expatriation  winch  that  devoted 
people  suffered,  although  the  annals  are  almost  bare  of 
references  even  to  their  existence.  Father  Farmer 
from  Philadelphia  came  to  see  the  oppressed  Catho- 
lics during  his  long  service  on  the  missions  between 
1752-86,  but  his  visits  have  no  history.  They  had 
no  church  or  institutions  of  any  kind.  As  Arch- 
bishop Bayley  truly  said,  a  chapel,  if  they  had  had 
means  to  erect  one,  would  have  been  torn  down.  The 
first  mention  of  their  public  worship  shows  them  hear- 
ing Mass  in  a  carpenter  shop,  and  afterwards  in  a 
public  hall  in  Vauxliall  Garden  (a  pleasure  ground  on 
the  Hudson  near  Warren  Street),  New  York,  between 
the  years  1781-8.3  when  they  had  begun  to  take 
heart  because  of  the  religious  libertj'  which  was  to  be 
theirs  under  the  new  republican  government  whose 
arms  had  already  triumphed  over  England  at  York- 
town.  Their  number  at  this  time  was  reported  as  be- 
ing about  two  hundred,  with  only  twenty  odd  com- 
municants, as  Father  Farmer  lamented. 

The  Revolution  of  1 776  overthrew  entirely  the  system 
of  government  churches  and  all  religious  proscrip- 
tion by  law,  and  the  State  Constitution  of  1777  pro- 
vided, as  has  been  seen,  for  general  religious  liberty. 
The  Legislature  in  1784  carried  out  the  declaration. 
It  provided  "that  an  universal  equality  between  every 
religious  denomination,  according  to  the  true  spirit 
of  the  Con.5titution,  toward  each  other  shall  forever 
prevail",  and  followed  this  by  a  general  act  providing 
for  the  incorporation  of  churches  and  religious  soci- 
eties under  clear  general  rules,  few,  simple,  and  easy 
for  all.  This  law  made  a  most  unusual  provision  in 
aid  of  justice  for  the  vesting  in  these  corporate  bodies 
immediately  of  "all  the  temporalities  granted  or  de- 
vised directly  to  said  church,  congregation  or  society, 
or  to  any  person  or  persons  in  trust  to  and  for  their 
use  and  although  such  gift,  grant  or  devise  may  not 
have  strictly  been  agreeable  to  the  rigid  rules  of  law,  or 
might  on  strict  construction  be  defeated  by  the  opera- 
tion of  the  statutes  of  mortmain."  It  made  provision 
also  with  great  prescience  for  the  protection  of  clergy- 
men from  the  exercise  of  arbitrary  power  by  the  lay 
directors  of  religious  corporations  by  taking  from  the 
trustees  of  the  church  the  power  to  fix  the  salary  of  the 
clergyman  and  by  requiring  the  congregation  to  fix  it  at 
special  meetings.  To  prevent  abuses,  however,  and  in 
accordance  with  legal  tradition  and  precedent,  restric- 
tions upon  the  amount  nf  nal  est  a  I  o  and  personal  prop- 
erty which  a  church  cuul'l  ImM  wen-  maile,  and  the 
Courtof  Chancery  was|ilac((l  ill  lunl  ml  of  all  such  mat- 
ters by  requiring  that  annual  n-po  its  shouUl  be  made  by 
the  churches  to  it.  The  final  cl.ause  of  the  act  crystal- 
lized the  principle  of  the  Constitution,  that,  while  the 
State  protects  and  fosters  religion  in  its  beneficent 
work,  it  must  not  interfere  in  religious  matters.  It  is 
as  follows:  "Nothing  herein  contained  shall  be  con- 
strued, adjudged,  or  taken  to  abridge  or  affect  the 
rights  of  con.science  or  private  judgment  or  in  the  least 
to  alter  or  change  the  religious  constitutions  or  govern- 
ments of  either  of  the  said  churches,  congregations  or 
societies,  so  far  as  respects  or  in  any  wise  concerns  the 
doctrine,  discipline  or  worship  thereof." 

The  Constitution  of  1777  and  the  legislation  of  the 
Revolutionary  period  in  aid  of  it  are  remarkable  for 
deep  sagacity  and  great  grasp  of  princii)les,  as  well  as 
for  the  conservative  and  sane  treatment  of  the  inno- 
vations and  novelties  which  the  radical  changes  in  the 
government  made  necessary.  This  is  the  more  re- 
markable when  it  is  remembered  that  ( his  Clonstit.ution 
was  adopted  in  time  of  war  by  ddcgal  cs  who  laid  down 
their  arms  in  most  cases  to  join  in  t  he  (Icliheral  ions  upon 
it,  and  that  the  Legislature  first  met  imnicdiHlely 
after  the  close  of  this  war  time.  It  was  besides  a  ven- 
ture in  an  almost  virgin  fieH.     Its  wisdom,  knowledge, 


NEW  YORK 


36 


NEW  YORK 


and  broadness  arc  priooloss  treasures  of  the  citizens  of 
New  York.  The  wisdom  of  the  Constitution  is  shown 
particukirlv  in  tlie  provision  creating  the  bodv  of  the 
law  for  the  State.  Itenacted  that  the  law  of  tl'u-  State 
should  be  constituted  of  the  Common  Law  of  iMighmd 
and  of  the  Act  s  of  t  he  Legislature  of  the  Colony  of  New 
York,  as  together  forming  the  law  of  the  colony  on  19 
April,  1775  (the  day  of  the  battle  of  Concord  and  Lex- 
ington). It  was  expressly  declared,  however,  "that 
all  such  parts  of  the  said  Common  Law  and  all  such  of 
the  said  Statutes  and  Acts  aforesaid  or  parts  thereof 
as  may  be  construed  to  establish  or  maintain  any  par- 
ticular denomination  of  Christians  or  their  ministers, 
are  repugnant  to  this  constitution  and  hereby  are  ab- 
rogated and  rejected." 

To  New  York  belongs  the  honour  of  having  been  the 
first  of  all  English-speaking  states  from  the  time  of 
the  Protestant  Reformation,  to  protect  by  its  courts 
and  laws,  the  secrecy  and  sanctity  of  auricular  confes- 
sion. In  June,  1S13,  it  was  judicially  determined  that 
auricular  confession  as  a  jjart  of  church  discipline  pro- 
tects the  priest  from  being  compelled  in  a  court  of  law 
to  testify  to  statements  made  to  him  therein.  The 
decision  was  made  by  De  Witt  Clinton,  presiding  in 
the  Mayor's  Court  of  New  Y'ork  City  on  the  trial  of 
one  Phillips  for  theft,  and  the  priest,  whose  protest 
was  there  considered,  was  the  revered  Father  Anthony 
Kohlmann  mentioned  above.  The  decision  is  more 
remarkable  because  it  w;is  contrary  to  the  principles 
of  the  English  cases,  and  the  opposite  view  had  the 
support  of  respectable  authorities. 

Although  no  form  of  religion  is  considered  by  the 
State  of  New  Y'ork  as  having  rights  superior  to 
any  other,  yet  the  fact  of  the  existence  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  as  the  predominating  faith  of  the  peo- 
ple has  been  uniformly  recognized  by  the  courts, 
constitutional  conventions,  and  legislatures.  As 
early  as  ISll,  Chancellor  Kent,  writing  the  opinion 
of  the  Court  in  the  case  of  People  vs.  Ruggles  (8 
Johnson  294),  made  the  celebrated  dictum:  "We  are 
a  Christian  people  and  the  morality  of  the  country  is 
deeply  ingrafted  upon  Christianity."  This  famous 
case  arose  on  the  conviction  of  the  defendant  for  blas- 
phemy in  maliciously  reviling  Jesus  Christ  in  a  public 
place.  In  the  absence  of  a  specific  statute  the  question 
was  presented  whether  such  an  act  was  in  New  York 
a  crime  at  common  law.  The  Court  held  that  it  was, 
because  to  vilify  the  Author  of  Christianity  under  the 
circumstances  presented  was  a  gross  violation  of  de- 
cency and  good  order,  and  blasphemy  was  an  abuse 
of  the  right  of  religious  liberty.  The  court  further 
held  that,  though  the  Constitution  discarded  religious 
establishments,  it  did  not  forbid  judicial  cognizance 
of  those  offences  against  religion  and  morality  which 
have  no  reference  to  any  such  establishment  or  to  any 
particular  form  of  government,  but  are  punishable  be- 
cause they  strike  at  the  root  of  moral  obligation  and 
weaken  social  ties;  that  the  Constitution  never  meant 
to  withdraw  religion  in  general,  and  with  it  the  best 
sanctions  of  moral  and  social  obligation,  from  all 
consideration  and  notice  of  the  law;  and  that  the 
framers  intended  only  to  banish  test  oaths,  disabilities 
and  the  burdens,  and  sometimes  the  oppressions,  of 
Church  establishments,  and  to  secure  the  people  of 
the  State  freedom  from  coercion  and  an  equality  of 
right  on  the  subject  of  religion. 

This  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  that,  although 
Christianity  is  not  the  religion  of  the  State,  considered 
asapolitical  corporation,  it  is  nevertheless  closely  inter- 
woven into  the  texture  of  society  and  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  all  the  .social  haliits,  customs,  and  modes 
of  life  of  the  people,  gave  offence  in  cert.ain  quarters. 
In  view  of  this  Ruggles  case,  an  amendment  was  i)ro- 
posed  in  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1821  to  the 
effect  that  the  judiciary  should  not  declare  any  partic- 
ular religion  to  be  the  law  of  the  land.  It  was  rejected 
after  a  full  debate  in  which  its  opponents,  whOe  differing 


in  details,  agreed  "that  the  Christian  religion  was  en- 
grafted upon  the  law  and  entitled  to  protection  as  the 
bivsis  of  morals  and  the  strengi  h  of  (lovernment."  In 
1861  a  similar  question  was  presented  for  decision  in 
the  well-known  case  of  Lindcnmuller  vs.  People  (33 
Harbour  Rejiorts  .")4S).  The  plaintiff  sought  from  the 
court  an  injunction  to  restrain  Ihc  police  of  New  Y'ork 
City  from  interfering  with  theatrical  performances  on 
Sunday.  The  opinion  of  the  Supreme  Court  wiis 
written  by  Justice  William  F.  Allen,  a  most  distin- 
guished jurist,  and  was  afterwards  (1877)  adojjtcd  by 
the  Court  of  Appeals  as  the  decision  of  the  highest 
court.  It  contains  an  admirable  and  exhaustive  study 
of  the  Sunday  laws.  It  takes  the  claim  of  the  plain- 
tiff, stated  broadly,  to  be  that  "the  Bible,  and  religion 
with  all  its  ordinances,  including  the  Sabbath,  are  as 
effectually  abolished  by  the  Constitution  as  they  were 
in  France  during  the  Revolution,  and  so  effectually 
abolished  that  duties  may  not  be  enforced  as  duties  to 
the  J^tate  because  they  have  been  heretofore  asso- 
ciated with  acts  of  religious  worship  or  connected  with 
religious  duties."  It  then  proceeds:  "It  would  be 
strange  that  a  people.  Christian  in  doctrine  and  wor- 
ship, many  of  whom  or  whose  forefathers  had  sought 
these  shores  for  the  privilege  of  worshipping  God  in 
simplicity  and  purity  of  faith,  and  who  regarded  re- 
ligion as  the  basis  of  their  civil  liberty  and  the  founda- 
tion of  their  rights,  should,  in  their  zeal  to  secure  to  all 
the  freedom  of  conscience  which  they  valued  so  highly, 
solemnly  repudiate  and  put  beyond  the  pale  of  the  law 
the  religion  which  was  as  dear  to  them  as  life  and  de- 
throne the  God,  who,  they  openly  and  avowedly  pro- 
fess to  beUeve,  had  been  their  protector  and  guide  as  a 
people."  The  Court  announced  the  broad  decision 
that  every  act  done,  maliciously  tending  to  bring  re- 
ligion into  contempt,  may  be  punished  at  common 
law,  and  the  Christian  Sabbath,  as  one  of  the  institu- 
tions of  religion,  may  be  protected  from  desecration 
by  such  laws  as  the  Legislature  in  their  wisdom  may 
deem  necessary  to  secure  to  the  community  the  privi- 
lege of  an  undisturbed  worship,  and  to  the  day  itself 
that  outward  respect  and  observance  which  may  be 
deemed  essential  to  the  peace  and  good  order  of  so- 
ciety, and  to  preserve  religion  and  its  ordinances  from 
open  revihng  and  contempt.  I(  further  held  that  this 
must  be  considered,  not  as  a  duty  to  God,  but  as  a 
duty  to  society  and  to  the  State.  This  decision  firmly 
established  the  proposition  that,  as  a  civil  and  politi- 
cal institution,  the  establishment  and  regulation  of  a 
Sabbath  are  within  the  just  powers  of  civil  govern- 
ment. It  remains  the  law  of  the  State  confirmed  by 
many  decisions  up  to  this  time. 

Many  interesting  questions  have  arisen  from  time 
to  time  in  the  courts  as  to  how  far  the  English  doc- 
trines as  to  "superstitious  uses",  mortmain,  and 
charities,  especially  in  relation  to  the  ownership  of 
lands  by  religious  corporations  and  charitable  corpo- 
rations and  as  to  their  capacity  to  take  charitable  be- 
quests and  devises,  remained  the  law  of  tin  ■  State  imder 
the  Constitution.  As  to  superstitious  uses,  it  has  been 
expressly  held  that  that  English  post-Reformation 
doctrine  has  no  place  in  this  State;  that  those  profess- 
ing the  Roman  Catholic  Faith  are  entitled  in  law  to 
the  same  respect  and  protection  in  their  religious  ob- 
servances as  those  of  any  other  denomination,  and 
that  these  observances  cannot  be  condenmed  as  super- 
stitious by  any  court  as  matter  by  law.  The  right  to 
make  provision  for  Ma.s.ses  for  the  dead  by  contracts 
made  inter  vivos  was  expressly  proclaimed  by  the 
Court  of  Appeals.  Direct  beciuests  for  Masses  are 
in  law  "charities"  and  to  be  considered  as  such.  As 
to  these  charities  generally,  the  Court  of  Appeals  in 
1888  settled  finally  after  much  discussion  that  the 
Engli.sh  ddctrini'  of  trusts  for  charitable  uses,  with  all 
its  retinemeuts,  was  not  the  law  in  New  York;  that  the 
settled  policy  of  the  States  was  clear,  and  consisted  in 
the  creation  of  a  system  of  jjublic  charities  to  be  ad- 


NEW  YORK 


37 


NEW  YORK 


ministered  through  the  medium  of  corporate  bodies, 
created  by  legislative  power  and  endowed  with  the 
same  legal  capacity  to  hold  property  for  their  corpo- 
rate purposes,  as  a  private  person  or  an  ordinary  pri- 
vate corporation  had  to  receive  and  hold  transfers  of 
property.  It  was  decided,  therefore,  in  the  leading 
case  of  Holland  vs.  Alcock  (108  New  York  Reports 
329),  that  direct  bequests  for  Masses  cannot  be  made 
definitely  as  such  except  to  incorporated  churches  or 
other  corporations  having  legal  power  to  take  property 
for  such  purposes.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  practice, 
however,  in  this  regard,  as  Mass  legacies  are  now 
either  given  to  an  incorporated  church  directly,  or  are 
left  as  personal  bequests  accompanied  by  requests, 
which  in  law  do  not  derogate  from  the  absolute 
quality  of  the  gift. 

However,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  rules  laid  down 
by  the  Court  of  Appeals  in  the  matter  of  charities  have 
been  radically  changed  by  legislation  since  1888.  The 
decision  of  the  Court  of  Appeals  in  the  Tilden  will  case, 
by  which  the  elaborate  plans  for  public  charity  made 
by  Samuel  J.  Tilden  were  defeated  by  the  application 
of  these  rules,  was  followed  almost  immediately  by 
Chapter  701  of  the  Laws  of  1893,  which  provides  that 
gifts  by  will  for  charitable  purposes  shall  not  be  de- 
feated because  of  indefiniteness  in  designating  the 
beneficiaries,  and  that  the  power  in  the  regulation  of 
the  gifts  for  charitable  purposes  formerly  exercised 
by  the  Court  of  Chancery  under  the  ancient  law  of 
England  should  be  restored  and  vested  in  the  Supreme 
Court  as  a  Court  of  Equity.  The  Court  of  Appeals 
construing  this  statute  has  held  that  the  existence  of 
a  competent  corporation  or  other  definable  trustee 
with  power  to  take  is  no  longer  necessary  for  the  va- 
lidity of  a  trust  for  charitable  uses,  and  that  any  legal 
trust  for  such  purposes  may  be  executed  by  proper 
trustees  if  such  are  named,  and,  if  none  are  named,  the 
trust  will  be  administered  by  the  Supreme  Court.  It 
is  important  to  note,  however,  that  this  act  must  be 
confined  to  the  cases  to  which  it  applies,  and  that  it 
does  not  enable  an  unincorporated  charity  or  associa- 
tion to  take  bequests  or  devises. 

There  exist,  however,  notwithstanding  the  liberal- 
ity of  the  New  York  system,  some  important  re- 
strictions upon  the  conduct  of  religious  and  charitable 
corporations.  The  better  opinion  and  the  weight  of 
judicial  authority  are,  that,  notwithstanding  the  re- 
pealing act  of  the  Legislature  of  1788  above  noted, 
the  English  statutes  of  Elizabeth,  which  restricted  re- 
ligious and  charitable  corporations,  may  hold  in  the 
alienation  and  encumbering  of  their  real  estate,  have 
been  adopted  as  the  law  of  this  State,  and  that  such 
acts  can  only  be  lawfully  done  under  the  order  of  the 
Supreme  Court.  Limitations  upon  the  value  of  the 
property  and  the  amount  of  the  income  of  religious 
and  charitable  corporations  have  also  been  uniformly 
made  by  the  New  York  Statutes.  The  present  law, 
however,  is  most  liberal  in  this  respect,  the  property 
of  such  corporations  being  limited  to  .$6,000,000  and 
the  annual  income  to  $600,000,  and  provision  is  also 
made  that  no  increase  in  the  value  of  property  arising 
otherwise  than  from  improvements  made  thereon  by 
the  owners  shall  be  taken  into  account.  By  recent 
act  also  the  strict  requirements  for  accounting  to  the 
Supreme  Court,  the  successor  of  the  Court  of  Chan- 
cejy,  as  to  their  property  and  income,  which  in  the 
early  statutes  controlled  such  corporations,  are  con- 
fined to  cases  where  the  attorney-general  intervenes 
for  the  purpose  by  petition  to  the  Supreme  Court  upon 
proper  cause  being  shown. 

The  law  of  New  York  on  the  general  subject  of  the 
Church  and  the  legal  position  of  the  latter  before  the 
law  has  been  defined  by  the  statutes  and  numerous 
decisions.  The  results  may  be  briefly  stated  as  fol- 
lows: Religious  societies  as  such  are  not  legal  en- 
tities, although  as  an  aggregation  of  the  individuals 
composing  them,  for  motives  of  convenience,  they  are 


recognized  as  existing  in  certain  cases.  They  can 
neither  sue  nor  be  sued  in  civil  courts.  They  cannot 
hold  property  directlj',  although  they  may  control 
property  held  by  others  for  their  use  or  upon  trusts 
created  by  them.  The  existence,  however,  of  the 
Church  proper,  as  an  organized  legal  entity,  is  not 
recognized  by  the  municipal  law  of  New  York.  There 
is  no  statute  which  authorizes  the  incorporation  of 
the  Church  at  large.  The  incorporation  is  generally 
made  of  the  congregation  or  assemblage  of  persons 
accustomed  statedly  to  meet  for  Divine  worship,  al- 
though provision  has  been  made  for  the  incorporation 
of  special  ecclesiastical  bodies  with  governing  author- 
ity over  churches.  For  example,  the  Catholic  dioceses 
of  .Albany,  Buffalo,  and  Brooklyn  have  been  thus 
incorporated  formally.  The  general  plan  provides 
specially  for  the  incorporation  and  government  of  the 
churches  of  the  separate  denominations,  as  gathered 
into  congregations.  Each  important  denomination, 
therefore,  has  its  own  particular  provisions  in  the  Re- 
ligious Corporation  Law,  the  general  statute  of  the 
State  which  has  codified  these  laws  and  decisions.  In 
the  case  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  incorporation 
is  obtained  in  this  way.  A  certificate  of  incorpora- 
tion must  be  executed  by  the  archbishop  or  bishop, 
the  vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  the  rector  of  the  con- 
gregation, and  two  laymen  thereof,  selected  by  such 
officials  or  a  majority  of  them.  It  must  state  the 
corporate  name  of  the  church,  and  also  the  municipal- 
ity where  its  principal  place  of  worship  exists  or  is  in- 
tended to  be  located.  On  filing  such  certificate  with 
the  clerk  of  the  county  in  which  the  principal  place  of 
worship  is  or  is  intended  to  be,  or  with  the  Secretary 
of  State  in  certain  cases,  the  corporation  is  created. 

Questions  of  the  civil  rights  of  persons,  relating 
either  to  themselves  or  to  property,  whatever  may  be 
their  relations  to  church  organizations,  are  as  a  matter 
of  course  the  subject  of  adjudication  in  the  civil  tri- 
bunals. But  judicial  notice  will  be  taken  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  church  discipline  or  government  in  .some 
cases,  and  it  is  always  the  subject  of  evidence.  When, 
therefore,  personal  rights  and  rights  of  property  are 
in  cases  in  the  courts  dependent  upon  questions  of 
doctrine,  discipline,  church  government,  customs,  or 
law,  the  civil  court  will  consider  as  controlling  and 
binding  the  determinations  made  on  such  questions 
by  the  highest  tribunal  within  the  Church  to  which 
they  have  been  presented.  While  a  clergyman,  or 
other  person,  may  always  insist  that  his  civil  or  prop- 
erty rights  as  an  individual  shall  be  determined  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  the  land,  his  relations,  rights,  and 
obligations  arising  from  his  position  as  a  member  of 
some  religious  body  must  be  determined  according  to 
the  laws  and  procedure  enacted  by  that  body  for  such 
purpose.  Where  it  appeared,  therefore,  in  one  case 
that  questions  growing  out  of  relations  between  a 
priest  and  his  bishop  had  been  submitted  by  the  par- 
tics  to  an  ecclesiastical  tribunal  which  the  church  it- 
self had  organized  for  hearing  such  causes  and  was 
there  decided  by  it,  it  was  held  by  the  Court  of  Ap- 
peals that  the  civil  courts  were  ju.stificd  in  refusing 
to  proceed  further,  and  that  the  decision  of  the  Church 
judicatory  in  the  matter  was  a  bar  and  a  good  defence 
(Baxter  vs.  McDonnell,  155  New  York,  83).  The 
Church  at  large,  however,  under  the  law  of  New  York 
depends  wholly  upon  moral  power  to  carry  on  its 
functions,  without  the  possibility  of  ajipeal  to  the 
civil  authorities  for  aid  cither  through  tlic  Legislature 
or  tlu^  Court.  Where  there  is  no  incorporation,  those 
whd  divil  with  the  Church  must  trust  for  the  perform- 
anci'  nf  ii\  il  (.hligalions  to  the  honour  and  good  faith 
of  the  iiicriil]iT.-<.  The  congregations  formed  into  civil 
corporations  arc  governed  bv  the  principles  of  the 
common  law  and  statute  law.  With  their  doctrinal 
peculiarity  and  (h-nominationaf  character  the  courts 
have  nothing  to  do,  except  to  carry  out  the  statutes 
which  protect  their  righla^in  this  respect.     However, 


NEW  YORK 


38 


NEW  YORK 


these   statutorj'   riKhts   are,    as   will   be   seen,   very  - 
extensive.     Generally  speakin;;.  whatever  the  eorpo- 
ration  chooses  to  do  that  is  within  their  corporate 
power  is  lawful  except  where  restricted  by  express 
statute. 

Control  of  Churches. — From  time  to  time  important 
restrictions  ujjon  the  general  power  of  the  religious 
corporations  in  particular  denominations  have  been 
made.  The  present  Religious  Corporation  Law,  for 
example,  recjuires  the  trustees  of  such  a  body  to  ad- 
minister the  temporalities  of  the  church  in  .accordance 
with  the  discipline,  rules,  and  usages  of  the  religious 
denomination  or  ecclesiastical  governing  body,  if  any, 
with  which  the  corporation  is  connected,  and  in  accor- 
dance with  the  provisions  of  law  relating  thereto,  and 
further  for  the  suiiport  and  maintenance  of  the  corpora- 
tion and  its  denominational  or  charitable  work.  It  re- 
quires also  the  consent  of  the  bishops  and  other  offi- 
cers to  the  mortgage,  lease,  or  conveyance  of  the  real 
property  of  certain  churches.  In  the  case  of  Catholic 
churches  it  is  expressly  provided  also  that  no  act  or 
proceeding  of  the  trustees  of  any  such  church  shall  be 
valid  without  the  express  sanction  of  the  archbishop 
or  bishop  of  the  diocese  or,  in  case  of  his  absence,  of 
the  vicar-general  or  administrator.  To  prevent  the 
creation  of  abuses  from  the  generality  of  any  of  its 
provisions,  the  statute  contains  a  further  section 
directing  that  no  provision  thereof  shall  authorize 
the  fixing  or  changing  of  the  time,  nature,  or  order  of 
public  or  social  or  other  worship  of  any  church  in  any 
other  manner  or  bj'  any  other  authority  than  in  the 
manner  and  by  the  authority  provided  in  the  laws, 
regulations,  practice,  discipline,  rules,  and  usages  of 
the  religious  denomination  or  ecclesiastical  governing 
body,  if  any,  with  which  the  church  corporation  is  con- 
nected, except  in  churches  which  have  a  congrega- 
tional form  of  government. 

Ecclesiastical  Persons. — The  relations  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal persons  one  to  the  other  have  also  been  considered 
by  the  courts.  It  has  been  held  that  the  personal 
contracts  of  a  bishop  are  the  same  as  those  of  a  layman 
as  far  as  their  form,  force,  and  effect  are  concerned. 
It  has  been  determined,  however,  that  the  relation 
of  master  and  servant  does  not  exist  between  a  bishop 
and  his  priests,  but  only  that  of  ecclesiastical  superior 
and  inferior.  Finally,  the  courts  have  ruled  that  a 
priest  or  minister  in  any  church  by  assuming  that 
relation  necessarily  subjects  his  conduct  in  that 
capacity  to  the  law  and  customs  of  the  ecclesiastical 
body  from  which  he  derives  his  office  and  in  whose 
name  he  exercises  his  functions. 

Marriage. — Until  very  recent  times  New  York  fol- 
lowed the  common  law  respecting  marriage.  All  that 
was  required  for  a  valid  marriage  was  the  deliberate 
consent  of  competent  parties  entering  into  a  present 
agreement.  No  ceremony  or  intervention  of  a  civil 
authority  was  necessary. 

However,  it  is  now  provided  that,  although  the 
contract  of  marriage  is  still  in  law  a  civil  contract, 
marriages  not  ceremonial  must  be  proven  by  writings 
authenticated  by  the  parties  under  strict  formalities 
and  in  the  presence  of  at  least  two  witnesses  and  re- 
corded in  the  proper  county  clerk's  office.  It  is  now 
provided  also  that  ceremonial  marriages  must  not  be 
celebrat(>d  without  first  obtaining  a  marriage  licence. 
It  Ls  to  be  noted,  however,  that  a  failure  to  procure 
the  marriage  licence  does  not  invalidate  a  ceremonial 
marriage,  but  only  subjects  the  offending  clergyman 
or  magistrate  who  officiates  thereat  to  the  penalties  of 
the  statute.  All  clergymen  and  certain  magistrates 
are  given  power  to  solemnize  marriages.  No  partic- 
ular form  is  required  except  that  the  parties  must  ex- 
pres.sly  declare  that  they  take  each  other  as  husband 
or  wife.  In  every  case  one  wit  ness  besides  the  clergy- 
man or  magistrate  must  be  present  at  the  ceremony. 
It  is  provided,  however,  that  modes  of  solemnizing 
marriage  adopted  by  any  religious  denomination  are 


to  be  regarded  as  valid  notwithstanding  the  statute. 
This  amending  statute  was  passed  at  the  session  of 
1907,  and  there  are  as  yet  no  important  adjudications 
upon  it. 

Annulment  of  Marriage. — An  action  to  annul  her 
marriage  may  bo  brought  by  a  woman  where  she  was 
under  sixteen  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  the  marriage 
and  th(^  consent  of  her  parents  or  guardian  was  not 
had  and  the  marriage  was  not  consummated  and  not 
ratified  by  mutual  as.sent  after  she  attained  the  age  of 
sixteen  years.  Either  the  husband  or  wife  may  sue 
for  annulment  of  marriage  for  lunacy,  nonage,  prior 
valid  marriage,  or  because  consent  was  obtained  by 
force,  duress,  or  fraud,  and  finally  for  physical  in- 
capacity under  certain  rigid  restrictions.  The  tend- 
ency of  the  courts  of  late  years  is  to  construe  the  pro- 
vision as  to  fraud  liberally,  and  annulment  has  been 
granted  on  this  ground  where  the  husband  has  been 
convicted  of  a  felony  and  concealed  the  fact  bi'f<ire  the 
marriage,  and  again  where  false  representations  had 
been  made  before  the  marriage  by  the  woman  as  to 
the  birth  of  a  child  to  the  plaintiff.  The  Court  of  Ap- 
peals in  the  last  ease  held,  as  the  reasonable  construc- 
tion of  the  statute,  that  the  essential  fact  to  be  shown 
was  that  the  fraud  was  material  to  the  degree  that, 
had  it  not  been  practised,  the  party  deceived  would 
not  have  consented  to  the  marriage  (Di  Lorenzo  vs. 
Di  Lorenzo,  174  New  York,  467  and  471).  This  de- 
cision, it  should  be  noted,  was  put  squarely  on  the 
groimd  that  in  New  York  marriage  is  a  civil  contract 
to  which  the  consent  of  parties  capable  in  law  of  con- 
tracting is  essential,  and,  where  the  consent  is  obtained 
by  legal  fraud,  the  marriage  may  be  annulled  as  in 
the  case  of  any  other  contract.  Condonation  of  the 
force,  duress,  or  fraud  is  required  to  be  assumed  from 
the  fact  of  voluntary  cohabitation  after  knowledge  of 
the  facts  by  the  innocent  party,  and  will,  if  established, 
defeat  the  action.  Provision  is  also  made  for  an  ac- 
tion for  the  annulment  of  a  marriage  in  certain  cases 
at  the  instance  of  any  relative  having  an  interest  in 
having  it  annulled  or  by  a  parent  or  guardian  or  next 
friend  either  in  the  lifetime  of  a  party  or  after  his  or 
her  death,  where  such  an  action  will  further  the  cause 
of  justice. 

Divorce. — Actions  for  absolute  divorce  and  the  dis- 
solution of  marriage  can  be  maintained  only  for  the 
cause  of  adultery.  The  New  York  Courts  will  hear 
no  action  for  divorce  unless  both  parties  were  residents 
of  the  State  when  the  offence  was  committed,  or  were 
married  within  the  State,  or  the  plaintiff  was  a  resi- 
dent of  the  State  at  the  time  of  the  offence  and  is 
resident  when  the  action  is  commenced,  or  finally 
when  the  offence  was  committed  within  the  State  and 
the  injured  party  is  a  resident  of  the  State  when  the 
action  is  commenced.  Divorces  obtained  by  citizens 
of  New  York  in  the  courts  of  foreign  jurisdiction  are 
not  recognized  as  valid  in  the  State  of  New  York  un- 
less personal  jurisdiction  of  both  of  the  parties  is 
properly  obtained  by  the  foreign  courts.  Collusion  of 
the  parties  is  strictly  guarded  against.  Condonation 
of  the  offence  is  made  a  defence.  The  action  must  be 
brought  within  five  years  after  the  discovery  of  the 
offence.  Adultery  by  the  plaintiff  is  a  complete  de- 
fence to  the  action.  The  pro\'isions  for  the  custody 
of  the  children  of  a  dissolved  marriage  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  innocent  wife  and  children  are 
very  detailed  and  effective.  Remarriage  is  forbidden 
to  the  guilty  party  during  the  life  of  the  spouse,  unless, 
after  five  years  have  elapsed,  proof  is  made  of  his  or 
her  uniform  good  conduct,  when  the  defendant  may 
be  permitted  by  the  Court  to  marry  again.  The 
practical  effect  of  these  prohibitions  is  very  slight  be- 
cause the  entire  validity  of  the  subsequent  marriages 
of  guilty  parties  in  New  York  divorce  actions,  when 
they  are  made  out  of  the  State  of  New  York,  is  recog- 
nized by  tlu^  New  York  courts,  the  only  penalty  pro- 
vided for  the  disobedience  to  the  decree  being  the 


NEW   YORK 


39 


NEW  YORK 


punishment  of  the  offender  for  contempt  of  court, 
and  the  infliction  of  this  penalty  is  unheard  of  at 
the  present  day.  The  divorce  law  of  New  York,  it 
may  be  noted,  is  more  conservative  than  that  of  any 
other  state  in  the  Union  except  South  Carolina,  where 
no  divorce  a  vinculo  is  permitted.  Limited  divorce  or 
decree  of  separation  a  mensa  et  thoro  is  granted  for 
numerous  causes,  viz:  cruel  and  inhuman  treatment, 
abandonment,  neglect  or  refusal  to  provide  for  the 
wife,  and  conduct  making  it  unsafe  and  improper  for 
the  plaintiff  to  cohabit  with  the  defendant.  The 
usual  purpose  of  actions  for  limited  divorce  is  to  pro- 
vide support  for  the  children  and  alimony  for  the  wife 
out  of  the  husband's  funds  after  the  husband  and  wife 
have  separated.  These  actions  are  comparatively  in- 
frequent. The  judgment  in  them  has  of  course  no 
effect  upon  the  validity  of  the  marriage  bond.  It  is 
granted  only  for  grave  cause,  and  the  necessary  bona 
fide  residence  of  the  parties  in  the  State  is  of  strictest 
proof,  under  the  terms  of  the  statute. 

Charities. — The  system  of  charities  which  has  grown 
up  within  the  State  of  New  York,  whether  religious  or 
secular,  is  one  of  the  features  of  its  social  life.  As  was 
said  by  the  Court  of  Appeals  in  1888  in  the  famous 
case  of  Holland  vs.  Aloock  above  noted:  "It  is  not 
certain  that  any  political  state  or  society  in  the  world 
offers  a  better  system  of  law  for  the  encouragement 
of  property  limitations  in  favour  of  religion  and  learn- 
ing, for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  the  care  of  the  insane,  of 
the  sick  and  the  maimed,  and  the  relief  of  the  desti- 
tute, than  our  system  of  creating  organized  bodies  by 
the  legislative  power  and  endowing  them  with  the 
same  legal  capacity  to  hold  property  which  a  private 
person  has  to  receive  and  holfl  transfers  of  property." 
A  charitable  or  benevolent  corporation  may  be 
formed  under  the  Membership  Corporation  Law  by 
five  or  more  persons  for  any  lawful,  charitable,  or 
benevolent  purpose.  It  is  subject  in  certain  respects 
to  the  supervision  of  the  State  Board  of  Charities  and 
of  the  Supreme  Court,  but  this  power  of  visitation  is 
not  oppressive  and  never  exercised  except  in  case  of 
gross  abuse  and  under  .strict  provisions  as  to  proce- 
dure. State  and  municipal  aid  to  private  charitable 
corporations  is  permitted  by  law.  Some  of  the  great 
private  charities  of  the  Catholic  Church  receive  such 
aid  in  large  amounts,  particularly  in  the  great  cities. 
The  public  subvention  of  private  charitable  corpora- 
tions is  an  old  custom  in  the  State,  beginning  when  al- 
most all  charities  were  in  Protestant  hands  and  the 
Catholic  charities  were  very  few  and  poor.  Although 
vigorously  attacked  in  the  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion of  1904,  it  was  sustained  and  continued  by  the 
action  of  that  convention  and  ratified  by  the  people  of 
the  State.  The  system  has  done  much  for  the  cause 
of  the  education  and  maintenance  of  defective,  de- 
pendent, and  delinquent  children,  and  for  the  building 
up  of  the  hospitals  for  the  destitute  sick  and  aged  in 
all  the  religious  denominations.  The  Catholic  pro- 
tectories of  New  York  and  Buffalo  and  the  Catholic 
foundling  and  infant  asylums  throughout  the  State 
are  the  models  for  such  institutions  in  the  whole 
United  States.  The  charities  under  Catholic  auspices 
which  receive  no  State  aid  are,  however,  in  the  vast 
majority,  and  are  found  in  great  numbers  in  every 
quarter  of  the  State,  caring  for  the  children  and  the 
aged,  the  sick  and  the  destitute.  They  are  served  by 
an  army  of  devoted  religious,  both  men  and  women. 
The  State  institutions  for  the  care  of  the  insane  and 
juvenile  delinquents  are  numerous,  and  the  alms- 
houses, hospitals,  and  other  charitable  agencies  under 
the  care  of  the  counties  and  other  municipalities 
abound  throughout  the  State.  There  are  alone  six- 
teen great  State  hospitals  for  the  insane,  conducted 
most  carefully  and  successfully. 

Restrictions  on  Bequests  and  Devises. — No  person 
having  a  parent,  husband,  wife,  or  child  can  legally 
devise  or  bequeath  more  than  one-half  his  estate  to 


benevolent,  charitable,  or  religious  institutions,  but 
such  disposition  is  vaUd  to  the  extent  of  one-half.  In 
addition,  certain  kinds  of  corporations  are  still  further 
restricted  in  respect  to  the  portion  of  the  estate  of  such 
persons  which  they  may  receive:  in  some  cases  it 
is  only  one-fourth.  In  respect  to  the  invalidity  by 
statute  of  legacies  or  devises  made  by  wills  executed 
within  two  months  of  the  testator's  death,  this  limita- 
tion was  formerly  widely  applicable.  Recent  amend- 
ments, however,  have  restricted  it  to  the  corporations 
formed  under  the  old  statutes,  and  it  applies  now  to 
very  few  others,  and  these  mostly  corporations  cre- 
ated by  special  statutes.  Bequests  and  devises  to  un- 
incorporated churches  or  charities,  are,  as  has  been 
stated,  invalid.  Foreign  religious  and  charitable  cor- 
porations, however,  may  take  bequests  and  devises  if 
authorized  to  do  so  by  their  charters.  They  are  also 
permitted  to  carry  on  unhampered  their  work  in  the 
State  of  New  York.  The  legacies  and  devises  to  re- 
ligious, charitable,  and  benevolent  corporations  are 
exempt  from  the  succession  tax  assessed  upon  legacies 
and  devises  in  ordinary  cases. 

Exemption  from  Taxation. — The  Tax  Law  provides 
that  the  real  and  personal  property  of  a  "corporation 
or  association  organized  exclusively  for  the  moral  or 
mental  improvement  of  men  or  women  or  for  religious, 
Bible,  tract,  charitable,  benevolent,  missionary,  hos- 
pital, infirmary,  educational,  scientific,  literary,  li- 
brary, patriotic,  historical,  or  cemetery  purposes  or 
for  the  enforcement  of  law  relating  to  chiklren  or  ani- 
mals or  for  two  or  more  such  purposes  and  used  ex- 
clusively for  carrying  out  thereupon  one  or  more  of 
such  purposes",  shall  be  exempt  from  taxation.  Great 
care  is  taken,  however,  to  protect  against  the  abuse  of 
this  right  of  exemption.  In  some  few  cases  further 
exemptions  are  also  made;  thus,  for  example,  real 
property  not  in  exclusive  use  for  the  above  corporate 
purposes  is  exempt  from  taxation,  if  the  income  there- 
from is  devoted  exclusively  to  the  charitable  use  of  the 
corporation.  Property  held  by  any  officer  of  a  reli- 
gious denomination  is  entitled  to  the  same  exemption 
under  the  same  conditions  and  exceptions  as  property 
held  by  a  religious  corporation  itself. 

Freedom  of  Worship. — It  is  expressly  provided  by 
statute  that  all  persons  committed  to  or  taken  charge 
of  by  incorporated  or  unincorporated  houses  of  refuge, 
reformatories,  protectories,  or  other  penal  institutions, 
receiving  either  public  moneys  or  a  per  capita  sum 
from  any  municipality  for  the  support  of  inmates, 
shall  be  entitled  to  the  free  exercise  and  enjoyment  of 
religious  profession  and  worship  without  discrimina- 
tion or  preference,  and  that  these  provisions  may  be 
enforced  by  the  Supreme  Court  upon  jietition  of  any 
one  feeling  himself  aggrieved  by  a  violation  of  it 
(Prison  Law  Section  20).  It  is  further  provided  that 
all  children  committed  for  destitution  or  delinquency 
by  any  court  or  public  officer  shall,  as  far  as  practica- 
ble, be  sent  to  institutions  of  the  same  religious  faith 
as  the  parents  of  the  child. 

Liquor  Law. — The  eoicise  legislation  of  the  State  is 
treated  in  an  elaborate  general  statute  called  the 
"Liquor  Tax  Law",  but  better  known  as  the  "Raines 
Law"  from  the  name  of  the  late  Senator  John  Raines 
who  drafted  it.  In  substance  it  provides  for  a  Slate 
Department  of  Excise  presided  over  by  a  commis- 
sioner of  excise,  appointed  by  the  governor  and  con- 
firmed by  the  Senate,  who  is  given  charge  of  the 
issuance  of  all  licences  to  traffic  within  the  State  in  in- 
toxicating liquor,  and  also  of  the  collection  of  the  li- 
cence fees  and  the  supervision  of  the  enforcement  of 
the  drastic  penalties  provided  for  violations  of  t he  law. 
Its  purpose  was  to  take  away  the  granting  of  excise 
licences  by  the  local  authorities,  who  had  in  some 
cases  greatly  abused  the  power,  and  also  to  subject 
local  peace  and  police  officers  to  the  scrutiny,  and  in 
some  cases  the  control  of  the  State  authorities  in  excise 
matters.     It  has  resulted^nerally  in  a  great  improve- 


NEW  ZEALAND 


40 


NEW  ZEALAND 


ment  in  excise  conditions  throughout  the  State,  as  well . 
as  incitlcntally  in  an  enormous  increase  in  the  revenue 
of  the  State  from  this  source.  It  h;u<  caused  the  al- 
niosl  complete  disappearance  of  unlicenccd  liijuor- 
selling,  and  has  improved  general  order  and  decency 
in  tlie  business  of  Irtillicking  in  liquor,  especially  in  the 
congested  i)arts  of  the  cities.  The  principle  of  high 
licence  is  carefully  followed.  I'he  fee  for  a  saloon 
liceni-e,  for  example  in  the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  is 
Sr2(K)  per  annum,  the  charge  decreasing,  according  to 
the  circumstances,  to  •S1.')0  per  annum  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts. The  State  is  divided  into  excise  districts  which 
are  in  charge  of  deputy  commissioners  suiiervised  by 
the  staff  of  the  commissioner  of  excise  at  Albany.  Al- 
though it  is  an  unusual  jirovision  which  thus  central- 
izes the  power  over  the  licjuor  traffic  at  Albany,  and  it 
Bcems  to  violate  the  principle  of  home  rule  adopted  by 
all  the  public  parties,  the  experiment  is  on  the  whole 
regarded  with  satisfaction.  It  should  be  noted  that 
this  law  liiis  created  a  very  great  abuse  because  of  its 
provision  attaching  the  right  to  sell  liquor  on  Sunday 
to  the  keejiing  of  hotels.  There  have  thus  sprung  into 
existence  the  "Raines  Law  Hotels",  which,  satisfying 
the  very  inadequate  provisions  of  the  statute,  obtain 
hotel  licences  without  any  legitimate  business  reason, 
and  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  selling  liquor  on  Sun- 
day. They  are  generally  conducted  as  to  their  hotel 
accommodations  in  such  a  way  a.s  to  be  a  menace  to 
public  order  and  decency  in  the  poorer  residential  dis- 
tricts of  the  large  cities  of  the  State.  They  often  defy 
police  control,  and  their  legal  status  makes  their  regu- 
lation or  supervision  most  difficult.  Earnest  efforts 
have  been  made  for  many  years  to  remedy  the  evil, 
but  have  met  w-ith  but  partial  success.  Ample  provi- 
sion is  also  made  for  local  option  as  to  prohibitive 
liquor  licences  in  all  localities  of  the  State  excepting 
the  larger  cities.     It  has  worked  well  in  practice. 

Clergymen. — Priests  and  ministers  of  the  Gospel  are 
exempted  from  service  on  juries  and  from  service  in 
the  militia  of  the  State.  A  clergyman's  real  and  per- 
sonal property  to  the  extent  of  S1500  is  exempt  from 
taxation,  if  he  is  regularly  engaged  in  performing  his 
duty,  is  permanently  disabled  by  impaired  health,  or 
is  over  seventy-five  years  old.  The  dwelling-houses 
and  lots  of  religious  coqjorations,  actually  used  by 
the  officiating  clergymen  thereof,  are  also  exempt  to 
the  extent  of  $2000.  Any  clergjTnan  is  empowered 
at  his  pleasure  to  visit  all  county  jails,  workhouses, 
and  St  ate  prisons  when  he  is  in  charge  of  a  congregation 
in  the  town  where  they  are  located. 

liolidai/s. — The  legal  holidays  of  the  State  are  New 
Year's  Day,  Lincoln's  Birthday  (12  February),  Wash- 
ington's Birthday  (22  February),  Memorial  Day  (30 
May),  Independence  Day  (4  July),  Labour  Day  (first 
Monday  of  September),  Columbus  Day  (12  October), 
and  ChrLstmas  Day.  If  any  of  these  days  fall  on  Sun- 
day, the  day  following  is  a  public  holiday.  The  statute 
also  provides  that  the  day  of  the  general  election,  and 
each  day  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States  or  by  the  Governor  of  the  State  as  a  day  of 
"general  thanksgiving,  general  fasting  and  prayer,  or 
other  general  religious  observances  ",  shall  be  holidays. 
Each  Saturday,  which  is  not  a  holiday,  is  a  half-holi- 
day. There  is  of  course  no  religious  significance  in 
the  creation  of  any  of  these  holidays,  as  far  as  the 
State  is  concerned.  Good  Friday,  by  general  custom, 
is  observed  as  a  holiday  throughout  the  State,  al- 
though it  is  not  designated  as  a  legal  holiday.  The 
rules  of  the  local  school  boards  throughout  the  State 
also  provide  Uberty  to  both  Christian  and  Jewish 
scholars  to  take  time  from  the  school  attendance 
for  religious  observances  on  their  respective  holy- 
days. 

Lamb,  Hist,  of  City  of  New  York  (New  York.  1877);  Baylet, 
Hist,  of  Calk.  Church  on  Island  of  N.  Y.  (New  York,  1869);  U.  S. 
Catholic  Ilii^torical  Society,  Records  and  Studies  (New  York),  es- 
pecially for  Oct.,  1900,  and  Nov..  1907;  United  Stales  Census  1900: 
New  York  Stale  Census  J90S;   Lincoln,  Conslilulionat  Hist,  of 


N.  Y.  (Rochester,  1906) ;  Alexander.  Political  Hist,  of  the  State  of 
N.  Y.  (New  York,  1900) ;  Wilson.  Memorial  Hist,  of  City  of  N.  Y., 
Slalesman's  Year  Book- for  lillfl  (New  York,  \9W);Report  of  N.  Y. 
Chamber  of  Conmurn-  (New  York,  I'.llll);  U.  S.  Census  Bulletin, 
Hclllliou.':  Bodies  UIIU;  (VV;,.Hiii.iKt.,Tl.  VMV.W;  O'Cali.ahhan.  Imws 
ami  Ordinances  nf  New  i\\H,rrla,„l .  C.h.nial  Laws  of  N.  Y.  (Al- 
bany); Durum,  III.-:  rrliiliiiii  to  Colonial  Hist.  (Albany,  lSS.'i-87); 
P'OWLER.  lull. •.luiii. Ill  !,i  Bradford's  Imws  (New  York,  1894); 
Sampson.  Calli,.h.'  l.ii„.-.li,iii  in  America  (New  York.  1813);  De- 
bates of  the  i'niiMitiitiunal  Convention  of  1821;  Birdseye,  Cdm- 
Mixtj  and  Gilbert.  Consolidated  Laws  of  N.  Y.  (New  York, 
lau'.l);  Ecclesiastieal  Records  of  N.  Y.  (1901-5);  Revised  Slatutes: 
Reports  of  Revisers;  Smith.  N.  Y.  City  in  1789  (New  York,  1889); 
Rtimrl  III  l'i,mmi.<sioner  of  Excise  (Albany.  1910);  Shea.  Hist,  of 
Call'  I  '  .  '  '  '/..  ('.  S.  (New  York.  1886);  Clarke.  Lives  of  the 
Dri.  /■  .'f  Ike  Cath.  Church  in  the   V.  S.  (New  York. 

1S7J  I  ■,.  .  .  II  ;/  /.  iifthe  City  of  N.  Y.  (New  York.  1880) ;  Bccleai- 
a,^^.ll'  /I'.i",/  -I  ,V.  Y.  (official)  (Albany.  1901);  DeCourcy- 
Shea,  I'aiie.i  III  IHsl.  of  Cath.  Church  in  U.  S.  (New  York,  18,57); 
Farley.  Hisl.  of  SI.  Patrick's  Cathedral  (New  York.  1908) ;  Zwier- 
LEiN.  Religion  in  New  Netherland  (Rochester.  1910). 

Edward  J.  McGuire. 

New  Zealand,  formerly  described  as  a  colony,  has, 
since  September,  1907,  by  royal  proclamation,  been 
granted  the  style  and  design.ation  of  "Dominion", 
the  territory  remaining,  of  course,  as  before  under 
British  sovereignty.  It  consists  of  three  main  islands 
(North  Island,  South  Island,  sometimes  also  called 
Middle  Island,  and  Stewart  Island)  and  several 
groups  of  smaller  islands  lying  at  some  distance  from 
the  principal  group.  The  smaller  groups  included 
within  the  dominion  are  the  Chatham,  Auckland, 
Campbell,  Antipodes,  Bounty,  Kermadec,  and  Cook 
Islands,  along  with  half  a  dozen  atolls  situated  outside 
the  Cook  Group.  The  total  area  of  the  dominion — 
104,751  square  miles — is  about  one-seventh  less  than 
the  area  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  quantity 
and  quality  of  the  grazing  land  .available  has  made 
New  Zealand  a  great  wool,  meat,  and  dairy-produce 
country.  Its  agricultural  capabilities  are  very  con- 
siderable; its  forests  yield  excellent  timber;  and  its 
mineral  resources,  though  as  yet  but  little  developed 
and  not  very  varied  in  character,  form  one  of  the 
covmtry's  most  valuable  assets.  Volcanoes,  one  of 
which,  Ngauruhoe,  the  highest  cone  of  Mount  Ton- 
gariro,  was  in  active  eruption  in  1909,  and  a  volcanic 
belt  mark  the  centre  of  the  North  Lsland.  In  the 
North  Island  also  is  the  wonderland  of  the  boiling 
geysers — said  by  geologists  to  be  the  oldest  in  the 
world,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  Wyoming  and 
Idaho — and  the  famous  "Hot  Lakes"  and  pools, 
which  possess  great  curative  virtue  for  all  rheumatic 
and  skin  diseases.  An  Alpine  chain,  studded  with 
snow-clad  peaks  and  mantled  with  glaciers  of  greater 
magnitude  than  any  in  the  Alps  of  Europe,  descends 
along  the  west  coast  of  the  South  Island.  In  the 
South  Island  also  are  the  famous  Otago  lakes  (Wan- 
aka,  Wakatipu,  Te  Anau,  and  Manapouri)  of  which 
the  late  Anthony  Trollope  wrote,  "  I  do  not  know  that 
lake  scenery  could  be  finer".  The  south-west  coast 
of  the  island  is  pierced  by  a  series  of  sounds  or  fiords, 
riv;illing  in  their  exquisite  beauty  the  Norwegian  and 
Alask;ui  fiords;  in  the  neighbourhood  is  a  water- 
fall (the  Sutherland  Falls)  over  1900  feet  in  height. 
Judged  by  mortality  statistics  the  clim.ate  of  New 
Zealand  is  one  of  the  best  and  healthiest  in  the  world. 
The  tot.al  population  of  the  dominion  on  31  December, 
190S,  was  1,020,713.  This  included  the  Maori  popu- 
lation of  47,731,  and  the  jjoijulation  of  Cook  and  other 
Pacific  islands,  aggregating  12,340. 

I.  Civil  History. — Tasman  discovered  the  islands 
in  1642  and  called  them  "Nova  Zeelanda",  but  Cap- 
tain Cook,  who  surveyed  the  coasts  in  1769  and  fol- 
lowing years,  first  made  them  known.  The  colony  was 
planted  in  1840  by  a  company,  formed  in  England 
and  known  first  as  the  New  Zealand  Company,  after- 
wards as  the  New  Zealand  Land  Company,  which 
with  auxiliary  associations  founded  successively  the 
settlements  of  Wellington,  Nelson,  Taranaki,  Otago, 
and  Canterbury.  New  Zealand  was  then  constituted 
a  dependency  of  the  Colony  of  New  South  Wales 


NEW  ZEALAND 


41 


NEW  ZEALAND 


(Australia),  but  on  3  May,  1841,  was  proclaimed 
a  separate  colony.  A  series  of  native  wars,  arising 
chiefly  from  endless  disputes  about  land,  began  in 
1843  and  ended  in  1869,  since  which  time  unbroken 
peace  has  prevailed.  A  measure  of  self-government 
was  granted  in  1852,  and  full  responsible  government 
in  1856.  The  provincial  governments  created  by  the 
Constitution  Act  were  abolished  in  1S76,  and  one 
supreme  central  government  established.  The  Gov- 
ernment consists  of  a  governor,  appointed  by  the 
crown,  and  two  houses  of  Parliament — the  legislative 
council,  or  upper  chamber,  with  members  nominated 
by  the  governor  for  life  (except  those  nominated 
subsequently  to  September  17,  1891,  after  which  date 
all  appointments  are  for  seven  years  only),  and  the 
house  of  representatives  with  members  elected  tri- 
ennially  on  an  adult  suffrage.  The  first  Speaker  of 
the  New  Zealand  House  of  Representatives  (1853-60), 
the  late  Sir  Charles  Clifford,  was  a  Catholic,  and  his 
son,  Sir  George  CUfford,  one  of  New  Zealand's  promi- 
nent public  men,  though  born  in  the  dominion  was 
educated  at  Stonyhurst  College,  and  has  shown  his 
fidelity  to  old  ties  by  naming  his  principal  New  Zea- 
land residence  "Stonyhurst " .  There  are  a  number  of 
Catholic  names  in  the  list  of  past  premiers,  cabinet 
ministers,  and  members  of  Parliament  who  have 
helped  to  mould  the  laws  and  shape  the  history  of  the 
dominion.  The  present  premier  (1910),  the  Right 
Hon.  Sir  Joseph  Ward,  P.C,  K.C.M.G.,  is  a  Catholic, 
and  out  of  a  legislative  council  of  forty -five  members 
five  are  Catholics. 

The  prominent  feature  of  the  political  history  of  the 
past  twenty  years  has  been  the  introduction  and  de- 
velopment of  that  body  of  "advanced"  legislation  for 
which  the  name  of  New  Zealand  has  become  more  or 
less  famous.  The  mere  enumeration  of  the  enact- 
ments would  occupy  considerable  space.  It  must 
suffice  to  say  that,  broadly  speaking,  their  purpose  is 
to  fling  the  shield  of  the  State  over  every  man  who 
works  for  his  livelihood;  and,  in  addition  to  regulating 
wages,  they  cover  practically  every  risk  to  life,  limb, 
health,  and  interest  of  the  industrial  classes.  It 
should  be  mentioned  that  there  is  no  strong  party  of 
professed  State-Socialists  in  the  dominion,  and  the  re- 
forms and  experiments  which  have  been  made  have  in 
all  cases  been  examined  and  taken  on  their  merits, 
and  not  otherwise.  Employers  have  occasionally  pro- 
tested against  some  of  the  restrictions  imposed,  as 
being  harassing  and  vexatious;  but  there  is  no  politi- 
cal party  in  the  country  which  proposes  to  rejjeal 
these  measures,  and  there  is  a  general  consensus  of 
opinion  that,  in  its  main  features,  the  "advanced 
legislation"  has  come  to  stay.  In  1893  an  Act  came 
into  force  which  granted  the  franchise  to  women.  The 
women's  vote  has  had  no  perceptible  effect  on  the 
relative  position  of  political  parties;  but  it  is  generally 
agreed  that  the  women  voters  have  been  mainly  re- 
sponsible for  the  marked  increase  in  recent  years  of  the 
no-Ucence  vote  at  the  local  option  polls.  Elections 
are  quieter  and  more  orderly  than  formerly. 

II.  The  Maoris. — The  New  Zealand  natives,  or 
Maoris,  as  they  call  themselves,  are  generally  acknowl- 
edged to  be  intellectually  and  physically  the  finest 
aboriginal  race  in  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Their  mag- 
nificent courage,  their  high  intelligence,  their  splendid 
physique  and  manly  bearing,  the  stirring  part  they 
have  played  in  the  history  of  the  country,  the  very 
ferocity  of  their  long-relinquished  habits,  have  all 
combined  to  invest  them  with  a  more  than  ordinary 
degree  of  interest  and  curiosity.  Of  their  origin  it  can 
only  be  said,  broadly,  that  they  belong  to  the  Polyne- 
sian race — ethnologists  have  tried  to  trace  a  likeness  to 
the  Red  Indians  of  North  America — and  according  to 
tradition  they  came  to  New  Zealand  about  twenty- 
one  generations  ago  (i.  e.,  about  five  hundred  and 
twenty-five  years)  from  Hawaiki,  an  island  of  the 
Pacific  not  identified  with  any  certainty.     After  being 


robbed  and  despoiled  by  the  early  white  civilization 
and  by  trader-missionaries,  tardy  justice  has  at  length 
been  done  to  the  native  race.  To-day  the  Maoris 
have  four  members  in  the  house  of  representatives  and 
two  in  the  legislative  council,  all  men  of  high  lineage 
and  natural  orators.  Until  recent  years  it  was  sup- 
posed that  the  Maoris  were  dying  out,  but  later  statis- 
tics show  the  contrary.  The  official  figures  show  that 
the  Maori  population  fell  from  41,993  in  1891  to  39,- 
854  in  1896,  increased  to  43,143  in  1901,  and  further  to 
47,731  in  1906  (last  census  year). 

III.  The  Catholic  Church  in  New  Zealand.— 
The  first  Catholic  settler  in  New  Zealand  was  an  Irish- 
man named  Thomas  Poynton,  who  landed  at  Hoki- 
anga  in  1828.  Until  ten  years  later  the  footsteps  of 
a  Catholic  priest  never  pressed  New  Zealand  soil. 
Poynton's  brave  and  pious  wife,  a  native  of  Wexford 
County,  took  her  first  two  children  on  a  journey  of 
over  two  thousand  weary  miles  of  ocean  to  be  baptized 
at  Sydney.  Through  Poynton's  entreaties  for  a  mis- 
sionary the  needs  of  the  country  became  known,  first 
at  Sydney  and  next,  at  Rome.  In  1835  New  Zealand 
was  included  in  the  newly  created  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Western  Oceanica.  In  the  following  year  its  first 
vicar  Apostolic,  Mgr  Jean  Baptiste  Frangois  Pompal- 
lier,  set  out  for  his  new  field  of  labour  with  seven  mem- 
bers of  the  Society  of  the  Marist  Brothers,  which  only 
a  few  months  before  had  received  the  approval  of 
Pope  Gregory  XVI.  On  10  January,  1838,  he,  with 
three  Marist  companions,  sailed  up  the  Hokianga 
River,  situated  in  the  far  north-west  of  the  Auckland 
Province.  The  cross  was  planted  in  New  Zealand, 
and  the  first  Mass  celebrated  in  the  house  of  the  first 
Catholic  settler  of  the  colony.  Irish  peasant  emi- 
grants were  the  pioneers  of  Catholic  colonization  in 
New  Zealand;  the  French  missionaries  were  its  pioneer 
apostles.  Four  years  later  (in  1842)  New  Zealand 
was  formed  into  a  separate  vicariate,  Mgr  Pompallicr 
being  named  its  first  vicar  Apostolic.  From  this  time 
forward  events  moved  at  a  rapid  pace.  In  1848  the 
colony  was  divided  into  two  dioceses,  Auckland 
with  its  territory  extending  to  39°  of  south  latitude 
forming  one  diocese,  WelUngton  with  the  remaining 
territory  and  the  adjoining  islands  forming  the  second. 
(See  Adckland,  Diocese  of.)  Bishop  Pompallier 
remained  in  charge  of  Auckland,  and  Bishop  Viard, 
who  had  been  consecrated  his  coadjutor  in  1846,  was 
appointed  administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Wellington, 
which  was  entrusted  to  the  Society  of  Mary.  By 
Brief  of  3  July,  1860,  Bishop  Viard  ceased  to  be 
coadjutor  and  was  constituted  first  Bishop  of  Welling- 
ton. In  1869  the  Diocese  of  Dunedin,  comprising 
Otago,  Southland,  and  Stewart's  Island,  was  carved 
out  of  the  Diocese  of  Wellington,  and  the  Right  Rev. 
Patrick  Moran  who  died  in  1895  was  appointed  its 
first  bishop.  His  successor  (the  present  occupant  of 
the  see),  the  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Verdon,  was  consecrated 
in  1896.  In  1887,  at  the  petition  of  the  Plenary 
Synod  of  Australasia,  held  in  Sydney  in  1885,  the  hier- 
archy was  established  in  New  Zealand,  and  Welling- 
ton became  the  archiepiscopal  see.  The  Most  Rev. 
Dr.  Redwood,  S.M.,  who  had  been  consecrated 
Bi.shop  of  Wellington  in  1874,  was  created  archbishop 
and  metropolitan  by  papal  brief,  receiving  tlic  pallium 
from  the  hands  of  the  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Luck,  Bishop  of 
Auckland.  The  same  year  (18S7)  witnessed  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Diocese  of  Christchurch.  The  first  and 
present  bishop  is  the  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Grimes,  S.M., 
con.'if'crafed  in  the  same  year.  Ten  years  later  New 
Zealand,  liiiliMto  1 1,  prudent  on  Australia,  was  made  a 
seiKirat rli  -i.i-l  i^mI  province. 

Some  idr.n.f  t lie  Lipid  growth  of  the  Catholic  popu- 
lation, botli  in  nuinbens  and  in  activity,  may  be  gath- 
ered from  the  following  figun^s.  In  IS  11),  when  New 
Zealand  was  declared  a  colony,  the  number  of  Catho- 
lic colonists  was  not  above  50()  in  a  total  population  of 
some  5000.     Eleven  years  later  they  numbered  3472 


NEW  ZEALAND 


42 


NEW  ZEALAND 


in  a  total  population  of  2G,707.  At  the  last  Govern- 
ment census  (1900)  the  Catholic  total  had  amounted 
to  rjti.il',)").  The  total  population  of  tlie  dominion 
(exclusive  of  JMaoris),  according  to  the  same  census, 
was  SMS,r)7S,  so  tlial  the  Catliolic  population  is  slightly 
over  one-seventh  of  the  whole.  To-day  (1910J  the 
estimated  Catholic  population  of  New  Zealand  is  over 
130,000,  with  4  dioceses,  1  archbishop,  3  suffragan 
bishops,  212  priests,  02  religious  brothers,  8,55  nuns, 
333  churches,  2  ecclesiastical  seminaries  (comprising 
1  provincial  ecclesia-stical  seminary  and  1  ecclesiasti- 
cal seminary  for  members  of  the  ^iarist  Order),  2  col- 
leges for  boys,  32  boarding  and  high  schools,  IS  supe- 
rior day  schools,  15  charitable  institutions,  and  112 
Cathohc  primary  schools.  According  to  the  "New 
Zealand  t)(hcial  Year-Book"  for  1909  (a  Government 
publication)  the  total  number  of  Catholic  schools  in 
the  dominion  is  152  and  the  number  of  Catholic  pupils 
attending  is  12,0,50.  New  Zealand  has  added  one 
new  religious  congregation  (the  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of 
Compassion),  founded  in  1SS4  by  Mother  Mary  Au- 
bert,  to  "Heaven's  Army  of  Charity"  in  the  Catho- 
lic Church.  Under  the  direction  of  their  venerable 
foundress  the  members  of  the  order  conduct  schools 
for  the  Maoris  at  Hiruharama  (Jerusalem)  on  the 
Wanganui  Kiver,  a  home  for  incurables,  Wellington, 
and  a  home  for  incurable  children,  Island  Bay,  Well- 
ington. The  order  has  quite  recently  extended  its 
operations  to  Auckland. 

The  ordinary  organizations  of  the  laity,  as  usually 
found  in  English-speaking  countries,  are  well  and 
solidly  established  throughout  the  dominion.  For 
benefit  purposes  New  Zealand  formed  a  separate  dis- 
trict of  the  Hibernian  Australasian  Catholic  Benefit 
Society.  Thanks  to  cajjable  management,  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  society  h;is  drawn  to  its  ranks  the  ablest 
and  most  representative  of  the  laity,  the  organization 
is  making  remarkable  progress.  On  30  January,  1910, 
the  membersliip  was  reported  at  2632;  the  funeral 
fund  stood  at  £7795:2:2  (nearly  .$40,000)  and  the 
sick  fund  amounted  to  £12,558:5:0  (over  .?02,000). 
The  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  was  probably  the 
earliest  lay  organization  established  in  New  Zealand,  a 
conference  formed  at  Christehurch  in  July,  1807,  by 
the  Rev.  Fr.  Chastagner,  S.M.,  being  the  first  founded 
in  Australasia.  In  almost  every  parish  there  are 
young  men's  clubs,  social,  literary,  and  athletic;  in  con- 
nexion with  these  a  federation  has  been  formed  under 
the  name  of  the  Federated  Catholic  Clubs  of  New 
Zealand.  In  1909  a  Newman  Society,  on  the  lines 
of  the  Oxford  University  Newman  Society,  but  with 
wider  and  more  directly  practical  objects,  was  inau- 
gurated by  the  Catholic  graduates  and  undergraduates 
of  New  Zealand  University.  As  the  number  of  uni- 
versity men  amongst  New  Zealand  Catholics  is  now 
veiy  considerable,  the  new  society  promises  to  prove 
an  important  factor  in  the  defence  and  propagation  of 
the  faith. 

IV.  Missions  to  the  Maoris. — From  the  outset, 
the  conversion  of  the  native  race  was  .set  in  the  fore- 
front of  the  Church's  work  in  this  new  land.  When 
the  Marist  Fathers,  having  been  withdrawn  to  the 
Diocese  of  Wellington,  left  the  Diocese  of  Auckland 
in  18.50,  they  had  in  that  part  of  the  North  IslaW 
5044  neophji^es.  In  1853  there  were  about  a  thou- 
sand native  Christians  in  the  Diocese  of  WeUington. 
Homes  and  schools  for  native  children  were  founded 
by  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  at  Auckland  and  Wellington; 
and  in  1857  the  governor.  Sir  George  Grey,  in  his  offi- 
cial report  to  Parliament,  gave  high  praise  to  the 
Catholic  schools  among  the  Maoris.  Up  until  1860 
the  Maori  mission  was  most  flourishing.  Then  came 
the  long-drawn  years  of  fierce  racial  warfare,  during 
which  the  natives  kept  their  territory  closed  against 
all  white  men;  and  the  Catholic  missions  were  almost 
completely  ruined.  They  are  being  steadily  built  up 
once  more  by  two  bodies  of  earnest  and  devoted  men, 


the  Marist  Fathers  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Wellington 
and  Diocese  of  Christehurch,  and  the  Mill  Hill  Fa- 
thers in  the  Dioccso  of  -Vuckland.  The  progress  made 
during  the  last  twenty-five  years  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  summaries,  (a)  The  Archdiocese 
of  Wrllingtun  and  Dioccso  of  Christehurch  (districts: 
Otaki,  lliniliarania,  Haetihi,  Wairoa,  aiidokatti)  liave 
about  40  st:itions  and  19  churches,  served  by  7  priests. 
There  are  also  4  native  schools;  1  highly  cfiicienl.  na- 
tive high  school,  maintained  by  tli<'  Sisters  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Missions;  and  1  orphaiuige,  conducted  by 
the  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Compassion.  The  total 
number  of  Catholic  Maoris  is  about  2000.  Several 
very  successful  conventions  of  Maori  tribes  have  been 
held  in  Otaki  since  1903.  At  the  last  (held  in  June, 
1909),  which  was  attended  by  His  Grace  Archbishop 
Redwood,  tlic  institution  of  a  Maori  Catholic  maga- 
zine was  decided  upon  and  has  since  been  carried  out. 
(b)  The  Diocese  of  Auckland  (districts:  Rotorua,  head- 
quarters of  the  provincial  of  the  mission,  Matata, 
Tauranga,  Hokianga,  Okaihau,  Whangaroa,  Whan- 
garci,  DargaN'ille,  and  Coromandel)  has  57  stations 
and  22  churches,  served  by  16  priests,  of  whom  9  are 
wholly  and  7  are  partly  engaged  on  the  Maori  mission. 
There  are  4  native  schools  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph.  The  total  number  of  Catholic  Maoris  is 
about  4000.  Throughout  the  three  dioceses  the  Ma- 
ori population  is  extremely  scattered,  and  the  mission- 
aries have  frequently  to  travel  great  distances.  As 
the  deleterious  influence  of  Maori  tolmngaism  (belief 
in  wizards  and  "medicine-men")  is  on  the  wane,  and 
the  rancorous  feelings  engendered  by  the  war  are  now 
subsiding,  the  prospect  in  this  distant  outpost  of  the 
mission  field  is  most  hopeful  and  promising. 

V.  Education. — Primary  education  is  compulsory 
in  New  Zealand;  and  of  every  100  persons  in  the  do- 
minion at  the  time  of  the  census  of  1906,  83.5  could 
read  and  write,  1.6  could  read  only,  and  14.9  could 
neither  read  nor  write.  As  mentioned  above,  New 
Zealand  became  a  self-governing  colony  in  1852. 
Each  province  had  its  separate  legislature  and  the  con- 
trol of  education  within  its  borders,  and  most  of  the 
provinces  subsidized  denominational  schools.  The 
provincial  legislatures  were  abolished  by  the  Acts  of 
187.5-6,  and  one  of  the  early  measures  (1877)  of  the 
centralized  New  Zealand  Government  was  to  abolish 
aid  to  denominational  schools  and  to  introduce  the 
(so-called)  national  system  known  as  "free,  secular, 
and  compulsory".  From  that  day  to  this  the  entire 
public  school  system  of  New  Zealand  has  remained, 
legally,  purely  secular. 

From  the  first  CathoHcs  have  protested  against  the 
exclusion  of  Christian  teaching  from  the  schools;  and 
they  have  refused,  and  continue  to  refuse  (unless 
where  forced  by  circumstances)  to  send  their  children 
to  schools  from  which  their  religion  is  excluded.  As 
in  other  countries,  so  here.  Catholics  have  shown  the 
sincerity  of  their  protest  by  creating,  at  enormous  and 
continual  sacrifices,  a  great  rival  system  of  educa- 
tion under  which  some  13,000  Catholic  children  are 
nurtured  into  a  full  and  wholesome  development  of 
the  faculties  that  God  has  bestowed  upon  them.  With 
scarcely  an  exception.  Catholic  primary  schools  follow 
precisely  the  same  secular  curriculum  as  that  pre- 
scribed under  the  Education  Act  for  the  public  schools; 
and  they  are  every  j'ear  inspected  and  examined,  under 
precisely  the  same  conditions  as  are  the  public  schools, 
by  the  State  inspectors.  The  cost  of  carrying  on  the 
public  school  system  is  not  derived  from  any  special 
rate  or  tax,  but  the  amount  is  paid  out  of  the  Consoli- 
dated Fund,  to  which  Catholics,  as  taxpayers,  con- 
tribute their  share.  Catholics  are  thus  subjected  to  a 
double  impost:  they  have  to  bear  the  cost  of  building, 
equipping,  and  maintaining  their  own  schools,  and 
they  are  compelled  also  to  contribute  their  quota  of 
taxation  for  the  maintenance  of  the  public  school  sys- 
tem, of  which,  from  conscientious  motives,  they  cannot 


NICiEA 


43 


NIC^A 


avail  themselves.  New  Zealand  Catholics  have  never 
asked  or  desired  a  grant  for  the  religious  education 
which  is  imparted  in  their  schools.  But  they  have 
urged,  and  they  continue  to  urge,  their  claim  to  a  fair 
share  of  that  taxation  to  which  they  themselves  con- 
tribute, in  return  for  the  purely  secular  instruction 
which,  in  accordance  with  the  Government  pro- 
gramme, is  given  in  the  Catholic  schools.  Their 
standing  protest  against  the  injustice  so  long  inflicted 
on  them  by  the  various  governments  of  the  country, 
and  their  unyielding  demand  for  a  recognition  of  the 
right  of  Christian  taxpayers  to  have  their  children 
educated  in  accordance  with  Christian  principles,  con- 
stitute what  is  known,  par  excellence,  as  "the  educa- 
tion question"  in  New  Zealand.  It  is  unhappily 
necessary  to  add  that  of  late  years,  for  no  very  ob- 
vious or  adequate  reason.  Catholic  agitation  on  the 
subject  has  not  been  so  active  as  it  once  was;  and  un- 
less a  forward  movement  is  made,  the  prospects  of 
success  for  the  cause,  on  behalf  of  which  such  splendid 
battles  have  been  fought  and  such  heroic  sacrifices 
have  been  endured,  are  exceedingly  remote. 

VI.  Literature  and  Catholic  Journalism. — 
There  is  no  New  Zealand  literature  in  the  broad  and 
general  acceptation  of  the  term.  The  usual  reason 
assigned  is  that  so  young  a  country  has  not  yet  had 
time  to  evolve  a  literature  of  its  own;  but  perhaps  an 
equally  important  factor  in  producing  and  maintain- 
ing the  existing  condition  of  things  is  the  smallness 
of  the  market  for  literary  wares,  in  consequence  of 
which  New  Zealand  writers  possessing  exceptional 
talent  inevitably  gravitate  towards  Sydney  or  Lon- 
don. In  general  literature  the  one  conspicuous  name 
is  that  of  Thomas  Bracken,  Irishman  and  Catholic, 
author  of  several  volumes  of  poems,  which  have  at- 
tained great  popularity  both  in  Australia  and  in  New 
Zealand.  Amongst  scientific  writers,  notable  Cath- 
olic names  are  those  of  the  late  W.  M.  Maskell,  for- 
merly Registrar  of  New  Zealand  University,  and  the 
Very  Rev.  Dr.  Kennedy,  S.M.,  B.A.,  D.D.,  F.R.A.S., 
present  Rector  of  St.  Patrick's  College,  both  of  whom 
have  made  many  valuable  contributions  to  the  pages 
of  scientific  journals  and  the  proceedings  of  learned 
societies. 

As  usually  happens  in  countries  that  are  over- 
whelmingly Protestant,  by  far  the  greater  portion 
of  the  purely  Catholic  literature  that  has  been  pub- 
lished in  New  Zealand  is  apologetic  in  character. 
"What  True  Free-masonry  Is:  Why  it  is  condemned  ", 
published  in  1885  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Keane,  is  a 
detailed  and  extremely  effective  treatment  of  the  sub- 
ject. "Disunion  and  Reunion",  by  the  Rev.  W.  J. 
Madden,  is  a  popular  and  ably  written  review  of  the 
course  and  causes  of  the  Protestant  Reformation. 
One  of  the  most  learned  and  certainly  the  most  pro- 
lific of  the  contributors  to  Catholic  literature  in  New 
Zealand  was  the  Very  Rev.  T.  Le  Menant  des  Ches- 
nais,  S.M.,  recently  deceased.  His  works  include 
"Nonconformists  and  the  Church";  "Out  of  the 
Maze";  "TheTemukaTournament"  (a controversy) ; 
a  volume  on  "Spiritism";  "The  Church  and  the 
World";  etc.  The  last-named  work,  published  only 
a  few  years  before  the  venerable  author's  death,  was 
very  favourably  reviewed  by  English  and  American 
papers.  A  notable  addition  to  the  Catholic  literature 
of  the  dominion  has  been  the  recent  publication  of 
three  volumes  from  the  pen  of  the  editor  of  the  "New 
Zealand  Tablet"  the  Rev.  H.  W.  Cleary,  D.D. 
These  works,  "Cathohc  Marriages",  an  exposition 
and  defence  of  the  decree  "Ne  temere",  "An  Im- 
peached Nation;  Being  a  Study  of  Irish  Outrages"; 
and  "Secular  versus  Religious  Education:  A  Discu.s- 
sion",  are  thorough  in  the  treatment  of  their  respec- 
tive subjects  and  possess  value  of  a  permanent  char- 
acter. A  modest  beginning  has  been  made  towards 
the  compilation  of  a  detailed  history  of  the  Cathohc 
Church  in  the  dominion  by  the  pubUcation,  a  few 


months  ago,  of  "The  Church  in  New  Zealand:  Mem- 
oirs of  the  Early  Days",  by  J.  J.  Wilson. 

The  history  of  Catholic  journalism  in  New  Zealand 
is  in  effect  the  history  of  the  "New  Zealand  Tablet", 
founded  by  the  late  Bishop  Moran  in  1873,  the  Cath- 
olics of  this  country  having  followed  the  principle  t  hat 
it  is  better  to  be  represented  by  one  strong  paper  than 
to  have  a  multiplicity  of  publications.  From  the  first 
the  paper  has  been  fortunate  in  its  editors.  In  the 
early  days  the  work  done  by  its  revered  founder,  in 
his  laattle  for  Catholic  rights,  and  by  his  valued  lay 
assistant,  Mr.  J.  F.  Perrin,  was  of  a  solid  character. 
The  prestige  and  influence  of  the  paper  was  still  fur- 
ther enhanced  by  the  Rev.  Henry  W.  Cleary,  D.D., 
who  made  the  "New  Zealand  Tablet "  a  power  in  the 
land,  and  won  the  respect  of  all  sections  of  the  com- 
munity not  only  for  the  Catholic  paper  but  for  the 
Catholic  body  which  it  represents.  In  February, 
1910,  Dr.  Cleary  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Auckland, 
and  was  consecrated  on  21  August  in  Enniscorthy 
cathedral,  Co.  Wexford,  Ireland.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
there  are  few  countries  in  the  world  in  which,  in  pro- 
portion to  size  and  population,  the  Catholic  press  has 
a  higher  status  than  in  New  Zealand. 

PoMPALLlER,  Early  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Oceania 
(E.  T.,  Auckland.  1888);  Moran,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  Australasia  (Sydney);  Australasian  Cntholic  Directory  for  1910; 
Wiuion,  The  Church  in  New  Zeala^i  I     1/.,.,  <i  lli,:  Early  Days 

(Dunedin,  1910);  Dilke,  Greater   /;  ;       .  ,   Davitt.  Life 

and  Progress  in  Australasia  (Lontloti  i  '-  I''  i  \  r.s,  New  Zea- 
land (X'Ondon,  a.  d.);  JosB,  History  ^'f  1  '  '  f/ '  ('  I  Sydney,  1901); 
Reeves,  The  Long  White  Cloud  (London,  IsilS);  Wright  and 
Reeves,  New  Zealand  (London,  1908) :  New  Zealand  Official  Year- 
Book  for  1906  (last  census  year)  and  for  1909;  D0CGL.1S,  The 
Dominion  of  New  Zealand  (London,  1909);  Hocken,  A  Bibliog- 
raphy of  the  Literature  Relating  to  New  Zealand  (Wellington, 
1909),  issued  by  the  New  Zealand  Government — the  most  com- 
plete bibliography  that  has  been  published.  It  is  no  mere  list  of 
books,  but  gives  a  full  account  of  each  item,  from  Tasman's 
Journal  of  1(343  onwards,  with  explanatory  notes,  biographical 
information  and  criticism,  synopsis  of  important  periodicals,  and 
a  full  index. 

J.  A.  Scott. 

Nicsea,  titular  sec  of  Bithynia  Secunda,  situated  on 
Lake  Ascanius,  in  a  fertile  plain,  but  very  unhealthful 
in  summer.  It  was  first  colonized  by  the  Battaji  and 
was  called  Ancora  or  Helicora.  Destroyed  by  the 
Mysians,  it  was  rebuilt  about  315  b.  c.  by  Antigonus, 
after  his  victory  over  Eumenius,  and  was  thenceforth 
called  Antigonia.  Later  Lysimachus  enlarged  it  and 
called  it  Nica^a  in  honour  of  his  wife.  At  first  the 
kings  of  Bithynia  resided  there  almost  as  often  as  at 
Nicomedia  between  which  and  Nicoea  aro.se  a  struggle 
for  influence.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  astrono- 
mer Hipparchus  and  the  historian  Dio  Cassius.  Pliny 
the  Younger  frequently  mentions  the  city  and  its 
public  monuments.  Numerous  coins  of  Nica-a  attest 
the  interest  of  the  emperors.  After  the  first  CEcu- 
menical  Council,  held  there  in  325,  Constantine  gave 
it  the  title  of  metropolis,  which  Valens  afterwards 
withdrew,  but  which  it  retained  ecclesiastically.  In 
the  fifth  century  it  took  three  suffragans  from  the  juris- 
diction of  Nicomedia,  and  later  six.  In  787  a  second 
fficumenical  Council  (the  seventh)  was  held  there 
against  the  Iconoclasts,  which,  like  the  first,  assembled 
more  than  300  bishops.  Among  its  archbishops,  of 
whom  Le  Quien  (Oriens  Christ.,  I,  639-56)  names 
forty-six,  those  worthy  of  mention  are  Theognis,  the 
first  known  bishop,  a  partisan  of  Arius  at  the  council 
of  325;  Anastasius,  a  sixth-century  writer;  Sts.  Peter 
and  Theophanes  Graptos,  two  victims  of  the  Icono- 
clasts in  the  ninth  century;  Ignatius,  the  biographer 
of  the  patriarchs  Tarasius  ami  Nicei)horus;  Gregory 
Asbestus,  former  metropolitan  uf  Syracuse  and  the 
consecrator  cf  Photius;  Eustratiu.s,  coinmenlator  on 
Aristotle  and  poleniist  under  .Vlexius  Comnenus;  and 
Bessarion,  afterwards  ciirdinal. 

Niciea  grew  more  important  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  Captured  by  the  Seljukids  at  an  unknown 
date,  perhaps  subsequont  to  the  revolt  of  Melissenus 


NIC^A 


44 


NICiEA 


against  Nicephorus  Botaniatos,  it  was  afterwards 
owled  to  the  Turks  by  Alexius  C'onineiuis.  In  1()'.)(> 
the  troops  of  Peter  tlie  lleriiiit,  h:iviiiK  attempted  to 
capture  the  town,  were  eotnplctely  defcMtcil  and  nius- 
saereil.  In  June,  1097,  the  city"  was  taken,  after  a 
memorable  siege,  by  the  Crusaders  and  ceded  liy  tlieni 
to  the  (ireek  Emperor  Alexius  1.  It  was  retained, 
but  with  great  diffieulty,  durinfi;  the  twelfth  century. 
After  the  capture  of  Constantinople  hv  tlie  Latins  in 
1204  Xica-a,  restored,  fortifieil,  and  cinhellished.  be- 
came until  1201  the  capital  of  the  new  Byzantine 
Empire  of  the  Lascari  or  I'ala-ologi.  For  nearly  sixty 
years  it  played  ainost  important  part.  It  was  finally 
captured  by  the  Turkish  Sultan  ( )rkhan  in  13.3.3,  from 
which  time  it  has  formed  a  part  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire. To-day  Xicavi  is  called  Isnik.  It  is  a  village 
of  l.")00  Greek  and  Turkish  inhabitants  in  the  sandjak 
of  Erthogrul  and  the  vilayet  of  Brusa.  The  Greek 
metropolitan  resides  at  (diemlek,  the  ancient  Chios. 
The  ramparts,  several  times  restored  and  now  in  a 
good  state  of  preservation,  are  4S41  yards  in  circum- 
ference. There  are  238  towers,  some  of  them  very 
ancient.  Four  ancient  gates  are  well  preserved. 
Among  the  monuments  may  be  mentioned  Yechil- 
Djami,  the  Green  Mosque,  and  the  church  of  the  As- 
sumption, probably  of  the  ninth  century,  the  mosaics 
of  which  are  very  rich. 

Smith,  Diet.  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.,  II  (London.  1870),  422; 
Texier,  Asie  Mineure  (Paris,  1S62),  91-110;  Cuinet,  La  Turquie 
d'Asie,  IV  (Paris,  1894),  185-90;  Wulf.  Die  Koimesis  Kirche  in 
Nicaa  und  ihre  Afosaihen  (Strasburg,  1890). 

S.  VAILHfi. 

Nicsea,  Councils  of,  respectively  the  First  and 
Seventh  CEcumenical  Councils,  held  at  Nicaea  in 
Bithynia  (see  above). 

I.  The  First  Council  op  Nicea  (First  CEcumeni- 
cal Council  of  the  Catholic  Church),  held  in  325  on  the 
occasion  of  the  heresy  of  Arius  (see  Arianism).  As 
early  as  320  or  321  St.  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Alexan- 
dria, convoked  a  council  at  Alexandria  at  which  more 
than  one  hundred  bishops  from  Egypt  and  Libya 
anathematized  Arius.  The  latter  continued  to  offi- 
ciate in  his  church  and  to  recruit  followers.  Being 
finall3'  driven  out,  he  went  to  Palestine  and  from  there 
to  Xicomedia.  During  this  time  St.  Alexander  pub- 
lished his  "Epistola  encyclica",  to  which  Arius  re- 
plied; but  henceforth  it  was  evident  that  the  quarrel 
had  gone  beyond  the  possibility  of  human  control. 
Sozomen  even  speaks  of  a  Council  of  Bithynia  which 
addressed  an  encyclical  to  all  the  bishops  asking  them 
to  receive  the  Arians  into  the  communion  of  the 
Church.  This  discord,  and  the  war  which  soon  broke 
out  between  Constantine  and  Licinius,  added  to  the 
disorder  and  partly  explains  the  progress  of  the  reli- 
giou.s  conflict  during  the  years  322-23.  Finally  Con- 
stantine, having  conquered  Licinius  and  become  sole 
emperor,  concerned  himself  with  the  re-establishment 
of  religious  peace  as  well  as  of  civil  order.  He  ad- 
dressed letters  to  St.  Alexander  and  to  Arius  depre- 
cating these  heated  controversies  regarding  questions 
of  no  practical  importance,  and  advising  the  adversa- 
ries to  agree  without  delay.  It  was  evident  that  the 
emperor  did  not  then  grasp  the  significance  of  the 
Arian  controversy.  Hosius  of  Cordova,  his  counsel- 
lor in  religious  matters,  bore  the  imperial  letter  to 
Alexandria,  but  failed  in  his  concihatory  mission. 
Seeing  this,  the  emperor,  perhaps  advised  by  Hosius, 
judged  no  remedy  more  apt  to  restore  peace  in  the 
Church  than  the  convocation  of  an  oecumenical  coun- 
cil. 

The  emperor  himself,  in  very  respectful  letters, 
begged  the  bishops  of  every  country  to  come  promptly 
to  Nicaea.  Several  bishops  from  outside  the  Roman 
Empire  (e.  g.,  from  Persia)  came  to  the  Council.  It  is 
not  historically  known  whether  the  emperor  in  con- 
voking the  Council  acted  soiely  in  hi.s  own  name  or  in 
concert  with  the  pope;  however,  it  is  probable  that 


.  Constantine  and  Silvester  came  to  an  agreement  (see 
Silvester  I,  Saint,  Pope).  In  order  to  ex-pedite  the 
assembling  of  tlie  Council,  the  emperor  i>laced  at  the 
disposal  of  the  bishops  the  public  c(iMvey:uices  and 
])(istsof  tlieempire;  moreover,  while  theCnuneillasted 
lie  provided  abundantly  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
members.  The  choice  of  Niea'a  was  f:ivourable  to  tlie 
assembling  of  a  large  n  umber  of  bi.shops.  It  w:is  easily 
accessible  to  the  l)isho|)s  of  nearly  all  the  provinces, 
but  especially  totho.seof  Asia,  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Thrace.  The  sessions  were  hekl  in  the 
principal  church,  and  in  the  central  hall  of  the  imperial 
palace.  A  large  place  was  indeed  necessary  to  receive 
such  an  assembly,  though  the  exact  number  is  not 
known  with  certainty.  Eusebius  speaks  of  more  than 
250  bishops,  and  later  Arabic  manuscripts  raise  the 
figure  to  2000 — an  evident  exaggeration  in  which, 
however,  it  is  impossible  to  discover  the  approxi- 
mate total  number  of  bishops,  as  well  as  of  the  priests, 
deacons,  and  acolytes,  of  whom  it  is  said  that  a  great 
number  were  also  present.  St.  Athanasius,  a  member 
of  the  council,  speaks  of  300,  and  in  his  letter  "Ad 
Afros"  he  says  explicitly  318.  This  figure  is  almost 
universally  adopted,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  good 
reason  for  rejecting  it.  Most  of  the  bishops  present 
were  Greeks;  among  the  Latins  we  know  only  Hosius 
of  Cordova,  Cecilian  of  Carthage,  Mark  of  Calabria, 
Nicasius  of  Dijon,  Donnus  of  Stridon  in  Pannonia,  and 
the  two  Roman  priests,  Victor  and  Vincentius,  repre- 
senting the  pope.  The  assembly  numbered  among 
its  most  famous  members  St.  Alexander  of  Alexandria, 
Eustathius  of  Antioch,  Macarius  of  Jerusalem,  Euse- 
bius of  Nicomedia,  Eusebius  of  Ca;sarea,  and  Nicholas 
of  Myra.  Some  had  suffered  during  the  last  persecu- 
tion; others  were  poorly  enough  acquainted  with 
Christian  theology.  Among  the  members  was  a  young 
deacon,  Athanasius  of  Alexandria,  for  whom  this  Coun- 
cil was  to  be  the  prelude  to  a  life  of  conflict  and  of 
glory  (see  Athanasius,  Saint). 

The  year  325  is  accepted  without  hesitation  as  that 
of  the  P^irst  Council  of  Nica?a.  There  is  less  agree- 
ment among  our  early  authorities  as  to  the  month  and 
day  of  the  opening.  In  order  to  reconcile  the  indica- 
tions furnished  by  Socrates  and  by  the  Acts  of  the 
Council  of  Chaleedon,  this  date  may,  perhaps,  be 
taken  as  20  May,  and  that  of  the  drawing  up  of  the 
symbol  as  19  June.  It  may  be  assumed  without  too 
great  hardihood  that  the  synod,  having  been  convoked 
for  20  May,  in  the  absence  of  the  emperor  held  meet- 
ings of  a  less  solemn  character  until  14  June,  when 
after  the  emperor's  arrival,  the  sessions  properly  so 
called  began,  the  symbol  being  formulated  on  19  June, 
after  which  various  matters — the  paschal  controversy, 
etc. — were  dealt  with,  and  the  sessions  came  to  an  end 
25  August.  The  Council  was  opened  by  Constantine 
with  the  greatest  solemnity.  The  emperor  waited 
until  all  the  bishops  had  taken  their  seats  before  mak- 
ing his  entry.  He  was  clad  in  gold  and  covered  with 
precious  stones  in  the  fasliion  of  an  Oriental  sovereign. 
A  chair  of  gold  liad  been  made  ready  for  him,  and 
when  he  had  taken  his  place  the  bishops  seated  them- 
selves. After  he  had  been  addressed  in  a  hurried 
allocution,  the  emperor  made  an  address  in  Latin, 
expressing  his  will  that  religious  peace  should  be  re- 
established. He  had  opened  the  session  as  honorary 
president,  and  he  a.ssisted  at  the  subsequent  sessions, 
but  the  direction  of  the  theological  discussions  was 
abandoned,  as  was  fitting,  to  the  ecclesiastical  leaders 
of  the  council.  The  actual  president  seems  to  have 
been  Hosius  of  Cordova,  assisted  by  the  pope's 
legates,  Victor  and  Vincentius. 

The  emperor  began  by  making  the  bishops  under- 
stand that  they  had  a  greater  and  better  business  in 
hand  than  personal  quarrels  and  interminable  recrimi- 
nations. Nevertheless,  he  had  to  submit  to  the  in- 
fliction of  hearing  the  last  words  of  debates  which  had 
been  going  on  previous  to  his  arrival.     Eusebius  of 


NICiEA 


45 


NIC^A 


Cssarea  and  his  two  abbrcviators,  Socrates  and  Sozo- 
men,  as  well  as  Rufinus  and  Gelasius  of  Cyzicus,  re- 
port no  details  of  the  theological  discussions.     Rufinus 
tells  us  only  that  daily  sessions  were  held  and  that 
Arius  was  often  summoned  before  the  assembly;  his 
opinions  were  seriously  discussed  and  the  opposing 
arKuinriit.s    uttentively    considered.     The   majority, 
e.spci'i.illx'  I  1m  ISO  who  were  confessors  of  the  Faith,  ener- 
gotirally  iloclared  themselves  against  the  impious  doc- 
trines of  Arius.     (For  the  part  played  by  the  Eusebian 
third  party,  see  Edsebius  of  Nicomedia.     The  adop- 
tion of  the  term  6/iiooi5crios  by   the  Council   is  fully 
treated  under  Homoodsion.     For  the  Creed  of  Euse- 
bius,  see  Eusebius  of  C^sarea:  Life.)    St.  Athana- 
sius  assures  us  that  the  activities  of  the  Council  were 
nowise  hampered  by  Constantine's  presence.    The  em- 
peror had  by  this  time  escaped  from  the  influence  of 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  was  under  that  of  Hosius, 
to  whom,  as  well  as  to  St.  Athanasius,  may  be  attrib- 
uted a  preponderant  influence  in  the  formulation  of 
the  symbol  of  the  First  (Ecumenical  Council,  of  which 
the  following  is  a  literal  translation : — 
We  believe  in  one  God  the  Father  Almighty,  Maker  of 
all  things  visible  and  invisible;  and  in  one  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  the  only  begotten  of  the  Father,  that 
is,  of  the  substance  [(k  tti^  oi)(r(os]  of  the  Father,  God 
of  God,  light  of  light,  true  God  of  true  God,  begot- 
ten not  made,  of  the  same  substance  with  the  Fa- 
ther [biiooiuiov  Tif)  irorpi],  through  whom  all  things 
were  made  both  in  heaven  and  on  earth ;  who  for  us 
men  and  for  our  salvation  descended,  was  incarnate, 
and  was  made  man,  suffered  and  rose  again  the 
third  day,  ascended  into  heaven  and  cometh  to 
judge  living  and  dead.     And  in  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Those  who  say:   There  was  a  time  when  He  was 
not,  and  He  was  not  before  He  was  begotten;  and 
that  He  was  made  out  of  nothing  (i^  ow  6yTwv) ;  or 
who  maintain  that  He  is  of  another  hypostasis  or 
another  substance  [than  the  Father],  or  that  the 
Son  of  God  is  created,  or  mutable,  or  subject  to 
change,  [them]  the  Catholic  Church  anathematizes. 
The  adhesion  was  general  and  enthusiastic.     All 
the  bishops  save  five  declared  themselves  ready  to 
subscribe  to  this  formula,  convinced  that  it  contained 
the  ancient  faith  of  the  Apostolic  Church.     The  op- 
ponents wore  soon  reduced  to  two,  Theonas  of  Mar- 
marica  and  Secundus  of  Ptolemais,  who  were  exiled 
and  anathematized.     Arius  and  his  writings  were  also 
branded  with  anathema,  his  books  were  cast  into  the 
fire,  and  he  was  exiled  to  Illyria.     The  lists  of  the  sign- 
ers have  reached  us  in  a  mutilated  condition,  disfig- 
ured by  faults  of  the  copyists.     Nevertheless,  these 
lists  may  be  regarded  as  authentic.     Their  study  is  a 
problem  which  has  been  repeatedly  dealt  with  in  mod- 
ern times,  in  Germany  and  England,  in  the  critical  edi- 
tions of  H.  Gelzer,  H.  Hilgenfeld,  and  O.  Contz  on  the 
one  hand,  and  C.  H.  Turner  on  the  other.     The  lists 
thus  constructed  give  respectively  220  and  218  names. 
With  information  derived  from  one  source  or  another, 
a  list  of  2.32  or  237  fathers  known  to  have  been  present 
may  be  constructed. 

Other  matters  dealt  with  by  this  council  were  the 
controversy  as  to  the  time  of  celebrating  Easter  and 
the  Moletian  schism.  The  former  of  these  two  will  be 
found  treated  under  Easter,  Easier  Controversy;  the 
latter  under  Meletius  of  Lycopolis. 

Of  all  the  Acts  of  this  Council,  which,  it  has  been 
maintained,  were  numerous,  only  three  fragments 
have  reached  us:  the  creed,  or  symbol,  given  above 
(see  also  Nicene  Creed);  the  canons;  the  synodal 
decree.  In  reality  there  never  were  any  official  acts 
besides  these.  But  the  accounts  of  Eusebius,  Socrates, 
Sozomen,  Theodnrot,  and  Rufinus  may  be  considered 
as  very  important  soun-cs  of  historical  information,  as 
well  as  some  data  pnx  r\ cd  by  St.  Athanasius,  and  a 
history  of  the  Council  of  Nictea  written  in  Greek  in  the 
fifth  century  by  Gelasius  of  Cyzicus.     There  has  long 


existed  a  dispute  as  to  the  number  of  the  canons  of 
First  NicEea.  All  the  collections  of  canons,  whether  in 
Latin  or  Greek,  composed  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies agree  in  attributing  to  this  Council  only  the 
twenty  canons,  which  we  possess  to-day.  Of  these 
the  following  is  a  brief  resume:  Canon  i:  On  the  admis- 
sion, or  support,  or  expulsion  of  clerics  mutilated  by 
choice  or  by  violence.  Canon  ii :  Rules  to  be  observed 
for  ordination,  the  avoidance  of  undue  haste,  the  de- 
position of  those  guilty  of  a  grave  fault.  Canon  iii: 
All  members  of  the  clergy  are  forbidden  to  dwell  with 
any  woman,  except  a  mother,  sister,  or  aunt.  Canon 
iv:  Concerning  episcopal  elections.  Canon  v:  Con- 
cerning the  excommunicate.  Canon  vi:  Concerning 
patriarchs  and  their  jurisdiction.  Canon  vii  confirms 
the  right  6f  the  bishops  of  Jerusalem  to  enjoy  certain 
honours.  Canon  viii  concerns  the  Novatians.  Canon 
ix:  Certain  sins  known  after  ordination  involve  invali- 
dation. Canon  x:  Lapsi  who  have  been  ordained 
knowingly  or  surreptitiously  must  be  excluded  as  soon 
as  their  irregularity  is  known.  Canon  xi:  Penance  to 
be  imposed  on  apostates  of  the  persecution  of  Licinius. 
Canon  xii:  Penance  to  be  imposed  on  those  who  up- 
held Licinius  in  his  war  on  the  Christians.  Canon  xiii : 
Indulgence  to  be  granted  to  excommunicated  persons 
in  danger  of  death.  Canon  xiv:  Penance  to  be  im- 
posed on  catechumens  who  had  weakened  under  per- 
secution. Canon  xv:  Bishops,  priests,  and  deacons 
are  not  to  pass  from  one  church  to  another.  Canon 
xvi:  All  clerics  are  forbidden  to  leave  their  church. 
Formal  prohibition  of  bishops  to  ordain  for  their  dio- 
cese a  cleric  belonging  to  another  diocese.  Canon  xvii : 
Clerics  are  forbidden  to  lend  at  interest.  Canon  xviii 
recalls  to  deacons  their  subordinate  position  with  re- 
gard to  priests.  Canon  xix:  Rules  to  be  observed  with 
regard  to  adherents  of  Paul  of  Samosata  who  wished 
to  return  to  the  Church.  Canon  xx^  On  Sundays  and 
during  the  Paschal  season  prayers  should  be  said 
standing. 

The  business  of  the  Council  having  been  finished 
Constantino  celebrated  the  twentieth  anniversary  of 
his  accession  to  the  empire,  and  invited  the  bishops  to 
a  splendid  repast,  at  the  end  of  which  each  of  them  re- 
ceived rich  presents.  Several  days  later  the  emperor 
commanded  that  a  final  session  should  be  held,  at 
which  he  assisted  in  order  to  exhort  the  bishops  to 
work  for  the  maintenance  of  peace;  he  commended 
himself  to  their  prayers,  and  authorized  the  fathers  to 
return  to  their  dioceses.  The  greater  number  hast- 
ened to  take  advantage  of  this  and  to  bring  the  reso- 
lutions of  the  council  to  the  knowledge  of  their 
provinces. 

II.  Second  ConNciL  op  Nic^ba  (Seventh  fficumeni- 
cal  Council  of  the  Catholic  Church),  held  in  787.  (For 
an  account  of  the  controversies  which  occasioned  this 
council  and  the  circumstances  in  which  it  was  con- 
voked, see  IcoNOCLASM,  I,  II.)  An  attempt  to  hold  a 
council  at  Con.stantinoijle,  to  deal  with  Iconoclasm, 
having  been  frustiHtcd  by  the  violence  of  the  Icono- 
clastic soldiery,  t  lie  pajial  icgiitcs  left  that  city.  When, 
however,  they  liud  reai'licd  Sicily  on  their  way  back  to 
Rome,  thoy  were  rci-allcd  by  the  Enil)ress  Irene.  She 
replaced  Ihc  mvitinous  troops  at  Const<uilinuple  with 
troops  commanded  by  officers  in  whom  she  had  every 
confidence.  This  accomplished,  in  May,  787,  a  new 
council  was  convoked  at  Nica>a  in  Bithynia.  The 
pope's  letters  to  the  empress  and  to  the  [latriarch  (see 
Iconoclasm,  II)  prove  superabundantly  that  the 
Holy  See  approved  the  convoi-ation  of  the  Council. 
The  pope  afterwards  wrote  to  Charlemagne:  "Et  sic 
synodum  istam,  secundum  nostram  ordinationem, 
fecerunt"  (Thus  they  have  held  the  synod  in  accord- 
ance with  our  directions). 

The  empress-regent  and  her  son  did  not  assist  in 
person  at  the  sessions,  but  they  were  represented  there 
by  two  high  officials:  the  patrician  and  former  consul, 
Petronius,  and  the   imperial   chamberlain  and  logo- 


NICARAGUA 


46 


NICARAGUA 


thotc  John,  with  whom  was  associated  as  secretary  the 
former  patriarch,  Xicepliorus.  The  acts  represent  as 
constantly  at  tlie  head  of  the  ecclesiastical  members 
the  two  Roman  legates,  the  archpricst  I'cter  and  the 
abbot  Peter;  after  them  come  Tarasius,  Patriarch  of 
Omstantinople,  and  then  two  Oriental  monks  and 
priests,  John  and  Thomas,  representatives  of  the  Patri- 
archs of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusaloiii.  The 
operations  of  the  council  show  that  Tarasius,  ])roperly 
speaking,  conducted  the  sessions.  The  monks  .lohn 
and  Thomas  professed  to  re[)res(-nt  the  Oriental  pa- 
triarchs, though  these  did  not  know  that  the  coun- 
cil had  been  convoked.  However,  there  was  no  fraud 
on  tlu'ir  part:  they  had  been  sent,  not  by  the  patri- 
archs, but  by  the  monks  and  priests  of  superior  rank 
acting  scdibiis  impedilis.  in  the  stead  and  place  of  the 
patriarchs  who  were  prevented  from  acting  for  them- 
selves. Necessity  was  their  excuse.  Moreover,  John 
and  Thom.as  did  not  subscribe  at  the  Council  as  vicars 
of  the  patriarchs,  but  simply  in  the  name  of  the  Apos- 
tolic sees  of  the  Orient.  With  the  exception  of  these 
monks  and  the  Roman  legates,  all  the  members  of  the 
Covmcil  were  subjects  of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  Their 
number,  bishops  as  well  as  representatives  of  bishops, 
varies  in  the  ancient  historians  between  330  and  367; 
Nicephorus  makes  a  manifest  mistake  in  speaking  of 
only  150  members:  the  Acts  of  the  Council  which  we 
still  possess  show  not  fewer  than  308  bishops  or  repre- 
sentatives of  bishops.  To  these  may  be  added  a  cer- 
tain number  of  monks,  archimandrites,  imperial  secre- 
taries, and  clerics  of  Constantinople  who  had  not  the 
right  to  vote. 

The  first  session  opened  in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia, 
24  Sept.,  787.  Tarasius  opened  the  council  with  a 
short  discourse:  "Last  year,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
month  of  August,  it  was  desired  to  hold,  under  my 
presidency,  a  council  in  the  Church  of  the  Apostles  at 
Constantinople;  but  through  the  fault  of  several  bish- 
ops whom  it  would  be  easy  to  count,  and  whose  names 
I  prefer  not  to  mention,  since  everyone  knows  them, 
that  council  was  made  impossible.  The  sovereigns 
have  deigned  to  convoke  another  at  Nic»a,  and  Christ 
will  certainly  reward  them  for  it.  It  is  this  Lord  and 
Saviour  whom  the  bishops  must  also  invoke  in  order 
to  pronounce  subsequently  an  equitable  judgment  in  a 
just  and  impartial  manner."  The  members  then  pro- 
ceeded to  the  reading  of  various  official  documents, 
after  which  three  Iconoclastic  bishops  who  had  re- 
tracted were  permitted  to  take  their  seats.  Seven 
others  who  had  plotted  to  make  the  Council  miscarry 
in  the  preceding  year  presented  themselves  and  de- 
clared themselves  ready  to  profess  the  Faith  of  the 
Fathers,  but  the  assembly  thereupon  engaged  in  a 
long  discussion  concerning  the  admission  of  heretics 
and  postponed  their  case  to  another  session.  On  26 
September,  the  second  session  was  held,  during  which 
the  i)oj)e's  letters  to  the  empress  and  the  Patriarch 
Tarasius  were  read.  Tarasius  declared  himself  in  full 
agreement  with  the  doctrine  set  forth  in  these  letters. 
On  28,  or  29,  Sept.,  in  the  third  session,  some  bishops 
who  had  retracted  their  errors  were  allowed  to  take 
their  seats;  after  which  various  documents  were  read. 
The  fourth  session  was  held  on  1  October.  In  it  the 
secretaries  of  the  council  read  a  long  series  of  citations 
from  the  Bible  and  the  Fathers  in  favour  of  the  ven- 
eration of  images.  Afterwards  the  dogmatic  decree 
was  presented,  and  was  signed  by  all  the  members 
present,  by  the  archimandrites  of  the  monasteries,  and 
by  some  monks;  the  papal  legates  added  a  declaration 
to  the  effect  that  they  were  ready  to  receive  all  who 
had  abandoned  the  Iconoclastic  heresy.  In  the  fifth 
session  on  4  October,  passages  from  the  Fathers  were 
read  which  declared,  or  seemed  to  declare,  against  the 
worship  of  images,  but  the  reading  was  not  continued 
to  the  end,  and  the  council  decided  in  favour  of  the 
restoration  and  the  veneration  of  images.  On  6  Octo- 
ber, in  the  sixth  session,  the  doctrines  of  the  concilia- 


hulum  of  7.53  were  refuted.  The  discussion  was  end- 
less, but  in  the  course  of  it  several  noteworthy  things 
were  said.  The  next  session,  that  of  13  October,  was 
especially  important;  at  it  was  read  the  Spos,  or  dog- 
matic decision,  of  the  council  [see  Images,  Vkxkua- 
TION  OF  (6)].  The  last  (eighth)  session  was  held  in 
the  Magnaura  Palace,  at  Constantinople,  in  presence 
of  the  empress  and  her  son,  on  23  October.  It  was 
spent  in  discourses,  signing  of  names,  and  acclama- 
tions. 

The  council  promulgated  twenty-two  canons  relating 
to  points  of  discipline,  which  may  besummarizerl  as  fol- 
lows: Canon  i :  The  clergy  nuist  observe  "  the  holy  can- 
ons," which  include  the  Apostolic,  those  of  the  six  pre- 
vious fficumenical  Councils,  thoseof  particular  synods 
which  have  been  published  at  other  synods,  anrl  those 
of  the  Fathers.  Canon  ii:  Candidates  for  bishop's 
orders  must  know  the  Psalter  by  heart  and  nnist  have 
read  thoroughly,  nol  cursorily,  all  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures. Canon  iiicondriiins  I  he  a])pointment  of  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons  by  srcular  princes.  Canon  iv: 
Bishops  are  not  to  diiiKiml  iiioncy  of  their  clergy:  any 
bishop  who  through  (•iixctini^ncss  deprives  one  of  his 
clergy  is  himself  deposed.  Canon  v  is  directed  against 
those  who  boast  of  having  obtained  church  preferment 
with  money,  and  recalls  the  Thirtieth  Ajxi^lolic  Canon 
and  the  canons  of  Chalcedon  against  those  who  buy 
preferment  with  money.  Canon  vi :  Provincial  synods 
are  to  be  held  annually.  Canon  vii:  Relics  are  to  be 
placed  in  all  churches:  no  church  is  to  be  consecrated 
without  relics.  Canon  viii  prescribes  precautions  to 
be  taken  against  feigned  converts  from  Judaism. 
Canon  ix :  All  writings  against  the  venerable  images  are 
to  be  surrendered,  to  be  shut  up  with  other  heretical 
books.  Canon  x:  Against  clerics  who  leave  their  own 
dioceses  without  permission,  and  become  private 
chaplains  to  great  personages.  Canon  xi:  Every 
church  and  every  monastery  must  have  its  own  a^co- 
nomus.  Canon  xii:  Against  bishops  or  abbots  who 
convey  church  property  to  temporal  lords.  Canon 
xiii:  Episcopal  residences,  monasteries,  and  other  ec- 
clesiastical buildings  converted  to  profane  uses  are  to 
be  restored  their  rightful  ownership.  Canon  xiv: 
Tonsured  persons  not  onlained  lectors  must  not  read 
the  Epistle  or  Gospel  in  the  ambo.  Canon  xv: 
Against  pluralities  of  benefices.  Canon  xvi:  The 
clergy  must  not  wear  sumptuous  apparel.  Canon 
xvii:  Monks  are  not  to  leave  their  monasteries  and 
begin  building  other  houses  of  prayer  without  being 
provided  with  the  means  to  finish  the  same.  Canon 
xviii:  \A'omen  are  not  to  dwell  in  bi.shops'  houses  or  in 
monasteries  of  men.  Canon  xix :  Superiors  of  churches 
and  monasteries  are  not  to  demand  money  of  those 
who  enter  the  clerical  or  monastic  state.  But  the 
dowry  brought  by  a  novice  to  a  religious  house  is  to  be 
retained  by  that  house  if  the  novice  leaves  it  without 
any  fault  on  the  part  of  the  superior.  Canon  xx  pro- 
hibits double  monasteries.  Canon  xxi :  A  monk  or  nun 
may  not  leave  one  convent  for  another.  Canon  xxii : 
Among  the  laity,  persons  of  opposite  sexes  may  eat  to- 
gether, provided  they  give  thanks  and  behave  with 
decorum.  But  among  religious  persons,  those  of  op- 
posite sexes  may  eat  together  only  in  the  presence  of 
several  God-fearing  men  and  women,  except  on  a 
journey  when  necessity  compels. 

Hefele-Leclercq,  Hisl.  des  Concihs  (Paris,  1906);  Braun, 
De  s.  NiccEJta  synods:  Syrische  Texle  (1898) ;  Revillout,  Le  Con- 
cite  de  Nic&e  d'apres  tes  textes  copies  (Paris,  1889)  (these  two  re- 
ferring to  the  First  Nicffia). — For  the  literature  of  the  Arian, 
the  Easter,  and  the  Iconoclastic  controversies,  see  bibliographies 
given  under  Arianism;  Athanasics,  Saint;  Homoousion; 
Easter,  Easter  Controversy;  Iconoclasm;  Images,  Venera- 
tion OF. 

H.  Leclercq. 

Nicaragua,  Repttblic  and  Diocese  of  (de  Ni- 
CARAorA). — The  diocese,  suffragan  of  Guatemala,  is 
coextensive  with  the  Central  American  Republic  of 
Nicaragua.     This  republic  (see  Chile,  Map  of  South 


NICASTRO 


47 


NICCOLA 


America),  lying  between  Honduras  and  Costa  Rica, 
the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Caribbean  .Sea,  has  an  area 
of  49,200  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about 
600,000  inhabitants.  The  great  mass  of  the  inhabi- 
tants are  either  aborigines,  or  negroes,  or  of  mixed 
blood,  those  of  pure  European  descent  not  exceeding 
1500  in  number.  The  legislative  authority  is  vested 
in  a  single  chamber  of  thirty-six  members,  elected  for 
six  years;  the  executive,  in  a  president,  whose  term  of 
office  is  also  six  years,  exercising  his  functions  through 
a  cabinet  of  nine  responsible  ministers  The  country 
is  traversed  by  a  deep  depression,  running  parallel  to 
the  Pacific  cciast.  wilhin  which  are  a  chain  of  volcanoes 
(among  thciii,  .M<in(>tombo,  7000  feet)  and  the  great 
lakes,  Slana^jua  and  Nicaragua  (orCocibolga).  From 
the  latter  (a  body  of  water  92  miles  long  and,  at  its 
widest,  40  miles  wide)  the  country  takes  its  name,  de- 
rived from  Nicarao,  the  name  of  the  aboriginal  chief 
who  held  sway  in  the  regions  round  about  Lake  Coci- 
bolga  when  the  Spaniards,  under  Ddvila,  first  explored 
the  country,  in  1522.  From  that  time,  or  soon  after, 
until  1 822  Nicaragua  was  a  Spanish  possession ,  forming 
part  of  the  Province  of  Guatemala.  From  1822  until 
1839  it  was  one  of  the  five  states  constituting  the  Cen- 
tral American  Federation;  from  1840  until  the  present 
time  (1911)  it  lias  been  an  independent  republic,  with 
its  capital  at  Managua  (pop.,  about  35,000).  The 
aborigines  of  the  jMosquito  Coast,  a  swampy  tract  ex- 
tending along  the  Nicaraguan  shores  of  the  Caribbean, 
were  nominally  under  British  protection  until  1860, 
when,  by  the  Treaty  of  Managua,  this  protectorate 
was  ceded  by  Great  Britain  to  the  republic;  in  1905, 
another  treaty  recognized  the  absolute  sovereignty  of 
Nicaragua  over  what  had  been,  until  then,  known  as 
the  Mosquito  Reservation.  Since  the  time  of  its  ac- 
quiring political  independence,  Nicaragua  has  been  in 
almost  continuous  turmoil.  Commercially,  the  coun- 
try is  very  poorly  developed;  its  chief  exports  are 
cofTee,  cattle,  and  mahogany;  a  certain  amount  of  gold 
has  been  mined  of  recent  years,  and  the  nascent  rubber 
industry  is  regarded  as  promising. 

The  Diocese  of  Nicaragua  was  canonically  erected 
in  1534  (according  to  other  authorities,  1531),  with 
Diego  Alvarez  for  its  first  bishop.  It  appears  to  ha\-e 
been  at  first  a  suffragan  of  Mexico,  though  some  au- 
thorities have  assigned  it  to  the  ecclesiastical  Province 
of  Lima,  but  in  the  eighteenth  century  Benedict  XIV 
made  it  a  suffragan  of  Guatemala.  The  episcopal  res- 
idence is  at  Leon,  where  there  is  a  fine  cathedral.  A 
concordat  between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Republic  of 
Nicaragua  was  concluded  in  1861,  and  the  Catholic  is 
still  recognized  as  the  state  religion,  though  Church 
and  State  are  now  separated,  and  freedom  is  constitu- 
tionally guaranteed  to  all  forms  of  religious  worship. 
After  1894  the  Zela.ya  Government  entered  upon  a 
course  of  anti-Catholic  legislation  which  provoked  a 
protest  from  Bishop  Francisco  Ulloa  y  Larrios,  and 
the  bishop  was  banished  to  Panama,  tfpon  the  death 
of  this  prelate,  in  1908,  his  coadjutor  bishop,  Simeone 
Pereira,  succeeded  him.  The  returns  for  1910  give 
the  Diocese  of  Nicaragua  42  parishes,  with  45  priests, 
a  seminary,  2  colleges,  and  2  hospitals. 

Gamez,  Archivo  Histdrico  de  la  Republica  de  Nicaragua  (Mana- 
gua, 1896) :  Squier.  Nicaragua  (London,  1852) ;  Belt,  The  Natu- 
ralist in  Nicaragua  (London,  1873) ;  The  Stalesmari's  Year  Book 
(London,  1910).  E.  MacPHERSON. 

Nicastro  (Neocastrensis),  a  city  of  the  Province  of 
Catanzaro,  in  Calabria,  southern  Italy,  situated  on  a 
promontory  that  commands  the  Gulf  of  St.  Euphemia; 
above  it  is  an  ancient  castle.  The  commerce  of  the 
port  of  Nicastro  consists  of  the  exportation  of  acid, 
herbs,  and  wine.  The  cathedral,  an  ancient  temple, 
with  the  episcopal  palace,  was  outside  the  city;  having 
been  pillaged  by  the  Saracens,  it  was  restored  in  the 
year  1100,  but  it  was  destroyed  in  the  earthquake  of 
1638,  with  the  episcopal  palace,  under  the  ruinsof  which 
most  valuable  archives  were  lost.     For  a  long  time. 


the  Greek  Rite  was  in  use  at  Nicastro.  The  first  bishop 
of  this  city  of  whom  there  is  any  record  was  Henry 
(1090);  Bishop  Tancredo  da  Monte  Foscolo  (1279) 
was  deposed  by  Honorius  IV  for  having  consecrated 
John  of  Aragon,  King  of  Sicily,  but  he  was  reinstated 
by  Boniface  VIII;  Bishop  Paolo  Capisucco  (1533)  was 
one  of  the  judges  in  the  case  of  the  marriage  of  Henry 
VIII  of  England;  Marcello  Cervino  (1539)  became 
Pope  Marcellus  II ;  Giovanni  Tommaso  Perrone  (1639) 
built  the  new  cathedral.  In  1818  the  ancient  See  of 
Martorano,  the  former  Mamertum  (the  first  bishop  of 
which  was  Domnus,  in  761),  was  united  to  the  Diocese 
of  Nicastro.  The  diocese  is  a  suffragan  of  Reggio  in 
Calabria;  it  has  52  parishes,  with  110,100  inhabitants; 
71  churches  and  chapels,  2  convents  of  the  Capuchins, 
and  one  orphan  asylum  and  boarding-school,  directed 
by  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  XXI  (Venice,  1870),  200. 

U.  Benigni. 

Niccola  Pisano,  architect  and  sculptor,  b.  at  Pisa 
about  1205-07;  d.  there,  1278.     He  was  the  father  of 


modern  plastic  art.  When  barely  psist  adolescence, 
he  came  to  the  notice  of  Frederick  II  of  Swabi;i  who 
took  him  to  attend  his  coronation  in  Rome,  thinner  lo 
Naples,  to  complete  Castel  Capuano  and  Castel  dell' 
Uovo  (1221-31).  In  1233  Niccola  was  in  L\i<-ca;  the 
alto-rilievo  of  the  Deposition  over  the  side  door  of  the 
cathedral  may  be  of  this  date.  The  marble  urn  or 
Area  made  to  contain  the  body  of  St.  Dominic  in  the 
church  bearing  his  name  in  Bologna,  is  said  to  be  an 
early  work,  but  shows  maturity;  the  charming  group 
of  the  Madonna  and  Child  upon  it,  foreshadows  all 
the  Madonnas  of  Italian  art.  From  Niccola's  designs 
was  built  the  famous  basilica  of  St.  Anthony  in  Padua, 
the  church  of  the  Fcari  in  Venice  is  also  attributed  to 
him,  possibly  on  insufficient  grounds.  In  Florence  he 
designed  the  interior  of  Sta.  Trinity  which  Michelangelo 
loved  so  much  that  he  called  it  his  lady,  "la  mia 
Dama".  Having  been  ordered  by  the  Ghibcllines  to 
destroy  the  Baptistery  frequented  by  the  Guelphs, 
Niccola  undermined  the  tower  called  Guardo-morlo, 
causing  it  to  so  fall  that  it  did  not  touch  the  precious 


NICE 


48 


NICE 


edifice.  On  his  return  to  Pisa,  the  architect  erected 
the  campanile  for  (he  church  of  S.  Niccol6  which  con- 
tains the  remarkable  windinjj  stair  unsupported  at  its 
centre;  an  invention  repeated  hy  HranKUilc  for  tlie 
"Belvedere",  and  by  San  (iallo  in  the  renowned 
well  at  Orvieto.  In  1242  Niecola  superintended  the 
building  of  the  cathedral  of  Pistoja,  and  in  12t)3  the 
restoration  of  S.  Pietro  Maggiore.  He  remodelled  S. 
Doinenico  at  Arezzo,  the  Duomo  at  Volterra,  the 
Pieve  and  Sta.  Marpherita  at  Cortona.  Much  of  his 
work  at  Pisa  is  believed  to  have  perished  in  the  fire  of 
IGIO.  A  wonderful  creation  (1260)  is  the  hexagonal, 
insulated  pulpit  of  the  Baptistery.  It  is  supported  by 
seven  colunms,  three  of  them  resting  on  lions.  The 
panels  have  reliefs  from  the  New  Testament ;  the  [ledi- 
ments,  figures  of  virtues;  the  spandrels,  ))ni])hi'ts  and 
evangelists.  The  areliitertural  part  is  Italian  ( iolhie: 
the  sculptures  are  mainly  pure  re])roduetions  of  the 
antique.  .\  second 
pulpit  for  the  Duomo 
of  Siena  followed  in 
1206.  Niccola's  early 
sculpture  shows 
clumsiness,  if  we  are 
to  believe  that  the 
figures  outside  the 
MisericordiaVecchia 
in  Florence  are  his. 
In  later  life,  whether 
from  Rome  or  from 
his  own  Camposanto 
at  Pisa  (Roman  sar- 
cophagus used  for  t  he 
Countess  Beatrice  of 
Tuscany;  Greek  vase 
with  figures  he  repro  ■ 
duced)  he  learned  to 
create  with  the  free- 
dom, beauty, and 
power  of  ancient  art . 
Ruhmer  suggests 
aptly  that  he  may 
have  used  clay  for  his 


Pulpit  in  tuk  C 


the  5'outhful  St.  Pontius  about  200,  had  also  a  see,  held 
,in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  by  St.  Valerianus;  a 
rescript  of  St.  Leo  the  tireat,  issued  after  4.50  and  con- 
firmed by  St.  Hilarus  in  Ki.'i,  united  the  Sees  of  Nice 
and  Cimiez.  This  newly-formed  see  remained  a  suf- 
fragan of  Embrun  up  to  the  time  of  the  Revolution 
(.see  Gap,  Diocese  op).  Mgr  Duchesne  has  not  dis- 
covered sufficient  historical  proof  of  the  episcopate 
at  Nice  of  St.  Valerianus  (43:i-4:5),  of  St.  Deutherius 
(490-93),  martyred  by  the  Vandals,  of  St.  Sjagrius 
(d.  787),  Count  of  Brignoles  and  son-in-law  perhaps  of 
Charlemagne.  St.  An.sehn,  a  former  monk  of  I.erins, 
is  mentioned  as  Bishop  of  Nice  (1100-07).  Bishops 
of  Nice  bore  the  title  of  Counts  of  Drap  since  the  dona- 
tion of  property  situated  at  Drap,  made  in  1073  by 
Pierre,  Bishop  of  Vaison,  a  native  of  Nice,  to  Ray- 
mond I,  its  bishop,  and  to  his  successors.  Charle- 
magne, when  visiting  Cimiez  devastated  by  the  Lom- 

bards  in  574, caused 

St.  Syagrius  to  build 
on  its  ruins  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Pon- 
tius, the  largest  Al- 
pine abbey  of  the 
Middle  .\ges. 

II.  Diocese  of 
Grasse. — The  first 
known  Bishop  of 
Antihesis  Armentar- 
ius  who  attended  the 
Council  of  Vaison  in 
4-12;  Mgr  Duchesne 
admits  as  possible 
that  the  Remigius, 
who  signed  at  the 
Council  of  Nimes  in 
39()  and  in  417  re- 
ceived a  letter  from 
Pope  Zosimus,  may 
have  been  Bishop  of 
Antibes  before  Ar- 
inentarius.  About 
the    middle    of    the 


initial  model,  a  method  then  unpractised  in  Italy.  One  thirteenth  century  the  See  of  Antibes  was  transferred 
of  Niccola's  last  works  in  architecture  was  the  abbey  to  Grasse.  Bishops  of  Grasse  worthy  of  mention  are: 
and  church  of  La  Scorgola,  commemorating  Charles     Cardinal  Agostino   Trivulzio    (1537-164S);   the   poet 


Antoine  Godeau  (1636-53),  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated habitues  of  the  Hotel  de  Rambouillet,  where 
he  was  nicknamed  "Julia's  dwarf"  on  account  of  his 
small  stature. 

III.  Diocese  of  Vence. — The  first  known  Bishop 
of  Vence  is  iSeverus,  bishop  in  439  and  perhaps  as  early 
as  419.  Among  others  are:  St.  Veranus,  son  of  St. 
Eucherius,  Archbishop  of  Lyons  and  a  monk  of  L6rins, 
bishop  before  451  and  at  least  until  465;  St.  Lambert, 
first  a  Benedictine  monk  (d.  1154);  Cardinal  Alessan- 
dro  Farnese  (1.50.5-11).  Antoine  Godeau,  Bishop  of 
Grasse,  was  named  Bishop  of  Vence  in  1038;  the  Holy 
See  wished  to  unite  the  two  dioceses.  Meeting  with 
opposition  from  the  chapter  and  the  clergy  of  Vence 
Godeau  left  Grasse  in  1653,  to  remain  Bishop  of  Vence, 
which  see  he  held  until  1672. 

The  following  saints  are  specially  honoured  in  the 
Diocese  of  Nice:  The  youthful   martyr  St.  Celsus, 


of  Anjou's  victory  at  TagUacozzo,  now  in  ruins;  in 
sculpture,  the  statuettes  for  the  famous  Fonte  Mag- 
giore at  Perugia,  erected  after  his  design  (1277-80). 

CicOGNAHA,  Storia  ddla  scuUuTa  (Venice,  1813) ;  Perkins, 
Tuscan  sculptors  (London.  1864) ;  Lubke,  History  of  sculpture,  tr. 
Burnett  (London,  1862-72). 

M.  L.  Hand  LET. 

Nice,  Diocese  op  (Niciensis),  comprises  the  De- 
partment of  Alpes-Maritimes.  It  was  re-established 
by  the  Concordat  of  1801  as  suffragan  of  Aix.  The 
Countship  of  Nice  from  1818  to  1860  was  part  of  the 
Sardinian  States,  and  the  see  became  a  suffragan  of 
Genoa.  When  Nice  was  annexed  to  France  in  1860, 
certain  parts  which  remained  Italian  were  cut  ofT 
from  it  and  added  to  the  Diocese  of  Vintimille.  In 
1862  the  diocese  was  again  a  suffragan  of  Aix.  The 
arrondissement  of  (Jlrasse  was  separated  from  the 
Diocese  of  Fr^jus  in  1880,  and  given  to  Nice  which  now 

unites  the  three  former  Dioceses  of  Nice,  Grasse,  and     whom  certain  traditions  make  victim  of  Nero's  perse- 
Vence.  cution;  St.  Vincentius  and  St.  Orontius,  natives  of 

I.  Diocese  of  Nice. — Traditions  tell  us  that  Nice  Cimiez,  apostles  of  Aquitaine  and  of  Spain,  martyrs 
was  evangelized  h\  St.  Barnabas,  sent  by  St.  Paul,  or  under  Diocletian;  St.  Hospitius,  a  hermit  of  Cap  Fer- 
else  by  St.  Mary  ^Iagdalen,  St.  Martha,  and  St.  Laz-  rat  (d.  about  581);  Blessed  Antoine  Gallus  (1300-92), 
arus;  and  they  make  St.  Bassus,  a  martyr  under  De-  a  native  of  Nice,  one  of  St.  Catherine  of  Siena's 
cius,  the  fir.st  Bishop  of  Nice.  The  See  of  Nice  in  Gaul  confes.sors.  The  martyr  St.  Reparata  of  Csesarea  in 
existed  in  314,  since  the  bishop  sent  delegates  to  the  Palestine  is  the  patroness  of  the  diocese.  The  chief 
Council  of  Aries  in  that  year.  The  first  bishop  his-  pilgrimages  of  the  diocese  are:  Our  Lady  of  Laghet, 
torically  known  is  .\mantius  who  attended  the  Coun-  near  Monaco,  a  place  of  pilgrimage  since  the  end  of 
eil  of  Aquileia  in  381.  Cimiez,  near  Nice,  where  .still  the  seventeenth  century;  the  chapel  of  the  Sacred 
can  be  seen  the  remains  of  a  Roman  amphitheatre.  Heart  of  ,Jesus  at  Roquefort  near  Grasse;  Our  Lady 
and  which  was  made  illustrious  by  the  martyrdom  of     of  Valcluse;  Our  Lady  of  Brusq;  Our  Lady  of  Vie. 


NICENE 


49 


NICENE 


Prior  to  the  application  of  the  law  of  1901  against 
associations,  the  diocese  counted  Assumptionists, 
Capuchins,  Cistercians  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion, Jesuits,  Priests  of  the  Christian  Doctrine,  Fran- 
ciscans, Lazarists,  Discalced  Carmelites,  Oblates  of 
Mary  Immaculate,  Salesians  of  Dom  Bosco,  Camil- 
lians,  several  orders  of  teaching  Brothers.  The  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Martha,  devoted  to  teaching  and  nursing 
and  founded  in  1832,  have  their  mother-house  at 
Grasse.  At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century 
religious  congregations  of  the  diocese  conducted  4 


creches,  16  day  nurseries,  2  institutions  for  crippled 
children,  1  boys'  orphanage,  10  girls'  orphanages,  3 
sewing  rooms,  1 1  hospitals  or  asylums,  4  convalescent 
homes,  6  houses  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  own 
homes,  1  insane  asylum,  1  asylum  for  incurables. 
The  Diocese  of  Nice,  whither  every  year  the  warm  and 
balmy  climate  of  the, Cote  d'Azur  attracts  innumer- 
able foreigners,  counted  in  1909  about  260,000  inhabi- 
tants, 32  parishes  and  185  succursal  parishes. 

Gallia  Christiana  (nova.  1725),  III,  1160-87,  1212-33.  1267-96, 
and  InstTumenta,  189-200,  212-52;  Duchesne,  Faxtes  Episcopaux, 
I,  99,  279,  285-8;  Tisser.\nd,  Chronique  de  Provence:  hist.  civ.  et 
relis.  de  la  cite  de  Nice  el  du  departement  des  Alpes- Maritimes 
(2  vols  Nice  1S62) ;  Albin  DE  Cigal.4,  Nice  chrtt.,  guide  hist,  et 
artist,  des  pnroisscs  (Paris.  1900);  Cais  de  Piehlas  ant)  S.iiGE, 
Charlrier  de  fahbaye  de  Sainl-Pons  hors  les  murs  de  Nice  (Mon- 
aco 1903)  •  Cais  de  Pierlas,  Cartulaire  de  Vancienne  cathedrale 
de  'Nice  (Turin,  1888);  Chapon,  Statuts  sj/reodaiii  (Nice,  1906); 
TissERAND,  Hist,  de  Vence,  citi,  ivlche,  baronnie  (Paria,  1860). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Nicene  and  Niceno-Constantinopolitan  Creed. 

—The  origin  and  history  of  the  Nicene  Creed  are  set 
forth  in  the  articles:  Nic.ba,  Councils  of;  Arius; 
Arianism;  EnsEBitTS  of  C.t^sarea;  Filioque.  As 
approved  in  amphfied  form  at  the  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople (381)  q.  v.,  it  is  the  profession  of  the  Chris- 
tian Faith  common  to  the  CathoUc  Church,  to  all  the 
Eastern  Churches  separated  from  Rome,  and  to  most 
of  the  Protestant  denominations.  Soon  after  the 
Council  of  Nica-a  new  formulas  of  faith  were  com- 
posed, most  of  them  variations  of  the  Nicene  Symbol, 
to  meet  new  phases  of  Arianism.  There  were  at  least 
four  before  the  Council  of  Sardica  in  341,  and  in 
XI.^ 


that  council  a  new  form  was  presented  and  inserted 
in  the  Acts,  though  not  accepted  by  the  council.  The 
Nicene  Symbol,  however,  continued  to  be  the  only  one 
in  use  among  the  defenders  of  the  Faith.  Gradually 
it  came  to  be  recognized  as  the  proper  profession  of 
faith  for  candidates  for  baptism.  Its  alteration  into 
the  Nicene-Constantinopolitan  formula,  the  one  now 
in  use,  is  usually  ascribed  to  the  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople, since  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451),  which 
designated  this  symbol  as  "The  Creed  of  the  Council 
of  Constantinople  of  381"  had  it  twice  read  and  in- 
serted in  its  Acts.  The  historians  Socrates,  Sozomen, 
and  Theodoret  do  not  mention  this,  although  they  do 
record  that  the  bishops  who  remained  at  the  council 
after  the  departure  of  the  Macedonians  confirmed  the 
Nicene  faith.  Hefele  (II,  9)  admits  the  possibility  of 
our  present  creed  being  a  condensation  of  the  "Tome" 
(t4/xos),  i.  e.  the  exjjosition  of  the  doctrines  concerning 
the  Trinity  made  by  the  Council  of  Constantinople; 
but  he  prefers  the  opinion  of  R6mi  Ceillier  and  Tille- 
mont  tracing  the  new  formula  to  the  "Ancoratus" 
of  Epiphanius  written  in  374.  Hort,  Caspari,  Har- 
nack,  and  others  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  Con- 
stantinopolitan  form  did  not  originate  at  the  Council 
of  Constantinople,  because  it  is  not  in  the  Acts  of 
the  council  of  381,  but  was  inserted  there  at  a  later 
date;  because  Gregory  Nazianzen  who  was  at  the 
council  mentions  only  the  Nicene  formula  adverting 
to  its  incompleteness  about  the  Holy  Ghost,  showing 
that  he  did  not  know  of  the  Constantinopolitan  form 
wliich  sujjplies  this  deficiency;  and  because  the  Latin 
Fatliers  apixuently  know  nothing  of  it  before  the 
micldle  of  the  fifth  century. 

The  following  is  a  literal  translation  of  the  Greek 
text  of  the  Constantinopolitan  form,  the  brackets  in- 
dicating the  words  altered  or  added  in  the  Western 
liturgical  form  in  present  use: — 

"We  believe  (I  beheve)  in  one  God,  the  Father 
.Almighty,  maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  of  all 
things  v'isililc  and  invisible.  And  in  one  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  the  only  licRotten  Son  of  God,  and  born  of  the 
Father  before  ail  ages.  (God  of  God)  light  of  light, 
true  God  of  true  God.  Begotten  not  made,  consub- 
stantial  to  the  Father,  by  whom  all  things  were  made. 
Who  for  us  men  and  for  our  salvation  came  down  from 
heaven.  And  was  incarnate  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  was  made  man;  was  crucified 
also  for  us  under  Pontius  Pilate,  suffered  and  was 
buried;  and  the  third  day  he  rose  again  according  to 
the  Scriptures.  And  ascended  into  heaven,  sitteth 
at  the  right  hand  of  the  Father,  and  shall  come  again 
with  glory  to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead,  of  whose 
Kingdom  there  shall  be  no  end.  And  (I  believe)  in 
the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Lord  and  Giver  of  life,  who  pro- 
ceedeth  from  the  Father  (and  the  Son),  who  together 
witii  the  Father  and  the  Son  is  to  be  adored  and  glori- 
fied, who  spake  by  the  Prophets.  And  one  holy, 
catholic  and  apostolic  Church.  We  confess  (I  con- 
fess) one  baptism  for  the  remission  of  sins.  And  we 
look  for  (I  look  for)  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  and 
the  Ufe  of  the  world  to  come.     Amen". 

In  this  form  the  Nicene  article  concerning  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  enlarged;  several  words,  notably  the  two 
clauses  "of  the  substance  of  the  Father"  and  "God 
of  God",  are  omitted  as  also  are  the  anathemas; 
ten  clauses  are  added;  and  in  five  places  the  words  are 
tUfferently  located.  In  general  the  two  forms  contain 
what  is  common  to  all  tlic  l)ai)lisTii;il  formulas  in  the 
early  Church.  Vos.sius  (l.')77-l(il'.n  w:i.-<  tlic  hrst  to 
detect  the  similarity  betw<'cn  tlic  crci'd  sit  forth  in  the 
"Ancoratus"  and  the  b:ipti.sMial  formula  nl  llicClmrch 
of  .Jerusalem.  Hort  (1S7ti)  lield  tlial  ilir  svml.ol  is  a 
revision  of  the  Jerusalem  forniula,  in  wliirli  (hr  most 
important  Nicene  statements  coiicrniiiig  the  Holy 
Ghost  have  been  inserted.  The  aiitlior  of  the  revision 
may  have  been  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (315-386,  q.  v.). 
Various  hypotheses  are  offered  to  account  for  the 


NICEPHORUS 


50 


NICEPHORUS 


tradition  that  the  Niceno-Coiistantiiiopolitan  symbol 
origiiiatod  with  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  but 
none  of  them  is  satisfactory.  Wliatcver  be  its  origin, 
the  fact  is  tliat  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (4.')1)  attrib- 
uted it  to  tlie  Council  of  Constantinople,  and  if  it  was 
not  actually  composed  in  that  council,  it  was  adopted 
and  authorized  by  the  Fathers  assembled  as  a  true  ex- 
pression of  the  Faith.  The  history  of  the  creed  is 
comiiletcd  in  the  article  Filioque. 

De.nzinger.  Eitchiridion  Sj/mWorum  (10th  ed..  Freiburg, 
190S).  for  texts  of  creeds  in  Greek  and  Latin;  Hefele.  Concilien- 
eeschichle,  land  II,  Fr.  tr.  Leclerq,  II,  pt.  I.  11-1.3  (trans- 
lator's note) ;  Harnack  in  Realencyclop&die  Jut  protest.  Thcologie 
(Leipzig.  1907),  s.  v.  Konstantinopolitaniaches  Symbol;  KGllner, 
Symbolik  aller  Confessionen  (1837),  28-52;  LnMBY,  Hist,  of  Creeds 
(2nd  ed.,  London.  1880);  Casp.\ri,  Quellen  zur  Gesch.  d.  Taufsym- 
bols,  I-IV  (Christiania.  1866  sq.);  Swainson,  The  Niccne  and 
Apostles'  Creeds,  etc.  (London,  1S75);  Hort,  Two  Dissertations, 
II:  on  the  Constantinopolitan  Creed  and  the  other  Eastern  Creeds  of 
the  fourth  century  (Cambridge,  1876) ;  KtJNZE,  Das  n.  k.  Symbol 
in  Sludien  zur  Gesch.  der  Theol.  u.  Kirche  (Leipzig,  1898) ;  Idem, 
Martin  Eremita,  ein  neuer  Zeuge  fiir  das  altkirchl.  Taufbekennt- 
niss  (Leipzig,  1895).  J.  WiLHELM. 

Nicephorus,  Saint,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
80G-SI.5,  b.  about  7.58;  d.  2  Jime,  829.  This  champion 
of  the  orthodox  view  in  the  second  contest  over  the 
veneration  of  images  belonged  to  a  noted  family  of 
Constantinople.  He  was  the  son  of  the  imperial  secre- 
tary Theodore  and  his  pious  wife  Eudoxia.  Eudoxia 
was  a  strict  adherent  of  tlie  Church  and  Theodore  had 
been  banished  by  the  Emperor  Constantine  Coprony- 
mus  (741-75)  on  account  of  his  steadfast  support  of 
the  teaching  of  the  Church  concerning  images.  While 
still  young  Nicephorus  was  brought  to  the  court, 
where  he  became  an  imperial  secretary.  With  two 
other  officials  of  high  rank  he  represented  the  Empress 
Irene  in  787  at  the  Second  Council  of  Niciea  (the 
Seventh  CEcumenical  Council),  which  declared  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church  respecting  images.  Shortly 
after  this  Nicephorus  sought  solitude  on  the  Thracian 
Bosporus,  where  he  had  founded  a  monastery.  Here 
he  devoted  himself  to  ascetic  practices  and  to  the 
study  both  of  secular  learning,  as  grammar,  mathemat- 
ics, and  philosophy,  and  the  Scriptures.  Later  he  was 
recalled  to  the  capital  and  given  charge  of  the  great 
hospital.  Upon  the  death  of  Patriarch  Tarasius  (25 
February,  806),  there  was  great  division  among  the 
clergy  and  higher  court  officials  as  to  the  choice  of  his 
successor.  Finally,  with  the  assent  of  the  bishops 
Emperor  Nicephorus  (802-11)  appointed  Nicephorus 
as  patriarch.  Although  still  a  layman,  he  was  known 
by  all  to  be  very  religious  and  highly  educated.  He 
received  Holy  Orders  and  was  consecrated  bishop  on 
Easter  Sunday,  12  April,  806.  The  direct  elevation  of 
a  layman  to  the  patriarchate,  as  had  already  happened 
in  the  case  of  Tarasius,  aroused  opposition  in  the  ec- 
clesiastical party  among  the  clergy  and  monks.  The 
leaders  were  the  abbots,  Plato  of  Saccadium  and  Theo- 
dore of  Studium,  and  Theodore's  brother.  Archbishop 
Joseph  of  Thessalonica.  For  this  opposition  the  Ab- 
bot Plato  was  imprisoned  for  twenty-four  days  at  the 
command  of  the  emperor. 

Nicephorus  soon  gave  further  cause  for  antagonism. 
In  795  a  priest  named  Joseph  had  celebrated  the  un- 
lawful marriage  of  Emperor  Constantine  VI  (780-97) 
with  Theodota,  during  the  lifetime  of  Maria,  the  right- 
ful wife  of  the  emperor,  whom  he  had  set  aside.  For 
this  act  Joseph  had  been  deposed  and  banished.  Em- 
peror Nicephorus  considered  it  important  to  have  this 
matter  settled  and,  at  his  wish  the  new  patriarch, 
with  the  concurrence  of  a  sjTiod  composed  of  a  small 
number  of  bishops,  pardoned  Joseph  and,  in  806,  re- 
stored him  to  his  office.  The  patriarch  yielded  to  the 
wishes  of  the  emperor  in  order  to  avert  more  serious 
ev\\.  His  action  was  regarded  by  the  strict  church 
party  as  a  violation  of  ecclesiastical  law  and  a  scandal. 
Before  the  matter  was  settled  Theodore  had  written 
to  the  patriarch  entreating  him  not  to  reinstate  the 
guilty  priest,  but  had  received  no  answer.    Although 


the  matter  was  not  openly  discussed,  he  antl  his  fol- 
~  lowers  now  held  virtually  no  church  communion  with 
Nicephorus  and  the  priest,  Joscjjh.  But,  through  a 
letter  written  by  Archbishop  .losi'ph,  the  <'()urse  which 
he  and  the  strict  church  p:uly  followed  l)ci-;iiMe  pubHc 
in  SOS.  ;ind  c:iused  a  sensation.  Theodore  set  forth,  by 
speech  and  writing,  the  reasons  for  the  action  of  the 
strict  parly  ;uid  firmly  maintained  his  position.  De- 
fending himself  against  the  accus:ition  that  he  and  his 
companions  were  schismatic,  he  declared  that  he  had 
kept  silent  as  long  as  possil)le,  had  censured  no  bi.sh- 
ops,  and  had  always  included  the  name  of  the  patri- 
arch in  the  liturgy.  He  asserted  his  love  and  his 
attachment  to  the  patriarch,  and  said  he  would  with- 
draw all  opposition  if  the  patriarch  would  acknowl- 
edge the  violation  of  law  by  removing  the  priest 
Joseph.  Emperor  Nicephorus  now  took  violent  meas- 
ures. He  commanded  the  patriarch  to  call  a  sj'nod, 
which  was  held  in  809,  and  had  Plato  and  several 
monks  forcibly  brought  before  it.  The  opponents  of 
the  patriarch  were  condemned,  the  Archbishop  of 
Thessalonica  was  deposed,  the  Abbots  Plato  and  The- 
odore with  their  monks  were  banished  to  neighbouring 
islands  and  cast  into  various  prisons. 

This,  however,  did  not  discourage  the  resolute  op- 
ponents of  the  "Adulterine  Heresy".  In  809  Theo- 
dore and  Plato  sent  a  joint  memorial,  through  the 
Archimandrite  K])ii)hanius,  to  Pope  Leo  III,  and  later. 
Theodore  laid  the  matter  once  more  before  the  pope 
in  a  letter,  in  which  lie  besought  the  successor  of  St. 
Peter  to  grant  a  hel]iing  hand  to  the  East,  so  that  it 
might  not  be  overwhelmed  by  the  waves  of  the  "Adul- 
terine Heresy".  Pope  Leo  sent  an  encouraging  and 
consolatory  reply  to  the  resolute  confessors,  upon 
which  they  wrote  another  letter  to  him  through 
Epiphanius.  Leo  had  received  no  communication 
from  Patriarch  Nicephorus  and  was,  therefore,  not 
thoroughly  informed  in  the  matter;  he  also  desired  to 
spare  the  eastern  emperor  as  much  as  possible.  Con- 
sequently, for  a  time,  he  took  no  further  steps  in  the 
matter.  Emperor  Nicephorus  continued  to  persecute 
all  adherents  of  Theodore  of  Studium,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, oppressed  those  of  whom  he  had  grown  suspi- 
cious, whether  clergy  or  dignitaries  of  the  empire. 
Moreover,  he  favoured  the  heretical  Paulicians  and 
the  Iconoclasts  and  drained  the  people  by  oppressive 
ta.xes,  so  that  he  was  universally  hated.  In  July,  811, 
the  emperor  was  killed  in  a  battle  with  the  Bulgarians. 
His  son  Stauracius,  who  had  been  wounded  in  the 
same  fight,  was  proclaimed  emperor,  but  was  deposed 
by  the  chief  men  of  the  empire  because  he  followed 
the  bad  example  of  his  father.  On  2  October,  811, 
with  the  assent  of  the  patriarch,  Michael  Rhangabe, 
brother-in-law  of  Stauracius,  was  raised  to  the  throne. 
The  new  emperor  promised,  in  writing,  to  defend  the 
faith  and  to  protect  both  clergy  and  monks,  and  was 
crowned  with  much  solemnity  by  the  Patriarch  Nice- 
phorus. Michael  succeeded  in  reconciling  the  patri- 
arch and  Theodore  of  Studium.  The  patriarch  again 
deposed  the  priest  Joseph  and  withdrew  his  decrees 
against  Theodore  and  his  partisans.  On  the  other  side 
Theodore,  Plato,  and  the  majority  of  their  adherents 
recognized  the  patriarch  as  the  lawful  head  of  the 
Byzantine  Church,  and  sought  to  bring  the  refractory 
back  to  his  obedience.  The  emperor  had  also  recourse 
to  the  papacy  in  reference  to  these  quarrels  and  had 
received  a  letter  of  approval  from  Leo.  Moreover,  the 
patriarch  now  sent  the  customary  written  notification 
of  his  induction  into  office  (Synodica)  to  the  pope.  In 
it  he  sought  to  excuse  the  long  delay  by  the  tyranny  of 
the  preceding  emperor,  interwove  a  rambling  confes- 
sion of  faith,  and  promised  to  notify  Rome  at  the 
proper  time  in  regard  to  all  important  questions. 

Emperor  Michael  was  an  honourable  man  of  good 
intentions,  but  weak  and  dependent.  On  the  advice  of 
Nicephorus  he  put  the  heretical  and  seditious  Pauli- 
cians to  death  and  tried  to  suppress  the  Iconoclasts. 


NICEPHORUS 


51 


NICERON 


The  patriarch  endeavoured  to  establish  monastic  dis- 
cipline among  the  monks,  and  to  suppress  double  mon- 
asteries which  had  been  forbidden  by  the  Seventh 
(Ecumenical  Council.  After  his  complete  defeat,  22 
June,  813,  in  the  war  against  the  Bulgarians,  the  em- 
peror lost  all  authority.  With  the  assent  of  the  patri- 
arch, he  resigned  and  entered  a  monastery  with  his 
children.  The  popular  general,  Leo  the  Armenian, 
now  became  emperor,  11  July,  813.  When  Nice- 
phorus  demanded  the  confe.ssion  of  faith,  before  the 
coronation,  Leo  put  it  off.  Notwithstanding  this, 
Nicephorus  crowned  him,  and  later,  Leo  again  refused 
to  make  this  confession.  As  soon  as  the  new  emperor 
had  assured  the  peace  of  the  empire  by  the  overthrow 
of  the  Bulgarians  his  true  opinions  began  gradually  to 
appear.  He  entered  into  connexion  with  the  oppo- 
nents of  images,  among  whom  were  a  number  of 
bishops;  it  steadily  grew  more  evident  that  he  was  pre- 
paring a  new  attack  upon  the  veneration  of  images. 
With  fearless  energy  the  Patriarch  Nicephorus  now  pro- 
ceeded again.st  the  machinations  of  the  Iconoclasts. 
He  brought  to  trial  before  a  synod  several  ecclesias- 
tics opposed  to  images  and  forced  an  abbot  named 
John  and  also  Bishop  Anthony  of  Syla'um  to  submit. 
Bishop  Anthony's  acquiescence  was  merely  feigned. 

In  December,  814,  Nicephorus  had  a  long  confer- 
ence with  the  emperor  on  the  veneration  of  images  but 
no  agreement  was  reached.  Later  the  patriarch  sent 
several  learned  bishops  and  abbots  to  convince  him  of 
the  truth  of  the  position  of  the  Church  on  the  venera- 
tion of  images.  The  emperor  wished  to  have  a  de- 
bate between  representatives  of  the  opposite  dogmatic 
opinions,  but  the  adherents  of  the  veneration  of  im- 
ages refused  to  take  part  in  such  a  conference,  as  the 
Seventh  fficumenical  Council  had  settled  the  question. 
Then  Nicephorus  called  together  an  assembly  of 
bishops  and  abbots  at  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia  at 
which  he  excommunicated  the  perjured  Bishop  An- 
thony of  Syteum.  A  large  number  of  the  laity  were 
also  present  on  this  occasion  and  the  [xitriarch  with 
the  clergy  and  people  remained  in  the  church  the  en- 
tire night  in  prayer.  The  emperor  then  summoned 
Nicephorus  to  him,  and  the  patriarch  went  to  the  im- 
perial palace  accompanied  by  the  abbots  and  monks. 
Nicephorus  first  had  a  long,  private  conversation  with 
the  emperor,  in  which  he  vainly  endeavoured  to  dis- 
suade Leo  from  his  opposition  to  the  veneration  of 
images.  The  emperor  received  those  who  had  accom- 
panied Nicephorus,  among  them  seven  metropolitans 
and  Abbot  Theodore  of  Studium.  They  all  repudi- 
ated the  interference  of  the  emperor  in  dogmatic  ques- 
tions and  once  more  rejected  Leo's  proposal  to  hold  a 
conference.  The  emperor  then  commanded  the  ab- 
bots to  maintain  silence  upon  the  matter  and  forbade 
them  to  hold  meetings.  Theodore  declared  that  si- 
lence under  these  conditions  would  be  treason  and 
expressed  sympathy  with  the  patriarch  whom  the  em- 
peror forbade  to  hold  public  service  in  the  church. 
Nicephorus  fell  ill;  when  he  recovered  the  emperor 
called  upon  him  to  defend  his  course  before  a  synod  of 
bishops  friendly  to  iconoclasm.  But  the  patriarch 
would  not  recognize  the  synod  and  paid  no  attention 
to  the  summons.  The  pseudo-synod  now  commanded 
that  he  should  no  longer  be  called  patriarch.  His 
house  was  surrounded  by  crowds  of  angry  Icono- 
clasts who  shouted  threats  and  invectives.  He  was 
guarded  by  soldiers  and  not  allowed  to  perform  any 
official  act.  With  a  protest  against  this  mode  of  pro- 
cedure the  patriarch  notified  Leo  that  he  found  it 
necessary  to  resign  the  patriarchal  see.  Upon  this  he 
was  arrested  at  midnight  in  March,  815,  and  banished 
to  the  monastery  of  St.  Theodore,  which  he  had  built 
on  the  Bosporus. 

Leo  now  raised  to  the  patriarchate  Theodotus,  a 
married,  illiterate  layman  who  favoured  iconoclasm. 
Theodotus  was  consecrated  1  April,  815.  The  exiled 
Nicephorus  persevered  in  his  opposition  and  wrote 


several  treatises  against  iconoclasm.  After  the  mur- 
der of  the  Emperor  Leo,  25  December,  820,  Michael 
the  Amorian  ascended  the  throne  and  the  defenders  of 
the  veneration  of  images  were  now  more  considerately 
treated.  However,  Michael  would  not  consent  to  an 
actual  restoration  of  images  such  as  Nicephorus  de- 
manded from  him,  for  he  declared  that  he  did  not  wish 
to  interfere  in  religious  matters  and  would  leave  every- 
thing as  he  had  found  it.  Accordingly  Emperor  Leo's 
hostile  measures  were  not  repealed,  although  the  per- 
secution ceased.  Nicephorus  received  permission  to 
return  from  exile  if  he  would  promise  to  remain  silent. 
He  would  not  agree,  however,  and  remained  in  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Theodore,  where  he  continued  by  speech 
and  writing  to  defend  the  veneration  of  images.  The 
dogmatic  treatises,  chiefly  on  this  subject,  that  he 
wrote  are  as  follows:  a  lesser  "Apology  for  the  Catho- 
Hc  Church  concerning  the  newly  arisen  Schism  in  re- 
gard to  Sacred  Images"  (Migne,  P.  G.,  C,  833-849), 
written  813-14;  a  larger  treatise  in  two  parts;  the  first 
part  is  an  "Apology  for  the  pure,  unadulterated  Faith 
of  Christians  against  those  who  accuse  us  of  idolatry" 
(Migne,  loc.  eit.,  535-834);  the  second  part  contains 
the  "Antirrhetici",  a  refutation  of  a  writing  by  the 
Emperor  Constantine  Copronymus  on  images  (loc. 
cit.,  205-534).  Nicephorus  added  to  this  second  part 
seventy-five  extracts  from  the  writings  of  the  Fathers 
[edited  by  Pitra,  "Spicilegium  Solesxnense",  I  (Paris, 
1852),  227-370];  in  two  further  writings,  which  also 
apparently  belong  together,  passages  from  earlier 
writers,  that  had  been  used  by  the  enemies  of  images 
to  maintain  their  opinions,  are  examined  and  ex- 
plained. Both  these  treatises  were  edited  by  Pitra; 
the  first  'EirtKpicns  in  "Spicilegium  Solesmense",  I, 
302-335;  the  .second  ' AvTipp-qjis  in  the  same,  I,  371- 
503,  and  IV,  292-380.  The  two  treatises  discuss  pas- 
sages from  Macarius  Magnes,  Eusebius  of  Caisarea, 
and  from  a  writing  wrongly  ascribed  to  Epiphanius  of 
Cyprus.  Another  work  justifying  the  veneration  of 
images  was  edited  by  Pitra  under  the  title  "  Antirrhe- 
ticus  adversus  iconomachos"  (Spicil.  Solesm.,  IV, 
233-91).  A  final  and,  as  it  appears,  especially  impor- 
tant treatise  on  this  question  has  not  yet  been  pub- 
lished. Nicephorus  also  left  two  small  historical 
works,  one  known  as  the  "Breviarium",  the  other  the 
"Chronographis",  both  are  edited  by  C.  de  Boor, 
"Nicephori  archiep.  Const,  opuscula  historica"  in  the 
"Bibliotheca  Teubneriana"  (Leipzig,  1880).  At  the 
end  of  his  life  he  was  revered  and  after  death  regarded 
as  a  saint.  In  874  his  bones  were  translated  to  Con- 
stantinople with  much  pomp  by  the  Patriarch  Metho- 
dius and  interred,  13  March,  in  the  Church  of  the 
Apostles.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on  this  day  both  in 
the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches;  the  Greeks  also  ob- 
serve 2  June  as  the  day  of  his  death. 

Vita  Nicephori  auciore  Ignatio  diacono  in  Acta  SS.,  March,  II, 
294  sqq.  (Latin),  704  sqq.  (Greek),  and  in  Mione,  P.  C,  C,  37 
sqq.;  Bibliotheca  hayiographica  gra^ca,  ed.  Boi.landists  (2nd  ed.), 
186;  Hergenrotheh,  Pholius.  I  (Ratisbon,  1867),  261  sqq.; 
Idem,  Kirchenge.sc.hic.hte  (4th  ed.  Kiksch).  II,  31  sqq.;  Krum- 
BACHER,  Gesch.  der  byzantinischen  Litt.  (2nd  ed.  Ehrhard),  71 
sqq.,  349  sqq.  ^    „    .,, 

J.  P.   KiRSCH. 

Nicephorus  Blemmydes.  See  Blemmida,  Nice- 
phorus. 

Nicephorus  Gregoras.    See  Hesychasm. 

Niceron,  Jean-Pierre,  French  lexicographer,  b.  in 
Paris,  1 1  March,  1685,  d.  there,  S  July,  1738.  After  his 
studies  at  the  College  Mazariu,  he  joined  the  Barna- 
bites  (Augu.st,  1702).  lie  tauglit  rhetoric  in  the  col- 
lege of  Loches,  and  soon  after  ;it  Mont  argis,  where  he 
remained  ten  years.  While  engaged  in  tc;iching,  he 
made  a  thorough  study  of  inodi'rn  languages.  In 
1716  he  went  to  Paris  arid  devoted  liis  time  to  literary 
work.  His  aim  was  to  put  togcthiT.  in  a  logiciillv  ar- 
ranged compendium,  a. series  of  biographical  and  bibli- 
ographical articles  on  the  men  who  had  ilistinguished 
themselves  in  literature  and  sciences  since  the  time  of 


NICETAS 


52 


NICETAS 


the  Renaissance.  It  required  long  research  as  well  as 
great  industry.  After  eleven  years  he  published  the 
first  volume  of  his  monumental  work  under  the  title 
of  "AK'moires  pour  servir  ;\  I'liistoirc  des  hommes 
illustrc.<  de  la  republi(iue  dcs  lettres  awe.  le  cata- 
logue raisonne  de  Icurs  ouvrages"  (Paris,  1727). 
Thirty-eiglili  volunu-s  followed  from  1728  to  1738. 
The  last  volume  from  his  pen  w;v«  published  two  years 
after  the  author's  dcatli  (Paris,  1740).  Father  Oudin, 
J.-B.  Michauld,  and  Abbi';  Goujet  later  contributed 
three  volumes  1o  the  collection.  A  German  transla- 
tion of  it  was  publislied  in  1747-1777.  It  has  been 
often  repeated  that  this  work  lacks  method,  and  that 
the  length  of  many  articles  is  out  of  proportion  to  the 
value  of  the  men  to  whom  they  are  devoted.  This 
criticism,  however  true  it  may  be,  does  not  impair  the 
genuine  qualities  and  importance  of  the  whole  work. 
Even  now,  these  "M^moires"  contain  a  great  amount 
of  information  that  could  hardly  be  obtained  else- 
where. Moreover,  thej'  refer  to  sources  which,  but 
for  our  author,  would  be  easily  overlooked  or  ignored. 
Besides  this  original  composition,  he  translated  various 
books  from  English,  among  which  should  be  men- 
tioned: "Lc  voyage  de  Jean  Ovington  a  Surate  et  en 
divers  autres  licux  de  I'Asie  et  de  I'Afrique,  avec  I'his- 
toire  de  la  revolution  arrivee  dans  le  royaume  de  Gol- 
'conde"  (Paris,  172.5);  "La  Conversion  de  I'Angle- 
terre  au  Christianisme  compar^e  avec  sa  pretendue 
reformation"  (Paris,  1729). 

D'Artignt,  Mimoires  d'histoire  el  de  litUrature,  I  (Paris.  1749); 
Gon.iET,  Eloae  de  J.  P.  Nicermi  in  vol.  XL  of  Memoires  (Paris,  1840) ; 
Chacffepi^,  Diet,  historique  el  critique  (Amsterdam,  1850-56). 

Louis  N.  Delamarre. 

Nicetas  (Niceta),  Bishop  of  Remesiana  (Roma- 
tiana)  in  what  is  now  Servia,  b.  about  3.35;  d.  about 
414.  Recent  investigations  have  resulted  in  a  more 
definite  knowledge  of  the  person  of  this  ecclesiastical 
writer.  Gennadius  of  Marseilles,  in  his  catalogue  of 
writers  ("De  viris  illustribus",  xxii)  mentions  a 
"Niceas  Romatians  civitatis  episcopus"  to  whom 
he  ascribes  two  works:  one,  in  six  books,  for  cate- 
chumens, and  a  httle  book  on  a  virgin  who  had  fallen. 
Outside  of  this  reference  no  wTiter  and  bishop  of  the 
name  of  Niceas  is  known.  This  Niceas,  therefore, 
is,  without  doubt,  the  same  as  Nicetas,  "  Bishop  of  the 
Dacians",  the  contemporary  and  friend  of  St.  Pau- 
linus  of  Nola.  The  identity  is  shown  by  a  comparison 
of  Gennadius  (loc.  cit.)  with  Paulinus  in  his  "Car- 
mina"  (xvii,  xxvii),  and,  further,  by  the  agreement 
in  time.  In  Dacia,  where,  according  to  Paulinus,  his 
friend  Nicetas  was  bishop,  there  was  a  city  called 
Romatiana  (now  Bela  Palanka)  on  the  great  Roman 
military  road  from  Belgrade  to  Constantinople,  and 
this  was  the  see  of  Nicetas.  He  is  mentioned  a  num- 
ber of  times  in  the  letters  and  poems  of  St.  Paulinus 
of  Nola,  especially  in  Carmen  .xxvii  (ed.  Hartel  in 
"Corp.  Script,  eccl.  lat.",  XXX,  262  sqq.),  and  in 
Carmen  xvii  "Ad  Nicetam  redeuntem  in  Daciam  "  (op. 
cit.,  81  sqq.),  written  on  the  occasion  of  Nicetas's 
pilgrimage  to  Nola,  in  398,  to  visit  the  grave  of  St. 
Felix.  In  this  latter  poem  Paulinus  describes  how  his 
friend,  journeying  home,  is  greeted  everywhere  with 
joy,  because  in  his  apostolic  labours  in  the  cold  regions 
of  the  North,  he  has  melted  the  icy  hearts  of  men  by 
the  warmth  of  the  Divine  doctrine.  He  has  laid  the 
yoke  of  Christ  upon  races  who  ne\er  bowed  the  neck 
in  battle.  Like  the  Goths  and  Dacians,  the  Scythians 
are  tamed;  he  teaches  them  to  glorify  Christ  and  to 
lead  a  pure,  peaceable  life.  Pauhnus  wishes  his  de- 
parting friend  a  safe  journey  by  land  and  by  water. 
St.  .lerome,  too,  speaks  of  the  apostolic  labours  of 
Nicetas  and  says  of  him  that  he  spread  Christian 
civilization  among  the  barbarians  by  his  sweet  songs 
of  the  Cross  (Ep.  Ix,  P.  L.,  XXII,  .592). 

This  is  all  that  is  known  concerning  the  life  of 
Nicetas.  Particulars  concerning  his  literary  activity 
are  also  given  by  Gennadius  and  Pauhnus.     The 


tradition  concerning  his  writings  afterwards  became 
confused:  his  works  were  erroneously  ascribed  to 
Bishoj)  Nicetas  of  Aquileia  (second  half  of  the  fifth 
centurj)  and  to  Nicetius  of  Trier.  It  was  not  until 
the  researches  of  Dom  Morin,  Burn,  and  others  that 
a  larger  knowledge  was  attained  concerning  the  works 
of  Nicetas.  Gennadius  (loc.  cit.)  mentions  six  books 
written  by  liini  in  simple  and  clear  style  (xiiiiplici  et 
nilido  sermone),  containing  instructions  for  candidates 
for  baptism  {com  jtelcides) .  The  first  book  dealt  with 
the  conduct  of  the  candidates;  the  second  treated 
of  erniiicdus  ideas  of  heathens;  the  third,  of  belief  in 
one  Divine  Majesty;  the  fourtli,  of  su|)erstitious  cus- 
toms at  the  birth  of  a  child  (.calculating  nativities);  the 
fifth,  of  confession  of  faith;  the  sixth,  of  the  sacrifice  of 
the  paschal  lamb.  The  work  has  not  been  preserved 
in  its  entirety,  yet  the  greater  part  is  still  extant. 
Four  fragments  are  known  of  the  first  book,  one  frag- 
ment of  the  second,  the  third  probably  consists  of  the 
two  treatises,  usually  separated,  but  which  undoubt- 
edly belong  together,  namely,  "De  ratione  fidei" 
and  "De  Spiritus  sancti  potentia"  (P.  L.,  LII,  847, 
853).  Nothing  is  known  of  the  fourth  book.  The 
fifth,  however,  is  most  probably  identical  with  the 
"E.xplanatio  symboli  habita  ad  competentes"  (P.  L., 
LII,  865-74);  in  the  manuscripts  it  is  sometimes 
ascribed  to  Origen,  sometimes  to  Nicetas  of  Aquileia, 
but  there  are  very  strong  reasons  for  assigning  it  to 
the  Bishop  of  Remesiana.  Nothing  is  known  of  the 
sixth  book.  Gennadius  mentions  another  treatise 
addressed  to  a  fallen  virgin,  "Ad  lapsam  virginem 
libellus",  remarking  that  it  would  stimulate  to  refor- 
mation any  who  had  fallen.  This  treatise  used  to  be 
wrongly  identified  with  the  "  De  lapsu  virginis  conse- 
crata;"  (P.  L.,  XVI,  367-84),  traditionally  assigned 
to  St.  Ambrose.  Dom  Morin  has  edited  a  treatise, 
unknown  until  he  published  it,  "Epistola  ad  virginem 
lapsam"  [Revue  Benedictine,  XIV  (1897),  193-202], 
which  with  far  more  reason  may  be  regarded  as  the 
work  of  Nicetas. 

Paulinus  of  Nola  praises  his  friend  as  a  hymn-writer ; 
from  this  it  is  evident  that  Gennadius  has  not  given  a 
complete  list  of  the  writings  of  Nicetas.  It  is,  there- 
fore, not  impossible  that  further  works,  incorrectly 
ascribed  by  tradition  to  others,  are  really  his.  Morin 
has  given  excellent  reasons  to  prove  that  the  two 
treatises,  "De  vigiliis  servorum  Dei"  and  "De 
psalmodi*  bono",  which  were  held  to  be  writings  of 
Nicetius  of  Trier  (P.  L.,  LXVIII,  36.5-76),  are  in 
reality  the  work  of  Nicetas  ["Revue  Biblique  Inter- 
nat.",  VI  (1897),  282-88;  "Revue  Benedictine", 
XIV  (1897),  385-97,  where  Morin  gives  for  the  first 
time  the  complete  text  of  "De  p.salmodia;  bono"]. 
Particularly  interesting  is  the  fresh  proof  produced — 
again  by  Morin — to  show  that  Nicetas,  and  not  St. 
Ambrose,  is  the  author  of  the  "Te  Deum"  [Revue 
Benedictine,  XI  (1894),  49-77,  .377-345].  Paulinus, 
like  Jerome,  speaks  of  him  particularly  as  a  hymn- 
writer.  (See  Te  Deum.)  According  to  the  testi- 
mony of  Cassiodorus  (De  instit.  divinarum  litterarum, 
xvi)  the  "Liber  de  Fide"  of  Nicetas  was,  in  his  time, 
included  in  the  treatise  "De  Fide"  written  by  St. 
Ambrose,  which  shows  that  at  an  early  date  some 
were  found  to  credit  the  great  Bishop  of  Milan  with 
works  due  to  the  Dacian  bishop.  The  first  complete 
edition  of  the  works  of  Nicetas  is  that  of  Burn  (see 
bibliography  below). 

Burn.  Nicrtn  nf  Remesiana,  His  Life  and  Works  (Cambridge, 
1905);  Weym  \  :.  /'/.  F^'ifn^  prittceps  des  Niceta  von  Remesiana  in 
Archivfilrhil'  '■!  -/rapAic,  XIV  (1905),  478-507;   HOm- 

PEL,  Nicein     /  /.■•mesiana  (Erlangen,  1895);  Czapla, 

Cennarlim  iil  /  ,.  ..,.w  .  ,;..r  (Munster.  1898),  56-61;  Tchneh, 
Niceta  and  Anil>ni.\in.-<h'!  m  ,/ournal  of  Theological  Studies,  VII 
(1906),  203-19,  355-72;  Patin,  Niceta  Bischof  von  Remesiana  a(.! 
Schriflsteller  und  The.olog.  (Munich,  1909) ;  Bardenhewer,  Patrol- 
ogi/,  tr.  Rhahan  (St.  Louis,  1907) ;  Kihn,  Patrologie,  II  {Pader- 
born,  190S),  VM-Xn. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

■    Nicetas  Akominatos.     See  Akominatos. 


NICETIUS 


53 


NICHE 


Nicetius,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Trier,  b.  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  fifth  century,  exact  date  unknown;  d.  in 
563  or  more  probably  566.  Saint  Nicetius  was  the 
most  important  bishop  of  the  ancient  See  of  Trier,  in 
the  era  when,  after  the  disorders  of  the  Migrations, 
Prankish  supremacy  began  in  what  had  been  Roman 
Gaul.  Considerable  detail  of  the  life  of  this  vigorous 
and  zealous  bishop  is  known  from  various  sources, 
from  letters  written  either  by  or  to  him,  from  two 
poems  of  Venantius  Fortunatus  (Poem.,  Lib.  Ill,  ix, 
X.  ed.  Leo,  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Auct.  antiq.,  IV 
(1881),  Pt.  I,  63-64  sq.)  and  above  all  from  the  state- 
ments of  his  pupil  Aredius,  later  Abbot  of  Limoges, 
wliich  have  been  preserved  by  Gregory  of  Tours  (De 
vitis  Patrum,  xvii;  De  Gloria  Coufessorum,  xciii-xciv). 
Nicetius  came  from  a  Gallo-Roman  family;  his  home 
was  apparently  in  Auvergne.  The  Nicetius  mentioned 
by  Sidonius  ApoUinaris  (Epist.  VIII,  vi)  may  have 
been  a  relative.  From  his  youth  he  devoted  himself 
to  religious  life  and  entered  a  monastery,  where  he  de- 
veloped so  rapidly  in  the  exercise  of  Christian  virtue 
and  in  sacred  learning  that  he  was  made  abbot.  It 
was  while  abbot  that  King  Theodoric  I  (511-34) 
learned  to  know  and  esteem  him,  Nicetius  often  re- 
monstrating with  him  on  account  of  his  wrong-doing 
without,  however,  any  loss  of  favour.  After  the  death 
of  Bishop  Aprunculus  of  Trier,  an  embassy  of  the 
clergy  and  citizens  of  Trier  came  to  the  royal  court  to 
elect  a  new  bishop.  They  desired  Saint  Gallus,  but  the 
king  refused  his  consent.  They  then  selected  Abbot 
Nicetius,  whose  election  was  confirmed  by  Theodoric. 
About  527  Nicetius  set  out  as  the  new  bishop  for 
Trier,  accompanied  by  an  escort  sent  by  the  king, 
and  while  on  the  journey  had  opportunity  to  make 
known  his  firmness  in  the  administration  of  his  office. 

Trier  had  suffered  terribly  during  the  disorders  of 
the  Migrations.  One  of  the  first  cares  of  the  new 
bishop  was  to  rebuild  the  cathedral  church,  the  resto- 
ration of  which  is  mentioned  by  the  poet  Venantius 
Fortunatus.  Archa-ological  research  has  shown,  in 
the  cathedral  of  Trier,  the  existence  of  mason-work 
belonging  to  the  Prankish  period  which  may  belong 
to  this  reconstruction  by  Nicetius.  A  fortified  castle 
(caslelluin)  with  a  chapel  built  by  him  on  the  river 
^loselle  is  also  mentioned  by  the  same  poet  (Poem., 
Lib.  Ill,  n.  xii).  The  saintly  bishop  devoted  himself 
with  great  zeal  to  his  pastoral  duty.  He  preached 
daily,  opposed  vigorously  the  numerous  evils  in  the 
moral  life  both  of  the  higher  cla-sses  and  of  the  com- 
mon people,  and  in  so  doing  did  not  spare  the  king  and 
his  courtiers.  Disregarding  threats,  he  steadfastly 
fulfilled  his  duty.  On  account  of  his  misdeeds  he 
excommunicated  King  Clotaire  I  (511-61),  who  for 
some  time  was  sole  ruler  of  the  Prankish  dominions;  in 
return  the  king  exiled  the  determined  bishop  (560). 
The  king  died,  however,  in  the  following  year,  and 
his  son  and  successor  Sigebert,  the  ruler  of  Austrasia 
(561-75),  allowed  Nicetius  to  return  home.  Nicetius 
took  part  in  several  synods  of  the  Prankish  bishops: 
the  synod  of  Clermont  (535),  of  Orleans  (549),  the 
second  synod  of  Clermont  (549),  the  synod  of  Toul 
(550)  at  which  he  presided,  and  the  synod  of  Paris 

(555).  .     ,     ,.     ■ 

Nicetius  corresponded  with  ecclesiastical  digm- 
taries  of  high  rank  in  distant  places.  Letters  are  ex- 
tant that  were  written  to  him  by  Abbot  p'lorianus 
of  Romain-Mofttier  (Canton  of  Vaud,  Switzerland), 
by  Bishop  Rufus  of  Octodurum  (now  Martigny,  in 
the  Canton  of  Valais,  Switzerland),  and  by  Arch- 
bishop Mappinius  of  Reims.  The  general  interests 
of  the  Church  did  not  escape  his  watchful  care.  He 
wrote  an  urgent  letter  to  Emperor  Justinian  of  Con- 
stantinople in  regard  to  the  emperor's  position  in  the 
controversies  arising  from  Monophysitism.  Anotlier 
letter  that  has  been  preserved  is  to  Clodosvinda,  wife 
of  the  Lombard  King  Alboin,  in  which  he  exhorts  this 
princess  to  do  everything  possible  to  bring  her  hus- 


band over  to  the  Catholic  faith.  In  his  personal  life 
the  saintly  bishop  was  very  ascetic  and  self-mortify- 
ing; he  fasted  frequently,  and  while  the  priests  and 
clerics  who  lived  with  him  were  at  their  evening  meal 
he  would  go,  concealed  by  a  hooded  cloak,  to  pray  in 
the  churches  of  the  city.  He  founded  a  school  of  his 
own  for  the  training  of  the  clergy.  The  best  known 
of  his  pupils  is  the  later  Abbot  of  Limoges,  Aredius, 
who  was  the  authority  of  Gregory  of  Tours  for  the 
latter's  biographical  account  of  Nicetius.  Nicetius 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Maximin  at  Trier. 
His  feast  is  celebrated  at  Trier  on  1  October;  in  the 
Roman  Martyrology  his  name  is  placed  under  5 
December.  The  genuineness  of  two  treatises  as- 
cribed to  him  is  doubtful:  "De  Vigiliis  servorum  Dei" 
and  "De  Psalmodiae  Bono". 

Nicetius  Oprrn  in  P.  T..  I.XIII,  361  sqq.:  H0NTHEI.M,  Hisioria 
Trevirensir.  ,/  :,^.f?j,j,'i,  ,t  I  '  \iiiT-hurg,  1750).  Ix,  35  sqq.:  Idem, 
Prodronn,      ■     '  /  1    (Augsburg,    1757),  416   sqq.; 

Mabillii-.,    I  ,' ./icK,  I  (Paris,  1668),  191  sqq.; 

Marx,  (/../" /,/,  .,,  /;,  ,  <,  ;v, it,  I  (Trier,  1858),  82  sq.;  11, 
377  sq.;  M\:-.ut.»>..\.,i.  Lin-  .•.iltuften  des  hi.  Nicetius.  Bischof  von 
Trier  (Mainz,  18o0j ;  Kayser,  Lebeii  und  Schri/ten  des  hi.  Nicetius 
(Trier,  1873) ;  Morin  in  Revue  binedictine  (1897),  385  sqq. 

J.  p.  KiRSCH. 

Niche,  a  recess  for  the  reception  of  a  statue,  so  de- 
signed as  to  give  it  emphasis,  frame  it  effectively,  and 
afford  some  measure  of  protection.  It  hardly  existed' 
prior  to  the  twelfth  century,  and  is  one  of  the  chief 
decorative  characteristics  of  Gothic  architecture.  The 
constant  and  often  lavish  use  of  sculptured  images  of 
the  saints  was  an  essential  part  of  the  great  style 
that  was  so  perfectly  to  express  the  Catholic  Faith, 
and  that  had  its  beginnings  in  Normandy  as  a  result 
of  the  great  Cluniac  reformation;  and  from  the  mo- 
ment the  roughly  chiselled  bas-relief  swelled  into  the 
round  and  detached  figure,  the  unerring  artistic  in- 
stinct of  the  medieval  builders  taught  them — as  it 
had  taught  the  Greeks — that  figure  sculpture  becomes 
architectural  only  when  it  is  incorporated  with  the 
building  of  which  it  is  a  part,  by  means  of  surrounding 
architectural  forms  that  harmonize  it  with  the  fabric 
itself.  In  Romanesque  work  this  frame  is  little  more 
than  flanking  shafts  supporting  an  arch,  the  statue 
being  treated  as  an  accessory,  and  given  place  wher- 
ever a  space  of  flat  wall  appeared  between  the  col- 
umns and  arches  of  the  structural  decoration.  The 
convenience,  propriety  and  beauty  of  the  arrangement 
were  immediately  apparent,  however,  and  thence- 
forward the  development  of  the  niche  as  an  independ- 
ent architectural  form  was  constant  and  rapid.  Not 
only  did  the  canopied  niche  assimilate  the  statue  in 
the  architectural  entity  and  afford  it  that  protection 
from  the  weather  so  necessary  in  the  north;  it  also,  in 
conjunction  with  the  statue  itself,  produced  one  of  the 
richest  compositions  of  line,  light,  and  shade  known 
to  art.  The  medieval  architects  realized  this  and 
seized  upon  it  with  avidity,  using  it  almost  as  their 
chief  means  for  obtaining  those  spots  and  spaces  of 
rich  decoration  that  gave  the  final  touch  of  perfection 
to  their  marvellous  fabrics.  In  the  thirteenth  century 
the  wall  became  recessed  to  receive  the  statue,  the 
fl:uiking  .-shafts  became  independent  supports  for  an 
arched  and  gabled  canopy,  wliile  a  jjcdestal  was  intro- 
duced, still  further  to  tir  tin-  sniliiture  into  the  archi- 
tecture. Later  the  .sect  I  nil  nl  i  lie  cinlinisure  became 
hexagonal  or  octagon:il,  thc;iirhr(li':LiU)])y  wiiscu.sped, 
the  gable  enriched  willi  criickcls  and  |)inn:icles,  and 
finally  in  the  fourteenth  :ind  fifteenth  centuries  the 
entire  feature  bec:une  nhnostun  imlcijcndent  composi- 
tion, the  canopy  being  developed  into  a  thing  of  mar- 
vellous complexitj'  and  riclmess,  while  it  was  lavi.shed 
on  almost  every  part  of  the  building,  from  the  doors 
to  the  spires,  .aiid  within  as  well  as  without.  Protes- 
tant .and  revolution;u-y  icoiiocl.-isni  have  left  outside  of 
France  few  ex;imjiles  of  niches  properly  filled  by  their 
original  statues,  but  in  such  masterpieces  of  art  as  the 
cathedrals  of  Paris,  Chartres,  Amiens,  and  Reims,  one 


NICHOLAS 


54 


NICHOLAS 


may  see  in  their  liighost  perfection  these  unique  mani- 
festations of  the  subtility  and  refinement  of  the  per- 
fect art  of  CathoUc  civihzation. 

Ralph  Adams  Cram. 

Nicholas  I,  Saint,  Pope,  b.  at  Rome,  thite  un- 
known; (1.  13  November,  867;  one  of  the  great  popes 
of  tlie  Middle  Ages,  who  exerted  decisive  influence 
upon  the  historical  development  of  the  papacy  and  its 
position  .among  the  Christian  nations  of  Western  Eu- 
rope. He  was  of  a  dist  inguished  family,  being  the  .son 
of  the  Defensor  Theodore,  and  received  an  excellent 
training.  Already  dist  inguished  for  his  piety,  benevo- 
lence, ability,  knowledge,  and  eloquence,  he  entered, 
at  an  early  age,  the  service  of  the  Church,  was  made 
subdeacon  by  Pope  Sergius  II  (844-47),  and  deacon 
by  Leo  IV  (S47-.5.5).  He  w.os  employed  in  all  impor- 
tant matters  during  the  pontificate  of  his  predecessor, 
Benedict  III  (S.'),5-5S).  After  Benedict's  death  (7 
April,  8.58)  the  Emperor  Louis  II,  who  was  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Rome,  came  into  the  city  to  exert 
his  influence  upon  the  election.  On  24  April  Nicholas 
was  elected  pope,  and  on  the  same  day  was  conse- 
crated and  enthroned  in  St.  Peter's  in  the  presence  of 
the  emperor.  Three  days  after,  he  gave  a  farewell 
banquet  to  the  emperor,  and  afterwards,  accompanied 
by  the  Roman  nobility,  visited  him  in  his  camp  before 
the  city,  on  which  occasion  the  emperor  came  to  meet 
the  pope  and  led  his  horse  for  some  distance. 

Christianity  in  \\'estern  Europe  was  then  in  a  most 
melanclioly  condition.  The  empire  of  Charlemagne 
had  fallen  to  pieces.  Christian  territory  was  threatened 
both  from  the  north  and  the  east,  and  Clmstendom 
seemed  on  the  brink  of  anarchy.  Christian  morality 
was  despised;  many  bishops  were  worldly  and  un- 
worthy of  their  office.  There  was  danger  of  a  univer- 
sal decline  of  the  higher  civilization.  Pope  Nicholas 
appeared  as  a  conscientious  representative  of  the  Ro- 
man Primacy  in  the  Church.  He  was  filled  with  a  high 
conception  of  his  mission  for  the  vindication  of  Christian 
morality,  the  defence  of  God's  law  against  princes  and 
dignitaries,  and  of  ecclesiastical  law  against  powerful 
bishops.  Archbishop  John  of  Ravenna  oppressed  the 
inhabitants  of  the  papal  territory,  treated  his  suffragan 
bishops  with  violence,  made  unjust  demands  upon 
them  for  money,  and  illegally  imprisoned  priests.  He 
also  forged  documents  to  support  his  claims  against 
the  Roman  See  and  maltreatecl  the  papal  legates.  As 
the  warnings  of  the  pope  were  without  result,  and  the 
archbishop  ignored  a  thrice-repeated  summons  to  ap- 
pear before  the  papal  tribunal,  he  was  excommuni- 
cated. Having  first  visited  the  Emperor  Louis  at 
Pavia,  the  archbishop  repaired,  with  two  imperial 
delegates,  to  Rome,  where  Nicholas  cited  him  before 
the  Roman  synod  assembled  in  the  autumn  of  860. 
Upon  this  John  fled  from  Rome.  Going  in  person  to 
Ravenna,  the  pope  then  investigated  and  equitably 
regulated  everything.  Again  appealing  to  the  em- 
peror, the  archbishop  was  recommended  by  him  to 
submit  to  the  pope,  which  he  did  at  the  Roman  Synod 
of  November,  861.  Later  on,  however,  he  entered 
into  a  pact  %vith  the  excommunicated  Archbishops  of 
Trier  and  Cologne,  was  himself  again  excommuni- 
cated, and  once  more  forced  to  make  his  submission  to 
the  pojje.  Another  conflict  arose  between  Nicholas 
and  Archbishop  Hincmar  of  Reims;  this  concerned  the 
prerogatives  of  the  papacy.  Bishop  Rothad  of  Sois- 
sons  had  appealed  to  the  pope  against  the  decision  of 
the  Synod  of  Soissons,  of  861,  which  had  deposed  him; 
Hincmar  oppo.sed  the  appeal  to  the  pope,  but  eventu- 
ally had  to  acknowledge  the  right  of  the  papacy  to 
take  cognizance  of  important  legal  causes  {causw  ma- 
jores)  and  pa,S8  indept'ndent  judgment  upon  them.  A 
further  dispute  broke  out  between  Hincmar  and  the 
pope  as  to  the  elevation  of  the  cleric  Wulfad  to  the 
archiepiscopal  See  of  Bourges,  but  here,  again,  Hinc- 
mar finally  submitted  to  the  decrees  of  the  Apostohc 


See,  and  the  Prankish  synods  passed  corresponding 
ordinances. 

Nicholas  showed  the  s:iiiie  zeal  in  other  elTorts  to 
maintain  ecclesiastical  discipline,  especially  as  to  the 
marriage  laws.  Ingiltrud,  wife  of  Cotmt  Boso,  had 
left  her  husband  for  a  paramour;  Nicholas  comniaiKled 
the  liishops  in  the  dominions  of  Charles  the  Bold  to 
excommunicate  her  imless  she  returned  to  lier  hus- 
band. As  she  paid  no  attention  to  the  summons  to 
apijcar  before  the  Synod  of  Milan  in  860,  she  was  put 
under  the  ban.  The  pope  was  also  involved  in  a  des- 
perate stmggle  with  Lothaii'  II  of  Lorraine  over  the 
inviolability  of  marriage.  Lothair  had  abandoned 
his  lawful  wife  Theutberga  to  marry  Waldrada.  At 
the  Synod  of  Aachen,  28  April,  862,  the  bishojis  of  Lor- 
raine, unmindful  of  their  duty,  approved  of  tliis  illicit 
union.  At  the  Synod  of  Metz,  June,  863,  the  papal 
legates,  bribed  by  the  king,  assented  to  the  .Aachen  de- 
cision, and  condemned  the  absent  Theutberga.  Upon 
this  the  pope  brought  the  matter  l)efore  iiis  own  tribu- 
nal. The  two  archbishops,  Gunther  of  Cologne  and 
Thietgaud  of  Trier,  who  had  come  to  Rome  as  dele- 
gates, were  summoned  before  the  Lateran  Synod  of 
October,  863,  when  the  pope  condemned  and  deposed 
them  as  well  as  John  of  Ravenna  and  Ilagano  of  Ber- 
gamo. The  Emperor  Louis  II  took  up  the  cause  of 
the  depo.sed  bishops,  while  King  Lothair  advanced 
upon  Rome  with  an  army  and  laid  siege  to  the  city,  so 
that  the  pope  was  confined  for  two  days  in  St.  Peter's 
without  food.  Yet  Nicholas  did  not  waver  in  his  de- 
termination; the  emperor,  after  being  reconciled  with 
the  pope,  withdrew  from  Rome  and  commanded  the 
Archbishops  of  Trier  and  Cologne  to  return  to  their 
homes.  Nicholas  never  ceased  from  his  efforts  to 
bring  about  a  reconciliation  between  Lothair  and  his 
lawful  wife,  but  without  effect.  Another  matrimo- 
nial case  in  which  Nicholas  interposed  was  that  of 
Judith,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold,  who  had  mar- 
ried Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  without  her  father's 
consent.  Prankish  bishops  had  excommimicated 
Judith,  and  Hincmar  of  Reims  had  taken  sides  against 
her,  but  Nicholas  urged  leniency,  in  order  to  protect 
freeflom  of  marriage.  He  commanded  Hincmar  to 
bring  about  a  reconciliation  between  father  and  daugh- 
ter, and  succeeded  in  obtaining  Charles's  consent  to 
the  marriage.  In  many  other  ecclesiastical  matters, 
also,  he  issued  letters  and  decisions,  and  he  took  active 
measures  against  bishops  who  were  neglectful  of  their 
duties. 

In  the  matter  of  the  emperor  and  the  patriarchs  of 
Constantinople  Nicholas  showed  himself  the  Divinely 
appointed  ruler  of  the  Church.  In  violation  of  ec- 
clesiastical law,  the  Patriarch  Ignatius  was  deposed  in 
857  and  Photius  illegally  raised  to  the  patriarchal  see. 
In  a  letter  addressed  (8  May,  862)  to  the  patriarchs  of 
the  East,  Nicholas  called  upon  them  and  all  their 
bishops  to  refuse  recognition  to  Photius,  and  at  a  Ro- 
man synod  held  in  April,  863,  he  excommunicated 
Photius.  He  also  encouraged  the  missionary  activity 
of  the  Church.  He  sanctioned  the  union  of  the  Sees 
of  Bremen  and  Hamburg,  and  confirmed  to  St.  An- 
schar.  Archbishop  of  Bremen,  and  his  successors  the 
office  of  papal  legate  to  the  Danes,  Swedes,  and  Slavs. 
Bulgaria  having  been  converted  by  Greek  missiona- 
ries, its  ruler.  Prince  Boris,  in  August,  863,  sent  an  em- 
bas.sy  to  the  pope  with  one  hundred  and  six  questions 
on  the  teaching  and  discipline  of  the  Church.  Nicho- 
las answered  these  inquiries  exhaustively  in  the  cele- 
brated "Responsa  Nicolai  ad  consulta  Bulgarorum" 
(Mansi,  "Coll.  Cone.'',  Xy,  401  sqq.).  The  letter 
shows  how  keen  was  his  desire  to  foster  the  principles 
of  an  earnest  Christian  life  in  this  newly-converted 
people.  At  the  same  time  he  sent  an  embassy  to 
Prince  Boris,  charged  to  use  their  personal  efforts  to 
attain  the  pope's  object.  Nevertheless,  Boris  finally 
joined  the  Eastern  Church. 

At  Rome,  Nicholas  rebuilt  and  endowed  several 


NICHOLAS 


55 


NICHOLAS 


churches,  and  constantly  sought  to  encourage  reli- 
gious hf e.  His  own  personal  life  was  guided  by  a  spirit 
of  earnest  Christian  asceticism  and  profound  piety. 
He  was  very  highly  esteemed  by  the  citizens  of  Rome, 
as  he  was  by  his  contemporaries  generally  (cf.  Regino, 
"Chronicon",  ad  an.  86S,  in  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.: 
Script.",  I,  579),  and  after  death  was  regarded  as  a 
saint.  A  much  discussed  question  and  one  that  is  im- 
portant in  judging  the  position  taken  by  this  pope  is, 
whether  he  made  use  of  the  forged  pseudo-Isido- 
rian  papal  decretals.  After  exhaustive  investigation, 
Schrors  has  decided  that  the  pope  was  neither  ac- 
quainted with  the  pseudo-Isidorian  collection  in  its 
entire  extent,  nor  did  he  make  use  of  its  individual 
parts ;  that  he  had  ]5erhaps  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
false  decretals,  but  did  not  base  his  view  of  the  law 
upon  them,  and  that  he  owed  his  knowledge  of  them 
solely  to  documents  which  came  to  liim  from  the 
Frankish  Empire  [Schrors,  "Papst  Nikolaus  I.  und 
Pseudo-Isidor "  in  " Historisches  Jahrbuch",  XXV 
(1904),  1  sqq.;  Idem,  "Die  pseudoisidorische  'Ex- 
ceptio  spolii'  bei  Papst  Nikolaus  I"  in  "Historisches 
Jahrbuch",  XXVI  (1905),  275  sqq.]. 

Roy,  St.  Nicholas  /(London,  1001),  in  Snh.l  S,  ^  :.  .  Xi.olai 
pp.  I.  Epistolee,  in  J.\ffe,  Rcgesla  Rom.  Pijnf  I  .  !  '  ::42 
sqq.,  and  in  Mansi,  CuH.  Cojic,  XV.  143  sciM-:  ''is, 

ed.  Duchesne,  II,  151  sqq.;  L.^emmer,  Pap-:t  .\ :    '    ',     /   /  ,/,e 

byzantinische  Staatskirche  seiner  Zeit  (Berlin,  i.^o7j;  Ihiel,  De 
Nicolao  I  commentationes  du(e  hi^lorico-canonicas  (Braunsberg, 
1859);  Gbeinacher,  Die  Anschauungen  des  Papstes  Nikolaus  I. 
aber  das  Verhdltiiis  von  Stoat  und  Kirche  (Berlin,  1909) :  Langen, 
Geschickte  der  rornischen  Kirche,  III:  Von  Nikolaus  Ibis  Gregor 
VII  (Bonn,  1892),  1  sqq.;  Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte,  II  (4th 
ed.),  112  aqq.,  ed.  Kirsch;  236  sqq.      See  also  bibliography  to 

HlNHMAR,  ,\RCirDISHOP  OF  ReIMS;  IgN.ATIUS  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE, 

Saint;  Photius.  J.  p.  Kihsch. 

Nicholas  II,  Pope  (Gerhard  of  Burgundy),  b.  at 
Chevron,  in  what  is  now  Savoy;  elected  at  Siena,  De- 
cember, 1058  ;d.  at  Florence  19  or  27  July,  1061.  Like 
his  predecessor,  Stephen  X,  he  was  canon  at  Liege.  In 
1046  he  became  Bishop  of  Florence,  where  he  restored 
the  canonical  life  among  the  clergy  of  numerous 
churches.  As  soon  as  the  news  of  the  death  of  Stephen 
X  at  Florence  reached  Rome  (4  April,  105S).  the 
Tusculan  party  appointed  a  successor  in  the  person  of 
John  Mincius,  Bishop  of  Velletri,  under  the  name  of 
Benedict  X.  His  elevation,  due  to  violence  and  cor- 
ruption, was  contrary  to  the  specific  orders  of  Stephen 
X  that,  at  his  death,  no  choice  of  a  successor  was  to  be 
made  until  Hildebrand's  return  from  Germany.  Sev- 
eral cardinals  protested  against  the  irregular  proceed- 
ings, but  they  were  compelled  to  flee  from  Rome. 
Hildebrand  was  returning  from  his  mission  when  the 
news  of  these  events  reached  him.  He  interrupted  his 
journey  at  Florence,  and  after  agreeing  with  Duke 
Godfrey  of  Lorraine-Tuscany  upon  Bishop  Gerhard 
for  elevation  to  the  papacy,  he  won  over  part  of  the 
Roman  population  to  the  support  of  his  candidate. 
An  embassy  dispatched  to  the  imperial  court  secured 
the  confirmation  of  the  choice  by  the  Empress  Agnes. 
At  Hildebrand's  invitation,  the  cardinals  met  in  De- 
cember, 1058,  at  Siena  and  elected  Gerhard  who  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Nicholas  II.  On  his  way  to  Rome 
the  new  pope  held  at  Sutri  a  well-attended  synod  at 
which,  in  the  presence  of  Duke  Godfrey  and  the  im- 
perial chancellor,  Guibert  of  Parma,  he  pronounced 
deposition  against  Benedict  X.  The  latter  was  driven 
from  the  city  in  January,  1059,  and  the  solemn  corona- 
tion of  Nicholas  took  place  on  the  twenty-fourth  of 
the  same  month.  A  cultured  and  stainless  man,  the 
new  pontiff  had  about  him  capable  advisers,  but  to 
meet  the  danger  still  threatening  from  Benedict  X  and 
his  armed  supporters,  Nicholas  empowered  Hildebrand 
to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the  Normans  of  south- 
ern Italy.  The  papal  envoy  recognized  Count  Richard 
of  Aversa  as  Prince  of  Capua  and  received  in  return 
Norman  troops  which  enabled  the  papacy  to  carry  on 
hostilities  against  Benedict  in  the  Campagna.  This 
campaign  did  not  result  in  the  decisive  overthrow 


of  the  opposition  party,  but  it  enabled  Nicholas  to 
undertake  in  the  early  part  of  1059  a  pastoral  vis- 
itation to  Spoleto,  Farfa,  and  Osimo.  During  this 
journey  he  raised  Abbot  Desiderius  of  Monte  Cas- 
sino  to  the  dignity  of  cardinal-priest  and  appointed 
him  legate  to  Campania,  Beuevento,  Apulia,  and 
Calabria.  Early  in  his  pontificate  he  had  sent  St. 
Peter  Damiani  and  Bishop  Anselm  of  Lucca  as  his 
legates  to  Milan,  where  a  married  and  siraoniacal 
clergy  had  recently  given  rise  to  a  reform-party  known 
as  the  "  Pataria".  A  synod  for  the  restoration  of  ec- 
clesiastical discipline  was  held  under  the  presidency  of 
these  envoys  who,  in  spite  of  a  tumultuous  uprising 
which  endangered  their  lives,  succeeded  in  obtaining 
from  Archbishop  Guido  and  the  Milanese  clergy  a 
solemn  repudiation  of  simony  and  concubinage. 

One  of  the  most  pressing  needs  of  the  time  was  the 
reform  of  papal  elections.  It  was  right  that  they 
should  be  freed  from  the  nefarious  influence  of  the 
Roman  factions  and  the  secular  control  of  the  empe- 
ror, hitherto  less  disastrous  but  always  objectionable. 
To  this  end  Nicholas  II  held  in  the  Lateran  at  Easter, 
1059  a  synod  attended  by  one  hundred  and  thirteen 
bishops  and  famous  for  its  law  concerning  papal  elec- 
tions. Efforts  to  determine  the  authentic  text  of  this 
decree  caused  considerable  controversy  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.  That  the  discussions  did  not  result 
in  a  consensus  of  opinion  on  the  matter  need  not  sur- 
prise, if  it  be  remembered  that  thirty  years  after  the 
publication  of  the  decree  complaints  were  heard  re- 
garding the  divergency  in  the  text.  We  possess  to-day 
a  papal  and  an  imperial  recen.sion  and  the  sense  of  the 
law  may  be  stated  substantially  as  follows."  (1)  At  the 
death  of  the  pope,  the  cardinal-bishops  are  to  confer 
among  themselves  concerning  a  candidate,  and,  after 
they  have  agreed  upon  a  name,  they  and  the  other 
cardinals  are  to  proceed  to  the  election.  The  remain- 
der of  the  clergy  and  the  laity  enjoy  the  right  of  ac- 
claiming their  choice.  (2)  A  member  of  the  Roman 
clergy  is  to  be  chosen,  except  that  where  a  qualified 
candidate  cannot  be  found  in  the  Roman  Church,  an 
ecclesiastic  from  another  diocese  may  be  elected.  (3) 
The  election  is  to  be  held  at  Rome,  except  that  when  a 
free  choice  is  impossible  there,  it  may  take  place  else- 
where. (4)  If  war  or  other  circumstances  prevent  the 
solemn  enthronization  of  the  new  pope  in  St.  Peter's 
Chair,  he  shall  nevertheless  enjoy  the  exercise  of  full 
Apostolic  authority.  (5)  Due  regard  is  to  be  had  for 
the  right  of  confirmation  or  recognition  conceded  to 
King  Henry,  and  the  same  deference  is  to  be  shown  to 
his  successors,  who  have  been  granted  personally  a  like 
privilege.  These  stipulations  constituted  indeed  a 
new  law,  but  they  were  also  intended  as  an  implicit  ap- 
probation of  the  procedure  followed  at  the  election  of 
Nicholas  II.  As  to  the  imperial  right  of  confirmation, 
it  became  a  mere  personal  privilege  granted  by  the 
Roman  See.  The  same  synod  prohibited  simoniacal 
ordinations,  lay  investiture,  and  assistance  at  the 
Mass  of  a  priest  living  in  notorious  concubinage.  The 
rules  governing  the  life  of  canons  and  nuns  which  were 
published  at  the  diet  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (817)  were 
abolished,  because  they  allowed  private  property  and 
such  abundant  food  that,  as  the  bishops  indignantly 
exclaimed,  they  were  adapted  to  sailors  and  intemper- 
ate matrons  rather  than  to  clerics  and  nuns.  Beren- 
garius  of  Tours,  whose  views  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of 
Christ's  real  presence  in  the  Eucharist,  had  repeatedly 
been  condemned,  also  appeared  at  the  Council  and 
was  compelled  to  sign  a  formula  of  abjuration. 

At  the  end  of  June,  1059,  Nicholas  proceeded  to 
Monte  Cassino  and  thence  to  Melfi,  the  capital  of  Nor- 
man .Apulia,  where  he  held  an  important  synod  and 
concluded  the  famous  alliance  with  the  Normans 
(Julv-August,  1059).  Duke  Robert  Guiscard  was  in- 
vested with  the  sovereignty  of  Apulia,  Calabria,  and 
Sicily  in  case  he  should  reconquer  it  from  the  Saracens; 
he  bound  himself,  in  return,  to  pay  an  annual  tribute, 


NICHOLAS 


56 


NICHOLAS 


to  hold  his  lands  ns  the  pope's  vassal,  and  to  protect  . 
the  Roman  Soo,  its  possessions,  and  the  freedom  of 
papal  elections.  A  similar  agreement  was  coiicIiKlcd 
witli  Prince  Hicliard  of  Capiia.  After  holding  a  synod 
at  Benevento  Nicholas  returned  to  Rome  with  a  Nor- 
man army  which  reconquered  Pra-neste,  'I'usculum, 
and  Xumentamim  for  the  Holy  See  and  forced  Bene- 
dict X  to  capitulate  at  Galcria  (autumn  of  1059). 
Hildebrand,  tlie  soul  of  the  pontificate,  was  now 
created  archdeacon.  In  order  to  secure  the  general 
acceptance  of  the  laws  enacted  at  the  synod  of  1059, 
Cardinal  Stephen,  in  tlie  latter  part  of  that  year,  was 
Bent  to  l'"r;ince  where  lie  presidetl  over  the  synods  of 
Vienne  (.'U  .lanuary,  KMiOj  and  Tours  (17  February, 
1060).  The  decree  wliiih  introduced  a  new  method  of 
papal  election  liad  caus<-d  great  dissatisfaction  in  Ger- 
many,because  it  reduceil  the  imperial  right  of  confirma- 
tion to  the  precarious  condition  of  a  personal  privilege 
granted  at  will;  but,  assured  of  Norman  protection, 
Nicholas  could  fearlessly  renew  the  decree  at  the 
Latcran  synod  held  in  1060.  After  this  council  Car- 
dinal Stephen ,  who  had  accomplished  his  mission  to 
France,  appeared  as  papal  legate  in  Germany.  For 
five  days  he  vainly  solicited  an  audience  at  court  and 
then  returned  to  Rome.  His  fruitless  mission  was 
followed  bj'  a  German  sjTiod  which  annulled  all  the 
ordinances  of  Nicholas  II  and  pronounced  his  deposi- 
tion. The  pope's  answer  was  a  repetition  of  the  de- 
cree concerning  elections  at  the  synod  of  1061,  at 
which  the  condemnation  of  simony  and  concubinage 
among  the  clergy  was  likewise  renewed.  He  lies 
buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Reparata  at  Florence  of 
which  city  he  had  remained  bishop  even  aftir  Iiis  ele- 
vation to  the  papal  throne.  His  pontifie;ite,  tlmuuh 
of  short  duration,  was  marked  by  events  fraught  with 
momentous  and  far-reaching  consequences. 

Jaff:6,  Regesta  Pontif.  Roman.,  I  (2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  18S5),  557- 
66;  Diplovmta,  Epistola,  Decreta  in  P.  L.,  CXLIII,  1301-66; 
Clavel.  Le  Pape  Nicolas  II  (Lvons,  1906) ;  Delarc,  Le  Ponti- 
fical de  Nicolas  II  in  Rev.  des  Quesl.  Hist.,  XL  (18S6),  341-402; 
WUKM,  Die  Papslwahl  (Cologne,  1902),  24-8;  Hefele,  Concilien- 
geschichte,  IV  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1879),  798-850;  Mann,  Lines 
of  the  Popes.  VI  (St.  Louia,  1910),  226-60;  Funk,  tr.  Cappa- 
DELTA,  Church  History,  I  (St.  Louis,  1910),  263-4.  274.  For  bibli- 
ography of  the  election  decree,  see  Hergenrother-Kirsch, 
Kirchcngeschichte,  II  (Freiburg,  1904),  342-4. 

N.  A.  Webeh. 

Nicholas  III,  Pope  (Giovanni  Gaetani  Orsini), 
b.  at  Rome,  c.  1216;  elected  at  Viterbo,  25  November, 
1277;  d.  at  Soriano,  near  Viterbo,  22  August,  12S0. 
His  father,  Matteo  Rosso,  was  of  the  illustrious  Ro- 
man family  of  the  Orsini,  while  his  mother,  Perna 
Gaetana,  belonged  to  the  noble  house 
of  the  Gaetani.  As  senator  Matteo 
Rosso  had  defended  Rome  against 
Frederick  II  and  saved  it  to  the 
papacy.  He  was  a  friend  of  St. 
P>ancis  of  Assisi  and  belonged  to  his 
third  order,  facts  not  without  influ- 
ence on  the  son,  for  both  as  cardinal 
and  pope  the  latter  was  ever  kindly 
disposed  towards  the  Franciscans. 
Arms  of  We  have  no  knowledge  of  his  edu- 

NicHoi.As  III  cation  and  early  life.  Innocent  IV, 
grateful  for  the  services  rendered  to  the  Holy  See  by  his 
father,  created  the  young  Orsini  (28  May,  1244)  car- 
dinal-deacon with  the  title  of  St.  Nicholas  in  Carcere 
TuUiano,  and  gave  him  benefices  at  York,  Laon,  and 
Soissons.  Probably  at  an  earlier  date  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Roman  churches  of  San  Lorenzo  in 
Damaso  and  of  San  Cri.sogono  had  been  entrusted  to 
him.  One  of  five  cardinals,  he  accompanied  Innocent 
IV  in  his  flight  from  Civil  ;\  Vecchia  to  Genoa  and 
thence  to  Lyons  (29  .lurie,  12  U).  In  1252  he  was  dis- 
patched on  an  unsuccessful  mission  of  peace  to  the 
warring  Guelphs  ;ind  ( Ihibellincs  of  Florence.  In  1258 
Louis  IX  i)ai<l  an  elo(|ucnt  tribute  to  his  independence 
and  impartiality  by  suggesting  his  selection  as  equally 
acceptable  to  England  and  to  France  for  the  solemn 


ratification  of  the  peace  concluded  between  the  two 
countries.  His  integrity  was  likewise  above  reproach, 
for  he  never  accepted  gifts  for  his  services.  So  great 
was  his  influence  in  the  Sacred  College  that  the  elec- 
tion of  Urban  IV  (1201)  was  mainly  due  to  his  inter- 
vention. Urban  named  him  general  inquisitor  (1262) 
and  protector  of  the  Franciscans  (1263).  Under 
Clement  IV  (1265-68)  he  was  a  member  of  the  delega- 
tion of  four  cardinals  who  invested  Charles  of  Anjou 
with  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  (28  June,  1265).  Later 
he  played  a  prominent  part  at  the  elections  of  Gregory 
X,  who  received  the  tiara  at  his  hands,  and  of  John 
XXI,  whose  counsellor  he  became  and  who  named  him 
archpriest  of  St.  Peter's.  After  a  vacancy  of  six 
months  he  succeeded  John  as  Nicholas  III. 

True  to  his  origin  he  endeavoured  to  free  Rome 
from  all  foreign  influence.  His  policy  aimed  not  only 
at  the  exclusion  of  the  ever-troublesome  imperial  au- 
thority, but  also  sought  to  check  the  growing  influence 
of  Charles  of  Anjou  in  central  Italy.  At  his  request 
Rudolf  of  Habsburg  renounced  (1278)  all  rights  to  the 
possession  of  the  Romagna,  a  renunciation  subse- 
quently approved  by  the  imperial  princes.  Nicholas 
took  possession  of  the  province  through  his  nephew, 
Latino,  whom  he  had  shortly  before  (12  March,  1278) 
raised  to  the  cardinalate.  He  created  Berthold,  an- 
other nephew.  Count  of  the  Romagna,  and  on  other 
occasions  remembered  his  relatives  in  the  distribution 
of  honourable  and  lucrative  places.  He  compelled 
Charles  of  Anjou  in  1278  to  resign  the  regency  of  Tus- 
cany and  the  dignity  of  Roman  Senator.  To  insure 
the  freedom  of  papal  elections,  he  ordained  in  a  con- 
st it  utimi  of  18  July,  1278,  that  thenceforward  the 
seiKiliiiial  power  and  all  municipal  offices  were  to  be 
rcser\ed  to  Roman  citizens  to  the  exclusion  of  emperor, 
king,  or  other  potentate.  In  furtherance  of  more  har- 
monious relations  with  the  Byzantine  court.,  the  pope 
also  aimed  at  restricting  the  power  of  the  King  of  Naples 
in  the  East.  To  his  efforts  was  due  the  agreement 
concluded  in  1280  between  Rudolf  of  Habsburg  and 
Charles  of  Anjou,  by  which  the  latter  accepted  Pro- 
vence and  Forcalquier  as  imperial  fiefs  and  secured  the 
betrothal  of  his  grandson  to  dementia,  one  of  Ru- 
dolf's daughters.  The  much-discussed  plan  of  a  new 
division  of  the  empire  into  four  parts  is  not  sufliciently 
attested  to  be  attributed  with  certainty  to  Nicholas. 
In  this  partition  Cierinany,  as  hereditary  monarchy, 
was  to  fall  to  Rudolf,  the  Ivingdom  of  Aries  was  to 
devolve  on  his  son-in-law,  Charles  Martel  of  Anjou, 
while  the  Kingdoms  of  Lombardy  and  Tuscany  were 
to  be  founded  in  Italy  and  bestowed  on  relatives  of  the 
pope.  Nicholas's  efforts  for  the  promotion  of  peace 
between  France  and  Castile  remained  fruitless.  Un- 
able to  carry  out  his  desire  of  personally  appearing  in 
Hungary,  where  internal  dissensions  and  the  devasta- 
tions of  the  Cumani  endangered  the  very  existence  of 
Christianity,  he  named,  in  the  fall  of  1278,  Bishop 
Philip  of  Fermo  his  legate  to  that  country.  A  synod, 
held  at  Buda  in  1279  under  the  presidency  of  the  papal 
envoy,  could  not  complete  its  deliberations  owing  to 
the  violent  interference  of  the  people.  King  Ladis- 
laus  IV,  instigator  of  the  trouble,  was  threatened  in  a 
papal  letter  with  spiritual  and  temporal  penalties  if 
he  failed  to  reform  his  ways.  The  king  temporarily 
heeded  this  solemn  admonition,  and  at  a  later  date 
suppressed  the  raids  of  the  Cumani.  The  appoint- 
ments of  worthy  incumbents  to  the  Archbishoprics  of 
Gran  and  Kalocsa-Bacs  made  under  this  pontificate 
further  helped  to  strengthen  the  cause  of  Christianity. 

The  task  of  Nicholas  III  in  his  dealings  with  the 
Eastern  Church  was  the  practical  realization  of  the 
union  accepted  by  the  Greeks  at  the  Second  Council  of 
Lyons  (1274),  for  political  reasons  rather  than  out  of 
dogmatic  persuasion.  The  instructions  to  the  legates 
whom  he  sent  to  Constantinople  contained,  among 
other  conditions,  the  renewal  by  the  emperor  of  the 
oath  sworn  to  by  his  representatives  at  Lyons.     The 


NICHOLAS 


57 


NICHOLAS 


efforts  of  Rudolf  of  Habsburg  to  receive  the  imperial 
crown  at  the  hands  of  the  new  pope  were  not  success- 
ful. His  failure  was  partly  due  to  the  estrangement 
consequent  upon  the  attitude  assumed  by  the  pope 
in  the  question  of  the  Sicilian  surrrssion.  As  feudal 
suzerain  of  tli<' 
kingdom,  NichnI:  i  > 
annulled  t  li  ■■ 
treaty,  conclude  1 
in  1288  through 
the  mediation  of 
Edward  I  of  Eng- 
land, which  con- 
firmed James  of 
A  r  agon  in  the 
possession  of  the 
island.  He  lent 
his  support  to  the 
rival  claims  of  the 
House  of  Anjou 
and  crowned 
Charles  II  King  of 
Sicily  and  Naples 
at  Rieti,  29  May, 
12S9,  after  the  lat- 
ter had  expressly 
acknowledged  the 
suzerainty  of  the 
Apostolic  See  and 
promised  not  to  accept  any  municipal  dignity  in  the 
States  of  the  Church.  The  action  of  the  pope  did  not 
end  the  armed  struggle  for  the  possession  of  Sicily  nor 
did  it  secure  the  kingdom  permanently  to  the  House 
of  Anjou.  Rudolf  of  Habsburg  also  failed  to  obtain 
from  the  pope  the  repeal  of  tlie  authorization,  granted 
the  French  king,  to  levy  tithes  in  cert  'in  (  ;ittii;iii  ijis- 
triots  for  the  pro.secution  of  the  war  :  '!    use 


NrCHOLA8    IV 

Benozzo  Gozzoli,  Church  of  S. 
Francesco,  Alontefalco 


maintenance  of  the  Greek  Rite  was  granted  only  in  so 
far  as  papal  authority  did  not  consider  it  opposed  to 
unity  of  faith;  those  of  the  clergy  opposed  to  reunion 
were  reciuired  to  obtain  absolution  of  the  incurred 
censures  from  the  Roman  envoj's.  These  were  more 
rigorous  conditions  than  had  been  imposed  by  his  pre- 
decessors, but  the  failure  of  the  negotiations  for  re- 
union can  hardly  be  attributed  to  them,  for  the  Greek 
nation  was  strongly  opposed  to  submission  to  Rome 
and  the  emperor  pursued  temporal  advantages  under 
cover  of  desire  for  ecclesia.stical  harmony.  At  the 
request  of  Abaga,  Khan  of  the  Tatars,  the  pope  sent 
him  in  1278  five  Franciscan  missionaries  who  were  to 
preach  the  Gospel  first  in  Persia  and  then  in  China. 
They  encountered  considerable  obstacles  in  the  former 
country  and  it  was  not  imtil  the  pontificate  of  Nicho- 
las IV  that  their  preaching  produced  appreciable  re- 
sults. The  realization  of  the  pope's  desire  for  the 
organization  of  a  Crusade  was  frustrated  by  the  dis- 
tracted state  of  European  politics.  On  14  August, 
1279,  he  is.sued  the  constitution  "Exiit  qui  seminat", 
which  is  still  fundamental  for  the  interpretation  of  the 
Rule  of  St.  I'"rancis  and  in  which  he  approved  the 
stricter  observance  of  poverty  (see  Fr.^ncis,  Rdlb  op 
S-4IXT).  While  the  Vatican  had  been  occupied  from 
time  to  time  by  some  of  his  predecessors,  Nicholas  III 
established  there  the  papal  residence,  remodelled  and 
enlarged  the  palace,  and  secured  in  its  neiglibourhood 
landed  property,  subsequently  transformed  into  the 
Vatican  gardens.  He  lies  buried  in  the  Chapel  of  St. 
Nicholas,  built  by  him  in  St.  Peter's.  He  was  an  ec- 
clesiastically-minded pontiff  of  great  diplomatic  abihty 
and,  if  we  except  his  acts  of  nepotism,  of  unblemished 

Gat.  Les  Registres  de  Nicolas  III  (Paris.  189S-19CM) :  Pott- 
bast,  Regesln  P.mtif.  Roman..  11  (Berlin,  1S75),  1719-.56;  Savio, 
Niccolb  III  111  I  ,  ./'.i  (--'■-'m  .,  -ir.  XV-XVI  (Rome,  1894-0); 
Demski.  /''ly  '    >.  ///     \i  ui^tiT.  1903);  Sternpeld,  ZJcr 

Kardinal  J.'l  •  '  I  J 1 1-77)  (Berlin,  1905) :  MiRBT 

in  T/ic  AVir  N' .'...;■-//.  I  ■';  ;."  ,  .'  .nr -/w,  s.  v. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Nicholas  IV,  Pope  (GiROLA-MoM.A.sci),b.  at  Ascoli 
in  the  March  of  Ancona;  d.  in  Rome,  4  April,  1292.  He 
was  of  humble  extraction,  and  at  an  early  age  entered 
the  Franciscan  Order.  In  1272  he  was  sent  as  a  dele- 
gate to  Constantinople  to  invite  the  participation  of 
the  Greeks  in  the  Second  Council 
of  Lyons.  Two  years  later  he  suc- 
ceeded St.  Bonaventure  in  the  gen- 
eralship of  his  order.  While  he  «  as 
on  a  mission  to  France  to  promod' 
the  restoration  of  peace  between 
that  country  and  Castile,  he  was 
created  cardinal-priest  with  the  titlr 
of  Santa  Pudenziana  (1278)  and  in 
1281  Martin  IV  appointed  him  Bish- 
AK5IS  OF  op  of  Palestrina.     After  the  death 

Nicholas  IV  of  Honorius  IV  (3  April,  12S7), 
the  conclave  held  at  Rome  was  for  a  time  hopelessly 
divided  in  its  selection  of  a  successor.  When  fever 
hail  carried  off  six  of  the  electors,  the  others,  with  tlie 
sole  exception  of  Girolamo,  left  Rome.  It  was  not 
until  the  following  year  that  they  reassembled  and  on 
15  February,  1288^  unanimously  elected  him  to  the 
papacy.  Obedience  and  a  second  election  however 
(22  February)  were  alone  capable  of  overcoming 
his  reluctance  to  accept  the  supreme  pontificate.  He 
was  the  first  Franciscan  pope,  and  in  loving  reniein- 
brance  of  Nicholas  III  he  assumed  the  name  of  Nicho- 
las IV. 

The  reign  of  the  new  pope  was  not  characterized  by 
sufficient  independence.     The  undue  influence  exer-  •'      ■     ■    '        Nichoi-as  IV 

cised  at  Rome  bv  the  Colonna  is  especially  noteworthy  m.  .m  irv  .>iaj<.r ».  Rome 

and  was  so  apparent  even  during  his  lifetime  that  ofAragon.  When  he  appointed  his  son  Albert  to  suc- 
Roinan  wits  represented  him  encased  in  a  column—  ceedLadislaus  IV  of  Hungary  (31  August,  1290),  Nich- 
the  distinctive  mark  of  the  Colonna  familv— out  of  olas  claimed  the  realm  as  a  papal  hcf  and  conferred  it 
which  only  his  tiara-covered  head  emerged.     The     upon  Charles  Martcl,  son  of  Charles  II  of  Naples. 


NICHOLAS 


58 


NICHOLAS 


In  1291  the  fall  of  Ptolemais  put  an  end  to  Christian 
dominion  in  the  East.  Previous  to  this  tragic  event. 
Nicholas  had  in  vain  endeavoured  to  orpinize  a  cru- 
sade. He  now  called  upon  all  the  Chri.-itiaii  princes 
to  take  u[)  arms  ajtainst  the  Mussuluuin  and  insti<;at<Ml 
the  holding  of  council.-;  to  dcvi.se  the  means  of  .scmlin}; 
assistance  to  the  Holy  Land.  Thc.se  .synods  were  to 
discuss  likewise  the  advisability  of  the  union  of  the 
Knights  Templars  and  Knights  of  St.  John,  as  the 
dissen.sions  among  them  had  partly  caused  the  lo.ss  of 
Ptolemais.  The  pope  himself  initiated  the  prepara- 
tions for  the  crusade  and  fitted  out  twenty  ships  for 
the  war.  His  appeals  and  his  example  remained  un- 
heeded, however,  and  nothing  of  permanent  value  was 
accomplished. 

Nichohis  IV  sent  missionaries,  among  them  the 
celebrated  John  of  Montecorvino  (q.  v.),  to  the  Bul- 
garians, Ethiopians,  Tatars,  and  Chinese.  By  his 
constitution  of  18  July,  1289,  the  cardinals  were 
granted  one  half  of  the  revenues  of  the  .\postolic  See 
and  a  share  in  the  financial  administration.  In  1290 
he  renewed  the  condemnation  of  the  sect  known  a.s  the 
Apostolici  (q.  v.).  Nicholas  was  pious  and  learned;  he 
contributed  to  the  artistic  beauty  of  Home,  building 
particularly  a  palace  beside  Santa  Maria  Maggiore, 
the  church  in  which  he  was  buried  and  where  Sixtus 
V  erected  an  imposing  monument  to  his  memory. 

Laxglois.  Les  Rigistres  de  Nicolas  IV  (Paris.  1886-93);  Pott- 
bast,  Regesta  pontificum  Romanorum,  II  (Berlin,  1875),  1820- 
1915:  Kaltenbrcnner,  Aktensliicke  zur  Gesch,  des  Dn,r  ,  ':■  ,i 
Retches  unter  Rudolf  I  und  Albrecht    I    (Vienna,   ISSli*      !:;  ;  - 

MONT.   Gesch.  der  Stadt  Rom,  II  (Berlin,  1867),  611-14:  s 

Studien  zur  Gesch.  Papst  Nikolaus,  IV  (Berlin,  1897):  XU  —  i. 
Niccold  IV  (Sinigaglia,  1905);  Schaff,  History  of  the  t'fui^fnnt 
Church,  V,  pt.  I  (New  York,  1907),  207,  2S7,  410. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Nicholas  V,  Pope  (Tomm,\so  Parentdceli.i),  a 
name  ne\-er  to  be  mentioned  without  reverence  by  every 
lover  of  letters,  b.  at  Sarzana  in  Liguria,  1.5  November, 
1397;  d.  in  Rome,  24-5  March,  145.5.  While  still  a 
youth  he  lost  his  father,  a  poor  but  skilful  physician, 
and  was  thereby  prevented  from 
completing  his  studies  at  Bologna. 
He  became  tutor  in  the  families  of 
the  Strozzi  and  Albizzi  at  Florence, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
the  leading  Humanist  scholars  of 
the  day.  In  1419  he  returned  to 
Bologna,  and  three  years  later  took 
his  degree  as  master  of  theology. 
The  saintly  bishop  of  Bologna,  Nic- 
Arms  of  cold  Albergati,  now  took  him  into  his 

Nicholas  V  ser\'ice.  For  more  than  twenty  years 
ParentuceUi  was  the  bishop's  factotum,  and  in  that 
capacity  was  enabled  to  indulge  his  passion  for  build- 
ing and  that  of  collecting  books.  Unlike  many  biblio- 
philes he  was  as  well  acquainted  with  the  matter  con- 
tained within  his  volumes  as  with  their  bindings 
and  value.  Some  of  them  are  still  preserved,  and 
contain  many  marginal  notes  in  his  beautiful  writing. 
His  knowledge  was  of  the  encyclopedic  character 
not  unusual  at  a  time  when  the  learned  undertook 
to  argue  de  omni  re  scibili.  His  mind,  however, 
was  receptive  rather  than  productive.  Neverthe- 
less, he  could  make  good  use  of  what  he  had  studied, 
as  was  shown  at  the  Council  of  Florence  where  his 
familiarity  with  Patristic  and  Scholastic  theology 
gave  him  a  prominent  place  in  the  discussions 
with  the  Greek  bishops.  He  accompanied  Alber- 
gati in  various  legatine  missions,  notably  to  France, 
and  was  always  watchful  for  rare  and  beautiful 
books.  Eugene  IV  wished  to  attach  such  a  bril- 
liant .scholar  to  his  own  person;  but  ParentuceUi  re- 
mained faithful  to  his  patron.  On  the  death  of  the 
latter  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  in  the  See  of 
Bologna,  but  was  unable  to  take  possession  owing 
to  the  troubled  state  of  the  city.  This  led  to  his  be- 
ing entrusted  by  Pope  Eugene  with  important  diplo- 


matic  missions  in  Italy  and  Germany,  which  he  carried 
otit  with  such  success  that  he  obtained  as  his  reward 
a  cardinal's  hat  (Dec,  141(1).  I'/irly  next  year  (23 
Feb.)  Eugene  died,  and  Parciilucclli  was  elected  in  his 
place,  taking  as  his  name  Nicholas  m  memory  of  his 
obligations  to  Niccolo  AlbcrKali  ((1  March,  M17). 

As  soon  as  the  new  pontilT  w:is  linnly  se;iled  on  his 
throne,  it  was  felt  th.at  a  new  spirit  had  come  into  the 
papacy.  Now  that  there  was  no  longer  any  danger 
of  a  fresh  outbreak  of  schism  and  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance had  lost  all  influence,  Nicholas  could  devote 
himself  to  the  accomplishment  of  objects  which  were 
the  aim  of  his  life  and  had  been  the  means  of  raising 
him  to  his  present  exalted  position.     He  designed  to 


The  Vati. 


i.XV  CKN-rrRv) 


n.  Ko 


make  Rome  the  site  of  splendid  monuments,  the  home 
of  literature  and  art,  the  bulwark  of  the  papacy,  and 
the  worthy  capital  of  the  Christian  world.  His  first 
care  was  to  strengthen  the  fortifications,  and  restore 
the  churches  in  which  the  stations  were  held.  Next 
he  took  in  hand  the  cleansing  and  paving  of  the 
streets.  Rome,  once  famous  for  the  number  and 
magnificence  of  its  aqueducts,  had  become  almost  en- 
tirely dei^endent  for  its  water  supply  on  the  Tiber  and 
on  wells  and  cisterns.  The  "Aqua  Virgo",  originally 
constructed  by  Agrippa,  was  restored  by  Nicholas, 
and  is  to  this  day  the  most  prized  by  the  Romans,  un- 
der the  name  of  "Acqua  Trevi".  But  the  works  on 
which  he  especially  set  his  heart  were  the  rebuilding 
of  the  Leonine  City,  the  Vatican,  and  the  Basilica 
of  St.  Peter.  On  this  spot,  as  in  a  centre,  the  glories 
of  the  papacy  were  to  be  focused.  We  cannot  here 
enter  into  a  description  of  the  noble  designs  which  he 
entertained  (see  Pastor,  "History  of  the  Popes",  II, 
173  sqq.,  Eng.  tr.).  The  basilica,  the  palace,  and  the 
fortress  of  the  popes  are  not  now  what  he  would  have 
made  them;  but  their  actual  splendours  are  due  in  no 
small  measure  to  the  lofty  aspirations  of  Nicholas  V. 
He  has  been  severely  censurecl  for  pulling  down  a  por- 
tion of  the  old  St.  Peter's  and  planning  the  destruction 
of  the  remainder.  He  defended  his  action  on  the 
ground  that  the  buildings  were  on  the  verge  of  ruin 
(Mlintz,  "Les  Arts  k  la  Cour  des  Papes",  p.  118);  but 
the  almost  equally  ancient  Basilica  of  San  Paolo 
fuori  le  Mura  was  preserved  by  judicious  restorations 
until  it  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1823.  The  pontiff's 
veneration  for  antiquity  may  have  yielded  to  his  de- 
sire to  construct  an  edifice  more  in  harmony  with  the 
classical  taste  of  the  Renaissance  school,  of  which 
he  himself  was  so  .ardent  an  adherent.  Nothing  but 
praise,  however,  can  be  given  to  him  for  his  work  in 
the  Vatican  Palace.  Indeed  it  was  he  who  first  made 
it  the  worthy  residence  of  the  po))es.  Some  of  his 
constructions  still  remain,  notably  the  left  side  of  the 
court  of  St.  Damasus  and  the  chapel  of  San  Lorenzo, 
decorated  with  Fra  Angelico's  frescoes. 


NICHOLAS 


59 


NICHOLAS 


Though  a  patron  of  art  in  all  its  branches,  it  was 
literature  that  obtained  his  highest  favours.  His  Ufe- 
long  love  of  books  and  his  delight  in  the  company  of 
scholars  could  now  be  gratified  to  the  full.  His  im- 
mediate predecessors  had  held  the  Humanists  in  sus- 
picion; Nicholas  welcomed  them  to  the  Vatican  as 
friends.  Carried  away  by  his  enthusiasm  for  the  New 
Learning,  he  overlooked  any  irregularities  in  their 
morals  or  opinions.  He  accepted  the  dedication  of  a 
work  by  Poggio,  in  which  Eugene  was  assailed  as  a 
hypocrite;  Valla,  the  Voltaire  of  the  Renaissance,  was 
made  an  Apostolic  notary.  In  spite  of  the  demands 
on  his  resources  for  building  purposes,  he  was  always 
generous  to  deserving  scholars.  If  any  of  them  mod- 
estly declined  his  bounty,  he  would  say:  "Do  not 
refuse;  you  will  not  always  have  a  Nicholas  among 
you."  He  set  up  a  vast  establishment  in  the  Vatican 
for  translating  the  Greek  classics,  so  that  all  might  be- 
come familiar  with  at  least  the  matter  of  these  master- 
pieces. "No  department  of  literature  owes  so  much 
to  him  as  history.  By  him  were  introduced  to  the 
knowledge  of  western  Europe  two  great  and  unrivalled 
models  of  historical  composition,  the  work  of  Hero- 
dotus and  the  work  of  Thucydides.  By  him,  too, 
our  ancestors  were  first  made  acquainted  with  the 
graceful  and  lucid  simplicity  of  Xenophon  and  with 
the  manly  good  sense  of  Polybius"  (Macaulay, 
Speech  at  Glasgow  University).  The  crowning  glory 
of  his  pontificate  was  the  foundation  of  the  Vatican 
Library.  No  lay  sovereigns  had  such  opportunities  of 
collecting  books  as  the  popes.  Nicholas's  agents  ran- 
sacked the  monasteries  and  palaces  of  every  country 
in  Europe.  Precious  manuscripts,  which  would  have 
been  eaten  by  the  moths  or  would  have  found  their 
way  to  the  furnace,  were  rescued  from  their  ignorant 
owners  and  sumptuously  housed  in  the  Vatican.  In 
this  way  he  accumulated  five  thousand  volumes  at  a 
cost  of  more  than  forty  thousand  scudi.  "  It  was  his 
greatest  joy  to  walk  about  his  library  arranging  the 
books  and  glancing  through  their  pages,  admiring  the 
handsome  bindings,  and  taking  pleasure  in  contem- 
plating his  own  arms  stamped  on  those  that  had 
been  dedicated  to  him,  and  dwelling  in  thought  on  the 
gratitude  that  future  generations  of  scholars  would 
entertain  towards  their  benefactor.  Thus  he  is  to  be 
seen  depicted  in  one  of  the  halls  of  the  Vatican  library, 
employed  in  settling  his  books"  (Voigt,  quoted  by 
Pastor,  II,  213). 

His  devotion  to  art  and  literature  did  not  prevent 
him  from  the  performance  of  his  duties  as  Head  of  the 
Church.  By  the  Concordat  of  Vienna  (1448)  he  se- 
cured the  recognition  of  the  papal  rights  concerning 
bishoprics  and  benefices.  He  also  brought  about  the 
submission  of  the  last  of  the  antipopes,  Felix  V,  and 
the  dissolution  of  the  Synod  of  Basle  (1449).  In  ac- 
cordance with  his  general  principle  of  impressing  the 
popular  mind  by  outward  and  visible  signs,  he  pro- 
claimed a  Jubilee  which  was  the  fitting  symbol  of  the 
cessation  of  the  schism  and  the  restoration  of  the  au- 
thority of  the  popes  (14.50).  Vast  multitudes  flocked 
to  Rome  in  the  first  part  of  the  year ;  but  when  the  hot 
weather  began,  the  plague  which  had  been  ravaging 
the  countries  north  of  the  Alps  wrought  fearful  havoc 
among  the  pilgrims.  Nicholas  was  seized  with  a 
panic;  he  hurried  away  from  the  doomed  city  and  fled 
from  castle  to  castle  in  the  hope  of  escaping  infection. 
As  soon  as  the  pestilence  abated  he  returned  to  Rome, 
and  received  the  visits  of  many  German  princes  and 
prelates  who  had  long  been  upholders  of  the  decrees  of 
Constance  and  Basle.  But  another  terrible  calamity 
marred  the  general  rejoicings.  More  than  two  hun- 
dred pilgrims  lost  their  lives  in  a  crush  which  occurred 
on  the  bridge  of  Sant'  Angelo  a  few  days  before 
Christmas.  Nicholas  erected  two  chapels  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  bridge  where  Mass  was  to  be  said  daily 
for  the  repose  of  the  souls  of  the  victims. 

On  this  occasion,  as  in  previous  Jubilees,  vast  sums 


of  money  found  their  way  into  the  treasury  of  the 
Church,  thus  enabling  the  pontiff  to  carry  out  his  de- 
signs for  the  promotion  of  art  and  learning,  and  the 
support  of  the  poor.  As  the  Jubilee  was  the  proof 
that  Rome  was  the  centre  towards  which  all  Christen- 
dom was  drawn,  so  at  its  conclusion  Nicholas  sent 
forth  his  legates  into  the  different  countries  to  assert 
his  authority  and  to  bring  about  the  reform  of  abuses. 
Cardinal  D'Estouteville  was  sent  to  France;  Cardinal 
Nicholas  of  Cusa,  one  of  the  most  devout  antl  learned 
men  of  his  day,  was  sent  to  North  Germany  and  Eng- 
land; and  the  heroic  Franciscan,  St.  John  Capistran, 
to  South  Germany.  They  held  provincial  and  other 
synods  and  assemblies  of  the  regular  clergy,  in  which 
wholesome  decrees  were  made.  Nicholas  of  Cusa 
and  St.  John  preached  the  word  in  season  and  out 
of  season,  thereby  producing  wonderful  conversions 
among  both  clergy  and  laity.  If  they  did  not  succeed 
in  destroying  the  germs  of  the  Protestant  revolt,  they 
certainly  postponed  for  a  while  the  evil  and  nar- 
rowed the  sphere  of  its  influence.  It  should  be  noted 
that  Cusa  never  reached  England,  and  that  D'Es- 
touteville initiated  the  process  for  the  rehabilitation 
of  Bl.  Joan  of  Arc.  The  restored  authority  of  the 
Holy  See  was  further  manifested  by  the  coronation  of 
Frederick  III  as  Sovereign  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire 
— the  first  of  the  House  of  Habsburg  raised  to  that 
dignity,  and  the  last  of  the  emperors  crowned  in 
Rome  (1452). 

Meantime  the  pontiff's  own  subjects  caused  him 
great  an.xiety.  Stefano  Porcaro,  an  able  scholar  and 
politician,  who  h.ad  enjoyed  the  favour  of  Martin  V 
and  Eugene  IV,  made  several  attempts  to  set  up  a  re- 
public in  Rome.  Twice  he  was  pardoned  and  pen- 
sioned by  the  generous  Nicholas,  who  would  not  sacri- 
fice such  an  ornament  of  the  New  Learning.  At  last 
he  was  seized  on  the  eve  of  a  third  plot,  and  con- 
demned to  death  (Jan.,  1453).  A  deep  gloom  now 
settled  down  on  the  pontiff.  His  magnificent  designs 
for  the  glory  of  Rome  and  his  mild  government  of  his 
subjects  had  not  been  able  to  quell  the  spirit  of  re- 
bellion. He  began  to  collect  troops  and  never  stirred 
abroad  without  a  strong  guard.  His  health,  too, 
began  to  suffer  seriously,  though  he  was  by  no  means 
an  old  man.  And  before  the  conspiracy  was  thor- 
oughly stamped  out  a  fresh  blow  struck  him  from 
which  he  never  recovered.  We  have  seen  what  a 
prominent  part  Parentucelli  had  taken  in  the  Council 
of  Florence.  The  submission  of  the  Greek  bishops 
had  not  been  sincere.  On  their  return  to  Constan- 
tinople most  of  them  openly  rejected  the  decrees  of 
the  council  and  declared  for  the  continuance  of  the 
schism.  Eugene  IV  vainly  endeavoured  to  stir  up 
the  Western  nations  against  the  ever-advancing 
■Turks.  Some  help  was  given  by  the  Republics  of 
Venice  and  Genoa;  but  Hungary  and  Poland,  more 
nearly  menaced,  sujjplied  the  bulk  of  the  forces.  A 
victory  at  Nish  (1443)  had  been  followed  by  two  ter- 
rible defeats  (Varna,  1444,  and  Kosovo,  1449).  The 
whole  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  except  Constantinople, 
was  now  at  the  mercy  of  the  infidels.  The  emperor, 
Constantine  XII,  sent  messages  to  Rome  imploring 
the  pope  to  summon  the  Christian  peoples  to  his  aid. 
Nicholas  sternly  reminded  him  of  the  promises  made 
at  Florence,  and  insisted  that  the  terms  of  the  union 
should  be  observed.  Nevertheless  the  fear  that  the 
Turks  would  attack  Italy,  if  they  succeeded  in  captur- 
ing the  bulwark  of  the  east,  induced  the  pontiff  to  take 
some  action — especially  as  the  emperor  professed  his 
readiness  to  accept  the  d(-crees  of  the  council.  In 
May,  1452,  Cardin:d  Isidore,  an  cut husia-stic Greek 
patriot,  was  sent  .as  legate  to  ('onstaiiliiiople.  A  .sol- 
emn function  in  honour  of  the  union  was  celebrated 
on  12  Dec,  14.52,  with  prayers  for  the  pope  and  for 
the  patriarch,  Gregorius.  But  the  rlergy  and  the 
populace  cursed  the  Uniates  and  boasted  that  they 
would  rather  submit  to  the  turban  of  the  Turk  than 


NICHOLAS 


60 


NICHOLAS 


to  the  tiara  of  the  Roman  Pontiff.  After  many  oU- 
stadcs  and  delays  a  force  of  ten  papal  galleys  anil  a 
number  of  vessels  furnished  by  Xaples,  (!enoa,  and 
Venice  set  sail  for  the  Ivist,  but  before  they  rcticlicd 
their  destination  the  imperial  city  had  fallen  and  the 
Emperor  Constantine  was  no  more  (29  May,  1  l"i:>). 
Whate\'er  may  have  been  the  dilatoriness  of  Nicholas 
up  to  this  point — and  it  must  be  acknowhHlgeti  tliat 
he  luui  good  reason  for  not  helping  the  Clreeks — he 
now  lost  no  time.  He  addressed  a  Bull  of  Crusade 
to  the  whole  of  Christendom.  Kvery  sort  of  induce- 
ment, .spiritual  and  temporal,  was  held  out  to  those 
who  should  take  [lart  in  the  holy  war.  Princes  were 
exhorted  to  sink  their  dilTereuces  and  to  unite  against 
the  common  foe.  Hut  t he  days  of  chivalry  were  gone: 
most  of  the  nations  took  no  notice  of  the  appeal;  some 
of  them,  such  as  Clcnoa  and  Venice,  even  solicited 
the  friendship  of  the  infidels. 

The  gloom  which  had  settled  upon  Nicholas  after 
Porcaro's  conspiracy  grew  deeper  as  he  realized  that 
his  warning  voice  had  been  unheeded.  Gout,  fever, 
and  other  maladies  warned  him  that  his  end  was  at 
hand,  ."summoning  the  cardinals  around  him,  he  de- 
livered to  them  the  famous  discourse  in  which  he 
set  before  them  the  objects  for  which  he  had  laboured, 
antl  enumerated  with  pardonable  pride  the  noble 
works  which  he  had  accomplished  (Pastor,  II,  311). 
He  died  on  the  night  between  24  and  2.5  of  March, 
1455,  and  was  laid  in  St.  Peter's  by  the  side  of  Eugene 
IV.  His  splendid  tomb  was  taken  down  by  Paul  V, 
and  removed  to  the  crypt,  where  some  portions  of  it 
may  still  be  seen.  His  epitaph,  the  last  by  which  any 
pope  was  commemorated,  was  written  by  iEneas 
Sylvius,  afterwards  Pius  II. 

Nicholas  was  small  in  stature  and  weakly  in  consti- 
tution. His  features  were  clear-cut;  his  complexion 
pale;  his  eyes  dark  and  piercing.  In  disposition  he 
was  lively  and  impetuous.  A  scholar  rather  than  a 
man  of  action,  he  underrated  difficulties,  and  was  im- 
patient when  he  was  not  instantly  understood  and 
obeyed.  At  the  same  time  he  was  obliging  and  cheer- 
ful, and  readily  granted  audience  to  his  subjects. 
He  was  a  man  of  sincere  piety,  simple  and  temper- 
ate in  his  habits.  He  was  entirely  free  from  the 
bane  of  nepotism;  and  exercised  great  care  in  the 
choice  of  cardinals.  We  may  truly  say  that  the  lofty 
aims,  the  scholarly  and  artistic  tastes,  and  the  noble 
generosity  of  Nicholas  form  one  of  the  brightest  pages 
in  the  history  of  the  popes. 

Platina,  Lives  of  the  Popes  CEnglish  translation,  London);  Ves- 
PASIANO  DA  BiSTlccr,  Vite  di  uomini  ittustri  del  secolo  X  V  (Rome, 
1839);  Sforza.  Rieerche  su  Niccold  V  (Lucca,  1884);  Muntz. 
Les  Arts  d  la  cour  des  papes  pendant  le  xW  et  le  xvi"  Steele 
(Paris,  1878-9);  Pastor,  History  of  the  Popes,  II,  1-314,  very 
complete  and  well  documented  (Eng.  tr.,  London,  1S91);  Gre- 
GOROvius,  Gesch.  der  Stadt  Rom  (Stuttgart.  1894) ;  Reumont, 
Gesch.  der  Stadt  Rom.  Ill  (Berlin,  1867-70);  Ckeiohton,  History 
of  the  Papacy,  III  (London,  1897);  GciRAtlD,  Ueglise  romaine  et 
les  origines  de  la  renaissance  (Paris,  1904);  MiLMAN,  History  of 
Latin  Christianity,  VIII  (London,  1867). 

T.     B.    SCANNELL. 

Nicholas  Justiniani,  Blessed,  date  of  birth  un- 
known, became  monk  in  the  Benedictine  monastery 
of  San  Niccold  del  Lido  at  Venice  in  1153.  When,  in 
a  military  expedition  of  the  Venetians  in  1172,  all  the 
other  members  of  the  family  of  the  Justiniani  per- 
ished in  the  JDgean  Sea  near  the  Island  of  Chios,  the 
Republic  of  Venice  mourned  over  this  disaster  to  so 
noble  a  family  as  over  a  public  calamity.  In  order 
that  the  entire  family  might  not  die  out,  the  Venetian 
Government  sent  Baron  Morosin  and  Toma  Falier  as 
delegates  to  Alexander  III,  with  the  request  to  dis- 
pense Nichohis  from  his  monastic  vows.  The  dis- 
pensation was  granted,  and  Nicholas  married  Anna, 
thedaughter  of  Uoge  Michieli,  becoming  through  her 
the  parent  of  five  new  lines  of  his  family.  Shortly 
after  1179  he  returned  to  the  mona-stery  of  San  Niecolo 
del  Lido,  having  previou.sly  founded  a  convent  for 
women  on  the  Island  of  Aniano,  where  his  wife  took 


the  veil.  Both  he  and  Ills  wife  died  in  the  odour  of 
sanctity  and  were  \'ener.ated  by  the  pcoi)le,  though 
neither  was  r\  CI  fuiin;ill\  JH-.iified. 

Gennahi,  A  '■     ^  :  1  rnlo  Giustiniani,  monaco  di 

S.  Nicclo  del   I  I      Pi.     l,M     \,.iice,   1845);  Giurtiniano, 

Epistola  ad  I'i'i /'/n,     ,,',-(  <  i  <:  i  ^.^irnum  in   qua  B.  Nicholai 

Justiniani  Vettrti  mori'irhntia^  n  fnhulis  i'«7itsf/KC  commentis  asseri- 
tur  (Trent,  1746);  MnKATOKI,  Rerum  Italicarum  scriptores,  XII, 
293  and  XXII,  503  aq. 

Michael  Ott. 
Nicholas     of     Clemanges.      See     Clemanges, 

Mathieu-Nicolas  Poillevillain  de. 

Nicholas  of  Cusa,  German  cardinal,  philoso])her, 
and  administrator,  b.  at  Cues  on  the  MoscU,',  in 
the  Archdiocese  of  Trier,  1400  or  1401 ;  d.  at  Todi, 
in  Umbria,  11  August,  1464.  His  father,  Johann 
Cryfts  (Krebs),  a  wealthy  boatman  (naula,  not  a 
"poor  fisherman"),  died  in  14.50  or  1451,  and  his 
mother,  Catharina  Roenurs,  in  1427.  The  legend 
that  Nicholas  fled  from  the  in-lrciiliiicnt  of  his  father 
to  Count  Ulrich  of  Mandirsclicid  is  doubtfully  re- 
ported by  Hartzheim  (Vita  N.  de  Cu.sa,  Trier,  1730), 
and  has  never  been  proved.  Of  his  early  educa- 
tion in  a  school  of  Deventer  nothing  is  known;  but 
in  1416  he  was  matriculated  in  the  University  of 
Heidelberg,  by  Rector  Nicholas  of  Bettenberg,  as 
"Nicolaus  Cancer  de  Coesze,  eler[icus]  Trever[ensis| 
dioc[esis]".  A  year  later,  1417,  he  left  for  Padua, 
where  he  graduated,  in  1423,  as  doctor  in  canon  law 
(decretorum  doctor)  under  the  celebrated  Giuliano 
Cesarini.  It  is  said  that,  in  later  years,  he  was  hon- 
oured with  the  doctorate  in  civil  law  by  the  Univer- 
sity of  Bologna.  At  Padua  he  became  the  friend  of 
Paolo  Toscanelli,  afterwards  a  celebrated  physician 
and  scientist.  He  studied  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  and, 
in  later  years,  Arabic,  though,  as  his  friend  Johannes 
Andrea;,  Bishop  of  Aleria,  testifies,  and  as  appears  from 
the  style  of  his  writings,  he  was  not  a  lover  of  rhetoric 
and  poetry.  That  the  loss  of  a  lawsuit  at  Mainz 
should  have  decided  his  choice  of  the  clerical  slate, 
is  not  supported  by  his  previous  career.  Aided  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Trier,  he  matriculated  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cologne,  for  divinity,  under  the  rectorship 
of  Petrus  von  Weiler,  in  1425.  His  identity  with  the 
"Nicolaus  Trevirensis",  who  is  mentioned  as  secre- 
tary to  Cardinal  Orsini,  and  papal  legate  for  Germany 
in  1426,  is  not  certain.  After  1428,  benefices  at 
Coblenz,  Oberwesel,  Miinstermaifeld,  Dypurgh,  St. 
Wendel,  and  Liege  fell  to  his  lot,  successively  or  si- 
multaneously. 

His  public  career  began  in  1431,  at  the  Council  of 
Basle,  which  opened  under  the  presidency  of  his  for- 
mer teacher,  Giuliano  Cesarini.  The  cause  of  Count 
Ulrich  of  Manderscheid,  which  he  defended,  was  lost 
and  the  transactions  with  the  Bohemians,  in  which  he 
represented  the  German  nation,  proved  fruitless.  His 
main  efforts  at  the  council  were  for  the  reform  of  the 
calendar  and  for  the  unity,  political  and  religious,  of 
all  Christendom.  In  1437  the  orthodox  minority  sent 
him  to  Eugene  IV,  whom  he  strongly  supported.  The 
pope  entrusted  him  with  a  mission  to  Constantinople, 
where,  in  the  course  of  two  months,  besides  discover- 
ing Greek  manuscripts  of  St.  Basil  and  St.  John  Dam- 
ascene, he  gained  over  for  the  Council  of  P'lorence, 
the  emperor,  the  patriarch,  and  twenty-eight  arch- 
bishops. After  reporting  the  result  of  his  mission 
to  the  pope  at  Ferrara,  in  1438,  he  was  created  papal 
legate  to  support  the  cause  of  Eugene  IV.  He  did 
so  before  the  Diets  of  Mainz  (1441),  Frankfort  (1442), 
Nuremberg  (1444),  again  of  Frankfort  (1446),  and 
even  at  the  court  of  Charles  VII  of  France,  with  such 
force  that  jEneas  Sylvius  called  him  the  Hercules  of 
the  Eugenians.  As  a  reward  Eugene  IV  nominated 
him  cardinal;  but  Nicholas  declined  the  dignity.  It 
needed  a  command  of  the  next  pope,  Nichohis  V,  to 
bring  him  to  Rome  for  the  acceptance  of  this  honour. 
In  1449  he  was  proclaimed  cardinal-priest  of  the  title 
of  St.  Peter  ad  Vincula. 


NICHOLAS 


61 


NICHOLAS 


His  new  dignity  was  frauglit  with  labours  and 
crosses.  The  Diocese  of  Brixen,  the  see  of  which  was 
vacant,  needed  a  reformer.  The  Cardinal  of  Cusa 
was  appointed  (1450),  but,  owing  to  the  opposition 
of  the  chapter  and  of  Sigmund,  Duke  of  Austria  and 
Count  of  the  Tyrol,  could  not  take  possession  of  the 
see  until  two  years  later.  In  the  meantime  the  cardi- 
nal was  sent  by  Nicholas  V,  as  papal  legate,  to 
Northern  Germany  and  the  Netherlands.  He  was  to 
preach  the  Jubilee  indulgence  and  to  promote  the 
crusade  against  the  Turks;  to  visit,  reform,  and  cor- 
rect parishes,  monasteries,  hospitals;  to  endeavour  to 
reunite  the  Hussites  with  the  Church;  to  end  the 
dissensions  between  the  Duke  of  Cleve  and  the 
Archbishop  of  Cologne;  and  to  treat  with  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy  with  a  view  to  peace  between  England 
and  France.  He  crossed  the  Brenner  in  January, 
1451,  held  a  provincial  synod  at  Salzburg,  visited 
Vienna,  Munich,  Ratisbon,  and  Nuremberg,  held  a 
diocesan  synod  at  Bamberg,  presided  over  the  pro- 
vincial chapter  of  tlie  Benedictines  at  Wiirzburg, 
and  reformed  the  monasteries  in  the  Dioceses  of 
Erfurt,  Thuringia, 
Magdeburg,  Hildes- 
heim,  and  Minden. 
Through  the  Nether- 
lands he  was  accom- 
panied by  his  friend 
Denys  the  Carthu- 
sian. Inl452hecon- 
cluded  his  visitations 
by  holding  a  provin- 
cial synod  at  Co- 
logne. Everywhere, 
according  to  Abbot 
Trithemius,  he  had 
appeared  as  an  angel 
of  light  and  peire, 
but  it  was  not  to  be 
so  in  his  own  duH  i  ^e 
The  troubles  ixgui 
with  the  Pool  (  Ui<  s 
of  Bri.xen  and  the 
Benedictine  nuns  of 
Sonnenburg  who 
needed  reform  ition, 
but  were  shielded  b> 
Duke  Sigmund.  The 
cardinal  had  to  take  refuge  in  thestronghold  of  Audraz, 
at  Buchcnstein,  and  finally,  by  special  authority  re- 
ceived from  Pius  II,  pronounced  an  interdict  upon 
the  Countship  of  the  Tyrol.  In  1460  the  duke  made 
him  prisoner  at  Burneck  and  extorted  from  him  a 
treaty  unfavourable  to  the  bishopric.  Nicholas  fled 
to  Pope  Pius  II,  who  excommunicated  the  duke  and 
laid  an  interdict  upon  the  diocese,  to  be  enforced  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg.  But  the  duke,  himself 
an  immoral  man,  and,  further,  instigated  by  the  anti- 
papal  humanist  Heimburg,  defied  the  pope  and  ap- 
pealed to  a  general  council.  It  needed  the  strong  in- 
fluence of  tbe  emperor,  Frederick  III,  to  make  him 
finally  (1464)  submit  to  the  Church.  This  took  place 
some  days  after  the  cardinal's  death.  The  account 
of  the  twelve  years'  struggle  given  by  Jager  and,  after 
him,  by  Prantl,  is  unfair  to  the  "foreign  reformer" 
(see  Pastor,  op.  eit.  infra,  II).  The  cardinal,  who  had 
accompanied  Pius  II  to  the  Venetian  fleet  at  Ancona, 
was  sent  by  the  pope  to  Leghorn  to  hasten  the  Genoese 
crusaders,  but  on  the  way  succumbed  to  an  illness, 
the  result  of  his  ill-treatment  at  the  hands  of  Sig- 
mund, from  which  he  had  never  fully  recovered.  He 
died  at  Todi,  in  the  presence  of  his  friends,  the  phy- 
sician Toscanelli  and  Bishop  Johannes  Andreie. 

The  body  of  Nicholas  of  Cusa  rests  in  his  own  titu- 
lar church  in  Rome,  beneath  an  effigy  of  him  sculp- 
tured in  relief,  but  his  heart  is  deposited  before  the 
altar  in  the  hospital  of  Cues.     This  hospital  was  the 


cardinal's  own  foundation.  By  mutual  agreement 
with  his  sister  Clare  and  his  brother  John,  his  entire 
inheritance  was  made  the  basis  of  the  foundation,  and 
by  the  cardinal's  last  will  his  altar  service,  manuscript 
library,  and  scientific  instruments  were  bequeathed  to 
it.  The  extensive  buildings  with  chapel,  cloister,  and 
refectory,  which  were  erected  in  1451-56,  stand  to  this 
day,  and  serve  their  original  purpose  of  a  home  for 
thirty-three  old  men,  in  honour  of  the  thirty-three 
years  of  Christ's  earthly  life.  Another  foundation  of 
the  cardinal  was  a  residence  at  Deventer,  called  the 
Bursa  Cusana,  where  twenty  poor  clerical  students 
were  to  be  supported.  Among  bequests,  a  sum  of  260 
ducats  was  left  to  S.  Maria  dell'  Anima  in  Rome,  for 
an  infirmary.  In  the  archives  of  this  institution  is 
found  the  original  document  of  the  cardinal's  last  will. 
The  writings  of  Cardinal  Nicholas  may  be  classified 
under  four  heads:  (1)  juridical  writings:  "De  concor- 
dantia  catholica"  and  "De  auctoritate  prjesidendi  in 
conciho  generali "  (1432-35),  both  written  on  occasion 
of  the  Council  of  Basle.  The  superiority  of  the  general 
councils  over  the  pope  is  maintained;  though,  when 
the  majority  of  the 
assembly  drew  from 
these  writings  start- 
ling conclusions  un- 
favourable to  Pope 
Eugene,  the  author 
seems  to  have 
changed  his  views, 
as  appears  from  his 
art  ion  after  1437. 
The  political  reforms 
)>iii]iosed  were  skil- 
liillv  utilized  bv 
I  .urresin  1814.  (2") 
In  his  philosophical 
-'iitings,  composed 
liter  14.39,  he  set 
aside  the  definitions 
and  methods  of  the 
"Aristotelean  Sect" 
antl  replaced  them 
by  deep  speculations 
and  mystical  forms 
of  his  own.  The  best 
known  in  his  first 
treati.se,  "De  docta 
ignorantia"  (1439-40),  on  the  finite  and  the  infinite. 
The  Theory  of  Knowledge  is  critically  examined  in 
the  treatise  "De  conjecturis"  (1440-44)  and  espe- 
cially in  the  "Compendium"  (1464).  In  his  Cosmol- 
ogy he  calls  the  Creator  the  Possest  (]>osse-est,  the 
possible-actual),  alluding  to  the  argument:  God  is 
possible,  therefore  actual.  His  itiicrocosmos  in  created 
things  has  some  similarity  with  the  "monads"  and 
the  "emanation"  of  Leibniz.  (3)  The  theological 
treatises  are  dogmatic,  ascetic,  and  mystic.  "De 
cribratione  alchorani"  (1460)  was  occasioned  by  his 
visit  to  Constantinople,  and  was  written  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Mohammedans.  For  the  faithful  were 
written:  "De  quaerendo  Deum"  (1445),  "Defiliatione 
Dei"  (1445),  " De visione Dei "  (14.53),  "Excitationum 
libri  X"  (1431-64),  and  others.  The  favourite  sub- 
ject of  his  mystical  speculations  was  th(!  Trinity. 
His  concept  of  God  has  been  much  disputed,  and  has 
even  been  called  pantheistic.  The  coni  cxf  of  his  writ- 
ings proves.however,  that  they  are  all  st  rict  ly  Christ  ian. 
Scharpff  calls  his  theology  a  Thomas  a  Kcnipis  in  phil- 
osophical language.  (4)  The  scientific  writings  con- 
sist of  adozen  treatises,  mostly  short.,  of  which  the  "  Re- 
paratio  Calendarii"  (1436),  with  a  correction  of  the 
Alphonsine  Tables,  is  the  most  important.  (For  an  ac- 
count of  its  ('ontents  and  its  results,  see  Lilius,  Aloi- 
sius.)  The  shorter  malheinalical  treati.scs  are  ex- 
amined in  Kiistner's  "History  of  Mathematics",  II. 
Among  them  is  a  claim  for  the  exact  quadrature  of  the 


NICHOLAS 


62 


NICHOLAS 


circle,  which  was  refuted  by  Rogiomontanus  [see 
MiJLLER  (Regiomontanus),  Johann],  The  astro- 
nomical views  of  tlie  cardinal  are  scattered  through 
his  philosoiihical  treatises.  They  evince  complete 
independence  of  traditional  doctrines,  though  they  are 
based  on  symbolism  of  numbers,  on  combinations  of 
letters,  and  on  abst  ract  speculations  rather  than  obser- 
vation. The  earth  is  a  star  like  other  stars,  is  not  the 
centre  of  the  universe,  is  not  at  rest,  nor  are  its  jioles 
fi.xcd.  The  celestial  bodies  are  not  strictly  spherical, 
nor  are  their  orbits  circular.  The  difference  between 
theory  and  appearance  is  explained  by  relative  mot  ion. 
Had  Copernicus  been  aware  of  these  assertions  he 
would  probably  ha\e  been  encouraged  by  them  to 
publish  his  own  monumental  work.  The  collected 
editions  of  Nicholas  of  Cusa's  works  are:  Incunabula 
(before  1470)  in  2  vols.,  incomplete;  Paris  (1514)  in  3 
vols.;  Basle  (156.5)^  in  3  vols. 

Dux,  Der  deutsche  Kardirtal  Xiko~ 
iaus  ron  Cusa  und  die  Kirche  seiner 
ZcU  (Ratisbon,  1S47);  Clemens, 
Giordano  Bruno  u.  Nikotaits  ron  Cusa 
(Bonn,  1847);  Zimmermann.  Dpt 
Kardinal  N.  C.  ah  Vorkiufer  Lcibni- 
lens  in  Sitzungsber.  Phil.  Kl.  VIII 
(Vienna,  1852) ;  Jager.  Der  Streit  des 
Kardinals  N.  v.  C.  (Innsbruck,  1861) ; 
Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte,  VII 
(Freiburg,  1869):  Scharpfp,  Der 
Kardinal  u.  Bischof  N.  r.  C.  (Tu- 
bingen, 1871)  I  Gbube  in  Hist.  Jahrb. 
d.  aerres-GeseUscha.n,  I  (1880),  Die 
Legaiionsreise;  Uebinger,  Philoso- 
phie  d.  N.  C.  (Wurzburg.  1880).  dis- 
sert. :  Idem  in  Hist.  Jahrb.  d.  Gijrres- 
Ges.,  VIII  (1887),  Kardinnllegat  N. 
V.  C:  Idem,  ibU.,  XIV  (1.S93),  Zur 
Lebensgesch.  des  N.  C;  Idem,  Die 
Gottestehre  des  N.  C.  (Miinster  and 
Paderbom,  1888):  B:rk  in  Theal. 
Quartalschr.,  LXXIV  (Tubingen, 
1892);  Janssen.  Geschichte  des  dcut- 
schen  Volkcs,  I  (Freiburg,  1897).  .3-6, 
tr.  Christie  (London  and  St.  Louis, 
1908) :  Pastor.  Geschichte  der  Pdpste, 
II  (Freiburg.  1904),  tr.  Antrobus 
(St.  Louis,  1902) :  MARx,FerzeicAni.ss 
der  Handschr.  des  Hospitals  zu  Cues 
(Trier,  1905);  Idem,  Geschichte  des 
Armen-HospUals  .  .  .  ru  Cues  (Trier, 
1907) ;  Valgib,  La  Crise  religieuse  du 
XV'  siicle  (Paris,  1909). 

J.  G.  Hagen. 

Nicholas    of    Fliie    (Db  Cari.inm  nl 

Rdpe),  Blessed,  b. 21  March,  Portrait  in  ihu  h....i,iial 
1417,  on  the  Fliieli,  a  fertile  plateau  near  Sachspln, 
Canton  Obwalden,  Switzerland;  d.  21  March,  1487, 
as  a  recluse  in  a  neighbouring  ravine,  called  Ranft. 
He  was  the  oldest  son  of  pious,  well-to-do  peasants  and 
from  his  earliest  youth  was  fond  of  prayer,  practised 
mortification,  and  conscientiously  performed  the 
labour  of  a  peasant  boy.  At  the  age  of  21  he  entered 
the  army  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Ragaz  in  1446. 
Probably  he  fought  in  the  battles  near  the  Etzel  in 
1439,  nearBaar  in  the  Canton  of  Zug  in  1443,  and  as- 
sisted in  the  capture  of  Zurich  in  1444.  He  took  up 
arms  again  in  the  so-called  Thurgau  war  against 
Archduke  .Sigismund  of  Austria  in  1460.  It  was  due 
to  his  influence  that  the  Dominican  Convent  St. 
Katharinental,  whither  many  Austrians  had  fled  after 
the  capture  of  Diessenhofen,  was  not  destroyed  by 
the  Swiss  confederates.  Heeding  the  advice  of  his 
parents  he  married,  about  the  age  of  twenty-five,  a 
pious  girl  from  Hachseln,  named  Dorothy  Wyssling, 
who  bore  him  five  sons  and  five  daughters.  His 
youngest  son,  Nicholas,  born  in  14(57,  became  a  priest 
and  a  doctor  of  theology.  Though  averse  to  worldly 
dignities,  he  was  elected  cantonal  councillor  and  judge. 
The  fact  that  in  1462  he  was  one  of  five  arbiters  ap- 
pointed to  settle  a  dispute  between  the  parish  of  Stans 
and  the  monastery  of  Engelberg,  shows  t  he  esteem  in 
which  he  was  held.  After  living  about  twenty-five 
years  in  wedlock  he  listened  to  an  inspiration  of  God 
and  with  the  consent  of  his  wife  left  his  family  on 
16  October,  1467,  to  live  as  a  hermit.     At  first  he  in- 


tended to  go  to  a  foreign  country,  but  when  he  came 
into  the  neighbourhood  of  Basle,  a  divine  inspiration 
ordered  him  to  take  up  his  ahode  in  the  Ranft,  a  val- 
ley along  the  Melcha,  about  :ui  hour's  walk  from  Sach- 
seln.  Here,  known  as"  Brother  Kl;uis",  he  abode  over 
twenty  years,  without  t;ikiiig  :uiy  bodily  food  or 
drink,  as  was  est:il)lished  through  ;i  careful  investiga- 
tion, made  by  the  civil  as  well  us  (he  ecclesiastical  au- 
thorities of  his  times.  He  wore  neither  shoes  nor  cap, 
and  even  in  winter  was  clad  merely  in  a  hermit  s 
gown.  In  1468  he  saved  the  town  of  Sarnen  from  a 
conflagration  by  his  prayers  und  the  sign  of  the  cross. 
God  also  favoured  him  with  niuiicrous  visions  and  the 
gift  of  prophecy.  Distinguished  iiersons  from  nearly 
every  country  of  Europe  came  to  him  for  counsel  in 
matters  of  the  utmost  importance.  At  first  he  livefl  in 
a  narrow  hut,  which  he  himself  had  built  with  branches 
and  leaves,  and  came  dail)'  to 
Mass  either  at  Sachseln  or  at 
Kerns.  Early  in  1469  the 
civil  authorities  built  a  cell 
:inil  u  chapel  for  him,  and  on 
2i)  .^i^ril  of  the  same  year  the 
chapel  was  dedicated  by  the 
vicar-general  of  Constance, 
Thomas,  Bishop  of  Ascalon. 
In  1479  a  chaplain  was  put  in 
charge  of  the  chapel,  and 
tlieiiceforth  Nicholas  always 
rciiKiiued  in  the  Ranft.  When 
III  I  IM)  delegates  of  the  Swiss 
ciiiiii'ilerates  assembled  at 
.■^tuns  to  settle  their  differ- 
ences, and  civil  war  seemed 
inevitable,  Henry  Imgrund, 
the  pastor  of  Stans,  hastened 
to  Nicholas,  begging  him  to 
prevent  the  shedding  of  blood. 
The  priest  returned  to  the 
(leleg;ites  with  the  hermit's 
ciiun.selsand  propositions,  and 
civil  war  was  averted.  Nicho- 
las was  beatified  by  Pope 
Clement  IX  in  1669.  Numer- 
ous pilgrims  visit  the  chapel 
near  the  church  of  .Sachseln, 
where  his  relics  are  preserved, 
on  21  March. 

Ml         /•  '.  <im  Flue,  seinLeben  und  Wirkenii 

voU  ,    I  ■:  I    '  '  ON' Ah.  Des  seligen  Einsiedlers  Niko- 

/«(/,s('    //..  -     /.' 'h^h  (Einsiedeln.  1887):  Badmberger, 

Der  .-o'l.  Mkol,iu.i  run  Fli,e  (Kempten  and  Munich,  1906):  .icia 
SS.,  Ill,  March,  398-439;  Wetzel,  Der  set.  Nikolaus  von  Flue 
(Einsiedeln.  1887;  Ravensburg,  1896)  tr.  into  Italian,  Mondada 
(Turin,  1888) ;  de  Belloc,  Le  bienheureux  Nicolas  de  Fliie  et  la 
Suisse  d'autrefois  (Paris,  1889) ;  Blake,  A  hero  of  the  .Swiss  Repub~ 
He  in  The  Catholic  World,  LXV  (New  York,  1897),  658-673. 

Michael  Ott. 

Nicholas  of  Gorran  (or  Gorrain),  medieval 
preacher,  and  scriptural  commentator;  b.  in  1232  at 
Gorron,  France;  d.  about  129,5.  He  entered  the  Do- 
minican Order  in  the  convent  of  his  native  town  and 
became  one  of  its  most  illustrious  alumni.  His  tal- 
ents singled  him  out  for  special  educational  opportuni- 
ties, and  he  was  sent  accordingly  to  the  famous  convent 
of  St.  James  in  Paris.  In  this  convent  he  subse- 
quently served  several  terms  as  prior.  His  piety  and 
sound  judgment  attracted  the  attention  of  Philip  IV 
of  France,  whom  he  served  in  the  double  capacity  of 
confessor  and  adviser.  In  most  of  his  ecclesiastical 
studies  he  does  not  seem  to  have  excelled  notably ;  but 
in  preaching  and  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures he  was  unsurpassed  by  any  of  his  contempo- 
raries. His  scriptural  writings  treat  of  all  the  books  of 
the  Old  and  the  New  Testament,  and  possess  more 
than  ordinary  merit.  Indeed,  in  such  high  esteem 
were  they  held  by  the  doctors  of  the  University  of 
Paris  that  the  latter  were  wont  to  designate  their  au- 


Hi 


NICHOLAS 


63 


NICHOLAS 


thor  as  excellens  postulator.  The  commentaries  on  the 
Books  of  Ecclesiastes,  Ezechiel,  and  Daniel,  while  gen- 
erally attributed  to  Nicholas  of  Gorran,  have  at  times 
been  ascribed  to  a  different  authorship.  His  commen- 
tary on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  is  remarkably  well 
done,  and  his  gloss  on  the  Apocalypse  was  deemed 
worthy  of  the  highest  commendation.  Besides  his 
Scriptural  writings  he  commented  on  the  Lombard's 
Book  of  Sentences  and  on  the  Book  of  Distinctions. 
His  commentaries  on  the  Gospels  were  published  in 
folio  at  Cologne  (1573)  by  Peter  Quentel;  and  at  Ant- 
werp (1(317)  by  John  Keerberg.  His  commentaries 
on  the  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul  were  published 
at  Cologne  (1478); 
Hagenau(1502) ;  Paris 
(1521);  Antwerp 
(1617). 

QU^TIP  -  ECHARD.       SS. 

Ord.  Prad..  I;  I-.^jard, 
Histoire  litt.  de  Francp,  XX 
(Paris,       1842).      .324-50: 


Den 


1  Cha 


Chartulariun 
sien.,  II  (Paria,  ISUl). 
John  B.  O'Connor. 

Nicholas  of  Lyra 

(Doctor  planus  rt  iili- 
Hs),  exegete,  b.  at 
Lvra  in  Normandy, 
1270;d.  at  Paris,  1340. 
The  report  that  he 
was  of  Jewish  descent 
dates  only  from  the 
fifteenth  century.  He 
took  the  Franciscan 
habit  at  Verneuil, 
studied  theology,  re- 
ceived the  doctor's  de- 
gree in  Paris  and  was 
appointed  professor  . 
at  the  Sorbonne.  In 
the  famous  contro- 
versy on  the  Beatific 
Vision  he  took  sides 
with  the  professors 
against  John  XXII. 
He  laboured  very 
successfully,  both  in 
preaching  and  writ- 
ing, for  the  conversion 
of  the  Jews.  He  is  the 
author    of   numerous 


I  (II  Moretto) 


theological  works,  some  of  which  are  yet  unpublished. 
It  was  to  exegesis  that  Nicholas  of  Lyra  devoted  his 
best  years.  In  the  second  prologue  to  his  monumental 
work,"Postill£e  perpetuie  in  universamS.Scripturam", 
after  stating  that  the  literal  sense  of  Sacred  Scripture 
is  the  foundation  of  all  mystical  expositions,  and  that 
it  alone  has  demonstrative  force,  as  St.  Augustine 
teaches,  he  deplores  the  state  of  Biblical  studies  in 
his  time.  The  literal  sense,  he  avers,  is  much  ob- 
scured, owing  partly  to  the  carelessness  of  the  copy- 
ists, partly  to  the  unskilfulness  of  some  of  the  cor- 
rectors, and  partly  also  to  our  own  translation  (the 
Vulgate),  which  not  infrequently  departs  from  the 
original  Hebrew.  He  holds  with  St.  Jerome  that 
the  text  must  be  corrected  from  the  Hebrew  codices, 
except  of  course  the  prophecies  concerning  the  Divin- 
ity of  Christ.  Another  reason  for  this  obscurity, 
Nicholas  goes  on  to  say,  is  the  attachment  of  scholars 
to  the  method  of  interpretation  handed  down  by 
others  who,  though  they  have  said  many  things  well, 
have  yet  touched  but  sparingly  on  the  literal  sense, 
and  have  so  multiplied  the  mystical  senses  as  nearly  to 
intercept  and  choke  it.  Moreover,  the  text  has  been 
distorted  by  a  multiplicity  of  arbitrary  divisions  and 
concordances.     Hereupon  he  declares  his  intention 


of  insisting,  in  the  present  work,  upon  the  literal 
sense  and  of  interspersing  only  a  few  mystical  inter- 
pretations. Nicholas  utilized  all  available  sources, 
fully  mastered  the  Hebrew  and  drew  copiously  from 
the  valuable  commentaries  of  the  Jewish  exegetes, 
especially  of  the  celebrated  Talmudist  Rashi.  The 
"Pugio  Fidei"  of  Raymond  Martini  and  the  com- 
mentaries of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  were  laid  under  con- 
tribution. His  exposition  is  lucid  and  concise;  his 
observations  are  judicious  and  sound,  and  always 
original.  The  "Postilla?"  soon  became  the  favourite 
manual  of  exegesis.  It  was  the  first  Biblical  com- 
mentary printed.  The 
solid  learning  of  Nich- 
olas commanded  the 
respect  of  both  Jews 
and  Christians. 

Luther  owes  much 
to  Nicholas  of  Lyra, 
but  how  widely  the 
principles  of  Nicholas 
differed  essentially 
from  Luther's  views  is 
best  seen  from  Nicho- 
las's own  words :  "I 
protest  that  I  do  not 
intend  to  assert  or 
determine  anything 
that  has  not  been 
manifestlydeter- 
mined  by  Sacred 
Scripture  or  by  the 
authority  of  the 
Church  ....  Where- 
fore I  submit  all  I  have 
said  or  shall  say  to 
the  correction  of  Holy 
Mother  Church  and 
of  all  learned  men ..." 
(Prol.  secund.  in  Pos- 
tillas.,  ed.  1498). 
Nicholas  taught  no 
new  doctrine.  The 
early  Fathers  and  the 
great  schoolmen  had 
n'pcati'dly  laid  down 
the  same  sound  cxe- 
gi'lii'al  principles,  but, 
owing  to  adverse  ten- 
dencies of  the  times, 
their  efforts  had  partly 
failed.  Nicholas  car- 
ried out  these  principles  effectively,  and  in  this  lies 
his  chief  merit — one  which  ranks  hiin  among  the  fore- 
most exegetes  of  all  times. 

Wadding,  Atmales  (Rome.  1733).  V,  264-7;  VI,  237-9;  Idem, 

A'criyjiores  (Rome.  1906),  3.  v.:  .Sba  " 

1806),  s.  v.;  Fabbicics,  Bilil.  Int.  , 
1736),  114  sqq.;  Hain,  ijcpx  ... ,  .; 
CoPINQER,  Supplement  to   II 
1902).  a.  v.;  Denifle  and  (  ii    i 
II  (Paris.  1891).  passim;  FtK,  i    ; 
docteurs  les  plus  cilhbres,  l\\     i     . 
crii.  des  commenlaires  d.    \  .    I       I 
crit.   des   princip,    commenl'i'< 
Bergeu.  Quam  nolitiam  litn/:/  i    /. 
<rvi  in  Callia  (Nancv,  1893) ;  ( 
Test.  Hhros  sacros.  t  (Pi    '      ' 
the  sluiln  of  the  Script 


I'nris. 

..  Hist. 
.  Hist. 
1(193); 

utr. 


,  1885),  660-2;  GiaoT,  Gen.  Introd.  to 
(Now  York),  444  sq.;  Neumann,  Influ- 

^iinfsxur 


:  Hachi  et  d'autres  com. 
in  Revue  des  itudes  juivesj  X\\  \    Is''.;.    I,.-'     |.| 
230  sqq.;  Maschkowski,  /i'..     '       /  '     - 

leg.  d.  Exodus  in  Zeitschr.  f. 'i I'      '         n 
sgg. ;  Lahuosme.  BioffT.  ei  oi"  .'    •''    \    i    I    m/'"/ 
XVI   ii'iiii,),  ;in:;  wiq.;  XVII  (1907).  4si)  «|(|..  , 
l.iii  sqq.,  368  sqq.;  Bml..  Hot  N. 


no.flilles  de  Lyra 
\XVII  (1893). 
/-.  in  d.  Aus- 
\I  (1891).  268 
fronciscaines, 
r>93  sqq.;   XIX 
u.  L.  in  Erfurt 
.    _.    Vereins  /.   thilring.   Oesch.  u.  AUertum., 
sqq.;  see  also  a  paper  on  Nicliolaa  of  Lyra  by 
Mahchal  m    .Innuaire  de   I'universM   cath.  .de  Loumin   (1910), 
432  sq.  ThOM.\S  PlaSSMANN. 

Nicholas  of  Myra  (or  of  Bari),  Saint,  Bishop  of 
Myra  in  Lycia.  <i.  6  December,  345  or  352.     Though 


/. 


XX  \  I  I  1'. 


NICHOLAS 


64 


NICHOLAS 


he  is  one  of  the  most  popular  saints  in  the  Greek  as 
well  .'IS  the  Latin  Church,  there  is  scarcely  anything 
historically  certain  about  liini  except  that  he  was 
Bishop  of  Myra  in  the  fourth  century.  Some  of  the 
main  points  in  his  leuenii  are  as  follows:  He  was  born 
at  Parara,  a  city  of  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor;  in  his  youth 
he  made  a  pilcrimaKc  to  ICnypt  and  I'ali'sline;  shortly 
after  his  return  ho  became  llisliop  of  Myra;  east  into 
prison  durinp;  the  i)ersecution  of  Diocletian,  he  was 
released  after  the  accession  of  Constantino,  and  was 
present  at  the  Council  of  Nica;a.  In  1087  Italian 
merchants  stole  his  body  at  Myra,  bringing  it  to  liari 
in  Italy. 

The  numerous  miracles  St.  Nicholas  is  said  to  have 
wrought,  both  before  and  after  his  death,  are  out- 
growths of  a  long  tradition.  There  is  reason  to  doubt 
his  presence  at  Niciea,  since  his  name  is  not  mentioned 
in  any  of  the  old  lists  of  bishops  that  attended  this 
council.  His  cult  in  the  Greek  Church  is  old  and  es- 
pecially popular  in  Russia.  As  early  as  the  sixth  cen- 
tury Emperor  Justinian  I  built  a  church  in  his  honour 
at  Constantinople,  and  his  name  occurs  in  the  liturgy 
ascribed  to  St.  Chrysostom.  In  Italy  his  cult  seems  to 
have  begun  with  the  translation  of  his  relics  to  Bari, 
but  in  Germany  it  began  already  under  Otto  II, 
probably  becai:se  his  wife  Theophano  was  a  Grecian. 
Bishop  Reginald  of  Eichstadt  (d.  OOU  is  known  to 
have  written  a  metric,  "Vita  S.  Nicholai".  The 
course  of  centuries  has  not  lessened  his  popularity. 
The  following  places  honour  him  as  patron:  Greece, 
Russia,  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  Sicily,  Lorraine,  the 
Diocese  of  Liege;  many  cities  in  Italy,  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, and  Belgium;  Campen  in  the  Netherlands;  Corfu 
in  Greece;  Freiburg  in  Switzerland;  and  Moscow  in 
Russia.  He  is  patron  of  mariners,  merchants,  bakers, 
travellers,  children  etc.  His  representations  in  art 
are  as  various  as  his  alleged  miracles.  In  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  the  Netherlands  they  have  the  cus- 
tom of  making  him  the  secret  purveyor  of  gifts  to  chil- 
dren on  6  December,  the  day  on  which  the  Church  cele- 
brates his  feast;  in  the  United  States  and  some  other 
countries  St.  Nicholas  has  become  identified  with  the 
popular  Santa  Claus  who  distributes  gifts  to  children 
on  Christmas  eve.  His  rehcs  are  still  preserved  in  the 
church  of  San  Nicola  in  Bari;  up  to  the  present  day  an 
oily  substance,  known  as  Mayina  di  S.  Nicola,  which  is 
highly  valued  for  its  medicinal  powers,  is  said  to  flow 
from  them. 

The  traditionary  legends  of  St.  Nicholas  were  first  collected  and 
written  in  Greek  bv  Metaphrastes  in  the  tenth  century.  They 
are  printed  in  y.  6'.,  CXVI  sq.  A  Latin  translation  by  Giusti- 
NIANI  (Venice,  l.'>02  and  1513)  is  printed  in  SuBltJS,  De  probatis 
sanctorum  historiis,  6  December.  There  is  an  immense  amount 
of  ancient  and  modern  literature.  The  following  modern  authori- 
ties are  noteworthy:  (Iai:ta,  N.  Xicold  di  Bari,  vescovo  di  Mira 
(Naples,    1904);    Bi  i  "    s.   Nicold,   vescom  di  Mira 

(Monza,  1900):  Gi    '  '  delle  reliquie  di  s.  Nicold  di 

Bari  in  Bassarion,  "HJ),   317-328;  Schnell,   Si. 

Xickolaus  der  hcil.  I:  I       '-  r/reund  (Brunn,  1883-5,  and 

Ravensburg,  188G) ;  ruAXM\ui:i{.  Der  h.  Nikolaus  u.  seine  Vereh- 
runff  (Miinster.  1894);  Laroche.  Vie  de  s.  Nicholas,  eviQue  de 
Myre.  patron  de  la  Lorraine  (Paris,  1886,  1893) ;  Idem,  La  manne  de 
t.  Nicholas  in  Revue  Suisse  Calholique,  XXI  (Freiburg,  1890),  56- 
68.  122-137:  Kayata,  Monographic  de  Veglise  grecque  de  Marseille 
etviedes.  Nicholas  de  Myre  (Marseilles,  1901). 

Michael  Ott. 

Nicholas  of  Osimo  (AtrxiMAXus),  celebrated 
preacher  and  author,  b.  at  Osimo,  Italy,  in  the  second 
half  of  the  fourteenth  century;  d.  at  Rome,  1453. 
After  having  studied  law,  and  taken  the  degree  of 
doctor  at  Bologna,  he  joined  the  Friars  Minor  of  the 
Observants  in  the  convent  of  San  Paolo.  Conspicuous 
for  zeal,  learning,  and  preaching,  as  companion  of  St. 
James  of  the  Marches  in  Bosnia,  and  as  Vicar-Provin- 
cial of  Apulia  (1439),  Nicholas  greatly  contributed  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  Observants  for  whom  (1440)  he 
obtained  complete  independence  from  the  Conven- 
tuals, a  privilege  shortly  after  revoked  according  to 
the  desire  of  St.  Hemardine.  He  was  also  appointed 
Visitator  and  afterwards  Superior,  of  the  Holy  Land, 


but  many  difficulties  seem  to  have  hindered  him  from 
the  discharge  of  these  offices.  Nicholas  wrot(!  both  in 
Latin  and  Italian  a  niunber  of  treatises  on  moral  theol- 
ogy, the  spiritual  life,  and  on  the  Rule  of  St.  Fran- 
cis. Wo  mention  the  following:  (1)  "Supplomonlum 
Sununa'  Magi.stratiie  sen  Pisanclhe",  a  revisoti  and 
increased  edition  of  the  "Summa"  of  Bartholomew 
of  San  Concordio  (or  of  Pisa),  O.P.,  completed  at 
Milan,  1444,  with  many  editions  before  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century:  Venice,  1473  sqq.;  Genoa, 
1474;  Milan,  1479;  Reutlingon,  1483;  Nuremberg, 
1494.  (2)  "(Juadriga  Spirituale",  in  Italian,  treats 
in  a  popular  way  what  the  author  considers  the 
four  principal  means  of  salvation,  viz.  faith,  good 
works,  confession,  and  prayer.  These  arc  like  the 
four  wheels  of  a  chariot,  whence  the  name.  'I'he  work 
was  printed  at  Jesi,  147.5,  and  under  the  name  of  St. 
Bernardino  of  Siena  in  1494. 

Wadding,  Scriptores  Ord.  Min.  (Rome.  1806),  179  (Rome,  1906), 
17fi;  Idem,  Annales  Minorum  ad  an.  US7,  n.  13-16,  2nd  ed..  X 
(I!. .mo,  17!H,  1li)-.30;  ad  an.  HS8,  n.  21-23,  XI  (Rome,  1734), 
,i'i    1'        '  '".n.  29,  XI  (Rome,  1734),  111  passim;  Sbabai-ea, 

.s;/.  Home,  1806),  550;  SpEZl.rre  OpereHe  rotoari  (/» 

/■'/,■    \  oimo.  Irf^ti  dilinqun  inrrliti  tratli  da' codici  Vati- 

Ml,,  ,l;..ii,.      '.-'■'.•.  pr,-fn,.r--  I  T-ir^i  I,^   v,„p,,vo,  Cenni  cronolo- 

gim-l,ui,„.r  "    /'  /  ■     '  hiMraechi,  1SS6), 

161,  221:    M  /,  I'iiria,    1826),  I, 

i,  n.  214'.>-7.. ,  ,1'-.  .-'  II.  J  11  III-  w.  .  '  ;.  .,.  \i  nih-n  und  Litera- 
tur  des  Caiti^ni^'Jiiu  7,',. /<:,.„  ,,.„.  (.-.j.'i.j/,  :.,.,  mij  ,hf  Gegenwarl,  I 
(Stuttgart,  1877),  435-37;  Dietterle.  Die  Summa:  Conjessorum 
in  Zeitschriftfur  Kirchengeschichte,  ed.  Brieger,  XXVH  (Gotha, 
1906),  183-88. 

LivAEius  Oliger. 

Nicholas  of  Strasburg,  mystic,  flourished  early  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  Educated  at  Paris,  he  was  later 
on  lector  at  the  Dominican  convent,  Cologne.  Ap- 
pointed by  John  XXII,  he  made  a  canonical  visitation 
of  the  German  Dominican  province,  where  great  dis- 
cord prevailed.  Relying  on  two  papal  briefs  dated  1 
August,  1325,  it  appears  that  the  sole  commission  re- 
ceived from  the  pontiff  was  to  reform  the  province  in 
its  head  and  members,  and  to  act  as  visitor  to  the  sis- 
ters. Nicholas,  however,  assumed  the  office  of  in- 
quisitor as  well,  and  closed  a  process  already  begun  by 
Archbishop  Heinrich  (Cologne)  against  Master  Eck- 
hart,  O.P.,  for  his  teachings  on  mysticism,  in  favour 
of  the  latter  (1326).  In  January,  1327,  the  arch- 
bishop renewed  the  cause  and  arraigned  Nicholas  as  a 
patron  of  his  confrere's  errors.  Almost  simultane- 
ously, Hermann  von  Hbchst,  a  discontented  religious 
on  whom  Nicholas  had  imposed  a  well-merited  pen- 
alty, took  revenge  by  having  him  excommunicated. 
Nicholas,  however,  was  soon  released  from  this  sen- 
tence by  Pope  John,  that  he  might  appear  as  definitor 
at  the  general  chapter  of  his  order  convened  at  Per- 
pignan.  May  31,  1327.  He  is  last  heard  of  after  the 
settlement  of  the  process  against  Eckhart  as  vicar  of 
the  German  Dominicans,  1329.  Thirteen  extant  .ser- 
mons show  him  to  have  been  of  a  rather  practical  turn 
of  mind. 

Having  realized  the  inherent  necessity  of  solid  piety 
being  based  upon  the  principles  of  sound  theology,  he 
urges  in  clear,  pregnant,  and  forceful  stylo  the  sacred 
importance  of  good  works,  penitential  (iraclices  and 
indulgences,  confession  and  the  Holy  Eucharist.  Only 
by  the  use  of  these  means  can  the  love  of  C!od  be  well- 
regulated  and  that  perfect  conversion  of  the  heart  at- 
tained which  is  indispensable  for  a  complete  remission 
ofguill.  Built  up  on  so  firm  a  groundwork,  there  is  noth- 
ing to  censure  but  much  to  commend  in  his  allegorical 
interpretations  of  Sacred  Scripture,  which  are  other- 
wise consistent  with  his  fondness  for  parable  and  ani- 
mated illustration.  "  De  Adventu  Christi ",  formerly 
attributed  to  Nicholas,  came  originally  from  the  pen 
of  John  of  Paris. 

Preger,  Meistcr  Eckhart  und  die  Inquisition  (Munich,  1869) ; 
Idem,  Oesch.  der  deutsch.  Mystik  im  MiUelalter,  II  (Leipzig.  1881); 
Denifle,  ActeiislUcke  zu  Meister  Eckharts  Prozess  in  Zeitschr.  f. 
deutachcs  Altertum  u.  deutsche  Literatur,  XXIX  (XVII)  (1885); 
Idem,  Der  Ptagialor,  Nich.  von  Strassb.  in  Archiv  /.  Lit.  u.  Kirchen- 


NICHOLAS 


65 


NICHOLS 


gesch.,  IV  (1888);  Pfeiffer,  Deutsche  MysHker  des  I4.  Jahrh.,  I 
(Leipzig.  1845). 

Thos.  a.  K.  Reilly. 

Nicholas  of  Tolentino,  Saint,  b.  at  Sant'  Angelo, 
near  Fermo,  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  about  1246;  d. 
10  September,  1300.  He  is  depicted  in  the  black 
habit  of  the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine — a  star  above 
him  or  on  his  breast,  a  Hly ,  or  a  crucifix  garlanded  with 
hlies,  in  his  hand.  Sometimes,  instead  of  the  lily,  he 
holds  a  vial  filled  with  money  or  bread.  His  parents, 
said  to  have  been  called  Compagnonus  de  Guarutti 
and  Amata  de  Guidiani  (these  surnames  may  merely 
indicate  their  birth-places),  were  pious  folk,  perhaps 
gentle  born,  living  content  with  a  small  substance. 
Nicholas  was  born  in  response  to  prayer,  his  mother 
being  advanced  in  years.  From  his  childhood  he  was 
a  model  of  holiness.  He  excelled  so  much  in  his 
studies  that  even  before  they  were  over  he  was  made 
a  canon  of  St.  Saviour's  church;  but  hearing  a  sermon 
by  a  hermit  of  St.  Augustine  upon  the  text:  "Nolite 
diligere  munilum,  nee  ea  qute  sunt  in  mundo,  quia 
mundus  transit  et  concupiscentia  ejus",  he  felt  a  call 
to  embrace  the  religious  life.  He  besought  the  hermit 
for  admittance  into  his  order.  His  parents  gave  a 
joyful  consent.  Even  before  his  ordination  he  was 
sent  to  different  monasteries  of  his  order,  at  Recanati, 
Maeerata  etc.,  as  a  model  of  generous  striving  after 
perfection.  He  made  his  profession  before  he  was 
nineteen.  After  his  ordination  he  preached  with 
wonderful  success,  notably  at  Tolentino,  where  he 
spent  his  last  thirty  years  and  gave  a  discourse  nearly 
every  day.  Towards  the  end  diseases  tried  his  pa- 
tience, but  he  kept  up  his  mortifications  almost  to  the 
hour  of  death.  He  possessed  an  angelic  meekness, 
a  guileless  simplicity,  and  a  tender  love  of  virginity, 
which  he  never  stained,  guarding  it  by  prayer  and  ex- 
traordinary mortifications.  He  was  canonized  by 
Eugene  IV  in  1446;  his  feast  is  celebrated  on  10 
September.  His  tomb,  at  Tolentino,  is  held  in  ven- 
eration by  the  faithful. 

Acta  SS.,"Sept.,  Ill,  636:  Butlek,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  III  (Balti- 
more), 440;  Hagele  in  Kirchenlex,,  a.  v. 

Edward  F.  Garesch6. 

Nicholas  Pieck  (also  spelled  Pick),  Saint,  Friar 
Minor  and  inartvr,  li,  at  Gorkum,  Holland,  29  August, 
1534;  (1.  at  Uriel,  Holland,  9  July,  1572.  He  cameof 
an  old  and  honourable  family.  His  parents,  John 
Pieck  and  Henrica  Clavia,  were  deeply  attached  to 
the  Catholic  faith,  and  the  former  on  several  oc- 
casions distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  against  the 
innovations  of  Calvinism.  Nicholas  was  sent  to 
college  at  Bois-le-Duc  ('S  Hertogenbosch),  and  as 
soon  as  he  had  completed  his  classical  studies  he 
received  the  habit  of  tlie  Friars  Minor  at  the  convent 
in  that  town.  After  his  profession  he  was  sent  to 
the  convent  at  Louvain  to  follow  the  course  of  study 
at  the  celebrated  university  there.  Nicholas  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1558  and  thenceforth  devoted  himself 
to  the  apostolic  ministry.  He  evangelized  the  prin- 
cipal towns  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  combating 
heresy  everywhere,  strengthening  Cathohcs  in  their 
faith,  and  distinguishing  himself  by  his  singular 
humility,  modesty,  charity,  and  zeal  for  the  honour 
of  God  and  the  salvation  of  souls.  He  was  of  an  open 
disposition,  gay  and  genial,  and  his  whole  bearing 
inspired  affection  and  respect.  His  superiors,  ap- 
preciating his  fine  qualifies,  appointed  him  guardian 
of  the  convent  at  Gorkum,  his  native  town. 

When  this  place  was  threatened  by  the  Calvinists, 
Nicholas  delivered  several  discourses  to  his  fellow- 
townsmen,  forewarning  them  against  the  dangerous 
errors  of  Calvinism.  In  particular,  he  proved  by  un- 
answerable arguments  the  dogma  of  the  Real  Pres- 
ence, showing  it  to  be  a  marvellous  extension  of  the 
Incarnation,  and  he  left  nothing  undone  to  bring  his 
two  brothers  back  to  the  true  fold.  When  the  citadel 
XI.— 5 


of  Gorkum  was  taken  by  the  Watergeuzen,  the  heretics 
detained  the  priests  and  religious,  and  confined  them 
in  a  dark  and  foul  dungeon.  (See  Gorkum,  The 
Martyrs  of.)  During  the  first  night  the  Calvin- 
ists vented  their  rage  particularly  against  Nicholas. 
Tying  about  his  neck  the  cord  which  girded  his 
loins,  they  first  suspended  him  from  a  beam  and  then 
let  him  fall  heavily  to  the  ground.  This  torture  was 
prolonged  till  the  cord  broke,  and  the  martyr,  seem- 
ingly lifeless,  fell  to  the  floor.  They  then  applied  a 
burning  torch  to  his  ears,  forehead,  and  chin,  and 
forced  open  his  mouth  to  burn  his  tongue  and  palate, 
either  to  find  out  whether  he  was  still  alive  or  in 
order  to  torture  him.  Meanwhile,  the  two  brothers 
of  Nicholas  were  busy  taking  steps  to  obtain  the 
deliverance  of  the  captives.  This  was  promised  them 
only  on  condition  that  the  prisoners  would  renounce 
the  authority  of  the  pope,  and,  as  nothing  could  make 
Nicholas  and  his  companions  waver  in  their  faith, 
they  were  taken  to  Brief,  where  they  all  gained  the 
crown  of  martyrdom.  Nicholas  and  his  companions 
were  beatified  by  Clement  X,  24  November,  1675, 
and  canonized  by  Pius  IX,  29  June,  1S67. 

Clary.  Lives  of  the  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of 
Saint  Francis.  II  (Taunton.  1886),  4.57-65;  SEDULins,  Historia 
Seraphica  (Antwerp,  161.3).  671  sq.;  Schoutens,  Martyrotogium 
Minoritico-Belgicum  (Antwerp.  1901).  114-15;  EsTlus.  Histiiriie 
Martyrum  Gorcomiensium  in  Ada  SS.,  II.  .lulv  (ed.  1867),  804- 
808;  WADniNO.  Annates  Minorum,  XX.  381-418.  (For  further 
bibliography  see  Gorkum.  The  Martyrs  of.) 

Ferdinand  Heckmann. 

Nichols  (or  NicoLLs),  George,  Venerable,  Eng- 
hsh  martyr,  b.  at  Oxford  about  1550;  executed  at  0.x- 
ford,  19  October,  1589.  He  entered  Brasenose  Col- 
lege in  1564  or  1565,  and  was  readmitted  20  August, 
1567,  and  supplicated  for  his  B.A.  degree  in  1570-1. 
He  subsequently  became  an  usher  at  St.  Paul's  School, 
London.  He  arrived  at  Reims  with  Thomas  Pilchard 
(q.  v.),  20  Nov.,  1581;  but  went  on  to  Rome,  whence 
he  returned  21  July,  1582.  Ordained  subdeacon  and 
deacon  at  Laon  (probably  by  Bishop  Valentine  Doug- 
las, O.S.B.)  in  April,  1.583,  and  priest  at  Reims  (by 
Cardinal  Archbishop  Louis  de  Guise)  24  Sept.,  he 
was  sent  on  the  mission  the  same  year.  Having  con- 
verted many,  notably  a  convicted  highwayman  in  Ox- 
ford Castle,  he  was  arrested  at  the  Catherine  Wheel 
Inn,  opposite  the  east  end  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen's 
Church,  Oxford,  together  with  Humphrey  Prichard, 
a  Welsh  servant  at  the  inn,  Thomas  Belson  (q.  v.), 
and  Richard  Yaxley.  This  last  was  a  son  (probably 
the  third,  certainly  not  the  sixth)  of  William  Ya.xlcy  of 
Boston,  Lincolnshire,  by  Rose,  daughter  of  John  Lang- 
ton  of  Northolme.  Arriving  at  Reims  29  August, 
1582,  he  received  the  tonsure  and  minor  orders  23 
Sept.,  1583,  and  the  subdiaconate  5  or  6  April,  1585, 
from  the  cardinal  archbishop.  Probably  the  same 
hand  conferred  the  diaconate  on  20  April.  Tlie  priest- 
hood was  conferred  at  Reims  by  Louis  de  Brez6, 
Bishop  of  Meaux,21  Sept.,  1,585.  Yaxley  left  Reims 
for  England  28  January,  1585-(!.  All  four  prisoners 
were  sent  from  Oxford  to  the  Bridewell  prison  in  Lon- 
don, where  the  two  priests  were  li:ui;;e(l  u|>  for  five  hours 
to  make  them  betray  their  hosts,  but.  without  avail. 
Yaxley  was  sent  to  the  Tower  as  it  clo.-ie  prisoner  25 
May,  1589,  and  appears  to  have  been  racked  fre- 
quently. Belson  was  sent  to  the  (i;itehou.se.  The 
other  two  remained  in  Bridewell,  Nichols  being  put 
into  "a  deep  dungeon  full  of  venomous  vermin".  On 
30  June  all  four  were  ordered  back  to  Oxford  to  take 
their  trial.  All  were  condemned,  the  priests  for  trea- 
son, the  laymen  for  felony.  Nichols  suffered  first ,  then 
Yaxley,  then  Belson,  and  last  Prii'.hanl.  The  i)riest8' 
heads  were  set  up  on  the  castle,  and  their  quarters  on 
the  four  city  gates. 

Challoner^  Memoirs  of  Missionary  Priests,  I.  no3.  73-5;  Poi/- 
LEN.  Catholic  Record  Society,  V  (London.  1908).  passim:  DasenT, 
Acts  of  the  Privy  Council.  XVII  (London,  1800-1907).  203,  329; 
Knox.  First  and  Second  Diaries  of  English  College,  Douai  (London, 
1878),  passim;  Harleian  Societu  Publications,  LII  (London,  1904), 


NICHOLSON 


66 


NICOLAi' 


1124;  Oxford  Hislorical  Socitlu  Publications,  XXXIX  (Oxford, 
189»).  109,  110;  LV  (Oilord,  1910).  33. 

John  B.  Wainewric.ht. 

Nicholson,  Francis,  a  controversial  writer;  b.  at 
Manchester,  IO.'jO  (biiptized  27  Oct.);  d.  at  Lisbon,  13 
AiiR.,  1731.  The  son  of  Henry  or  Thomas  Nicholson, 
a  Manchester  citizen,  when  sixteen  he  entered  TTniver- 
sitvCollege,  Oxford,  asaservitor,  and  took  liisdenrees 
as  Bacholorof  Arts  (IS  June,  16G9)  and  Master  of  Arts 
(4  June,  1673).  Ordained  an  Anglican  clergyman,  he 
officiated,  fir.st  about  Oxford,  afterwards  near  Canter- 
bury, where  he  gained  some  success  in  reconciling 
Nonconformists  to  the  Church  of  England.  A  ser- 
mon preached  at  St.  Mary's,  Oxford,  on  20  June,  1680, 
led  to  his  being  chargeil  with  unorthodox  doctrine 
and  the  fact  that  he  had  been  a  pupil  of  Obadiah 
Walker  caused  him  to  be  suspected  of  Catholic  tend- 
encies. The  actual  date  of  his  reception  into  the 
Church  is  unknown,  but  during  the  reign  of  James  II 
(16S.5-SS)  he  was  a  professed  Catholic  and  busied  him- 
self in  the  king's  interests.  At  this  time  he  wrote  the 
appendix  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England 
concerning  the  Real  Presence,  and  the  "Vindication 
of  two  recent  discourses"  on  the  same  subject,  added 
to  Abraham  Woodhcad's  "Compendious  Discourse  on 
the  Eucharist ",  published  in  1688.  After  the  revolu- 
tion he  joined  the  Carthusians  at  Nieuport  in  Flanders, 
but  his  health  was  unequal  to  this  austere  life,  and  in 
1692  he  returned  to  England.  There  he  entered  the 
service  of  the  (^ueen  Dowager,  Catharine  of  Braganza, 
whom  he  accompanied  back  to  Portugal.  For  some 
years  lie  resided  at  the  Portuguese  Court  and  then 
retired  to  an  estate  which  he  had  bought  at  Pera,  half 
a  league  south  of  the  Tagus,  and  not,  as  the  writer 
in  the  "  Dictionary  of  National  Biography  "  oddly  as- 
serts, the  "suburb  of  Constantinople".  He  spent  a 
considerable  period  there  in  devotion  and  study,  until 
reaching  his  seventieth  year  he  made  over  all  his  real 
and  personal  property  to  the  English  College  at 
Lisbon,  subject  to  the  discharge  of  his  debts,  the  pro- 
vision of  board  and  lodging  for  the  remainder  of  his 
life,  and  a  small  annuity.  Three  years  before  his 
death  at  the  college  he  sent  back  to  the  Catholic  anti- 
quary. Dr.  Cuthbert  Constable,  all  the  surviving 
MSS.  of  Abraham  Woodhead,  which  had  passed  into 
his  hands  as  executor  of  Obadiah  Walker.  With 
them  also  he  sent  his  MS.  life  of  Constable,  published 
with  additions  in  his  edition  of  that  author's  "Third 
Part  of  a  Brief  Account  of  Church  Government". 

Anthony  a  Wood,  AtheiKB  Oionienses,  II,  reprinted  from 
DODD,  Church  History,  III,  462;  Catholic  Magazine,  VI  (May, 
1835),  208;  Foster,  Alumni  Oxonienses  (Oxford,  1891);  Gillow, 
Bibl.  Did.  Eng.  Calh.,  s.  v.  Nicholson  and  Constable:  Sdtton  in 
Diet,  Nat.  Biog.;  (I^koft,  Kirk's  Historical  Account  of  Lisbon  College 
(London,  1902). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Nicodemus,  a  prominent  Jew  of  the  time  of  Christ, 
ment  ioncd  only  in  the  Fourth  Gospel.  The  name  is  of 
Greek  origin,  but  at  that  epoch  such  names  were 
occasionally  borrowed  by  the  Jews,  and  according  to 
Josephus  {.Ant.  of  the  Jews,  XIV,  iii,  2)  Nicodemus 
was  the  name  of  one  of  the  ambassadors  sent  by  Aris- 
tobulus  to  Pompey.  A  Hebrew  form  of  the  name 
(po'lpJ,  Naqdimon)  is  found  in  the  Talmud. 
Nicodemus  w.as  a  Pharisee,  and  in  his  capacity  of 
sanhedrist  (John,  vii,  .50)  was  a  leader  of  the  Jews. 
Christ,  in  the  interview  when  Nicodemus  came  to  him 
by  night,  calls  him  a  master  in  Israel.  Judging  from 
John,  xix,  39,  Nicodemus  must  have  been  a  man  of 
means,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  wielded  a  certain 
influence  in  the  Sanhedrim.  Some  writers  conjecture 
from  his  question:  "How  can  a  man  be  born  when  he 
is  old?",  that  he  was  already  advanced  in  years,  but 
the  words  are  too  general  to  warrant  such  a  conclusion. 
He  appears  in  this  interview  as  a  learned  and  intelli- 
gent believer,  but  timid  and  not  easily  initiated  into 
the  mysteries  of  the  new  faith.    He  next  appears 


(John,  vii,  50,  51)  in  the  Sanhedrim  offering  a  word 
in  defence  of  the  accused  C!alile:in;  and  we  may  infer 
from  this  passtige  th:it  hi-  finbraced  the  truth  as  soon 
as  it  was  fully  made  known  to  him.  He  is  mentioned 
fiii.dly  in  .John,  xix,  39,  where  he  is  shown  co-operating 
with  ,Iosc'ph  of  Arimathea  in  the  embalming  and 
buri:d  of  ,I(sus.  His  name  occur.s  later  in  some  of  the 
apocryphal  writings,  e.  g.  in  the  so-called  "Acta 
Pilati",  a  heterogeneous  document  which  in  the  six- 
teenth century  was  published  under  the  title  "Evan- 
gclium  Nicodemi"  (Go.spel  of  Nicodemus).  The 
time  of  his  death  is  unknown.  The  Roman  Martyrol- 
ogy  commemorates  the  finding  of  his  relics,  together 
with  those  of  Sts.  Stephen,  Gamaliel,  and  .\bibo,  on 
3  August. 

Conybeare,  Studia  Biblica,  IV  (Oxford,  1896),  59-132;  Le 
CAMU.S,  La  vie  de  N.-.'i.  Jfsus-Christ  (Paris.  1883),  I.  251  sqq.;  II, 
24  sqq.,  .W?  sqq.,  tr.  HiCKEY  (3  vols..  New  York,  1906-08). 

James  F.  Dulscoll. 

Nicodemus,  Gospel  of.    See  Acta  Pilati. 

Nicolai,  Jean,  celebrated  Dominican  theologian 
and  controversialist,  b.  in  1594  at  Mouzay  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Verdun,  France;  d.  7  May,  1673,  at  Paris.  En- 
tering the  order  at  the  age  of  twelve,  he  made  his 
religious  profession  in  1612,  studied  philosophy  and 
theology  in  the  convent  of  St.  James  at  Paris,  obtained 
(1632)  the  doctorate  in  theology  at  the  Sorbonne,  and 
taught  these  branches  with  distinction  in  various 
houses  of  the  order.  He  was  highlj'  esteemed  for 
strict  observance  of  the  rule,  prudence,  rare  erudition, 
and  power  of  penetration.  Besides  Latin  and  Greek 
he  was  conversant  with  Italian,  Spanish,  and  He- 
brew. He  was  a  member  of  the  commission  appointed 
to  examine  the  works  and  teachings  of  the 
Jansenists  and  to  prevent  the  further  dissemina- 
tion of  their  doctrine  in  the  Sorbonne.  In  the 
disputes  on  grace  between  the  Thomists  and  Mo- 
linists,  which  the  teaching  of  Jansenius  revived,  he  ad- 
hered strictly  to  the  Thomistic  doctrine.  His  numer- 
ous works  fall  into  three  classes:  (a)  new  editions  of 
older  theologians  which  he  supplied  with  commen- 
taries and  explanatory  notes;  (b)  his  own  theological 
works;  (c)  his  poetical  and  political  writings.  The 
most  important  of  the  first  class  arc  "Raineri  de  Pisis 
[1351]  ord.  Fr.  Prsed.  Pantheologia  sive  universa  the- 
ologiaordine  alphabetico  per  varios  titulosdistributa" 
(Lyons,  1670):  to  each  of  the  three  volumes  of  this 
work  he  added  a  dissertation  against  the  Jansenists; 
"S.  ThomiB  Aq.  Expositio  continua  super  quatuor 
evangelistas"  (Lyons,  1670);  "S.Thoma'Aq.  commen- 
taria  in  quatuor  libros  sententiarum  P.  Lombardi" 
(Lyons,  16.59);  "Commentarius  posterior  super  Ubros 
sententiarum"  (Lyons,  1660);  "S.  Thomse  Aq.  quse- 
stionesquodlibetales"  (Lyons,  1660);  "S.  ThomoeAq. 
Summa  theologica  innumeris  Patrum,  Conciliorum, 
scripturarum  ac  dccretorum  testimoniis  ad  materias 
controversas  vel  ad  moralem  disciplinam  pertinenti- 
bus  .  .  .  illustrata"  (Lyons,  1663);  "S.  Thoma;  Aq. 
explanatio  in  omnes  d.  Pauli  Ap.  epistolas  commen- 
taria"  (Lyons,  1689).  His  important  theological 
works  are:  "Judicium  seu  censorium  sufTragium  de 
propositione  Ant.  Arnaldi  sorbonici  doctoris  et  sociiad 
qua?stionem  juris  pertinente"  (Paris,  1656);  "Theses 
theologies  de  gratia  seu  theses  molinisticae  thomisticis 
notis  expuncta;"  (Paris,  1656);  "Apologia  naturae 
et  gratia;"  (Bordeaux,  1665).  Against  Launoy,  the 
champion  of  the  "Galilean  Liberties",  he  wrote:  "De 
jejunii  christiani  et  Christiana;  abstinentia;  vero  ac  legit- 
imoritu"  (Paris,  1667);  "De  Concilio  plenario,  quod 
contra  Donatistas  bapti.smi  quffstionem  ex  Augustini 
sensu  definivit"  (Paris,  1667);  "De  plenarii  Concihi 
et  baptismatis  hereticorum  as.sertione  dissertatio  pos- 
terior anteriorem  firmans"  (Paris,  1668);  "De  bapj 
tismi  antiquo  usu  ab  Ecclesia  instituto,  dissertatio 
(Paris,  1668) ;  "  De  Constantini  baptismo,  ubi,  quando 
et  a  quibus  fuerit  celebratus  historiea  dissertatio" 
(Paris,  1680).     The  purpose  of  his  poetical  and  pohti- 


NICOLAITES 


67 


NICOLAS 


cal  writings  seems  to  have  been  to  extol  the  dignity 
and  glory  of  France  and  her  lyings.  Thus,  he  delivered 
in  Rome  in  162S  a  panegyric  in  honour  of  the  victory 
of  Louis  XIII  at  La  Rochelle  and  in  1661  composed  a 
poem  in  honour  of  the  son  of  Louis  XI V.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  at  the  royal  court  and  received  a  pension  of 
600  francs.  He  was  buried  in  the  chapel  of  the  con- 
vent of  St.  James  in  Paris,  and  a  marble  stone  beside 
the  grave  bears  a  long  inscription  recounting  his  vir- 
tues, his  learning,  and  his  services  to  his  country. 

Qu^TiF-EcH-^RD,  SS.  Ord,  Prmd.,  II,  647;  Journal  des  Savants, 
II,  340.  4S2. 

Joseph  Schroeder. 

Nicolaites  (Nicolaitans),  a  sect  mentioned  in  the 
Apocalyp.se  (ii,  6,  15)  as  existing  in  Ephesus,  Perga- 
mus,  and  other  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  about  the  charac- 
ter and  existence  of  which  there  is  little  certainty. 
Irena;us  (Adv.  Hasr.,  I,  xxvi,  3;  III,  xi,  1)  discusses 
them  but  adds  nothing  to  the  Apocalypse  except  that 
"they  lead  lives  of  unrestrained  indulgence".  Ter- 
tuUian  refers  to  them,  but  apparently  knows  only 
what  is  found  in  St.  John  (De  Praiscrip.  xxxiii;  Adv. 
Marc,  I,  xxix;  De  Pud.,  xvii).  Hippolytus  based  his 
narrative  on  Irenteus,  though  he  states  that  the  deacon 
Nicholas  was  the  author  of  the  heresy  and  the  sect 
(Philosoph.,  VII,  xxvi).  Clement  of  Alexandria 
(Strom.,  Ill,  iv)  exonerates  Nicholas,  and  attributes 
the  doctrine  of  promiscuity,  which  the  sect  claimed  to 
have  derived  from  him,  to  a  malicious  distortion  of 
words  harmless  in  themselves.  With  the  exception  of 
the  statement  in  Eusebius  (H.  E.,  Ill,  xxix)  that  the 
sect  was  short-lived,  none  of  the  references  in  Epi- 
phanius,  Theodoret  etc.  deserve  mention,  as  they  are 
taken  from  Irena>us.  The  common  statement,  that 
the  Nicolaites  held  the  antinomian  heresy  of  Corinth, 
has  not  been  proved.  Another  opinion,  favoured  by 
a  number  of  authors,  is  that,  because  of  the  allegorical 
character  of  the  Apocalypse,  the  reference  to  the 
Nicolaitans  is  merely  a  symbolic  manner  of  reference, 
based  on  the  identical  meaning  of  the  names,  to  the 
Bileamites  or  Balaamites  (Apoc,  ii,  14)  who  are 
mentioned  just  before  them  as  professing  the  same 
doctrines. 

HiLGENFBLD,  Kctzergeschichte  des  Urchristentums  (Leipzig, 
1884);  Seeseman,  Die  Nikolaiten.  Bin  Beitrag  zur  dlteren  Haresi- 
ologie  in  Theol.  Studien  und  Kritiken  (1893). 

P.  J.  Healy. 

Nicolas,  Armella,  popularly  known  as  "La 
bonne  Armelle",  a  saintly  French  serving-maid  held 
in  high  veneration  among  the  people,  though  never 
canonized  by  the  Church,  b.  at  Campen^ac  in  Brit- 
tanny,  9  September,  1606,  of  poor  peasants,  George 
Nicolas  and  Francisca  Neant;  d.  24  October,  1671. 
Her  earlv  years  were  spent  in  the  pious,  simple  life  of 
the  hard-working  country  folk.  When  she  was 
twenty-two  years  of  age  her  parents  wished  her  to 
marry,  but  she  chose  rather  to  enter  service  in  the 
neighbouring  town  of  Ploermel,  where  she  found  more 
opportunity  for  her  pious  works  and  for  satisfying  her 
spiritual  needs.  After  a  few  years  she  went  to  the 
larger  town  of  Vannes,  where  she  served  in  several 
families,  and  for  a  year  and  a  half  was  portress  at  the 
Ursuline  monastery.  She  here  forined  a  special 
friendship  with  a  certain  sister,  Jeanne  de  la  Nativity, 
to  whom  she  told  from  time  to  time  many  details  of 
her  spiritual  life,  and  who  noted  down  these  com- 
munications, and  afterwards  wrote  the  life  of  Armella, 
who  could  herself  neither  read  nor  write.  Even  the 
lowly  work  at  the  convent  did  not  satisfy  her  craving 
for  toil  and  humiliation,  and  she  returned  to  one  of  her 
former  employers,  where  .she  remained  to  the  end  of  her 
life.  To  her  severe  trials  and  temptations  she  added 
many  works  of  penance  and  was  rewarded  by  the 
growth  of  her  inner  life  and  her  intimate  union  with 
God.  During  the  last  years  of  her  life  a  broken  leg 
caused  her  great  suffering,  patiently  borne.     Many 


recommended  themselves  to  her  prayers  and  her 
death-bed  was  surrounded  by  a  great  number  of  per- 
sons who  held  her  in  special  veneration.  Her  heart 
was  preserved  in  the  Jesuit  church,  and  her  body 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  the  Ursulines.  Near  her 
grave  was  erected  a  tablet  to  "La  bonne  Armelle"; 
her  tomb  is  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  Armella  has  been 
claimed,  but  without  good  grounds,  as  an  exponent  of 
Quietism  (q.  v.).  If  some  of  her  expressions  seemed 
tinged  with  Quietist  thought,  it  is  because  the  con- 
troversy which  cleared  and  defined  many  notions  con- 
cerning Quietism  had  not  yet  arisen.  On  the  other 
hand  her  simple,  laborious  life  and  practical  piety 
make  any  such  aberrations  very  unlikely. 

JuNQMANN  in  Kirchenlexikon,  s.  v.  Nicolas;  Stoltz,  Legende  der 
Heiligen,  2Jf  October;  BussoN,  Vie  d' Armelle  Nicolas  etc.  (Paris, 
1844) ;  Tehsteeqen,  Select  Lives  of  Holy  Souls,  I,  2nd  ed.  (1754). 

Edward  F.  Gahesch:^. 

Nicolas,  AuGusTE,  French  apologist,  b.  at  Bor- 
deaux, 6  Jan.,  1807;  d.  at  Versailles  18  Jan.,  1888. 
He  first  studied  law,  was  admitted  as  an  advocate 
and  entered  the  magistracy.  From  1841-49  he  was 
justice  of  the  peace  at  Bordeaux;  as  early  as  1842  he 
began  the  publication  of  his  apologetical  writings 
which  soon  made  his  name  known  among  Catholics. 
When  in  1849  M.  de  Falloux  became  minister  of  pub- 
lic worship  he  summoned  Nicolas  to  assist  him  as 
head  of  the  department  for  the  administration  of  the 
temporal  interests  of  ecclesiastical  districts.  He  held 
this  office  until  1854  when  he  became  general  inspector 
of  libraries.  In  1860  he  was  appointed  judge  of  the 
tribunal  of  the  Seine  and  fanally  councillor  at  the 
Paris  court  of  appeals. 

Nicolas  employed  his  leisure  and  later  his  retirement 
to  write  works  in  defence  of  Christianity  taken  as  a 
whole  or  in  its  most  important  dogmas.  He  showed  his 
accurate  conception  of  apologetics  by  adapting  them 
to  the  dispositions  and  the  needs  of  the  minds  of  his 
time,  but  he  lived  in  a  period  when  Traditionalism 
still  dominated  many  French  Catholics,  and  this  is  re- 
flected in  his  works.  He  aimed  no  doubt  at  defending 
religion  by  means  of  philosophy,  good  sense,  and 
arguments  from  authority;  but  he  also  often  appeals 
to  the  traditions  and  the  groping  moral  sense  of  man- 
kind at  large.  The  testimonies,  however,  which  he 
cites,  are  often  apocryphal,  and  frequently  also  he 
interprets  them  uncritically  and  ascribes  to  them 
a  meaning  or  a  scope  which  they  do  not  possess.  Be- 
sides, his  apologetics  speedily  grew  out-of-date  when 
ecclesiastical  and  critical  studies  were  revived  in 
France  and  elsewhere.  His  writings  also  betray  at 
times  the  layman  lacking  in  the  learning  and  pre- 
cision of  the  theologian,  and  some  of  his  books  were 
in  danger  of  being  placed  on  the  Index.  Some  bishops, 
however,  among  them  Cardinals  Donnet  and  Pie,  in- 
tervened in  his  behalf  and  certified  to  the  uprightness 
of  his  intentions.  Otherwise  the  author  addressed 
himself  to  the  general  public  and  especially  to  the 
middle  classes  which  were  still  penetrated  with  Vol- 
tairian incredulity,  and  he  succeeded  in  reaching 
them.  His  books  were  very  successful  in  France  and 
some  of  them  even  in  Germany,  where  they  were 
translated.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned: 
"Etudes  philosophiques  sur  le  Christiatiisinc"  (Paris, 
1841-45),  a  philosophical  apology  for  the  cliicf  Chris- 
tian dogmas,  which  reached  a  twenty-sixth  edition 
before  the  death  of  the  author;  "La  Vierge  Marie  et 
le  plan  divin,  nouvelles  (Studes  philosophiques  sur  le 
Christianisme"  (4  vols.,  Paris.  18.52,  1853,  1S61),  in 
which  is  explained  the-  rcMe  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  the 
plan  of  Kedi'inption,  and  which  was  triiii.slati'd  into 
German,  and  rcai^hed  the  eighth  edition  during  the 
author's  lifetime;  "  Du  protestanti-sme  et  de  toutes  les 
h6r6sies  d,ans  leur  rapport  avec  le  socialisme"  (Paris, 
1852,  2  vols.,  8  editions);  "L'Art  de  croire,  ou  prepa- 
ration philosophique  au  Christianisme"  (Paris,  1866- 
67),  translated  into  German;   "La  Divinit6  de  Jdsus- 


NICOLAUS 


68 


NICOLE 


Christ,  ddmonst ration  nou velle  "  ( 1 864) ; "  J&us  Chriat 
introduction  i  I'Evangilc  6tudi6  et  mdditd  k  I'usage 
dcs  temps  nouveaux"  (Paris,  1875).  As  semi-reli- 
gious and  semi-political  may  be  mentioned:  "La 
Monarchic  et  la  question  du  drapeau"  (Paris,  1873); 
"La  Revolution  et  I'orde  chr^tien"  (Paris,  1874); 
"L'Etat  contre  Dicu"  (Paris,  1879);  "Rome  et  la 
Papaut6"  (Paris,  1883);  and  finally  the  works  in  his- 
torico-philosophic  vein:  "Etude  sur  Maine  de  Biran" 
(Paris,  1858);  "Etude  sur  Eugdnie  de  Gu(;rin" 
(Paris,  1863);  "M6raoires  d'un  pdre  sur  la  vie  et  la 
mort  de  son  fils"  (Paris,  1860);  "Etude  historique  et 
critique  sur  le  Pere  Lacordaire"  (Toulouse,  1886). 

LAPETRk:,  Auffiiste  Nicolas,  sa  vie  ct  ses  (euvres  d'aprts  ses  AU' 
moires  inidiU,  ses  papiers  et  sa  correspondance  (Paris,  1892). 

Antoine  Degert. 

Nicolaus  Gennanus  (often  called  "Donis"  from  a 
misappr(>hensi(inof  thetitle"Donnus"or  "Donus"an 
abbreviated  form  of  "Dominus"),  a  fifteenth-century 
cartographer,  place  of  birth,  and  date  of  birth  and 
death  unknown.  The  first  allusion  to  him  of  authentic 
date  is  an  injunction  of  Duke  Borso  d'Este  (15  March, 
1466)  to  his  referendary  and  privy  counsellor,  Ludo- 
vico  Casella,  at  Ferrara,  to  have  the  "Cosmographia 
of  Don  Nicolo  "  thoroughly  examined  and  then  to  de- 
termine a  recompense  for  it.  The  duke,  on  the  thir- 
tieth of  the  same  month,  called  upon  his  treasurers  for 
100  florins  in  gold  "to  remit  as  a  mark  of  his  apprecia- 
tion to  Donnus  Nicolaus  Germanus  for  his  excellent 
book  entitled  'Cosmographia'  ".  On  8  April,  1466, 
the  duke  again  drew  thirty  golden  florins  to  present  to 
the  Rev.  Nicolaus,  who  "in  addition  to  that  excellent 
Cosmography"  (ultra  illud  excellens  Cosmographie 
opus)  had  dedicated  to  the  duke  a  calendar  made  to 
cover  many  years  to  come  ("  librum  tacuini  multorum 
annorum").  The  "Co.smographia"  as  preserved  in 
the  Bibliotheca  Estensis  at  ^Iodena  comprises  a  Latin 
translation  of  the  Geography  of  Ptolemy  with  maps. 
The  version  of  the  geographical  text  is  substantially 
the  same  as  that  dedicated  in  1410  to  Pope  Alexander 
V  by  Jacopo  Angelo,  a  P'lorentine.  In  the  execution 
of  the  maps,  however,  Nicolaus,  instead  of  adhering  to 
the  flat  projection  of  Ptolemy,  chose  what  is  known  as 
the  "Donis-projection",  because  first  worked  out 
by  him,  in  which  the  parallels  of  latitude  are  equi- 
distant, but  the  meridians  are  made  to  converge  to- 
wards the  pole.  He  likewise  introduced  new  modes 
in  delineating  the  outlines  of  countries  and  oceans, 
mountains  and  lakes,  as  well  as  in  the  choice  of  carto- 
graphic proportions.  He  reduced  the  awkward  size 
to  one  which  was  convenient  for  use;  the  obscure  and 
often  unattractive  mode  of  presentation  he  replaced 
by  one  both  tasteful  and  easily  intelligible;  he  en- 
deavoured to  revise  obsolete  maps  in  accordance  with 
later  information  and  to  supplement  them  with  new 
maps.  While  his  first  recension  embraced  only  the 
twenty-seven  maps  of  Ptolemy  (one  map  of  the  world, 
ten  special  maps  of  Europe,  four  of  Africa,  twelve  of 
Asia),  the  second  comprised  thirty  (including  in  ad- 
dition modern  maps  of  .Spain,  Italy,  and  the  Northern 
countries:  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Greenland).  The 
last-named  enlarged  recension  he  dedicated  as  priest 
to  Pope  Paul  II  (1464-71).  He  dedicated  to  the 
same  pontiff'  his  third  recension,  containing  thirty- 
two  maps,  adding  modern  maps  of  France  and  the 
Holy  Land.  The  works  of  the  German  cartographer 
were  of  great  value  in  diffusing  the  knowledges  of 
Ptolemy's  Geography.  The  fir.st  recension,  probably 
the  very  copy  in  the  Lenox  Library  (Now  York),  is 
the  basis  of  the  Roman  editions  of  Ptolemy  bearing 
the  dates  1478,  1400,  and  1.507;  on  the  third,  certainly 
the  copy  preserved  in  Wolfegg  Castle,  are  based  the 
Ulm  editions  of  14.82  and  1486.  By  combining  the 
Roman  and  Flm  editions  Wald.seemiiller  produced  the 
maps  of  Ptolemy  in  the  Stra.sburg  edition  of  1513, 
which  wasfrequently  copied.     The  modern  mapof  the 


Northern  countries,  made  by  Claudius  Clavus,  which 
Nicolaus  embodied  in  his  .second  recension  of  Ptolemy, 
was  pcrliaps  the  source  of  I  lie  Zeiii  map  which  had  such 
far-reaching  influence,  and  likewise  of  the  maritime 
charts  of  the  Canerio  and  Cantino  type.  The  revised 
map  of  the  Northern  countries  in  the  third  recension  of 
Nicolaus,  which  placed  Greenland  north  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian Peninsula,  was  a  powerful  factor  in  c'lrtog- 
raphy  for  a  century,  especially  as  Waldscciniiller  gave 
the  preference  to  this  representation  in  his  world  and 
wall  map  of  1507,  "the  baptismal  certificate  of  Amer- 
ica". Because  of  these  and  other  services  to  geog- 
raphy and  cartography,  as  for  example,  by  the  re- 
vision of  Buondclmonte's  "Insularium",  it  would  be 
desirable  to  have  it  established  whether  Nicolaus 
was  really,  as  I  conjecture,  a  Benedictine  father  of 
the  Badia  at  Florence. 

Fischer,  Nicolaus  Germanus  in  Entdeckungen  der  Normannen 
in  Amerika  (Freiburg,  1902),  75-90,  113  sqq.  (Eng.  tr.,  London, 
1903),  72-86,  108  sqq. 

Joseph  Fischer. 

Nicole,  Pierre,  theologian  and  controversialist, 
b.  19  October,  1625,  at  Chartres;  d.  16  November, 
1695,  at  Paris.  He  studied  at  Paris,  became  Master 
of  Arts,  1644,  and  followed  courses  in  theology,  1645- 
46.  Under  Sainte-Beuve's  direction  he  applied  him- 
self earnestly  to  the  study  of  St.  Augustine  and  St. 
Thomas,  devoting  part  of  his  time  to  teaching  in  the 
schools  of  Port-Royal.  In  1649  he  received  the  de- 
gree of  Bachelor  of  Theology,  and  then  withdrew  to 
Port-Royal  dcs  Champs,  where  he  fell  in  with  the  Jan- 
senistic  leaders,  especially  Antoine  Arnauld,  who 
found  in  him  a  willing  ally.  He  returned  to  Paris  in 
1654  under  the  assumed  name  of  M.  de  Rosny.  Four 
years  later,  during  a  tour  in  Germany,  he  translated 
Pascal's  "Provinciales"  into  classic  Latin,  adding 
notes  of  his  own  and  publishing  the  whole  as  the 
work  of  William  Wendrock.  In  1676  he  sought  ad- 
mission to  Holy  orders,  but  was  refused  by  the  BLshop 
of  Chartres  and  never  got  beyond  tonsure.  A  letter, 
which  he  wrote  (1677)  to  Innocent  XI  in  favour  of  the 
Bishops  of  Saint-Pons  and  Arras,  involved  him  in  dif- 
ficulties that  obliged  him  to  quit  the  capital.  In  1679 
he  went  to  Belgium  and  lived  for  a  time  with  Arnauld 
in  Brussels,  Liege,  and  other  cities.  About  1683  de 
Harlay,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  to  whom  he  had  sent  a 
sort  of  retractation,  authorized  Nicole  to  return  to 
Chartres,  then  to  Paris.  Here  he  took  part  in  two  cele- 
brated controversies,  the  one  involving  Quietism  in 
which  he  upheld  Bossuet's  views,  the  other  relating 
to  monastic  studies  in  which  he  sided  with  Mabillon 
against  the  Abbe  de  Rancey.  His  last  years  were  sad- 
dened by  painful  infirmities  and  his  death  came  after  a 
series  of  apoplectic  attacks. 

Pierre  Nicole  was  a  distinguished  writer  and  a  vig- 
orous controversialist  and,  together  with  Pascal,  con- 
tributed much  to  the  formation  of  French  prose.  As 
a  controversialist,  he  too  frequently  placed  his  talent 
at  the  service  of  a  sect ;  however,  many  are  of  the  opin- 
ion that  he  did  not  wholly  share  the  errors  of  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Jansenists.  At  any  rate,  we  generally 
find  in  him  only  a  mitigated  expression  of  these  errors 
clothed  in  great  reserve.  On  the  other  hand,  hcstarted 
the  resistance  fund  known  as  "la  bolte  k  Perrette". 
(See  Jansenius.)  Niceron  (Mcmoires,  XXIX,  Paris, 
1783)  enumerates  no  less  than  eighty-eight  of  his 
works,  several  of  which  were,  however,  very  short. 
The  principal  works  of  Nicole  relating  either  to  Prot- 
estantism or  Jan.senism  are:  "Les  imaginaires  et  les 
visionnaires"  or  "Lettres  sur  I'h^r^^-sie  imaginaire", 
namely,  that  of  the  Jansenists  (Lifge,  1667) ;  "La  per- 
pf^'tuite  de  la  foi  catholique  touchant  rEucharistie", 
published  under  Arnauld's  name,  but  the  first  three 
volumes  of  which  (Paris,  1669-76)  are  by  Nicole, 
the  fourth  and  fifth  (Paris,  1711-13)  by  the  Abb^ 
Renaudot ;  "  Pr^juges  legitimes  contre  les  Calvinistes  " 
(Paris,   1671);  "X-a  defense  de  I'Eglise"   (Cologne, 


NICOLET 


69 


NICOMEDES 


1689),  being  a  reply  to  the  "Defense  de  la  Reforma- 
tion" written  by  the  minister,  Claude,  against  the 
"Pr^jug^s  legitimes";  "Essais  de  morale"  (Paris, 
1671-78);  "Les  pr^tendus  R^formes  convaincus  de 
schisme"  (Paris,  1084);  "De  I'unit^  de  I'Eglise"  or 
"Refutation  du  nouveau  systeme  de  M.  Jurieu" 
(Paris,  1687),  a  condensed  and  decisive  criticism  of  the 
theory  of  the  "fundamental  articles";  "Refutation 
des  principales  erreurs  des  Qui^tistes"  (Paris,  1695); 
"Instructions  theologiques  et  morales  sur  les  sacre- 
ments"  (Paris,  1706),  "surleSymbole"  (Paris,  1706), 
"sur  I'Oraison  dominicale,  la  Salutation  ang^lique,  la 
Sainte  Messe  et  les  autres  prieres  de  I'EgUse"  (Paris, 
1706),  "sur  le  premier  commandement  du  Decalogue" 
(Paris,  1709);  "Traitc  de  la  grace  generale"  (Paris. 
1715),  containing  all  that  Nicole  had  written  at 
different  times  on  grace;  "Traite  de  I'usure"  (Paris, 
1720). 

GoujET,  Hisloire  de  la  vie  et  des  ouvrages  de  Nicole  (Paris,  1733) ; 
Besoigne.  Vie  de  Nicole  in  the  Histoire  de  Port-Royal,  V;  (Both 
of  these  authors  are  Jansenists  and  write  as  such.)  an  anonymous 
Biography  of  Nicole  in  the  Continuation  des  essais  de  morale  (Lux- 
emburg. 1732);  Cerveau,  V esprit  de  Nicole  (Paris,  1765);  Mer- 
BAN,  Pensfes  de  Nicole  (Paris,  1806);  Floss  in  Kirchenlex.,  a.  v.; 
HuRTER,  Nomenclator,  II. 

J.  Forget. 

Nicolet,  Diocese  OF  (Nicoletana),  in  the  Province 
of  Quebec,  Canada,  suffragan  of  Quebec.  It  com- 
prises the  counties  of  Nicolet,  Yamaska,  Arthabaska, 
Drummond,  and  a  small  part  of  Shefford  and  Bagot. 
The  see  takes  its  name  from  the  town  of  Nicolet  (pop- 
ulation 3915),  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  opposite  Trois-Rivieres. 

It  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  on  11  July,  1885,  by 
separation  from  the  Diocese  of  Trois-Rivi^res,  the 
first  occupant  of  the  see  being  Mgr  Elphege  Gravel. 
He  was  born  on  12  October,  1838,  at  Saint-Antoine  de 
Richelieu,  (Juebec;  consecrated  at  Rome  on  2  August, 
1885,  and  died,  28  January,  190-4.  His  successor, 
Mgr  Joseph-Simon-Herman  Brunault,  the  present 
occupant  of  the  see,  was  born  at  St-David,  Quebec,  on 
10  January,  1857;  educated  at  the  seminary  of  Nico- 
let and  the  Canadian  College,  Rome;  ordained,  29 
June,  1882.  Having  ministered  two  years  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Hyacinth  and  taught  for  many  years  in  the 
seminary  of"  Nicolet,  first  as  professor  of  literature, 
and  then  of  theology,  he  was  named  coadjutor  to  Mgr 
Gravel  and  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Tubuna,  27 
December,  1899;  and  succeeded  as  Bishop  of  Nicolet, 
28  January,  1904.  The  seminary  of  Nicolet  was 
founded  in  October,  1803,  and  affiliated  to  the  Laval 
University  of  Quebec,  in  1863;  it  contains  over  320 
students;  a  grand  seminaire,  likewise  affiliated  to  the 
University  of  Laval,  was  established  at  Nicolet,  22 
February,  1908. 

The  religious  in  the  diocese  are  as  follows :  Sceurs  de 
I'Assomption  de  la  Sainte- Vierge,  teachers,  founded  at 
St-Gregoire  (Nicolet)  in  1853,  have  eighteen  houses  in 
the  diocese;  Sceurs  Crises  (de  Nicolet),  hospitallers, 
three  houses;  Congregation  de  Notre-Dame  (of  Mont- 
real), teachers,  at  Arthabaskaville,  and  Victoriaville; 
Sceurs  de  la  Presentation  de  la  Bienheureuse  Vierge  Ma- 
rie, teachers,  at  St-David  and  Drummond ville;  Sirurs 
Crises  de  la  Croix  (of  Ottawa),  teachers  and  nurses, 
with  academy  and  school  of  house-keeping  at  St-Fran- 
9018  du  Lac,  and  a  school  at  Pierreville  (Abenaki  Indian 
village);  Rrligicuscs  hosiiitulirrcs  di-  St- Joseph  (of 
Montreal),  hospit;dlrrs,  al  .\ith:il):isk,-uillf;  Sirurs  du 
Precieux-Sang,:in(lSu'urs  (Ida  Saiiitc-Faniille at  Nico- 
let; the  Freres  des  Ecoles  Chretiennes  have  schools  at 
Nicolet,  Arthabaskaville,  La  Bale,  and  St-Grcgoirc ;  I  he 
Frfires  de  la  Charit6  are  at  Drummond  ville;  and  the 
Frferes  du  SacriJ-Cceur  teach  at  Art-habaska-ville,  and 
Victoriaville.  General  Stalistics. — Secular  priests,  140; 
brothers,  120;  sisters,  400;  churches  with  resident 
priests,  65;  mis.sion,  1;  theological  seminary,  1;  college 
seminary,  1;  commercial  colleges  and  academies  for 
boys,  11;  students,  1500;  academies  for  young  ladies 


in  charge  of  sisters,  28 ;  students,  1800;  normal  school 
for  young  ladies,  1 ;  parochial  schools,  500;  children  at- 
tending parochial  schools,  20,000;  orphan  asylums,  1; 
orphans,  120;  hospitals,  3;  population:  Catholic 
French  Canadians,  90,000;  Irish  Canadians,  600; 
Protestants,  1800;  total  population,  92,400. 

J.-S.-Herman  Brunault. 

Nicolo  de'  Tudeschi  ("abbas  modernus"  or  "re- 
centior",  "abbas  Panormitanus "  or  "Siculus"),  a 
Benedictine  canonist,  b.  at  Catania,  Sicily,  in  1386; 
d.  at  Palermo,  24  February,  1445.  In  1400  he  entered 
the  Order  of  St.  Benedict;  he  was  sent  (1405-06) 
to  the  University  of  Bologna  to  study  under  Zabar- 
ella;  in  1411  he  became  a  doctor  of  canon  law, 
and  taught  successively  at  Parma  (1412-18),  Siena 
(1419-30),  and  Bologna  (1431-32).  Meanwhile  in 
1425,  he  was  made  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Man- 
iacio,  near  Messina,  whence  his  name  "Abbas",  to 
which  has  been  added  "modernus"  or  "recentior" 
(in  order  to  distinguish  him  from  "Abbas  antiquus", 
a  thirteenth  century  canonist  who  died  about  12SS); 
he  is  also  known  as  "Abbas  Siculus"  on  account  of  his 
Sicilian  origin.  In  1433  he  went  to  Rome  where  he 
exercised  the  functions  of  auditor  of  the  Rota  and 
Apostolic  referendary.  The  following  year  he  relin- 
quished these  offices  and  placed  himself  at  the  service 
of  Alfonso  of  Castile,  King  of  Sicily,  obtaining  the 
See  of  Palermo  in  1435,  whence  his  name  "Panor- 
mitanus ".  During  the  troubles  that  marred  the  pon- 
tificate of  Eugene  IV,  Nicolo  at  first  followed  the 
party  of  this  pontiff  but  subsequently  allied  himself 
with  the  antipope  Felix  V  who,  in  1440,  naitied  him 
cardinal.  In  his  "Tractatus  de  conciHo  Basileensi" 
he  upheld  the  doctrine  of  the  superiority  of  a  general 
council  to  the  pope.  It  was  his  canonical  works, 
especially  his  "Lectura  in  Decretales"  "In  Sextum", 
and  "In  Clementinas",  that  won  him  the  title  of 
"lucerna  juris"  (lamp  of  the  law)  and  insured  him 
great  authority;  he  also  wrote  "Consilia",  "Qua;s- 
tiones",  "Repetitiones",  "  Disputationes,  discepta- 
tiones  et  allegationes",  and  "Flores  utrius(iue  juris". 
A  fine  edition  of  his  works  appeared  at  \ciiii-ciii  1477; 
amonglater,  frequent  editions,  that  piiMislicdi II  1617- 
18  (Venice)  in  10  fnli..  \o1iiiim-  1-  (  -p^riillv  notable. 

ScHULTE,  Die  C.  .  I  ','  '  '  rlien  Rechtes, 

II    (Stuttgart,    18771      ;l  :  i  :  "   documentata 

della  Reale  Univerxil.,  ,,(■'-;,.:  i  ,t  n,i  i,  I  ^'i^  ' ,  I"  hi].  Brandi- 
LEONE,  Notizie  su  GraHnno  e  sa  .\„-rold  dr  Twlrsrlns  Iralte  dn  una 
cronaca  inedita.  Studi  e  memorie  per  la  storia  dclV  Universita  di 
Bologna,  I  (Bologna,  1909),  i,  18-21. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Nicomedes,  Saint,  martyr  of  unknown  era,  whose 
feast  is  observed  15  September.  The  Roman  Mar- 
tyrologium  and  the  historical  Martyrologies  of  Bede 
and  his  imitators  place  the  feast  on  this  date.  The 
Gregorian  Sacramentary  contains  under  the  same  date 
the  orations  for  his  Mass.  The  n;ime  does  not  appear 
in  the  three  oldest  and  most  inip<irt:iiit  MSS.  of  the 
"  Martyrologium  Hieronymianum  ",  hut  \v:is  in.serted 
in  later  recensions  ("Martyrol.  Ilicronymianuin",  ed. 
De  Rossi-Duchesne,  in  Acta  SS.,  Nov.,  II,  121).  The 
saint  is  without  doubt  a  martyr  of  the  Roman  Church. 
He  was  bviried  in  a  catacomb  on  the  Via  Nomentana 
near  the  gate  of  that  name.  Three  seventh  century 
Itineraries  make  exi)licit  reference  to  his  grave,  and 
Popi^  Adrian  I  restored  the  church  built  over  it  (De 
Rossi,  "Roiii.a  Sotterranea",  I,  178-79).  A  titular 
church  of  Home,  iiiciitioned  in  the  fifth  century,  was 
dedic:ited  to  him  (liltdusi  S.  Nicomi-dis).  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  circuiiist:mces  of  his  de:ith.  Tlie  legend 
of  the  martyrdom  of  Sts.  N<-reus  ;uid  .\cliilliMis  intro- 
ducers him  as  a  presbyter  and  places  his  death  ;it  the 
end  of  the  first  century.  Other  recensions  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Nicomedes  ascribe  the  sentence  of 
death  to  the  Emperor  Maximianus  (beginning  of  the 
fourth  century).  ^,,  „_,„  „„ 

Acta  .S'.S.,  Sept..  V,  5  sqq.;  Analceta  Bnllandmna,  XI,  2»8-H9; 
MoMBBiTins,  Sanctuarium,  II,  160-61 ;  Bibliotheca  hagtograpkica 


NICOMEDIA 


70 


NICOPOLIS 


latina,  cd.  Boll-vndists.  II,  901-02;  DpFOnRCQ,  Les  Oesia  Mat- 
tyntm  romains,  I  (Paris,  1900),  209-10;  Marucchi,  Les  calacombcs 
romaines  (Homo,  1900),  254-56. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Nicomedia,  titularscc  of  Rilliyni;i  I'rim;i.  foundod 
by  Kins  Zi]iiicics.  About  2t')l  H.  c.  liis  son  Xicdilcmps 
1  declirati'd  tlir  city  imew,  gave  it  his  name,  made  it 
his  capital,  and  adorned  it  with  raasnilit'pnt  monu- 
ments. At  his  court  the  vanquished  Hannibal  sought 
refuge.  When  Bithynia  became  a  Roman  province 
Nicomedia  remained  its  capital.  Pliny  the  Younger 
mentions,  in  his  letters  to  Trajan,  several  public 
edifices  of  the  city, — a  senate  house,  an  aqueduct 
which  he  had  built,  a  forum,  the  temple  of  Cybele,  etc. 
He  also  proposed  to  join  the  Black  Sea  with  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  by  a  canal  which  shoidd  follow  the  river 
Sangarius  and  empty  the  waters  of  the  Lake  of 
Sabandja  into  the  Gulf  of  Astacus.  A  fire  then  almost 
destroyed  the  town.  From  Nicomedia  jjerhaps, 
he  wrote  to  Trajan  his  famous  letter  concerning  the 
Christians.  Under  Marcus  Aurelius,  Dionysius, 
Bishop  of  Corinth,  addressed  a  letter  to  his  commu- 
nity warning  them  against  the  Marcionites  (Eusebius, 
"Hist.  Eccl.",  IV,  xxiii).  Bishop  Evander,  who 
opposed  the  sect  of  the  Ophites  (P.  L.,  LIII,  592), 
seems  to  have  lived  at  the  same  time.  Nicomedia 
was  the  favourite  residence  of  Diocletian,  who  built 
there  a  palace,  a  hippodrome,  a  mint,  and  an  ar- 
senal. In  303  the  edict  of  the  tenth  persecution 
caused  rivers  of  blood  to  flow  through  the  empire, 
especially  in  Nicomedia,  where  the  Bishop  .\nthimus 
and  a  great  many  Christians  were  martyred.  The 
city  was  then  half  Christian,  the  palace  itself  being 
filled  with  them.  In  303,  in  the  vast  plain  east  of 
Nicomedia,  Diocletian  renounced  the  empire  in  favour 
of  Galerius.  In  311  Lucian,  a  priest  of  .^ntioch,  de- 
livered a  discourse  in  the  presence  of  the  judge  before 
he  was  executed.  Other  martyrs  of  the  city  are 
numbered  by  hundreds.  Nicomedia  suffered  greatly 
during  the  fourth  century  from  an  invasion  of  the 
Goths  and  from  an  earthquake  (24  Aug.,  354),  which 
overthrew  all  the  public  and  private  monuments;  fire 
completed  the  catastrophe.  The  city  was  rebuilt,  on 
a  smaller  scale.  In  the  reign  of  Justinian  new  public 
buildings  were  erected,  which  were  destroyed  in  the 
following  century  by  the  Shah  Chosroes.  Pope  Con- 
stantine  I  visited  the  city  in  711.  In  1073  John 
Comnenus  was  there  proclaimed  emperor  and  shortly 
afterwards  was  compelled  to  abdicate.  In  1328  it 
was  captured  by  the  Sultan  Orkhan,  who  restored  its 
ramparts,  parts  of  which  are  still  preserved. 

LeQuien  (Oriens  Christ.,  I,  581-98)  has  drawn  up 
a  list  of  fifty  metropolitans,  which  may  easily  be  com- 
pleted, for  Nicomedia  has  never  ceased  to  be  a  met- 
ropolitan see.  Some  Latin  archbishops  are  also 
mentioned  by  Le  Quien  (III,  1017)  and  by  Eubel 
(Hierarchia  Cathohca  medii  aivi,  1, 381).  As  early  as 
the  eighth  century  the  metropolitan  See  of  Nicomedia 
had  eight  suffragan  sees  which  disappeared  by  degrees. 
Among  its  bishops,  apart  from  those  already  men- 
tioned, were:  the  three  Arians,  Eusebius,  Eudoxius, 
and  Demophilus,  who  exchanged  their  see  for  that  of 
Constantinople;  St.  Theophylactus,  martyred  by  the 
Iconoclasts  in  the  ninth  century;  George,  a  great 
preacher  and  a  friend  of  Photius;  Philotheus  Bryen- 
nios,  the  present  titular,  who  discovered  and  pub- 
lished Ai-Saxv  tOiv  diroa-TdXav.  To-day  Nicomedia  is 
called  Ismidt,  the  chief  town  of  a  sanjak  directly  de- 
pendent on  Constantinople.  It  has  about  25,000  in- 
habitants, who  are  very  poor,  for  the  German  port 
of  Haidar  Pacha  has  completely  ruined  its  commerce. 
Since  1891  the  Augustinians  of  the  Assumption  have 
a  mission  and  school,  and  the  Oblates  of  the  .Assump- 
tion, a  school  and  a  dispensary.  The  Latin  Catholics 
number  about  2.50  in  the  region  of  the  mission,  seventy 
of  them  hving  in  the  city.  The  Armenian  Catholic 
parish  numbers  120. 


Texier,  Asic  Minrmc  (Pari.i,  1802),  00-68;  Ccinet,  La  Tut- 
Quie  d'Aaie  (Paris),  IV,  355-04. 

S.  \^\^Mt. 

Nicopolis,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  ot  S<'l);u-iteia,  in 
Armenia  Prima.  Foun<lccl  by  Poinpcy  uflcr  his  de- 
cisive victory  over  Mithridatcs.  it  was  inhabited  by 
veterans  of  his  army  and  by  mcnibcrs  of  I  he  neigh- 
bouring pea.santry,  and  w;is  delightfully  situated  in  a 
beautiful,  well-watered  plain  lying  at  the  bxse  of  a 
thickly-wooded  mountain.  All  the  Roman  highways 
intersecting  that  portion  of  the  country  and  leading  to 
Comana,  Polemonium,  Neocai-sarea,  Sebasteia,  etc., 
radiated  from  Nicopolis  which,  even  in  the  time  of 
Strabo  (XII,  iii,  28),  boasted  quite  a  large  population. 
Given  to  Polemon  by  Anthony,  in  Sti  b.  c,  Nicopolis 
was  governed  from  A.  D.  54,  by  Aristobulus  of  Chal- 
cis  and  definitively  annexed  to  the  Roman  Empire  by 
Nero,  A.  D.  04.  It  then  became  the  metropolis  of 
Lesser  Armenia  and  the  seat  of  the  provincial  diet 
which  elected  the  Armeniarch.  Besides  the  altar  of 
the  Augusti,  it  raised  temples  to  Zeus  Nicephorus  and 
to  Victory.  Christianity  reached  Nicopolis  at  an  early 
date  and,  under  Licinius,  about  319,  forty-five  of  the 
city's  inhabitants  were  martyred;  the  Church  vener- 
ates them  on  10  July.  St.  Basil  (P.  G.,  XXXII,  896) 
calls  the  priests  of  Nicopolis  the  sons  of  confessors  and 
martyrs,  and  their  church  (P.  G.,  XXXII,  834)  the 
mother  of  that  of  Colonia.  About  472,  St.  John  the 
Silent,  who  had  sold  his  worldly  goods,  erected  a 
church  there  to  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

In  499  Nicopolis  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake, 
none  save  the  bishop  and  his  two  secretaries  escaping 
death  (Bull.  Acad,  de  Belgique,  1905,  557).  This  dis- 
aster was  irreparable,  and  although  Justinian  rebuilt 
the  walls  and  erected  a  monastery  in  memory  of  the 
Forty-five  Martyrs  (Procopius,  "  De  ^Edificiis  ",  III,  4), 
Nicopohs  never  regained  its  former  splendour.  Under 
Heraclius  it  was  captured  by  Chosroes  (Sebeos,  "His- 
toire  d'Heraclius",  tr.  Macler,  p.  62)  and  thenceforth 
was  only  a  mediocre  city,  a  simple  see  and  a  suffragan 
of  SebaslciM  in  Lesser  Armenia,  remaining  such  at 
least  until  I  he  clcxinth  century,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  various  "Nut ilia;  episcopatuum".  To-day  the 
site  of  ancient  Nicopolis  is  occupied  by  the  Armenian 
village  of  Purkh,  which  has  a  population  of  200  fami- 
lies and  is  near  the  city  of  Enderes,  in  the  sanjak 
of  Kara-Hissar  and  the  vilayet  of  Sivas.  Notable 
among  the  eight  bishops  mentioned  by  Le  Quien  is  St. 
Gregory  who,  in  the  eleventh  century,  resigned  his 
bishopric  and  retired  to  Pithiviers  in  France.  The 
Church  venerates  him  on  14  March. 

Le  QtJlE.v,  Oriens  chrisHanua  (Paris,  1740),  I.  427-30;  Acta 
Sanctorum,  July,  III,  34-45;  CuMONT,  Studica  Pontica  (Brussels, 
1906),  304-14. 

S.  Vailh£. 

Nicopolis,  Diocese  of  (Nicopolitana),  in  Bul- 
garia. The  city  of  Nicopolis  (Thrace  or  Moesia),  sit>- 
uated  at  the  junction  of  the  latrus  with  the  Danube, 
was  built  by  Trajan  in  commemoration  of  his  victory 
over  the  Dacians  (Ammianus  Marcellinus,  XXXI,  5; 
Jornandes,  "De  rebus  geticis",  ed.  Savagner,  218). 
Ptolemy  (III,  xi,  7)  places  it  in  Thrace  and  Hierocles 
in  Mcesia  near  the  Ha;mus  or  Balkans.  In  the  "Ec- 
thesis"  of  pseudo-Epiphanius  (Gelzer,  "Ungedruckte 
.  .  .  Texte  der  Notitiae  episcopatuum",  .535),  Nico- 
polis figures  as  an  autoeephalous  archbishopric  about 
640,  and  then  disappears  from  the  episcopal  lists, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  country  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Bulgarians.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus,  I, 
1233)  has  preserved  the  names  of  two  ancient  bishops: 
Marcellus  in  458,  and  Amantius  in  518.  A  list  of  the 
Latin  titulars  (1.3.54-1413)  may  be  found  in  Eubel 
(Hierarchia  catholica  medii  a;vi,  Mijnster,  I,  381). 
The  city  is  chiefly  noted  for  the  defeat  of  the  French 
and  Hungarian  armies  (25  September,  1396)  which 
made  the  Turks  masters  of  the  Balkan  peninsula. 


NICOPOLIS 


71 


NICOSIA 


The  Latin  mission  of  Bulgaria,  subject  during  the  six- 
teenth century  to  the  Archbishops  of  Antivari,  after- 
wards received  Franciscan  missionaries  from  Bosnia, 
and  in  1624  formed  an  independent  province  called 
"  eustodia  Bulgariio  ".  In  1763  it  was  confided  to  the 
Baptistines  of  Genoa  and  in  17S1,  to  the  Passionists 
who  have  no  canonical  residences  in  the  country,  sim- 
ply parishes.  One  of  them  is  usually  appointed 
Bishop  of  Nicopolis.  The  Franciscan  bishops  for- 
merly resided  at  Tchiprovetz,  destroyed  by  the  Turks 
in  16S8,  but  after  the  war  and  the  pestilence  of  1812, 
the  bishop  established  himself  at  Cioplea,  a  Catholic 
village  which  the  Bulgarians  had  just  founded  near 
Bucharest  and  where  his  successors  resided  until  1883, 
when  the  Holy  See  created  the  Archbishopric  of  Bu- 
charest. The  Bishop  of  Nicopolis,  ceasing  then  to  be 
apostolic  administrator  of  Wallachia,  chose  Roust- 
chouk  as  his  residence  and  still  lives  there.  In  the 
diocese  there  are  13,000  Catholics;  24  priests,  5  of 
whom  are  seculars;  17  Passionists  and  2  Assumption- 
ists;  15  churches,  and  3  chapels.  The  Assumptionists 
have  a  school  at  Varna,  the  Oblates  of  the  Assumption 
a  boarding-school  in  the  same  city,  and  the  Sisters  of 
Our  Lady  of  Sion  a  boarding-school  at  Roustchouk. 

Plolemy,  ed.  MfJLLER,  I  (Paris),  481;  Le  Roulx,  La  France  en 
Orient  au  XIV'  siecle.  I  (Paris.  1886),  211-99;  Bchos  d'Orient, 
VII  (Paris).  207-9;  Missiones  catholicce  (Rome,  1907). 

S.  Vailh£. 

Nicopolis,  a  titular  see  and  metropolis  in  ancient 
Epirus.  Augustus  founded  the  city  (b.  c.  31)  on  a 
promontory  in  the  Gulf  of  Ambracia,  in  commemora- 
tion of  his  victory  over  Anthony  and  Cleopatra  at 
Actium.  At  Nicopolis  the  emperor  instituted  the 
famous  quinquennial  Actian  games  in  honour  of 
Apollo.  The  city  was  peopled  chiefly  by  settlers  from 
the  neighbouring  municipia,  of  which  it  was  the  head 
(Strabo  III,  xiii,  3;  VII,  vii,  6;  X,  ii,  2).  According 
to  Pliny  the  Elder  (IV,  2)  it  was  a  free  city.  St.  Paul 
intended  going  there  (Tit.,  iii,  12)  and  it  is  possible 
that  even  then  it  numbered  .some  Christians  among 
its  population;  Origen  sojourned  there  for  a  while 
(Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VI,  16).  Laid  waste  by  the 
Goths  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  (Procopius, 
"Bell,  goth.",  IV,  22),  restored  by  Justinian  (Idem, 
"  De  vEdificiis",  IV,  2),  in  the  sixth  century  it  was  still 
the  capital  of  Epirus  (Hierocles,  "Synecdemus",  ed. 
Burchhardt,  6.51,  4).  The  province  of  ancient  Epirus 
of  which  Nicopolis  was  the  metropolis,  constituted  a 
portion  of  the  western  patriarchate,  directly  subject 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  pope;  but,  about  732,  Leo 
the  Isaurian  incorporated  it  into  the  Patriarchate  of 
Constantinople.  Of  the  eleven  metropolitans  men- 
tioned by  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus,  II,  133-38) 
the  most  celebrated  was  Alcison  who,  early  in  the 
sixth  century,  opposed  the  Monophysite  policy  of 
Emperor  Anastasius.  The  last  known  of  these  bish- 
ops was  Anastasius,  who  attended  the  fficumenical 
Council  in  787,  and  soon  afterwards,  owing  to  the 
decadence  into  which  Nicopolis  fell,  the  metropolitan 
see  was  transferred  to  Naupactus  which  subsequently 
figured  in  the  Notitise  episcopatuum.  Quite  exten- 
sive ruins  of  Nicopolis  are  found  three  miles  to  the 
north  of  Prevesa  and  are  called  Palaio-Prevesa. 

Smith,  Diet.  Greek  and  Roman  Geography,  II  (London,  1870), 
426;  Leake,  Northern  Greece,  I,  185;  Wolfe,  Journal  of  Geo- 
graphical Society,  III,  92  sq. 

S.  VailhS. 

Nicosia,  a  city  of  the  Province  of  Catania,  in  Sicily, 
situated  at  a  height  of  about  2800  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  In  its  neighbourhood  are  salt  mines  and 
sulphur  springs.  The  town  is  believed  to  stand  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Otterbita,  which  was  destroyed  by 
the  Arabs.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  with  a  magnificent 
portal  and  paintings  by  Velasquez.  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore,  also,  is  a  beautiful  church.  The  episcopal 
see  was  erected  in  1818,  its  first  prelate  being  Mgr 
Cajetan  M.  Averna.     Nicosia  was  the  birthplace  of 


the  Blessed  Felix  of  Nicosia,  a  Capuchin  lay  brother. 
Within  the  diocese  is  the  ancient  city  of  Triona,  which 
was  an  episcopal  see  from  1087  to  1090.  Nicosia  is  a 
suffragan  of  Messina,  from  the  territory  of  which  that 
of  Nicosia  was  taken;  it  has  23  parishes,  with  60,250 
inhabitants,  4  religious  houses  of  men,  and  5  of  women, 
and  3  schools  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d'ltalia,  XXI  (Venice.  1857). 

IJ.  Benigni. 

Nicosia,  Titular  Archdiocese  of,  in  the  Province 
of  Cyprus.  It  is  now  agreed  (Oberhuramer,  "Aus 
Cvpern"  in  "Zeitschrift  der  Gesellschaft  fiir  Erd- 
kunde",  1890,  212-14),  that  Ledra,  Leucotheon, 
Leucopolis,  Leucosia,  and  Nicosia  are  the  same  city, 
at  least  the  same  episcopal  see.  Ledra  is  first  men- 
tioned by  Sozomen  (H.  E.,  I,  11)  in  connexion  with  its 
bishop,  St.  Triphyllius,  who  lived  under  Constantine 
and  whom  St.  Jerome  (De  scriptoribus  ecclesiasticis), 
pronounced  the  most  eloquent  of  his  time.  Mention 
is  made  also  of  one  of  his  disciples,  St.  Diomedes,  ven- 
erated on  28  October.  Under  the  name  of  Leucosia 
the  city  appears  for  the  first  time  in  the  sixth  century, 
in  the  "Synecdemus"  of  Hierocles  (ed.  Burckhardt, 
707-8).  It  was  certainly  subsequent  to  the  eighth 
century  that  Leucosia  or  Nicosia  replaced  Constantia 
as  the  metropolis  of  Cyprus,  for  at  the  CEcumenical 
Council  of  787  one  Constantine  signed  as  Bishop  of  Con- 
stantia; in  any  case  at  the  conquest  of  the  island  in 
1191  by  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  Nicosia  was  the  capi- 
tal. At  that  time  Cyprus  was  sold  to  the  Templars 
who  established  themselves  in  the  castle  of  Nicosia, 
but  not  being  able  to  overcome  the  hostility  of  the 
people  of  the  city,  massacred  the  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  and  sold  Cyprus  to  Guy  de  Lusignan,  who 
founded  a  dynasty  there,  of  which  there  were  fifteen 
titulars,  and  did  much  towards  the  prosperity  of  the 
capital.  Nicosia  was  then  made  a  Latin  metropolitan 
see  with  three  suffragans,  Paphos,  Limassol,  and  Fa- 
magusta.  The  Greeks  who  had  previously  had  as  many 
as  fourteen  titulars  were  obliged  to  be  content  with 
four  bishops  bearing  the  same  titles  as  the  Latins  but 
residing  in  different  towns.  The  list  of  thirty-one  Latin 
archbishops  from  1196  to  1502  may  be  seen  in  Eubel, 
"Hierarchia  catholica  medii  a;vi",  I,  382;  II,  224. 
Quarrels  between  Greeks  and  Latins  were  frequent 
and  prolonged,  especially  at  Nicosia,  where  the  two 
councils  of  1313-60  ended  in  bloodshed;  but  in 
spite  of  everything  the  island  prospered.  There  were 
many  beautiful  churches  in  the  possession  of  the 
Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Augustinians,  Carmelites, 
Benedictines,  and  Carthusians.  Other  churches  be- 
longed to  the  Greeks,  Armenians,  Jacobites,  Maro- 
nites,  Nestorians  etc.  In  1489  Cyprus  fell  under  the 
dominion  of  Venice  and  on  9  November,  1.570,  Nicosia 
fell  into  the  power  of  the  Turks,  who  committed  atro- 
cious cruelties.  Nor  was  this  the  last  time,  for  on  9 
July,  1821,  during  the  revolt  of  the  Greeks  in  the  Ot- 
toman Empire,  they  strangled  many  of  the  people 
of  Nicosia,  among  them  the  four  Greek  bishops  of  the 
island.  Since  4  June,  1878,  Cyprus  has  been  under 
the  dominion  of  England.  Previously  Nicosia  was 
the  residence  of  the  Mutessarif  of  the  sandjak  which 
depended  on  the  vilayet  of  the  Archipelago.  Since 
the  Turkish  occupation  of  1,571  Nicosia  has  been  the 
permanent  residence  of  the  Greek  archbishop  who 
governs  the  autonomous  church  of  Cyprus.  The 
city  has  13,000  inhabitants.  The  Franciscans  admin- 
ister the  Catholic  mission  which  is  dependent  on  the 
Latin  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem,  and  has  a  school  for 
boys.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  have  a  school  for 
girls 

ItOiuN  Oru:i  cirttiwii  TI  (Pirn  1740)  W7<>;  Acta 
S ,  1 1 1    I  1    I  I   (Brussels, 

I  Id  latins  de 

II  I  rl  ^  Orthodox 
CI  III  I  I  KB,  Cyprus 
(Athcru  IMI)  m  Greek  CuiMBLniiiM.  Linmi  Nicosienses 
(Paris,  1894)                                                                S.  VaILH^. 


NICOTERA 


72 


NIEREMBERG 


Nicotera  and  Tropea,  Diocese  of  (Nicotbren- 
818  ET  Tropeiensis),  siilTniRiin  of  RpKSio  f'i  Calabria. 
Nicotera,  thp ancient  Mcdaina,  isacity  of  the  Province 
of  Catanzaro,  in  Calal)ria,  Italy;  it  was  destroyed  by 
tlie  eartliquake  of  1783.  Its  lirst  known  bishop  was 
Proculus,  to  whom,  with  others,  a  letter  of  St.  Gregory 
the  Great  was  written  in  599.  With  the  exception  of 
Sergius  (787),  none  of  its  bi.shops  is  known  earlier 
than  1392.  Under  Bishop  Charles  rinli.  the  city  was 
pillaged  by  the  Turks.  In  ISIS,  it  wasiinitcd  on  equal 
terms  {irqiir  i)nitcipiililrr)  with  tlic  Diocese  of  Tropea. 
This  city  is  situated  on  a  reef,  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Euphe- 
mia  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  strip. 
It  is  the  birtlijilaceof  the  jiainter  Span6,  the  anato- 
mists Pictro  and  Paolo  Voiani,  and  (he  philosopher 
Pasquale  Galluppi.  It  has  a  beautiful  cathedral,  re- 
storeil  after  its  destruction  by  the  earthquake  of  1783. 
Here  the  Greek  Rite  was  formerly  used.  Only  three 
bishops  before  the  Norman  conquest  are  known;  the 
first,  .Joann.'-s,  is  referred  to  the  year  649;  among  its 
other  prelates  was  Nicold  Acciapori  (1410),  an  emi- 
nent statesHjan.  The  diocese  has  72  parishes,  with 
78,000  inhabitants,  a  Franciscan  nouse,  and  a  house 
of  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  XXI. 

U.  Benigni. 

Nictheroy,  Diocese  of.    See  Petropolis. 

Nider,  John,  theologian,  b.  1380  in  Swabia;  d.  13 
August,  1438,  at  Colinar.  He  entered  the  Order  of 
Preachers  at  Colmar  and  after  profession  was  sent  to 
Vienna  for  his  philosophical  studies,  which  he  finished 
at  Cologne  where  he  was  ordained.  He  gained  a  wide 
reputation  in  Germany  as  a  preacher  and  was  active 
at  the  Council  of  Constance.  After  making  a  study 
of  the  convents  of  his  order  of  strict  observance  in 
Italy  he  returned  to  the  University  of  Vienna  where  in 
1425  he  began  teaching  as  Master  of  Theology. 
Elected  prior  of  the  Dominican  convent  at  Nurern- 
berg  in  1427,  he  successively  served  as  socius  to  his 
master  general  and  vicar  of  the  reformed  convents  of 
the  German  province.  In  this  capacity  he  main- 
tained his  early  reputation  of  reformer  and  in  1431  he 
was  chosen  prior  of  the  convent  of  strict  observance  at 
Basle.  He  became  identified  with  the  Council  of 
Basle  as  theologian  and  legate,  making  several  em- 
bassies to  the  Huissites  at  the  command  of  Cardinal 
Julian.  Sent  as  legate  of  the  Council  to  the  Bohe- 
mians he  succeeded  in  pacifying  them.  He  journeyed 
to  Ratisbon  (1434)  to  effect  a  further  reconciliation 
with  the  Bohemians  and  then  proceeded  to  Vienna  to 
continue  his  work  of  reforming  the  convents  there. 
During  the  discussion  that  followed  the  dissolution 
of  the  Council  of  Basle  by  Eugene  IV,  he  joined  the 
party  in  favour  of  continuing  the  Council  in  Germany, 
aljandoning  them,  however,  when  the  pope  remained 
firm  in  his  decision.  He  resumed  his  theological  lec- 
tures at  Vienna  in  1436  and  was  twice  elected  dean  of 
the  university  before  his  death.  As  reformer  he  was 
foremost  in  Germany  and  welcomed  as  such  both  by 
his  own  order  and  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Council  of 
Basle.  As  a  theologian  his  adherence  to  the  princi- 
ples of  St.  Thomas  and  his  practical  methods  made 
him  distinguished  among  his  contemporaries.  The 
most  important  among  his  many  writings  is  the  "For- 
micarius"  (5  vols.,  Douai,  1602)  atreatise  on  the  phil- 
osophical, theological,  and  social  questions  of  his  day. 
Among  his  theological  works  are  the  following:  "Com- 
mentarius  in  IV  libros  Scntentiarum"  (no  longer  ex- 
tant); " Pra?ceptorum  divina>  legis"  (Douai,  1612, 
seventeen  other  editions  before  1500);  "Tractatus  de 
contractibus  mercatorum"  f Paris,  1514,  eight  edi- 
tions before  1.500);  "Consolatorium  timoratie  consci- 
entiic"  (Rome,  1604);  "De  Morali  lepra"  (Regia, 
1830,1;  ''Manualead  instnic^tionem  spiritualium  Pas- 
torum"  (Rome,  1513);  "Alphabetum  Divini  Amoris" 
(Antwerp,  1705,  in  works  of  Gerson);  "De  modo  bene 


Vivendi "  (commonly  atttributed  to  St.  Bernard) ;  "  De 
Reformatione  Religiosorum  Libri  Tres"  (Paris,  1512; 
Antwerp,  1611).  Besides  these  there  arc  several  letters 
written  to  the  Boheiiiiaiis  and  to  the  Fathers  of  the 
Council  of  Basle,  printed  in  "Monum.  Concil.  Gen- 
eral., siEC.  XV,  Concil.  Basil.  Scrip.",  I  (Vienna,  1857). 

Qu^TiF-EcHABD,  ScHptortst  0.  p.,  I,  792  sqq.;  II,  822;  TnuRON, 
llhlnlrr  tirs  ftommcs  illuslres  de  iordre  de  iit.  Dominique,  III,  218- 

7(',,    Si  ITTlTTn    in   Kirrhridd.  ^.\.  Nider:   CoLVENEIlIUS,  J.  Nider 

/■' ii),,ii,;     I'lOLM;    Steill,    Qrd.    Prad,   Ephemerides 

Ji II      hillinK,    1692).  2:i0;    SrniELEH,   Magieter 

,l.,i.:  \;'.   ,    <  ',      urn    Orden   der    Prcdiger-Brader   (Mainz, 

l,SS.,l;  Aini.r  Jtumunr.nne.  Vll  (1895).  7.-J1-40;  HaiN.  Rep.  Bibl., 

Ill  (isai);  Bkumer.  Prediiierorden  in  Wien  (1887);  Chevalier, 
Repertoire  des  Sources  historiques  du  Moyen  A(ic,  II,  3;J60. 

Ignatius  Smith. 

Nieremberg  y  Otin,  Juan  Eusebio,  noted  theolo- 
gian and  polygra])liist,  b.  of  German  parents  at  Mad- 
rid, 1595;  d.  there,  1658.  Having  studied  the  classics 
at  the  Court,  he  went  to  Alcald  for  the  sciences  and 
from  there  to  Salamanca  for  canon  law,  where  lie  en- 
tered the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1614,  much  against  the 
wishes  of  his  father  who  linally  obliged  him  to  leave 
the  novitiate  of  Villagarcia.  He  remained  firm  in  his 
resolution  and  was  permitted  to  return  to  Madrid  to 
finish  his  probation.  He  studied  Greek  and  Hebrew 
at  the  Colegio  de  Huete,  arts  and  theology  at  Alcald, 
and  was  ordained  in  1623,  making  his  profession  in 
1633.  At  the  Colegio  Imperial  of  Madrid  he  taught 
humanities  and  natural  history  for  sixteen  years  and 
Sacred  Scripture  for  three.  As  a  director  of  souls  he 
was  much  sought,  being  appointed  by  royal  command 
confessor  to  the  Duchess  of  Mantua,  granddaughter 
of  Philip  II.  Remarkable  for  his  exemplary  life,  and 
the  heights  of  prayer  to  which  he  attained,  he  was  an 
indefatigable  worker,  and  one  of  the  most  prolific 
writers  of  his  time.  Seventy-three  printed  and  eleven 
manuscript  works  are  attributed  to  him;  of  these, 
twenty-four  at  least  are  in  Latin.  Though  his  works 
are  distinguished  for  their  erudition,  those  in  Spanish 
being  characterized  according  to  Capmani,  by  nobil- 
ity and  purity  of  diction,  terse,  well-knit  phrases,  for- 
cible metaphors,  and  vivid  imagery,  certain  defects 
mar  his  style,  at  times  inelegant  and  marked  by  a  cer- 
tain disregard  for  the  rules  of  grammar  and  a  too  pro- 
nounced use  of  antithesis,  paronomasia,  and  other 
plays  upon  words.  Lack  of  a  true  critical  faculty 
often  detracts  from  the  learning.  The  Spanish  Acad- 
emy includes  his  name  in  the  "  Diccionario  de 
Autoridades".  His  principal  works  are:  (1)  "Del 
Aprecio  y  Estima  de  la  Divina  Gracia"  (Madrid, 
1638),  editions  of  which  have  been  issued  at  Sara- 
gossa,  Barcelona,  Seville,  Majorca,  also  a  second  edi- 
tion of  the  Madrid  edition;  it  has  been  translated 
into  Italian,  French,  Latin,  German,  Panayano,  and 
condensed  into  English  (New  York,  1866,  1891)-  (2) 
"De  la  Diferencia  entre  lo  Temporal  y  Eterno'  (Ma- 
drid, 1640),  of  which  there  are  fifty-four  Spanish  edi- 
tions, and  translations  into  Latin,  Arabic,  Italian, 
French,  German,  Flemish,  and  English  (1672,  1684, 
1884),  Portuguese,  Mexican,  Guaranian,  Chiquito, 
Panayano;  (3)  "Opera  Parthenica"  (Lyons,  1659),  in 
which  he  defends  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  basing  it  upon  new,  although  not  al- 
ways absolutely  reliable,  documents;  (4)  "Historiana- 
tura;  maxime  peregrina^  Libris  XVI,  distincta"  (Ant- 
werp 1635);  (5)  "De  la  afici6n  y  amor  de  Jesds  .  .  . 
Idem  de  Maria"  (Madrid,  1630),  of  which  there  are 
five  Spanish  editions  and  translations  into  Latin, 
Arabic,  German,  Flemi.sh,  French,  Italian,  Portu- 
guese and  an  English  translation  of  the  first  edition 
(1849  1880);  one  edition  of  (6)  "Obras  Christianas 
espirituales  y  filos6ficas"  (Madrid,  1651,  fol.  3  vols.), 
and  one  of  (7)  "Obras  Christianas"  (Madrid,  1665, 
fol.  2  vols.),  are  still  extant.  It  was  customary  in 
many  of  the  Spanish  churches  to  read  selections  from 
these  books  every  Sunday.  ,    ,    ,    .    „„t  ,o    . 

Andrade    Varones  ilustres  de  la  CompaMa  de  Jesus,  VIII  (2nd 
ed.,  Bilbao  (1891),  699-766;  Capmani  y  de  Montpalah,  Tealro 


NIESSENBERGER  73 

Histdrico  critico  de  la  Elocuencia  espaHola,  V  (Barcelona,  1848), 
271:  R.  P.  Joannis  Eusebii  Nierembergii  e  Societate  Jesu  Opera 
Parthenica.  .  .  .  Vita  Ven.  Patria .  .  .  .  CoUecta  ex  kis  quw  his- 
paiiice  scripserunt  PP.  Alpkonsus  de  Andrade  et  Joannes  de  Ygarza 
ejus.  Soc.  (Lyons,  1689);  Sommervoqei,,  Bibliot.,  V,  1725;  Guii^ 
HERMY,  Menologe  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  Assistance  d'Espaane 
pt.  I  (Paria,  1902).  '^"     ' 

Antonio  P]6hez  Goyena. 

Niessenberger,  Hans,  an  architect  of  the  latter 
part  of  tlic  Miildlc  Ages,  whose  name  is  mentioned 
with  comparative  frequency  in  contemporaneous  lit- 
erature. But  information  about  his  personality  and 
his  works  is  somewhat  more  difficult  to  find.  It  seems 
however,  that  he  was  born  in  Gratz,  Styria  ("Seckauer 
Kirchenschmuck",  ISSO,  p.  56).  He  worked  on  the 
choir  of  the  Freiburg  cathedral  from  1471  to  1480;  in 
the  latter  year  he  was  compelled  to  leave  the  task  of 
building  and  to  swear  that  he  would  not  try  to  revenge 
himself  for  this.  In  14S(J  he  worked  on  the  church  of 
St.  Leonhard  at  Basle;  in  1482,  on  the  cathedral  at 
Strasburg;  and  in  the  following  year  he  probably  was 
engaged  on  the  great  cathedral  of  Milan  with  a  yearly 
salary  of  ISO  guilders — at  least  there  is  a  "Johannes 
of  Graz"  mentioned  as  architect  in  Ricci,  "iStoria 
deir  archit.  italiana",  II,  .388.  The  choir  at  Freiburg 
was  turned  over  to  him  in  1471;  the  contract  is  inter- 
esting and  instructivi\  showing  as  it  does  the  manner 
in  which  buildings  of  tliis  kind  were  erected  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  how  the  working 
hours,  wages,  etc.,  were  determined  upon  (Schreiber, 
"Munster  zu  Freiburg",  Appendix,  15  sq.).  The 
choir  possesses  great  beauty,  but  it  also  manifests  the 
peculiarities  of  Late  Gothic.  It  is  long,  like  the  main 
church,  with  the  nave  higher,  the  side  aisles  lower  and 
somewhat  narrower  than  in  the  front,  and  surrounded 
by  twelve  chapels,  enclosed  on  two  sides  by  fluted 
columns.  The  arched  roof,  supported  by  beautifully 
carved  columns,  forms  a  network.  The  windows  are 
characteristically  Late  Gothic,  and  the  arches  are 
wonderfully  delicate.  The  whole  is  the  work  of  a 
master. 

ScHRErBER,  op.  cit.;  Kdqler,  Gesch.  der  Baukunst,  II  (1859); 
OlTE.  Kunst-Archdologie  (5th  ed..  1884);  Kempf,  Das  MUnster  zu 
Freiburg  im  Breisgau  (Freiburg,  1898). 

G.  GlET.MANN. 


NIGERIA 


Niger  (Nigri,  Ger.  Schwartz),  Peter  George, 
Dominican  theologian,  preacher  and  controversialist, 
b.  1434  at  Kaaden  in  Bohemia;  d.  between  1481  and 
1484.  He  studied  at  different  universities  (Sala- 
manca, Montpellier,  etc.),  entered  the  order  in  1452 
at  Eichstiitt,  Bavaria,  and  after  his  religious  pro- 
fession took  up  philosophy  and  theology  at  Leip- 
zig, where  he  also  produced  his  first  literary  work 
"De  modo  prffidicandi"  (1457).  In  14.59  he  defended 
publicly  in  Freiburg  a  series  of  the.ses  so  success- 
fully that  the  provincial  chapter  then  in  session 
there  sent  him  to  the  University  of  Bologna  for  ad- 
vanced courses  in  theology  and  canon  law.  Recalled 
after  two  years,  he  was  made  lector  of  theology  and 
engaged  in  teaching  and  preaching.  In  14G5  he 
taught  philosophy  and  was  regent  of  studies  in  Co- 
logne; in  1467  taught  theology  at  Ulm;  in  1469  or 
1470  was  elected  prior  in  Eichstatt;  on  31  May,  1473, 
the  newly  founded  University  of  Ingolstadt  conferred 
on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  theology;  in  1474  he 
taught  theology  in  the  convent  at  Ratisbon  and  in 
1478  became  professor  of  Old-Testament  exegesis  in 
the  University  of  IngoLstadt.  Shortly  after,  upon 
the  invitation  of  the  patron  of  learning,  Matthias 
Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary,  he  became  rector  of  his 
newly-erected  Academy  of  philosophy,  theology,  and 
Sacred  Scripture  at  liuda,  in  gratitude  for  which 
honour  he  dedicated  to  his  royal  friend  his  "Cly- 
peus  Thomistarum  adversus  omnes  doctrinae  doctoris 
angehci  obtrectatores "  (Venice,  1481),  in  which  he 
defends  the  teaching  of  St.  Thomas  against  the 
Scotists  and  Nominalists.     Niger  ranks  among  the 


most  eminent  theologians  and  preachers  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  a  keen  disciple 
of  St.  Thomas,  zealous  for  the  integrity  of  his  teach- 
ings and  adhering  strictly  to  the  traditions  of  his 
school.  In  his  few  theological  works  he  hmits  him- 
self almost  entirely  to  the  discussion  of  abstract  ques- 
tions of  logic  and  psychology.  He  devoted  most  of 
his  time  to  preaching  to  the  Jews.  He  had  learned 
their  language  and  become  familiar  with  their  liter- 
ature at  Salamanca  and  Montpellier  by  associating 
with  Jewish  children  and  attending  the  lectures  of  the 
rabbis.  At  Ratisbon,  Worms,  and  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  he  preached  in  German,  Latin,  and  Hebrew, 
frequently  challenging  the  rabbis  to  a  disputation. 
He  wrote  two  anti-Jewish  works,  one  in  Latin, 
"Tractatus  contra  Perfidos  Juda;os"  (Esslingen, 
1475),  which  is  probably  the  earhest  printed  anti- 
Jewish  work,  and  in  which  he  severely  attacked  the 
Jews  and  the  Talmud.  The  other,  written  in  German, 
is  entitled  "Stern  des  Messias"  (EssUngen,  1477). 
ReuchUn  in  his  "  Augenspiegel "  declared  them  ab- 
surd. Both  works  are  furnished  with  appendices 
giving  the  Hebrew  alphabet  in  Hebrew  and  Latin 
type,  rules  of  grammar  and  for  reading  Hebrew,  the 
Decalogue  in  Hebrew,  some  Messianic  texts  from 
the  Old  Testament,  etc.  They  are  among  the  earli- 
est specimens  of  Hebrew  printing  in  Germany,  and 
the  first  attempt  at  Hebrew  grammar  in  that  country 
by  a  Christian  scholar.  They  were  afterwards  pub- 
lished separately  as  "Commentatio  de  primis  lingua; 
Hebraicse  elementis"  (Altdorf,  1764).  Peter  Tcuto, 
O.P.  (Quetif,  I,  855),  and  Peter  Eystettensis  (Eck, 
"Chrysopassus  Cent.",  XLIX)  are  most  probably  to 
be  identified  with  Peter  Niger. 

Qu^TIF-EcHAHD,  SS.  Ord.  Pnrd..  I,  Sfil   aqq.;  TouRON,  Horn. 

III.  de  t'ordre  de  S.  Dom.,  III.  '•  :j- :;l  .  l;i  i  sch,  Atlg.  d.  Biogr., 
XXXIII,  247  sq.;  JocHER.  -I /  ■  -i/.on.  s.  v.;  Prantl, 
Gesch.  der  Logik  im  Abcmll.  >  I  n  .  -  I  ,  '  ,  "J21  sq. ;  Katholik,  I 
(1891).  574;  II  (1902).  310;  .1.  '  ■  '/  /Vrrf.,  II.  367;  Wolf, 
Bibliotheca  Hebraica  (Hamburg,  1721),  11,  17,  1037,  1110  sqq.; 

IV,  525  sqq. 

Joseph  Schroeder. 

Nigeria,  Upper  and  Lower,  a  colony  of  British 
East  Africa  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  to 
Lake  Chad  (from  4°  30'  to  7°  N.  lat.,  and  from  5°  30' 
to  8°  30'  E.  long.),  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west 
by  French  Sudan,  on  the  south-west  by  the  English 
colony  of  Lagos,  on  the  south  by  the  Atlantic,  on  the 
east  by  Gennan  Kamerun.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  River  Niger,  flowing  through  it.  The  Niger, 
French  from  its  source  in  the  Guinean  Sudan  to  the 
frontier  of  Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia,  enters  Nigeria 
above  Ilo,  receives  the  Sokoto  River  at  Gomba,  and 
the  Benue  at  Lokodja,  the  chief  tributaries  in  English 
territory.  Though  the  establishment  of  the  English 
dates  only  from  1879,  numerous  explorers  had  long  be- 
fore reconnoitred  the  river  and  the  neighbouring  coun- 
try. Among  the  most  famous  were  Mungo  Park 
(1795-1805),  Clapperton  (1822),  Ren6  Caill6  (1S25), 
Lander,  Barth,  Mage,  and  recently  the  French  oflicers 
Gallieni,  Mizon,  Hourst,  and  Lenfant.  InlS79,onthe 
initiative  of  Sir  George  Goldie,  the  English  societies 
established  in  the  region  purchased  all  the  French  and 
foreign  trading  stations  of  Lower  Niger  and  in  1SS5 
obtained  a  royal  charter  which  constituted  them  the 
"Royal  Company  of  the  Niger".  The  Hoyal  Com- 
pany developeil  nipidly  and  acquired  inuiiensc  terri- 
tories, often  :it  the  i-ost  of  bloodshed.  The  monopoly 
of  navigation  which  it  claimed  to  exercise,  contniry  to 
the  stipulations  of  the  General  .Vet  of  Berlin,  its  oppo- 
sition to  the  undertakings  of  France  and  Germnny,  its 
encroachments  on  neighbouring  territories,  aroused 
numerous  diplomatic  quarrels  which  finally  brought 
about  the  revocation  of  its  privileges  (1  Jan.,  1900). 
It  then  became  a  simple  commercial  company  with 
enormous  territorial  pos.sessions ;  the  conquered  lands, 
reunited  to  the  old  Protectorate  of  the  Niger  Coast 
organized  in  1884,  constituted  the  British  colony  of 


NIHILISM 


74 


NIHILISM 


Nigeria.  France,  however,  retained  two  colonies  at 
Bailjibo-Arenberg  and  at  Forcados;  navigation  was 
free  to  all. 

Politically  Nigeria  is  divided  into  two  provinces, 
Southern  or  Lower  Nigeria,  Northern  or  i'i)|)er  Ni- 
geria, separated  by  the  parallel  which  i)assos  tlirough 
Ida.  Each  division  is  governed  by  a  high  coiniiii.'^sioner 
named  directly  by  theCrown.  Northern  Nigeria  with 
an  area  of  over  123.400  square  miles  is  as  yet  only 
partly  settled,  and  has  nine  constituted  provinces. 
The  ancient  capital,  (iebha,  is  now  replaced  by  Wush- 
ishi  on  the  Kaduna.  The  chief  cities  are  Lokodja,  Ilo, 
Yola,  Gando,  Sokoto,  Kano,  etc.  Kano,  situated  two 
hundred  miles  to  the  north,  is  a  remarkable  city  and 
one  of  the  largest  markets  of  the  whole  world.  For 
more  than  a  thousand  years  the  metropolis  of  East 
Africa,  Kano  contains  about  fifty  thousand  inhab- 
itants, is  surrounded  by  walls  built  of  hardened  clay 
from  twenty  to  thirty  ft.  high  and  fifteen  miles  in 
circumference.  Every  year  more  than  two  million 
natives  go  to  Kano  to  exchange  their  agricultural 
products  or  their  merchandise.  The  chief  articles 
of  commerce  are  camels,  cattle,  ivory,  sugar,  ostrich 
plumes,  and  kola  nuts.  Kano  is  also  a  great  inrlus- 
trial  centre,  renowned  for  its  hides  and  its  cotton 
materials;  sorghum  and  many  kinds  of  vegetables  and 
cereals  are  cultivated.  The  natives  are  very  good 
workmen,  especially  in  the  cultivation  of  the  fields. 
Although  nominally  subject  to  England,  some  chiefs, 
or  sultans,  have  remained  almost  independent,  for  in- 
stance those  of  Sokoto  and  Nupe.  English  money, 
however,  has  circulated  everywhere  and  three-penny 
pieces  are  very  popular.  Northern  Nigeria  has  a  popu- 
lation of  about  fifteen  million  inhabitants,  divided  into 
several  tribes,  each  speaking  its  own  tongue,  the  chief 
of  which  are  the  Yorubas,  the  Nupes,  the  Haussas, 
and  the  Igbiras.  English  is  the  official  language  of  the 
administration. 

Constantly  pressing  to  the  south,  Islam  has  pene- 
trated as  far  as  the  markets  of  the  Lower  Niger,  and 
carries  on  a  \'igorous  proselytism,  aided  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  English  Government.  Mussulman 
chiefs  and  instructors  are  often  appointed  for  the 
fetishistic  population.  Powerful  English  Protestant 
missions  have  unsuccessfully  endeavoured  to  gain  a 
foothold.  Catholic  missionaries  explored  a  portion  of 
these  same  regions  as  early  as  1 883,  but  only  now  have 
they  undertaken  permanent  establishments.  Nigeria 
is  divided  into  two  prefectures  Apostolic;  that  of  the 
Upper  Niger  is  confided  to  the  Society  of  African  Mis- 
sions of  Lyons  (1884),  and  that  of  the  Lower  Niger  to 
the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (1SS9).  The  first  com- 
prises all  the  territory  west  of  the  Niger  from  For- 
cados and  north  of  the  Benue  to  Yola.  Its  hmits  were 
only  definitively  constituted  by  the  decrees  of  15  Janu- 
arj-  and  10  May,  1894.  The  prefect  Apostolic  resides 
at  Lokodja.  The  mission  is  chiefly  developed  in  the 
more  accessible  part  of  Southern  Nigeria,  where  Islam 
is  still  almost  a  stranger.  Its  chief  posts,  besides  Lo- 
kodja, are  Assaba,  Ila,  Ibsel(5,  Ibi,  Idu,  etc.  The 
twenty  missionaries  are  assisted  by  the  Religious  of 
the  Queen  of  the  Apostles  (Lyons) ;  in  1910  there  were 
about  1.500  Catholics  and  an  equal  number  of  catechu- 
mens. The  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  the  Lower  Niger 
comprises  all  the  country  situated  between  the  Niger, 
the  Benue,  and  the  western  frontier  of  German  Kam- 
erun.  Less  extensive  than  that  of  the  Upper  Niger,  its 
population  is  much  more  dense,  almost  wholly  fetish- 
istic, and  even  cannibal.  Towns  of  five,  ten,  and 
twenty  thou.sand  inhabitants  are  not  rare;  the  popula- 
tion is  chiefly  agricultural,  cultivating  the  banana  and 
the  yam.  In  the  delta  and  on  Cross  River  the  palm 
oil  harvest  is  the  object  of  an  active  commerce.  Sev- 
eral tribes  are  crowded  into  these  fertile  districts;  the 
Ibo,  Nri,  Munchis,  Ibibio,  Ibani,  Ibeno,  Efik,  Akwa, 
Arc,  etc.  Their  religion  is  fetishism,  with  ridiculous 
and  cruel  practices  often  admitting  of  human  sacri- 


fices, exacted  by  the  ju-ju  (a  corruption  of  the  native 
word  eijugu),  a  fetish  which  is  supposed  to  contain  the 
spirit  of  an  ancestor;  but  purer  religious  eli'iiicnts  are 
found  beneath  all  these  superstitions,  belief  in  God, 
the  survival  of  the  soul,  distinction  between  good  and 
evil,  etc. 

The  Mussulmans  are  located  in  important  centre8 
such  as  the  market  of  Onitcha.  Moreover,  wherever 
the  English  Government  employs  Haussas  as  militia 
the  latter  carry  on  an  active  propaganda,  and  where 
they  are^  a  movement  towards  Islam  is  discernible. 
This  is  the  case  at  Calabar,  Lagos,  Freetown,  and  nu- 
merous points  in  the  interior  and  on  the  coast.  Eng- 
lish Protestant  missions  have  long  since  penetrated 
into  this  country  and  have  expended,  not  without 
results,  enormous  sums  for  propaganda.  Native 
churches  with  pastors  and  bishops  have  even  been  or- 
ganized on  the  Niger,  constituting  what  is  called  the 
native  pastorate.  At  Calabar  the  United  Presbyte- 
rian Church  dates  from  1846,  strongly  established 
throughout  the  country.  In  1885  the  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries of  Gabon  established  themselves  at  Onitcha, 
the  centre  of  the  Ibo  country  and  a  city  of  twenty 
thousand  inhabitants.  Several  native  kings,  among 
them  the  King  of  Onitcha,  have  been  converted,  nu- 
merous schools  have  been  organized,  towns  and  vil- 
lages everywhere  have  asked  for  missionaries,  or  lack- 
ing them,  for  catechists.  Until  1903  no  establishment 
could  be  made  at  Calabar,  the  seat  of  the  Government 
and  the  most  important  commercial  centre  of  South- 
ern Nigeria,  but  once  founded  the  Catholic  mi.s.sion 
became  very  popular,  adherents  came  in  crowds,  the 
schools  were  filled  to  overflowing.  There  is  need  of 
labourers  and  resources  for  the  immense  harvest. 
The  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  are  seconded  in  their 
efforts  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny.  The 
progress  of  evangelization  seems  to  necessitate  in  the 
near  future  the  division  of  the  mission  into  two  pre- 
fectures, one  of  which  will  have  its  centre  at  Onitcha, 
the  other  at  Calabar. 

Missions  catholiques  au  XIX'  sikcle;  Missions  d*Afrique  (Paris, 
1902);  Missiones  Catholicm  (Rome,  1907). 

A.  Le   Roy. 

Nihilism. — The  term  was  first  used  by  Turgeniev  in 
hisnovel,  ''Fathers and  Sons"  (in  "Russkij  VCstnik", 
Feb.,  1862) :  a  Nihilist  is  one  who  bows  to  no  authority 
and  accepts  no  doctrine,  however  widespread,  that  is 
not  supported  by  proof.  The  nihilist  theory  was  for- 
mulated by  Cernysevskij  in  his  novel  "Cto  delat" 
(What  shall  be  done,  1862-64),  which  forecasts  a  new 
social  order  constructed  on  the  ruins  of  the  old.  But 
essentially.  Nihilism  was  a  reaction  against  the  abuses 
of  Russian  absolutism;  it  originated  with  the  first 
secret  pohtical  society  in  Russia  founded  by  Pestel 
(1817),  and  its  first  effort  was  the  military  revolt  of 
the  Decembrists  (14  Dec,  1825).  Nicholas  I  crushed 
the  uprising,  sent  its  leaders  to  the  scaffold  and  one 
hundred  and  sixteen  participants  to  Siberia.  The 
spread  (1830)  of  certain  philosophical  doctrines  (He- 
gel, Saint'Simon,  Fourier)  brought  numerous  recruits 
to  Nihilism,  especially  in  the  universities;  and,  in 
many  of  the  cities,  societies  were  organized  to  com- 
bat absolutism  and  introduce  constitutional  govern- 
ment. 

Theoretical  Nihilism. — Its  apostles  were  Alexan- 
der Herzen  (1812-70)  and  Michael  Bakunin  (1814- 
76),  both  of  noble  birth.  The  former,  arrested  (1832) 
as  a  partisan  of  liberal  ideas,  was  imprisoned  for  eight 
months,  deported,  pardoned  (1840),  resided  in  Mos- 
cow till  1847  when  he  migrated  to  London  and  there 
founded  (1857)  the  weekly  periodical,  "Kolokol" 
(Bell),  and  later  "The  Polar  Star".  The  "Kolokol" 
published  Russian  political  secrets  and  denunciations 
of  the  Government;  and,  in  spite  of  the  police,  made  its 
way  into  Russia  to  spread  revolutionary  ideas.  Her- 
zen, inspired  by  Hegel  and  Feurbach,  proclaimed  the 
destruction  of  the  existing  order;  but  he  did  not  advo- 


NIHILISM 


75 


NIHILISM 


cate  violent  measures.  Hence  his  younger  followers 
wearied  of  him;  and  on  the  other  hand  his  defense  of 
the  Poles  during  the  insurrection  of  1S63  alienated 
many  of  his  Russian  sympathizers.  The  "Kolokol" 
went  out  of  existence  in  1M6S  and  Herzen  died  two 
years  later.  Bakunin  was  extreme  in  his  revolution- 
ary theories.  In  the  first  numljer  of  "L' Alliance  In- 
ternationale de  la  Democratic  Socialiste"  founded  by 
him  in  1869,  he  openly  professed  Atheism  and  called 
for  the  abolition  of  marriage,  property,  and  of  all  so- 
cial and  religious  institutions.  His  advice,  given  in 
his  "Revolutionary  Catechism",  was:  "Be  severe  to 
yourself  and  severe  to  others.  Suppress  the  senti- 
ments of  relationship,  friendship,  love,  and  gratitude. 
Have  only  one  pleasure,  one  joy,  one  reward — the  tri- 
umph of  the  revolution.  Night  and  day,  have  only 
one  thought,  the  destruction  of  everything  without 
pity.  Be  ready  to  die  and  ready  to  kill  any  one  who 
opposes  the  triumph  of  your  revolt."  Bakunin  thus 
opened  the  way  to  nihilistic  terrorism. 

Propaganda  (1867-77). — It  began  with  the  forma- 
tion (1861-62)  of  secret  societies,  the  members  of 
which  devoted  their  lives  and  fortunes  to  the  dissemi- 
nation of  revolutionary  ideas.  Many  of  these  agita- 
tors, educated  at  Zurich,  Switzerland,  returned  to 
Russia  and  gave  Nihilism  the  support  of  trained  intelli- 
gence. Prominent  among  them  were  Scrgius  Necaev, 
master  of  a  parochial  school  in  St.  Petersburg,  who  was 
in  constant  communication  with  nihilist  centers  in 
various  cities,  and  Sergius.  Kovalin  who  established 
thirteen  associations  in  Cernigor.  These  societies 
took  their  names  from  their  founders — the  Malikovcy, 
Lavrists,  Bakunists,  etc.  They  enrolled  seminarists, 
university  students,  and  young  women.  Among  the 
working  men  the  jjropaganda  was  conducted  in  part 
through  free  schools.  The  promoters  engaged  in 
humble  trades  as  weavers,  blacksniil  lis,  and  carpenters, 
and  in  their  shops  inculcated  nihilist  doctrine.  The 
peasantry  was  reached  by  writings,  speeches,  schools, 
and  personal  intercourse.  Even  the  nobles  shared  in 
this  work,  e.  g..  Prince  Peter  Krapotkin,  who,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Borodin,  held  conferences  with  work- 
ingmen.  As  secondary  centres,  taverns  and  shops 
served  as  meeting-places,  depositories  of  prohibited 
books,  and,  in  case  of  need,  as  places  of  refuge.  Though 
without  a  central  organization  the  movement  spread 
throughout  Russia,  notably  in  the  region  of  the  Volga 
and  in  that  of  the  Dnieper  where  it  gained  adherents 
among  the  Cossacks.  The  women  in  particular  dis- 
played energy  and  self-sacrifice  in  their  zeal  for  the 
cause.  Many  were  highly  cultured  and  some  belonged 
to  the  nobility  or  higher  classes,  e.  g.,  Natalia  Armfeld, 
Barbara  Batiuskova,  Sofia  von  Herzfeld,  Sofia  Pero- 
vakaja.  They  co-operated  more  especially  through 
the  schools. 

The  propaganda  of  the  press  was  at  first  conducted 
from  foreign  parts:  London,  Geneva,  Zurich.  In  this 
latter  city  there  were  two  printing-offices,  established 
in  1873,  where  the  students  published  the  works  of 
Lavrov  and  of  Bakunin.  The  first  secret  printing- 
office  in  Russia,  founded  at  St.  Petersburg  in  1861, 
published  four  numbers  of  the  Velikoruss.  At  the 
same  time  there  came  to  Russia,  from  London,  copies 
of  the  "Proclamation  to  the  New  Generation"  (Kmo- 
lodomu  pokolfiniju),  and  "Young  Russia"  (Molodaja 
Rosija),  which  was  published  in  the  following  year. 
In  1862,  another  secret  printing-office,  established  at 
Moscow,  published  the  recital  of  the  revolt  of  14  De- 
cember, 182.5,  written  by  Ogarev.  In  1862,  another 
secret  press  at  St.  Petersburg  published  revolutionary 
proclamations  for  officers  of  the  army;  and  in  1863, 
there  were  pubhshed  in  the  same  city  a  few  copies  of 
the  daily  papers,  "Svoboda"  (Liberty)  and  "Zemlja 
i  Volja"  (The  Earth  and  Liberty);  the  latter  contin- 
ued to  be  published  in  1878  and  1879,  under  the  edi- 
torship, at  first,  of  Marco  Natanson,  and  later  of  the 
student,  Alexander  Mihailov,  one  of  the  ablest  or- 


ganizers of  Nihilism.  In  1866,  a  student  of  Kazan, 
Elpidin,  published  two  numbers  of  the  "Podpolnoe 
Slovo",  which  was  succeeded  by  the  daily  paper,  the 
" Sovremennost "  (The  Contemporary),  and  later,  Ijy 
the  "Narodnoe  Delo"  (The  National  Interest),  which 
was  published  (1868-70),  to  disseminate  the  ideas  of 
Bakunin.  Two  numbers  of  the  "Narodnaja  Ras- 
prava"  (The  Tribunal  of  Reason)  were  published  in 
1870,  at  St.  Petersburg  and  at  Moscow.  In  1873, 
appeared  the  "Vpred"  (Forward!),  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  periodicals  of  Nihilism,  having  saUent  social- 
istic tendencies.  A  volume  of  it  appeared  each  year. 
In  187.5-76,  there  was  connected  with  the  "Vpred", 
a  small  bi-monthly  sup]ilement,  which  was  under  the 
direction  of  Lavrov  until  1876,  when  it  passed  under 
the  editorship  of  Smironv,  and  went  out  of  existence 
in  the  same  year.  It  attacked  theological  and  reli- 
gious ideas,  proclaiming  the  equality  of  rights,  freedom 
of  association,  and  justice  for  the  proletariat.  At  Ge- 
neva, in  1875  and  1876,  the  "Rabotnik"  (The  Work- 
man) was  published,  which  was  edited  in  the  style 
of  the  people;  the  "Nabat"  (The  Tocsin)  appeared 
in  187.5,  directed  by  Thacev;  the  "Narodnaja  Volja" 
(The  Will  of  the  People),  in  1879,  and  the  "Cernyi 
Peredel",  in  1880,  were  published  in  St.  Petersburg. 
There  was  no  fixed  date  for  any  of  these  papers,  and 
their  contents  consisted,  more  especially,  of  proclama- 
tions, of  letters  from  revolutionists,  and  at  times,  of 
sentences  of  the  Executive  Committees.  These  print- 
ing offices  also  produced  books  and  pamphlets  and 
Russian  translations  of  the  works  of  Lassalle,  Marx, 
Proudhon,  and  Buchner.  A  government  stenogra- 
pher, My.skin,  in  1870,  established  a  printing-office, 
through  which  several  of  Lassalle's  works  were  pub- 
lished; while  many  pamphlets  were  published  by  the 
Zemlja  i  Volja  Committee  and  by  the  Free  Russian 
Printing-Office.  Some  of  the  pamphlets  were  pub- 
lished under  titles  like  those  of  the  books  for  children, 
for  example,  "Dedu.ska  Egor"  (Grandfather  Egor), 
"Mitiu.ska",  Stories  for  the  Workingmen,  and  others, 
in  which  the  exploitation  of  the  people  was  deplored, 
and  the  immunity  of  capitalists  assailed.  Again, 
some  publications  were  printed  in  popular,  as  well  as 
in  cultured,  language;  and,  in  order  to  allure  the  peas- 
ants, these  pamphlets  appeared  at  times,  under  such 
titles  as  "The  Satiate  and  the  Hungry";  "How  Our 
Country  Is  No  Longer  Ours".  But  all  this  propa- 
ganda, which  required  considerable  energy  and  sacri- 
fice, did  not  produce  satisfactory  results.  Nihilism 
did  not  penetrate  the  masses;  its  enthusiastic  apostles 
committed  acts  of  imprudence  that  drew  upon  them 
the  ferocious  reprisals  of  the  Government ;  the  peasants 
had  not  faith  in  the  preachings  of  those  teachers, 
whom,  at  times,  they  regarded  as  government  spies, 
and  whom,  at  times,  tlic,\'  ilcTiouiici'd.  The  books  and 
pamphlets  that  were  disl  iibiilnl  ;tmong  the  country 
people  often  fell  into  tlu-  IkhmIs  (if  the  cinomiki  (gov- 
ernment employees),  or  of  the  popes.  Very  few  of  the 
peasants  knew  how  to  read.  Accordingly,  Nihilism 
had  true  adherents  only  among  students  of  the  uni- 
versities and  higher  .s<iiii.ils,  ainl  unions  the  middle 
classes.  The  peasants  :iiid  wiukinrn  did  not  under- 
stand its  ideals  of  destrui-l  imi  :iim1  nf  s(i(i:il  revolution. 
NiHiLLST  Terrorism. — Propagation  of  ideas  was 
soon  followed  by  violence:  4  Ai)ril,  lSf)6,  Tsar  Alex- 
ander II  narrowly  escaped  the  shot  fired  by  Deme- 
trius Karakozov,  and  in  consequence  took  severe 
measures  (rescript  of  23  May,  ISCili)  against  the  revo- 
lution, making  the  universities  and  the  press  objects 
of  special  vigilance.  To  avoid  detection  and  spying, 
the  Nihilists  formed  a  Central  Executive  Connnittee 
whose  sentences  of  death  were  executed  by  "i)unish- 
ers".  Sub-committees  of  from  five  to  ten  members 
were  also  organizcil  and  statutes  (12  articles)  drawn 
up.  The  a|ii)licanl  for  admission  was  required  to  con- 
secrate his  life  to  the  cause,  sever  ties  of  family  and 
friendship,  and  observe  absolute  secrecy.     Disobcdi- 


NIHUS 


76 


NIHUS 


ence  to  the  head  of  the  association  was  punishable 
with  death.  The  Government,  in  turn,  enacted 
stringent  laws  against  secret  societies  and  brought 
hundreds  before  the  tribunals.  \  notable  instance 
w:is  tlie  trial,  at  St.  Petersburg  in  October,  1877,  of 
VXi  |)ersons:  94  went  free,  3t)  were  sent  to  Siberia;  the 
others  received  light  sentences.  One  of  the  acciused, 
Myskin  by  name,  who  in  addressing  the  judges  had 
characterized  the  procediire  as  "an  abominable  com- 
edy", Wiis  condenine<i  to  ten  years  of  penal -servitude. 
Another  sen-sational  trial  (April,  1S7S)  was  that  of 
Vera  Sassulio,  who  had  attempted  to  murder  General 
Frepov,  chief  of  police  of  St.  I'etershurg.  Her  ac- 
quittal was  frantically  apjilauded  and  she  found  a  ref- 
uge in  Switzerland.  Among  the  deeds  of  violence 
committed  by  Nihilists  may  be  mentioned  the  assassi- 
nation of  General  Mezencev  (4  .\ug.,  1,S7S)  and  Prince 
Krapotkin  (lS7fl).  These  events  were  followed  by  new 
repressive  measures  on  the  part  of  the  Government 
and  by  numerous  executions.  The  Nihilists,  however, 
continued  their  work,  held  a  congress  at  Lipeck  in 
1879,  and  (2t)  Aug.)  condemned  Alexander  II  to  death. 
An  attempt  to  wreck  the  train  on  which  the  Tsar  was 
returning  to  St .  Petersburg  proved  abortive.  Another 
attack  on  his  Ufe  was  made  by  Halturin,  5  Feb.,  1880. 
He  was  slain  on  1  March,  1881,  by  a  bomb,  thrown  by 
Grineveckij.  Six  conspirators,  among  them  Sofia 
Perovskaja,  were  tried  and  executed.  On  14  March, 
the  Zemlja  i  Volja  society  issued  a  proclamation  incit- 
ing the  peasants  to  rise,  while  the  Executive  Committee 
wrote  to  Alexander  III  denouncing  the  abuses  of  the 
bureaucracy  and  demanding  political  amnesty,  na- 
tional representation,  and  civil  liberty. 

The  reign  of  Alexander  III  was  guided  by  the  dic- 
tates of  a  reaction,  due  in  great  measure  to  the  coun- 
sels of  Constantine  Pob6donoscev,  procurator  general 
of  the  Holy  Synod.  And  Nihilism,  which  seemed  to 
reach  its  apogee  in  the  death  of  Alexander  II,  saw  its 
ecUpse.  Its  theories  were  too  radical  to  gain  prose- 
lytes among  the  people.  Its  assaults  were  repeated; 
on  20  March,  1882,  General  Strglnikov  was  assassi- 
nated at  Odessa;  and  Colonel  Sude^kin  on  the  28th  of 
December,  1883;  in  1887,  an  attempt  against  the  life 
of  the  tsar  was  unsuccessful;  in  1890,  a  conspiracy 
against  the  tsar  was  discovered  at  Paris;  but  these 
crimes  were  the  work  of  the  revolution  in  Russia, 
rather  than  of  the  Nihilists.  The  crimes  that  reddened 
the  soil  of  Russia  with  blood  in  constitutional  times 
are  due  to  the  revolution  of  1905-07.  But  the  Ni- 
hilism, that,  as  a  doctrinal  system,  proclaimed  the 
destruction  of  the  old  Russia,  to  establish  the  founda- 
tions of  a  new  Russia,  may  be  said  to  have  disap- 
peared ;  it  became  fused  with  Anarchism  and  Sociahsm, 
and  therefore,  the  history  of  the  crimes  that  were  mul- 
tiphed  from  190.5  on  are  a  chapter  in  the  history  of 
poUtical  upheavals  in  Russia,  and  not  in  the  history 
of  Nihilism. 

IsKANDER  (the  pseud,  of  Hebzen),  Du  d6veloppement  des  id^es 
rivolulionnaires  en  Russie  (Paris,  1851);  Schedo-Ferhoti,  Eludes 
suT  Va-cenir  de  la  Russie  (Berlin.  1867);  Alex^i,  Les  nihilisles  ou 
lea  dames  russes  emancipies  (London,  1867) ;  Max  Nettlau, 
Life  of  Michael  Bakunin  (3  vols.,  London);  GIolovin,  Der  rus- 
sische  Nihiliamus  (Leipzig,  1880);  Lavigne,  Introd.  d  Vkist.  du. 
nihiliame  en  Russie  (Paris,  1880) ;  Lubomirski,  Le  nihilisme  en 
Rusiie  (Paris,  1879) ;  Armando,  It  nihilismo  (Turin,  1879) ;  Idem, 
Waaittder  Nihitismusr  (Leipzig,  1881);  Gerbet^Karlowitsch, 
Die  Atlentals-Periori  in  Ruasland  (Heiltironn,  1881);  Gally- 
BouTTEViLLE,  Tzarisme  et  nihilisme  (Paris,  1881):  Leroy- 
Beauueu,  L'empire  des  tzars  el  les  russes,  II  (Paris.  1882),  544- 
66;  Stepniak  (pseud.).  La  Russia  soUerranea  (Milan,  1882); 
Les  nihilisles  et  la  rSvolittion  en  Russie  (Paris,  1882);  Der  Czaren- 
mord  am  IS.  Marz  1881  (Dresden.  1882) ;  Bouoard,  Les  nihi- 
lisles russes  (Zurich,  1881) ;  TauN.  Gesch.  der  revotulionaren  Bewe- 
gungen  in  Russland  (Leipzig,  1883),  tr.  Polish  (London,  1893), 
Russian  (Moscow,  1905);  Scherr,  Die  Nihilislen  (Leipzig,  1885); 
Ieoorov,  Aus  den  Mysterien  des  russ.  Nihilismus  (Leipzig,  1885) ; 
Stepniak,  Le  tzarisme  et  la  rholution  (Paris,  1866) ;  Thomibov, 
Conspiraleurs  et  palriciens  (Paris,  1887) ;  Fr£d^,  La  Russie  et  le 
nihilisme  (Paris,  1887);  Oldenbebo,  Der  russ.  Nihilismus  von 
seinen  Anfangen  Ins  zur  Geoenwart  (Leipzig,  1888);  Milinkqv, 
La  crise  russe  (Paris,  1907) ;  Michelet,  Essai  sur  I'hist.  de  Nicolas 
XT,  et  le  debut  de  la  rHolution  russe  (Paris,  1907);  Schlesinger, 
Russland  im  XX.  Jahrh.  (Berlin,  1908);  Istorja  molodoi  Rossii 


[Hisloru  of  Young  Russia]  (Moscow,  1908);  Rddolf  Urba,  Die 
Revolution  in  liussland;  (2  vols.,  Prague,  1906);  Lognet  and 
Sli.uEH,  Tcrroristes  et  policicrs  (Paris,  1909);  Buioe  (The  Past), 
I-XII  (Paris,  1908-9),  review  conducted  by  Boucerv,  contains 
documents  bearing  on  the  history  of  Nihilism. 

A.  Palmieki. 

Nihus,  Barthold,  conv(Tt  and  controversialist,  b. 
at  Holtorf  in  Hanover,  7  February,  1,590  (according  to 
other  sources  in  1,5S4  or  1589,  at  Wolpe  in  Bruns- 
wick); d.  at  Erfurt,  10  March,  10.57.  He  came  from  a 
poor  Protestant  family,  obtained  his  early  education 
at  Verden  and  Goslar,  and  from  lt)07  studied  philoso- 
phy and  medicine  at  the  University  of  Helmstedt, 
where,  on  account  of  his  poverty,  he  was  the  famulus 
of  Cornelius  Martini,  professor  of  philosophy.  Hav- 
ing become  master  of  philosophy  in  1612,  his  inclina- 
tions then  led  him  to  study  Protestant  theology.  Con- 
tentions among  the  professors  at  Helmstedt  made 
further  stay  there  unpleasant,  and  when  two  students 
of  noble  family  went  in  1616  to  the  University  of  .Jena, 
he  accompanied  them  as  preceptor.  Later  he  became 
instructor  of  the  young  princes  of  Saxe-Weimar, 
among  whom  was  the  subsequently  famous  Bernhard 
of  Saxe-Weimar.  The  inability  of  the  Protestant 
theologians  to  agree  upon  vital  questions  caused  him 
first  to  doubt  and  then  to  renounce  Protestantism.  He 
went  to  Cologne  in  1622,  and  entered  the  House  of 
Proselytes  founded  by  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Holy 
Cross;  in  the  same  year  he  accepted  the  Catholic 
Faith  and,  after  due  preparation,  was  ordained  priest. 
Chosen  director  of  the  House  of  Proselytes,  and  in 
1627  provost  of  the  nunnery  of  the  Cistercians  at  Alt- 
haldensleben  near  Magdeburg,  two  years  later  he  be- 
came abbot  of  the  monastery  of  the  Premonstraten- 
sians,  from  which  he  was  expelled  after  the  battle  of 
Breitenfeld  in  1631.  He  fled  to  Hildesheim  where  he 
became  canon  of  the  church  of  the  Holy  Cross,  thence 
to  Holland  where  he  came  into  close  relation  with  Ger- 
hard Johann  Vossius.  In  1645  Nihus  was  called  to 
MUnster  by  the  papal  nuncio,  Fabio  Chigi  (later  Alex- 
ander VII),  then  in  MUnster  attending  the  Westpha- 
lian  Peace  Congress.  A  few  years  later  he  was  in- 
duced to  come  to  Mayenee  by  Johann  Philip  von 
Schonborn,  Archbishop  of  Mayenee,  at  whose  request 
he  went  to  Ingolstadt  in  1654  to  obtain  information 
regarding  the  Welt-Priester-Institut  of  Bartholomew 
Holzhauser,  and  to  report,  to  the  archbishop.  Schon- 
born, in  1655,  appointed  him  his  suffragan  bishop  for 
Saxony  and  Thuringia,  with  residence  in  Erfurt,  where 
he  died. 

After  his  conversion  Nihus  had  sent  to  the  Helm- 
stedt professors,  Calixtus  and  Hornejus,  a  letter  in 
which  he  presented  his  reasons  for  embracing  Catho- 
licism; his  chief  motive  was  that  the  Church  needs  a 
living,  supreme  judge  to  exi^lain  the  Bible  and  to  settle 
disputes  and  difficulties.  Calixtus  attacked  him  first 
in  his  lectures  and  later  in  his  writings,  whence  origi- 
nated a  bitter  controversy  between  Nihus  and  the 
Helmstedt  professors  The  most  important  of  Nihus' 
numerous  writings  are:  (1)  "Ars  nova,  dicto  S.  Scrip- 
tura;  unico  lucrandi  e  Pontificiis  plurimos  in  partes 
Lutheranorum,  detecta  non  nihil  et  suggesta  Theolo- 
gis  Helmstetensibus,  Georgio  Calixto  prajsertim  et 
Conrado  Hornejo"  (Hildesheim,  1633);  (2)  "Apolo- 
geticus  pro  arte  nova  contra  Andabatam  Helmsteten- 
sem"  (Cologne,  1640),  in  answer  to  the  response  of 
Calixtus  to  the  first  pamphlet :  "  Digressio  de  arte  nova 
contra  Nihusium";  (3)  "Hypodigma,  quo  diluuntur 
nonnulla  contra  Catholicos  disputata  in  Comelii  Mar- 
tini tractatu  de  analysi  logica"  (Cologne,  1648).  As- 
sisted by  his  friend  Leo  Allatius  (q.  v.)  he  devoted  con- 
siderable time  to  researches  pertaining  to  the  "Com- 
munion" and  the  "Missa  prasanctificatorum  "  of  the 
Greeks,  and  also  took  charge  of  the  editing  and  pub- 
lishing of  several  works  of  AUatius,  some  of  which — as 
the  "De  Ecclesise  occidentalis  et  orientalis  perpe- 
tua  consensione"  (Cologne,  1648)  and  "Symmicta" 


NIKOLAUS 


77 


NIKON 


(Cologne,  1653) — he  provided  with  valuable  additions 
and  footnotes. 

Koch,  Die  Erfurter  Weihhischdfe  in  Zeitschrift  filT  ihHringische 
Cesch.,  VI  (Jena,  1865),  104-9;  RXss,  Die  Convertiten  seil  der  Re- 
formation, V  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1867),  97-103;  Westermayer  in 
Kirchenlex.  3.  v.;  Idem  in  Atlg.  deutsche  Biog.,  XXIII,  699  aq. 

Friedrich  Ladchert. 

Nikolaus  von  Dinkelsbiihl,  theologian,  b.  c.  1360, 
at  Dinkelsbiihl;  d.  17  March,  1433,  at  Mariazell  in 
Styria.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Vienna, 
where  he  is  mentioned  as  baccalaureus  in  the  faculty 
of  Arte  in  1385.  Magister  in  1390,  he  lectured  on 
philosophy,  mathematics,  and  physics  until  1397,  and 
from  1402  to  1405.  PVom  1397  he  was  dean  of  the 
faculty;  he  studied  theology,  lecturing  until  1402  on 
theological  subjects,  first  as  cursor  biblicus,  and  later 
on  the  "Sentences  "  of  Peter  Lombard.  In  1405  he  be- 
came bachelor  of  Divinity,  in  1408  licentiate,  and  in 
1409  doctor  and  member  of  the  theological  faculty. 
Rector  of  the  university,  1405-6,  he  declined  the  hon- 
our of  a  re-election  in  1409.  From  1405  he  was  also 
canon  at  the  cathedral  of  St.  Stephen.  The  supposition 
of  several  early  authors  that  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Order  of  the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine  is  incorrect,  for 
he  could  not  have  been  rector  of  the  university  had  he 
been  a  member  of  any  order.  Eminent  as  teacher  and 
pulpit  orator,  Nikolaus  possessed  great  business  acu- 
men, and  was  frequently  chosen  as  ambassador  both 
by  the  university  and  the  reigning  prince.  He  repre- 
sented Duke  Albert  V  of  Austria  at  the  Council  of 
Constance  (1414-18),  and  the  University  of  Vienna  in 
the  trial  of  Thiem,  dean  of  the  Passau  cathedral. 
When  Emperor  Sigismund  came  to  Constance,  Niko- 
laus deUvered  an  address  on  the  abolition  of  the  schism 
("Sermo  de  unione  Ecclesiee  in  Concilium  Constan- 
tiense,"  II,  7,  Frankfort,  1697,  182-7).  He  took  part 
in  the  election  of  Martin  V,  and  delivered  an  address 
to  the  new  pope  (Sommerfeldt,  "  Historisches  Jahr- 
buch",  XXVI,  1905,  323-7).  Together  with  John, 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  he  was  charged  with  the 
examination  of  witnesses  in  the  proceedings  against 
Hieronyraus  of  Prague.  Returning  to  Vienna  in 
1418,  he  again  took  up  his  duties  as  teacher  at  the  uni- 
versity, and  in  1423  directed  the  theological  promo- 
tions as  representative  of  the  chancellor.  Duke  Al- 
bert V  having  chosen  him  as  his  confessor  in  1425, 
wished  to  make  him  Bishop  of  Passau,  but  Nikolaus 
declined  the  appointment.  During  the  preparations 
for  the  Council  of  Basle,  he  was  one  of  the  committee 
to  draw  up  the  reform  proposals  which  were  to  be  pre- 
sented to  the  council.  His  name  does  not  appear 
thereafter  in  the  records  of  the  university. 

His  published  works  include  "  Postilla  cum  sermoni- 
bus  evangeliorum  dominicalium"  (Strasburg,  1496), 
and  a  collection  of  "Sermones"  with  tracts  (Stras- 
burg, 1516).  Among  his  numerous  unpublished 
works,  the  manuscripts  of  which  are  chiefly  kept  in  the 
Court  library  at  Vienna  and  in  the  Court  and  State 
library  at  Munich,  are  to  be  mentioned  his  commen- 
taries on  the  Psalms,  Isaias,  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 
thew, some  of  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  the  "Sen- 
tences" of  Peter  Lombard,  and  "Questiones  Sen- 
tentiarum";  a  commentary  on  the  "Physics"  of 
Aristotle,  numerous  sermons,  lectures,  moral  and 
ascetic  tracts. 

AacHBACH,  Gesch.  der  Wiener  UniversiUl,  I  (Vienna,  1865), 
430-40;  Stanonik  in  Allg.  de,U.  Biog.,  XXIII  (1.S86),  622  sq.; 
EssER  in  Kirchenlex..  s.  v.  Nicolaus  von  Dinkelsbiihl:  HcRTER. 
Nomen.,  II  (Innsbruck,  1906),  830-32. 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 

Nikon,  Patriarch  of  Moscow  (1652-1658;  d.  1681). 
He  was  of  peasant  origin,  born  in  the  district  of  Nish- 
ni-Novgorod  in  1605,  and  in  early  life  was  known  as 
Nikita.  Educated  in  a  monastery,  he  married,  be- 
came a  secular  priest,  and  for  a  time  had  a  parish 
in  Moscow.  After  ten  years  of  married  life,  his 
children  having  died,  he  persuaded  his  wife  to  become 


a  nun  and  he  entered  the  Solovetski  monastery  on  the 
White  Sea,  according  to  Orthodox  custom,  chang- 
ing his  name  to  Nikon.  In  accordance  also  with  a 
common  custom  he  next  became  a  hermit  on  an  isl- 
and near  by,  dependent  on  the  monastery.  But  a  dis- 
agreement about  the  alleged  misuse  of  some  alms 
caused  him  to  break  with  the  Solovetski  monks  and 
join  the  Kojeozerski  community  in  the  same  neigh- 
bourhood, of  which  he  became  hegumen  in  1643. 
Later  he  made  a  great  impression  on  the  emperor, 
Alexis,  who  made  him  Archimandrite  of  the  Novos- 
paski  Laura  at  Moscow  in  1646,  and  in  1649  Metro- 
politan of  Novgorod.  Here  he  founded  almshouses, 
distinguished  himself  by  his  many  good  works,  and 
succeeded  in  putting  down  a  dangerous  revolt  in 
1650.  Meanwhile  he  was  in  constant  correspon- 
dence with  the  Tsar,  at  whose  court  he  spent  part  of 
each  year.  Already  during  this  time  he  began  to 
prepare  for  a  revision  of  the  Slavonic  Bible  and  Ser- 
vice books.  In  1652  the  Patriarch  of  Moscow  died 
and  Nikon  was  appointed  his  successor. 

As  head  of  the  Church  of  Russia  Nikon  set  about 
many  important  reforms.  One  of  the  first  questions 
that  engaged  his  attention  was  the  reunion  of  the 
Ruthenians  (Little  Russians)  with  the  Orthodox 
Church.  When  Poland  held  Little  Russia,  the  Synod 
of  Brest  (1596)  had  brought  about  union  between  its 
inhabitants  and  Rome.  Under  Alexis,  however,  the 
tide  turned;  many  Ruthenians  arose  against  Poland 
and  united  with  Russia  (1653).  A  result  of  this  was 
that  the  Russians  were  able  without  much  difficulty  to 
undo  the  work  of  the  Synod  of  Brest,  and  to  bring 
the  Metropolitan  of  Kief  with  the  majority  of  his 
clergy  back  to  the  Orthodox  Church.  This  greatly 
increased  the  extent  of  the  Russian  patriarch's  juris- 
diction. Nikon  was  able  to  entitle  himself  patriarch 
of  Great,  Little,  and  White  Russia.  During  the  reign 
of  Alexis,  Nikon  built  three  monasteries,  one  of  which, 
made  after  the  model  of  the  Anastasis  and  called 
"New  Jerusalem,"  is  numbered  among  the  famous 
Lauras  of  Russia. 

The  chief  event  of  Nikon's  reign  was  the  reform  of 
the  service  books.  The  Bible  and  books  used  in 
church  in  Russia  are  translated  from  Greek  into  old 
Slavonic.  But  gradually  many  mistranslations  and 
corruptions  of  the  text  had  crept  in.  There  were  also 
details  of  ritual  in  which  the  Russian  Church  had  for- 
saken the  custom  of  Constantinople.  Nikon's  work 
was  to  restore  all  these  points  to  exact  conformity 
with  the  Greek  original.  This  reform  had  been  dis- 
cussed before  his  time.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the 
Greeks  had  reproached  the  Russians  for  their  altera- 
tions, but  a  Russian  synod  in  1551  had  sanctioned 
them.  In  Nikon's  time  there  was  more  intercourse 
with  Greeks  than  ever  before,  and  in  this  way  he  con- 
ceived the  necessity  of  restoring  purer  forms.  While 
Aletropolitan  of  Novgorod  he  caused  a  committee  of 
scholars  to  discuss  the  question,  in  spite  of  the  patri- 
arch Joseph.  In  1650  a  Russian  theologian  was  sent 
to  Constantinople  to  inquire  about  various  doubtful 
points.  One  detail  that  made  much  trouble  was  that 
the  Russians  had  learned  to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross 
with  two  fingers  instead  of  three,  as  the  Gn^'ks  did. 
As  soon  as  he  became  patriarch,  Nikon  published  an 
order  introducing  some  of  these  reforms,  which  im- 
mediately called  forth  angry  opposition.  In  1654 
and  1655  he  summoned  Synods  which  continued  the 
work.  Makarios,  Patriarch  of  Aniiocli,  who  came 
to  Russia  at  that  time  was  able  to  help,  and  there  was 
continual  correspondence  with  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. At  last,  with  the  approval  of  the  Greek 
patriarchs,  Nikon  published  the  reformed  service 
books  and  made  laws  insisting  on  conformity  with 
Greek  custom  in  all  points  of  rilu:il  (I655-1('>.")S).  A 
new  Synod  in  1656  confirmed  this,  excommunicated 
every  one  who  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  exc(!pt  with 
three  fingers,  and  forbade  Uie  rebaptizingof  Latin  con- 


NILE 


78 


NILLES 


verts  (still  a  peculiarity  of  the  Russian  Church).  This 
aroused  a  strong  party  of  opposition.  The  patriarch 
was  accused  of  anti-national  .-icntimpnts,  of  trying  to 
Hellenize  tlie  Hiis.-iian  Churcli,  of  corrupting  tlu'  old 
faith.  Nikon'.s  strong  will  would  have  crushed  the  o])- 
position,  had  he  not,  in  some  way  not  yet  clearly  ex- 
plained, fallen  foul  of  the  tsar.  It  is  generally  said 
that  part  of  his  ideas  of  reform  was  to  secure  that  the 
Church  should  be  independent  of  the  .state  and  that 
this  aroused  the  tsar's  anger.  In  any  ease  in  the  year 
1658  Nikon  suddenly  fell.  He  olTered  his  resignation 
to  the  tsar  and  it  was  accepted.  He  had  often 
threatened  to  resign  before;  it  seems  that  this  time, 
too,  he  did  not  mean  his  ofTer  to  be  taken  seriously. 
However,  he  had  to  retire  and  went  to  his  New  .Jeru- 
salem monastery.  A  personal  interview  with.\lexis 
w-as  refused.  The  patriarchate  remained  vacant  and 
Nikon,  in  spite  of  his  resignation,  attempted  to  regain 
his  former  place.  Meanwhile  the  opposition  to  him 
became  stronger.  It  was  led  by  a  Greek,  Paisios 
Ligarides,  Metropolitan  of  Gaza  (unlawfully  absent 
from  his  see),  who  insisted  on  the  appointment  of  a 
successor  at  Moscow.  All  Nikon's  friends  seem  to 
have  forsaken  him  at  this  juncture.  Ligarides  caused 
an  appeal  to  be  made  to  the  Greek  patriarchs  and  their 
verdict  was  against  Nikon.  In  1664  he  tried  to  force 
the  situation  by  appearing  suddenly  in  the  patriarchal 
church  at  Moscow  and  occui)ying  his  place  as  if  noth- 
ing had  happened.  But  he  did  not  succeed,  and  in 
1667  a  great  synod  was  summoned  to  try  him.  The 
Patriarchs  of  Alexandria  and  .\ntioch  came  to  Russia 
expressly  for  this  synod;  a  great  number  of  Russian 
and  Greek  metropolitans  sat  as  judges.  The  tsar 
himself  appeared  as  accuser  of  his  former  friend. 
Nikon  was  summoned  and  appeared  before  the  synod 
in  his  patriarch's  robes.  He  was  accu.sed  of  neglecting 
his  duties  since  1658,  of  having  betrayed  his  (3hurch 
in  a  certain  letter  he  had  written  to  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  (in  which  he  had  complained  of  the 
Russian  clergy),  of  harsh  and  unjust  conduct  in  his 
treatment  of  the  bishops.  Nikon  defended  himself 
ably;  the  synod  lasted  a  week;  but  at  la.st  in  its  eighth 
session  it  declared  him  deposed  from  the  patriarchate, 
suspended  from  all  offices  but  those  of  a  simple  monk, 
and  sentenced  him  to  confinement  in  a  monastery 
(Therapontof)  on  the  White  Sea.  The  archimandrite 
of  the  Trinity  Laura  at  Moscow,  Joasaph,  was  elected 
his  successor  (Joasaph  II,  1667-72).  Joasaph  con- 
firmed Nikon's  reform  of  the  Service  books  and  rites. 
The  party  that  opposed  it  formed  the  beginning  of  the 
Russian  dissenting  sects  (the  Raskolniks). 

For  a  time  Nikon's  impri.sonment  was  very  severe. 
In  1675  he  was  taken  to  another  monastery  (of  St. 
Cyril)  and  his  treatment  was  lightened.  Alexis  to- 
wards the  end  of  his  life  repented  of  his  harsh  treat- 
ment of  the  former  patriarch,  and  from  his  death-bed 
(1676)  sent  to  ask  his  forgiveness.  The  next  tsar, 
Feodor  II  (1676-82)  allowed  him  to  return  to  his 
New  Jerusalem  monastery.  On  the  way  thither 
Nikon  died  (17  August,  1681).  He  was  buried  with 
the  honours  of  a  patriarch,  and  all  decrees  against  him 
were  revoked  after  his  death.  His  tomb  is  in  the 
Cathedral  church  of  Moscow.  Nikon's  fall,  the  ani- 
mosity of  the  tsar,  and  of  the  synod  that  deposed 
him  remain  mysterious.  The  cause  was  not  his  re- 
form of  the  Service  books,  for  that  was  maintained  by 
his  successor.  It  has  been  explained  as  a  successful 
intrigue  of  his  personal  enemies  at  the  court.  He 
certainly  had  made  enemies  during  his  reign  by  his 
severity,  his  harsh  manner,  the  uncompromising  way 
he  carried  out  his  reforms  regardless  of  the  intensely 
conservative  instinct  of  his  people.  Or,  it  has  been 
said,  Nikon  brought  about  his  disgrace  by  a  premature 
attempt  to  free  the  Russian  Church  from  the  shackles 
of  the  state.  His  attitude  represented  an  opposition 
to  the  growing  Erastianism  that  culminated  soon  after 
his  time  in  the  laws  of  Peter  the  Great  (1689-1725). 


This  is  no  doubt  true.  There  are  sufficient  indications 
that  .\lexis'  quarrel  with  Nikon  was  based  on  jealousy. 
Nikon  wanted  to  be  too  independent  of  the  tsar,  and 
this  independence  was  concerned,  naturally,  with 
ecclesiastical  matters.  Some  writers  have  thought 
that  the  root  of  the  wliolc  matter  wiis  that  he  became 
at  the  end  of  his  reign  a  l.atinizer,  that  he  wanted  to 
bring  about  reunion  with  Rome  and  saw  in  that  re- 
imion  the  only  safe  protection  for  the  Church  against 
the  secular  government.  It  hiis  even  been  said  that 
he  became  a  Catholic  (Gerebtzoff,  "  Essai  ",  II,  514). 
The  theory  is  not  impossible.  Since  the  Synod  of 
Brest  the  idea  of  reunion  was  in  the  air;  Nikon  had 
had  much  to  do  with  Ruthenians;  he  may  at  last  have 
been  partly  convinced  by  them.  And  one  of  the 
accusations  against  him  at  his  trial  was  that  of  Latin- 
izing. A  story  is  told  of  his  conversion  by  a  miracle 
worked  by  Saint  Josaphat,  the  great  martyr  for  the 
union.  In  any  case  the  real  reason  of  Nikon's  fall 
remains  one  of  the  difficulties  of  Russian  Church 
history.  He  was  undoubtedly  the  greatest  bishop 
Russia  has  yet  produced.  A  few  ascetical  works 
of  no  special  importance  were  written  by  him. 

P.lLMER,  The  Patriarch  and  Ike  Tsar  (6  vols.,  London,  1871- 
76):  SuBBOTi.v,  The  Trial  of  Nikon,  in  Russian  (Moscow.  1862); 
Makabios.  The  Patriarch  Nikon,  Russian  (Moscow.  1881); 
Philaret,  Geschichte  der  Kirche  Russlands,  German  tr.  by  Blu- 
MENTHAL  (Frankfort,  1872) ;  Mouhavieff.  .4  History  of  the  Church, 
of  Russia.  EnElish  tr.  by  Blackmohe  (Oxford,  1842) ;  Nikon  in 
Lives  of  Eminent  Russian  Prelates  (no  author)  (London,  1854); 
Gerebtzoff,  Essai  sur  I'histoire  de  la  civilisation  en  Russie  (Paris, 
1858). 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Nile,  VicARi.\TE  Apcstolic  of  the  Upper.  See 
Upper  Nile,  Vicariate  Apostolic  op  the. 

Nilles,  NiKOLAUS,  b.  21  June,  1828,  of  a  wealthy 
peasant  family  of  Rippweiler,  Luxemburg;  d.  31 
January,  1907.  After  completing  his  gymnasium 
studies  brilliantly,  he  went  to  Rome  where  from 
1847  to  18.53,  as  a  student  of  the  Collegium  Ger- 
manicum,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  his  ascetic  life 
and,  as  a  pupil  of  the  Gregorian  University,  under  the 
guidance  of  distinguished  scholars  (Ballerini,  Franze- 
lin,  Passaglia,  Perrone,  Patrizi,  Schrader,  Tarquini), 
prepared  the  way  for  his  subsequent  scholarly  career. 
When  he  left  Rome  in  1853,  he  took  with  him,  in 
addition  to  the  double  doctorate  of  theology  and 
canon  law,  two  mementoes  which  lasted  throughout 
his  life:  his  grey  hair  and  a  disease  of  the  heart,  the 
result  of  the  terrors  which  he  had  encountered  in 
Rome  in  the  revolutionary  year  1848-9.  From  1853 
to  1858  he  laboured  in  his  own  country  as  chap- 
lain and  parish  priest, and  during  this  time  made  his 
first  literary  attempts.  In  March,  18.58,  he  entered 
the  Austrian  Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  and,  in 
the  autumn  of  1859,  was  summoned  by  his  superiors  to 
Innsbruck  to  fill  the  chair  of  canon  law  in  the  theo- 
logical faculty,  which  Emperor  Francis  Joseph  I 
had  shortly  before  entrusted  to  the  Austrian  Jesuits. 
Nilles  lectured  throughout  his  life — after  1898  usually 
to  the  North  American  theologians,  to  whom  he  gave 
special  instructions  on  canonical  conditions  in  their 
country,  for  which  task  no  one  was  better  qualified 
than  he.  His  "Commentaria  in  Concilium  Balti- 
morense  tertium"  (1884-90)  and  his  short  essay, 
"Tolerari  potest",  gained  him  a  wide  reputation. 

His  literary  achievements  in  the  fields  of  canon 
law,  ascetics,  and  liturgy  were  abundant  and  fruitful. 
Martin  Blum  enumerates  in  his  by  no  means  complete 
bibliography  fifty-seven  works,  of  which  the  two 
principal  are:  "De  rationibus  festorum  sacratissimi 
Cordis  Jesu  et  purissimi  Cordis  Mariae  libri  quatuor" 
(2  vols.,  5th  ed.,  Innsbruck,  1885)  and  "Kalenda- 
rium  manuale  utriusqueF^cclesiajorientaliset  occiden- 
talis"  (2  vols.,  2nd  ed.,  Innsbruck,  1896).  Through 
the  latter  work  he  became  widely  known  in  the 
world  of  scholars.  In  particular  Protestants  and 
Orthodox  Russians  expressed  themselves  in  terms  of 


NILOPOLIS 


79 


NILUS 


the  highest  praise  for  the  Kalendarium  or  Heorto- 
logion.  Professor  Harnack  of  Berhn  wrote  of  it  in 
the  "Theologische  Literaturzeitung "  (XXI,  1896, 
350-2):  "I  have  .  .;  .  frequently  made  use  of  the 
work  .  .  .  and  it  has  always  proved  a  reliable  guide, 
whose  information  was  derived  from  original  sources. 
There  is  scarcely  another  scholar  as  well  versed  as  the 
author  in  the  feasts  of  Catholicism.  His  knowledge 
is  based  not  only  on  his  own  observations,  but  on 
books,  periodicals,  papers,  and  calendars  of  the  past 
and  present.  The  Feasts  of  Catholicism!  The  title 
is  self-explanatory;  yet,  though  the  basis  of  these  ordi- 
nances is  uniform,  the  details  are  of  infinite  variety, 
since  the  work  treats  not  only  of  the  Latin  but  also  of 
the  Eastern  Rites.  The  latter,  it  is  well  known,  are 
divided  into  Greek,  Syriac,  Coptic,  Armenian  .  .  ." 
Of  the  second  volume  Harnack  wrote  (ibid.,  XXXIII, 
1898,  112  sq.):  "Facts  which  elsewhere  would  have 
to  be  sought  under  difficulties  are  here  marshalled  in 
lucid  order,  and  a  very  carefully  arranged  index  facil- 
itates inquiry.  Apart  from  the  principal  aim  of  the 
work,  it  offers  valuable  information  concerning  recent 
Eastern  Catholic  ecclesiastical  history,  also  authori- 
ties and  literature  useful  to  the  historian  of  liturgy 
and  creeds.  .  .  .  His  arduous  and  disinterested  toil 
will  be  rewarded  by  the  general  gratitude,  and  his 
work  will  long  prove  useful  not  only  to  every  theo- 
logian 'utriusque',  but  also  'cuiusque  ecclesia;'". 
The  Roumanian  Academy  at  Bucharest  awarded  a 
prize  to  this  work.  Soon  after  the  appearance  of 
the  second  edition  of  the  "Kalendarium",  the  Russian 
Holy  Synod  issued  from  the  synodal  printing  office 
at  Moscow  a  "Festbildcratlas"  intended  to  a  certain 
e.xtent  as  the  official  Orthodox  illustrations  for  the 
work.  Nilles  was  not  only  a  distinguished  university 
professor,  but  also  a  meritorious  director  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal students.  For  fifteen  years  (1860-7.5)  he  presided 
over  the  theological  seminary  of  Innsbruck,  an  inter- 
national institution  where  young  men  from  all  parts 
of  Europe  and  the  United  "States  are  trained  for  the 
priesthood. 

Blum,  Dos  Collegium  Germaiiicum  zu  Rom  u.  seine  ZHglinge  aus 
dem  LuiemburgeT  Lande  (Luxemburg,  1899);  Zeitschr.  fiir  kath. 
Theol.  (Innsbruck,  1907),  396  aqq.;  Korrespondemblatl  des  Pries- 
ter-GebetS'Verein,  XLI  (Innsbruck),  37  sqq. 

M.  HOPMANN. 

Nilopolis,  a  titular  see  and  a  suffragan  of  Oxyryn- 
chos,  in  Egypt.  According  to  Ptolemy  (IV,  v,  26)  the 
city  was  situated  on  an  island  of  the  Nile  in  the  Her- 
aclean  nome.  Eusebius  ("Hist,  eccl.",  VI,  xli)  states 
that  it  had  a  bishop,  Cheremon,  during  the  persecu- 
tion of  Decius;  others  are  mentioned  a  little  later. 
"The  Chronicle  of  John  of  Nikiou"  (5.59)  alludes  to 
this  city  in  connexion  with  the  occujiation  of  Egypt 
by  the  Mussulmans,  and  it  is  also  referred  to  by  Ara- 
bian medieval  geographers  under  its  original  name  of 
Delas.  In  the  fourteenth  century  it  paid  20,000  di- 
nars in  taxes,  which  indicates  a  place  of  some  impor- 
tance. At  present,  Delas  forms  a  part  of  the  inoudi- 
rieh  of  Beni-Suef  in  the  district  of  El-Zaouict,  and  has 
about  2500  inhabitants  of  whom  nearly  1000  are 
nomadic  Bedouins.  It  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Nile  about  forty-seven  miles  from  Memphis. 

Le  Quien.  Oriens  chrislianus.  II  (Paris.  1741).  587;  .\m£uneac. 
La  geographie  de  I'Egypte  d  I'epoque  copte  (Paris,  1893),  136-138. 

S.  Vailh^;. 

Nilus,  Saint  (NeiXos),  the  elder,  of  Sinai  (d.  c.  430), 
was  one  of  the  many  disciples  and  fervent  defenders  of 
St.  John  Chrysostora.  We  know  him  first  as  a  lay- 
man, married,  with  two  sons.  At  this  time  he  was  an 
officer  at  the  Court  of  Constantinople,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  one  of  the  Pra?torian  Prefects,  who,  accord- 
ing to  Diocletian  and  Constantine's  arrangement, 
were  the  chief  functionaries  and  heads  of  all  other 
governors  for  the  four  main  divisions  of  the  empire. 
Their  authority,  however,  had  already  begun  to  de- 
cline by  the  end  of  the  fourth  century. 


While  St.  John  Chrysostom  was  patriarch,  before 
his  first  exile  (398-403),  he  directed  Nilus  in  the  study 
of  Scripture  and  in  works  of  piety  (Nikephoros  Kal- 
listos,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  XIV,  53,  54).  About  the  year 
390  (Tillemont,  "Memoires",  XIV,  190-91)  or  per- 
haps 404  (Leo  Allatius,  "  De  Nilis",  11-14),  Nilus  left 
his  wife  and  one  son  and  took  the  other,  Theodulos, 
with  him  to  Mount  Sinai  to  be  a  monk.  They  lived 
here  till  about  the  year  410  (Tillemont,  ib.,  p.  405) 
when  the  Saracens,  invading  the  monastery,  took 
Theodulos  prisoner .  The  Saracens  intended  to  sacri- 
fice him  to  their  gods,  but  eventually  sold  him  as  a 
slave,  so  that  he  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Bishop 
of  Eleusa  in  Palestine.  The  Bishop  received  Theo- 
dulos among  his  clergy  and  made  him  door-keeper  of 
the  church.  Meanwhile  Nilus,  having  left  his  monas- 
tery to  find  his  son,  at  last  met  him  at  Eleusa.  The 
bishop  then  ordained  them  both  priests  and  allowed 
them  to  return  to  Sinai.  The  mother  and  the  other 
son  had  also  embraced  the  religious  life  in  Egypt.  St. 
Nilus  was  certainly  alive  till  the  year  430.  It  is  un- 
certain how  soon  after  that  he  died.  Some  writers 
believe  him  to  have  lived  till  451  (Leo  Allatius,  op. 
cit.,  8-14).  The  Byzantine  Menology  for  his  feast 
(12  November)  supposes  this.  On  the  other  hand, 
none  of  his  works  mentions  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
(431)  and  he  seems  to  know  only  the  beginning  of  the 
Nestorian  troubles;  so  we  have  no  evidence  of  his  life 
later  than  about  430. 

From  his  monastery  at  Sinai  Nilus  was  a  well- 
known  person  throughout  the  Eastern  Church;  by  his 
writings  and  correspondence  he  played  an  important 
part  in  the  history  of  his  time.  He  was  known  as  a 
theologian.  Biblical  scholar  and  ascetic  writer,  so  peo- 
ple of  all  kinds,  from  the  emperor  down,  wrote  to 
consult  him.  His  numerous  works,  including  a  mul- 
titude of  letters,  consist  of  denunciations  of  heresy, 
paganism,  abuses  of  discipline  and  crimes,  of  rules  and 
principles  of  asceticism,  especially  maxims  about  the 
religious  life.  He  warns  and  threatens  people  in  high 
places,  abbots  and  bishops,  governors  and  princes, 
even  the  emperor  himself,  without  fear.  He  kept  up  a 
correspondence  with  Gaina,  a  leader  of  the  Goths, 
endeavouring  to  convert  him  from  Arianism  (Book  I 
of  his  letters,  nos.  70,  79,  114,  115,  116,  205,  206,  286); 
he  denounced  vigorously  the  persecution  of  St.  John 
Chrysostom  both  to  the  Emperor  Arcadius  (ib.,  II,  265 ; 
III,  279)  and  to  his  courtiers  (I,  309;  III,  199). 

Nilus  must  be  counted  as  one  of  the  leading  ascetic 
writers  of  the  fifth  century.  His  feast  is  kept  on  12 
November  in  the  Byzantine  Calendar;  he  is  commem- 
orated also  in  the  Roman  martyrology  on  the  same 
date.  The  .Armenians  remember  him,  with  other 
Egyptian  fathers,  on  the  Thursday  after  the  third 
Sunday  of  their  Advent  (Nilles,  "Kalendarium  Man- 
uale",  Inn.sbruck,  1897,  II,  624). 

The  writings  of  St.  Nilus  of  Sinai  were  first  edited 
by  Possinus  (Paris,  1639);  in  1673  Suarcz  pubHshed 
a  supplement  at  Rome;  his  letters  were  collected 
by  Possinus  (Paris,  1657),  a  larger  collection  was  made 
by  Leo  Allatius  (Romi",  1668).  All  these  editions  are 
used  in  P.  G.,  LXXIX.  The  works  are  divided  by 
Fessler-Jungraann  into  four  classes: — (1)  Works 
about  virtues  and  vices  in  general: — "Peristeria" 
(P.  G.,  LXXIX,  811-968),  a  treati.se  in  three  parts 
addressed  to  a  monk  .\gathios;  "On  Prayer"  (irepi 
Trpoffevxv^,  ib.,  116.5-1200);  "Of  the  eight  spirits  of 
wickedness"  (Tepi  rdp  0  'irveviidToip  ttjs  Trovvp^at,  ib., 
114.5-64);  "Of  the  vice  opposed  to  virtues"  («pi  t^s 
ivTitfyovs  Turn  dpTjTWP  KaKlai,  ib.,  1140-44);  "Of  various 
bad  tliiiughts"  (irepi  5iatp6piov  irovripCiv  Xo7i(T;iiiir,  ib., 
12()0-1234);"Onthewordoft!ieGo.>ipclof  Liike",xxii, 
3(i  (ib.,  1263-1280).  (2)  "Works  about  tiie  monastic 
life": — Concerning  the  slaughter  of  monks  on  Mount 
Sinai,  in  seven  parts,  telling  the  story  of  the  author's 
life  at  Sinai,  the  invasion  of  the  Saracens,  captivity 
of  his  son,  etc.  (ib.,  590-694);  Concerning  Albianos, 


NILUS 


80 


NIMBUS 


a  Nitrian  monk  whose  life  is  held  up  as  an  example 
(ib.,  (595-712);  "Of  Asceticism"  (AA70S  (Io-kijtikAj, 
about  the  monastic  ideal,  ib.,  719-810);  "Of  volun- 
tary poverty"  (vfpl  iKTrnioavyrit,  ib.,  968-1000);  "Of 
the  superiority  of  monks"  (ib.,  1061-1094);  "To 
Eulogios  the  monk  "  (ib.,  1093-1140).  (3)  "Admoni- 
tions" (TI'u^lal)  or  "Chapters"  (xf^dXaia),  about  200 
precepts  drawn  up  in  short  maxims  (ib.,  1239-62). 
These  are  probably  made  by  his  disciples  from  his 
discourses.  (1)  "Letters": — Possinus  published  355, 
Allatius  101)1  Irttors,  divided  into  four  books  (P.  G., 
LXXIX,  S1-5S5).  Many  are  not  complete,  several 
overlap,  or  are  not  really  letters  but  excerpts  from 
Nilus'  works;  some  are  spurious.  Fessler-Jungmaun 
divides  them  into  classes,  as  dogmatic,  exegetical, 
moral,  and  ascetic.  Certain  works  wrongly  attributed 
to  Nilus  arc  named  in  Fessler-Jungmann,  pp.  125-6. 

NiKEPHOROs  K.\LLiST08,  Nist.  EccL,  XIV,  xliv;  Leo  Allatids, 
Diatriba  de  Nitis  et  eorum  scriptis  in  his  edition  of  the  letters 
(Rome,  1668);  Tillemont,  Mdnoires  pour  servir  A  I'histoire 
eccUsiastigue,  XIV  (Paris,  1693-1713),  189-218;  Fabricius- 
Harles,  Bibliotheca  grtcca,  X  (Hamburg,  1790-1809),  3-17; 
Ceiluer.  Uistoire  ginlrale  des  auteurs  sacris,  XIH  (Paris,  1729- 
1763),  iii;  Fessler-Jungmann,  Instituliones  PatrologicE,  II  (Inns- 
bruck, 1896),  ii,  108-128. 

Adrian  Fortescoe. 

Nilus  the  Younger,  of  Rossano,  in  Calabria; 
b.  in  910;  d.  27  December,  1005.  For  a  time  he  was 
married  (or  lived  unlawfully);  he  had  a  daughter. 
Sickness  brought  about  his  conversion,  however,  and 
from  that  time  he  became  a  monk  and  a  propagator 
of  the  rule  of  St.  Basil  in  Italy.  He  was  known  for 
his  ascetic  life,  his  virtues,  and  theological  learning. 
For  a  time  he  lived  as  a  hermit,  later  he  spent  certain 
periods  of  his  life  at  various  monasteries  which  he 
either  founded  or  restored.  He  was  for  some  time  at 
Monte  Cassino,  and  again  at  the  Alexius  monastery 
at  Rome.  When  Gregory  V  (966-999)  was  driven  out 
of  Rome,  Nilus  opposed  the  usurpation  of  Philogatos 
(John)  of  Piacenza  as  anti-pope.  Later  when  Philo- 
gatos was  tortured  and  mutilated  he  reproached 
Gregory  and  the  Emperor  Otto  III  (993-1002)  for 
this  crime.  Nilus'  chief  work  was  the  foundation  of 
the  famous  Greek  monastery  of  Grottaferrata,  near 
Frascati,  of  which  he  is  counted  the  first  abbot.  He 
spent  the  end  of  his  life  partly  there  and  partly  in  a 
hermitage  at  Valleluce  near  Gaeta.  His  feast  is  kept 
on  26  September,  both  in  the  Byzantine  Calendar  and 
the  Roman  martyrology. 

Viti  S.  Nili  abbatis  Crypice  FerratoE,  probably  by  Bartholomew, 
Abbot  of  Grottaferrata  (d.  1065),  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  VII,  Sept., 
283-343;  P.  L.,  LXXI,  509-588;  P.  G.,  IV,  616-618;  Minasi, 
jS.  Nilo  di  Calabria  (Naples,  1892) ;  Krumbacher,  Byzantinische 
LiUeralur  (2nded.,  Munich,  1897),  195,  198. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Nimbus  (Lat.,  related  to  Nebula,  veififKrj,  properly 
vapour,  cloud),  in  art  and  archaeology  signifies  a  shin- 
ing light  implying  great  dignity.  Closely  related  are 
the  halo,  glory,  and  aureole. 

In  Nature. — All  such  symbols  originate  in  natural 
phenomena,  scientifically  accounted  for  in  textbooks 
on  physics  (M  tiller-Peter,  "  Lehrbuch  der  kosmischen 
Physik";  Pemter,  " Meteorologische  Optik").  There 
are  circular  phenomena  of  light  in  drops  or  bubbles  of 
water  and  in  ice  crystals  which  by  the  refraction  of 
light  reveal  in  greater  or  less  degree  the  spectral  col- 
ours. Of  the  accompanying  phenomena  the  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  diameters,  the  "column  of  light", 
may  be  mentioned.  The  curious  rings  of  light  or  colour 
similar  to  the  above,  which  often  form  themselves  be- 
fore the  iris  of  the  eye  even  in  candle  light,  are  more 
gorgeous  on  the  mountain  mist  (Pilatus,  Rigi,  and 
Brocken),  if  the  beholder  has  the  sun  behind  him; 
they  surround  his  shadow  as  it  is  projected  upon  the 
clouds.  The  dewdrops  in  a  meadow  can  produce  an 
appearance  of  light  around  a  shadow,  without,  how- 
ever, forming  distinct  circles.  Occasionally  one  even 
sees  the  planet  Venus  veiled  by  a  disc  of  light.    The 


phenomena  of  discs  and  broad  rings  are  more  usual  in 
the  sun  and  moon.  The  Babylonians  studied  them 
diligently  (Kugler,  "Sternkunde  und  Stcrndienst  in 
Babel",  II,  1).  The  terminology  of  the.se  phenomena 
is  vague.  The  disc  or  circle  around  the  sun  ciin  be  cor- 
rectly called  "anthelia",  and  the  ring  around  the 
moon  "halo".  A  more  usual  name  is  "aureole", 
which  in  a  restricted  sense  means  an  oval  or  cilipitical 
ray  of  light  like  a  medallion.  If  the  brightness  is 
merely  a  luminous  glow  without  definitely  forming 
ring,  circle,  or  ellipse,  it  is  usually  spoken  of  as  a 
"glory".  The  types  in  nature  in  which  rays  or  beams 
of  light  with  or  without  colour  challenge  attention, 
suggested  the  symbolical  use  of  the  nimbus  to  denote 
high  dignity  or  power.  It  is  thus  that  Divine  charac- 
teristics and  the  loftiest  types  of  humanity  were  de- 
noted by  the  nimbus. 

In  Poetry,  this  symbol  of  light  is  chiefly  used  in  the 
form  of  rays  and  flames  or  a  diftused  glow.  Holy  Writ 
presents  the  best  example:  God  is  Light.  The  Son  of 
God,  the  Brightness  of  His  Father's  glory  (Hebr.,  i, 
3).  An  emerald  light  surrounds  God  and  His  throne 
(Apoc,  iv,  3),  and  the  Son  of  Man  seems  to  the  pro|)het 
a  flame  of  fire  (Apoc,  i,  14  sq.).  So  also  He  appeared 
in  His  Transfiguration  on  Tabor.  On  Sinai,  God  ap- 
peared in  a  cloud  which  at  once  concealed  and  revealed 
Him  (Ex.,  xxiv,  16,  sq.)  and  even  the  countenance  of 
Moses  shone  with  a  marvellous  light  in  the  presence 
of  God  (Ex.,  xxxiv,  29,  sq.).  Such  descriiitions  may 
have  influenced  Christian  artists  to  distinguish  God 
and  the  saints  by  means  of  a  halo,  especially  around 
the  head.  They  were  also  familiar  with  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  classical  poets  whose  gods  appeared  veiled 
by  a  cloud;  e.  g.  according  to  Virgil,  divinity  appears 
"nimbo  circumdata,  succincta,  effulgens"  (bathed  in 
light  and  shining  through  a  cloud). 

In  Art. — In  the  plastic  arts  (painting  and  sculp- 
ture) the  symbolism  of  the  nimbus  was  early  in  use 
among  the  pagans  who  determined  its  form.  In  the 
monuments  of  Hellenic  and  Roman  art,  the  heads 
of  the  gods,  heroes,  and  other  distinguished  persons 
are  often  found  with  a  disc-shaped  halo,  a  circle  of 
light,  or  a  rayed-fillet.  They  are,  therefore,  associ- 
ated especially  with  gods  and  creatures  of  light  such 
as  the  Pha'nix.  The  disc  of  light  is  likewise  used  in 
the  Pompeian  wall  paintings  to  typify  gods  and  demi- 
gods only,  but  later,  in  profane  art  it  was  extended  to 
cherubs  or  even  simple  personifications,  and  is  simply 
a  reminder  that  the  figures  so  depicted  are  not  human. 
In  the  miniatures  of  the  oldest  Virgil  manuscript  all 
the  great  personages  wear  a  nimbus  (Beissel,  "Vati- 
kanische  Miniaturen  ").  The  custom  of  the  Egyptian 
and  Syrian  kings  of  having  themselves  represented  with 
a  rayed  crown  to  indicate  the  status  of  demi-gods, 
spread  throughout  the  East  and  the  West.  In  Rome 
the  halo  was  first  used  only  for  deceased  emperors  as  a 
sign  of  celestial  bliss,  but  afterwards  living  rulers  also 
were  given  the  rayed  crown,  and  after  the  third 
century,  although  not  first  by  Constantine,  the  simple 
rayed  nimbus.  Under  Constantine  the  rayed  crown 
appears  only  in  exceptional  cases  on  the  coin,  and  was 
first  adopted  emblematically  by  Julian  the  Apostate. 
Henceforth  the  nimbus  appears  without  rays,  as  the 
emperors  now  wished  themselves  considered  worthy 
of  great  honour,  but  no  longer  as  divine  beings.  In 
early  Christian  art,  the  rayed  nimbus,  as  well  as  the 
rayless  disc  were  adopted  in  accordance  with  tradi- 
tion. The  sun  and  the  Phcenix  received,  as  in  pagan 
art,  a  wreath  or  a  rayed  crown,  also  the  simple  halo. 
The  latter  was  reserved  not  only  for  emperors  but 
for  men  of  genius  and  personifications  of  all  kinds,  al- 
though both  in  ecclesiastical  and  profane  art,  this 
emblem  was  usually  omitted  in  ideal  figures.  In  other 
cases  the  influence  of  ancient  art  tradition  must  not 
be  denied. 

The  Middle  Ages  scarcely  recognized  such  influence, 
and  were  satisfied  to  refer  to  Holy  Writ  as  an  example 


NIMBUS 


81 


NIMBUS 


for  wreath  and  crown  or  shield  shaped  discs  as  marks 
of  honour  to  holy  personages.  Durandus  writes: 
"Sic  onines  sancti  pingiintur  coronati,  quasi  dicerunt. 
Filia>  Jerusalem,  venite  et  videte  martyres  cum  coronis 
quibus  coronavit  eas  Dominus.  Et  in  Libro  Sapien- 
tiae:  Justi  accipient  regnum  decoris  et  diadema  speciei 
de  manu  Domini.  Corona  autem  huiusmodi  deping- 
itur  in  forma  scuti  rotundi,  quia  sancti  Dei  protectione 
divina  fruuntur,  unde  cantant  gratulabundi:  Domine 
ut  scuto  bon;p  voluntatis  tuae  coronasti  nos"  (Thus 
all  the  saints  are  depicted,  crowned,  as  if  they  would 
say:  O  Daughters  of  Jerusalem,  come  and  see  the 
martyrs  with  the  crowns  with  which  the  Lord  has 
crowned  them.  And  in  the  Book  of  Wisdom:  The 
Just  shall  receive  a  kingdom  of  glory,  and  a  crown  of 
beauty  at  the  hands  of  the  Lord.  And  a  crown  of 
this  kind  is  shown  in  the  form  of  a  round  shield,  be- 
cause they  enjoy  the  divine  protection  of  the  Holy 
God,  whence  they  sing  rejoicingly:  O  Lord,  Thou  hast 
crowned  us  as  with  ashieldof  Thygood-will.)  (Ration- 
ale divin.  offic,  I,  3,  19,  sq.).  Furthermore  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  are  almost  exclusively  accredited  with  the 
extension  of  symbolisni  inasmuch  as  they  traced, 
sometimes  felicitously,  allusions  to  Christian  truths 
in  existing  symbols,  of  which  they  sought  no  other 
origin.  Durandus  adds  to  the  passage  quoted  above, 
the  nimbus  containing  a  cross,  usual  in  the  figures  of 
Christ,  signifying  redemption  through  the  Cross,  and 
the  square  nimbus  which  was  occasionally  combined 
with  it  in  living  persons,  to  typify  the  four  cardinal 
virtues.  Judging  by  the  principal  monuments,  how- 
ever, the  square  nimbus  appears  to  be  only  a  variant 
of  the  round  halo  used  to  preserve  a  distinction  and 
thus  guard  against  placing  living  persons  on  a  par 
with  the  saints.  The  idea  of  the  cardinal  virtues,  the 
firmness  of  a  squared  stone,  or  the  imperfection  of 
a  square  figure  as  contrasted  with  a  round  one  was 
merely  a  later  development.  In  the  cross  nimbus  the 
association  of  the  nimbus  with  an  annexed  cross  must 
be  conceded  historical ;  but  that  this  cross  is  a  "  signum 
Christi  crucifixi"  Durandus  probably  interprets  cor- 
rectly. 

Origin. — As  stated  above  the  nimbus  was  in  use 
long  before  the  Christian  era.  According  to  the  ex- 
haustive researches  of  Stephani  it  was  an  invention  of 
the  Hellenic  epoch.  In  early  Christian  art  the  nimbus 
certainly  is  not  found  on  images  of  God  and  celestial 
beings,  but  only  on  figures  borrowed  from  profane 
art,  and  in  Biblical  scenes;  in  place  of  the  simple  nim- 
bus, rays  or  an  aureole  (with  the  nimbus)  were  made 
to  portray  heavenly  glory.  Hence  it  follows  that 
Holy  Writ  furnished  no  example  for  the  bestowal  of  a 
halo  upon  individual  saintly  personages.  As  a  matter 
of  fact  the  nimbus,  as  an  inheritance  from  ancient 
art  tradition,  was  readily  adopted  and  ultimately 
found  the  widest  application  because  the  symbol  of 
light  for  all  divine,  saintly  ideals  is  offered  by  nature 
and  not  infrequently  used  in  Scripture.  In  conteni- 
porary  pagan  art,  the  nimbus  as  a  symbol  of  Divin- 
ity had  become  so  indefinite,  that  it  must  have  been 
accepted  as  something  quite  new.  The  nimbus  of 
early  Christian  art  manifests  only  in  a  few  particular 
drawings,  its  relationship  with  that  of  late  antiquity. 
In  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century,  Christ  received 
a  nimbus  only  when  portrayed  seated  upon  a  throne, 
or  in  an  exalted  and  princely  character;  but  it  had  al- 
ready been  used  since  Constantine,  in  pictures  of  the 
emperors,  and  was  emblematic,  not  so  much  of  divine 
as  of  human  dignity  and  greatness.  In  other  scenes, 
however,  Christ  at  that  time  was  represented  with- 
out this  emblem.  The  "exaltation"  of  Christ  as  in- 
dicated by  the  nimbus,  refers  to  His  dignity  as  a 
teacher  and  king  rather  than  to  His  Godhead.  Before 
long  the  nimbus  became  a  fixed  .symbol  of  Christ  and 
later  (in  the  fourth  century),  of  an  angel  or  a  lamb 
when  used  as  the  type  of  Christ.  The  number  of 
personages  who  were  given  a  halo  increased  rapidly, 
XL— 6 


until  towards  the  end  of  the  sixth  century  the  use  of 
symbols  in  the  Christian  Church  became  as  general 
as  it  had  formerly  been  in  pagan  art. 

Miniature  painting  in  its  cycle  represents  all  the 
most  important  personages  with  haloes,  just  as  did  the 
Virgil  codex,  so  that  the  continuity  of  the  secular  and 
Christian  styles  is  obvious.  This  connexion  is  defi- 
nitively revealed  when  royal  persons,  e.  g.  Herod, 
receive  a  nimbus.  Very  soon  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary  always,  and  martyrs  and  saints  usually,  were 
crowned  with  a  halo.  More  rarely  the  beloved  dead 
or  some  person  conspicuous  for  his  position  or  dignity, 
were  so  honoured.  Saints  were  so  represented  if  they 
constituted  the  central  figure  or  needed  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  surrounding  personages.  The 
nimbus  was  used  arbitrarily  in  personification.  Gospel 
types,  and  the  like.  Official  representations  clearly 
show  a  fixed  system,  but  outside  of  these  there  was 
great  variety.  Works  of  art  may  be  distinctly  differ- 
entiated according  to  their  birthplace.  The  nimbus 
in  the  Orient  seems  to  have  been  in  general  use  at  an 
early  period,  but  whether  it  was  first  adopted  from 
ecclesiastical  art  is  uncertain.  In  general  the  customs 
of  the  East  and  West  are  parallel ;  for  instance,  in  the 
West  the  personifications  appear  with  a  nimbus  as 
early  as  the  third  century  and  Christ  enthroned  no 
later  than  in  the  East  (in  the  time  of  Constantine). 
Their  nature  makes  it  apparent  that  in  every  depart- 
ment of  plastic  art  the  nimbus  is  more  rarely  used 
than  in  painting. 

Form  and  Colour. — The  form  of  the  symbol  was 
first  definitely  determined  by  Gregory  the  Great, 
who  (about  600)  permitted  himself  to  be  painted  with 
a  square  nimbus.  Johannus  Diaconus  in  his  life  of 
the  pope,  gives  the  reason :  "  circa  verticem  tabula;  sim- 
ilitudinem,  quod  viventis  insigne  est,  prsfercns,  non 
coronam"  (bearing  around  his  head  the  likeness  of 
a  square,  which  is  the  sign  for  a  living  person,  and 
not  a  crown.)  (Migne,  "P.  L.",  75,  231).  It  appears 
to  have  already  been  customary  to  use  the  round  nim- 
bus for  saints.  In  any  event  the  few  extant  examples 
from  the  following  centuries  show  that,  almost  with- 
out exception,  only  the  living,  principally  ecclesiastics, 
but  also  the  laity  and  even  women  and  children,  were 
represented  with  a  square  nimbus.  The  aureole,  that 
is  the  halo  which  surrounds  an  entire  figure,  naturally 
takes  the  shape  of  an  oval,  though  if  it  is  used  for  a 
bust,  it  readily  resumes  the  circular  form.  The  radia- 
tion of  light  from  a  centre  is  essential  and  we  must 
recognize  the  circle  of  light  of  the  sun-god  in  ancient 
art  as  one  of  the  prototypes  of  the  aureole.  The  medal- 
lion form  was  for  a  long  time  in  use  among  the  ancient 
Romans  for  the  Imagines  clipcatir.  The  gradations  of 
colour  in  the  aureole  reveal  the  influence  of  .\poc.,  i y,  3, 
where  a  rainbow  was  round  about  the  throne  of  God. 
Indeed,  in  very  early  times  the  aureole  was  only  used 
in  representations  of  God  as  the  Dove  or  Hand,  or 
of  Christ  when  the  divinity  was  to  be  emphatically 
expressed. 

In  early  Christian  times  (as  now)  the  mmd  nim- 
bus was  by  far  the  most  usual  designation  of  Christ 
and  the  saints.  The  broad  circle  is  often  replaced 
by  the  ring  of  light  or  a  coloured  disc,  especially 
on  fabrics  and  miniatures.  In  pictures  without 
colour  the  nimbus  is  shown  by  an  engraved  line 
or  a  raised  circlet,  often  by  a  disc  in  relief.  In  the 
aureole  blue  indicates  celestial  glory,  and  it  is  used  in 
th<-  nimbus  to  till  in  the  surface,  as  are  yellow,  gray, 
and  other  I'olours  while  the  margins  an;  sharply  de- 
fined in  different  tints.  In  many  haloes  the  inner  i)art 
is  white.  In  mosaics,  since  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies, blue  has  been  replaced  by  gold.  From  this 
jjcriod  also,  the  frescoes  show  a  corresponding  yellow, 
as  seen  for  instance,  in  paintings  in  the  catacombs. 
Gold  or  yellow  prevails  in  miniatures,  but  there  is  a 
great  deal  of  variety  in  illustrated  books.  Blue  as  a 
symbol  of  heaven  has  the  j)reference,  but  gold,  which 


NIMBUS 


82 


NIMBUS 


later  became  the  rule,  gives  a  more  obvious  impression 
of  light.  The  explanation  of  the  cross  nimbus  variety  " 
is  obvious.  Since  the  sixth  century  it  has  character- 
ized Christ  and  the  Lanib  of  (!od,  but  occasionally 
it  is  given  to  the  other  Persons  of  the  Trinity.  In 
connexion  with  it,  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries, 
there  was  a  manoyram  nimbus.  The  cross  and  the 
monogram  of  Christ  were  besiile  or  above  the  heatl 
of  Chri.st  and  the  Lamb.  In  the  fifth  century  they 
were  brought  to  the  U])pcr  edge  of  the  nimbus  and 
finally  both  were  concentrically  combined  with  it. 
In  more  recent  times  the  monogram  and  the  mono- 
gram nimlnis  have  become  more  rare.  The  letters 
A  and  S2  for  Christ  and  M  and  A  for  Mary,  were  in- 
tended for  monograms  and  frequently  accompanied 
the  nimbus. 

Development. — In  orderto  understand  the  nimbus 
and  its  history,  it  is  necessary  to  trace  it  through  the 
different  branches  of  art.  The  frescoes  in  the  cata- 
combs have  a  peculiar  significance  inasmuch  as  they 
determine  the  period  when  the  nimbus  was  admitted 
into  Christian  art.  The  numerous  figures  lacking 
this  symbol  (Christ,  Mary,  and  the  Apostles)  show 
that  before  Constantine,  representations  of  specifi- 
cally Christian  character  were  not  influenced  by  art 
traditions.  Only  pictures  of  the  sun,  the  seasons,  and 
a  few  ornament  al  heads  carried  a  nimbus  at  that  date. 
The  single  exception  is  found  in  a  figure  over  the  well- 
known  "Ship  in  a  Storm"  of  one  of  the  Sacrament 
chapels.  But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  in  this  case  we 
are  not  dealing  with  a  representation  of  God,  but 
merely  with  a  personification  of  heavenly  aid,  which 
marked  a  transition  from  personifications  to  direct 
representations  of  holy  personages.  The  figure 
seems  to  be  copied  from  pictures  of  the  sun  god. 
On  the  other  hand,  several  pictures  of  Christ  in  the 
catacombs,  dating  from  the  fourth  century,  indicate 
the  period  when  the  nimbus  was  first  used  in  the 
way  familiar  to  us.  Besides  the  Roman  catacombs, 
others,  especially  that  of  El  Baghaouat  in  the  great 
oasis  of  the  Libyan  desert,  must  be  taken  into  account. 
For  the  period  succeeding  Constantine,  mosaics  fur- 
nish important  evidence  since  they  present  not  only 
verj'  numerous  and  usually  definite  examples  of  the 
nimbus,  but  have  a  more  official  character  and  give 
intelligent  portrayals  of  religious  axioms.  Although 
allowance  must  be  made  for  later  restorations,  a  con- 
stant development  is  apparent  in  this  field.  The 
treatment  of  the  nimbus,  in  the  illuminating  and  illus- 
trating of  books,  was  influenced  by  the  caprices  of  the 
individual  artist  and  the  tradition  of  different  schools. 
In  textiles  and  embroidery  the  most  extensive  use  was 
made  of  the  nimbus,  and  a  rich  colour  scheme  was  tle- 
veloped,  to  which  these  technical  arts  are  by  nature 
adapted.  LInfortunately  the  examples  which  have 
been  preserved  are  only  imperfectly  known  and  the 
dates  are  often  difficult  to  determine. 

Sculpture  presents  little  opportunity  for  the  use  of 
the  nimbus.  In  some  few  instances,  indeed,  the  nim- 
bus is  painted  on  ivory  or  wood  carvings,  but  more 
often  we  find  it  engraved  or  raised  in  relief.  Figures 
with  this  emblem  are  rare.  On  the  sarcophagi  we 
find  that  Christ  and  the  Lamb  (apart  from  the  sun) 
alone  appear  with  a  circle  or  disc,  the  Apostles  and 
Marj-,  never.  In  ivorj'  neither  Mary  nor  Christ  is 
so  distinguished. 

In  the  course  of  centuries  the  Christian  idea  that 
God,  according  to  Holy  Scripture  the  Source  of  Light 
and  Divine  things,  must  always  be  given  a  halo,  be- 
came more  pronounced.  This  applied  to  the  three 
Divine  Persons  and  their  emblems,  as  the  Cross, 
Lamb,  Dove,  Eye,  and  Hand;  and  since,  according  to 
Scripture,  saints  are  children  of  Light  (Luke,  xvi,  8; 
John,  xii,  36),  as  such  they  should  share  the  honour. 
Preference  was  shown  for  the  garland  or  crown  (corona 
el  gloria  corona)  of  Christ  which  was  also  bestowed  by 
God  as  a  reward  upon  the  saints,  either  spiritually  in 


this  life  or  in  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  (Ps.  xx,  4; 
Heb.,  ii,  7  sc].).  Garlands  and  crowns  of  glory  are 
frequently  mentioned  in  Holy  Writ  (I  Peter,  v,  4; 
Apoc,  iv  4,  etc.).  The  nimbus  also  takes  the  form 
of  a  shield  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  Divine  protection 
(Ps.  V,  13).  A  truly  classic  authority  for  the  explana- 
tion of  the  nimbus  may  be  found  in  Wis.,  v,  17:  the 
Just  shall  "receive  a  kingdom  of  glory,  and  a  crown  of 
beauty  at  the  hands  of  the  Lord:  for  with  His  right 
hand  He  will  cover  them,  and  with  His  holy  arm  He 
will  defend  them."  (In  Greek,  "Holds  the  shield 
over  them".)  Whereas  in  pagan  art,  the  rayless  nim- 
bus signified  neither  holiness  nor  Divine  protection, 
but  merely  majesty  anil  power,  in  Christian  art  it  was 
more  and  more  definitely  made  the  emblem  of  such 
virtue  and  grace,  which,  emanating  from  God,  ex- 
tends over  the  saints  only.  LIrban  VIII  formally 
prohibited  giving  the  nimbus  to  persons  who  were  not 
beatified.  Since  the  eighteenth  century  the  word 
"halo"  has  been  incorporated  into  the  German  lan- 
guage. In  Western  countries  John  the  Baptist  is  the 
only  saint  of  the  Old  Testament  who  is  given  a  halo, 
doubtless  because  before  his  time  the  grace  of  Christ 
had  not  yet  been  bestowed  in  it.s  fvdlne.ss. 

We  have  already  found  that  t  lie  aureole  may  be  con- 
sidered exclusively  a  device  of  Christian  art,  especially 
as  it  was  reserved  at  first  for  the  Divinity,  and  later 
extended  only  to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  Instead  of  sim- 
ple beams  it  often  consists  of  pointed  flames  or  is 
shaded  off  into  the  colours  of  the  rainbow.  This  form 
as  well  as  the  simple  nimbus,  by  the  omission  of  the 
circumference,  may  be  transposed  into  a  garland  of 
rays  or  a  glory.  A  glory  imitating  the  sun's  rays  was 
very  popular  for  the  monstrances;  in  other  respects 
the  lunula  suggests  the  nimbus  only  because  the  cost- 
liness of  the  material  enhances  the  lustre.  The  aure- 
ole obtained  the  Italian  name  of  mandorla  from  its 
almond  shape.  In  Germany  the  fish  was  agreed  upon 
for  the  symbol  of  Christ,  or  a  fish  bladder  if  it  had  the 
shape  of  a  figure  8.  God  the  Father  is  typified  in  later 
pictures  by  an  equilateral  triangle,  or  two  interlaced 
triangles,  also  by  a  hexagon  to  suggest  the  Trinity.  If 
there  is  no  circle  around  the  cross  nimbus,  the  three 
visible  arms  of  the  cross  give  the  same  effect.  Oc- 
casionally the  mandorla  is  found  composed  of  seven 
doves  (type  of  the  Seven  Gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost),  or 
of  angels.  The  latter  are  used  in  large  pictures  of  the 
Last  Judgment  or  heaven,  for  instance  in  the  "glories" 
of  Italian  domes.  In  painting,  haloes  of  cloud  are 
sometimes  used  for  delicate  angel  heads,  as  in  Ra- 
phael's works.  Angels  also  form  a  nimbus  around  the 
head  of  the  Mother  of  God.  She  is  also  given  the 
twelve  stars  of  Apoc,  xii,  1.  Saint  John  Nepomucene 
has  five  or  seven  stars  because  of  the  great  light  which 
hovered  over  his  body  when  he  was  drowned  in  the 
Moldau  by  order  of  King  W'enceslaus.  Artists  have 
developed  many  varieties  of  the  nimbus  and  aureole. 
Since  the  Renaissance  it  has  been  fashioned  more  and 
more  lightly  and  delicately  and  sometimes  entirely 
omitted,  as  the  artists  thought  they  could  suggest  the 
characteristics  of  the  personage  by  the  painting.  It  is 
true  that  the  nimbus  is  not  intrinsically  a  part  of  the 
figure  and  at  times  even  appears  heavy  and  intrusive. 
A  distinguishing  symbol  may  not,  however,  be  readily 
dispensed  with  and  with  the  omission  of  this  one  the 
images  of  the  saints  have  often  degenerated  into  mere 
genre  pictures  and  worldly  types.  A  delicate  circlet 
of  light  shining  or  floating  over  the  head  does  not 
lessen  the  artistic  impression,  and  even  if  the  charac- 
ter of  Christ  or  the  Madonna  is  sufficiently  indicated 
in  the  drawing,  yet  it  must  be  conceded  that  the 
nimbus,  like  a  crown,  not  only  characterizes  and  dif- 
ferentiates a  figure  but  distinguishes  and  exalts  it  as 
well. 

Stephani,  Ueber  den  Nimbus  u.  Strahtenkraitz  in  den  Werkeri  der 
alleren  Kunsl  in  Mimoires  de  V Acadimie  de  Sl.-P(tersbourg  (I8b9) ; 
Krucke.  Der  Nimbus  u,  verwaTldte  Attribute  in  der  frUchristl, 
KuTut  (Straaburg,  1905);    Mendelsohx,    Heiligenschein  in  der 


NIMES 


83 


NIMES 


italien.  Malerei  seit  Giotto  CBerlin  1903);  Kraus,  Realmzuklo- 
padie  der  christl.  AUertUmer  (1882-86) ;  various  works  by  Didbon 
and  Menzel, 

G.  GlETMANN. 

Nimes,  Diocese  of  (Nemadsensis),  suffragan  of 
Avignon,  comprises  the  civil  Department  of  Gard. 
By  the  Concordat  of  1801  its  territory  was  united  with 
the  Diocese  of  Avignon.  It  was  re-established  as  a 
separate  diocese  in  1821,  and  a  Brief  of  27  April,  1877, 
grants  to  its  bishops  the  right  to  add  Alais  and  Uzes  to 
their  episcopal  style,  these  two  dioceses  being  now  com- 
bined with  that  of  Nimes. 

That  Nimes  (Nemausus)  was  an  important  city  in 
Roman  antiquity  is  shown  by  the  admirable  Maison 
Carrce,  the  remains  of  a  superb  amphitheatre,  and  the 
Pont  du  Gard,  four  and  a  half  leagues  from  the  city. 
Late  and  rather  contradictory  traditions  attribute  the 
foundation  of  the  Church  of  Nimes  either  to  Celido- 
nius,  the  man  "who  was  blind  from  his  birth"  of  the 
Gospel,  or  to  St.  Honestus,  the  apostle  of  Navarre, 
said  to  have  been  sent  to  southern  France  by  St. 
Peter,  with  St.  Saturninus  (Sernin),  the  apostle  of 
Toulouse.  The  true  apostle  of  Nimes  was  St.  Bau- 
dilus,  whose  martyrdom  is  placed  by  some  at  the  end 
of  the  third  century,  and,  with  less  reason,  by  others  at 
the  end  of  the  fourth.  iSIany  writers  affirm  that  a  cer- 
tain St.  Felix,  martyred  by  the  Vandals  about  407, 
was  Bishop  of  Nimes,  but  Duchesne  questions  this. 
There  was  a  see  at  Nimes  as  early  as  396,  for  in  that 
year  a  synodical  letter  was  sent  by  a  Council  of  Nimes 
to  the  bishops  of  Gaul.  The  first  bishop  whose  date  is 
positively  known  is  Sedatus,  present  at  the  Council  of 
Agde  in  506.  Other  noteworthy  bishops  are:  St.  John 
(about  511,  before  526);  St.  Remessarius  (633-40); 
Bertrand  of  Languissel  (1280-1324),  faithful  to  Boni- 
face VIII,  and  for  that  reason  driven  from  his  see  for  a 
year  by  Philip  the  Fair;  Cardinal  Guillaume  d'Es- 
touteville  (1441-49);  Cardinal  Guillaume  Brigonnet 
(1496-1514) ;  the  famous  pulpit  orator  Flochier  (1687- 
1710);  the  distinguished  polemist  Plantier  (1855-75) 
whoso  pastoral  letter  (1873)  called  forth  a  protest  from 
Bismarck;  the  preacher  Be.sson  (1875-88).  Urban  II, 
coming  to  France  to  preach  the  crusade,  consecrated 
the  cathedral  of  Nimes  in  1096  and  presided  over  a 
council.  Alexander  III  visited  Nimes  in  1162.  Clem- 
ent IV  (1265-68),  born  at  iSaint  Gilles,  in  this  diocese, 
granted  the  monastery  of  that  town  numerous  favours. 
St.  Louis,  who  embarked  at  Aigues-Mortes  for  his  two 
crusades,  surrounded  Nimes  with  walls.  In  1305, 
Clement  V  passed  through  the  city  on  his  way  to 
Lyons  to  be  crowned.  In  consequence  of  disputes 
about  the  sale  of  grapes  to  the  papal  household,  Inno- 
cent VI  laid  an  interdict  on  Nimes  in  1358.  The  dio- 
cese was  greatly  disturbed  by  the  Religious  Wars:  on 
29  Sept.,  1567,  five  years  before  the  Massacre  of  St. 
Bartholemew,  the  Protestants  of  Nimes,  actuated  by 
fanaticism,  perpetrated  the  massacre  of  Catholics 
known  in  French  history  as  the  Michelade.  Louis 
XIII  at  Nimes  issued  the  decree  of  religious  pacifi- 
cation known  as  the  Peace  of  Nimes. 

The  first  Bishop  of  Uzes  historically  known  is  Con- 
stantius,  present  at  the  Council  of  Vaison  in  442. 
Other  bishops  were  St.  Firminus  (541-53)  and  St.  Fer- 
r6ol  (553-81).  In  the  sixteenth  century,  Bishop  Jean 
de  Saint  Gelais  (1531-60)  became  a  Calvinist.  The 
celebrated  missionary  Bridaine  (1701-67)  was  a  na- 
tive of  the  Diocese  of  Uzes.  This  little  city  was  for 
seventy  days  the  enforced  residence  of  Cardinal  Pacca, 
after  his  confinement  at  Fenestrelles  (1812).  The 
town  of  Pont  Saint  Esprit,  on  the  Rhone,  owes  its 
names  to  a  bridge  built  there  between  1265  and  1309 
with  the  proceeds  of  a  general  collection  made  by  the 
monks. 

About  570,  Sigebert,  King  of  Austrasia,  created  a 
see  at  Arisitum  (Alais),  taking  fifteen  parishes  from  the 
Diocese  of  Nimes.  In  the  eighth  century,  when  Septi- 
mania  was  annexed  to  the  Prankish  Empire,  the  Dio- 


cese of  Alais  was  suppressed  and  its  territory  returned 
to  the  Diocese  of  Nimes.  At  the  request  of  Louis  XIV, 
a  see  was  again  created  at  Alais  by  Innocent  XII,  in 
1694.  The  future  Cardinal  de  Bausset,  Bossuet's  biog- 
rapher, was  Bishop  of  Alais  from  1784  to  1790.  After 
the  Edict  of  Nantes,  Alais  was  one  of  the  places  de 
surete  given  to  the  Huguenots  (see  Huguenots,  His- 
tory). Louis  XIII  took  back  the  town  in  1629,  and 
the  Convention  of  Alais,  signed  29  June  of  that  year, 
suppressed  the  political  privileges  of  the  Protestants. 
The  chief  pilgrimages  of  the  present  Diocese  of 
Nimes  are:  Notre  Dame  de  Grace,  Rochefort,  dating 


The  Cathedral,  Nimes 
Consecrated  by  Urban  II  in  1093 

from  Charlemagne,  and  commemorating  a  victory 
over  the  Saracens.  Louis  XIV  and  his  mother,  Anne 
of  Austria,  established  here  a  foundation  for  perpetual 
Masses.  Notre  Dame  de  Grace,  Laval,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Alais,  dating  from  not  later  than  900.  Notre  Dame 
de  Bon  Secours  de  Prime  Combe,  Fontanes,  since  887. 
Notre  Dame  de  Bonheur,  founded  1045  on  the  moun- 
tain of  I'Aigoual  in  the  vicinity  of  Valleraugucs.  Notre 
Dame  de  Belvezet,  a  shrine  of  the  eleventh  century, 
on  Mont  Andavu.  Notre  Dame  de  Vauvcrt,  whither 
the  converted  Albigenses  were  sent,  often  visited  by 
St.  Louis,  Clement  V,  and  Francis  I.  The  shrine  of 
St.  Vdrcdeme,  a  hermit  who  died  Archbishop  of  Avi- 
gnon, and  of  the  martyr  St.  Baudilus,  at  Trois  Fon- 
taines and  at  Valsainte  near  Nimes.  The  following 
Saints  are  especially  venerated  in  the  present  Diocese 
of  Nimes:  St.  Castor,  Bishop  of  Apt  (fourth  to  fifth 
century),  a  native  of  Nimes;  the  priest  St.  Theodoritus, 
martyr,  patron  saint  of  the  town  of  Uzes;  the  Athe- 
nian St.  Giles  (.^ilgidius,  sixth  cent.),  living  as  a  recluse 
near  Uzes  when  he  was  accidentally  wounded  by  King 
Childeric,  later  abbot  of  the  monastery  built  by  Chil- 
deric  in  reparation  for  this  accident,  venerated  also  in 
England;  Blessed  Peter  of  Luxemburg  who  made  a 
sojourn  in  the  diocese,  at  Villeneuve-lez-Avignon 
(1369-87). 

Prior  to  the  Associations  Law  of  1901  the  diocese 
had  Augustinians  of  the  A.ssumption  (a  congregation 
which  originated  in  the  city  of  Nimes),  Carthusians, 
Trappists,  Jesuits,  Missiojiaries  of  the  Company  of 


NIMROD 


84 


MISIBIS 


Mary,  Franciscan  Fathers,  Marists,  Lazarists,  Sul- 
picians,  and  various  orders  of  teaching  brothers.  The 
Oblates  of  the  Assumption,  for  teaching  and  foreign 
missions,  also  foiiiided  lu-re,  and  tlie  Besan(,'oii  Sisters 
of  Charity,  teachers  and  nurses,  have  llieir  mother- 
houses  at  \imes.  At  t lie  beginning  of  the  century  the 
rehgious  congregatit)ns  conducted  in  this  diocese:  3 
creches,  .53  day  imrserics,  U  boys'  orphanages,  20  girls' 
orphanages,  1  employment  agency  for  females,  1  house 
of  refuge  for  penitent  women,  C  houses  of  mercy,  20 
hospitals  or  tisylums,  11  houses  of  visiting  mn-ses,  3 
houses  of  retreat,  1  home  for  incurables.  In  1905  the 
Diocese  of  NJmes  contained  420,S3t)  inhabitants,  45 
parishes,  239  succursal  parishes,  52  vicariates  subven- 
tioned  by  the  State. 

Gallia  Christiana  Nova.  VI  (1739),  426-516;  608-53,  1118-1121, 
1123,  and  Imlrumenta,  165-226,  293-312;  Duchesne,  Pastes  Epis- 
copaiu.  I  (1900).  299-302;  Germain.  Histoire  de  Viglise  de  Ntmes 
(Paris.  1838-42);  Goiffon,  Catalogue  analytique  des  ivSgues  de 
NImes  (1879);  Duband,  Nemausiana,  I  (Ntmes.  1905);  Boulen- 
GER,  Les  Protestants  d  Nimes  au  temps  de  VMit  de  Nantes  (Paris. 
1903) ;  Iloux.  Ntmes  (Paris.  1908) ;  Durand.  L'iglise  Ste  Marie,  ou 
Notre  Dame  de  Ntmes.  basilique  cathidrale  (Ntmes.  1906) ;  Char- 
vet,  Catalogue  des  hifques  d'  Uzhs  in  Mimoires  et  Comptes  rendus 
de  la  Sociili  Scienlifique  d'Alais,  II  (1870).  129-59;  Taulelle, 
L'abbaye  d'Alais:  histoire  de  S.  Julien  de    Valgalffue  (Toulouse. 

1905).  Georges  Goyau. 

Nimrod.    See  Nemrod. 

Ninian,  Saint  (Ninias,  Ninus,  Din.\n,  Ringan, 
RiNGENi,  bishop  and  confessor,  date  of  birth  unknown; 
d.  about  432;  the  first  Apostle  of  Christianity  in  Scot- 
land. The  earliest  account  of  him  is  in  Bede  (Hist. 
Eccles.,  Ill,  4) :  "the  southern  Picts  received  the  true 
faith  by  the  preaching  of  Bishop  Ninias,  a  most  rever- 
end and  holy  man  of  the  British  nation,  who  had  been 
regularly  instructed  at  Rome  in  the  faith  and  myster- 
ies of  the  truth;  whose  episcopal  see,  named  after  St. 
Martin  the  Bishop,  and  famous  for  a  church  dedicated 
to  him  (wherein  Ninias  himself  and  many  other  saints 
rest  in  the  body),  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Eng- 
lish nation.  The  place  belongs  to  the  province  of  the 
Bernicians  and  is  commonly  called  the  White  House 
[Candida  Casa],  because  he  there  built  a  church  of 
stone,  which  was  not  usual  amongst  the  Britons". 
The  facts  given  in  this  passage  form  practically  all  we 
know  of  St.  Ninian's  life  and  work. 

The  most  important  later  life,  compiled  in  the 
twelfth  centur}'  by  St.  Aelred,  professes  to  give  a  de- 
tailed account  founded  on  Bede  and  also  on  a  "liber 
de  vita  et  miraculis  eius"  (sc.  Niniani)  "barbarice 
scriptus",  but  the  legendary  element  is  largely  evi- 
dent. He  states,  however,  that  while  engaged  in 
building  his  church  at  Candida  Casa,  Ninian  heard 
of  the  death  of  St.  Martin  and  decided  to  dedicate  the 
building  to  him.  Now  St.  Martin  died  about  397,  so 
that  the  mission  of  Ninian  to  the  southern  Picts  must 
have  begun  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century. 
St.  Ninian  founded  at  Whithorn  a  monastery  which 
became  famous  as  a  school  of  monasticism  within  a 
centurj'  of  his  death;  his  work  among  the  southern 
Picts  seems  to  have  had  but  a  short-lived  success. 
St.  Patrick,  in  his  epistle  to  Coroticus,  terms  the  Picts 
"apostates",  and  references  to  Ninian's  converts  hav- 
ing abandoned  Christianity  are  found  in  the  lives  of 
Sts.  Columba  and  Kentigern.  The  body  of  St.  Ninian 
was  buried  in  the  church  at  Whithorn  (Wigtown- 
shire), but  no  relics  arc  now  known  to  exist.  The 
"Clogrinny",  or  bell  of  St.  Ringan,  of  very  rough 
workmanship,  is  in  the  Antiquarian  Museum  at 
Edinburgh. 

Bede,  Hist.  Eccles..  tr.  Sellar,  III  (London,  1907),  4;  Aelred, 
Vita  S.  Niniani  in  Forbes.  Historians  of  Scotland,  V;  Acta  SS.. 
Sept.,  V.  321-28;  Caporave,  Nom  Legenda  Anglice  (London, 
1516);  O'CONOR,  Rerum  Hibernicarum  Scriptores  (Dublin.  1825); 
CoLOAN.  Ada  SS.  Hibern.  (Louvain,  1647),  438;  Challoner, 
Britannia  Sancta,  II  (London,  1745),  130;  Stanton,  Menology  of 
Brigland  and  Wales  (London.  1887),  448.  669;  MacKinnon, 
Ninian  und  seinEinfluss  auf  die  Ausbreitung  des  Christenthums  in 
Nord-Briiannien  (Heidelberg,  1891).  this  is  the  most  authorita- 
tive work  on  the  subject;  see  also  Idem,  Culture  in  Early  Scotland; 
Anakda  BoUandiana,  XII,  82;  Revue  Binidictine,  IX.  526. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 


Ninive  (Nineveh).    See  Assyria. 

Nirschl,  Joseph,  theologian  and  writer,  b.  at 
Dunlifurth,  Lower  Bavaria,  24  February,  1823;  d. 
at  \\  lirzburg,  17  January,  1901.  He  was  ordained  in 
1851  and  graduated  as  doittor  of  (hcnlogy  in  1.S.54 
at  Munich.  He  was  appointed  te;i(h(r  of  Chri.stian 
doctrine  at  Passau  in  1855  and  in  18('i2  pnifcs.sor  of 
church  history  and  p;itrology.  In  1879  he  became 
profcs.sor  oi  I'liurcli  liistoiv  at  Wiirzburg,  and  was  ap- 
pointe.1  dean  of  the  cathedral  in  1892.  Of  his  numer- 
ous works,  mostly  on  patrislics,  the  most  important 
are:  "Lehrbuch  der  Patrologic  vmd  I'atristik"  (3  vols., 
Mainz,  1881-5);  "Urspruiig  und  Wosen  des  Bosen 
nach  der  Lehre  des  hi.  Augustinus"  (Katisbon,  1854): 
"Das  Dogma  der  unbeflecktcn  Empfiingnis  Maria' 
(Ratisbon,  1855);  "Todesjahr  des  hi.  Ignatius  von 
Antiochien"  (Passau,  1869);  "Die  Theologie  des  hi. 
Ignatius  von  Antiochien"  (Passau,  1869,  and  Mainz, 
1880);  Das  Haus  und  Grab  der  hi.  Jungfrau  Maria 
(Mainz,  1900).  He  translated  into  German  the  letters 
and  the  martyrium  of  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch  (Kemi)- 
ten,  1870)  and  the  Catecheses  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem 
(Kempten,  1871).  He  defended  the  genuineness  of 
pseudo-Dionysius  and  of  the  apocryphal  letter  of  King 
Abgar  of  Edessa  to  Jesus. 

Lauchert  in  Biogr.  Jahrb.  und  deutscher  Nekrotog  (Vienna, 
1904).  169  sq. 

Michael  Ott. 

Nisibis,  titular  .iVrchdiocese  of  Mesopotamia,  situ- 
ated on  the  .Mygdonius  at  the  foot  of  .Mt.  Masius.  It 
is  so  old  that  its  original  name  is  vmknown.  In  any 
case  it  is  not  the  Achad  (Accad)  of  Genesis,  x,  10,  as  has 
been  asserted.  When  the  Cireeks  came  to  Mesopo- 
tamia with  Alexander  they  called  it  Antiochia  Myg- 
donia,  under  which  name  it  appears  for  the  first  time 
on  the  occasion  of  the  march  of  Antiochus  against  the 
Molon  (Polybius,  V,  51).  Subsequently  the  subject 
of  constant  disputes  between  the  Romans  and  the 
Parthians,  it  was  captured  by  Lucullus  after  a  long 
siege  from  the  brother  of  Tigranes  (Dion  Cassius, 
XXXV,  6,  7);  and  by  Trajan  in  115,  which  won  for 
him  the  name  of  Parthicus  (ibid.,  LXVHI,  23).  Re- 
captured by  the  Osrhoenians  in  194,  it  was  again  con- 
quered by  Septimius  Severus  who  made  it  his  head- 
quarters and  established  a  colony  there  (ibid.,  LXXV, 
23).  In  297,  by  the  treaty  with  Narses,  the  province 
of  Nisibis  was  acquired  by  the  Roman  Empire;  in  363 
it  was  ceded  to  the  Persians  on  the  defeat  of  Julian  the 
Apostate.  The  See  of  Nisibis  was  founded  in  300  by 
Babu  (d.  309).  His  successor,  the  celebrated  St. 
James,  defended  the  city  by  his  prayers  during  the 
siege  of  Sapor  II.  At  the  time  of  its  cession  to  the 
Persians,  Nisibis  was  a  Christian  centre  important 
enough  to  become  the  ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  the 
Province  of  Beit-Arbaye.  In  410  it  had  six  suffragan 
sees  and  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century 
was  the  most  important  episcopal  see  of  the  Persian 
Church  after  Seleucia-Ctesiphon.  A  great  many  of  its 
Nestorian  or  Jacobite  titulars  are  mentioned  in  Cha- 
bot  ("Synodicon  orientale",  Paris,  1902,  678)  and  Le 
Quien  (Oriens  christ.,  II,  995,  1195-1204)  and  several 
of  them,  e.  g.  Barsumas,  Osee,  Narses,  Jesusyab, 
Ebed-Jesus,  etc.,  acquired  deserved  celebrity  in  the 
world  of  letters.  Near  Nisibis  on  25  June,  1839, 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  son  of  Mehemet  Ali,  Viceroy  of  Egypt, 
won  a  great  victory  over  the  troops  of  Mahmud  II. 
To-day  Nezib  is  a  town  of  3000  inhabitants  in  the 
sandjak  of  Orfa  and  the  vilayet  of  Aleppo.  Its  oil  is 
considered  very  fine. 

The  first  theological  school  of  Nisibis,  founded  at 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  the  town,  was 
closed  when  the  province  was  ceded  to  the  Persians, 
great  persecutors  of  Christianity.  St.  Ephraein  re- 
established it  on  Roman  soil  at  Edessa,  whither 
flocked  all  the  studious  youth  of  Persia.  In  the  fifth 
century  the  school  became  a  centre  of  Nestorianism. 


NITHARD 


85 


NOAILLES 


Archbishop  Cyrus  in  489  closed  it  and  expelled  mas- 
ters and  pupils,  who  withdrew  to  Nisibis.  They  were 
welcomed  by  Barsumas,  a  former  pupil  of  Edessa. 
The  school  was  at  once  re-opcnod  at  Nisibis  under  the 
direction  of  Narses,  called  the  harp  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
The  latter  dictated  the  statutes  of  the  new  school. 
Those  which  have  been  discovered  and  pubUshed  be- 
long to  Osee,  the  successor  of  Barsumas  in  the  See  of 
Nisibis,  and  bear  the  date  496;  they  must  be  substan- 
tially the  same  as  those  of  489.  In  590  they  were 
again  modified.  The  school,  a  sort  of  Catholic  uni- 
versity, was  established  in  a  monastery  and  directed 
by  a  superior  called  Rabhan,  a  title  also  given  to  the 
instructors.  The  administration  was  confided  to  a 
majordomo,  who  was  steward,  prefect  of  discipline,  and 
librarian,  but  under  the  supervision  of  a  council.  Un- 
like the  Jacobite  schools,  devoted  chiefly  to  profane 
studies,  the  school  of  Nisibis  was  above  all  a  school  of 
theology.  Tlie  two  chief  masters  were  the  instructors  in 
reading  and  in  the  interpretation  of  Holy  Scripture, 
explained  chiefly  with  the  aid  of  Theodore  of  Mopsues- 
tia.  The  course  of  studies  lasted  three  years  and  was 
entirely  gratuitous;  but  the  students  provided  for 
their  own  support.  During  their  sojourn  at  the  uni- 
versity, masters  and  students  led  a  monastic  life  under 
somewhat  special  conditions.  The  school  had  a  tri- 
bunal and  enjoyed  a  civil  personality,  being  able  to 
acquire  and  possess  all  sorts  of  property.  Its  rich  li- 
brary possessed  a  most  beautiful  collection  of  Nesto- 
rian  works;  from  its  remains Ebed-Jesus,  Metropolitan 
of  Nisibis  in  the  fourteenth  century,  composed  his 
celebrated  catalogue  of  ecclesiastical  writers.  The 
disorders  and  dissensions,  which  arose  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury in  the  school  of  Nisibis,  favoured  the  develop- 
ment of  its  rivals,  especially  that  of  Seleueia;  how- 
ever, it  did  not  really  begin  to  decline  until  after  the 
foundation  of  the  School  of  Bagdad  (832).  Among  its 
literary  celebrities  mention  should  be  made  of  its 
founder  Narses;  Abraham,  his  nephew  and  successor; 
Abraham  of  Kashgar,  the  restorer  of  monastic  life; 
John;  Babai  the  Elder;  three  catholicoi  named  Jesus- 
yab. 

Smith,  DictionaTy  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography,  II  (London, 
1870),  440;  GniDl,  GK  Staluti  delta  Scuola  di  Ninbi  in  Giornale 
della  Society  asiatica  italiana,  IV,  165-195;  Ch.^bot,  L'Bcole  de 
Nisibe.  Son  histoire,  ses  slatuts  (Paris,  1896) ;  Labouht.  Le  chris- 
tianisme  dans  Vempire  perse  (Paris,  1904),  passim;  Duval,  La 
Utteralure  syriaque  (Paris,  1899),  passim;  CniNET,  La  Turquie 
(t'Asie,  11  (Paris),  269. 

S.  Vailhe. 

Nithard,  Frankish  historian,  son  of  Angilbert  and 
Bertha,  daughter  of  Charlemagne;  d.  about  843  or  844 
in  the  wars  against  the  Normans.  Little  is  known 
about  his  early  life,  but  in  the  quarrels  between  the 
sons  of  Louis  the  Pious  he  proved  a  zealous  adherent  of 
Charles  the  Bald,  by  whose  command  he  went  as  am- 
bassador to  Lothair  in  840,  though  without  success. 
At  the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  in  841,  he  fought  bravely 
at  the  side  of  Charles,  and  afterwards  wrote,  at  the 
request  of  that  prince,  the  history  of  the  period  in  or- 
der to  establish  the  right  of  Charles  the  Bald.  This 
work,  which  usually  bears  the  title:  "De  dissensioni- 
bus  filiorum  Ludovici  Pii  ad  annum  usque  843,  seu 
Historiarum  libri  quattuor  841-843",  recites  in  rather 
uncouth  language  the  causes  of  the  quarrels  and  de- 
scribes, minutely  and  clearly,  the  unjust  behaviour  of 
Lothair,  sometimes  a  little  partially,  but  with  under- 
Standing  and  a  clear  insight  into  the  conditions.  He 
was  the  only  layman  of  his  time  who  devoted  himself 
to  the  writing  of  a  history,  and  he  reported  earnestly 
and  truthfully  what  he  himself  had  seen  and  heard. 
It  is  very  probable  that  he  was  lay  abbot  of  St. 
Riquier.  His  body  was  buried  there,  and  when  it 
was  found,  in  the  eleventh  century,  Mico,  the  poet 
of  the  abbey,  composed  a  lengthy  rhymed  epitaph. 
Nithard's  historical  work  has  been  published  by 
Migne,  in  "P.  L.",  CXVI,  45-76;  also  in  the  "Mon. 
Germ.  Hist.:  Script.",  II,  649-72,  and  in  "Scriptores 


rerum  Germanicarum  in  usum  Scholarum"  (Hanover, 
1830,  reprinted  1907).  Cierman  translations  by  Jas- 
mund  appeared  at  Berlin,  1859;  third  edition,  by  Wat- 
tenbach,  Leipzig,  1889. 

Wattenbach.  Dcutschlands  Geschichlsquellcn,  I  (Berlin,  1904), 
233-37;  Potthast,  Bibliotheca,  H  (Berlin,  1S96),  856  sq. 

Patricius  Schlager. 
Noah.     See  Noe. 

Noailles,  Lonis-ANXoiNE  de,  cardinal  and  bishop, 
b.  at  the  Chat.eau  of  Teyssiere  in  Auvergne,  France,  27 
May,  1651 ;  d.  at  Paris,  4  May,  1729.  His  father,  first 
Due  de  Noailles,  was  captain-general  of  Roussillon; 
his  mother,  Louise  Boyer,  had  been  lady-in-waiting  to 
Queen  Anne  of  Austria.  Louis  de  Noailles  studied 
theology  at  Paris  in  the  College  du  Plessis,  where 
Fcnelon  was  his  fellow-student  and  friend,  and  ob- 
tained his  doctorate  at  the  Sorbonne,  14  March,  1676. 
Already  provided  with  the  Abbey  of  Aubrac  (Diocese 
of  Rodez),  he  was,  in  March,  1679,  appointed  to  the 
Bishopric  of  Cahors,  and  in  1680  transferred  to  ChA- 
lons-sur-Marne,  to  which  see  a  peerage  was  attached. 
He  accepted  this  rapid  removal  only  at  the  formal 
command  of  Innocent  XL  In  this  office  he  showed 
himself  a  true  bishop,  occupying  himself  in  all  kinds  of 
good  works.  He  confided  his  theological  seminary  to 
the  Lazarists,  and  founded  a  petit  setninaire. 

The  regularity  of  his  conduct,  his  family  standing, 
and  the  support  of  Mme  de  Maintenon  induced  Louis 
XIV  to  make  him  Archbishop  of  Paris,  19  August, 
1695.  At  Paris  he  was  what  he  had  been  at  Ch&lons. 
Lacking  in  brilliant  qualities,  he  was  po.ssessed  of  piety, 
zeal,  and  activity.  He  was  simple  in  manners  and  ac- 
cessible to  poor  and  rich  alike.  In  1709  he  sold  his  sil- 
ver plate  to  provide  food  for  the  famine-stricken.  His 
generosity  towards  churches  was  also  remarkable,  and 
he  spent  large  sums  from  his  private  fortune  in  deco- 
rating and  improving  Notre-Dame.  The  decorum  of 
public  worship  and  the  good  conduct  of  the  clergy 
were  the  particular  objects  of  his  care.  Inspired  more 
by  customs  prevalent  in  France  than  by  the  prescrip- 
tions of  the  Council  of  Trent,  he  caused  the  Breviary, 
Missal,  and  other  liturgical  books  of  Paris  already 
published  by  his  predecessor  de  Harlay,  to  be  reprinted. 
To  these  he  added  the  Rituale,  the  Caeremoniale,  and 
a  collection  of  canons  for  the  use  of  his  Church.  By 
decrees  issued  on  his  accession  (June,  1696)  he  im- 
posed for  the  first  time  on  aspirants  to  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal state  the  obligation  of  residing  in  seminaries  for 
several  months  before  ordination.  He  organized  ec- 
clesiastical conferences  throughout  his  diocese  and 
conferences  in  moral  theology  once  a  week  at  Paris; 
priests  were  obliged  to  make  an  annual  retreat,  wise 
rules  were  drawn  up  for  the  good  conduct  and  regu- 
larity of  all  ecclesiastics,  the  Divine  service,  the  assi.st- 
ance  of  the  sick,  and  the  primary  schools.  Seminaries 
for  poor  clerics  were  encouraged  and  supported,  and 
one  was  founded  which  served  as  a  shelter  for  poor, 
old,  or  infirm  priests. 

While  still  Bishop  of  Chdlons  he  took  part  in  the 
conferences  held  at  Issy  to  examine  the  works  of  Mme 
Guyon  (q.  v.).  His  part  was  only  secondary,  but  he 
succeeded  in  having  the  accused's  entire  defence 
heard.  Shortly  afterwards  he  became  involved  in  a 
controversy  with  Fenelon  (q.  v.)  concerning  the  lat- 
ter's  "M;ixiiiic.s  rlc^s  Saints,"  which  w;is  (■(inilcnined  by 
the  Bishojjs  of  Mi-aux,  Chartres,  and  de  Nn.-iillcs  him- 
self. In  1700  he  w;i,s  made  a  cardinal  by  Innocent 
XII.  Several  months  later  de  Noailles  presided  at  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  French  clergy.  This  assem- 
bly exerted  great  inlluence  on  the  teaching  of  moral 
theology  in  France,  and  after  Bossuet  no  one  had  so 
great  a  share  as  de  Noailles  in  its  decisions.  He  be- 
came prior  of  Navarre  in  1704,  head  of  the  Sorbonne 
in  1710,  and  honorary  dean  of  the  faculty  of  law.  Ex- 
cept for  his  :illituilc  "towards  Jansenism  the  cardinal's 
career  would  be  deserving  only  of  praise.  Uc  :dway8 
denied  being  a  Jansenist,  and  condemned  the  five 


NOBILI 


86 


NOCERA 


propositions  constituting  the  essence  of  Jansenism, 
but  he  always  inclined,  both  in  dogma  and  morals,  to 
opinions  savouring  of  .lansonisni;  he  favoured  its  [)ar- 
tisans  and  was  ever  hostile  to  the  Jesuits  and  the  ad- 
versaries of  the  Jansenisls.  Shiirlly  before  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  See  of  Paris  he  had  approved  (June,  Itii):')) 
the  "Reflexions  morales"  of  Pcre  Quesnel,  an  Orato- 
rian  already  known  for  his  ardent  attacliment  to 
Jansenism  and  destined  soon  to  be  its  leader.  He  ear- 
nestly reconuneiuled  it  to  his  priests.  This  approba- 
tion was  the  source  of  all  the  cardinal's  troubles. 

Believing  themselves  thenceforth  certain  of  his  sym- 
pathy the  Janseiiists.  on  dc  Xoailles'  elevation  to  the 
bee  of  Paris,  i)ublislu'd  a  jiosthumous  work  of  de  Bar- 
cos  (q.  v.),  entitled  "Exposition  de  la  foy",  really  the 
explanation  ami  defence  of  the  Janscnistic  doctrine  of 
grace  already  condeinnctl  by  Rome.  De  Noailles  con- 
demned the  book  (20  August,  1696),  at  least  in  the  first 
part  of  his  instruction,  but  in  the  second  he  set  forth  a 
theory  on  grace  and  predestination  closely  resembling 
that  of  de  Barcos.  No  one  was  satisfied;  the  ordinance 
displeased  both  the  Jansenists  and  the  Jesuits.  The 
former  did  not  fail  to  call  attention  to  the  contradic- 
tory attitudes  of  the  Bishop  of  Chalons,  who  approved 
Quesnel,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  who  condemned 
de  Barcos.  An  anonymous  pamphlet  published  under 
the  title  "Problcmeecclesia-stique",  placed  side  by  side 
twenty-nine  identical  propositions  which  had  been 
approved  in  the  Quesnel's  work  and  condemned  in  de 
Barcos'.  Parliament  condemned  the  lampoon  to  be 
burned;  six  months  later  it  was  put  on  the  Index  (2 
June,  1699)  and  proscribed  by  the  Holy  Office. 

The  controversies  occasioned  by  the  publication  of 
the  "Cas  de  Conscience"  and  Quesnel's  "Reflexions 
morales"  (for  which  see  Jansenius,  in  Vol.  VIII, 
291-2)  involved  de  Noailles  deeply  in  the  Jansenist 
quarrel.  In  spite  of  repeated  papal  decisions  of  the 
Holy  See,  the  cardinal,  for  many  years,  would  not  ac- 
cept the  Bull  "Unigenitus".  Finally  he  yielded  in 
May,  1728,  and  on  11  October  following  published  his 
unconditioned  acceptance  of  the  Bull.  He  afterwards 
retracted  various  writings,  which  seemed  to  cast 
doubt  on  the  sincerity  of  his  submission;  he  restored  to 
the  Jesuits  the  faculties  of  which  he  had  deprived  them 
thirteen  years  before.  He  died  two  months  later,  aged 
78.  regarded  by  all  with  respect  and  esteem.  His  weak 
and  uncertain  character  caused  him  to  offend  every- 
body— Jesuits  and  Jansenists,  pope  and  king,  partisans 
and  adversaries  of  the  Bull  "  Unigenitus".  He  lacked 
discernment  in  the  choice  of  his  confidants;  he  bore  a 
great  name,  and  played  an  important  part  in  his  time, 
but  lacked  many  qualities  of  a  great  bishop.  His 
works — diocesan  ordinances  and  parochial  instruc- 
tions— are  mostly  collected  in  the  "Synodicon  ec- 
clesise  Parisiensis"  (Paris,  1777). 

De  Barth^lemy,  he  Card,  de  Noailles  d'a-prhs  aa  correspondance 
(Paris,  1886) ;  Saint-Simon,  Mimaires,  ed.  Boilisle,  II  (Paris, 
1879):  [Villefore],  Anecdotes  ou  Memoires  secrets  (s.l.,  1730): 
Lafitau,  Re/titalion  des  Anecdotes  {Aix,  1734);  Picot,  Mem,  pour 
servir  i  Vhist.  eccles.  pendaiU  le  XVI I  It  Steele  (Paris,  1853),  I,  II; 
(Guillon),  Hist.  gin.  de  I'iglise  pendant  le  XVIII'  siecte  (Beaan- 
Con,  1823);  Le  Roy,  La  France  et  Rome  de  1700  d  1715  (Paris, 
1892);  Cbou8l£,  Finelon  et  Bosauel  (Paris,  1895). 

Antoinb  Degert. 

Nobili,  Robert  de',  b.  at  Montepulciano,  Tus- 
cany, September,  1.577;  d.  at  Mylapore,  India,  in 
16.56.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1597,  at 
Naples,  and  after  a  brilliant  course  of  studies  sailed  for 
the  Indian  mission  in  October,  1604,  arriving  at  Goa, 
20  May,  1605.  After  a  short  stay  at  Cochin  and  the 
FLshery  Coast,  he  was  sent  in  November,  1606,  to 
Madura  to  study  Tamil.  Within  a  year  he  had  ac- 
quired a  complete  mastery  of  Tamil,  Telugu,  and  San- 
skrit. In  his  zeal  to  convert  the  Brahmins  he  adopted 
their  mode  of  life  and  so  had  to  cut  himself  off  com- 
pletely from  intercourse  with  his  fellow  missionaries. 
He  worked  in  Madura,  Mysore,  and  the  Karnatic  till 
old  age  and  almost  complete  blindness  compelled  him 


to  retire  to  Mylapore.  (For  an  account  of  his  mission- 
ary methods  see  M.^L.\B.in  Rites.)  De'  Nobili  trans- 
lated into  Sanskrit  or  compo.'icfl  therein  niiuiy  prayers 
:uul  several  longer  works,  esprcially  an  abridgtririit  of 
Christian  Doctrine  and  a  life  of  Our  Lady,  in  Sanskrit 
verse.  Nearly  all  these  productions  were  lost  during 
his  imprisonment  in  Madura  (1()39-41).  His  principal 
work  in  Tamil  is  his  "Larger  Catechism",  in  four  hooks, 
printed  after  his  death  (partly  reprinted,  Trichinojioly, 
1891-1906).  It  is  a  course  of  tlieology  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  the  country.  In  addition  lie  wrote:  "A 
Treatise  on  the  Eternal  Life",  "A  Dialogue  on  the 
Faith",  "A  Disproof  of  Transmigration",  "A  Man- 
ual of  Rules  of  Perfection",  numerous  hymns  and 
several  instructions  not  yet  edited,  two  small  cate- 
chisms still  in  actual  use,  "The  Science  of  the  Soul", 
and  many  prayers.  He  translated  into  Telugu  several 
of  his  Tamil  works,  among  them  the  two  small  cate- 
chisms. In  Tamil  and  Telugu  he  enriched  the  vocabu- 
lary with  appropriate  Christian  terms. 

Bertrand,  La  Mission  da  Maduri  (Paris,  1847);  Lettres  (di- 
fiantes.  Collection  Martin^  II,  263-60;  for  the  pseudo-Veda,  or 
rather  paeudo-Veda  hoax,  see  Asiatic  Researches,  XIV  (London, 
1818).  35;  pseudo-Vedas  seem  clearly  a  non-Christian  production: 
for  diatribes  on  de'  Nobili,  see  D'Orsay,  Portuguese  Discoveries 
(London,  1893),  254-58. 

J.  Castet.s. 

Noble,  Daniel,  phy.sician,  b.  14  Jan.,  1810;  d.  at 
Manchester,  12  Jan.,  1885.  He  was  the  son  of  Mary 
Dewhurst  and  Edward  Noble  of  Preston,  a  descendant 
of  an  old  Yorkshire  Catholic  family.  Apprenticed  to 
a  Preston  surgeon  named  Thomas  Moore,  Noble  was 
in  time  admitted  a  member  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  and  a  licentiate  of  Apothecaries  Hall.  In 
1834  he  began  to  practise  in  Manchester,  and  soon 
showed  the  special  interest  in  mental  disease  which 
afterwards  distinguished  his  career.  In  the  following 
year  he  published  his  first  work,  "An  Essay  of  the 
Means,  physical  and  moral,  of  estimating  Human 
Character",  the  tendency  of  which  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  he  is  described  as  President  of  the  Manches- 
ter Phrenological  Society.  His  practise  increased, 
and  in  1840  he  married  Frances  Mary  Louisa  Ward,  of 
Dublin;  they  had  eight  children,  one  of  them  Frances, 
the  novelist.  Cardinal  Wiseman  stood  sponsor  to  his 
eldest  child.  From  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  he 
received  the  degrees  of  M.D.  and  M.A.,  and  in  1867  he 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians.  His 
other  works  are: — "Facts  and  Observations  relative 
to  the  influence  of  manufactures  upon  health  and 
life"  (London,  1843);  "The  Brain  and  its  Physiology, 
a  critical  disquisition  of  the  methods  of  determining 
relations  subsisting  between  the  structure  and  func- 
tions of  the  encephalon"  (London,  1846);  "Elements 
of  Psychological  Medicine:  an  Introduction  to  the 
practical  study  of  Insanity"  (London,  1853-55); 
"Three  Lectures  on  the  Correlation  of  Psychology 
and  Physiology"  (London,  1854) ;  "The  Human  Mind 
in  its  relations  with  the  Brain  and  Nervous  System" 
(London,  1858);  "On  certain  popular  fallacies  con- 
cerning the  production  of  epidemic  diseases"  (Man- 
chester, 1859);  "On  the  fluctuations  in  the  death- 
rate"  (Manchester,  1863);  "Evanescent  Protestantism 
and  Nascent  Atheism,  the  modern  religious  problem  " 
(London,  1877);  "On  causes  reducing  the  effects 
of  sanitary  reform"  (Manchester,  1878)  and  several 
contributions  to  various  medical  journals,  the  best- 
known  of  which  was  a  paper  called  "Mesmerism  True 
— Mesmerism  False",  which  was  translated  into  Ger- 
man and  Dutch. 

GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath..  V,  181. 

Edwin  Burton. 
Nocera,  Diocese  op  (Nucebinensis),  in  Peru- 
gia, Umbria,  Italy,  near  the  sources  of  the  Tina, 
famous  for  its  mineral  waters,  especially  the  Fonte 
Angelica.  According  to  a  legend,  the  first  Bishop  of 
Nocera  was  St.  Crispoldus,  a  disciple  of  the  Apostles, 
but  his  Germanic  name  renders  this  doubtful;  more 


NOCBRA 


87 


NOCTURNS 


credible  is  the  tradition  of  the  martyrdom  of  SS.  Felix, 
Constance,  and  Felicissimus.  The  Bishops  Felix,  to 
whom  Pope  Innocent  addressed  a  letter  in  402,  and 
Coelius  Laurentius,  the  competitor  of  Pope  Symma- 
chus  (498),  were  not  Umbrian  prelates,  but  bishops  of 
Nocera,  near  Naples  (Savio,  "Civ.  Cattol.",  1907). 
The  first  authentic  Bishop  was  Liutardus  (824) ;  other 
prelates  were  Blessed  Rinaldo  d'Antignano  (1258)  and 
Blessed  Filippo  Oderisi  (1285),  monks  of  Fonte  Avel- 
lana;  Blessed  Alessandro  Vincioli,  O.M.  (1363);  An- 
tonio Bolognini  (1438)  restored  the  cathedral;  Varino 
Favorino  (1514),  anotedhumanist;  Gerolano  Maunelli 
(1545),  founder  of  the  seminary;  Mario  Battaglini 
(1690),  diocesan  historian;  Francesco  Luigi  Piervisani 
(1800),  exiled  in  1809  because  he  refused  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Napoleon.  It  is  immediately  dependent 
on  Rome,  with  82  parishes;  59,731  inhabitants;  7  re- 
ligious houses  of  men  and  9  of  women. 

Cappelletti,  Le  CAtese  d'/faiio.  VI.  U.  BenIGNI. 

Nocera  del  Pagani  (of  the  pagans),  Diocese  op 
(XrcEuix  I'ah  wonr.M),  in  Salerno,  Italy,  at  the  foot 
of  .Mt.  Alhinid.  im  the  Sarno  River;  it  is  the  Nuceria 
Alfaterna  of  the  Xuvkrinum  coins,  captured  by  Fa- 
bius  Maximus  in  the  Samnite  War  (.307),  and  sacked 
by  Hannibal  (215). 
The  appellation  "of 
the  pagans"  dates 
probably  from  the 
ninth  century,  be- 
iau.se  of  a  Saracen 
riilony  established 
there  with  the  con- 
n  i  V  a  n  c  e  of  the 
rXikes  of  Naples.  In 
1  132  King  Roger 
nearly  destroyed 
the  town  because  it 
took  part  with  In- 
nocent II,  and  in 
1382  Charles  of  Du- 
ra zzo  besieged 
there  Urban  VI 
Nocera  is  the  birth- 
place of  Hugo  de 
Paganis  (Payus), 
one  of  the  founders 
of  theTemplars;St. 
Ludovico,  Bishop  of 
Tolosa,  a  son  of 
Charles  II  of  An- 
jou;  Tommaso  de  Acerno,  historian  of  Urban  VI; 
and  the  painter  Francesco  Solimena.  St.  Alphonsus 
Liguori  founded  his  order  there.  At  Nocera  is  the 
sanctuary  of  Mater  Domini,  which  contains  the  tomb 
of  Charles  I  of  Anjou;  the  ancient  church  was  rebuilt 
in  the  eleventh  century,  and  given  to  some  hermits; 
Urban  VIII  gave  it  to  the  Basihans,  and  when  these 
were  driven  away  in  1809  and  1829,  it  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  Franciscans.  Among  its  bishops  were 
St.  Priscus,  the  first  bishop,  not  St.  Priscus  of  Nola; 
and  Ccelius  Laurentius,  competitor  of  Symmachus 
(498).  In  1260  the  assassination  of  the  bishop  caused 
the  suppression  of  the  diocese,  but  Urban  VI  restored 
it  in  1386.  Later  bishops  were  Giovanni  Cerretani 
(1498),  a  jurist;  the  historian  Paul  Jovius  (1528),  suc- 
ceeded by  his  nephew  Julius  and  his  great-nephew 
Paul,  who  rebuilt  the  episcopal  palace;  Simone  Luna- 
doro  (1602),  diocesan  historian.  United  to  the  See 
of  Cava  in  1818,  it  was  re-established  in  18.34.  A 
suffragan  of  Salerno,  it  has  28  parishes;  60,350  inhab- 
itants; 4  religious  houses  of  men,  and  11  of  women;  a 
school  for  boys,  and  5  for  girls. 

,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  XX.  U.  BeNIGNI. 


Paolo   Giovio.    Bishop    of    Nocera 

DEI  Paoani  (1528) 

Painter  Unlmown,  UfEzi,  Florence 


Noctums  (Noclurni  or  Nocturna),  a  very  old  term 
applied  to  night  Offices.     Tertullian  speaks  of  noc- 


turnal gatherings  (Ad.  Uxor.,  II,  iv);  St.  Cyprian,  of 
the  nocturnal  hours,  "nulla  sint  horis  nocturnis  pre- 
cum  damna,  nulla  orationum  pigra  et  ignava  dispen- 
dia"  (De  orat.,  vcJx).  In  the  life  of  Melania  the 
Younger  is  found  the  expression  "nocturne  honis", 
"nocturna  tempora"  (Anal.  BoUand.,  VIII,  1889,  jip. 
49  sq.).  In  these  passages  the  term  signifies  night 
prayer  in  general,  and  seems  synonymous  with  the 
word  vigilias.  It  is  not  accurate,  then,  to  assume  that 
the  present  division  of  Matins  into  three  Nocturns  rep- 
resents three  distinct  Offices  recited  during  the  night 
in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church.  Durandus  of  Mende 
(Rationale,  III,n.  17)  and  others  who  follow  him  assert 
that  the  early  Christians  rose  thrice  in  the  night  to 
pray;  hence  the  present  division  into  three  Nocturns 
(cf.  Beleth,  Rupert,  and  other  authors  cited  in  the 
bibliography).  Some  early  Christian  writers  speak  of 
three  vigils  in  the  night,  as  Methodius  or  St.  Jerome 
(Methodius,  "Symposion",  V,  ii,  in  P.  G.,  XVIII, 
100);  but  the  first  was  evening  prayer,  or  prayer  at 
nightfall,  corresponding  practically  to  our  Vespers  or 
Complines;  the  second,  midnight  prayer,  specifically 
called  Vigil;  the  third,  a  prayer  at  dawn,  correspond- 
ing to  the  Office  of  Lauds.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the 
Office  of  the  Vigils,  and  consequently  of  the  Nocturns, 
was  a  single  Office,  recited  without  interruption  at 
midnight.  All  the  old  texts  alluding  to  this  Office  (see 
Matins;  Vigil)  testify  to  this.  Moreover,  it  does 
not  seem  practical  to  assume  that  anyone,  considering 
the  length  of  the  Office  in  those  days,  could  have  risen 
to  pray  at  three  difTerent  times  during  the  night,  be- 
sides joining  in  the  two  Offices  of  eventide  and  dawn. 

If  it  is  not  yet  possible  to  assign  exactly  the  date  of 
the  origin  of  the  three  Nocturns,  or  to  account  for  the 
significance  of  the  division,  some  more  or  less  probable 
conjectures  may  be  made.  In  the  earliest  period  there 
was  as  yet  no  question  of  a  division  in  the  Office.  The 
oldest  Vigils,  in  as  far  as  they  signify  an  Office,  com- 
prised certain  psalms,  chanted  or  sung  either  as  re- 
sponses or  as  antiphons,  intermingled  with  prayers 
recited  aloud,  or  interrupted  by  a  few  moments'  medi- 
tation and  readings  from  the  Old  or  the  New  Testa- 
ment. On  certain  days  the  Vigil  included  the  celebra- 
tion of  Mass. 

It  was  during  the  second  period,  probably  in  the 
fourth  century,  that  to  break  the  monotony  of  this 
long  night  prayer  the  custom  of  dividing  it  into  three 
parts  was  introduced.  Cassian  in  speaking  of  the  sol- 
emn Vigils  mentions  three  divisions  of  this  Office  (De 
coenob.  instit..  Ill,  viii,  in  P.  L.,  XLIX,  144).  We 
have  here,  we  think,  the  origin  of  the  Nocturns;  or  at 
least  it  is  the  earliest  mention  of  them  we  possess.  In 
the  " Peregrinatio  ad  loca  sancta",  the  Office  of  the 
Vigils,  either  for  week-days  or  for  Sundays,  is  an  unin- 
terrupted one,  and  shows  no  evidence  of  any  divi- 
sion (cf.  Cabrol,  "Etude  surLa  Peregrinatio  Sylvia ", 
Paris,  1895,  pp.  37  and  53).  A  little  later  St.  Benedict 
speaks  with  greater  detail  of  this  division  of  the  Vigils 
into  two  Nocturns  for  ordinary  days,  and  tlirec  for 
Sundays  and  feast-days  with  six  [isalms  and  lessons 
for  the  first  two  Nocturns,  three  canticles  and  lessons 
for  the  third:  this  is  exactly  the  structure  of  the  Noc- 
turns in  the  Benedictine  Office  to-daj-,  and  practically 
in  the  Roman  Office  (Regula,  ix,  x,  .\i).  The  very  ex- 
pression "  Nocturn",  to  signify  the  night  Office,  is  used 
by  him  twice  (xv,  xvi).  He  also  uses  the  term  Noc- 
iiirna  laiis  in  speaking  of  the  Office  of  the  Vigils.  The 
proof  which  E.  Warren  tries  to  draw  from  the  ".Xn- 
tiphonary  of  Bangor"  to  show  that  in  the  Celtic 
Church,  according  to  a  custom  older  than  the  Bene- 
dictino-Roman  practice,  there  were  three  separate 
Nocturns  or  Vigils,  is  based  on  a  confusion  of  the 
three  Offices,  "  Initium  noctis",  "Nocturna",  and 
"Matutina",  which  are  not  the  three  Nocturns,  btit 
the  Office  of  Eventide,  of  the  Vigil,  and  of  Lauds  (cf. 
The  Tablet,  16  Dec,  1893,  p.  972;  and  Biiumer- 
Biron,  infra,  1, 263, 264); 


NOE 


88 


NOE 


The  division  of  the  Vinils  into  two  or  three  Noc- 
turns  in  the  Roman  Churrli  dates  back  at  least  to  the 
fifth  century.  We  may  conjcoturo  that  St.  Benedict, 
who,  in  the  composition  of  the  iiKiiia.stic  cursus,  fol- 
lows the  arranjicmrnt  of  tlic  Roman  Office  so  closely, 
must  have  been  inspired  equally  by  the  Roman  cus- 
toms in  the  composition  of  his  ()ffice.  Whatever 
doubt  there  may  be  as  to  priority,  it  is  certain  that  the 
Roman  system  bears  a  strong  analogy  to  that  of  the 
Nocturns  in  the  Benedictine  Office  even  at  the  present 
time,  and  the  differences  subsisting  are  almost  en- 
tirely the  result  of  transformations  or  additions,  which 
the  Roman  Oflice  has  been  subjected  to  in  the  course 
of  time.  On  Sundays  and  feast-days  there  are  three 
Nocturns,  as  in  the  Benedictine  Office.  Each  Noc- 
turn  comprises  three  psalms,  and  the  first  Nocturn  of 
Sunday  has  three  groups  of  four  psalms  each.  The 
ferial  days  have  only  one  Nocturn  consisting  of  twelve 
psalms;  each  Nocturn  has,  as  usual,  three  lessons.  For 
the  variations  which  have  occurred  in  the  course  of 
time  in  the  composition  of  the  Nocturns,  and  for  the 
different  usages  see  M.itins.  These  different  usages 
are  recorded  by  Dom  Martcne.  For  the  terms,  "  Noc- 
tumales  Libri",  "Nocturnse",  see  Du  Cange,  "Glos- 
sarium  infim;e  latinitatis",  s.  vv. 

See  Matins;  Vioil;  C.issi.in,  Decmnoh.  instil.,  II,  x;  Beleth, 
Rationale,  xx;  Liber  Diurnus,  P.  L.,  CV,  71;  DuH.vNDua  or 
Mexde,  Rationale,  III,  n.  7;  Rupert,  De  din.  offidis,  I.  x;  Mar- 
t£:ne,  De  antiquis  Monach.  rit.,  IV,  4  sq.;  Zaccaria,  Onomasticon, 
50,  51;  B.vUMER-BlRON.  Histoire  du  Briviaire,  I  (Paris,  1905).  74 
Bq.,  78,  99,  263,  338-361,  etc. 

F.  Cabrol. 

Noe  [Heb.  nj  (Noah),  "rest";  Gr.  Nwe;  Lat. 
Noc],  the  ninth  patriarch  of  the  Sethite  line,  grandson 
of  i\lathusala  and  son  of  Jjamech,  who  with  his  family 
was  saved  from  the  Deluge  and  thus  became  the  sec- 
ond father  of  the  human  race  (Gen.,  v,  2.5 — ix,  29). 
The  name  Noah  was  given  to  him  because  of  his  fa- 
ther's expectation  regarding  him.  "  This  same",  said 
Lamech  on  naming  him,  "shall  comfort  us  from  the 
works  and  labours  of  our  hands  on  [or  more  correctly 
"from",  i.  e.  which  come  from]  the  earth,  which  the 
Lord  hath  cursed."  Most  commentators  consider 
Lamech's  words  as  the  expression  of  a  hope,  or  as  a 
prophecy,  that  the  child  would  in  some  way  be  instru- 
mental in  removing  the  curse  pronounced  against 
Adam  (Gen.,  iii,  17  sqq.).  Others  rather  fancifully 
Bee  in  them  a  reference  to  Noe's  future  discovery  of 
wine,  which  cheers  the  heart  of  man;  whilst  others 
again,  with  greater  probability,  take  them  as  ex- 
pressing merely  a  natural  hope  on  the  part  of  Lamech 
that  his  son  would  become  the  support  and  comfort  of 
his  parents,  and  enable  them  to  enjoy  rest  and  peace 
in  their  later  years.  Amid  the  general  corruption 
which  resulted  from  the  marriages  of  "the  sons  of 
God"  with  "the  daughters  of  men"  (Gen.,  vi,  2  sqq.), 
that  is  of  the  Sethites  with  Cainite  women,  "Noe 
was  a  just  and  perfect  man  in  his  generations"  and 
"walked  with  God"  (vi,  9).  Hence,  when  God  de- 
creed to  destroy  men  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  he 
"found  grace  before  the  Lord".  According  to  the 
common  interpretation  of  Gen.,  vi,  3,  Noe  first  re- 
ceived divine  warning  of  the  impending  destruction 
one  hundred  and  twenty  years  before  it  occurred,  and 
therefore  when  he  was  four  hundred  and  eighty  years 
old  (cf.  vii,  11);  he  does  not  seem,  however,  to  have 
received  at  this  time  any  details  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  catastrophe.  After  he  reached  the  age  of  five 
hundred  years  three  sons,  Sem,  Cham,  and  Japheth, 
were  born  to  him  (vi,  10).  These  had  grown  to  man- 
hood and  had  taken  wives,  when  Noe  was  informed 
of  God's  intention  to  destroy  men  by  a  flood,  and  re- 
ceived directions  to  build  an  ark  in  which  he  and  his 
wife,  his  sons  and  their  wives,  and  representatives, 
male  and  female,  of  the  various  kinds  of  animals  and 
birds,  were  to  be  saved  fvi,  1.3-21).  How  long  before 
the  Deluge  this  revelation  was  imparted  to  him,  it  is 
impossible  to  say;  it  can  hardly  have  been  more  than 


,  seventy-five  years  (cf.  vii,  11),  and  probably  was  con- 
siderably less. 

Noe  had  announced  the  impending  judgment  anfl 
had  exhorted  to  repentance  (II  Pet.,  ii,  h),  but  no 
heed  was  given  to  his  words  (Matt.,  xxiv,  :{7  sqq.; 
Luke  xvii,  2(),  27;  I  Pet.,  iii,  20),  and,  wIkm  the  fatal 
time  arrived,  no  one  except  Noe's  immediate  family 
found  refuge  in  the  ark.  Seven  days  before  the  waters 
began  to  cover  the  earth,  Noe  was  commanded  to 
enter  the  ark  with  his  wife,  his  three  sons  and  their 
wives,  and  to  take  with  him  seven  pairs  of  all  clean, 
and  two  pairs  of  all  unclean  animals  and  birds  (vii, 
1-4).  It  has  been  objected  that,  even  though  the 
most  liberal  value  is  allowed  for  the  cubit,  the  ark 
would  have  been  too  small  to  lodge  at  least  two  pairs 
of  every  species  of  animal  and  bird.  But  there  can 
be  no  difficulty  if,  as  is  now  generally  admitted,  the 
Deluge  was  not  geographically  universal  (see  Deluge; 
Ark).  After  leaving  the  ark  Noe  built  an  altar,  and 
taking  of  all  clean  animals  and  birds,  offered  holo- 
causts upon  it.  God  accepted  the  sacrifice,  and  made 
a  covenant  with  Noe,  and  through  him  with  all  man- 
kind, that  He  would  not  waste  the  earth  or  destroy 
man  by  another  deluge.  The  rainbow  would  for  all 
times  be  a  sign  and  a  reminder  of  this  covenant. 
He  further  renewed  the  blessing  which  He  had  pro- 
nounced on  Adam  (Gen.,  i,  28),  and  confirmed  the 
dominion  over  animals  which  He  had  granted  to  man. 
In  virtue  of  this  dominion  man  may  use  animals  for 
food,  but  the  flesh  may  not  be  eaten  with  the  bloorl 
(viii,  20-ix,  17).  Noe  now  gave  himself  to  agricul- 
ture, and  planted  a  vineyard.  Being  unacquainted 
with  the  effects  of  fermented  grape-juice,  he  drank 
of  it  too  freely  and  was  made  drunk.  Cham  found  his 
father  lying  naked  in  his  tent,  and  made  a  jest  of 
his  condition  before  his  brothers;  these  reverentlj' 
covered  him  with  a  mantle.  On  hearing  of  the  oc- 
currence Noe  cursed  Chanaan,  as  Cham's  heir,  and 
blessed  Sem  and  Japheth.  He  lived  three  hundred 
and  fifty  years  after  the  Deluge,  and  died  at  the  age  of 
nine  hundred  and  fifty  years  (ix,  20-29).  In  the  later 
books  of  Scripture  Noe  is  represented  as  the  model  of 
the  just  man  (Ecclus.,  xliv,  17;  Ezech.,  xiv,  14,  20), 
and  as  an  exemplar  of  faith  (Heb.,  xi,  7).  In  the 
Fathers  and  tradition  he  is  considered  as  the  type 
and  figure  of  the  Saviour,  because  through  him  the 
human  race  was  saved  from  destruction  and  recon- 
ciled with  God  (Ecclus.,  xUv,  17, 18).  Moreover,  as  he 
built  the  ark,  the  only  means  of  salvation  from  the 
Deluge,  so  Christ  established  the  Church,  the  only 
means  of  salvation  in  the  spiritual  order. 

The  Babylonian  account  of  the  Deluge  in  many 
points  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Bible.  Four  cune- 
iform recensions  of  it  have  been  discovered,  of  which, 
however,  three  are  only  short  fragments.  The  com- 
plete story  is  found  in  the  Gilgamesh  epic  (Tablet  xi) 
discovered  by  G.  Smith  among  the  ruins  of  the  library 
of  Assurbanipal  in  1872.  Another  version  is  given 
by  Berosus.  In  the  Gilgamesh  poem  the  hero  of  the 
story  is  Ut-napishtim  (or  §it-napishti,  as  some  read 
it),  surnamed  Atra-hasis  "the  very  clever";  in  two 
of  the  fragments  he  is  simply  styled  Atra-hasis,  which 
name  is  also  found  in  Berosus  under  the  Greek  form 
Xisuthros.  The  story  in  brief  is  as  follows:  A  council 
of  the  gods  having  decreed  to  destroy  men  by  a  flood, 
the  god  Ea  warns  Ut-napishtim,  and  bids  him  buihl 
a  ship  in  which  to  save  himself  and  the  seed  of  all 
kinds  of  life.  Ut-napishtim  builds  the  ship  (of  which, 
according  to  one  version,  Ea  traces  the  plan  on  tlie 
ground),  and  places  in  it  his  family,  his  dependents, 
artisans,  and  domestic  as  well  as  wild  animals,  after 
which  he  shuts  the  door.  The  storm  lasts  six  days; 
on  the  seventh  the  flood  begins  to  subside.  The  ship 
steered  by  the  helmsman  Puzur-Bel  lands  on  Mf. 
Ni§ir.  After  seven  days  Ut-napishtim  sends  forth  a 
dove  and  a  swallow,  which,  finding  no  resting-place 
for  their  feet  return  to  the  ark,  and  then  a  raven,  which 


NOEL 


89 


NOLA 


feeds  on  dead  bodies  and  does  not  return.  On  leaving 
the  ship,  Ut-napistim  offers  a  sacrifice  to  the  gods, 
who  smell  the  goodly  odour  and  gather  like  flies  over 
the  sacrificer.  He  and  his  wife  are  then  admitted 
among  the  gods.  The  story  as  given  by  Berosus 
comes  .somewhat  nearer  to  the  Biblical  narrative. 
Because  of  the  striking  resemblances  between  the 
two  many  maintain  that  the  Biblical  account  is  de- 
rived from  the  Babylonian.  But  the  differences 
are  so  many  and  so  important  that  this  view  must  be 
pronounced  untenable.  The  Scriptural  story  is  a 
parallel  and  independent  form  of  a  common  tradition. 
HuMMELAUER,  CoTtim,  in  Geii.  (Paris,  1895),  257  sqq.;  Hoberg. 
Die  Genesis  CFreiburg,  1908),  74  sqq.;  Selbst,  Handbuch  zur 
bibl.  Gesch.  (Freiburg.  1910),  200  sqq.;  Skinner,  Critic,  and 
Exeg.  Comm.  on  Gen.  (New  York,  1910),  133  aqq.;  Dillmann,  Gen- 
esis, tr.,  I  (Edinburgh,  1897),  228  sqq.;  Dhorme,  Textes  religieux 
assyro-babyl.  (Paris,  1907),  100  sqq.;  ViGOuHOui,  La  bible  el  les 
decouv.  mod,,  I  (6th  ed.,  Paris,  1896),  309  sqq.;  Schrader,  Die 
KeilinschriSt,  u.  das  A.  T.  (2nd  ed.,  Giessen.  1882),  55  sqq.;  Jen- 
sen in  Schrader.  Keilinschrifll.  Bibliolhek,  VI,  i  (Berlin,  1889 — ), 
22S  stiq.;  Vigouroux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  a.  vv.  Ararat,  Arche,  and 
Noe:  HlLPHECHT.  The  earliest  version  of  the  Babylonian  deluge  story 
(Philadelphia.  1910). 

F.  Bechtel. 
Noel  Alexandre.    See  Alexander  Natalis. 
Noetus  and  Noetianism.    See  Monarchians. 

Nogaret,  Gdillaume  de,  b.  about  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century  at  St.  Felix-en-Lauragais;  d. 
1314;  he  was  one  of  the  chief  counsellors  of  Philip  the 
Fair,  of  France  (12S.5-1.314),  said  to  be  descended  from 
an  Albigensian  family  and  was  a  protege  of  the  lawyer, 
Pierre  Flotte.  He  studied  law,  winning  a  doctorate 
and  a  professorship,  and  was  appointed,  in  1294,  royal 
judge  of  the  seneschal's  court  of  Beaucaire.  In  1299 
the  title  of  knight  was  conferred  on  him  by  Philip  the 
Fair.  Imbued,  from  his  study  of  Roman  law,  with 
the  doctrine  of  the  absolute  supremacy  of  the  king, 
no  scruple  restrained  Nogaret  when  the  royal  power 
was  in  question,  and  his  influence  was  apparent  in  the 
struggle  between  Philip  and  Boniface  VIII.  In  1300 
Philip  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  the  Holy  See  to  ex- 
cuse his  alliance  with  Albert  of  Austria,  usurper  of 
the  Empire.  Nogaret,  according  to  his  own  account, 
remonstrated  with  the  pope,  who  replied  in  vigorous 
language.  After  the  death  of  Pierre  Flotte  at  the 
the  battle  of  Courtrai  (1302),  Nogaret  became  chief 
adviser  and  evil  genius  of  the  king.  On  the  publica- 
tion of  the  Bull  "Unam  Sanctam"  he  was  charged 
with  directing  the  conflict  against  the  Holy  See  (Feb- 
ruary, 1303).  At  the  Assembly  of  the  Louvre  (12 
March,  1303),  he  bitterly  attacked  the  pope,  and  later, 
allying  himself  with  the  pope's  Italian  enemies  (the 
Florentine  banker,  Musciatto  de  Franzesi,  and 
Sciarra  Colonna,  the  head  of  the  Ghibelline  party), 
he  surprised  Boniface  in  his  palace  at  Anagni  and 
arrested  him  after  subjecting  him  to  outrageous  treat- 
ment (7  September).  But  the  inhabitants  rescued 
the  pope,  whose  death  (11  October),  saved  Nogaret 
from  severe  retribution.  Early  in  1304,  at  Langue- 
doc,  he  explained  his  actions  to  the  king,  and  received 
considerable  projjcrty  as  recompense.  Philip  even 
sent  him  with  an  embassy  to  the  new  pope,  Benedict 
XI,  who  refused  to  absolve  him  from  the  excommuni- 
cation he  had  incurred.  Clement  V,  however,  ab- 
solved him  in  1311. 

Nogaret  played  a  decisive  part  in  the  trial  of  the 
Templars.  On  22  September,  1.307,  at  Maubuisson, 
Philip  made  him  keeper  of  the  seal  and  the  same 
day  the  Royal  Council  issued  a  warrant  for  the  arrest 
of  the  Templars,  which  was  executed  on  12  October; 
Nogaret  himself  arrested  the  Knights  of  the  'Temple 
in  Paris  and  drew  up  the  proclamation  justifying  the 
crime.  It  was  he  who  directed  all  the  measures 
that  ended  in  the  execution  of  Jacques  de  Molai 
and  the  principal  Templars  (1314).  The  same  year 
Nogaret,  who  displayed  untiring  energy  in  drawing 
up  the  documents  by  which  he  sought  to  ruin  his 
adversaries,  undertook  to  justify  the  condemnation 


of  the  Templars  by  annoimcing  the  plans  for  a  new  cru- 
sade, the  expenses  of  which  were  to  be  defrayed  by  the 
confiscated  goods  of  the  Order.  In  this  Latin  docu- 
ment, addressed  to  Clement  V,  the  author  attributes 
the  failure  of  the  crusades  to  the  Templars  and  de- 
clares that  Philip  the  Fair  alone  could  direct  them 
successfully,  provided  that  he  obtained  the  help  of 
all  the  Christian  princes  to  secure  the  funds  required 
for  the  expedition ;  all  the  property  of  the  Templars 
should  be  given  to  the  king,  likewise  all  legacies  left 
for  the  crusades  and  all  the  benefices  in  Christendom 
should  be  taxed.  The  other  military  orders,  the  ab- 
beys, the  churches  should  retain  only  the  property 
necessary  for  their  support,  the  surplus  should  be 
given  for  the  Crusade.  No  one  took  this  document 
seriously,  it  was  probably  intended  as  a  solemn  hoax. 
Nogaret's  influence  may  be  seen  in  the  trial  for  sorcery 
against  Guichard,  bishop  of  Troyes  (1308).  A  zealous 
but  unscrupulous  royal  partisan,  a  fierce  and  bitter 
enemy,  Nogaret  died  before  Philip  the  Fair,  at  the 
time  when  the  regime  he  had  devoted  himself  to 
establishing  was  beginning  to  be  attacked  on  all  sides. 

Hist,  de  Languedoc,  IV,  551-4;  Holtzmann.  Wilhdm  v.  Nogaret 
(Freiburg,  1898);  Boutaric,  Notices  et  extmi!  .h  .'.  >  ,un,  nts  ini- 
dits  relatifs  d  Vhist.  de  France  sous  Phili/'j  ■  /'.  I,  i  m,  Not. 
et  extraits  des  manuscrits  Bibl.  Nat.,  XX.  ii  -  :  1  '  i  i  i:[i-  and 
Renan,  Etude  sur  la  politique  religieuse  du  ;.-/',  /.  /'/,///;<;i,  le  Bel 
(Paris.  1899);  cl.  Hist.  litt.  de  la  France,  X.\V1-.\.\VU;  Kigadlt, 
Le  proems  de  Guichard,  evegue  de  Troyes  (Paris,  1896).  Inventory 
of  Nogaret's  papers  is  in  the  Biblioth^que  Nationale,  Collect. 
Dupuy  635,  f.  101;  the  list  of  his  political  writings  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Hist.  litt.  de  la  France,  XXVII,  359-64. 

Louis  Brehier. 

Nola,  Diocese  of  (Nolana),  suffragan  of  Naples. 
The  city  of  Nola  in  the  Italian  Province  of  Caserta,  in 
Campania,  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Etrus- 
cans or  by  Chalcideans  from  Cuma?.  On  the  most 
ancient  coins  it  is  called  Nuvlana.  In  the  Samnite 
War  (311  B.  c.)  the  town  was  taken  by  the  Romans, 
in  the  Punic  War  it  was  twice  besieged  by  Hannibal 
(215  and  214),  and  on  both  occasion.s  splendidly  de- 
fended by  Marcellus.  In  the  war  willi  the  Ahirsi,  the 
latter  took  Nola,  in  90b.  c,  but,  notwilhstamling  their 
brilliant  defence  of  the  city,  it  was  retaken  from  them  in 
the  year  89,  and  its  recapture  put  an  end  to  that  war. 
The  city  was  sacked  by  Spartacus,  for  which  reason 
Augustus  and  Vespasian  sent  colonies  there.  In  a.  d. 
410  it  was  sacked  by  Alaric,  in  453  by  the  Vandals,  in 
806  and  again  in  904  by  the  Saracens.  From  the  time  of 
Charles  I  of  Anjou  to  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, Nola  was  a  feudal  possession  of  the  Orsini.  The 
ijattle  of  Nola  (1459)  is  famous  for  the  clever  stratagem 
by  which  John  of  Anjou  defeated  Alfonso  of  Aragon. 
Nola  furnished  a  considerable  portion  of  the  antiquities 
in  the  museum  of  Naples,  especially  beautiful  Greek 
vases.  In  the  seminary  there  is  a  collection  of  ancient 
inscriptions,  among  which  are  some  Oscan  tablets. 
The  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  and  other  ancient  re- 
mains are  yet  to  be  .se<>n  in  this  city,  where  the  Em- 
peror Augustus,  whodied  there,  h;id  a  famous  temple. 
Nola  was  the  birthplace  of  Giordano  Bruno,  of  Luigi 
Tausillo,  the  philosopher  and  i)oet,  of  the  sculptor 
Giovanni  Merliano,  whose  work  is  w(^ll  repres(>nted  in 
the  cathedral,  and  of  the  phy.sician  Ambrogio  Leo. 

The  ancient  Christian  memories  of  Nola  are  con- 
nected with  the  iieiglibouring  Cimitile,  the  name  of 
which  recalls  the  site  of  an  ancient  cemetery.  There 
is  the  basilica  of  St.  l''elix,  the  iniirtvr.  built,  and  poet- 
ic:dlv  described  bv  St,  I'aulinus,  liisli(i|)  of  the  city, 
whci'slmws  that  no  s:inctuarv,  ;ifler  the  tombs  of  the 
Holy  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  was  visited  by  :ts  many 
pilgrims  as  came  to  this  shrine.  St .  I'clix,  who  lived 
between  the  middle  of  t  hi!  second  ceni  ury  and  the  mid- 
dle of  the  third,  was  the  first  Bisho])  of  Nola.  The  city 
has  several  other  martyrs,  among  them,  Sts.  Itepara- 
tus,  Faustillus,  and  Acacius,  companions  of  St .  Janu- 
arius,  besides  St.  Felix,  confessor.  Other  bishops  of 
Nola  were  St.  Marinus  (about  the  year  300);  St.  Pris- 
cus,  who  died  in  328  or, -according  to  Mommaen,  in 


NOLA 


90 


NOMINALISM 


623:  St.  Quodvultdeus,  who  died  in  387  and  was  suc- 
ceeaed  by  St.  Paulinus.  The  body  of  the  last-named 
Baint  wa.<  taken  to  Benevento  in  S'.'i'.),  ami  in  the  vear 
1000  was  given  to  Otho  III  by  the  iicciplc  of  Bene- 
vento in  exchange  for  the  body  of  .St.  ISartholomew;  in 
190!)  it  was  restored  to  Nola.  In  the  hftli  century  the 
archpresbytcr  St.  -Vdeodatus  flourished  at  Nola;  his 
metrical  epitaph  has  been  preserved.  In  4.S4  Joannes 
Taloias.  Orthodox  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  having 
been  driven  from  his  diocese,  was  maile  Bishop  of 
Nola.  It  was  St.  Paulinus  III  (c.  505)  who  became  a 
slave  to  free  a  widow's  son;  this  heroic  deed  was  after- 
wards attributed  to  St.  Paulinus  I.  Bishop  Lupicinus 
(780)  restored  several  sacred  buildings.  Francis  Scac- 
ciani  (1370)  erected  the  Gothic  cathedral,  which  was 
finished  by  Bishop  Gian  .\ntonio  Boccarelli  (1469). 
Antonio  Scarampi  (1549)  founded  the  seminary  and 
introduced  the  reforms  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Fa- 
brizio  Gallo  (1.5.S5)  founded  several  charitable  institu- 
tions; G.  B.  Lancellotti  (101.5-56),  who  was  Apostolic 
nuncio  to  Poland  from  1622  to  1627,  did  much  for  the 
diocese;  Francis  M.  Carafa  (1704),  a  Theatine,  was 
zealous  for  the  education  of  the  clergy;  Traiano  Ca- 
racciolo  (1738)  constructed  the  new  seminary. 

The  diocese  is  a  suffragan  of  Naples;  has  86  par- 
ishes, with  200,000  inhabitants,  9  religious  houses  of 
men,  and  19  of  women,  several  educational  establish- 
ments and  asylums,  and  four  monthly  and  bi-monthly 
periodicals. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  XXI;  Remondini,  Storia  delta 
dUA  e  diocesi  di  Nola  (Naples,  1747-57). 

U.  Beniqni. 

Nola,  Giovanni  Marliano  da,  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect, b.,  it  is  said,  of  a  leather  merchant  named  Giu- 
seppe, at  Nola,  near  Naples,  1488;  d.  1558  (?).  He 
studied  under  Agnolo  Aniello  Fiore  and  then  went 
to  Rome,  being  attracted  by  the  fame  of  Michel- 
angelo, whose  work  he  studied  closely.  On  his  return 
to  Naples  he  was  employed  in  churches,  palaces, 
and  piazze.  Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned  the 
monument  of  Galeazzo  Pandono  in  S.  Domenico 
(1514) ;  the  tombs  of  the  three  youths  Jacopo,  Ascanio, 
and  Sigismondo  (who  died  of  poison)  in  their  family 
church  of  S.  Sevcrino  (1516) ;  various  sculptures  in  the 
church  of  Monte  Oliveto  (1524),  notably  a  fine  group 
of  the  Mother  and  Child  with  infant  St.  John  and,  in 
the  choir,  tombs  of  Alphonsus  II  and  Guerrero  Origlia; 
in  the  church  of  S.  Chiara,  the  simple  and  touching 
recumbent  figure  of  the  girl  Antonia  Gandino  (1530). 
Outside  of  Italy  the  noble  monument  of  the  Spanish 
Duke  of  Cardona  (about  1532)  in  the  Franciscan 
church  of  Belpuch  is  among  the  best  known.  The 
decorations  made  by  Nola  for  the  reception  of  Empe- 
ror Charles  Vin  Naples  (1.535)  are  still  to  be  seen  on 
the  Porta  Capuana.  In  1537  he  carved  a  beautiful 
standing  Madonna  and  two  Saints  for  the  church  of 
S.  Domenico  Maggiore.  In  1553  the  Spanish  viceroy, 
Peter  of  Toledo,  caused  him  to  erect  the  mausoleum 
to  himself  and  his  wife  in  the  church  of  S.  Giacomo 
degU  Spagnuoli.  Further  works  of  Nola's,  also  in 
Naples,  are  the  Piet^  and  tomb  of  a  child,  Andrea 
Cicara,  in  the  church  of  S.  Severino;  a  Madonna  della 
Misericordia  in  S.  Pictro  ad  Aram;  an  altar-piece 
at  S.  Aniello,  representing  the  Mother  and  Child 
seated  on  a  crescent  moon ;  and  a  fine  set  of  wooden 
bas-reliefs  depicting  the  hfe  of  Christ,  in  the  sacristy 
of  the  Annmiziata.  Nola  is  one  of  the  most  justly 
lauded  representatives  of  a  rather  poor  school  of 
Renaissance  sculpture  in  Naples. 

CicooNABA,  Sloria  detta  scuUura  (Venice,  1813 — );  Perkins, 
Italian  Sculptors  (London,  1868);  Lt^BKE,  History  of  Sculpture,  tr. 
BuBNETT  (London,  1872). 

M.  L.  Handle Y. 

Noli.     See  Savona  and  Noli,  Diocese  of. 

Nollet,  Jean-Antoine,  physicist,  b.  at  Pimprfi, 
Oise,  France,   19  November,   1700;  d.  at  Paris,  25 


April,  1770.  His  peasant  parents  sent  him  to  study 
at  Clermont  and  Beauvais.  He  went  later  to  Paris  to 
prepare  for  the  priesthood.  In  172S  he  received  the 
deaconship  and  applied  immcdialely  for  ])crmission  to 
preach.  Soon  love  of  science  hccainc  uppermost  and 
together  with  Dufay  and  Hcauiuur  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  physics  and  especially  to  research 
work  in  electricity.  Abbe  Nollet  was  the  first  to 
recognize  the  importance  of  sharp  points  on  the 
conductors  in  the  discharge  of  electricity.  This  was 
later  applied  practically  in  the  construction  of  the 
lightning-rod.  He  also  studied  the  conduction  of 
electricity  in  tubes,  in  smoke,  vapours,  steam,  the  in- 
fluence of  electric  charges  on  evaporation,  vegetation, 
and  animal  life.  His  discovery  of  the  osmosis  of  wa- 
ter through  a  bladder  into  alcohol  was  the  starting- 
point  of  that  branch  of  physics. 

In  1734  Nollet  went  to  London  and  was  admitted 
into  the  Royal  Society.  In  1735  he  started  in  Paris, 
at  his  own  expense,  a  course  in  experimental  physics 
which  he  continued  until  1760.  In  1738  Cardinal 
Fleury  created  a  public  chair  of  experimental  physics 
for  Nollet.  In  1739  he  entered  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  becoming  associate  member  in  1742,  and 
pensionary  in  1758.  In  April,  1739  the  King  of  Sar- 
dinia called  him  to  Turin  to  instruct  the  Duke  of 
Savoy,  and  to  furnish  the  instruments  needed  for  the 
new  chair  of  physics  at  the  university.  After  lecturing 
a  short  time  at  Bordeaux,  he  was  called  to  Versailles  to 
instruct  the  dauphin  in  experimental  science.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  experimental  physics  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Navarre,  in  17.53.  In  1761  he  taught 
at  the  school  of  artillery  at  M(?zieres.  Nollet  was  also 
a  member  of  the  Institute  of  Bologna  and  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  Erfurt.  He  was  calm  and  sim- 
ple in  manner,  and  his  letters  and  papers  showed  that 
he  had  been  devoted  and  generous  to  his  family  and  his 
native  village.  Nollet  contributed  to  the  "  Recueil  de 
I'Acad^mie  des  Sciences"  (1740-67)  and  the  "Philo- 
sophical Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society";  his 
larger  works  include  among  others: — "Programme 
d'un  cours  de  physique  experimentale "  (Paris,  1738); 
"LeQons  de  physique  experimentale"  (Paris,  1743); 
"Recherches  sur  les  causes  particulieres  des  phd- 
nomenesdlectriques"  (Paris,  1749);  "  L'art  des  experi- 
ences" (Paris,  1770). 

Grandjean  de  Foucht,  Eloge  de  J.-A.  Nollet;  Histoire  de 
V Academie  Royale  des  Sciences  (Paris,  1773).  121-36. 

William  Fox. 

Nominalism,  Realism,  Conceptualism.  — These 
terms  are  used  to  designate  the  theories  that  have 
been  proposed  as  solutions  of  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant questions  in  philosophy,  often  referred  to  as  the 
problem  of  universals,  which,  while  it  was  a  favourite 
subject  for  discussion  in  ancient  times,  and  especially 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  is  still  prominent  in  modern  and 
contemporary  philosophy.  We  propose  to  discuss  in 
this  article:  I.  The  Nature  of  the  Problem  and  the 
Suggested  Solutions;  II.  The  Principal  Historic  Forms 
of  Nominalism,  Realism,  and  Conceptualism;  III. 
The  Claims  of  Moderate  Realism. 

I.  The  Problem  and  the  Suggested  Solutions. — 
The  problem  of  universals  is  the  problem  of  the  cor- 
respondence of  our  intellectual  concepts  to  things  ex- 
isting outside  our  intellect.  Whereas  external  objects 
are  determinate,  individual,  formally  exclusive  of  all 
multiplicity,  our  concepts  or  mental  representations 
offer  us  the  realities  independent  of  all  particular  de- 
termination; they  are  abstract  and  universal.  The 
question,  therefore,  is  to  discover  to  what  extent  the 
concepts  of  the  mind  correspond  to  the  things  they 
represent;  how  the  flower  we  conceive  represents  the 
flower  existing  in  nature;  in  a  word,  whether  our  ideas 
are  faithful  and  have  an  objective  reality.  Four  solu- 
tions of  the  problem  have  been  offered.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  describe  them  carefully,  as  writers  do  not 
always  use  the  terms  in  the  same  sense. 


NOMINALISM 


91 


NOMINALISM 


A.  Exaggerated  Realism  holds  that  there  are  univer- 
sal concepts  in  the  mind  and  universal  things  in  na- 
ture. There  is,  therefore,  a  strict  parallelism  between 
the  being  in  nature  and  the  being  in  thought,  since  the 
external  object  is  clothed  with  the  same  character  of 
universality  that  we  discover  in  the  concept.  This  is  a 
simple  solution,  but  one  that  runs  counter  to  the  dic- 
tates of  common  sense. 

B.  Nominalism. — Exaggerated  Realism  invents  a 
world  of  reality  corresponding  exactly  to  the  attri- 
butes of  the  world  of  thought.  Nominalism,  on  the 
contrary,  models  the  concept  on  the  external  object, 
which  it  holds  to  be  individual  and  particular.  Nom- 
inalism consequently  denies  the  existence  of  abstract 
and  universal  concepts,  and  refuses  to  admit  that  the 
intellect  has  the  power  of  engendering  them.  What 
are  called  general  ideas  are  only  names,  mere  verbal 
designations,  serving  as  labels  for  a  collection  of 
things  or  a  series  of  particular  events.  Hence  the 
term  Nominalism.  jSfeither  Exaggerated  Realism 
nor  Nominalism  finds  any  difficulty  in  establishing 
a  correspondence  between  the  thing  in  thought 
and  the  thing  existing  in  nature,  since,  in  different 
ways,  they  both  postulate  perfect  harmony  between 
the  two.  The  real  difficulty  appears  when  we  assign 
different  attributes  to  the  thing  in  nature  and  to  the 
thing  in  thought;  if  we  hold  that  the  one  is  individual 
and  the  other  universal.  An  antinomy  then  arises  be- 
tween the  world  of  reality  and  the  world  as  repre- 
sented in  the  mind,  and  we  are  led  to  inquire  how  the 
general  notion  of  flower  conceived  by  the  mind  is  ap- 
plicable to  the  particular  and  determinate  flowers  of 
nature. 

C.  Conceplualism  admits  the  existence  within  us  of 
abstract  and  universal  concepts  (whence  its  name), 
but  it  holds  that  we  do  not  know  whether  or  not  the 
mental  objects  have  any  foundation  outside  our  minds 
or  whether  in  nature  the  individual  objects  possess 
distributively  and  each  by  itself  the  realities  which  we 
conceive  as  realized  in  each  of  them.  The  concepts 
have  an  ideal  value;  they  have  no  real  value,  or  at 
least  we  do  not  know  whether  they  have  a  real  value. 

D.  Moderate  Realism.,  finally,  declares  that  there  are 
universal  concepts  representing  faithfully  realities 
that  are  not  universal.  "  How  can  there  be  harmony 
between  the  former  and  the  latter?  The  latter  are 
particular,  but  we  have  the  power  of  representing 
them  to  ourselves  abstractly.  Now  the  abstract  type, 
when  the  intellect  considers  it  reflectively  and  con- 
trasts it  with  the  particular  subjects  in  which  it  is 
realized  or  capable  of  being  realized,  is  attributable 
indifferently  to  any  and  all  of  them.  This  applicabil- 
ity of  the  abstract  type  to  the  individuals  is  its  univer- 
saUty"  (Mercier,  "Criteriologie",  Louvain,  1906,  p. 
343). 

II.  The  Principal  Historical  Forms  of  Nomi- 
nalism, REALiSiM,  AND  CoNCEPTDALiSM. — A.  InGreek 
Philosophy. — The  conciliation  of  the  one  and  the 
many,  the  changing  and  the  permanent,  was  a  favour- 
ite problem  with  the  Greeks ;  it  leads  to  the^  problem  of 
universals.  The  typical  affirmation  of  Exaggerated 
Realism,  the  most  outspoken  ever  made,  appears  in 
Plato's  philosophy;  the  real  must  possess  the  attri- 
butes of  necessity,  universality,  unity,  and  immutabil- 
ity which  are  fountl  in  our  intellectual  representations. 
And  as  the  sensible  world  contains  only  the  contin- 
gent, the  particular,  the  unstable,  it  follows  that  the 
real  exists  outside  and  above  the  sensible  world. 
Plato  calls  it  eiSos,  idea.  The  idea  is  absolutely  stable 
and  exists  by  itself  (^j-tus  6^;  avri  Ka8'  avri),  isolated 
(xwpio-Ta)  from  the  phenomenal  world,  distinct  from 
the  Divine  and  the  human  intellect.  Following  logic- 
ally the  directive  principles  of  his  Realism,  Plato 
makes  an  idea-entity  correspond  to  each  of  our  ab- 
stract representations.  Not  only  natural  species 
(man,  horse)  but  artificial  products  (bed),  not  only 
substances  (man)  but  properties  (white,  just),  rela- 


tions (double,  triple),  and  even  negations  and  noth- 
ingness have  a  corresponding  idea  in  the  suprasensible 
world.  "What  makes  one  and  one  two,  is  a  participa- 
tion of  the  dyad  (Svas),  and  what  makes  one  one  is  a 
participation  of  the  monad  (^iSras)  in  unity"  (Pha?do, 
Ixix).  The  exaggerated  Realism  of  Plato,  investing 
the  real  being  with  the  attributes  of  the  being  in 
thought,  is  the  principal  doctrine  of  his  metaphysics. 

Aristotle  broke  away  from  these  exaggerated  views 
of  his  master  and  formulated  the  main  doctrines  of 
Moderate  Realism.  The  real  is  not,  as  Plato  says, 
some  vague  entity  of  which  the  sensible  world  is  only 
the  shadow;  it  dwells  in  the  midst  of  the  sensible 
world.  Individual  substance  (this  man,  that  horse) 
alone  has  reality;  it  alone  can  exist.  The  universal  is 
not  a  thing  in  itself;  it  is  immanent  in  individuals  and 
is  multiplied  in  all  the  representatives  of  a  class.  As 
to  the  form  of  universality  of  our  concepts  (man,  just), 
it  is  a  product  of  our  subjective  consideration.  The 
objects  of  our  generic  and  specific  representations  can 
certainly  be  called  substances  (owiai),  when  they 
designate  the  fundamental  reality  (man)  with  the  ac- 
cidental determinations  (just,  big) ;  but  these  are 
Seirepai  ovatai  (second  substances),  and  by  that  Aris- 
totle means  precisely  that  this  attribute  of  universal- 
ity which  affects  the  substance  as  in  thought  does  not 
belong  to  the  substance  (thing  in  itself) ;  it  is  the  out- 
come of  our  subjective  elaboration.  This  theorem  of 
Aristotle,  which  completes  the  metaphysics  of  Hera- 
clitus  (denial  of  the  permanent)  by  means  of  that  of 
Parmenides  (denial  of  change),  is  the  antithesis  of 
Platonism,  and  may  be  considered  one  of  the  finest 
pronouncements  of  Peripateticisra.  It  was  through 
this  wise  doctrine  that  the  Stagyrite  exercised  his  as- 
cendency over  all  later  thought. 

After  Aristotle  Greek  philosophy  formulated  a 
third  answer  to  the  problem  of  universals,  Conceptu- 
alism.  This  solution  appears  in  the  teaching  of  the 
Stoics,  which,  as  is  known,  ranks  with  Platonism  and 
Aristoteleanism  among  the  three  original  systems  of 
the  great  philosophic  age  of  the  Greeks.  Sensation  is  the 
principle  of  all  knowledge,  and  thought  is  only  a  collec- 
tive sensation.  Zeno  compared  sensation  to  an  open 
hand  with  the  fingers  separated;  experience  or  multi- 
ple sensation  to  the  open  hand  with  the  fingers  bent ; 
the  general  concept  born  of  experience  to  the  closed 
fist.  Now,  concepts,  reduced  to  general  sensations, 
have  as  their  object,  not  the  corporeal  and  external 
thing  reached  by  the  senses  (ri/ix'"''"') ,  but  the  ^cktSv 
or  the  reality  conceived;  whether  this  has  any  real 
value  we  do  not  know.  The  Aristotelean  School 
adopted  Aristotelean  Realism,  but  the  neo-Platonists 
subscribed  to  the  Platonic  theory  of  ideas  which  they 
transformed  into  an  emanationistic  and  monistic  con- 
ception of  the  universe. 

B.  In  the  Philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages. — For  a  long 
time  it  was  thought  that  the  problem  of  universals 
monopolized  the  attention  of  the  philosophers  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  that  the  dispute  of  the  Nominalists 
and  Realists  absorbed  all  their  energies.  In  reality 
that  question,  although  prominent  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  was  far  from  being  the  only  one  dealt  with  by 
these  philosophers. 

(1)  From  the  commencement  of  the  Middle  Ages 
till  the  end  of  the  12th  century.— It  is  impossible  to 
classify  the  philosophers  of  the  begiiuiiiig  of  tlie  Mid- 
dle Ages  exactly  as  Nominalists,  Moderate  and  Exag- 
gerated Realists,  or  C^onccptualists.  And  the  reason 
is  that  the  problem  of  the  ITnivcrsals  is  very  complex. 
It  not  merely  involves  the  metaphysics  of  the  individ- 
ual and  of  "the  universal,  but  also  raises  important 
questions  in  ideology — questions  about  the  genesis 
and  validitv  of  knowledge.  But  the  earlier  Scholas- 
tics, unskili(Ml  in  such  delicate  matters,  did  not  per- 
ceive the.sc  various  aspect.^  of  the  i)roblem.  It  did  not 
grow  up  spontaneously  in  the  Middle  Ages;  it  was  be- 
queathed in  a  text  of  Porphyry's  "Isagoge",  a  text 


NOMINALISM 


92 


NOMINALISM 


that  seemed  simple  and  innocent,  thouph  somewhat 
obscure,  but  one  which  force  of  circumstances  made 
the  necessary  startiiifx-point  of  the  earhest  medieval 
speculations  about  the  I'niversals. 

Porphyry  divides  the  problem  into  three  parts:  (1) 
Do  genera  and  speoirs  exist  in  nature,  or  lio  they  con- 
sist in  mere  proclucts  of  the  intellect?  (2)  If  they  are 
things  apart  from  the  mind,  are  they  corporeal  or  in- 
corporeal things?  (3)  Do  they  exist  outside  the  (in- 
dividual) things  of  sense,  or  are  they  realized  in  the 
latter?  "  Mox  de  generibus  et  speciebus  illud  quidem 
sive  subsistant  sive  in  nudis  intellectibus  posita  sint, 
eive  subsistentia  corporaha  sint  an  incorporalia,  et 
utruni  separata  a  sensibilibus  an  in  sensibilibus  posita 
et  circa  hiec  subsistentia,  dicere  recusabo."  Histori- 
cally, the  first  of  those  questions  was  discussed  prior  to 
the  others:  the  latter  could  have  arisen  only  in  the 
event  of  denying  an  exclusively  subjective  character 
to  universal  realities.  Now  the  first  question  was 
whether  genera  and  species  are  objective  realities  or 
not:  sive  subsistant,  sive  in  nudis  intellectibus  posita 
sint?  In  other  words,  the  sole  point  in  debate  was  the 
absolute  reality  of  the  universals:  theirtruth,  their  re- 
lation to  the  understanding,  was  not  in  question.  The 
text  from  Porphj'ry,  apart  from  the  solutions  he  else- 
where proposed  in  works  unknown  to  the  early  Scho- 
lastics, is  an  inadequate  statement  of  the  question;  for 
it  takes  account  only  of  the  objective  aspect  and  neg- 
lects the  psychological  standpoint  which  alone  can 
give  the  key  to  the  true  solution.  Moreover,  Por- 
phyry, after  proposing  his  triple  interrogation  in  the 
"  Isagoge  ",  refuses  to  olTer  an  answer  (dicere  recusabo) . 
Boethius,  in  his  two  commentaries,  gives  replies  that 
are  vague  and  scarcely  consistent.  In  the  second  com- 
mentary, which  is  the  more  important  one,  he  holds 
that  genera  and  species  are  both  subsistentia  and  intel- 
lecla  (1st  question),  the  similarity  of  things  being  the 
basis  (subjectum)  both  of  their  individuality  in  nature 
and  their  universality  in  the  mind;  that  genera  and 
species  are  incorporeal  not  by  nature  but  by  abstrac- 
tion (2nd  question),  and  that  they  exist  both  inside 
and  outside  the  things  of  sense  (3rd  question). 

This  was  not  sufficiently  clear  for  beginners,  though 
we  can  see  in  it  the  basis  of  the  Aristotelean  solution  of 
the  problem.  The  early  Scholastics  faced  the  problem 
as  proposed  by  Porjihyry:  limiting  the  controversy  to 
genera  and  species,  and  its  solutions  to  the  alternatives 
suggested  by  the  first  question:  Do  the  objects  of  our 
concepts  (i.  e.,  genera  and  species)  exist  in  nature  (sub- 
sistenlia),  or  are  they  mere  abstractions  (nuda  intel- 
lecta)?  Are  they,  or  are  they  not,  things?  Those  who 
replied  in  the  affirmative  got  the  name  of  Reals  or 
Realists;  the  others  that  of  Nominals  or  Nominalists. 
The  former,  or  the  Realists,  more  numerous  in  the 
early  Middle  Ages  (Fredugisus,  R^my  d'Auxerre,  and 
John  Scot  us  Eriugena  in  the  ninth  century,  Gcrbert 
and  Odo  of  Tournai  in  the  tenth,  and  William  of 
Champeaux  in  the  twelfth)  attribute  to  each  genus 
and  each  species  a  universal  essence  (subsistentia), 
to  W'hich  all  the  subordinate  individuals  are  tribu- 
tary. 

The  Nominalists,  who  should  be  called  rather  the 
anti-Realists,  assert  on  the  contrary  that  the  individ- 
ual alone  exists,  and  that  the  universals  are  not  things 
realized  in  the  universal  state  in  nature,  or  subsistentia. 
And  as  they  adopt  the  alternative  of  Porphyry,  they 
conclude  that  the  universals  are  nuda  inlellecta  (that 
is,  purely  intellectual  representations). 

It  may  be  that  Roscelin  of  Compiegne  did  not  go 
beyond  these  energetic  protests  against  Realism, 
and  that  he  is  not  a  Nominalist  in  the  exact  sense  we 
have  attributed  to  the  word  above,  for  we  have  to  de- 
pend on  others  for  an  expression  of  his  views,  as  there 
is  extant  no  text  of  his  which  would  justify  us  in  say- 
ing that  he  denied  the  intellect  the  power  of  forming 
general  concepts,  distinct  in  their  nature  from  sensa- 
tion.   Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  comprehend  how  Nom- 


inalism could  exist  at  all  in  the  Middle  Ages,  as  it  is 
possible  only  in  a  sensist  philosophy  that  denies  all  nat- 
ural distinction  between  sensation  and  the  intellect- 
ual concept.  Furthermore  there  is  little  evidence  of 
Sensism  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and,  as  Sensism  and  Scho- 
lasticism, so  also  Nominalism  and  Scholasticism  are 
mutually  exclusive.  The  different  anti-Realist  sys- 
tems anterior  to  the  thirteenth  century  are  in  fact 
only  more  or  less  imperfect  forms  of  the  Moderate 
Realism  towards  which  the  efforts  of  the  first  period 
were  tending,  phases  through  which  the  same  idea 
passed  in  its  organic  evolution.  These  stages  are  nu- 
merous, and  several  have  been  studied  in  recent  mon- 
ographs (e.  g.  the  doctrine  of  Ad<5lard  of  Bath,  of 
Gauthier  de  Mortagne,  Indifferentism,  and  the  theory 
of  the  collectio).  The  decisive  stage  is  marked  by  Ab(5- 
lard  (1079-1142),  who  points  out  clearly  the  r61e  of 
abstraction,  and  how  we  represent  to  ourselves  ele- 
ments common  to  different  things,  capable  of  realiza- 
tion in  an  indefinite  number  of  individuals  of  the  same 
species,  while  the  individual  alone  exists.  From  that 
to  Moderate  Realism  there  is  but  a  step;  it  was  suffi- 
cient to  show  that  a  real  fundamentum  allows  us  to 
attribute  the  general  representation  to  the  individual 
thing.  It  is  impossible  to  say  who  was  the  first  in  the 
twelfth  century  to  develop  the  theory  in  its  entirety. 
Moderate  Realism  appears  fully  in  the  writings  of 
John  of  Salisbury. 

C.  From  the  Thirteenth  Century. — In  the  thirteenth 
century  all  the  great  Scholastics  solved  the  problem  of 
the  universals  by  the  theory  of  Moderate  Realism 
(Thomas  Aquinas,  Bonaventure,  Duns  Scotus),  and 
are  thus  in  accord  with  Averroes  and  Avicenna,  the 
great  Arab  commentators  of  Aristotle,  whose  works 
had  recently  passed  into  circulation  by  means  of  trans- 
lations. St.  Thomas  formulates  the  doctrine  of  Mod- 
erate Realism  in  precise  language,  and  for  that  reason 
alone  we  can  give  the  name  of  Thomistic  Realism  to 
this  doctrine  (see  below).  With  William  of  Occam 
and  the  Terminist  School  appear  the  strictly  concept- 
ualist  solutions  of  the  problem.  The  abstract  and  uni- 
versal concept  is  a  sign  (signum),  also  called  a  term 
(terminus;  hence  the  name  Terminism  given  to  the 
system),  but  it  has  no  real  value,  for  the  abstract  and 
the  universal  do  not  exist  in  any  way  in  nature  and 
have  no  fundamentum  outside  the  mind.  The  univer- 
sal concept  (intentio sccunda)  has  as  its  object  internal 
representations,  formed  by  the  understanding,  to  which 
nothing  external  corresponding  can  be  attributed. 
The  r6le  of  the  universals  is  to  serve  as  a  label,  to  hold 
the  place  (supponere)  in  the  mind  of  the  multitude  of 
things  to  which  it  can  be  attributed.  Occam's  Con- 
ceptualism  would  be  frankly  subjectivistic,  if,  together 
with  the  abstract  concept,  he  did  not  admit  within  us 
intuitive  concepts  which  reach  the  individual  thing,  as 
it  exists  in  nature. 

D.  In  Modern  anil  Contemporary  Philosophy. — We 
find  an  unequivocal  affirmation  of  Nominalism  in 
Positivism.  For  Hume,  Stuart  Mill,  Spencer,  and 
Taine  there  is  strictly  speaking  no  universal  concept. 
The  notion,  to  which  we  lend  universality,  is  only  a 
collection  of  individual  perceptions,  a  collective  sen- 
sation, "un  nom  compris"  (Taine),  "a  term  in  habit- 
ual association  with  many  other  particular  ideas" 
(Hume),  "un  savoir  potentiel  emmagasind"  (Ribot). 
The  problem  of  the  correspondence  of  the  concept  to 
reality  is  thus  at  once  solved,  or  rather  it  is  suppressed 
and  replaced  by  the  psychological  question:  What  is 
the  origin  of  the  illusion  that  induces  us  to  attribute  a 
distinct  nature  to  the  general  concept,  though  the  lat- 
ter is  only  an  elaborated  sensation?  Kant  distinctly 
affirms  the  existence  within  us  of  abstract  and  general 
notions  and  the  distinction  between  them  and  sensa- 
tions, but  these  doctrines  are  joined  with  a  character- 
istic Phenomenalism  which  constitutes  the  most  orig- 
inal form  of  modem  Conceptualism.  Universal  and 
necessary  representations  have  no  contact  with  ex- 


NOMINATION 


93 


NOMINATION 


ternal  things,  since  they  are  produced  exclusively  by 
the  structural  functions  (a  priori  forms)  of  our  mind. 
Time  and  space,  in  which  we  frame  all  sensible  im- 
pressions, cannot  be  obtained  from  experience,  which 
is  individual  and  contingent;  they  are  schemata  which 
arise  from  our  mental  organization.  Consequently, 
we  have  no  warrant  for  establishing  a  real  correspond- 
ence between  the  world  of  our  ideas  and  the  world  of 
reality.  Science,  which  is  only  an  elaboration  of  the 
data  of  sense  in  accordance  with  other  structural  de- 
terminations of  the  mind  (the  categories),  becomes  a 
subjective  poem,  which  has  a  value  only  for  us  and  not 
for  a  world  outside  us.  A  modern  form  of  Platonic  or 
Exaggerated  Realism  is  found  in  the  ontologist  doc- 
trine defended  by  certain  Catholic  philosophers  in  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  which  consists 
in  identifying  the  objects  of  universal  ideas  with  the 
Divine  ideas  or  the  archetypes  on  which  the  world  was 
fashioned.  As  to  Moderate  Realism,  it  remains  the 
doctrine  of  all  those  who  have  returned  to  Aristotele- 
anism  or  adopted  the  neo-Scholastic  philosophy. 

III.  The  Claims  of  Moderate  Realism. — This 
system  reconciles  the  characteristics  of  external  ob- 
jects (particularity)  with  those  of  our  intellectual 
representations  (universality),  and  explains  why  sci- 
ence, though  made  up  of  abstract  notions,  is  valid 
for  the  world  of  reality.  To  understand  this  it  suffices 
to  grasp  the  real  meaning  of  abstraction.  When  the 
mind  apprehends  the  essence  of  a  thing  (quod  quid 
est;  t4  Ti  ^v  chai),  the  external  object  is  perceived 
without  the  particular  notes  which  attach  to  it  in  na- 
ture {esse  in  singularibus),  and  it  is  not  yet  marked 
with  the  attribute  of  generality  which  reflection  will 
bestow  on  it  (esse  in  uilcllniii).  The  abstract  reality 
is  apprehended  with  perfect,  indifference  as  regard.s 
both  the  individual  state  without  and  the  universal 
state  within:  abstrahit  ab  utroque  esse,  secundum 
quam  considerationem  consideratur  natura  lapidis  vel 
cujus  cumque  alterius,  quantum  ad  ea  tantum  qua; 
per  se  competunt  ilh  naturie  (St.  Thomas,  "Quod- 
libeta",  Q.  i,  a.  1).  Now,  what  is  thus  conceived  in 
the  absolute  state  (absolute  considerando)  is  nothing 
else  than  the  reality  incarnate  in  any  given  individual : 
in  truth,  the  reality,  represented  in  my  concept  of 
man,  is  in  Socrates  or  in  Plato.  There  is  nothing  in 
the  abstract  concept  that  is  not  applicable  to  every 
individual;  if  the  abstract  concept  is  inadequate,  be- 
cause it  does  not  contain  the  singular  notes  of  each 
being,  it  is  none  the  less  faithful,  or  at  least  its  ab- 
stract character  does  not  prevent  it  from  correspond- 
ing faithfully  to  the  objects  existing  in  nature.  As  to 
the  universal  form  of  the  concept,  a  moment's  consid- 
eration shows  that  it  is  subsequent  to  the  abstraction 
and  is  the  fruit  of  reflection:  "ratio  speciei  accidit  na- 
turiE  humanse".  Whence  it  follows  that  the  univer- 
sality of  the  concept  as  such  is  the  work  purely  of  the 
intellect:  "unde  intellectus  est  qui  facit  universalita- 
tem  in  rebus"  (St.  Thomas,  "De  enteet  essentia",  iv). 

Concerning  Nominalism,  Conceptualism,  and  Ex- 
aggerated Realism,  a  few  general  considerations  must 
suffice.  Nominalism,  which  is  irreconcilable  with  a 
spiritualistic  philosophy  and  for  that  very  reason  with 
Scholasticism  as  well,  presupposes  the  ideological 
theory  that  the  abstract  concept  does  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  sensation,  of  which  it  is  only  a  transforma- 
tion. The  Nominalism  of  Hume,  Stuart  Mill,  Spen- 
cer, Huxley,  and  Taine  is  of  no  greater  value  than 
their  ideology.  They  confound  essentially  distinct 
logical  operations — the  simple  decomposition  of  sen- 
sible or  empirical  representations  with  abstraction 
properly  so  called  and  sensible  analogy  with  the  pro- 
cess of  universalization.  The  Aristoteleans  recognize 
both  of  these  mental  operations,  but  they  distinguish 
carefully  between  them.  As  to  Kant,  all  the  bonds 
that  might  connect  the  concept  with  the  external 
world  are  destroyed  in  his  Phenomenalism.  Kant  is 
imablc  to  explain  why  one  and  the  same  sensible  im- 


pression starts  or  sets  in  operation  now  this,  now  that 
category;  his  a  priori  forms  are  unintelUgible  accord- 
ing to  his  own  principles,  since  they  are  beyond  experi- 
ence. Moreover,  he  confuses  real  time  and  space, 
limited  like  the  things  they  develop,  with  ideal  or 
abstract  time  and  space,  which  alone  are  general  and 
without  limit.  For  in  truth  we  do  not  create  whole- 
sale the  object  of  our  knowledge,  but  we  beget  it  within 
us  under  the  causal  influence  of  the  object  that  reveals 
itself  to  us.  Ontologism,  which  is  akin  to  Platonic 
Realism,  arbitrarily  identifies  the  ideal  types  in  our 
intellect,  which  come  to  us  from  the  sensible  world  by 
means  of  abstraction,  with  the  ideal  types  consubstan- 
tial  with  the  essence  of  God.  Now,  when  we  form  our 
first  abstract  ideas  we  do  not  yet  know  God.  We  are 
so  ignorant  of  Him  that  we  must  employ  these  first 
ideas  to  prove  a  posteriori  His  existence.  Ontologism 
has  lived  its  life,  and  our  age  so  enamoured  of  obser- 
vation and  experiment  will  scarcely  return  to  the 
dreams  of  Plato. 

Zeller,  Die  Philosophic  der  Griechen  (.5  vols.,  5th  ed.,  Tiibingen, 
1903),  tr.  CosTELLOE  AND  MuiRHEAD,  Aristotle  and  the  earlier  PeH- 
patetics  (2  vols.,  London  and  New  York,  1897);  Piat,  Aristote 
(Paris,  1903) :  Brochard,  Sur  la  logique  des  stoiciens  in  ArcMv  fur 
Gesch.  der  Philos.  (1892) ;  LoEWE,  Der  Kampf  zw.  dem  Realismus  u. 
Nomiiialismus  im  Mittelalter  in  Abhandl.  d.  k.  bdhm.  Gesellschaft  d. 
Wissenschaft,  VIII  (1876) ;  De  Wulf,  Hist,  of  Medieval  Philos., 
tr.  Coffey  (New  York  and  London,  1909);  Idem,  Lr  pmhlime 
des  universaux  dans  son   evolution   historiqiir  .-fu    TX-    'i'   XTIT" 

siicle  in  Archiv  fur  Gesch.  d.  Philos.,  IX,  iv  ( 1  ^ Ii  ^    '  i  ,  l/ist. 

of  Philos.  (Boston,  1903);  Reinebs,  Der  .;,.  /.  •  >/»  tn 

d.  Frilhscholastik  (Aachen,  1907);  Idem,  Drr  .\    ,  -. .  ,  in  d. 

Friihscholastik  in  Beitrtlge  zur  Gesch.  d.  Philu.i..  \  111.  i  t.Miaiater, 
1910) ;  Stockl,  Hist,  of  Philos.,  tr.  Finlat  (Dublin,  1BU3) ;  De- 
hove,  Qui  prfTCLTpui  fuerint  labente  XII  smculo  ante  introductam 
arabum  philosophiam  temperati  realismi  antccessores  (Lille,  1908) ; 
Mercieb,  Criteriologie  ginirale  (Louvain,  190.5). 

M.  De  Wulf. 

Nomination. — The  various  methods  of  designating 
persons  for  ecclesiastical  benefices  or  offices  have  been 
described  under  Benefice;  Bishop;  Election;  In- 
stitution, Canonical.  All  these  methods  are  more 
or  less  included  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  terra  nom- 
ination;  but  in  its  strict  canonical  sense,  nomination 
is  defined  as  the  designation  of  a  person  for  an  ecclesi- 
astical benefice  or  office  made  by  the  competent  civil 
authority  and  conferring  on  the  person  named  the 
right  to  be  canonically  instituted  by  the  ecclesiastical 
superior.  It  follows  the  rules  of  patronal  presentation, 
being  based  on  the  same  grounds  as  the  right  of  pat- 
ronage, viz.  the  endowment  of  churches  or  benefices 
by  kings,  princes,  or  communities.  Its  method  of  ac- 
tion is  designed  to  keep  the  prerogatives  of  the  two 
powers  clearly  separated,  the  intervention  of  the  secu- 
lar power  taking  effect  in  the  free  choice  of  a  fit  person, 
the  spiritual  jurisdiction  being  reserved  intact  to  the 
ecclesiastical  superior,  who  alone  can  give  canonical 
institution.  At  the  present  time  appointments  to  ben- 
efices by  right  of  nomination,  esijecially  to  bishop- 
rics, is  generally  settled  by  negotiation  and  previous 
understanding  between  the  two  powers.  I'niler  the 
old  regime  tlic  noniinati'il  person  himself  a])plied  for 
canonical  institution;  tlie  .superior  made  inijuiry  as  to 
the  applicant  and,  unle.ss  the  inquiry  disclosed  un- 
worthiness  or  unfitness,  granted  canonical  institution 
according  to  the  customary  forms — mo.st  ofleii  by  con- 
sistorial  preconiz.ation.  Whatever  procedure  may  be 
followeil,  the  person  named  by  the  civil  iinwer  luis  no 
spiritual  juri.sdiclion  until  he  has  been  caminicaUy  in- 
stituted; and  if  li<'  should  dare  to  intrude  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  dioiMsc  with  no  other  title  than  his 
nomination  by  the  secular  authority,  not  only  would 
all  iiis  acts  l)c  riull  and  void,  but  he,  and  with  him  those 
who  sliould  li.ave  coiisiMiled  to  his  acts,  would  incur 
exconiiiiunication  and  (jther  penalties;  moreover,  he 
would  forfeit  the  right  resulting  from  his  nomination 
(Const.  "Romanus  pontifex",  28  Aug.,  1873,  and  the 
texts  there  cited.  Cf.  Excommunication,  vol.  V,  p. 
G91,  col.  1). 

The  most  important  apphcation  of  the  right  of  iiom- 


NOMOCANON 


94 


NOMOCANON 


ination  by  princes  is,  without  doubt,  that  which  relates 
to  the  major,  or  eonsistorial,  benefices,  especially  bish- 
oprics. Without  RoinR  back  to  the  intrusions  of 
royal  power  in  episcopal  elections  in  the  barbarian 
kingdoms,  or  in  the  Carlovin};ian  ICinpire.  or  tlie  15y- 
zantine,  it  must  be  remembered  th:it  tlie  C'oncordat  of 
Worms  (1121),  which  ended  the  ConHict  of  Investi- 
tures (q.  v.),  included  an  initial  measure  for  I  he  separa- 
tion of  the  ijarts  and  [jrerogatives  of  the  two  powers  in 
the  choice  of  bishojis.  The  emperor  recognized  the 
freedom  of  episcopal  elections  and  consecrations;  the 
pope,  on  his  side,  agreed  that  elections  should  be  held 
in  the  emperor's  presence,  without  simony  or  restraint, 
that  the  emperor  shoukl  decide  in  case  of  dispute,  that 
he  should  give  temporal  investiture,  by  the  sceptre, 
to  the  bishop-elect,  while  investiture  by  ring  and 
crosier,  sjTnbolic  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  should 
be  combined  with  the  consecration.  The  custom  of 
election  of  bishops  by  chapters,  which  was  the  com- 
mon law  of  the  thirteenth  century,  left,  officially,  no 
opening  for  royal  interference,  but  princes  none  the 
less  endeavoured  to  have  their  candidates  elected. 
This  became  more  difficult  for  them  when,  by  succes- 
sive reservations,  the  popes  had  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  all  episcopal  elections,  thus  occasioning  serious 
inconveniences.  While  in  Ciermany  the  Concordat  of 
1-148  re-established  capitular  elections,  in  France,  on 
the  contrary,  after  the  difficulties  consequent  upon 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourgcs  (1438),  the  quarrel 
ended  with  the  Concordat  of  1516.  In  this  instru- 
ment we  find  the  right  of  nomination  guaranteed  to 
the  kings  of  France  for  consistorial  benefices,  bishop- 
rics, abbacies,  and  priorates;  and  thence  the  arrange- 
ment passed  into  most  of  the  subsequent  concordats, 
including  that  of  1801  (cf.  Nussi,  "Quinquaginta  con- 
ventiones",  Rome,  1869,  tit.  v).  The  royal  ordinance 
of  Francis  I  promulgating  the  Bull  of  Leo  X  says: 
"Such  vacancy  occurring,  the  King  of  France  shall  be 
bound  to  present  and  name  [the  Bull  says  only  nobis 
nominabit]  a  master  .  .  .  and  otherwise  fit,  within  six 
months  .  .  .  that  we  may  appoint  his  nominee  to  the 
vacant  see."  If  this  person  is  rejected,  the  king  will 
nominate  another  within  three  months;  if  not,  the 
pope  can  himself  appoint.  The  same  right  of  nomi- 
nation is  extended  to  abbacies  and  priorates,  with 
some  exceptions.  The  Concordat  of  1801  (articles 
4  and  .5)  accords  to  the  First  Consul  the  same  right 
of  nomination,  but  only  for  bishoprics,  and  without 
fixing  a  limit  of  time  for  its  exercise.  In  other  coun- 
tries (e.  g.  Spain)  the  right  of  the  temporal  ruler  in- 
cludes other  benefices  besides  bishoprics. 

Such  being  the  nature  of  the  very  definite  right  of 
nomination,  nothing  but  malicious  provocation  can 
be  discerned  in  the  conflict  brought  on  by  M.  Combes, 
when  Prime  Minister  of  France  (1902-.5),  in  regard  to 
the  nobis  nominavit,  the  expression  which  figured  in  the 
Bulls  for  French  bishops.  By  a  note  dated  21  Dec, 
1902,  the  French  Government  demanded  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  nobis,  as  if  to  make  it  appear  that  the  head 
of  the  State  nominated  bishops  absolutely,  like  gov- 
ernment officials.  The  Vatican  explained  the  true 
nature  of  the  nomination  as  the  designation  of  a  per- 
son by  the  head  of  the  State,  the  latter  indicating  to 
the  pope  the  cleric  whom  he  desires  as  head  of  such  a 
diocese,  the  pope  accordingly  creating  that  candidate 
bishop  by  canonical  institution.  The  fact  was  pointed 
out  that  the  word  nobis  is  found  in  the  episcopal  Bulls 
of  all  nations  which  have  by  concordat  the  right  of 
nomination;  also  that,  with  very  rare  exceptions,  it 
appears  in  all  the  Hulls  for  France  under  the  Concor- 
dat of  1.516  a.s  under  that  of  1801;  that  previously,  in 
1871,  the  French  Government  having  obtained  with- 
out any  difficulty  the  suppression  of  the  word  prcesen- 
tavit,  had,  upon  representations  made  by  Rome,  with- 
drawn its  demand  for  the  suppression  of  the  nobis; 
above  all,  it  was  insisted  on  that  the  letters  patent  of 
the  French  Government  to  the  pope  had  from  time 


immemorial  contained  the  words:  "We  name  him  [the 
candidate]  and  present  him  to  Yovir  Holiness,  that  it 
may  please  Your  Holiness,  upon  our  nomination  and 
presentation,  to  provide  for  the  said  bishopric",  etc. 
The  Vatican  nevertheless  fleclared  that  it  did  not  de- 
sire to  refuse  any  satisf.-icldry  revision;  various  form- 
uUe  were  pruposcd  (ni  cilhir  side,  without  success;  at 
last  the  Holy  Sci'  (•(insciilrd  to  suppress  the  word  nobis 
in  the  Bulls,  I'Dnlciitiiig  itself  wiili  the  Government's 
employing  the  usual  formula  in  drafi  ing  letters  patent. 
(On  this  confiict  see  the  "  Livre  HIanc  du  Saint  Siege"; 
"La  separation  de  I'Eglise  et  I'Etat  en  France",  ch. 
vi,  in  "Acta  S.  Sedis",  15  Jan.,  1906.)  This  conces- 
sion, as  we  know,  did  not  delay  the  separation  which 
the  French  Government  was  determined  to  have  at 
any  price.  (See  Benefice;  Bishop;  Concordat; 
Election;  Institdtion.) 

Canonists  on  the  title  De  prabendis.  III,  v;  H^ricodrt,  Loix 
eccUsiaatiques  de  France,  E,  IV;  Cavagnis.  Instiiutiones  juris 
ecclesiastici,  II  {Rome.  1906),  13,  2.56;  S^vestre,  L'histoire,  le 
teste  et  la  deslinee  du  Concordat  de  1801  (Paris,  1905) ;  Verino, 
Kirchenrechl  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1893),  §86;  Sagmuller,  Lihrbuch 
des  kath.  Kirchengeschichte  (Freiburg,  1909),  §  73  sq. 

A.  Boudinhon. 

Nomocanon  (from  the  Greek  yi/itos,  law,  and 
Kivuv,  a  rule),  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  law,  the  ele- 
ments of  which  are  borrowed  from  secular  and  canon 
law.  When  we  recall  the  important  place  given  to 
ecclesiastical  discipline  in  the  imperial  laws  such  as  the 
Theodosian  Code,  the  Justinian  collections,  and  the 
subsequent  "Novella;",  and  "Basilica",  the  utility 
of  comparing  laws  and  canons  relating  to  the  same 
subjects  will  be  readily  recognized.  Collections  of 
this  kind  are  found  only  in  Eastern  law.  The  Greek 
Church  has  two  principal  collections.  The  first,  dat- 
ing from  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  is  ascribed, 
though  without  certainty,  to  John  Scholasticus  (q.  v.), 
whose  canons  it  ut  ilizes  and  completes.  He  had  drawn 
up  (about  550)  a  purely  canonical  compilation  in  fifty 
titles,  and  later  composed  an  extract  from  the  "No- 
vellae"  in  eighty-seven  chapters  (for  the  canonical  col- 
lection see  Voellus  and  Justellus,  "Bibliotheca  juris 
canonici",  Paris,  1661,  II,  449  sqq.;  for  the  eighty- 
seven  chapters,  Pitra,  "Juris  ecclesiastici  Grsecorum 
historia  et  monumenta",  Rome,  1864,  II,  385).  To 
each  of  the  fifty  titles  were  added  the  texts  of  the  im- 
perial laws  on  the  same  subject,  with  twenty-one  ad- 
ditional chapters  nearly  all  borrowed  from  John's 
eighty-seven  (Voellus  and  Justellus,  op.  cit.,  II,  603). 
In  its  earliest  form  this  collection  dates  from  the  reign 
of  Emperor  Heraclius  (610-40),  at  which  time  Latin 
was  replaced  by  Greek  as  the  official  language  of  the 
imperial  laws.  Its  two  sections  include  the  ecclesias- 
tical canons  and  the  imperial  laws,  the  latter  in  four- 
teen titles. 

This  collection  was  long  held  in  esteem  and  passed 
into  the  Russian  Church,  but  was  by  degrees  sup- 
planted by  that  of  Photius.  The  first  part  of  Pho- 
tius's  collection  contains  the  conciliar  canons  and 
the  decisions  of  the  Fathers.  It  is  in  substance  the 
Greek  collection  of  692,  as  it  is  described  by  canon 
ii  of  the  Trullan  Council  (see  Law,  Canon),  with 
the  addition  of  102  canons  of  that  council,  17  canons 
of  the  Council  of  Constantinople  of  861  (against  Ig- 
natius), and  of  3  canons  substituted  by  Photius  for 
those  of  the  oecumenical  council  of  869.  The  nomo- 
canon in  fourteen  titles  was  completed  by  additions 
from  the  more  recent  imperial  laws.  This  whole  col- 
lection was  commentated  about  1170  by  Theodore 
Balsamon,  Greek  Patriarch  of  Antioch  residing  at 
Constantinople  (Nomocanon  with  Balsamon's  com- 
mentary in  Voellus  and  .Justellus,  II,  815;  P.  G.,  CIV, 
441).  Supplemented  by  this  commentary  the  col- 
lection of  Photius  has  become  a  part  of  the  "Pidalion" 
(■ir7i56,\iov,  rudder),  a  sort  of  Corpus  Juris  of  the 
Orthodox  Church,  printed  in  1800  by  Patriarch  Neo- 
phytus  VIII.  In  the  eleventh  century  it  had  been 
also  translated  into  Slavonic  for  the  Russian  Church; 


NONANTOLA 


95 


NONCONFORMISTS 


!t  is  retained  in  the  law  of  the  Orthodox  Church  of 
Greefi',  and  inchided  in  the  "Syntagma"  pubhshed 
by  Uliallis  and  Potlis  (Athens,  1852-9).  Though 
called  the  "Syntagma",  the  collection  of  ecclesiastical 
law  of  Matthew  Blastares  (c.  1339)  is  a  real  nomoca- 
non,  in  which  the  texts  of  the  canons  and  of  the  laws  are 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order  (P.  G.,  loc.  cit.;  Bev- 
eridge,  "Synodicon",  Oxford,  1672).  A  remarkable 
noraocanon  was  composed  by  John  Barhebra?us  (1226- 
86)  for  the  Syrian  Church  of  Antioch  (Latin  version 
by  Asseraani  in  Mai,  "Script,  vet.  nova  collectio",  X, 
3  sqq.).  Several  Russian  manuals  published  at  Kiev 
and  Moscow  in  the  seventeenth  century  were  also 
nomocanons. 

Vering.  Lehrb.  des  Kirchenrechts  (Freiburg.  1S93),  §§  17-19; 
Schneider,  Die  Lehre  von  den  Kirckenrechtsquellen  (Ratisbon, 
1892),  50, 199:  also  bibliographies  of  Law,  C.\non;  John  Scholas- 
Ticus;  Photius,  etc. 

A.   BOUDINHON. 

Nonantola,  a  former  Benedictine  monastery  and 
prelature  iiiilliiis,  six  miles  north-east  of  Modena, 
founded  in  7.')2  by  St.  Anselm,  Duke  of  Friuli,  and 
richly  endowed  by  Aistulph,  King  of  the  Longobards. 
Steplien  II  appointed  .\n.selni  its  tir-^t  aliliot,  and  pre- 
sented the  relics  of  St.  Sylvester  t(j  tin-  abbey,  named 
in  consequence  S.  Sylvester  de  Xunantula.  After  the 
death  of  Aistulph  (756),  Anselm  was  banished  to 
Monte  Cassino  by  the  new  king,  Desiderius,  but  was 
restored  by  Charlemagne  after  seven  years.  In  883 
it  was  chosen  as  the  place  of  a  conference  between 
Charles  the  Fat  and  Marinus  I.  Up  to  1083  it  was  an 
imperial  monastery,  and  its  discipline  often  suffered 
severely  on  account  of  imperial  interference  in  the  elec- 
tion of  abbots.  In  the  beginning  of  the  Conflict  of 
Investitures  it  sided  with  the  emperor,  until  forced  to 
submit  to  the  pope  by  Mathilda  of  Tuscany  in  1083. 
It  finally  declared  itself  openly  for  the  pope  in  1111. 
In  that  year  the  famous  monk  Placidus  of  Nonantola 
wrote  his  "De  honore  Ecclesiae",  one  of  the  most 
able  and  important  defences  of  the  papal  position 
that  were  written  during  the  Conflict  of  Investitures. 
It  is  printed  in  Fez,  "Thesaurus  Anecdot.  noviss." 
(Augsburg,  1721),  II,  ii,  73  sq.  The  decline  of  the 
monastery  began  in  1419,  whenit  came  under  the  juris- 
diction of  commendatory  abbots.  In  1514  it  came  into 
the  possession  of  the  Cistercians,  but  continued  to  de- 
cline until  it  was  finally  suppressed  by  Clement  XIII 
in  1768.  Pius  VII  restored  it  23  Jan.,  1821,  with  the 
provision  that  the  prelature  nullius  attached  to  it 
should  belong  to  the  Archbishop  of  Modena.  In  1909 
the  exempt  district  comprised  42,980  inhabitants,  31 
parishes,  91  churches  and  chapels,  62  secular  priests 
and  three  religious  congregations  for  women.  The 
monastery  itself  was  appropriated  by  the  Italian  Gov- 
ernment in  l.Slil). 

TlRABOscni.  Sluria  ddV  augusta  badia  di  S.  Sihesfro  di  Nonan- 
tola (2  voLs..  Modena.  17.S4-5);  Gahdenzi  in  Bull  dell'  Istituto 
stor.  ital.  XXII  (1901),  77-214;  Cohradi,  Nonantola.  abbazia 
imperiale  in  Rivista  Slorica  Benedettina,  IV  (Rome,  1909),  181-9; 
MuRATORi,  Rer.  Ital.  Script.,  I,  ii,  189-196;  Notitia  codicum  mo- 
nasterii  Nonantulani  anni  1166  in  Mai,  Spicilegium  Romanum 
(Rome,  1839-14),  V,  i,  218-221;  Becker,  Catalogi  bibliothecarum 
antiqui  (Bonn,  1885),  220  sq.;  Giorgi  in  Rivista  delle  Biblioteche  e 
degli  archivi,  VI  (Florence,  1895),  54  sq. 

Michael  Ott. 

Nonconformists,  a  name  which,  in  its  most  gen- 
eral acceptation,  denotes  those  refusing  to  conform 
with  the  authorized  formularies  and  rites  of  the  Es- 
tablished Church  of  England.  The  apphcation  of 
the  term  has  varied  somewhat  with  the  successive 
phases  of  Anglican  history.  From  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  to  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century 
it  had  not  come  into  use  as  the  name  of  a  religious 
party,  but  the  word  "conform",  and  the  appellatives 
"conforming"  and  "nonconforming",  were  becoming 
more  and  more  common  expressions  to  designate 
those  members  of  the  Puritan  party  who,  disapproving 
of  certain  of  the  Anglican  rites  (namely,  the  use  of  the 


surplice,  of  the  sign  of  the  cross  at  baptism,  of  the  ring 
in  marriage,  of  the  attitude  of  kneeling  at  the  reception 
of  the  sacrament)  and  of  the  episcopal  nnlii-  iif  Church 
government,  either  resigned  themsel\ cs  t'j  i  hese  usages 
because  enjoined,  or  stood  out  agaiu,st  tliein  at  all 
costs.  However  from  1662,  when  the  Fourth  Act  of 
Uniformity  had  the  effect  of  ejecting  from  their  ben- 
efices, acquired  during  the  Commonwealth,  a  large 
number  of  ministers  of  Puritan  proclivities,  and  of 
constraining  them  to  organize  themselves  as  separatist 
sects,  the  term  "Nonconformist"  crystalhzed  into  the 
technical  name  for  such  sects. 

History. — The  history  of  this  cleavage  in  the  ranks 
of  English  Protestantism  goes  back  to  the  reign  of 
Mary  Tudor,  when  the  Protestant  leaders  who  were 
victorious  under  Edward  VI  retired  to  Frankfort, 
Zurich,  and  other  Protestant  centres  on  the  continent, 
and  (|uarrelled  among  themselves,  some  inclining  to 
the  nidie  iiKiderate  Lutheran  or  Zwinglian  positions, 
otlieis  develiijjing  into  uncompromising  Calvinists. 
When  (lie  accession  of  Elizabeth  attr,acted  them  back 
tti  England,  the  Calvinist  section,  which  soon  acquired 
tlie  nickname  of  Puritans,  was  the  more  fiery,  the 
larger  in  numbers  and  the  most  in  favour, with  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Protestant  laity.  Elizabeth,  however, 
who  had  very  little  personal  religion,  preferred  an 
episcopal  to  a  presbyterian  system  as  more  in  har- 
mony with  monarchism,  and  besides  she  had  some 
taste  for  the  ornate  in  public  worship.  Accordingly 
she  caused  the  religious  settlement,  destined  to  last 
into  our  own  times,  to  be  made  on  the  basis  of  episco- 
pacy, with  the  retention  of  the  points  of  ritual  above 
specified;  and  her  favour  was  bespoken  for  prelates 
like  Parker,  who  were  prepared  to  aid  her  in  carrying 
out  this  programme.  For  those  who  held  Puritan 
views  she  had  a  natural  dislike,  to  which  she  some- 
times gave  forcible  expression,  but  on  the  whole  she 
saw  the  expediency  of  showing  them  some  considera- 
tion, lest  she  should  lose  their  support  in  her  campaign 
against  Catholicism. 

These  were  the  determining  factors  of  the  initial 
situation,  out  of  which  the  subsequent  history  of  Eng- 
hsh  Protestantism  has  grown  by  a  natural  develop- 
ment. The  result  during  Elizabeth's  reign  was  a 
state  of  oscillation  between  phases  of  repression  and 
phases  of  indulgence,  in  meeting  the  persistent  en- 
deavours of  the  Puritans  to  make  their  own  ideas 
dominant  in  the  national  Church.  In  1559  the  third 
Act  of  LTniformity  was  passed,  by  which  the  new  edi- 
tion of  the  Prayer  Book  was  enjoined  under  severe 
Iienalifies  on  all  ministering  as  clergy  in  the  country. 
In  1566,  feeling  that  some  concession  to  the  strength 
of  the  Puritan  opposition  was  necessary.  Archbishop 
Parker,  on  an  understanding  with  the  queen,  pub- 
lished certain  Advertisements  addressed  to  the  clergy, 
requiring  them  to  conform  at  least  as  regards  wearing 
the  surplice,  kneeling  at  communion,  using  the  font 
for  baptism,  and  covering  the  communion  table  with  a 
proper  cloth.  These  Advertisements  were  partially  en- 
forced in  some  dioceses,  and  led  to  some  deprivations, 
but  that  their  effect  was  small  is  clear  from  the  bold- 
ness with  which  the  Puritans  took  up  a  more  advanced 
position  a  few  years  later,  and  demanded  the  substi- 
tution of  a  presbyterian  regime.  This  was  the  de- 
mand of  Thomas  Cartwright  in  his  First  and  Second 
Admonitions,  published  in  1572,  and  followed  in  1580 
by  his  Book  of  Discipline,  in  which  he  collaborated 
with  Thomas  Travers.  In  this  latter  book  he  pro- 
pounded an  ingenious  theory  of  cla.'ises,  or  boards  of 
clergy  for  each  district,  to  which  the  episcopal  powers 
should  be  transferred,  to  be  exercised  by  them  on  pres- 
byterian principles,  to  the  bishops  being  reserved 
only  the  purely  mechanical  ceremony  of  ordination. 
So  great  was  the  influence  of  the  Puritans  in  the  coun- 
try that  they  were  able  tO~introduce  for  a  time  this 
strange  system  in  one  or  two  places. 
In  1588  the  Marprelate  tracts  were  published,  and 


NONCONFORMISTS 


96 


NONCONFORMISTS 


by  the  violence  of  their  laiigua(;e  against  the  queen 
and  the  bisliops  stirred  up  tjie  (nieen  to  tul<e  dnvstic 
meivsures.  Perry  and  I'dal.  antliors  of  the  tracts, 
were  tried  and  executed,  and  Cartwright  was  impris- 
oned; whilst  in  1593  an  act  wa.s  passed  inflicting  the 
punishment  of  imprisonment,  to  be  followed  by  exile 
m  ease  of  a  second  offence,  on  all  who  refused  toat- 
tend  the  parish  church,  or  held  separatist  meetings. 
This  caused  a  division  ii\  the  party;  as  many,  though 
secretly  retaining  their  beliefs,  preferred  mil  ward  con- 
formity to  the  loss  of  their  henelic<'s,  whilst  I  he  ex- 
tremists of  the  party  left  the  country  and  settled  in 
Holland.  Here  1  hey  were  for  a  time  called  Hrownists, 
after  one  who  had  been  their  leader  in  sejiaratioM,  but 
later  they  took  the  name  of  Independents,  as  indicat- 
ing their  peculiar  theory  of  the  governmental  inde- 
pendence of  each  separate  congregation.  From  these 
Brownists  came  the  "Pilgrim  Fathers"  who,  on  6 
December,  11)20,  sailed  from  Plymouth  in  the  "May- 
flower", and  .settled  in  New  England. 

With  the  death  of  Elizabeth  the  hopes  of  the  Puri- 
tans revived.  Their  system  of  doctrine  and  govern- 
ment was  tlominant  in  Scotland,  and  they  hoped  that 
the  Scottish  King  James  iiiiglit  be  induced  to  extend  it 
to  England.  So  they  met  him  on  his  way  to  London 
with  their  Milli'Uary  Petition,  so  called  though  the 
signatories  numbered  only  about  eight  hundred.  In 
this  document  they  were  prudent  enough  not  to  raise 
the  question  of  episcopal  government,  but  contented 
themselves  for  the  time  with  a  request  that  the  ritual 
customs  which  they  disliked  might  be  discontinued  in 
the  State  Church.  James  promised  them  a  confer- 
ence which  met  the  next  year  at  Hampton  Court  to 
consider  their  grievances,  and  in  which  they  were 
represented  by  four  of  their  leaders.  These  had  some 
sharp  encounters  with  the  bishops  and  chief  Anglican 
divines,  but,  whilst  the  Puritans  were  set  more  on 
domination  than  toleration,  the  king  was  wholly  on 
the  side  of  the  Anglicans,  who  in  this  hour  of  their  tri- 
umph were  in  no  mood  for  concessions.  Accordingly 
the  conference  jjroved  abortive,  and  the  very  same 
year  Archbishop  Bancroft,  with  the  king's  sanction, 
carried  through  Convocation  and  at  once  enforced  the 
canons  known  as  those  of  1604.  The  purpose  of  this 
campaign  was  to  restore  the  use  of  the  rites  in  ques- 
tion, which,  in  defiance  of  the  existing  law,  the  Puritan 
Incumbents  had  succeeded  in  putting  down  in  a  great 
number  of  parishes.  This  result  was  eflfected  to  some 
extent  for  the  time,  but  a  quarter  of  a  century  later, 
when  Laud  began  his  campaign  for  the  restoration  of 
decency  and  order,  in  other  words,  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  customs  to  which  the  Puritans  objected, 
he  was  met  by  an  opposition  so  widespread  and  deep- 
rooted  that,  though  ultimately  it  had  lasting  results, 
the  immediate  efTect  was  to  bring  about  his  own  fall 
and  contribute  largely  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Rebel- 
lion, the  authors  of  which  were  approximately  co- 
extensive with  the  Puritan  party. 

During  the  Civil  War  and  the  Commonwealth  the 
Puritan  mobs  wrecked  the  churches,  the  bishops  were 
imprisoned  and  the  primate  beheaded,  the  supremacy 
over  the  Church  was  transferred  from  the  Crown  to 
the  Parliament,  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  was 
accepted  for  the  whole  nation,  and  the  Westminster 
Assembly,  almost  entirely  composed  of  Puritans,  was 
appointed  as  a  permanent  committee  for  the  reform  of 
the  Church.  Next  the  Anglican  clergy  were  turned 
out  of  their  benefices  to  make  way  for  Puritans,  in 
who.se  behalf  the  Presbyterian  form  of  government 
was  introduced  by  Parliament.  But  though  this  was 
now  the  authorized  settlement,  it  was  found  impossi- 
ble to  check  the  vagaries  of  individual  opinion.  A  re- 
ligious frenzy  seized  the  country,  and  sects  holding 
the  most  extravagant  doctrines  sprang  up  and  built 
themselves  conventicles.  There  was  licence  for  all, 
save  for  popery  and  prelacy,  which  were  now  perse- 
cutod  with  equal  severity.     When  Cromwell  attained 


to  power  a  struggle  set  in  between  the  Parliament 
which  was  predominaiilly  Presbyterian,  and  the  army 
%vhich  was  predcimiiiautly  Independent.  The  disgust 
of  all  .sober  minds  with  thi'  rcsidliiig  jiandemonium 
had  nuich  to  do  with  creating  the  desire  for  the  lies- 
toration,  anil  when  this  was  acc^oiuiilished  in  KifiO 
measures  were  at  once  taken  to  undo  the  work  of 
the  interregnum.  The  bishops  were  restored  to  their 
sees,  and  the  vacancies  filled.  The  Savoy  Confer- 
enci'  was  held  in  accordance  with  the  precedence  of 
Hampton  Comt  Conference  of  lliOl,  but  proved  sim- 
ilarly alxirtive.  The  CoMvoc:ition  in  1()()2  revi.sed  the 
Prayer  Hook  in  an  anti-Piuitaii  direction,  antl,  the 
Declaration  of  Hreila  notwillistandiiig,  it  was  at  once 
enforce<l.  .VU  holding  bcnefic-cs  in  the  country  were 
to  u.se  this  revised  Prayer  Book  on  and  after  the  Feast 
of  St.  Bartholomew  of  tliat  year.  It  was  through 
this  crisis  that  the  term  Nonconformist  obtained  its 
technical  meaning.  When  the  feast  came  round  a 
large  number  who  refused  to  conform  were  evicted. 
It  is  in  dispute  between  Nonconformist  and  Anglican 
writers  how  many  these  were,  and  what  were  their 
characters:  the  Nonconformist  winters  (see  Calamy, 
"  Life  of  Baxter")  maintain  that  they  exceeded  2000, 
while  Kennett  and  others  reduce  that  number  consid- 
erably, contending  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  the 
hardship  was  not  so  grave.  At  least  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged that  the  victims  were  suffering  only  what 
they,  in  the  tlays  of  their  power,  had  inflicted  on  their 
opponents,  for  many  of  whom  the  ejection  of  the 
Puritans  meant  a  return  to  their  own.  The  fact  that 
they  organized  themselves  outside  the  Established 
Church  under  the  name  of  Nonconformists,  naturally 
made  them  the  more  offensive  to  the  authorities  of 
Church  and  State,  and,  during  the  remainder  of  the 
reign  of  Charles  II,  they  were  the  victims  of  several 
oppressive  measures.  In  1661  the  Corporation  Act 
incapacitated  from  holding  office  in  any  corporation 
all  who  did  not  fii-st  (lualify  by  taking  the  sacrament 
according  to  the  .\nglican  Kite;  in  16()4  the  Conven- 
ticle Act  inflicted  the  gravest  penalties  on  all  who  took 
part  in  any  private  religious  service  at  which  more 
than  five  persons,  in  addition  to  the  family,  were 
present;  in  1065  the  Five  Mile  Act  made  liable  to 
imprisonment  any  Nonconformist  minister  who,  not 
having  taken  an  oath  of  non-resistance,  came  within 
five  miles  of  a  town  without  obtaining  leave;  and  in 
1673  the  scope  of  the  Corporation  Act  was  extended 
by  the  Test  Act. 

In  1672  Charies  II  attempted  to  mitigate  the  lot  of 
the  Nonconformists  by  publishing  :\  Declaration  of 
Indulgence  in  which  he  used  in  tlicii-  favoiu-  the  dis- 
pensing power,  till  then  recognized  as  vested  in  the 
Crown.  But  Parliament,  meeting  the  next  year, 
forced  him  to  withdraw  this  Declaration,  and  in  re- 
turn passed  the  Test  Act,  which  extended  the  scope  of 
the  Corporation  Act.  James  II,  though  despotic  and 
tactless  in  his  methods  like  all  the  Stuarts,  was,  what- 
ever prejudiced  historians  have  said  to  the  contrary,  a 
serious  believer  in  religious  tcjieration  for  all,  and  was, 
in  fact,  the  first  who  .sought  to  im|)ress  that  ideal  on 
the  legislature  of  his  country.  By  his  two  Declara- 
tions of  Indulgence,  in  1687-88,  he  dispensed  Non- 
conformists just  as  much  as  Catholics  from  their 
religious  disabilities,  and  his  act  was  received  by  the 
former  with  a  spontaneous  outburst  of  gratitude.  It 
was  not  to  their  credit  that  shortly  after  they  should 
have  been  induced  to  cast  in  their  lot  with  the  Revolu- 
tion on  the  assurance  that  it  would  give  them  all  the 
liberties  promised  by  King  James  without  the  neces- 
sity of  sharing  them  with  the  Catholics.  This  prom- 
ise was,  however,  only  imperfectly  carried  out  by  the 
Toleration  Act  of  16S9,  which  permitted  the  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion  to  all  Trinitarian  Protestants,  but 
did  not  relieve  them  of  their  civil  disabilities.  Some, 
accordingly,  of  their  number  practised  what  was 
called  Occasional  Conformity,  that  is,  received  the 


NONE 


97 


NONE 


Anglican  sacrament  just  once  so  as  to  qualify.  This 
caused  much  controversy  and  led  eventually  in  1710 
to  the  Occasional  Conformity  Act,  which  was  devised 
to  check  it.  This  Act  was  repealed  in  1718,  but  many 
of  the  Nonconformists  themselves  disapproved  of  the 
practice  on  conscientious  grounds,  and,  though  it  was 
often  resorted  to  and  caused  grave  scandals,  those 
who  resorted  to  it  cannot  be  fairly  taken  as  represen- 
tatives of  their  sects.  The  Test  Act  was  not  repealed 
till  1828,  the  year  before  the  Catholic  Emancipation 
Act  was  passed ;  the  Catholics  and  the  Nonconformists 
combined  their  forces  to  obtain  both  objects. 

Although  Ijy  the  passing  of  the  Toleration  Act  of 
1689  the  condition  of  the  Nonconformists  was  so  much 
ameliorated,  they  lapsed  in  the  second  quarter  of  the 
eighteenth  century  into  the  prevailing  religious  torpor, 
and  seemed  to  be  on  the  verge  of  extinction.  They 
were  rescued  from  this  state  by  the  outbreak  of  the 
great  Methodist  movement,  which  resulted  both  in 
arousing  the  existing  Dissenting  sects  to  a  new  vigour, 
and  in  adding  another  which  exceeded  them  all  in 
numbers  and  enthusiasm. 

Present  Condition. — At  the  present  day  the 
Nonconformists  in  England,  the  only  country  to  which 
this  name  with  its  implications  applies,  are  very  nu- 
merous and  constitute  a  powerful  religious,  social, 
and  political  influence.  As  they  have  effectually  re- 
sisted the  taking  of  a  religious  census  by  the  State 
Census  department,  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  their 
numbers  accurately,  for  their  own  statistics  are  sus- 
pected of  exaggeration.  According  to  Mr.  Howard 
Evans's  statistics  (as  given  in  the  Daily  Mail  "Year 
Book  of  the  Churches"  for  1908),  the  Baptists  then 
reckoned  405,7.55  communicants,  the  Congregational- 
ists  459,983,  and  the  various  denominations  of  Meth- 
odists 1,174,462 — to  which  figures  are  to  be  added 
those  of  the  highly  indeterminate  number  of  "adher- 
ents" who  are  not  accepted  as  communicants.  It 
will  be  seen  from  this  list  that  the  Methodists  are  by 
far  the  larger  of  these  three  principal  denominations, 
but  they  are  likewise  the  mo.st  subdivided.  It  will  be 
noticed,  too,  that  the  Presbyterians,  once  so  numerous 
in  the  country,  have  no  place  among  the  larger  sects. 
The  Society  of  Friends,  commonly  called  Quakers,  are 
allotted  17,767  communicants  by  Evans.  Besides 
these  there  are  innumerable  small  sects,  of  which  the 
Plymouth  Brethren  and  the  Swedenborgians  are  the 
most  conspicuous.  (For  the  separate  denominations 
see  the  special  articles.  Baptists;  Congregation.4l- 
ism;  Methodism;  Presbyterianism;  Friends,  Soci- 
ety OF.) 

Neal,  Hist,  of  the  Puritans,  or  Protestant  Nonconformists,  1517^ 
less  (2nd  ed.,  London,  1822) ;  Price,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Noncon- 
formity in  England  from  the  Reformation  under  Henry  VIII  (2 
vols.,  London,  1836) ;  Bogue  and  Bennett,  Hist,  of  Dissenters, 
1688-1808  (4  vols.,  London,  1808);  Bennett,  Hist,  of  Dissenters, 
180S-18S8  (London.  1839) ;  Wil,son,  Hist,  and  Antiquities  of  the 
Dissenting  Churches  (4  vols.,  London,  1808);  Wakeman,  The 
Church  and  the  Puritans,  1.570-1660  in  Creighton,  Epochs  of 
Church  History  (London.  1887);  Overton,  Life  in  the  English 
Church,  1660-1714  (London,  1885);  Abbey  and  Overton,  The 
English  Church  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (London,  1878):  Skeats 
AND  Miall,  Hist,  of  the  Free  Churches  of  England,  1688-1861 
(London,  1891) ;  Rees,  Hist,  of  Protestant  Nonconformity  in  Wales, 
1633-1861  (London.  1861);  Hetherinqton.  Hist,  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly  of  Divines  (Edinburgh,  1878);  Gould,  Docu- 
ments relating  to  the  Settlement  of  the  Church  of  England  by  the  Act 
of  Uniformity  of  1662  (2  vols.,  London,  1862);  Calamy.  Abridg- 
ment of  Mr.  Baxter's  Hist,  of  his  Life  and  Times,  with  an  account 
of  many  .  .  .  ministers  who  trfrr  ijected  .  .  .  and  a  continuation 
of  their  history  tilUI,,  ■,<■•  ;•  '/  '  \..~u.Um.  \~02);  The  Nonconform- 
ist's Memori'i!.  In  u  :  '  /  ///,'  Ministers  who  were  ejected 
or  silenced  iiflir  III,  I:  '  \i,\^.,  L.indon,  1775),  abridged 
and  corrected  cliii.,!,  l.^  I'm  mi  u  i  Lniidnn,  1802);  Walker,  An 
attempt  towards  rcconrinii  uii  account  of  the  numbers  and  sufferings 
of  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of  England.  .  .  in  the  late  times  of  the 
Grand  Rebellion  (London,  1714),  a  set-off  against  Calamy's  ac- 
count of  the  sufferers  in  1662;  Kennett,  Register  and  Chronicle 
.  .  .  containing  matter  of  fact,  with  notes  and  references  towards  dis- 
covering and  connecting  the  true  history  of  England  from  the  Restora- 
tion of  Charles  II  (London,  1728),  a  careful  criticism  of  Calamy's 

statistics.  Sydney  F.  Smith. 

None. — This  subject  will  be  treated  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads:  I.  Origin  of  None;  11.  None  from  the 
XI.— 7 


Fourth  to  the  Seventh  Century;  III.  None  in  the 
Roman  and  Other  Liturgies  from  the  Seventh  Cen- 
tury; IV.  Meaning  and  Symbolism  of  None. 

I.  Origin  of  None. — According  to  an  ancient 
Greek  and  Roman  custom,  the  day  was,  like  the  night, 
divided  into  four  parts,  each  consisting  of  three  hours. 
As  the  last  hour  of  each  division  gave  its  name  to  the 
respective  quarter  of  the  day,  the  third  division  (from 
12  to  about  .3)  was  called  the  None  (Lat.  nanus,  nana, 
ninth).  For  this  explanation,  which  is  open  to  objec- 
tion, but  is  the  only  probable  one,  see  FrancoUnus, 
"De  tempor.  horar.  canonicar.",  Rome,  1571,  xxi; 
Bona,  "De  divina  psalmodia",  III  (see  also  Matins 
and  Vigils).  This  division  of  the  day  was  in  vogue 
also  among  the  Jews,  from  whom  the  Church  bor- 
rowed it  (.see  Jerome,  "In  Daniel,"  vi,  10).  The  fol- 
lowing texts,  moreover,  favour  this  view:  "Now 
Peter  and  John  went  up  into  the  temple  at  the  ninth 
hour  of  prayer"  (Acts,  iii,  1);  "And  Cornelius  said: 
Four  days  ago,  unto  this  hour,  I  was  praying  in  my 
house,  at  the  ninth  hour,  and  behold  a  man  stood  be- 
fore me"  (Acts,  x,  30);  "Peter  went  up  to  the  higher 
parts  of  the  house  to  pray,  about  the  sixth  hour" 
(Acts,  x,  9).  The  most  ancient  testimony  refers  to 
this  custom  of  Terce,  Sext,  and  None,  for  instance 
TertuUian,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  the  Canons  of  Hip- 
polytus,  and  even  the  "Teaching  of  the  Apostles". 
The  last-mentioned  prescribed  prayer  thrice  each  day, 
without,  however,  fixing  the  hours  (AiSaxi  tQv  'Liroa- 
ToXuiv,  n.  viii). 

Clement  of  Alexandria  and  likewise  TertuUian, 
as  early  as  the  end  of  the  second  century,  expressly 
mention  the  hours  of  Terce,  Sexi:.,  and  None,  as 
specially  set  apart  for  prayer  (Clement,  "Strom.", 
VII,  vii,  in  P.  G.,  IX,  455-8).  TertuUian  says  ex- 
plicitly that  we  must  always  pray,  and  that  there  is  no 
time  prescribed  for  prayer;  he  adds,  nevertheless,  these 
significant  words:  "As  regards  the  time,  there  should 
be  no  lax  observation  of  certain  hours — I  mean  of 
those  common  hours  which  have  long  marked  the  di- 
visions of  the  day,  the  third,  the  sixih,  and  the  ninth, 
and  which  we  may  observe  in  Scripture  to  be  more 
solemn  than  the  rest"  ("De  Oratione",  xxiii,  xxv,  in 
P.  L.,  I,  1191-3). 

Clement  and  TertuUian  in  these  passages  refer  only 
to  private  prayer  at  these  hours.  The  Canons  of  Hip- 
polytus  also  speak  of  Terce,  Sext,  and  None,  as  suitable 
hours  for  private  prayer;  however,  on  the  two  station 
days,  Wednesday  and  Friday,  when  the  faithful  as- 
sembled in  the  church,  and  perhaps  on  Sundays,  these 
hours  were  recited  successively  in  public  (can.  xx,  xxvi). 
St.  Cyprian  mentions  the  same  hours  as  having  been 
observed  under  the  Old  Law,  and  adduces  reasons  for 
the  Christians  observing  them  also  ("De  Oratione", 
xxxiv,  in  P.  L.,  IV,  541).  In  the  fourth  century  there 
is  evidence  to  show  that  the  practice  had  become  obli- 
gatory, at  least  for  the  monks  (see  the  text  of  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions,  St.  Ephraem,  St.  Basil,  the  author 
of  the  "De  virginitate"  in  Baiimer-Biron,  op.  cit. 
in  bibliography,  pp,  116,  121,  123,  129,  186).  The 
prayer  of  Prime,  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  was  not 
added  till  a  later  date,  but  Vespers  goes  back  to  the 
earliest  days.  The  texts  we  have  cited  give  no  infor- 
mation as  to  what  these  prayers  consisted  of.  Evi- 
dently they  contained  the  same  elements  as  all  other 
prayers  of  that  time — psalms  recited  or  chanted,  canti- 
cles or  hymns,  either  privately  comijosed  or  drawn 
from  Holy  Writ,  and  litanies  or  prayers  properly  so- 
called. 

II.  None  from  the  Fourth  to  the  Seventh  Cen- 
tury.— The  eighteenth  canon  of  the  Council  of  Lao- 
dicea  (between  343  and  381)  orders  that  the  same 
prayers  be  always  said  at  None  and  Vespers.  But  it  is 
not  clear  what  meaning  is  to  be  attached  to  the  words 
\eiTovpyla  twp  eixui',  used  in  the  canon.  It  is  likely 
that  reference  is  made  to  the  famous  litanies,  in  which 
prayer  was  offered  for  the  catechumens,  sinners,  the 


NON   EXPEDIT 


98 


NON   EXPEDIT 


faitliful,  and  generally  for  all  the  wants  of  tho  Church. 
Sozomon  (in  a  passafio,  ho\vo\('r.  which  is  not  consid- 
ered very  authentic)  si)cak,s  of  Ihrcp  psahns  which  the 
monks  recited  at  None.  In  any  case,  this  number  be- 
came traditional  at  an  early  period  (Sozonien,  "Hist, 
eccl.",  Ill,  xiv,  in  P.  G.,  LXVII,  107i;-7;  cf.  Baiimer- 
Biron,  op.  cit.,  I,  136).  Three  psalms  were  recited 
at  Terce,  six  at  Scxt,  and  nine  at  None,  as  Ciissian 
informs  us,  though  ho  remarks  tliat  the  most  common 
practice  was  to  recite  three  psalms  at  each  of  these 
hours  (Cassian,  "Dc  ccrnob.  instit.",  Ill,  iii,  in  P.  L., 
XLIX,  IIG).  St.  Ambrose  speaks  of  three  hours  of 
prayer,  and,  if  with  many  critics  we  attribute  to  him 
the  three  hymns  "Jam  surgit  hora  tertia",  "  Bis  ternas 
boras  cxplicas",  and  "Ter  horas  trina  solvitur",  we 
shall  have  a  new  constitutive  element  of  the  Little 
Hours  in  tiie  fourth  century  in  the  Church  of  Milan 
(.Ambrose,  "De  virginibus".  III,  iv,  in  P.  L.,  XVI, 
225). 

In  the  "Pcregrinatio  ad  loca  sancta"  of  Etheria 
(end  of  fourth  century),  there  is  a  more  detailed 
description  of  the  Office  of  None.  It  resembles 
that  of  Sext,  and  is  celebrated  in  the  basilica  of  the 
Anastasis.  It  is  composed  of  psalms  and  antiphons; 
then  the  bishop  arrives,  enters  the  grotto  of  the  Resur- 
rection, recites  a  prayer  there,  and  blesses  the  faithful 
("Peregrinatio",  p.  46;  cf.  Cabrol,  "Etude  sur  la  Per- 
egrinatio  Sylvia;",  45).  During  Lent,  None  is  cele- 
brated in  the  church  of  Sion ;  on  Sundays  the  office  is 
not  celebrated;  it  is  omitted  also  on  Holy  Saturday, 
but  on  Good  Friday  it  is  celebrated  with  special  sol- 
emnity (Peregrinatio,  pp.  5.3,  66,  etc.).  But  it  is 
only  in  the  succeeding  age  that  we  find  a  complete 
description  of  None,  as  of  the  other  offices  of  the 
day. 

III.  None  in  the  Roman  and  Other  Litukgies 
PROM  THE  Seventh  Century. — In  the  Rule  of  St. 
Benedict  the  four  Little  Hours  of  the  day  (Prime  to 
None)  are  conceived  on  the  same  plan,  the  formulae 
alone  varying.  The  office  begins  with  Deus  in  ad- 
jutorium,  like  all  the  Hours;  then  follows  a  hymn, 
special  to  None;  three  psalms,  which  do  not  change 
(Ps.  cxxv,  cxxvi,  cx.xvii),  except  on  Sundays  and  Mon- 
days when  they  are  replaced  by  three  groups  of  eight 
verses  from  Ps.  cxviii;  then  the  capitulum,  a  versicle, 
the  KjTie,  the  Pater,  the  oratio,  and  the  concluding 
prayers  (Regula  S.  P.  Benedicti,  x\ni).  In  the  Roman 
Liturgy  the  office  of  None  is  likewise  constructed  after 
the  model  of  the  Little  Hours  of  the  day;  it  is  composed 
of  the  same  elements  as  in  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
with  this  difference,  that,  instead  of  the  three  psalms, 
cxxv-vii,  the  three  groups  of  eight  verses  from  Ps. 
cxviii  are  always  recited.  There  is  nothing  else  char- 
acteristic of  this  office  in  this  liturgy.  The  hymn, 
which  was  added  later,  is  the  one  already  in  use  in  the 
Benedictine  Office — "Rerum  Deus  tenax  vigor".  In 
the  monastic  rules  prior  to  the  tenth  century  certain 
variations  are  found.  Thus  in  the  Rule  of  Lerins,  as 
in  that  of  St.  Ciesarius,  six  psalms  are  recited  at  None, 
as  at  Terce  and  Sext,  with  antiphon,  hymn,  and  capi- 
tulum. 

St.  Aurelian  follows  the  same  tradition  in  his 
Rule  "Ad  virgines",  but  he  imposes  twelve  psalms 
at  each  hour  on  the  monks.  St.  Columbanus,  St. 
Fructuosus,  and  St.  Isidore  adopt  the  system  of  three 
psalms  (cf.  Martene,  "De  antiq.  monach.  rit.",  IV, 
27).  Like  St.  Benedict,  most  of  these  authors  include 
hymns,  the  capitulum  or  short  lesson,  a  versicle,  and 
an  oratio  (cf.  Martene,  loc.  cit.).  In  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries  we  find  some  additions  made  to  the 
Office  of  None,  in  particular  litanies,  collects,  etc. 
(Martfine,  op.  cit.,  IV,  28). 

IV.  Meaning  and  Symbolism  of  None. — Among 
the  ancients  the  hour  of  None  was  regarded  as  the 
close  of  the  day's  business  and  the  time  for  the  baths 
and  supper  (Martial.  "Epigrams",  IV,  viii;  Horace, 
"Epistlea",  I,  vii,  70).    At  an  early  date  mystical  rea- 


sons for  the  division  of  the  day  were  sought.  St.  Cyp- 
rian sees  in  the  hours  of  Terce,  Sext  and  None,  which 
come  after  a  lapse  of  three  hours,  an  allusion  to  the 
Trinity.  He  adds  that  these  hours  already  conse- 
crated to  prayer  under  the  Old  Dispensation,  have 
boon  sanctified  in  the  New  Teslanu'nt  by  great  mys- 
teries— Terce  by  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the 
Apostles;  Sext  by  the  prayers  of  St.  Peter,  the  recep- 
tion of  the  Gentiles  into  the  Church,  or  yet  again  by 
the  crucifixion  of  Our  Lord;  None  by  the  death  of 
Christ  ("De  oratione",  xxxiv,  in  P.  L.,  IV,  541).  St. 
Basil  merely  recalls  that  it  was  at  the  ninth  hour  that 
the  Apostles  Peter  and  John  wore  wont  to  go  to  the 
Temple  to  pray  ("  Regida'  fusius  tract.",  XXXVII,  n. 
3,  in  P.  G.,  XXXI,  lOi:!  sq.).  Cassian,  who  adopts 
the  Cyprian  interpretation  for  Terce  and  Sext,  sees  in 
the  Hour  of  None  the  descent  of  Christ  into  hell  (De 
coenob.  instit..  Ill,  iii).  But,  as  a  rule,  it  is  the  death 
of  Christ  that  is  commemorated  at  the  Hour  of 
None. 

The  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages  have  sought  for 
other  mystical  explanations  of  the  Hour  of  None. 
Araalarius  (III,  vi)  explains  at  length,  how,  like  the 
sun  which  sinks  on  the  horizon  at  the  Hour  of  None, 
man's  spirit  tends  to  lower  itself  also,  he  is  more  open 
to  temptation,  and  it  is  the  time  the  demon  selects  to 
try  him.  For  the  texts  of  the  Fathers  on  this  subject 
it  will  suffice  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  above-men- 
tioned work  of  Cardinal  Bona  (c.  ix).  The  same  writ- 
ers do  not  fail  to  remark  that  the  number  nine  was 
considered  by  the  ancients  an  imperfect  number,  an 
incomplete  number,  ten  being  considered  perfection 
and  the  complete  number.  Nine  was  also  the  number 
of  mourning.  Among  the  ancients  the  ninth  day  was 
a  day  of  expiation  and  funeral  service — novemdiale 
sacrum,  the  origin  doubtless  of  the  novena  for  the 
dead. 

As  for  the  ninth  hour,  some  persons  believe  that  it 
is  the  hour  at  which  our  first  parents  were  driven  from 
the  Garden  of  Paradise  (Bona,  op.  cit.,  ix,  §  2).  In 
conclusion,  it  is  necessary  to  call  attention  to  a  prac- 
tice which  emphasized  the  Hour  of  None — it  was  the 
hour  of  fasting.  At  first,  the  hour  of  fasting  was  pro- 
longed to  Vespers,  that  is  to  say,  food  was  taken  only 
in  the  evening  or  at  the  end  of  the  day.  Mitigation  of 
this  rigorous  practice  was  soon  introduced.  Tertul- 
lian's  famous  pamphlet  "De  jejunio",  rails  at  length 
against  the  Psychics  (i.  e.  the  Catholics)  who  end 
their  fast  on  station  days  at  the  Hour  of  None,  while 
he,  Tertullian,  claims  that  he  is  faithful  to  the  ancient 
custom.  The  practice  of  breaking  the  fast  at  None 
caased  that  hour  to  be  selected  for  Mass  and  Com- 
munion, which  were  the  signs  of  the  close  of  the  day. 
The  distinction  between  the  rigorous  fast,  which  was 
prolonged  to  Vespers,  and  the  mitigated  fast,  ending 
at  None,  is  met  with  in  a  large  number  of  ancient  docu- 
ments (.see  Fast). 

Francountts,  De  temp,  horar.  canonicar.  (Rome,  1571),  xxi; 
Amalarius,  De  ecde.^.  njUcit.^,  IV.  vi:  Durandus,  Rationale,  V,  i 
eq.;  BotiA,  De  divi'Ki  /-  ^ilni.'^ii.i ,  iw'DvCA'SOE.GlossaTiuTninfima 
Latinitatis,9.v.  U'T'  ]  \'ir\i,  Glossariummediw  GrcEcita- 

tis,  8.  v.'JJpai;  Mil:  I.     I     /'     , nch.  rit.,  IV,  12,  27,  28,    etc.; 

Haeften. ZJisguiNi/,  1/  ,  ,  '■  i  i r:i(-t.  ii,  ix,  etc.;  Probst,  fireiner 
u.  Breviergebet  (Tuhingcn,  islj.s),  22  etc.;  Baumer-Biron,  Hist, 
du  Breviaire,  I,  G3,  7'.i,  11(3,  etc.;  Cabrol  and  Leclercq,  Monum. 
Liturg.  (Paris,  1902),  gives  the  texts  from  the  Fathers  to  the 
fourth  century:  Talhofer,  Handbuch  der  kathol.  Liturg.,  II 
(1893),  458.. 

F.  Cahrol. 

Non  Espedit  (It  is  not  expedient). — Words  with 
which  the  Holy  See  enjoined  upon  Italian  Catholics 
the  policy  of  abstention  from  the  polls  in  parliamen- 
tary elections.  This  policy  was  adopted  after  a  period 
of  uncertainty  and  of  controversy  which  followed  the 
promulgation  of  the  Constitution  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy  (1861),  and  which  was  intensified  by  laws  hos- 
tile to  the  Church  and,  especially,  to  the  religious 
orders  (1865-66).  To  this  uncertainty  the  Holy 
Penitentiary  put  an  end  by  its  decree  of  29  February, 


NON-JURORS 


99 


NONNOTTE 


1868,  in  which,  in  the  above  words,  it  sanctioned  the 
motto:  "Neitiier  elector  nor  elected".  UntU  then 
there  had  been  in  the  Italian  Parliament  a  few 
eminent  representatives  of  Catholic  interests — Vito 
d'Ondes  Reggio,  Augusto  Conti,  Cesare  Cantil,  and 
others.  The  principal  motive  of  this  decree  was 
that  the  oath  talcen  by  deputies  might  be  interpreted 
as  an  approval  of  the  spoliation  of  the  Holy  See,  as 
Pius  IX  declared  in  an  audience  of  11  October,  1874. 
A  practical  reason  for  it,  also,  was  that,  in  view  of  the 
electoral  law  of  that  day,  by  which  the  electorate  was 
reduced  to  650,000,  and  as  the  Government  manipu- 
lated the  elections  to  suit  its  own  purposes,  it  would 
have  been  hopeless  to  attempt  to  prevent  the  passage 
of  anti-Catholic  laws.  On  the  other  hand,  the  masses 
seemed  unprepared  for  parliamentary  government, 
and  as,  in  the  greater  portion  of  Italy  (Parma,  Mo- 
dena,  Tuscany,  the  Pontifical  States,  and  the  King- 
dom of  Naples),  nearly  all  sincere  Catholics  were 
partizans  of  the  dispossessed  princes,  they  were  liable 
to  be  denounced  as  enemies  of  Italy;  they  would  also 
have  been  at  variance  with  the  Catholics  of  Piedmont 
and  of  the  provinces  wrested  from  Austria,  and  this 
division  would  have  further  weakened  the  Catholic 
Parliamentary  group. 

As  might  be  expected,  this  measure  did  not  meet 
with  universal  approval:  the  so-called  Moderates 
accused  the  Catholics  of  failing  in  their  duty  to 
society  and  to  their  country.  In  1S82,  the  suffrage 
having  been  extended,  Leo  XIII  took  into  serious 
consideration  the  partial  abolition  of  the  restrictions 
established  by  the  Non  Expedit,  but  nothing  was 
actually  done  (cf.  "Archiv  fiir  kathol.  Kirchenrecht ", 
1904,  p.  396).  On  the  contrary,  as  many  people 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  decree  Non  Expedit 
was  not  intended  to  be  absolute,  •  but  was  only  an 
admonition  made  to  apply  upon  one  particular 
occasion,  the  Holy  Office  declared  (30  Dec,  1886) 
that  the  rule  in  question  implied  a  grave  precept, 
and  emphasis  was  given  to  this  fact  on  several  subse- 
quent occasions  (Letter  of  Leo  XIII  to  the  Cardinal 
Secretary  of  State,  14  May,  1895;  Congregation  of 
Extraordinary  Affairs,  27  January,  1902;  Pius  X, 
Molu  proprio,  18  Dec,  1903).  Later,  Pius  X,  by  his 
encychcal  "II  fermo  proposito"  (11  June,  1905) 
modified  the  Non  Expedit,  declaring  that,  when  there 
was  question  of  preventing  the  election  of  a  "subver- 
sive" candidate,  the  bishops  could  ask  for  a  sus- 
pension of  the  rule,  and  invite  the  Catholics  to  hold 
themselves  in  readiness  to  go  to  the  polls.   (See  Mar- 

GOTTI,  GlACOMO.) 

Cimltd  Callolica  (Rome),  ser.  VIII,  IV,  652;  VI,  51;  VIII.  653; 
VIII,  362;    Queslioni  politico-rdigiose  (Rome,  1905). 

U.  Benigni. 

Non-Jurors,  the  name  given  to  the  Anglican 
Churchmen  who  in  ItlS!)  refu.sed  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  William  ami  Mary,  and  their  successors 
under  the  Protestant  Succession  Act  of  that  year. 
Their  leaders  on  tlie  episcopal  bench  (William  San- 
croft,  Archbisho])  of  Canterbury,  and  Bishops  Francis 
Turner  of  Ely,  William  Lloyd  of  Norwich,  Thomas 
White  of  Peterborough,  William  Thomas  of  Worcester, 
Thomas  Ken  of  Bath  and  Wells,  John  Lake  of  Chi- 
chester, and  Thomas  Cartwright  of  Chester)  were  re- 
quired to  take  the  oath  before  1  August,  under  pain 
of  suspension,  to  be  followed,  if  it  were  not  taken 
by  1  Feb.,  by  total  deprivation.  Two  of  them  died 
before  this  last  date,  but  the  rest,  persisting  in  their 
refusal,  were  deprived.  Their  example  was  followed 
by  a  multitude  of  the  clergy  and  laity,  the  number 
of  the  former  being  estimated  at  about  four  him- 
dred,  conspicuous  among  whom  were  George  Hickes, 
Dean  of  Worcester,  Jeremy  Collier,  John  Kettle  well, 
and  Robert  Nelson.  A  list  of  these  Non-jurors  is 
given  in  Hickes's  "Memoirs  of  Bishop  Kettlewell", 
and  one  further  completed  in  Overton's  "  Non-jurors". 
The  original  Non-jurors  were  not  friendly  towards 


James  II;  indeed  five  of  these  bishops  had  been  among 
the  seven  whose  resistance  to  his  Declaration  of  Indul- 
gence earlier  in  the  same  year  had  contributed  to  t  he 
invitation  which  caused  the  Prince  of  Orange  to  come 
over.  But  desiring  William  and  Mary  as  regents 
they  distinguished  between  this  and  accepting  them  as 
sovereigns,  regarding  the  latter  as  inconsistent  with 
the  oath  taken  to  James.  Deprived  of  their  benefices 
the  bishops  fell  into  great  poverty,  and  suffered  occa- 
sional though  not  systematic  persecution.  That  they 
were  truly  conscientious  men  is  attested  by  sacrifices 
courageously  made  for  their  convictions.  Their  lives 
were  edifjdng,  some  consenting  to  attend,  as  laymen, 
the  services  in  the  parish  churches.  Still,  when  cir- 
cumstances permitted,  they  held  secret  ser\'ices  of 
their  own,  for  they  firmly  believed  that  they  had  the 
tnie  Anglican  succession  which  it  was  their  duty  to 
preserve.  Hence  they  felt,  after  some  hesitation,  that 
it  was  incumbent  on  them  to  consecrate  others  who 
should  succeed  them.  The  first  who  were  thus  conse- 
crated, on  24  Feb.,  1693,  were  George  Hickes  and  John 
Wagstaffe.  On  29  May,  1713,  the  other  Non-juring 
bishops  being  all  dead,  Hickes  consecrated  Jeremy 
Collier,  Samuel  Hawes,  and  Nathaniel  Spinkes.  When 
James  II  died  in  1701,  a  crisis  arose  for  these  separat- 
ists. Some  of  them  then  rejoined  the  main  body  of 
their  co-religionists,  whilst  others  held  out  on  the 
ground  that  their  oath  had  been  both  to  James  and  to 
his  rightful  neirs.  These  latter  afterwards  disagreed 
among  themselves  over  a  question  of  rites.  The 
death  of  Charles  Edward  in  1788  took  away  the  raison 
d'etre  for  the  schism,  but  a  few  lingered  on  till  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  Scotland  in  1689  the 
whole  body  of  Bishops  refused  the  oath  and  became 
Non-jurors,  but  the  resulting  situation  was  somewhat 
different.  As  soon  as  the  Revolution  broke  out  the 
Presbyterians  ousted  the  Episcopalians  and  became 
the  Established  Kirk  of  Scotland.  Thus  the  Non- 
jurors were  left  without  rivals  of  their  own  commun- 
ion, though  they  had  at  times  to  suffer  penalties  for 
celebrating  unlawful  worship.  Their  difficulties  ter- 
minated in  1788,  when  on  the  death  of  Charles  Ed- 
ward they  saw  no  further  reason  for  withholding  the 
oath  to  George  III. 

Hickes,  Memorials  of  the  Life  of  John  Kettlewell  (London, 
1718);  Lathburt,  A  history  of  the  Non-jurors,  their  controversies, 
and  writings  (London,  1845);  Grub,  An  Ecclesiastical  History  of 
Scotland  (4  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1861);  Overton,  William  Law, 
Non-juror  and  Mystic  (London,  ISSl) ;  Plumptree,  Life  of  Thomas 
Ken  (2  vols.,  London,  1S8S) ;  Carter,  Life  and  Times  of  John 
Kettlewell  (London,  1895) :  Overton,  The  Non-jurors,  their  Lives, 
Principles,  and  Writings  (London,  1902). 

Sydney  F.  Smith. 

Norma,  Saint.  See  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  Saint. 

Nonnotte,  Claude-Adrien,  controversialist;  b.in 
Bcsangon,  29  July,  1711;  d.  there,  3  September,  1793. 
At  nineteen  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  and 
preached  at  Amiens,  Versailles,  and  Turin.  He  is 
chiefly  known  for  his  writings  against  Voltaire.  When 
the  latter  began  to  issue  his  "Essai  sur  les  moeurs" 
(1754),  an  attack  on  Christianity,  Nonnotte  published, 
anonymously,  the  "  Examen  critique  ou  Refutation  du 
livre  des  moeurs";  and  when  Voltaire  finished  his 
publication  (1758),  Nonnotte  revised  his  book,  which 
he  published  at  Avignon  (2  vols.,  1762).  He  treated, 
simply,  calmly,  and  dispassionately,  all  the  historical 
and  doctrinal  errors  contained  in  Voltaire's  work. 
Nonnotte's  work  reached  the  sixth  edition  in  1774. 
Voltaire,  exasperated,  retorted  in  his  "Eclaircisse- 
ments  historiques  ",  and  for  twenty  years  continued  to 
attack  Nonnotte  with  sarcasm,  insult,  or  calumny. 
Nev(>rtheless  Nonnotte's  publication  continued  to 
circulate,  and  was  translated  into  Italian,  German, 
Polish,  and  Portuguese.  After  the  suppression  of  the 
Jesuits,  Nonnotte  withdrew  to  Bcsangon  and  in  1779 
added  a  third  volume  to  the  "Erreurs  de  Voltaire", 
namely,  "L'esprit  de  Voltaire  dans  ses  Merits",  for 
which  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  the  approval  of  the 


NONNtTS 


100 


NORBERT 


Paris  censor.  ARiiinst  the  "Dirtionnairp  jiliilnso- 
phiciuc",  in  which  Voltaire  had  recapitulated,  inidcr 
a  popuhir  form,  all  his  attacks  on  Cliri.sliaiiil v, 
Nonnotte  publislicd  (he  "Diclionnairc  plul(isoplii(|uc 
de  la  religion"  (.\vignon,  1772).  in  which  lie  rcijlicd 
to  all  the  objections  (lion  brought  aKaiii.st  rcliKi<in. 
The  work  Wiis  (raiisl;L(c(l  into  Kalian  .and  German. 
Tow.ards  the  end  of  hi.s  life  Xoniiottc  published  "Les 
philosophes  des  (rois  premiers  sircles"  (Paris,  1789), 
m  which  he  con(ras(eil  (he  ancient  and  (he  modern 
philosophers.  The  work  was  transla(ed  into  (ierman. 
He  also  WTote  "Lettre  i  un  ami  snr  les  honn,etetes 
litt<;raires "  (Paris,  17G()),  and  "Reponsc  aux  Ecl.air- 
cissements  historiques  et  au.x  additions  de  Voltaire" 
(Paris,  1774).  These  publications  obtained  for  their 
author  a  eulogistic  Brief  from  Clement  XIII  (1768), 
and  the  congratulations  of  St.  Alphonsus  Liguori, 
who  declared  that  he  had  alwaj's  at  liand  his  "golden 
works"  in  which  the  chief  truths  of  the  Kaith  were  de- 
fended with  learning  and  propriety  against  the  objec- 
tions of  Voltaire  and  his  friends.  Nonnotte  was  also 
theauthorof  "L'emploi  de  I'argent"  (.Vvignon,  1787), 
translated  from  MalTei;  "Le  gouvernement  des  pa- 
roisses"  (posthumous,  Paris,  1802).  All  were  published 
under  the  title''CEuvresdeNonnotte"(Besan9on,  1819). 

L'ami  de  la  religion,  XXV,  385;  Sabatier  de  Castres,  Les 
tTois  siicles  de  la  littiralure  fran,:aise  (The  Hague,  1781);  Sommer- 
TOQEL,  Bib.  de  la  C.  de  J(sus  (Paris,  1894),  V,  1803-7;  IX,  722. 

Antoine  Degert. 

Nonnus,  of  Panopolis  in  Upper  Egypt  (c.  400),  the 
reputed  author  of  two  poems  in  hexameters;  one, 
AwfvamKd,  about  the  mysteries  of  Bacchus,  and  the 
other  the  "Paraphr.ose  of  the  Fourth  Gospel". 
Draseke  proposes  Apollinaris  of  Laodicea  (Theolog. 
Litteraturzeitung,  1891,  332),  and  a  fourteenth-cen- 
tury MS.  suggests  Ammonius  as  the  author  of  the 
"Paraphrase",  but  the  similarity  of  style  makes  it 
very  probable  that  the  two  poems  have  the  same  au- 
thor. Nonnus  would  then  seem  to  have  been  a  pagan 
when  he  wrote  the  first,  and  afterwards  to  have  be- 
come a  Christian.  Nothing  else  is  known  of  his  life. 
The  "Paraphrase"  is  not  completely  extant;  3750 
lines  of  it,  now  divided  into  twenty-one  chapters,  are 
known.  It  has  some  importance  as  evidence  of  the 
text  its  author  used,  and  has  been  studied  as  a  source 
of  textual  criticism  (Blass,  "Evang.  sec.  loh.  cum 
varise  lectionis  delectu",  Leipzig,  1902;  Janssen  in 
"Texte  u.  Untersuchungen",  XXIII,  4,  Leipzig, 
1903).  Otherwise  it  has  little  interest  or  merit.  It 
is  merely  a  repetition  of  the  Gospel,  verse  by  verse, 
inflated  with  fantastic  epithets  and  the  addition  of 
imaginarj'  details.  The  "Paraphrase"  was  first  pub- 
lished by  the  Aldine  Press  in  1.501.  The  edition  of 
Heinsius  (Leyden,  1627)  is  reprinted  in  P.  G.,  XLIII, 
749-1228.  The  best  modem  edition  is  by  Scheindler: 
"Nonni  Panopolitani  paraphrasis  s.  evang.  loannei" 
(Leipzig,  1881). 

Fabricics-Harles.  Bibl.graca,  VIII  (Ilamburg,  1802),  601-12; 
KoECHLT,  Opuscula  philaloaiea,  1  (Leipzig,  1881),  421-46;  Kinkel, 
Die  Ueberlieferung  der  Paraphrase  des  ev.  loh.  von  Nonnos,  I 
(Zurich,  1870);  Tiedke,  Nonniana  (Berlin,  1883). 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Norbert,  Saint,  b.  at  Xanten  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  near  We.sel,  c.  1080;  d.  at  Magdeburg,  6  June, 
1134.  His  father,  Heribert,  Count  of  (3ennep,  was 
related  to  the  imperial  house  of  Germany,  and  his 
mother,  Hadwigis,  was  a  descendant  of  the  ancient 
house  of  Lorraine.  A  stately  bearing,  a  penetrating 
intellect,  a  tender,  earnest  heart,  marked  the  future 
apostle.  Ordained  subdeacon,  Norbert  was  ap- 
pointed to  a  canonrj'  at  Xaiitcn.  Soon  after  he  was 
summoned  to  the  Court  of  Frederick,  Prince-Bishop  of 
Cologne,  and  later  to  that  of  Henry  V,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  whose  almoner  be  became.  The  Bishopric 
of  Cambray  was  olTered  to  him,  but  refused.  Nor- 
bert allowed  himself  to  be  so  carried  away  by  pleasure 
that  nothing  short  of  a  miracle  of  grace  could  make 


him  lead  the  life  of  an  earnest  cleric.  One  day,  while 
riding  to  Vreden,  a  village  near  .\;inten,  he  was  over- 
t:ikcn  by  a  storm.  A  tliunilerbolt  fell  at  his  horse's 
feet;  tlie  frightened  animal  threw  its  rider,  and  for 
ne:irly  an  hour  he  lay  like  one  dead.  Thus  humbled, 
Norbert  became  a  sincere  penitent.  Henouncing  his 
ai)pointment  at  Court,  he  retired  to  Xanten  to  lead  a 
life  of  penance. 

Understanding,  however,  that  he  stood  in  need  of 
guidance,  he  placed  himself  under  the  direction  of 
Cono,  Abbot  of  Siegburg.  In  gratitude  to  Cono, 
Norbert  founded  the  Abbey  of  I'iirstenberg,  endowed 
it  with  a  portion  of  his  property,  and  made  it  over  to 
Cono  and  his  Benedictine  successors.  Norbert,  was 
then  in  his  thirty-fifth  year.  Feeling  that  he  was 
called  to  the  priesthood,  he  presented  himself  to  the 
Bishop  of  Cologne,  from  whose  hands  he  received 
Holy  Orders.  After  a  forty  days'  retreat  at  Siegburg 
Abbey,  he  celebrated  his  first  Mass  at  Xanten  and 
preached  an  earnest  discourse  on  the  transitory  char- 
acter of  this  world's  i>lcasures  and  on  man's  duties 
towards  God.  The  insuKs  of  some  young  clerics,  one 
of  whom  even  spat  in  his  face,  he  bore  wi(  h  wonderful 
patience  on  that  occasion.  Norbert  often  went  to 
Siegburg  Abbey  to  confer  with  Cono,  or  to  the  cell  of 
Ludolph,  a  holy  and  learned  hermit-priest,  or  to  the 
Abbey  of  Klosterrath  near  Rolduc.  Accused  as  an  in- 
novator at  the  Council  of  Fritzlar,  he  resigned  all  his 
ecclesiastical  preferments,  disposed  of  his  es(ate,  and 
gave  all  to  the  poor,  reserving  for  himself  only  what  was 
needed  for  the  celebration  of  Holy  Mass.  Barefooted 
and  begging  his  bread,  he  journeyed  as  far  as  St.  Giles, 
in  Languedoc,  to  confer  with  Pope  Gelasius  concerning 
his  future  life.  Unable  to  keep  Norbert  at  his  court, 
Gelasius  granted  him  faculties  to  preach  wherever 
he  judged  proper.  At  Valenciennes  Norbert  met 
(March,  1119)  Burchard,  Bishop  of  Cambray,  whose 
chaplain  joined  him  in  his  apostolic  journeys  in  France 
and  Belgium.  After  the  death  of  Pope  Gelasius  (29 
January,  1119)  Norbert  wished  to  confer  with  his 
successor,  Calixtus  II,  at  the  Council  of  Reims  (Oct., 
1119).  The  pope  and  Bartholomew,  Bishop  of  Laon, 
requested  Norbert  to  found  a  religious  order  in  the 
Diocese  of  Laon,  so  that  his  work  might  be  per- 
petuated after  his  death.  Norbert  chose  a  lonely, 
marshy  valley,  shaped  in  the  form  of  a  cro.ss,  in  the 
Forest  of  Coucy,  about  ten  miles  from  Laon,  and 
named  Pr6montr6.  Hugh  of  Fosses,  Evermode  of 
Cambray,  Anthony  of  Nivelles,  seven  students  of  the 
celebrated  school  of  Anselm,  and  Ralph  at  Laon  were 
his  first  disciples.  The  young  community  at  first 
lived  in  huts  of  wood  and  clay,  arranged  like  a  camp 
around  the  chapel  of  St.  John  the  Bapti.st,  but  they 
soon  built  a  larger  church  and  a  monastery  for  the 
religious  who  joined  them  in  increasing  numbers. 
Going  to  Cologne  to  obtain  rehcs  for  their  church, 
Norbert  discovered,  through  a  vision,  the  spot  where 
those  of  St.  Ursula  and  her  companions,  of  St.  Gereon, 
and  of  other  martyrs  lay  hidden. 

Women  also  wished  to  become  members  of  the  now 
religious  order.  Blessed  Ricwera,  widow  of  Count 
Raymond  of  Clastres,  was  St.  Norbert's  first  spiritual 
daughter,  and  her  example  was  followed  by  women  of 
the  best  families  of  France  and  Germany.  Soon  after 
this,  Norbert  returned  to  Germany  and  preached  in 
Westphalia,  when  Godfrey,  Count  of  Kappenberg, 
offered  himself  and  gave  three  of  his  castles  to  be  made 
into  abbeys.  On  his  return  from  Germany,  Norbert 
was  met  by  Theobald,  Count  of  Champagne,  who 
wished  to  become  a  member  of  the  order;  but  Nor- 
bert insisted  that  God  wished  Theobald  to  marry 
and  do  good  in  the  world.  Theobald  agreed  to 
this,  but  begged  Norbert  to  prescribe  a  rule  of  life. 
Norbert  prescribed  a  few  rules  and  invested  Theobald 
with  the  white  scapular  of  the  order,  and  thus,  in 
1122,  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Norbert  was  instituted. 
The  aaint  was  soon  requested  by  the  Bishop  of  Cam' 


NORBERTINES 


101 


NORFOLK 


brai  to  go  and  combat  the  infamous  heresies  which 
Tanchelin  had  propagated,  and  wliich  had  their  cen- 
tre at  Antwerp.  As  a  result  of  his  preaching  the 
people  of  the  Low  Countries  abjured  their  heresies, 
and  many  brought  back  to  him  the  Sacred  Species 
which  they  had  stolen  and  profaned.  In  commem- 
oration of  this,  St.  Norbert  has  been  proclaimed  the 
Apostle  of  Antwerp,  and  the  feast  of  his  triumph  over 
the  Sacramentarian  heresy  is  celebrated  in  the  Arch- 
diocese of  Mechlin  on  11  July. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  order  was  marvellous,  and 
bishops  entreated  Norbert  to  found  new  houses  in 
their  dioceses.  Floreffe,  Viviers,  St-Jo.sse,  Ardenne. 
Cuissy,  Laon,  Liege,  Antwerp,  Varlar,  Kappenberg 
and  others  were  founded  during  the  first  five  years  of 
the  order's  existence.  Though  the  order  had  already 
ijeen  approved  by  the  pope's  legates.  Norbert,  ac- 
companied by  three  disciples,  journeyed  to  Rome,  in 
112.5,  to  obtain  its  confirmation  by  the  new  pope, 
Honorius  IL  The  Bull  of  Confirmation  is  dated  27 
February,  1126.  Pas-sing  through  Wiirzburg  on  his 
return  to  Pr6montr6,  Norbert  restored  sight  to  a  blind 
woman:  the  inhabitants  were  so  full  of  admiration 
for  him  that  they  spoke  of  electing  him  successor  to 
their  bishop  who  had  just  died,  but  Norbert  and  his 
companions  fled  secretly.  Soon  after  this,  on  his  way 
to  Ratisbon,  he  passed  through  Spier,  where  Lothair, 
King  of  the  Romans,  was  holding  a  diet,  the  papal 
legate  being  present.  Deputies  from  Magdeburg  had 
also  come  to  solicit  a  successor  to  their  late  archbishop, 
Rudger. 

The  papal  legate  and  Lothair  used  their  authority, 
and  obliged  Norbert  to  accept  the  vacant  see. 
On  taking  possession  of  it,  he  was  grieved  to  find  that 
much  property  belonging  to  the  Church  and  the  poor 
had  been  usurped  by  powerful  men,  and  that  many 
of  the  clergy  led  scandalous  lives.  He  succeeded  in 
converting  some  of  the  transgressors,  but  others  only 
became  more  obstinate,  and  three  attempts  were  made 
on  his  life.  He  resisted  Pietro  di  Leoni,  who,  as  anti- 
popp,  had  assumed  the  name  of  Anacletus  and  was 
master  in  Rome,  exerting  himself  at  the  Council  of 
Reims  to  attach  the  German  Emperor  and  the  Ger- 
man bishops  and  princes  more  firmly  to  the  cause  of 
Pope  Innocent  II. 

"Though  his  health  was  increasingly  dehcate,  Nor- 
bert accompanied  Lothair  and  his  army  to  Rome  to 
put  the  rightful  pope  on  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter,  and 
he  resisted  the  pope's  concession  of  the  investiture  to 
the  emperor.  Norbert,  whose  health  was  now  much 
impaired,  accompanied  the  Emperor  Lothair  back  to 
Germany  and  for  some  time  remained  with  him,  as- 
sisting him  as  his  chancellor  and  adviser.  In  March, 
1134,  Norbert  had  become  so  feeble  that  he  had 
to  be  carried  to  Magdeburg  where  he  died  on  the 
Wednesday  after  Pentecost.  By  order  of  the  em- 
peror, his  body  was  laid  at  rest,  in  the  Norbertine 
Abbey  of  St.  Mary,  at  Magdeburg.  His  tomb  be- 
came glorious  by  the  numerous  miracles  wrought 
there.  The  BoUandists  say  that  there  is  no  docu- 
ment to  prove  that  he  was  canonized  by  Innocent 
III.  His  canonization  was  by  Gregory  XIII  in  1582, 
and  his  cultus  was  extended  to  the  whole  church 
by  Clement  X. 

On  2  May,  1627,  the  saint's  body  was  trans- 
lated from  Magdeburg,  then  in  the  hands  of  Protes- 
tants, to  the  Abbey  of  Strahov,  a  suburb  of  Prague  in 
Bohemia.  The  Chancery  of  Prague  preserved  the 
abjurations  of  six  hundred  Protestants  who,  on  the 
day,  or  during  the  octave,  of  the  translation,  were 
reconciled  to  the  Catholic  Church.  On  that  occasion 
the  Archbishop  of  Prague,  at  the  request  of  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  authorities,  proclaimed  St.  Norbert 
the  Patron  and  Protector  of  Bohemia.  (For  history 
of  the  order,  see  Premonstratensi.^n  Canons.) 

Until  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  principal  source  for  the 
biography  of  St.  Norbert  was  a  MS.  usually  attributed  to  Hugo, 


the  saint's  first  disciple  and  successor,  of  which  numerous  copies 
had  been  made.  That  belonging  to  the  Abbey  of  Romersdorf, 
near  Coblentz,  Vita  Norherti,  auctore  canonico  prcBadjuvantc  Hu~ 
gone  ahhate,  Fossense,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  An  abridg- 
ment of  this  by  SuRlus  was  printed  in  1572:  the  whole  MS.,  with 
variants,  was  published  by  Abbot  Vander  Sterre  in  1656;  again, 
with  commentaries  and  notes,  by  P.vpebroch  in  Acta  5S..  XX. 
Then  followed:  Vander  Sterre.  Het  leven  van  den  H,  Norbertus 
(Antwerp,  1623):  on  Pr^,  La  Vie  de  S.  Norbert  (Paris,  1627); 
Camus.  U Homme  apostolique  en  S,  Norbert  (Caen,  1640) ;  C.  L. 
Hugo.  La  Vie  de  S,  Norbert  (Luxemburg.  1704) ;  Illana.  Historia 
del  Gran  Padre  y  Patriarca  5.  Norberto  (Salamanca.  1755). 

In  1856  a  MS.  Life  of  St.  Norbert  discovered  in  the  Royal  Li- 
brary, Berlin,  was  published  in  Pertz,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  differing 
in  many  particulars  from  the  Hugo  MSS.  mentioned  above.  The 
discovery  occasioned  a  great  revival  of  interest  in  the  subject,  and 
there  followed:  Tenkoff,  De  S.  Norberto  Ord.  Pram.  Conditore 
commentatio  historica  (Munster.  1855);  Scholz.  Vita  S.  Norherti 
(Breslau.  1859);  Winter,  Die  Prdmonstratenser  der  IS.  Jahrh, 
(Berlin.  1865):  Rosenmund.  Die  oltesten  Biographien  des  h.  Nor- 
bertus (Berlin.  1874);  Hertel,  Leben  des  h.  Norbert  (Leipzig. 
1881):  MuHLBACHER.  Die  streitige  Papstwahl  des  Jahres  1130 
(Innsbruck.  1876).  In  the  following  three  works,  the  publication 
of  Pertz  and  other  lately  discovered  documents  have  been  used: 
Geudens.  Life  of  St.  Norbert  (London.  1886) ;  Madelaine.  His- 
toire  de  S.  Norbert  (Lille.  1886)  (the  fullest  and  best-written  biog- 
raphy of  the  saint  so  far  published) ;  van  den  Elsen.  Levensge- 
schiedenis  van  den  H.  Norbertus  (Averbode.  1890). 

F.  M.  Geudens. 

Norbertines.   See  Premonstbatensian  Canons. 

Norcia,  Diocese  op  (Norsin),  a  city  in  Perugia, 
Italy,  often  mentioned  in  Roman  history.  In  the 
ninth  century  it  was  a  republic.  The  Dukes  of  Spoleto 
often  contended  with  the  popes  for  its  possession; 
when,  in  14.53,  the  communes  of  Spoleto  and  Cascia  de- 
clared war  against  Norcia,  it  was  defended  by  the 
pope's  general  Cesarini.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  St. 
Benedict;  the  abbots  St.  Spes  and  St.  Eutychius;  the 
monk  Florentius;  the  painter  Parasole;  and  the  physi- 
cian Benedict  Pegardati.  The  chief  industry  is  pre- 
serving meats.  'The  first  known  bishop  was  Stephen 
(c.  495).  From  the  ninth  century,  Norcia  was  in  the 
Diocese  of  Spoleto,  as  it  appears  to  have  been  tem- 
porarily in  the  time  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great.  The  see 
was  re-established  in  1820,  and  its  first  bishop  was 
Cajetan  Bonani.  Immediately  dependent  on  Rome, 
it  has  100  parishes;  28,000  inhabitants;  7  religious 
houses  of  women ;  3  schools  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  IV. 

U.  Benigni. 

Norfolk,  Catholic  Dukes  of.  Since  the  Refor- 
mation.— Under  this  title  are  accounts  only  of  the 
prominent  CathoHc  Diikos  of  Norfolk  since  the  Refor- 
mation; a  list  of  the  Dukes,  from  the  time  the  title 
passed  to  the  Howard  family,  is  prefixed. 

1.  John   (1430-1485),   created   fir.st  duke  of  the 

Howard  line  in  1483,  died  in  battle  in  1485. 

2.  Thomas   (1443-1524),  son.     Became  duke  in 

1514. 

3.  Thomas  (1473-1554),  son.    Succeeded  m  1524. 

4.  Thomas    (1536-1572),    grandson.      Succeeded 

in  1554.     Beheaded  in  1572. 

5.  Thomas     (1627-1677),     great-great-grandson. 

Dukedom  restored  in  1660. 

6.  Henry    (1628-1684),    brother.     Succeeded    in 

1677. 

7.  Henry  (165.5-1701),  son.     Succeeded  in  1684. 

8.  Thomas  (1683-1732),  nephew.     Succeeded  in 

1701. 

9.  Edward  (1685-1777),    brother.     Succeeded  in 

1732. 

10.  Charles   (1720-1786),    descendant  of  seventh 

duke.     Succeeded  in  1777. 

11.  Charles  (1746-1815),  son.     Succeeded  in  1786. 

12.  Bernard    Edward    (1765-1842),    third    cousin. 

Succeeded  in  1815. 

13.  Henry  Charles   (1791-18.56),  son.      Succeeded 

in  1842. 

14.  Henry  Granville  (1815-1800),  son.     Succeeded 

in  1S56. 

15.  Henry  Fitzalan  (1847-        ),  son.     Succeeded 

in"l860. 


NORFOLK 


102 


NORFOLK 


Thomas,    Thihd    Di'kk.    was    the   eldest    son    of  mart  vioIokisI  ",  was  assigned  as  his  tutor,  probably  to 

Thoinsis   Howard,  the  second   duke,  and   Klizabeth,  eilucalc  him  in  I'roleslant  principles.     In  l!i!>'S,  when 

daughter  of  Sir  F.  Tilney  of  Ashwellthorpe  Hall,  Nor-  Mary  released  his  gramlfather  from  prison,   Bishop 

folk.     In  14().T  he  w:vs  married  to  Lady  Anne,  daugh-  White  of  Lincoln  became  his  tutor.     Thomas  suc- 

ter  of  I'^dward  1\'.     He  fought  as  captain  of  the  van-  ceeded  his  grandfather,  as  duke,  in  1.').54,  and  became 

guard  at  Flodden  Field  in   I'A'S.     In   1.514  he  was  earl-marshal.     He    married,    in    1.5.5f),    Lady    Mary 


created  Karl  of  Surrey,  and  joined  his  father  in  oppos- 
ing Wolsey's  policy  of  depressing  the  old  nobility. 
In  1520-21  he  endeavoured  to  keep  peace  in  Ireland; 
recalled,  he  took  command  of  the  Fnglish  fleet  against 
France,  and  successfully  opposed  the  French  in  .Scot- 
land. In  l.')24  he  became  duke,  and  was  apjiointed 
commissioner  to  treat  for  peace  with  France.  With 
peace  abroad  came  the  burning  question  of  Henry's 


Fitzalan,  daughter  of  Henry,  twelfth  Earl  of  Arundel; 
in  l.')."iS,  Margaret,  daughter  of  Tliomas  Lord  Audley 
of  Walden;  and,  in  15(17,  Klizabeth,  widow  of  Thomas 
Dacre  of  CSilsland,  who  had  three  daughters.  By 
obtaining  a  grant  of  their  wanlship  and  intermarrying 
with  them  his  own  three  sons,  the  issue  of  former 
marriages,  he  absorbed  the  great  estates  of  the  Dacre 
family.     In  1568,  he  was  again  a  widower,  the  only 


divorce.     Norfolk,  uncle  of  Anne  Boleyn,  sided  with     English  duke,  the  wealthiest  man  in  England,  popular 
the  king  and.  as  president  of  the  privy  council,  hast-     and  ambitious.     Elizabeth  was  eager  to  win  one  of 


ened  the  cardinal's  ruin.  He 
became  Henry's  tool  in  dis- 
honourable purjioses  and  he 
acquiesced  in  his  lust  for  the 
spiritual  supremacy.  With 
Cromwell,  he  obtained  a  grant 
of  a  ijortion  of  the  possessions 
of  the  Priory  of  Lewes  and 
other  monastic  spoils.  He 
W!us  created  earl-marshal  in 
1533.  In  1.535  Norfolk  was 
a  leading  judge  in  the  trial 
of  Sir  Thomas  More.  In  1.536 
he  disbanded  the  "Pilgrim- 
age of  Grace"  with  false  as- 
surances, but  returned  next 
year  to  do  "dreadful  execu- 
tion". In  1.536  he  hanged  in 
chains,  at  York,  Fathers 
Rochester  and  Walworth,  two 
Carthusians.  Drastic  meas- 
ures of  devastation  marked 
his  whole  career  as  a  mili- 
tary leader.  He  shared  the 
King's  zeal  against  the  in- 
roads of  German  Protestant- 
ism. In  1534  he  had  "staid 
purgatory"  and  was  always 
in  favour  of  the  old  ortho- 
doxy, as  far  as  he  might  be 
allowed tosupport it.  In  1.5.39, 


Norfolk's  position  and  he  was 
given  a  part  in  the'  expulsion 
of  the  French  troops  from 
Scotland.  With  other  com- 
missioners, he  was  appointed 
to  sit  at  York  and  inquire  into 
the  causes  (jf  the  variance  be- 
tween Mary  Stuart  and  her 
subjects.  Circumstances,  at 
the  beginning  of  1.569,  com- 
bined to  awaken  the  fears  of 
English  nobles,  and  Arundel, 
Pembroke,  Leicester,  and 
others  saw  the  advantage  to 
be  gained  by  the  marriage, 
first  suggested  Ijy  Maitland, 
between  Norfolk  and  Mary; 
that  wlien  married  she  might 
be  safely  restored  to  the  Scot- 
tish throne  and  be  recog- 
nize(  1  as  Kl  izabet  h's  successor. 
Protestant  nobles,  however, 
looked  on  the  affair  with  sus- 
picion, and  Catholic  lords  in 
the  north  were  impatient  of 
long  delay.  But,  even  after 
the  council  had  voted  for 
the  settlement  of  the  Kng- 
lish  succession  by  Marys 
marriage  with  an  English 
noble,  Norfolk   proceeded 


Thomas  Howard,  Third  Dcke  of  Norfolk 

Hans  Holbein  the  Younger,  Windsor  Caatle  

when  the  bishops  could  not  agree  concerning  the  prac-  with  great  caution,  withdrew  from  court,  aroused 
ticesof  religion,  Norfolk  propo.sed  the  Six  Articles  to  the  Elizabeth's  suspicion  and  was  committed  to  the 
Lords,  theology  thus  becoming  matter  for  the  whole  Tower,  in  October,  1569.  On  his  abject  submission 
House.  As  an  old  man  he  served  against  a  rising  in  to  the  queen  and  renunciation  of  all  purpose  of  his 
Scotland,  and  in  the  French  wars  of  1544.  In  1546  he  alliance  with  Mary,  he  was  released  in  1570.  He  did 
was  accused  of  high  treason.  Evidence,  however,  was  not  keep  his  promise;  he  continued  to  correspond  with 
not  conclusive  against  him  until  Hertford,  and  other  the  Queen  of  Scots,  was  found  to  be  in  negotiation 
keen  enemies,  prevailed  upon  him,  as  a  prisoner  in  with  Ridolfi,  and  through  him  with  Philip  and  the 
the  Tower,  to  sign  his  confession  and  throw  himself  Catholic  Powers  abroad,  concerning  an  invasion  of 
on  the  King's  mercy.  A  bill  of  attainder  was  passed  England.  He  was  arraigned  for  high  treason  in  1571. 
in  Parliament,  and  orders  for  his  immediate  execution  After  eighteen  weeks'  confinement  in  the  Tower,  de- 
would  have  been  carried  into  effect  had  not  Henry  prived  of  books,  informed  of  the  trial  only  on  the 
died  on  the  previous  evening.  He  remained  a  pri.sone'r  previous  evening,  kept  in  ignorance  of  the  charges 
in  the  Tower  the  whole  of  Edward  VI's  reign  but  was  until  he  heard  the  indictment  at  the  bar,  and  refused 
released  on  Mary's  accession,  and  restored  to  the  the  aid  of  counsel  to  suggest  advice,  on  the  evidence 
dukedom  in  1553.  of  letters  and  extorted  confessions  from  others,  he 
His  long  experience  as  lord  high  steward  and  lieu-  was  condemned  to  death  by  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury, 


tenant-general  made  him  usefid  to  the  queen,  but 
he  lost  favour  by  his  rashness  and  his  failure  to  crush 
Wyat's  rebellion.  (See  Gairtln('r,  "Lollardy  and  the 
Reformation"   (London,   1908);  Gairdner,   "Hist,  of 


the  Lord  High  Steward,  and  twenty-six  peers  as  as- 
sessors (judges,  all  selected  by  the  queen's  ministers 
and  many  of  them  his  known  enemies).     After  much 

hesitation  on  the  p.art  of  Elizabeth  and  a  petition 

Engl.  Church  in  With  Century"  (London,  1902);  from  Parliament,  on  2  .June,  1572,  he  was  executed. 
"Letters  and  Papers,  Henry  VIII",  various  vol-  His  .sympathy  seemed  to  be  always  with  the  Catholic 
umes;  Creighton,  "Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.",  X  (London,  party,  but  his  policy  was  two-faced,  and  he  was  a 
1908).]  professed  adherent  of  the   Reformed   religion.     Cir- 

Thomas,  Fourth  Duke,  was  the  son  of  Henry  cumstanees  made  it  expedient  for  him  always  to  tem- 
Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey  and  Frances  Vere,  daughter  porize.  He  seems  to  have  been  led  on  by  the  course 
of  .John,  Earl  of  Oxford.  After  the  execution  of  his  of  events  and  not  to  have  realized  the  result  of  his 
father,  in  1547,  he  was,  by  order  of  privy  coimcil,  actions.  [See  State  Trials,  I  (London,  1776),  82; 
committed  to  the  charge  of  his  aunt,  and  Foxe,  "the     Froude,  "Hist,  of  Eng.",  IV  (London,  1866),  XX; 


NORIS 


103 


NORIS 


Labanoff,  "Lettrcs,  etc.  de  Marie  Stuart"  (1844), 
earlier  ed.  tr.  (1842);  Anderson,  "Collections  relating 
to  Marv"  (Edinburgh,  1727);  Creighton  in  "Diet,  of 
Nat.  Biog.",  X  (London,  1908). 

Henry,  Sixth  Duke,  the  second  son  of  Henry 
Frederick  Howard,  third  Earl  of  Arundel  and  Lady 
Elizabeth  Stuart,  was  educated  abroad,  as  a  Cath- 
olic. In  1669  he  went  as  ambassador  extraordinary 
to  Morocco.  In  1677  he  succeeded  his  brother  as 
duke,  having  previously  been  made  hereditary  earl- 
marshal.  During  the  Commonwealth  and  Protecto- 
rate he  lived  in  total  seclusion.  In  January,  1678,  he 
took  his.  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  but  in  August 
the  first  development  of  the  Titus  Gates  Plot  was 
followed  by  an  Act  for  disabling  Catholics  from  sitting 
in  either  house  of  Parliament.  He  would  not  comply 
with  the  oath  and,  suspected  of  doubtful  loyalty, 
withdrew  to  Bruges  for  three  years.  There  he  built  a 
house  attached  to  a  Franciscan  convent  and  enjoyed 
freedom  of  worship  and  scope  for  his  munificence. 
He  was  a  man  of  benevolent  disposition  and  gave 
away  the  greater  part  of  his  splendid  library,  and 
grounds  and  rooms  to  tlie  Royal  Society,  and  the 
Arundelian  marbles  to  Oxford  University.  Jealous 
of  the  family  honour,  he  compounded  a  debt  of 
£200,000  contracted  by  his  grandfather.  [See  Eve- 
lyn's "Miscellaneous  Writings"  (London,  1825).] 

Henry,  Seventh  Duke,  son  of  Henry,  si.xth  Duke, 
and  Lady  Anne  Somerset,  was  at  first  a  good  Catho- 
lic and  for  four  months  held  out  against  subscribing 
to  the  oath  as  a  peer  in  the  House  of  Lords.  After- 
wards he  became  a  pervert. 

Thomas,  Eighth  Duke,  was  brought  up  a  Catholic 
but  perverted  on  succeeding  to  the  dukedom. 

Edw.\rd,  Ninth  Duke,  did  much  to  promote  a 
more  liberal  treatment  of  Catholics  by  offering  a 
home  at  Norfolk  House  to  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  his  wife  at  the  time  of  the  birth  of  their  son,  after- 
wards George  III. 

Charles,  Tenth  Duke,  son  of  Charles  Howard  of 
Greystoke,  Cumberland,  and  Mary  Paylward,  was 
brought  up  a  Catholic.  Though  he  signed  a  petition 
for  relief  from  the  pressure  of  the  penal  laws,  he  led 
a  very  retired  life.  In  1764  he  published  "Considera- 
tions of  the  Penal  Laws  against  the  Roman  Catholics 
in  England  and  the  new-acquired  colonies  in  Amer- 
ica"; and  in  1768,  "Thoughts,  Essays,  and  Maxims, 
chiefly  Religious  and  Political". 

Charles,  Eleventh  Duke,  educated  at  the  Eng- 
lish College  at  Douai,  was  a  man  of  dissolute  life  and 
had  conformed  to  the  State  religion  by  1780. 

Bernard  Edward.  Twelfth  Duke,  eldest  son  of 
Henry  Howard  of  Glossop,  and  Juliana,  daughter  of 
Sir  William  Molyneux  of  Willow,  Nottinghamshire. 
In  1789  he  married  Elizabeth  Bellasis,  daughter  of 
Henry,  Earl  of  Fauconberg.  but  was  divorced,  by  Act  of 
Parliament,  in  1794.  On  the  death  of  his  third  cousin, 
in  1815,  he  succeeded  to  the  dukedom.  Although 
a  Catholic,  he  was  allowed,  by  Act  of  Parliament 
in  1824,  to  exercise  the  hereditary  office  of  earl- 
marshal.  After  the  Relief  Bill  of  1829  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  full  exercise  of  his  ancestral  privileges; 
he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  where  he  was  a 
steady  supporter  of  the  Reform  Bill,  and  in  1830  was 
noniinated  as  privy  councillor.  [See  Gent.  Mag.,  I 
(1842),  542.] 

Henry  Charles,  Thirteenth  Duke,  only  son  of 
Bernard  Edward  and  Elizabeth  Bellasis.  He  was 
baptized  a  Catholic  but  did  not  practise  his  religion. 
In  1814  he  married  Lady  Charlotte  Leveson-Gower, 
daughter  of  George,  Duke  of  Sutherland,  and  in  1815 
he  became,  as  heir,  Earl  of  Arundel  and  Surrey.  In 
1829,  after  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act,  he  took 
the  oath  and  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Commons  (the 
first  Catholic  since  the  Reformation).  In  1841  he 
eat  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In  politics  he  was  a 
stanch  member  of  the  Whig  party.     In  1842  he  suc- 


ceeded his  father  as  Duke  of  Norfolk.  He  died  at 
Arundel  in  1856.  Canon  Tierney  was  chaplain  at 
the  time  of  his  death.  [See  London  Times  (19  Feb.', 
1856);  Gent.  Mag.  (April,  1856),  419.] 

Henry  Granville  Fitzalan,  Fourteenth  Duke, 
eldest  son  of  Henry  Charles  Howard  and  Charlotte, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Sutherland,  was  educated 
privately,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  en- 
tered the  army  but  retired  on  attaining  the  rank 
of  captain.  In  1839  he  married  the  daughter  of 
Admiral  Sir  Edmund  (afterwards  Lord)  Lyons,  the 
ambassador  at  Athens.  From  1837  to  1S42  he  was  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons,  a  Whig,  until  he 
broke  with  his  party  on  the  introduction  of  the  Eccle- 
siastical Titles  Bill  of  1850.  In  1850,  as  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In 
1839  he  attended  the  services  of  Notre-Dame  in  Paris 
and  made  the  acquaintance  of  Montalembert.  This 
resulted  in  his  conversion  to  Catholicism,  and  Monta- 
lembert describes  him  as  "the  most  pious  layman  of 
our  times".  Cardinal  Wiseman,  in  a  pastoral  letter, 
at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1860,  referred  to  his  benevo- 
lent nature:  "There  is  not  a  form  of  want  or  a 
peculiar  application  of  alms  which  has  not  received  his 
relief  or  co-operation".  He  wrote:  "Collections 
relative  to  Catholic  Poor  Schools  throughout  Eng- 
land", MS.  folio,  134,  pp.  1843;  "A  few  Remarks  on 
the  Social  and  Political  Condition  of  British  Cath- 
olics" (London,  1847);  Letter  to  J.  P.  Plumptre  on 
the  Bull  " In  Ccena  Domini"  (London,  1S4S);  "Ob- 
servations on  Diplomatic  Relations  with  Rome" 
1848.  He  edited  from  original  MSS.  the  "Lives  of 
Philip  Howard  and  Anne  Dacres"  (London,  1857  and 
1861).  [See  "Gent.  Mag."  (Jan.,  1861);  "London 
Times"  (27  Nov.  and  4  Dec,  1860);  "London  Table" 
(1  Dec,  1860);  H.  W.  Freeland,  "Remarks  on  the 
Letters  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk"  (1874);  Monta- 
lembert, "Le  Correspondant"  (25  Dec,  1860),  766- 
776,  tr.  by  Goddard  at  the  end  of  his  Montalembert, 
"Pius  IX  and  France"  (Bo.slon,  Mass.,  1861).] 

Tierney.  Castle  and  I,,';,,,--.  .'  \rundd  (London,  1834); 
Howard.  Memorials  of  ih.    //  '  .,,l,v  Castle,  1834);  Gll/- 

how, Biog. Dicl.of  Engl.  r,,'.  .  I     ,,  |,,,i,  lSS.5-1902) ;  Lingard, 

History  of  England  (Lonili-n,  l^i",  /iirl.  ^at.  Biog.  (London, 
1908),  s.  V.  Howard. 

S.  Anselm  Parker. 

Noris,  Henry,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Verona,  29  August, 
1631.  of  English  ancestry;  d.  at  Rome,  23  Feb.,  1704. 
He  studied  under  the  Jesuits  at  Rimini,  and  there  en- 
tered the  no\'itiate  of  the  Hermits  of  Saint  Augustine. 
After  his  probation  he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  study 
theology.  He  taught  the  sacred  sciences  at  Pesaro, 
Perugia,  and  Padua,  where  he  held  the  chair  of  church 
history  in  the  university  from  1674  to  1692.  There 
he  completed  "The  History  of  Pelagianism",  and 
"Dissertations  on  the  Fifth  General  Council",  the 
two  works  which,  before  and  after  his  death,  occa^ 
sioned  much  controversy.  Together  with  the  "  Vindiciae 
Augustinianis"  they  were  printed  at  Padua  in  1673, 
having  been  approved  by  a  special  commission  at 
Rome.  Noris  himself  went  to  Rome  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  his  orthodoxy  before  this  commission;  and 
Clement  X  named  him  one  of  the  qualificators  of  the 
Holy  Office,  in  recognition  of  his  learning  and  sound 
doctrine.  But,  after  the  publication  of  these  works, 
further  charges  were  made  against  him  of  teaching  the 
errors  of  Jansenius  and  Baius.  In  a  brief  to  the  pre- 
fect of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,  31  July,  1748,  ordering 
the  name  of  Noris  to  be  taken  off  the  list  of  forbidden 
books,  Benedict  XIV  says  that  these  charges  were 
never  proved;  that  they  were  rejected  repeatedly  by 
the  Holy  Office,  and  repudiated  by  the  popes  who  had 
honoured  him.  In  1692  Noris  was  made  assistant  Li- 
brarian in  the  Vatican  by  Innocent  XII.  On  12 
December,  1695,  he  was  nanied  Cardinal-Priest  of  the 
Title  of  S.  Agostino.  In  1700  he  was  given  full  charge 
of  the  Vatican  Library.     His  works,  apart  from  some 


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104 


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minor  controversial  Iroatisi's,  arc  highly  valued  for  ac- 
curacy aiul  thorounlnicss  of  research.  In  addition  to 
(hose  already  named,  the  most  important  are:  "Annus 
ot  Kpochie  Syro-Macedonum  in  Vctustis  Urbium 
Syria'  Kxposita^";  "Fsisti  Consulares  Anonimi  e 
Manuscripto  Hibliotheca;  Ca!sare«  Deprompti"; 
"Historia  Controversial  de  I^no  ex  Trinitate  Passo"; 
"Apolopia  Monaclioruiii  Scythi;e";  "  Historia  Dona- 
tistarum  o  Sehedis  Xiirisiaiiis  I'Ac'crpta'";  "Storia 
delle  Investiture  delle  Difinita  Iscclesiasliehe".  Select 
portions  of  his  works  have  been  frequently  reprinted, 
at  Padua,  H>73-1(>7S,  1708;  at  Louvain,  ltO'2;  at  Bas- 
sano,  edited  by  Bert  i,  17tJ9.  The  best  is  the  edition 
of  all  the  works,  in  five  vols,  folio  by  the  Ballerini 
Brothers,  Verona,  1729-1741. 

HvRTEH,  NofnaicUilor.  KalhoUk,  I  (:SS4),  181;  Pietro  and 
GiROLAMO  Ballerini,  Vita  Norisii  in  tlicir  ed.  of  Noris"  works, 
IV  (Verona.  172'.1-41);  a  shorter  Life  is  prefixed  to  the  edition  of 
Padua.  I70S;  Lantf.ri,  Poslrema  Stecuta  6'ex  Religionis  Augus- 
(miun.f.  III  (Tolentino,  18.58),  64  sq. 

Francis  E.  Tourscher. 

Normandy,  ancient  French  province,  from  which 
five  "departments"  were  formed  in  1790:  Seine-Inferi- 
eure  ( Archdiocese  of  Rouen),  Eure  (Diocese  of  Evreux), 
Calvados  (Dioce.se  of  Bayeux),  Orne  (Diocese  of  Seez), 
Manche  (Diocese  of  Coutances).  The  Normans,  orig- 
inally Danish  or  Norwegian  pirates,  who  from  the 
ninth  to  the  tenth  century  made  numerous  incursions 
into  France,  gave  their  name  to  this  province.  In  the 
Gallo-Roman  period  Normandy  formed  the  so-called 
second  Lyonnaise  province  {Secunda  Lugdunensis). 
At  Thorigny  within  the  territory  of  this  province  was 
found  an  inscription  very  important  for  the  history 
of  the  worship  of  the  emperors  in  Gaul  and  of  the 
provincial  assembUes;  the  latter,  thus  meeting  for  this 
worship,  kept  up  a  certain  autonomy  throughout  the 
conquered  territory  of  Gaul.  Under  the  Merovin- 
gians the  Kingdom  of  Neustria  annexed  Normandy. 
About  843  Sydroc  and  his  bands  of  pillagers  opened 
the  period  of  Northman  invasions.  The  policy  of 
Charles  the  Bald  in  giving  money  or  lands  to  some  of 
the  Northmen  for  defending  his  land  against  other 
bands  was  unfortunate,  as  these  adventurers  readily 
broke  their  oath.  In  the  course  of  their  invasions  they 
slew  (858)  the  Bishop  of  Bayeux  and  (8.59)  the  Bishop 
of  Beauvais.  The  conversion  (862)  of  the  North- 
man, Weland,  marked  a  new  policy  on  the  part  of  the 
Carlo\angians;  instead  of  regarding  the  invaders  as 
intruders  it  was  admitted  that  they  might  become 
Christians.  Unlike  the  Saracens,  then  disturbing 
Europe,  the  Northmen  were  admitted  to  a  place  and  a 
role  in  Christendom. 

The  good  fortune  of  the  Northmen  began  with 
Rollo  in  Normandy  itself.  It  was  long  believed  that 
Rollo  came  by  sea  into  the  valley  of  the  Seine  in  876, 
but  the  date  is  rather  886.  He  destroyed  Bayeux, 
pillaged  Lisieux,  besieged  Paris,  and  reached  Lorraine, 
finally  establishing  himself  at  Rouen,  where  a  truce 
was  concluded.  His  installation  was  considered  so 
definitive  that  in  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century 
Witto,  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  consulted  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Reims  as  to  the  means  of  converting  the 
Northmen.  Rollo's  settlement  in  Normandy  was  rat- 
ified by  the  treaty  of  St.  Clair-sur-Epte  (911),  prop- 
erly speaking  only  a  verbal  agreement  between  Rollo 
and  Charles  the  Simple.  As  Duke  of  Normandy 
Rollo  remained  faithful  to  the  Carlovingian  dynasty 
in  its  struggles  with  the  ancestors  of  the  future  Cape- 
tians.  Thes(;  cordial  relations  between  the  ducal 
family  of  Normandy  and  French  royalty  provoked 
under  Rollo's  succe.ssor  William  Long-sword  (931-42) 
a  revolt  of  the  pagan  Northmen  settled  in  Cotentin 
and  Bessin.  One  of  their  lords  (jarh),  Riulf  by  name 
was  the  leader  of  the  movc^ment.  The  rebels  re- 
proached the  duke  with  being  no  longer  a  true  Scandi- 
navian and  "treating  the  French  as  his  kin.smen". 
Triumphant  for  a  time,  they  were  finally  routed  and 


the  aristocratic  spirit  of  {.\u-jiiiin  had  to  bow  before  the 
nioiiari-hical  princiijles  which  William  Long-sword 
infused  inlii  his  government. 

Anotlu:r  attempt  at  a  revival  of  paganism  was  made 
under  Richard  1  Sans  Peur  (the  T'earless,  942-96). 
He  was  only  two  years  old  at  his  father's  death.  .V 
year  later  (943)  the  Scandinavian  Sctric,  landing  in 
Normandy  with  a  band  of  pirali's,  induced  a  number 
of  Christian  Northmen  to  a])cistatizc;  among  them, 
one  Turmod  who  sought  to  make  a  pagan  of  the  young 
duke.  Hugh  the  (ireat,  Duke  of  France,  and  Louis 
IV,  King  of  France,  defeated  these  invaders  and  after 
their  victory  both  sought  to  set  up  their  own  power 
in  Normandy  to  the  detriment  of  the  young  Richard 
whom  Louis  IV  held  in  semi-captivity  at  Laon.  The 
landing  in  Normandy  of  the  King  of  Denmark, 
Harold  Bluetooth,  and  the  defeat  of  Louis  IV,  held 
prisoner  for  a  time  (94.'j),  constrained  the  latter  to 
sign  the  treaty  of  Gerberoy,  by  which  the  young  Duke 
Richard  was  re-established  in  his  possessions,  and  be- 
came, according  to  the  chronicler  Dudon  de  Saint- 
Quentin,  a  sort  of  King  of  Normandy.  The  attacks 
later  directed  against  Richard  by  the  Carlovingian 
King  Lothaire  and  Thibaut  le  Tricheur,  Count  of 
Chartres,  brought  a  fresh  descent  on  France  of  the 
soldiers  of  Harold  Bluetooth.  Ascending  the  Seine 
these  Danes  so  devastated  the  country  of  Chartres 
that  when  they  withdrew,  according  to  the  chronicler 
Guillaume  of  Jumieges,  there  was  not  heard  even  the 
bark  of  a  dog.  When  Eudes  of  Chartres,  brother-in- 
law  of  Richard  II  the  Good,  again  threatened  Nor- 
mandy (996-1020),  it  was  once  more  the  Scandinavian 
chieftains,  Olaf  of  Norway  and  Locmaii,  uiio  came  to 
the  duke's  aid.  So  attached  were  these  Scandinavi- 
ans to  paganism  that  their  leader  Olaf,  having  been 
baptized  by  the  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  was  slain  by 
them.  Although  they  had  become  Christian,  all 
traces  of  Scandinavian  paganism  did  not  disappear 
under  the  first  dukes  of  Normandy.  Rollo  walked 
barefoot  before  the  reliquary  of  St.  Guen,  but  he 
caused  many  relics  to  be  sold  in  England,  and  on  his 
death-bed,  according  to  Adhemar  de  Chabannes, 
simultaneously  caused  prisoners  to  be  sacrificed  to  the 
Scandinavian  gods  and  gave  much  gold  to  the 
churches.  Richard  I  was  a  great  builder  of  churches, 
among  them  St.  Ouen  and  the  primitive  cathedral  of 
Rouen,  St.  Michel  du  Mont,  and  the  Trinity  at  Fe- 
camp. Richard  II,  zealous  for  monastic  reform, 
brought  from  Burgundy  Guillaume  de  St.  B(5nigne; 
the  Abbey  of  Fecamp,  reformed  by  him,  became  a 
model  monastery  and  a  much  frequented  school. 

All  these  dukes  protected  the  Church,  but  the 
feudal  power  of  the  Church,  which  in  many  States  at 
that  time  limited  the  central  power,  was  but  little 
developed  in  Normandy,  and  it  was  to  their  kinsmen 
that  the  dukes  of  Normandy  most  often  gave  the 
Archdiocese  of  Rouen  and  other  sees.  Ecclesiastical 
life  in  Normandy  was  vigorous  and  well-developed; 
previous  to  the  eleventh  century  the  rural  parishes 
were  almost  as  numerous  as  they  are  to-day.  Thus 
Normandy  for  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  was  at  once 
a  sort  of  promontory  of  the  Christian  world  in  face  of 
Scandinavia  and  at  the  same  time  a  coign  of  Scandi- 
navia thrust  into  the  Christian  world.  Henceforth 
those  Danes  and  Scandinavians  who  under  the  name 
of  Normans  formed  a  part  of  Christendom,  never 
called  pagan  Danes  or  Scandinavians  to  their  aid 
unless  threatened  in  the  possession  of  Normandy;  un- 
der their  domination  the  land  became  a  .stronghold  of 
Christianity.  The  monastery  of  Fontenelle  (q.  v.) 
pur.sued  its  religious  and  literary  activity  from  the 
Merovingian  period.  The  "Chronicon  Fontanel- 
lense",  continued  to  1040,  is  an  important  source  for 
the  history  of  the  period.  The  ducal  family  of  Nor- 
mandy early  determined  to  have  an  historiographer 
whom  they  sought  in  France,  one  Dudon,  dean  of 
the  chapter  of  St.  Quentin,  who  between  1015-30 


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105 


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wrote  in  Latin  half  verse,  half  prose,  a  history  of  the 
family  according  to  the  traditions  and  accounts  trans- 
mitted to  him  by  Raoul,  Count  of  Ivry,  grandson  of 
Rollo  and  brother  of  Richard  I  Alinea.  Duke  Robert  the 
Devil  (1027-35)  was  already  powerful  enough  to  inter- 
fere efficaciously  in  the  struggles  of  Henry  I  of  France 
against  his  own  brother  and  the  Counts  of  Champagne 
and  Flanders.  In  gratitude  the  king  bestowed  on 
Robert  the  Devil,  Pontoise,  Chaumont  en  Vexin,  and 
the  whole  of  French  Vexin.  It  was  under  Robert  the 
Devil  that  the  ducal  family  of  Normandy  first  cast 
covetous  glances  towards  England.  He  sent  an  em- 
bassy to  Canute  the  Great,  King  of  England,  in  order 
that  the  sons  of  Ethelred,  Alfred  and  Edward,  might 
recover  their  patrimony.  The  petition  having  been 
denied  he  made  ready  a  naval  expedition  against 
England,  destroyed  by  a  tempest.  He  died  while  on 
a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 

It  was  reserved  for  his  son  William  the  Bastard, 
later  called  William  the  Conqueror,  to  make  England 
a  Norman  colony  by  the  expedition  which  resulted  in 
the  victory  of  Hastings  or  Senlac  (1066).  It  seemed, 
then,  that  in  the  second  half  of  the  eleventh  century  a 
sort  of  Norman  imperialism  was  to  arise  in  England, 
but  the  testament  of  William  the  Conqueror  which 
left  Normandy  to  Robert  Courte-Heuse  and  England 
to  William  Rufus,  marked  the  separation  of  the  two 
countries.  Each  of  the  brothers  sought  to  despoil  the 
other;  the  long  strife  which  Robert  waged,  first  against 
William  Rufus,  afterwards  against  his  third  brother 
Henry  I  Beauclerc,  terminated  in  1106  with  the  battle 
of  Tinchebray,  after  which  he  was  taken  prisoner  and 
brought  to  Cardiff.  Thenceforth  Normandy  was  the 
possession  of  William  I,  King  of  England,  and  while 
forty  years  previous  England  seemed  about  to  become 
a  Norman  country,  it  was  Normandy  which  became 
an  English  country;  history  no  longer  speaks  of  the 
ducal  family  of  Normandy  but  of  the  royal  family  of 
England.  Later  Henry  I,  denounced  to  the  Council 
of  Reims  by  Louis  VI  of  France,  explained  to  Callistus 
II  in  tragic  terms  the  condition  in  which  he  had  found 
Normandy.  "The  duchy",  said  he,  "  was  the  prey  of 
brigands.  Priests  and  other  servants  of  God  were  no 
longer  honoured,  and  paganism  had  almost  been  re- 
stored in  Normandy.  The  monasteries  which  our 
ancestors  had  founded  for  the  repose  of  their  souls 
were  destroyed,  and  the  religious  obliged  to  disperse, 
being  unable  to  sustain  themselves.  The  churches 
were  given  up  to  pillage,  most  of  them  reduced  to 
ashes,  while  the  priests  were  in  hiding.  Their  pa- 
rishioners were  slaying  one  another."  There  may 
have  been  some  truth  in  this  description  of  Henry 
I;  however,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  Nor- 
man dukes  of  the  eleventh  century,  while  they  had 
prepared  and  realized  these  astounding  political 
changes,  had  also  developed  in  Normandy,  with  the 
help  of  the  Church,  a  brilliant  literary  and  artistic 
movement. 

The  Abbey  of  Bee  was  for  some  time,  under  the 
direction  of  Lanfranc  and  St.  Anselm,  the  foremost 
school  of  northern  France.  Two  Norman  monaster- 
ies produced  historical  works  of  great  importance;  the 
"Historia  Normannorum",  written  between  1070-87 
by  Guillaume  Calculus  at  the  monastery  of  Jumieges; 
the  "Historia  Ecclesiastica"  of  Ordericus  Vitalis, 
which  begins  with  the  birth  of  Christ  and  ends  in 
1141,  written  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Evroult.  The 
secular  clergy  of  Normandy  emulated  the  monks;  in  a 
sort  of  academy  founded  in  the  second  half  of  the 
eleventh  century  by  two  bishops  of  Lisieux,  Hugues  of 
Eu  and  Gilbert  Maminot,  not  only  theological  but  also 
scientific  and  literary  questions  were  discussed.  The 
Norman  court  was  a  kind  of  Academy  and  an  active 
centre  of  literary  production.  The  chaplain  of 
Duchess  Matilda,  Gui  de  Ponthieu,  Bishop  of  Amiens, 
composed  in  1067  a  Latin  poem  on  the  battle  of  Has- 
tings; the  chaplain  of  William  the  Conqueror,  WilUam 


of  Poitiers,  wrote  the  "  Gesta"  of  his  master  and  an  ex- 
tant account  of  the  first  crusade  is  due  to  another 
Norman,  Raoul  de  Caen,  an  eyewitness.  At  the 
same  time  the  Norman  dukes  of  the  eleventh  century 
restored  the  buildings,  destroyed  by  the  invasions 
of  their  barbarian  ancestors,  and  a  whole  Romance 
school  of  architecture  developed  in  Normandy,  ex- 
tending to  Chartres,  Picardy,  Brittany,  and  even  to 
England.  Caen  was  the  centre  of  this  school;  and 
monuments  like  the  Abbaye  aux  Hommes  and  the 
Abbaye  aux  Dames,  built  at  Caen  by  William  and 
Matilda,  mark  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  Norman  art. 
In  the  course  of  the  twelfth  century  the  political 
destinies  of  Normandy  were  very  uncertain.     Henry 

I  of  England,  master  of  Normandy  from  1106-3.5, 
preferred  to  live  at  Caen  rather  than  in  England.  His 
rule  in  Normandy  was  at  first  disturbed  by  the  par- 
tisans of  Guillaume  Cliton,  son  of  Robert  Courte- 
Heuse,  and  later  by  the  plot  concocted  against  him  by 
his  own  daughter  Matilda,  widow  of  Emperor  Henry  V, 
who  had  taken  as  her  second  husband  Geoffrey  Plan- 
tagenet,  Count  of  Anjou.  When  Henry  I  died  in  1 135 
his  body  was  brought  to  England;  his  death  without 
male  heirs  left  Normandy  a  prey  to  anarchy.  For 
this  region  was  immediately  disputed  between  Henry 
Plantagenet,  grandson  of  Henry  I  through  his  mother 
Matilda,  and  Thibaut  of  Champagne,  grandson  of 
William  the  Conqueror  through  his  mother  Adele. 
After  nine  years  of  strife  Thibaut  withdrew  in  favour 
of  his  brother  Stephen  who  in  1135  had  been  crowned 
King  of  England.  But  the  victories  of  Geoffrey 
Plantagenet  in  Normandy  assured  (1144)  the  rule  of 
Henry  Plantagenet  over  that  land,  which  being 
thenceforth  subject  to  Angevin  rule,  seemed  destined 
to  have  no  further  connexion  with  England.  Sud- 
denly Henry  Plantagenet,  who  in  11.52  had  married 
Eleanor  (Alienor)  of  Aquitaine,  divorced  from  Louia 
VII  of  France,  determined  to  assert  his  rights  over 
England  itself.  The  naval  expedition  which  he  con- 
ducted in  1153  led  Stephen  to  recognize  him  as  his 
heir,  and  as  Stephen  died  at  the  end  of  that  same  year 
Henry  Plantagenet  reigned  over  all  the  Anglo-Nor- 
man possessions,  his  territorial  power  being  greater 
than  that  of  the  kings  of  France.  A  long  series  of 
wars  followed  between  the  Capetians  and  Plantag- 
enets,  interrupted  by  truces.  Louis  VII  wisely  fa- 
voured everything  which  paralyzed  the  power  of  Plan- 
tagenet, and  supported  all  his  enemies.  Thomas  3, 
Becket  and  the  other  exiles  who  had  protested  against 
the  despotism  which  Henry  exercised  against  the 
Church,  found  refuge  and  help  at  the  court  of  France; 
and  the  sons  of  Henry  in  their  successive  revolts 
against  their  father  in  Normandy,  were  supported 
first  by  Louis  VII  and  then  by  Philip  Augustus. 

The  prestige  of  the  Capetian  kings  grew  in  Nor- 
mandy when  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  succi-cdcd  Henry 

II  in  1189.  Philip  Augustus  profited  by  tlic  enmity 
between  Richard  and  his  brother  Jolin  Lackl.-iud  to 
gradually  establi-sh  French  domination  in  Norniandy. 
A  war  between  Richard  and  Philip  Augustus  resulted 
in  the  treaty  of  Issoudun  (1195)  by  which  Philip 
Augustus  acquired  for  the  French  crown  Norman 
Vexin  and  the  castellanies  of  Nonancourt,  Ivry, 
Pacy,  Vernon,  and  Gaillon.  A  second  war  between 
John  Lackland,  King  of  England  in  1199  and  Philip 
Augustus,  was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Goulet 
(1200),  by  which  John  Lackland  recovered  Norman 
Vexin,  but  recognized  the  French  king's  possession  of 
the  territory  of  Evreux  and  declared  himself  the 
"liege  man"  of  Philip  Augustus.  Also  when  in  1202 
John  Lackland,  having  abducted  Isabella  of  Angou- 
leme,  refused  to  appear  before  Philip  .Augustus,  the 
court  of  peers  declared  John  a  felon,  under  which  sen- 
tence he  no  longer  had  tire  right  to  hold  any  lief  of  the 
crown.  Philip  II  Augustus  sanctioned  the  judrment 
of  the  court  of  peers  by  invading  Normandy  which 
in  1204  became  a  French  possession.     The  twelfth 


NORMANDY 


106 


NORMANDY 


century  in  Normandy  was  marked  by  tlio  produc- 
tion of  important  works,  oliicf  of  wtiicli  was  tlic  "  Ro- 
man do  Kou"  of  Robert  or  rather  Richard  Wacc 
(ll()()-7r>),acanoiiof  Ravoux.  In  this,  wliich  consists 
of  nearly  17,(100  hnes  and  was  continvied  liy  Benoit  dc 
Sainte-^Ior(■,  Wace  relates  the  history  of  the  dukes  of 
Normandy  down  to  the  battle  of  Tinchcbray.  Men- 
tion mu.st  also  be  made  of  the  great  I'^rencli  poem 
which  the  Norman  Ambroise  wrf)te  somewhat  prior  to 
119t5  on  the  Jerusalem  pilgrimage  of  Richard  Co'iir  de 
Lion.  As  early  as  the  twelfth  century  Xonnandy 
was  an  important  commercial  centre,  tluillaumc  de 
Neubrig  wrote  that  liouen  was  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated cities  of  Europe  and  that  the  Seine  brought 
thither  the  commercial  products  of  many  countries. 
The  "Etablissements  de  Rouen"  in  which  was  drawn 
up  the  "custom"  adopted  by  Rouen,  were  copied  not 
only  by  the  other  Norman  towns  but  by  the  cities  with 
which  Rouen  maintained  constant  commercial  inter- 
course, e.  g.  Angouleme,  Bayonne,  Cognac,  St.  Jean 
d'.\ngely,  Niort,  Poitiers,  La  Rochelle,  Saintes,  and 
Tours.  The  ghilde  of  Rouen,  a  powerful  commercial 
association,  possessed  in  England  from  the  time  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  the  port  of  Dunegate,  now 
Dungeness,  near  London,  and  its  merchandise  entered 
London  free. 

Once  in  the  power  of  the  Capetians,  Normandy  be- 
came an  important  strategical  point  in  the  struggle 
against  the  English,  masters  of  Poitou  and  Guyenne  in 
the  south  of  Erance.  Norman  sailors  were  enrolled 
by  Philip  VI  of  France  for  a  naval  campaign  against 
England  in  1340  which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of 
Ecluse.  Under  John  II  the  Good,  the  States  of  Nor- 
mandy, angered  by  the  ravages  committed  by  Edward 
III  of  England  on  his  landing  in  the  province,  voted 
(1348-50)  subsidies  for  the  conquest  of  England.  The 
Valois  dynasty  w;vs  in  great  danger  when  Charles  the 
Bad,  King  of  Navarre,  who  possessed  important  lands 
in  Normandy,  succeeded  in  13.56  in  detaching  from 
John  II  of  France  a  number  of  Norman  barons.  John 
II  appraising  the  danger  came  suddenly  to  Rouen, 
put  several  barons  to  death,  and  took  Chcarlcs  the 
Bad  prisoner.  Shortly  afterwards  Normandy  was 
one  of  the  provinces  of  France  most  faithful  to  the 
Dauphin  Charles,  the  future  Charles  V,  and  the 
hope  the  English  entertained  in  13.59  of  seeing  Nor- 
mandj'  ceded  to  them  by  the  Preliminaries  of  London 
was  not  ratified  by  the  treaty  of  Br^tigny  (1300); 
Normandy  remained  French.  The  \'ictories  of  Charles 
V  consolidated  the  prestige  of  the  Valois  in  this  prov- 
ince. In  1386  Normandy  furnished  13S7  vessels  for 
an  exjjedition  against  England  never  executed.  In 
1418  the  campaign  of  Henry  V  in  Normandy  was 
for  a  long  time  paralyzed  by  the  resistance  of  Rouen, 
which  finally  capitulated  in  1419,  and  in  1420  all  Nor- 
mandy became  again  almost  English. 

The  Duke  of  Clarence,  brother  of  Henry  V  of  Eng- 
land, wa-s  made  lieutenant-general  in  the  province. 
Henry  VI  and  the  Duke  of  Bedford  founded  a  uni- 
versity at  Caen  which  had  faculties  of  canon  and  civil 
law,  to  which  Charles  VII  in  14.50  added  those  of  the- 
ologj',  medicine,  and  arts.  This  last  attempt  at  Eng- 
lish domination  in  Normandy  was  marked  by  the 
execution  at  Rouen  of  Blessed  Joan  of  Arc.  English 
rule,  however,  was  undermined  by  incessant  conspir- 
acie.s,  especially  on  the  part  of  the  people  of  Rouen, 
and  by  revolts  in  143.5-36.  The  revolt  of  Val  de  Vire 
is  famous  and  was  the  origin  of  an  entire  ballad  liter- 
ature, called  "  Vaux  de  Vire",  in  which  the  poet  Ohver 
Basselin  excelled.  These  songs,  which  later  became 
bacchic  or  amorous  in  character,  and  which  subse- 
quently developed  into  the  popular  drama  known  as 
"Vaudeville",  were  in  the  beginning  chiefly  of  an 
historical  nature  recounting  the  invasion  of  Normandy 
by  the  English.  Profiting  by  the  public  opinion  of 
which  the  "  Vaux  de  Vire"  gave  evidence,  the  Consta- 
ble de  Richemont  opposed  the  English  on  Norman  ter- 


ritory.  His  long  and  arduous  cfTorts  in  1449-50  made 
Normandy  once  more  a  French  province.  Thence- 
forth the  possession  of  Normandy  by  France  was 
considered  so  essential  to  the  security  of  the  king- 
dom that,  Charles  the  Bold,  for  a  time  victorious 
over  Louis  XI,  in  order  to  weaken  the  latter,  exacted 
in  146.5  that  Normandy  should  be  held  by  Duke 
Charles  de  Berry,  the  king's  brother  and  leader  of 
those  in  revolt  against  him;  two  years  later  Louis  XI 
took  Normandy  from  his  brother  and  caused  the 
States  General  of  Tours  to  proclaim  in  1468  that  Nor- 
mandy could  for  no  reason  whatever  be  dismembered 
from  the  domain  of  the  crown.  The  ducal  ring  wjis 
broken  in  the  presence  of  the  great  judicial  court 
called  the  Echiquier  (Exchequer)  and  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Normandy  was  never  to  be  borne  again 
except  by  Louis  XVII,  the  son  of  Louis  XVI. 

The  Norman  school  of  architecture  from  the  thir- 
teenth to  the  fifteenth  century  produced  superb 
Gothic  edifices,  chiefly  characterized  by  tlie  height  of 
their  spires  and  bell-towers.  Throughout  the  Middle 
Ages  Normandy,  greatly  influenced  by  St.  Bernard 
and  the  Cistercians,  was  distinguished  for  its  venera- 
tion of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  It  was  under  her  pro- 
tection that  William  the  Conqueror  placed  his  expedi- 
tion to  England.  One  of  the  most  ancient  mural 
paintings  in  France  is  in  the  chapel  of  the  Hospice 
St.  Julien  at  Petit-Quevilly,  formerly  the  manor 
chapel  of  one  of  the  early  dukes  of  Normandy,  por- 
traying the  Annunciation,  the  Birth  of  Christ,  and  the 
Blessed  Virgin  suckfing  the  Infant  Jesus  during  the 
flight  into  Egypt.  As  early  as  the  twelfth  century 
Robert  or  rather  Richard  Wace  wrote  the  history  of 
Mary  and  that  of  the  establishment  of  the  feast  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception.  The  Norman  students 
at  Paris  placed  themselves  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  which  thus  became  the 
"feast  of  the  Normans";  this  appellation  does  not 
seem  to  date  beyond  the  thirteenth  century.  During 
the  modern  period  the  Normans  have  been  distin- 
guished for  their  commercial  expeditions  by  sea  and 
their  voyages  of  discovery.  As  early  as  1366  the  Nor- 
mans had  established  markets  on  the  coast  of  Africa 
and  it  was  from  Caux  that  Jean  de  Bethencourt  set 
out  in  1402  for  the  conquest  of  the  Canaries.  He 
opened  up  to  Vasco  da  Gama  the  route  to  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  and  to  Christopher  Columbus  that  to 
America.  Two  of  his  chaplains,  Pierre  Bontier  and 
Jean  le  Verrier,  gave  an  account  of  his  expedition 
in  a  manuscript  known  as  "Le  Canarien",  edited  in 
1874.  Jean  Ango,  born  at  Dieppe  about  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  acquired  as  a  ship-owner  a 
fortune  exceeding  that  of  many  princes  of  his  time. 
The  Portuguese  having  in  time  of  peace,  seized  (1530) 
a  ship  which  belonged  to  him,  he  sent  a  flotilla  to 
blockade  Lisbon  and  ravage  the  Portuguese  coast. 
The  ambassador  sent  by  the  King  of  Portugal  to 
Francis  I  to  negotiate  the  matter,  was  referred  to  the 
citizen  of  Dieppe.  Ango  was  powerful  enough  to 
assist  the  armaments  of  Francis  I  against  England. 
He  died  in  1551. 

Jean  Parmentier  (1494-1543),  another  navigator 
and  a  native  of  Dieppe,  was,  it  is  held,  the  first 
Frenchman  to  take  ships  to  Brazil;  to  him  is  also  as- 
cribed the  honour  of  having  discovered  Sumatra  in 
1529.  Poet  as  well  as  sailor,  he  wrote  in  ver.se  (1536) 
a  "Description  Nouvelle  des  Merveillesde  ce  monde". 
The  foundation  by  Francis  I  in  1517  of  the  "French 
City"  which  afterwards  became  Havre  de  Grace, 
shows  the  importance  which  French  royalty  attached 
to  the  Norman  coa.st.  Normandy's  maritime  com- 
merce was  much  developed  by  Henry  II  and  Cath- 
erine de  Medicis.  They  granted  to  the  port  of  Rouen 
a  sort  of  monopoly  for  the  importation  of  spices  and 
drugs  arriving  by  way  of  the  Atlantic,  and  when  they 
came  to  Rouen  in  1.550  the  merchants  of  that  town 
contrived  to  give  to  the  nearby  wood  the  appearance 


NORRIS 


107 


NORTHAMPTON 


of  the  country  of  Brazil  "with  three  hundred  naked 
men,  equipped'Uke  savages  of  America,  whence  comes 
the  wood  of  Brazil".  Among  these  three  hundred 
men  were  fifty  real  savages,  and  there  also  figured  in 
this  exhibition  "several  monkeys  and  squirrel  mon- 
keys which  the  merchants  of  Rouen  had  brought  from 
Brazil."  The  description  of  the  festivities,  which 
bore  witnc.-fs  to  active  commercial  intercourse  between 
Normandy  and  .Viiierica,  was  published  tdsethcr  with 
numerous  figures.  After  the  Reformation  religious 
wars  interruptei.1 1  he  maritime  activity  of  the  Normans 
for  a  time.  Rouen  took  sides  with  the  League,  Caen 
with  Henry  IV,  but  with  the  restoration  of  peace  the 
maritime  expeditions  recommenced.  Normans  founded 
Quebec  in  1608,  opened  markets  in  Brazil  in  1612, 
visited  the  Sonda  Islands  in  1617,  and  colonized 
Guadeloupe  in  1635.  The  French  population  of  Can- 
ada is  to  a  large  extent  of  Norman  origin.  During  the 
French  Revolution  Normandy  was  one  of  the  centres 
of  the  federalist  movement  known  as  the  Girondin. 
Caen  and  Evreux  were  important  centres  for  the  Gi- 
ronde;  Buzot,  who  led  the  movement,  was  a  Norman, 
and  it  was  from  Caen  that  Charlotte  Corday  set  out 
toslaythe  "montagnard"  Marat.  The  royalist  move- 
ment of  "la  Chouannerie"  had  also  one  of  its  centres 
in  Normandy. 

Duchesne,  llistorim  Nornmnnorum  scriptores  antiqui  (Paris, 
1G19);  Liquet,  Histoire  de  la  Normandie  jusqu'd  la  conquite  de 
VAngleterTe  (Paris,  18.55);  Labuttk,  Hist,  ilea  ./iirs  ,1,:  Normandie 

jusqua  la  marl  dc  GuiUaumr  !>■  r ,:,;,,,„,  iT:nl   ,  ivnr,;,  Waitz, 

Ueber  die  QiulUii  ziir   ll.s.h     '.       I:.    ■        '       /  ",-cr*fa 

Herrsclier  n,  Franhnich  in  (.    '       ;  '  '      1  ■       ilslHi); 

BoUMEIi,  Kirrl:y  and  Slanf  in  l::n,l.n,.l  „,  ,  ,,.-  ,/,  ,  ,\. '.:.,.(,../).•  im 
XI.  and  XII.  Jahrhuadrrl  U.oipziE.  i:«K));  Saruazi.n.  Jeanne 
d'Arc  el  la  Normandie  aa  X  V'  siicle  (Rouen,  lS9a) ;  Legrelle, 
La  Normandie  saus  In  monarchie  absolue  (Rouen,  1903);  DE  Fe- 
lice, La  Basse  Normandie,  etude  de  geographie  rigionale  (Paris, 
1907) ;  Sign,  Les  paysans  de  la  Normandie  Orientale:  pays  de  Caux 
(Paris,  1909);  Sgrel,  Pages  normandes  (Paris,  1907);  Prentout. 
La  Normandie  (Paris,  1910);  CocHET,  Normandie  monumentale  et 
pittoresQue  (Rouen,  ISOl);  Bla^k,  Normandy  and  Picardy,  their 
relics,  castles,  churrin  m  /'  f-'t ^yints  of  William  the  Conqueror 
(London,  1904) ;  M i  m    :       /'■  in  Normandy  (London,  1905) ; 

Freeman,  ffisf.  "/'A  <    \  -       inest  of  England  (.0\loTd,\S7a- 

76);  Palghave,  A'..,  ».  .  ,  ,  ,,  hn.iland  (2  vols.,  1851-57);  Lap- 
PENQERG,  Anglo-Normnn  Kin!/-<:  Ngrgate,  England  under  the 
Angevin  Kings  (Oxford,  1SS7);  Kearv.  The  Vikings  in  Western 
Christendom  A.  D.  789  to  A.  D.  SSS  (London,  1891). 

Georges  Gotau. 

Norris,  Sylve.ster  (alias  Smith,  Newton),  contro- 
versial writer  and  English  missionary  priest;  b.  1570 
or  1572  in  Somersetshire;  d.  16  March,  1630.  After 
receiving  minor  orders  at  Reims  in  1590,  he  went  to 
the  English  College,  Rome,  where  he  completed  his 
studies  and  was  ordained  priest.  In  May,  1596,  he 
wa.s  sent  on  the  English  mission,  and  hisenergetic  char- 
acter is  revealed  by  the  fact  that  he  was  one  of  the  ap- 
pellant clergy  in  1600.  In  the  prosecutions  following 
upon  the  (lunpowder  Plot,  he  was  committed  to 
Bridewi^ll  Gaol.  From  hi.s  prison  he  addressed  a  letter 
to  the  Earl  of  Salisbury,  dated  1  Dec,  1605,  in  which 
he  protests  his  innocence,  and  in  proof  of  his  loyalty 
promises  to  repair  to  Rome,  and  labour  that  the  pope 
shall  bind  all  the  Catholics  of  England  to  be  just,  true, 
and  loyal  subjects,  and  that  hostages  shall  be  sent 
"for  the  afferminge  of  those  things".  He  was  there- 
upon banished  along  with  forty-six  other  priests 
(1606),  went  to  Rome,  and  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  He  was  for  some  time  employed  in  the  Jesuit 
colleges  on  the  Continent,  but  in  161 1  returned  to  the 
English  mission,  and  in  1621  was  made  superior  of  the 
Hampshire  district,  where  he  died. 

He  wrote:  "An  Antidote,  or  Treatiseof  Thirty  Con- 
troversies; With  a  large  Discourse  of  the  Church" 
(1622);  "An  Appendix  to  the  Antidote"  (1621);  "The 
Pseudo-Scripturist"  (1623);  "A  true  report  of  the 
Private  Colloquy  between  M.  Smith,  alias  Norrice, 
and  M.  Walker"  (1624);  "The  Christian  Vow"; 
"Discour.se  proving  that  a  man  who  believeth  in  the 
Trinity,  the  Incarnation,  etc.,  and  yet  believeth  not 
all  other  inferior  Articles,  cannot  be  saved"(1625). 

SOMMEEVOQEL,  Btbl.  de  la  C.  de  J.,  V  (1808-09) ;  Foley.  Rec- 


ords of  the  English  Province,  .S.  J.,  VI,  184;  III,  301;  Oliver,  Col- 
lections towards  Illustrating  the  Biography  of  S.  J.,  a.  v.;  GiLLOW, 
Bibl.  Did.  Eng.  Cath.,  V,  s.  v. 

James  Bridge. 

Northampton,  Diocese  op  (Noutantoniensis), 
in  Mii^hind,  iMjiiipiises  the  Counties  of  Northampton, 
Hcdlnrd,  Buckingham,  Cambridge,  Huntingdon,  Nor- 
folk, and  Suffolk,  mainly  composed  of  agricultural  dis- 
tricts and  f enlands,  where  Catholics  are  comparatively 
few  (see,  in  article  England,  Map  of  the  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Province  of  Westminster) .  The  number  of  secular 
priests  is  70,  of  regular  18,  of  chapels  and  stations,  73, 
and  of  Catholics,  13,308  (1910).  Among  the  more 
important  religious  orders  are  the  Benedictines,  the 
Franciscans,  the  Carmelites,  and  the  Jesuits.  Of  con- 
vents the  most  notable  are  those  of  tlie  Benedictines 
at  East  Bergholt,  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  at  North- 
ampton and  Norwich,  the  Sisters  of  Jesus  and  Mary 
at  Ipswich,  the  Poor  Sisters  of  Nazareth  at  Northamp- 
ton, and  the  Dames  Bernardines  at  Slough,  who  at 
their  own  expense  built  a  fine  church  for  that  parish. 
The  principal  towns  are  Norwich,  Ipswich,  and  Cam- 
bridge, the  university  town  where,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, St.  Simon  Stock,  of  the  Order  of  Carmel,  received 
the  brown  scapular  from  Our  Lady.  The  Decorated 
Gothic  Catholic  church  at  Cambridge,  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  in  the  kingdom  (consecrated  in  1890),  is  ded- 
icated to  Our  Lady  and  the  English  Martyrs.  It  is 
the  gift  of  Mrs.  Lyne  Stephens  oi^  Lynford  Hall,  Nor- 
folk. Norwich  possesses  one  of  the  grandest  Catholic 
churches  in  England,  built  by  the  munificence  of  the 
present  Duke  of  Norfolk  in  the  Transitional  Norman 
style,  after  the  designs  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  and  com- 
pleted in  1910.  The  cathedral  at  Northampton  is  a 
commodious  but  unpretentious  building  designed  by 
the  younger  Pugin.  The  first  Bishop  of  Northampton, 
William  Wareing,  had  been  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the 
Eastern  District  before  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic 
hierarchy;  he  resigned  the  see  in  1858,  and  died  in 
1865.  His  successor,  Francis  Kerril  Amherst,  was 
consecrated  4  July,  1858,  and  resigned  in  1879,  the  see 
being  occupied  the  following  year  by  Arthur  Riddell, 
who  d.  15  Sept.,  1907.  The  present  Bishop  of  North- 
ampton (1910),  Frederick  William  Keating,  b.  at  Birm- 
ingham, 13  June,  1859,  was  consecrated  25  Feb.,  1908. 

Northampton  was  the  scene  of  the  last  stand  made 
by  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  against  the  arbitrary 
conduct  of  Henry  II.  Bury  St.  Edmund's,  anciently 
so  renowned  as  the  place  where  the  body  of  St.  Ed- 
mund, King  and  Martyr,  was  enshrined  and  venerated 
as  well  as  for  its  Benedictine  abbey,  has  become  famil- 
iar to  the  modern  reader  mainly  through  Carlyle's 
"Past  and  Present,"  in  the  pages  of  which  Abbot 
Samson  (1135-1211),  the  hero  of  Jocelin's  Chronicle, 
occupies  the  central  position.  The  Isle  of  Elj^  and  St. 
Etheldreda  are  famous  in  English  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory. Canute,  King  of  England,  was  accustomed  to 
row  or  skate  across  the  fens  each  year  to  be  present  on 
the  Feast  of  the  Purification  at  the  Mass  in  the  Abbey 
Church  of  Ely,  and  Thomas  Eliensis  ascribes  to  him 
the  well-known  lines  beginning,  "Sweetly  sang  the 
monks  of  Ely".  At  Walsingham,  also  in  this  diocese, 
only  ruins  are  now  left  of  a  shrine  whirli,  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  was  second  only  to  the  Holy  Hou.se  of  Loreto, 
of  which  it  was  a  copy.  Many  gri':it  names  of  the 
Reformation  period  are  connected  with  the  district 
covered  by  the  Diocese  of  Northampton.  Catherine 
of  Aragon  died  at  Kimbolton  and  was  buried  at  Peter- 
borough, where  the  short  inscription,  "Queen  Cath- 
erine", upon  a  stone  slab  marks  her  resting-place. 
From  Framlingham  Castle,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still 
considerable.  Queen  Mary  Tudor  set  out,  on  the  death 
of  Edward  VI,  to  contest  with  Lady  Jane  Grey  her  right 
to  the  throne.  At  Ipswich,  the  birthplace  of  Cardinal 
Wolsey,  is  still  to  be  seen.the  gateway  of  the  College 
built  by  him.  At  Fotheringay,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
was  beheaded  (1587),  and  at  Wisbech  Castle,  where  so 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


108 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


many  missioiiiirv  iiricsts,  durinj;  prnal  times,  were  im- 
prisonnl,  Williaiu  Watson,  llii'  la.st  l>iit  (iiic  of  the  Ma- 
riaii  hisliciiis,  (lii'd,  a  prisoner  for  the  Faith  (15X1).    Sir 

Henry  H(Mliiii;telii.t  h<'raitlil'ul  follower  of  (^1 n  Mary 

and  the  f;entle  "Jailor  of  the  I'ririeess  l)lizal)elh",  is 
assoeiated  with  this  ilioeese  thron};h  <)xliiir(;h  Hall, 
his  mansion,  still  occupied  hy  anotlier  .Sir  Henry  Bed- 
ingfeld,  his  direct  descendant.  The  Pastonsof  I'aston 
are  memorable  in  connexion  with  the  celebrated  "  I'as- 
ton Letters".  Many  of  the  priests  who  sufTer<'d 
death  under  the  penal  laws  belonged  to  the  districts 
now  included  in  the  Diocese  of  Ndrthaii]i)ton,  in  p;ir- 
ticular,  Henry  Heath,  born,  UiOO,  at  I'eterboronsh; 
Venerable  Henry  Walpole,  S.J.,  (d.  1595),  a  natiye  of 
Norfolk,  and  \eiierable  Robert  Southwell,  S.J.,  (15150- 
95),  the  Catholic  poet ,  also  born  in  Norfolk.  In  more 
recent  times  Bishop  Milner  was  connected  with  the 
preseryation  of  the  Faith  in  this  part  of  England. 
Alban  Butler,  the  liagiographer,  was  born  in  North- 
amptonshire and  was  resident  priest  at  Norwich  from 
1754-56.  Dr.  Husenbeth  resided  for  some  years  at 
Cossey,  where  ho  is  buried  (see  Husenbeth,  Fred- 
brick  Ch.\rles).  Father  Ignatius  Spencer,  the  Pas- 
sionist,  son  of  Earl  Spencer,  and  formerly  Rector  of 
Brington,  was  recei\-ed  into  the  Catholic  Church  at 
Northampton,  and  Faber,  the  Oratorian,  Iield  the 
Anglican  living  of  Elton,  Huntingdonshire,  before  his 
conyersion. 

The  Catholic  Directory  (London);  Riddell.  General  Statistics, 
MS.;  Bede,  Hist.  Eccl.;  Historia  Eliensis;  Watebton,  Pietas 
Mariana. 

John  Freeland. 

North  Carolina,  one  of  the  original  thirteen  States 
of  the  United  States,  is  situated  between  33°  53'  and 
36°  33'  N.  lat.,  and  75°  25'  and  84°  30'  W.  long.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Virginia,  east  and  south-east 
by  the  .-Atlantic  Ocean,  south  by  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia,  and  west 
and  north-west  by 
Tennessee.  Its  ex- 
treme length  from 
east  to  west  is  503 
miles,  with  an  ex- 
treme breadth  of 
187  miles,  and  an 
average  breadth  of 
about  100  miles. 
Its  area  is  52,250 
si|uare  miles,  of 
which  3670  is  wa- 
ter. Originally  it 
included  the  pres- 
..  ^  ent   State  of  Tcn- 

Seal  of  North  Cahou.na  nessee,  ceded  to  the 

United  States  in  1790.  In  1784-5  the  people  of  that 
section  made  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  set  up  an  in- 
dependent state  named  Franklin,  w'ith  John  Seyier 
as  governor.  It  is  divided  into  ninety-eight  counties 
and  has  (1910)  ten  Congressional  districts,  with  a 
population  of  2,206,287.  The  capital  is  Raleigh,  situ- 
ated nearly  in  the  geographical  centre  of  the  state; 
the  principal  cities  are  Wilmington,  Charlotte,  Ashe- 
ville,  Greensboro,  and  Winston. 

Physical  Characteristics. — North  Carolina  has 
a  remarkable  variety  of  topography,  soil,  climate,  and 
production  and  falls  naturally  into  three  divisions. 
The  eastern  or  Tidewater  section  begins  at  the  ocean 
and  extends  north- west wardly  to  the  foot  of  the  hills; 
the  land  is  level,  with  sluggish  streams  and  many 
marshes  and  swamps,  including  part  of  the  great  Dis- 
mal Swamp.  It  is  the  home  of  the  long  leaf  pine,  with 
its  products  of  pitch,  tar,  and  turpentine,  long  a  source 
of  wealth.  The  principal  productions  are  cotton, 
com,  and  rice;  while  "truck  gardening"  has  recently 
grown  into  an  important  industry,  "rhe  fisheries  are 
also  valuable.  The  central  or  Piedmont  section,  com- 
prising nearly  half  the  state  and  extending  westward 


to  the  eastern  foot  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  is  more  or  less 
liilly,  but  the  ricli  intervening  valleys  produce  prac- 
tically all  the  general  crops,  including  cotton  and  to- 
bacco, with  fruits  of  all  kinds.  The  soil,  though  not 
naturally  rich,  is  c.-ipable  of  a  high  degree  of  cultiva- 
tion. The  westward  section,  which  runs  to  the  Ten- 
nes.see  line,  is  mostly  mountainous,  with  rich  valleys 
and  sheltered  coves.  Its  principal  productions  are 
those  of  the  central  section,  modified  .somewhat  by 
its  greater  elevation.  It  contains  some  lofty  peaks, 
Mount  Mitchell  being  the  highest  peak  ea.st  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  The  st:ite  is  well  waliTcd,  liaving 
numerous  rivers,  which,  though  not  generally  naviga- 
ble, in  their  rapid  descent  furnish  enormous  water- 
power,  much  of  which  has  been  recently  developed. 
They  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  those  flowing 
indirectly  into  the  Mississippi,  those  flowing  into  the 
Great  Pedee  and  the  Santee,  and  those  flowing  into 
the  Atlantic.  The  coast  line,  nearly  four  hundred 
miles  long,  includes  Capes  Fear,  Lookout,  and  Hat- 
teras;  and,  at  varying  distances  from  the  ocean,  run  a 
series  of  sounds,  chief  of  which  are  Currituck,  Albe- 
marle, and  Pamlico.  There  are  good  harbours  at 
Edenton.  New  Bern,  \\  asliington,  Beaufort,  and  Wil- 
mington, including  Soutlijiort.  The  climate  is  gener- 
ally equable,  and  North  Carolina  produces  nearly  all 
the  crops  grown  in  the  rnitcd  States  with  the  excep- 
tion of  sub-tropical  cane  and  fruits.  Four  of  the  wine 
grapes,  the  Catawba,  Isabella,  Lincoln,  and  Scuppcr- 
nong,  originated  here.  It  has  al.so  large  areas  of  valu- 
able timber  of  great  variety.  With  a  few  rare  excep- 
tions all  the  known  minerals  are  found  in  the  state.  In 
1905,  taking  the  fourteen  leading  industries,  includ- 
ing about  90  per  cent  of  the  total,  there  were  3272 
manufacturing  cstahrLshinents,  with  a  capital  of 
$141,ti:!0,()0(),  producing  yearly  products  of  the  value 
of  .$M2,.")liO,770.  The  principal  manufactured  prod- 
uct was  cotton,  in  which  North  Carolina  ranked 
third  among  all  the  States,  and  tobacco,  in  which  she 
ranked  second. 

Railroads  and  Banks. — There  are  in  operation 
within  the  State  4387  miles  of  railroads,  besides  911 
miles  of  sidings,  with  a  total  valuation  of  $86,347,553, 
but  capitalized  for  a  much  larger  amount.  The 
state  has  321  banks  organized  under  the  state  law; 
with  an  aggregate  capital  stock  of  $7,692,767;  and  69 
national  banks  with  a  capital  of  $6,760,000.  The 
entire  recognized  state  debt  is  $6,880,950,  the  greater 
part  of  which  could  be  paid  by  the  sale  of  certain 
railroad  stock  held  by  the  state. 

History. — North  Carolina  was  originally  inhabited 
by  various  tribes  of  Indians,  the  three  principal  ones 
being  the  Tuscaroras  in  the  east,  the  Catawbas  in  the 
centre,  and  the  Cherokees  in  the  west.  A  small  body 
of  Cherokees  is  still  located  in  the  mountain  section. 
In  1584  Queen  Elizabeth  granted  to  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  the  right  to  discover  and  hold  any  lands  not 
inhabited  by  Christian  j)eople.  This  charter  consti- 
tutes the  first  step  in  the  work  of  English  colonization 
in  America.  Five  voyages  were  made  under  it,  but 
without  succe.ss  in  establishing  a  permanent  settle- 
ment. In  1663  Charles  II  granted  to  Sir  George 
Carteret  and  seven  others  a  stretch  of  land  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  lying  between  Virginia  and  Florida, 
and  running  west  to  the  South  Seas.  The  grantees 
were  created  "absolute  lords  proprietors"  of  the 
province  of  Carolina,  with  full  powers  to  make  and 
execute  such  laws  as  they  deemed  proper.  This  grant 
was  enlargcfl  in  1665  both  as  to  territory  and  juris- 
diction, and  in  1669  the  lords  proprietors  promul- 
gated the  "Fundamental  Constitutions  of  Carolina", 
framed  by  John  Locke,  the  philosopher,  but  they 
proved  too  theoretical  for  practical  operation.  The 
lords  proprietors  made  every  effort  to  colonize  their 
province,  which  already  contained  one  or  two  small 
settlements  and  for  which  they  appointed  governors 
at   various   times,    frequently    with   local    councils. 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


109 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


Albemarle,  the  name  originally  given  to  what  now 
constitutes  North  Carolina,  was  augmented  by  settle- 
ments from  Virginia,  New  England,  and  Bermuda. 
In  1674  the  population  was  about  four  thousand. 
In  1729,  Carolina  became  a  royal  province,  the  king 
having  purchased  from  the  proprietors  seven-eighths 
of  their  domain.  Carteret,  subsequently  Earl  Gran- 
ville, surrendered  his  right  of  jurisdiction,  but  re- 
tained in  severalty  his  share  of  the  land.  It  gained 
considerable  accessions  in  population  by  a  colony  of 
Swiss  at  New  Bern,  of  Scotch  Highlanders  on  Cape 
Fear,  of  Moravians  at  Salem,  and  of  Scotch-Irish 
and  Pennsylvania  Dutch,  who  settled  in  different  parts 
of  the  state.  For  many  years,  however,  there  has 
been  very  little  immigration  and  the  population  is 
now  essentially  homogeneous. 

The  people  of  North  Carolina  were  among  the 
earliest  and  most  active  promoters  of  the  Revolution. 
The  Stamp  Tax  was  bitterly  resented;  a  provincial 
congress,  held  at  New  Bern,  elected  delegates  to  the 
first  Continental  Congress  in  September,  1774,  and 
joined  in  the  declaration  of  Colonial  rights.  As 
early  as  20  May,  177.5,  a  committee  of  citizens  met  in 
Charlotte  and  issued  the  "Mecklenburg  Declaration 
of  Independence",  formally  renouncing  allegiance  to 
the  British  Crown.  In  December,  1776,  the  provin- 
cial congress  at  Halifax  adopted  a  State  constitution 
which  immediately  went  into  effect,  with  Richard 
Caswell  as  governor.  The  delegates  from  this  state 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  the  Arti- 
cles of  Confederation.  In  1786  the  General  Assembly 
elected  delegates  to  the  Federal  Constitutional  Con- 
vention and  its  delegates  present  signed  the  Constitu- 
tion; but  the  General  Assembly  did  not  ratify  it 
until  21  November,  1789,  after  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment had  been  organized  and  gone  into  operation. 
During  the  Revolution  the  state  furnished  the  Con- 
tinental army  with  22,910  men.  Important  battles 
were  fought  at  Guilford  Court  House  (between  Green 
and  Cornwallis,  15  March,  1781),  Alamance,  Moore's 
Creek,  Ramsour's  Mill,  and  King's  Mountain  on  the 
state  line.  There  was  a  predominant  Union  senti- 
ment in  North  Carolina  in  the  early  part  of  1861 ;  and 
at  an  election  held  28  February,  the  people  voted 
against  calling  a  convention  for  the  purpose  of  seces- 
sion; but  after  the  firing  on  Fort  Sumter  and  the 
actual  beginning  of  the  war,  a  convention,  called  by  the 
Legislature  without  submission  to  the  people,  met  on 
20  May,  1861,  passed  an  ordinance  of  secession,  and 
ratified  the  Confederate  Constitution.  Fort  Fisher 
was  the  only  important  battle  fought  in  the  state. 
The  State  sent  125,000  soldiers  into  the  Civil  War,  the 
largest  number  sent  by  any  southern  state.  In  1865 
a  provisional  government  was  organized  by  President 
Johnson,  and  later  the  state  came  under  the  Recon- 
struction Act  p.assed  by  Congress,  2  March,  1867. 
On  11  July,  1868,  the  state  government  was  restored 
by  proclamation  of  the  presitient. 

The  Constitution  of  1776  had  some  remarkable 
provisions.  It  allowed  free  negroes  to  vote  because 
they  were  "freemen",  all  slaves,  of  course,  being  dis- 
franchised because  in  law  they  were  considered 
chattels.  Any  freeman  could  vote  for  the  members  of 
the  House  of  Commons;  but  must  own  fifty  acres  of 
land  to  vote  for  a  senator,  who  must  himself  own  at 
least  three  hundred  acres,  and  a  member  at  least 
one  hundred  acres.  The  governor  must  own  a  free- 
hold of  five  thousand  dollars  in  value.  The  borough 
towns  of  Edenton,  New  Bern.  Wilmington,  Salisbury, 
Hillsboro,  and  Halifax  were  each  allowed  a  separate 
member  in  the  House  of  Commons  apart  from  the 
counties.  It  declared:  "That  all  men  have  a  natural 
and  inalienable  right  to  worship  Almighty  God,  ac- 
cording to  the  dictates  of  their  own  conscience";  but 
that  no  person  who  denied  the  truth  of  the  Protestant 
religion  should  hold  any  civil  office  of  trust  or  profit. 
No  clergyman  or  preacher  of  any  denomination  should 


be  a  member  of  either  house  of  the  Legislature  while 
continuing  in  the  exercise  of  his  pastoral  functions. 
All  of  these  provisions,  except  the  declaration  of  re- 
ligious freedom,  have  since  been  abandoned.  The 
Convention  of  1835  adopted  many  amendments,  rati- 
fied in  1836;  among  others,  all  persons  of  negro  blood 
to  the  fourth  generation  were  disfranchised;  and 
the  Protestant  qualification  for  office  omitted.  The 
Constitution  of  1868  restored  negro  suffrage,  but  in 
1900  amendments,  adopted  by  the  Legislature  and 
ratified  by  the  people,  provided  that  every  qualified 
voter  should  have  paid  his  poll  tax  and  be  able  to  read 
and  write  any  section  of  the  Constitution;  but  that 
any  person  entitled  to  vote  on  or  prior  to  1  January, 
1867,  or  his  lineal  descendant,  might  register  on  a 
permanent  roll  until  1  November,  1908.  This  ia 
called  the  "Grandfather  Clause". 

Education. — In  early  times  there  were  no  schools; 
private  teachers  furnishing  the  only  means  of  educa- 
tion. Beginning  about  1760,  several  private  classi- 
cal schools  were  established  in  different  parts  of  the 
state,  the  most  prominent  being  Queen's  College 
at  Charlotte,  subsequently  called  Liberty  Hall.  The 
State  University  was  opened  for  students  in  February, 
1795;  but  want  of  means  and  a  scattered  population 
prevented  any  public  school  system  until  long  after 
the  Revolution.  The  Civil  War  seriously  interfered 
with  all  forms  of  education;  but  the  entire  educational 
system  is  now  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency.  The  fol- 
lowing are  under  State  control,  but  receive  aid  from 
tuition  fees  and  donations:  the  State  University, 
situated  at  Chapel  Hill,  endowment,  $250,000;  total 
income,  $160,000;  annual  St  ate  appropriation,  $75,000; 
faculty,  101;  students,  821;  the  North  Carolina  State 
Normal  and  Industrial  College  for  women  at  Greens- 
boro, founded  in  1891,  buildings,  13;  annual  State 
appropriation,  $75,000;  faculty,  63;  students,  613; 
North  Carolina  College  of  Agricultural  and  Mechanic 
Arts  at  West  Raleigh,  opened  in  1889,  annual  State 
appropriation,  $37,000;  annual  Federal  appropriation, 
$49,4.50;  faculty,  42;  students,  446;  the  Agricultural 
and  Mechanical  College  for  the  coloured  race  at 
Greensboro,  annual  State  approjiriation,  $10,000;  an- 
nual Federal  appropriation,  $11,5.50;  faculty,  14; 
students,  173.  A  training  school  for  white  teachers 
has  just  been  established  at  Greenville.  There  are 
three  State  Normal  Schools  for  the  coloured  race. 
The  official  reports  of  public  schools  for  the  year 
1908-9  show  a  total  school  population  of  whites,  490,- 
710 ;  coloured,  236,855  ;  schoolhouses,  7670 ;  white 
teachers,  8129;  coloured  teachers,  2828;  total  avail- 
able fund,  $3,419,103.  There  are  a  large  number  of 
flourishing  denominational  colleges  both  for  men  and 
women,  several  of  which  belong  to  the  coloured  race. 
AmongtheState  institutions  are:  a  large  central  peni- 
tentiary, three  hospitals  for  insane,  three  schools  for 
deaf,  dumb,  and  blind,  and  a  tuberculosis  sanitarium. 

Relicuous  Conditions. — Under  the  lords  propri- 
etors there  was  much  religious  discrimination  and 
even  persecution;  but  there  was  little  under  the  Crown 
except  as  to  holding  office  and  celebrating  the  rite 
of  matrimony.  The  disqualification  for  office  involved 
in  denying  the  truth  of  the  Protestant  religion  re- 
mained in  the  Constitution  until  the  Convention  of 
1835.  In  1833  William  Gaston,  a  Catholic  of  great 
ability  and  noble  character,  was  elected  associate 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  for  life.  Regarding  the 
religious  disqualification  as  legally  and  morally  in- 
valid, he  promptly  took  his  seat  without  opposition. 
While  still  remaining  on  the  bench,  he  was  elected  a 
delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  of  1835, 
and  attended  its  session.  His  great  speech  against 
any  religious  discrimination  was  conclusive,  and  the 
obnoxious  clause  was  stricken  out  of  the  Constitution. 
Since  then  there  has  been  no  legal  discrimination 
against  Catholics.  All-persons  denying  the  existence 
of  Almighty  God  have  been  disqualified  from  holding 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


110 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


office  under  every  constitution.  The  preamble  to 
the  present  Constitution  recognizes  the  dependence 
of  tlic  people  upon  Almighty  (iod,  and  their  Kratitude 
to  llini  for  the  existence  of  their  civil,  political,  and 
religious  liberties.  The  Legislature  is  opened  uilh 
prayer.  The  law  reiiuires  the  observance  of  Siuiday, 
and"  punishes  any  disturbance  of  religious  congrega- 
tions. The  following  are  legal  holidays:  1  January; 
19  January  (Lee's  birthday  I;  22  February;  12  April 
(anniversary  of  Halifax  Kesoluiion);  10  May  (Con- 
federate Decoration  Day) ;  20  May  (anniversary  Meck- 
lenburg Declaration  of  Independence);  4  July;  1st 
Monday  in  September  (Labour  Day);  general  elec- 
tion day  in  November;  Thanksgiving;  and  Christmas. 
Neither  .Sundays  nor  holidays  are  regarded  as  diet 
non  exeej)!  in  certain  liniilcd  cases.  Religious  bodies 
may  become  incorporated  either  under  the  general 
law  or  by  special  act .  If  not  specifically  incorporated 
they  are  reganled  as  quasi  corporations,  and  may  ex- 
ercise many  corporate  powers.  The  Protestant  Epis- 
copal bishop  h;us  been  created  a  corporation  sole  by 
special  act  of  the  Legislature.  All  real  and  personal 
property  used  exclusively  for  religious,  charitable,  or 
educational  purposes,  as  also  property  whose  income 
is  so  used,  is  exempt  from  taxation.  Ministers  of  the 
Gospel  are  exemi)t  from  jury  duty  and  their  private 
libraries  from  taxation.  The  only  privileged  com- 
munications recognized  are  those  between  lawyers  and 
their  clients,  anil  physicians  and  their  patients.  There 
is  no  statute  allowing  this  exemption  to  priests,  and 
therefore  they  stand  as  at  common  law;  but  there  is 
no  recorded  instance  in  which  they  have  ever  been 
asked  to  reveal  the  secrets  of  the  confessional. 

Marri.\ge  and  Divorce. — Originally  in  this  colony 
legally  valid  marriages  could  be  solemnized  only  by 
ministers  of  the  Church  of  England,  of  whom  there 
were  few,  nearly  all  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  colony. 
In  1715  this  power  was  conferred  upon  the  governor; 
in  1741  upon  justices  of  the  peace;  in  1766  upon  minis- 
ters of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  finally  in  1778 
upon  the  ministers  of  all  denominations.  The  cere- 
mony can  now  be  performed  by  an  ordained  minister 
of  any  religious  denomination  or  a  justice  of  the  peace; 
and  the  peculiar  marriage  custom  of  the  Friends  is 
recognized  as  valid.  Males  under  sixteen  and  females 
under  fourteen  are  legally  incapable  of  marriage,  and 
all  marriages  of  those  related  by  consanguinity  closer 
than  the  degree  of  first  cousin,  and  between  whites 
and  negroes  or  Indians  are  void.  A  marriage  licence 
is  required,  and  the  Registrar  is  forbidden  by  law  to 
issue  licences  for  the  marriage  of  any  one  under 
eighteen  years  of  age  without  written  consent  of  the 
parent  or  one  standing  in  loco  parentis.  Absolute 
divorce  (a  vinculo)  may  be  granted  for  the  following 
causes:  pre-existing  natural  and  continued  impotence 
of  either  party;  if  they  shall  have  lived  separate  and 
apart  continuously  for  ten  years,  and  have  no  chil- 
dren; adultery  by  the  wife,  or  pregnancy  at  the  time 
of  marriage  unknown  to  husband  and  not  by  him; 
continued  fornication  and  adultery  by  the  husband. 
Either  party  may  remarry,  but  no  alimony  is  allowed. 
Divorce  a  mensa  el  toro  may  be  granted  with  alimony 
for  the  following  causes:  if  either  party  shall  abandon 
his  or  her  family,  or  turn  the  other  out  of  doors,  or 
shall  by  cruel  and  barbarous  treatment  endanger  the 
life  of  the  other,  or  shall  offer  such  indignities  to  the 
person  of  the  other  as  to  make  his  or  her  life  intoler- 
able, or  shall  become  an  habitual  drunkard.  Upon 
such  a  divorce  parties  cannot  remarry. 

Bequests  for  charitable  purposes  must  be  clearly 
defined,  as  the  cy-pris  doctrine  is  not  recognized; 
and  there  must  be  some  one  capable  of  taking  the 
bequest.  Whether  a  bequest  for  Masses  would  be 
specifically  enforced  by  the  courts,  has  not  been  de- 
cided; but  it  is  not  probable  that  it  would  be  interfered 
with,  as  the  courts  have  never  invoked  the  doctrine 
of  Superstitious  Uses.     Cemeteries  are  provided  for 


"  and  protected  by  law.  In  administering  oaths,  the 
party  sworn  must  "lay  his  hand  upon  the  Holy  ICvan- 
gelists  of  .Mmighty  (Jod";  but  those  having  conscien- 
tious scruples  may  appeal  to  (Iod  with  uplifted  hand; 
ami  "Quakers,  Piloravians,  Dunkers,  and  Mennon- 
ites"  may  athrm. 

Prohibition. — For  many  years  prohibition  senti- 
ment has  been  growing  until  it  culminated,  in  1908,  in 
the  passage  by  the  General  Assembly  of  an  act  mak- 
ing it  unlawful  to  make  or  sell  any  spirituous,  vinous, 
fermented,  or  malt  liquors  within  the  state,  except 
for  sacramental  purposes,  or  by  a  registered  pharma- 
cist on  a  physician's  prescription.  Native  ciilers  may 
be  sold  without  restriction;  and  native  wines  at  the 
place  of  manufacture  in  sealed  or  crated  packages 
containing  not  less  than  two  and  a  half  gallons  each, 
which  must  not  be  opened  on  the  premises. 
RELiGiona  Statistics 
(From  the  Census  of  Religious  Bodies,  1906) 


Denomination 

6% 

2 
■% 

1 

Value  of 
Church  Prop. 

All  denominations 

8592 

2397 

1358 

192 

54 

130 

63 

179 

2141 

954 

655 

258 

31 

ISO 

824,385 

235,540 

165,503 

15,909 

2,699 

13,637 

6,752 

17,740 

191,760 

85.522 

60,555 

13,890 

3,981 

10,897 

8188 

2305 

1192 

188 

47 

128 

63 

173 

2065 

925 

656 

261 

35 

150 

$14,053,505 
3,056,889 

1,266,227 

194,315 

Congregationalists  .... 

42,361 
151,605 

90,525 

445,525 

Methodist,  white 

Methodist,  co! 

Presbyter,  and  Refer. . . 
Protestant  Episcopal  . . 
Roman  Catholic 

3,523,354 

1,366,238 

2,247,923 

987,925 

375,360 

305,258 

In  the  above,  the  Catholic  population  was  reduced 
by  deducting  15  per  cent  for  children  under  nine  years 
of  age. 

North  Carolina,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  was 
canonically  established  and  separated  from  the  Dio- 
cese of  Charleston,  South  Carolina  by  Bull,  3  March, 
1868,  with  James  (now  Cardinal)  Gibbons  as  first  vicar. 
It  comprised  the  entire  state  until  1910,  when  eight 
counties  were  attached  to  Belmont  Abbey.  The  latest 
statistics,  for  the  entire  state,  show  secular  priests,  17; 
religious,  16;  churches,  15;  missions,  34;  stations,  47; 
chapels,  5;  Catholics,  5870.  The  Apostolate  Com- 
pany, a  corporation  of  secular  priests  at  Nazareth, 
maintains  a  boys'  orphanage  and  industrial  school, 
and  publishes  "Truth",  amonthly  periodical.  There 
is  a  girls'  school  and  sanatorium  at  Asheville,  and  hos- 
pitals at  Charlotte  (Sisters  of  Mercy)  and  Greensboro 
(Sisters  of  Charity).  There  are  parochial  schools 
at  Asheville,  Charlotte,  Salisbury,  Durham,  Newton 
Grove,  Raleigh,  and  Wilmington.  The  vicariate  is 
subject  to  the  Propaganda,  and  its  present  vicar  is  the 
Abbot  Ordinary  of  Belmont. 

Belmont  Cathedral  Abbey. — By  Bull  of  Pius  X,  8  June, 
1910,  the  Counties  of  Gaston,  Lincoln,  Cleveland, 
Rutherford,  Polk,  Burke,  McDowell,  and  Catawba 
were  cut  off  from  the  vicariate  to  form  the  diocese  of 
the  Cathedral  Abbey  at  Belmont,  canonically  erected 
Ijy  Mgr  Diomede  Falconio,  Apostolic  Delegate  in  the 
United  States,  on  IS  October,  1910.  The  vicariate  re- 
mains under  the  administration  of  the  abbot  ordinary 
at  Belmont  until  a  diocese  can  be  formed  in  the  state. 
Belmont  Abbey,  situated  in  Gaston  County,  was 
erected  into  an  abbey  by  Papal  Brief  dated  19  Decem- 
ber, 1884,  its  first  abbot  being  Rt.  Rev.  Leo  Haid.  He 
was  born  at  Latrobe,  Pennsylvania,  15  July,  1849, 
ordained  priest  in  1872,  and  served  as  chaplain  and 
profes.sor  in  St.  Vincent's  Abbey  until  1885.  Ap- 
pointed Vicar  Apostolic  of  North  Carolina  in  1887,  he 
was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Messene  1  July, 


NORTHCOTE 


111 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


1888.  The  abbey  itself  has  many  extra-territorial  de- 
pendencies, i.  e.  military  colleges  in  Savannah,  Georgia 
and  Richmond,  Virginia,  and  parishes  in  both  of  these 
cities,  besides  various  missions  in  the  state  itself;  and 
forms  legal  corporations  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina, 
and  Georgia.  To  it  also  is  attached  a  college  for  secu- 
lar education  and  a  seminary  for  the  secular  and  regu- 
lar clergy.  To  the  abbey  proper  belong  32  priests,  2 
deacons,  6  clerics  in  minor  orders,  and  37  lay  brothers. 
At  Belmont  is  also  a  college  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  under  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  wit  lilil)  pupils,  an  or- 
phanage for  girls  and  a  preparatory  school  for  little  boys. 

PromiiK'iil  Cdlholics. — Tliough  there  are  few  Catho- 
lics in  tlie  state,  an  unusual  proportion  have  occupied 
prominent  ollicial  positions.  Thomas  Burke  was  gov- 
ernor, and  William  Gaston,  M.  E.  Manly,  and  R.  M. 
Douglas  were  associate  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
R.  R.  Heath,  W.  A.  Moore,  and  W.  S.  O'B.  Robinson 
were  Superior  Court  judges,  and  R.  D.  Douglas  attor- 
ney general.  Prominent  benefactors  were  Dr.  D. 
O'Donaghue,  Lawrence  Brown,  and  Raphael  Guas- 
terino.  Mrs.  Francis  C.  Tiernan  (Christian  Reid)  is  a 
native  of  North  Carolina. 

Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Church  (New  York,1892) ;  O'Connell, 
Catholicity  in  the  CaroUaaa  and  Georgia  (New  York.  1879);  Official 
Catholic  Directory  (New  York,  1910) ;  Pub.  of  U.  S.  Bureaus  of 
Census  and  Eitncalian;  Ann.  Rep.  of  State  Officers  (Raleigh);  Ban- 
croft, Hist,  of  U.  S.  (Boston,  1879) ;  Lawson.  Hist,  of  Carolina 
(LoDdon,  1714;  Raleigh,  1860);  Brickell,  Natural  Hist,  of  N.  C. 
(Dublin,  1737);  Williamson,  Hist,  of  N.  C.  (Philadelphia,  1812); 
Martin,  Hist,  of  N.  C.  (New  Orleans,  1829) ;  Wheeler,  Hist,  of 
N.  C.  (Philadelphia,  1851);  Hawks,  Hist,  of  N.  C.  (Fayetteville, 
N.  C,  1857);  Moore,  Hist,  of  N.  C.  (Raleigh.  1880);  Foote, 
Sketches  of  N.  C.  (New  York,  1846);  Reichel,  Hist,  of  the  Mora- 
vians in  N.  C.  (Salem,  N.  C,  1857);  Bebnheim,  Hist,  of  the  Ger- 
man Settlements  in  N.  C.  (Philadelphia,  1872) ;  Cabhthers,  The 
Old  North  State  in  1776  (Philadelphia,  1884);  Idem,  Life  oj  Rev. 
David  Caldwell  (Greensboro,  N.  C,  1842);  Hunter,  Sketches  of 
Western  N.  C.  (Raleigh,  1877) ;  Vass,  Eastern  N.  C.  (Richmond, 
Va..  1886) ;  Wheeler,  Reminiscences  and  Memoirs  of  N.  C.  (Co- 
lumbus, Ohio,  1881);  Cotton,  Life  of  Macon  (Baltimore.  1840); 
Rumple,  Hist,  of  Rowan  County  (Salisbury,  N.  C,  \%m)\  Schenck, 
N.  C.  (Raleigh,  1889) ;  Ashe,  Hist,  of  N.  C.  (Greensboro,  N.  C, 
IflOS);  Battle,  Hist,  of  the  Univ.  of  N.  C.  (Raleigh,  1907);  Ashe, 
Biog.  Hist,  of  N.  C.  (Greensboro,  1905);  Clark,  A^.  C.  Regi- 
ments 1861-S  (Raleigh,  1901);  Conner,  Story  of  the  Old  North 
State  (Philadelphia,  1906) ;  Hill,  Young  People's  Hist,  of  N.  C. 
(Charlotte,  N.  C,  1907);  Haywood,  Gov.  Tryon  (Raleigh,  1903); 
Jones  Defense  of  Revolutionary  Hist,  of  N.  C.  (Boston  and  Ra- 
leigh 1S34);  Pub.  of  N.  C.  Hist.  Commission  (Raleigh,  1900-10); 
Smith,  Hist,  of  Education  in  N.  C.  (Govt.  Printing  Office.  1888); 
TvRLETON,  Hist,  of  the  Campaign  of  17S0-1  (London,  1787); 
Princeton  College  during  the  Eighteenth  CetUury  (New  York.  1872) ; 
DE  Bow,  Industrial  Resources  of  the  SotUh  and  West  (New  Or- 
leans. 1852);  PoOHE.  Constitutions.  Colonial  Charters  and  Organic 
Laws  of  the  U.  S.,  II  (Govt.  Printing  Office,  1878),  1379;  Colonial 
and  State  Records  of  N.  C.  (25  vols.,  1886-1906) ;  Public  Laws  of 
N  C  ■  The  Code  of  tSSS:  The  Revisal  of  IBOB  (published  by  State, 
Raleigh);  Clark,  The  Supreme  Court  of  N.  C.  (Green  Bag,  Oct., 
Nov.,  Dec.,  1892).  There  is  also  a  large  mass  of  valuable  histori- 
cal matter  in  magazine  articles  and  published  addresses  both 
before  and  since  1895;  see  Weeks,  Bibl.  of  the  Hist.  Lit.  of  N.  C. 
(issued  by  Library  of  Harvard  Univ.,  1895). 

Robert  M.  Dodglas. 

Northcote,  James  Spencer,  b.  at  Feniton  Court, 
Devonshire,  2B  May,  1821;  d.  at  Stoke-upon-Trent, 
Staffordshire,  3  March,  1907.  He  was  the  second  son 
of  (ieorge  Barons  Northcote,  a  gentleman  of  an  an- 
cient Devonshire  family  of  Norman  descent.  Educated 
first  at  Ilmington  Grammar  School,  he  won  in  1837  a 
scholarship  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  O.xford,  where 
he  came  under  Newman's  influence.  In  1841  he  be- 
came B.A.,  and  in  the  following  year  married  his 
cousin,  Susannah  Spencer  Ruscombe  Poole.  Taking 
.Anglican  Orders  in  1844  he  accepted  a  curacy  at  Ilfra- 
combe;  but  when  his  wife  was  received  into  the  Catho- 
lic Church  in  184.5,  he  resigned  his  office.  In  1846  he 
himself  was  converted,  being  received  at  Prior  Park 
College,  where  he  continued  as  a  master  for  some  time. 
From  June,  18.52,  until  September,  1854,  he  acted  as 
editor  of  the  "Rambler",  and  about  the  same  time 
helped  to  edit  the  well-known  "Clifton Tracts".  After 
his  wife's  death  in  1853  he  devoted  himself  to  prepara- 
tion for  the  priesthood,  first  under  Newman  at  Edgbas- 
ton,  then  at  the  CoUegio  Pio,  Rome.  On  29  July,  1855, 
he  was  ordained  priest  at  Stone,  where  his  daughter 


had  entered  the  novitiate.  He  returned  to  Rome  to 
complete  his  ecclesiastical  studies,  also  acquiring 
the  profound  erudition  in  Christian  antiquities  which 
was  later  to  be  enshrined  in  his  great  work  "Roma 
Sotterranea".  In  1857  he  was  appointed  to  the  mis- 
sion of  Stoke-upon-Trent,  which  he  served  until  1860, 
when  he  was  called  to  Oscott  College  as  vice-president, 
and  six  months  later  became  president.  Under  his 
rule,  which  lasted  for  seventeen  years,  the  college 
entered  on  an  unprecedented  degree  of  prosperity, 
and  his  influence  on  education  was  felt  far  outside 
the  walls  of  Oscott.  Failing  health  caused  him  to  re- 
sign in  1876,  and  he  returned  to  the  mission,  first  at 
Stone  (1878),  and  then  at  Stoke-upon-Trent  (1881), 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  revered  by  all  for  his 
learning,  his  noble  character,  and  his  sanctity.  Dur- 
ing the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  he  suffered  from 
creeping  paralysis,  which  slowly  deprived  him  of  all 
bodily  motion,  though  leaving  his  mind  intact.  He 
had  been  made  a  canon  of  the  Diocese  of  Birmingham 
in  1861,  canon-theologian  in  1862,  and  i)rovost  in 
1885.  In  1861  the  pope  conferred  on  him  the  doctor- 
ate in  divinity.  Dr.  Nort.hcote's  wide  scholarship  is 
witnessed  to  by  many  works,  chief  among  which  is 
"Roma  Sotterranea",  the  great  work  on  the  Cata- 
combs, written  in  conjunction  with  William  R.  Brown- 
low,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Clifton.  This  work  has 
been  translated  into  French  and  German;  and  it  won 
for  its  authors  recognition  as  being  among  the  great- 
est living  authorities  on  the  subject.  Other  works 
were:  "The  Fourfold  Difficulty  of  Anglicanism" 
(Derby,  1846);  "A  Pilgrimage  to  La  Salette"  (Lon- 
don, 1852);  "Roman  Catacombs"  (London,  1857); 
"Mary  in  the  Gospels"  (London,  1867);  "Celebrated 
Sanctuaries  of  the  Madonna"  (London,  1868);  "A 
Visit  to  the  Roman  Catacombs"  (London,  1877); 
"Epitaphs  of  the  Catacombs"  (London,  1878). 

Barrt,  The  Lord  my  Light  (funeral  sermon,  privately  printed, 
1907) ;  Memoir  of  the  Very  Rev.  Canon  Northcote  in  The  Oscotian 
(July,  1907) ;  Report  of  the  case  of  Fitzgerald  v.  Northcote  (London, 

1866).  Edwin  Burton. 

North  Dakota,  one  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica, originally  included  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 
Little  was  known  of  the  region  prior  to  the  expedition 
of  Lewis  and  Clark,  who  spent  the  winter  of  1804-5 
about  thirty  miles  north-west  of  Bismarck.  In  1811 
the  Astor  expedi- 
tion encountered  a 
band  of  Sioux  near 
the  boundary  of 
North  and  South 
Dakota  on  the  Mis- 
souri. Settlement 
was  long  delayed 
on  account  of  the 
numerous  Indian 
wars,  and  the  land 
was  practically 
given  up  to  hunters 
and  trappers.  In 
1849  all  that  part 
of  Dakota  east  of 
the  Missouri  and 
White      Earth 

Rivers  was  made  part  of  the  Territory  of  Minnesota, 
and  in  1854  all  to  the  west  of  the  said  rivers  was  in- 
cluded in  the  Territory  of  Nebraska.  Finally,  2 
March,  1861,  President  Buchanan  signed  the  bill 
creating  the  Territory  of  North  Dakota,  with  Dr. 
William  Jayne  of  Springfield,  111.,  as  first  governor; 
and  on  2  November,  1889,  the  State  of  North  Dakota 
was  formed.  North  Dakota  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Saskatchewan  and  Manitoba,  on  the  south  by 
South  Dakota,  on  the  east  by  Minnesota  (the  Red 
River  dividing),  and  on  the  west  by  Montana.  The 
surface  is  chiefly  rolling  prairie,  with  an  elevation  of 
from  eight  hundred  to  nine  hundred  feet  in  the  Red 


Dakota 


NORTH   DAKOTA 


112 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


River  valloy,  from  thirtc-rn  luinilml  to  fifteen  hundred 
feet  in  tlie  I')evirs  Lake  region  and  froin  two  thou- 
sand to  twenty-eight  hundrcil  fcot  west  of  Minot.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Missouri,  Hed,  Shej'enne,  James, 
Mouse,  and  their  tributaries.  The  state  forms  a 
rectangle,  measuring  approximately  two  himdred  and 
fourteen  miles  from  north  to  south  and  three  hundred 
and  thirty  from  east  to  west,  and  has  an  area  of  7(1,795 
square  miles,  of  which  (i.")()  is  water.  The  poi)ulation 
(1910)  was  577,056,  an  increiise  of  82.8  per  cent,  since 
1900. 

Resources. — Agriculture. — The  number  of  farms 
in  the  state  in  1910  w-as  64,442,  number  of  acres  in 
cultivation  over  13  millions.  Wheat  is  the  dominant 
crop,  the  Red  River  Valley  being  perhaps  the  most 
famous  wheat-producing  region  in  the  %vorld.  Oats 
flax,  and  barley  are  also  produced  in  large  quantities . 
The  prairies  offer  fine  ranching  ground  and  the  state 
has  1,. 315, 870  head  of  live  stock.  Her  forests  aggre- 
gate 95,918  acres;  there  are  135,150  cultivated  fruit 
trees,  and  2381  acres  of  berries.  Besides  many  natural 
groves,  very  rich  in  wild  small  fruit,  there  are  a  vast 
number  of  cultivated  farm  groves,  and  some  fine 
nurseries,  the  largest  of  which  is  near  Devil's  Lake 
and  consists  of  about  400  acres. 

Mining. — In  the  western  part  of  the  state.  North 
Dakota  has  a  coal  supply  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  state  in  the  Union;  coal  is  mined  at  Minot, 
Burlington,  Kenmare,  Ray,  Dickinson,  Dunseith,  and 
other  places;  the  supply  is  cheap  and  inexliaustible 
for  fuel,  gas,  electricity,  and  power.  In  1908  there 
were  88  mines  in  operation  and  289,435  tons  mined. 
Clays  for  pottery,  fire  and  pressed  brick  abound  in 
Stark,  Dunn,  Mercer,  Morton,  Hettinger,  and  Bil- 
Ungs  counties.  Cement  is  found  in  Cavaher  County 
on  the  border  of  Pembina.  The  artesian  basin  is  in 
North  Dakota  sandstone  at  the  base  of  the  upper 
cretacean,  at  a  depth  of  from  eight  hundred  feet  in 
the  south-east  to  fifteen  hundred  feet  at  Devil's  Lake. 
Good  common  brick  clay  may  be  found  practically 
all  over  the  state  from  deposits  in  the  glacial  lakes. 
North  Dakota  has  5012  miles  of  railroad,  and  four 
main  lines  cro.ss  the  state.  There  is  direct  railway 
communication  with  Winnipeg,  Brandon,  and  other 
points  on  the  Canadian  Pacific. 

Matters  Affecting  Religion. — North  Dakota  is  a 
code  State.  The  civil  and  criminal  codes  prepared 
by  the  New  York  commission  but  not  then  adopted 
by  that  State,  were  adopted  by  Dakota  Territory  in 
1865;  a  probate  code  was  adopted  the  same  year,  and 
thus  the  Territory  of  Dakota  was  the  first  English- 
speaking  community  to  adopt  a  codification  of  its 
substantive  law.  The  territorial  laws,  compiled  in 
1887,  were  revised  by  the  State  in  1895,  1899,  and 
1905.  Section  4,  Article  1  of  the  State  Constitution 
pro\'ides:  "The  free  exercise  and  enjoyment  of  re- 
ligious profession  and  wor.ship,  without  discrimination 
or  preference,  shall  be  forever  guaranteed  in  this  State, 
and  no  person  shall  be  rendered  incompetent  to  be  a 
witness  or  juror  on  account  of  his  opinion  on  matters 
of  religious  belief;  but  the  liberty  of  conscience  hereby 
secured  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  excuse  acts 
of  licentiousness,  or  justify  practices  inconsistent 
with  the  peace  or  safety  of  this  State."  The  statute 
makes  it  a  misdemeanour  to  prevent  the  free  exercise 
of  religious  worship  and  belief,  or  to  compel  by  threats 
or  violence  any  particular  form  of  worship,  or  to  dis- 
turb a  religious  a.ssemblage  by  profane  discourse,  in- 
decent acts,  unnecessary  noise,  selling  liquor,  keeping 
open  huckster  shops,  or  exhibiting  jilays  without 
licence,  within  a  mile  of  such  assemblages.  Servile 
labour  (except  works  of  necessity  or  charity)  is  for- 
bidden on  Sunday;  also  public  sports,  trades,  manu- 
factures, mechanical  eniployment,  and  public  traffic 
(except  that  meats,  milk,  and  fish  may  be  sold  before 
nine  a.m.,  also  food  to  be  eaten  on  premises.  Drugs, 
medicines,  and  surgical  appliances  may  be  sold  at 


any  time).  Service  of  process  excejit  in  criminal 
cases  is  prohibited  on  Sunday.  A  person  uiiiforndy 
keeping  another  day  of  the  week  as  holy  time,  may 
labour  on  Sunday,  provided  he  do  not  interrupt  or 
disturb  other  persons  in  iiliscrxing  the  first  day  of  the 
week.  The  fine  for  Sabbath-breaking  is  not  less  than 
one  dollar  <ir  more  th.an  ten  tlollars  for  each  offence. 
It  is  a  misdemeanour  to  serve  civil  process  on  Sut\irday 
on  a  person  who  keci)s  that  day  as  the  Sabbath. 

Oaths. — Section  533  of  the  code  of  1905,  amended 
1909,  provides:  "The  following  officers  are  authorized 
to  administer  oaths:  each  judge  of  the  supreme  court 
and  his  deputy,  clerks  of  the  district  court,  clerks  of 
the  county  court  with  increased  jurisdiction,  county 
auditors  and  registers  of  deeds  and  their  deputies 
within  their  respective  counties,  county  commission- 
ers within  their  respective  counties,  judges  of  the 
county  court,  public  administrators  within  their  re- 
spective counties,  ju.stices  of  the  peace  within  their 
respective  counties,  notaries  public  anywhere  in  the 
State  upon  complying  with  the  provisions  of  sections 
545  and  546,  city  clerks  or  auditors,  township  clerks 
and  village  recorders  within  their  respective  cities, 
townships,  and  villages;  each  sheriff  and  his  deputy 
within  their  respective  counties  in  the  cases  provided 
by  law ;  other  officers  in  the  cases  especially  provided  by 
law".  It  is  a  misdemeanour  to  take,  or  for  an  officer 
to  administer,  an  extra-judicial  oath,  except  where  the 
same  is  required  by  the  provisions  of  some  contract 
as  the  basis  or  proof  of  claim,  or  is  agreed  to  be  re- 
ceived by  some  person  as  proof  of  any  fact  in  the  per- 
formance of  any  contract,  obligation  or  duty  instead 
of  other  evidence.  Blasphemy  consists  in  wantonly 
uttering  or  publishing  words,  reproaches,  or  profane 
words  against  God,  Jesus  Christ,  the  Holy  Ghost,  the 
Holy  Scripture,  or  the  Christian  religion.  Profane 
swearing  consists  in  any  use  of  the  name  of  God,  Jesus 
Christ,  or  the  Holy  Ghost,  either  in  imprecating 
Divine  vengeance  upon  the  utterer  or  any  other  per- 
son, in  a  light,  trifling,  or  irreverent  speech.  Blas- 
phemy is  a  misdemeanour,  and  profane  swearing  is 
punishable  by  a  fine  of  one  dollar  for  each  offence. 
Obscenity  in  a  public  place  or  in  the  presence  of 
females,  or  of  children  under  ten  years  of  age  is  a 
misdemeanour. 

Exemptions  from  Taxation. — "All  public  school 
hou.ses,  academies,  colleges,  institutions  of  learning, 
with  the  books  and  furniture  therein  and  grounds 
attached  to  such  buildings,  necessary  for  their  proper 
occupancy  and  use,  not  to  exceed  forty  acres  in  area 
and  not  leased  or  otherwise  used  with  a  view  to  profit; 
also  all  houses  used  exclusively  for  public  worship 
and  lots  and  parts  of  lots  upon  which  such  houses 
are  erected;  all  land  used  exclusively  for  burying 
grounds  or  for  a  cemetery;  all  buildings  and  contents 
thereof  used  for  public  charity,  including  public 
hospitals  under  the  control  of  religious  or  charitable 
societies  used  wholly  or  in  part  for  public  charity, 
together  with  the  land  actually  occupied  by  such  in- 
stitutions, not  leased  or  otherwise  used  with  a  view  to 
profit,  and  all  moneys  and  credits  appropriated  solely 
to  sustaining  and  belonging  exclusively  to  such  insti- 
tutions, are  exempt  from  taxation."  All  churches, 
parsonages,  and  usual  outbuildings,  and  grounds  not 
exceeding  one  acre  on  which  the  same  are  situated, 
whether  on  one  or  more  tracts,  also  all  personal 
property  of  religious  corporations,  used  for  religious 
purposes,  are  exempt. 

Matters  Affecting  Religious  Work. — The  law  pro- 
vides for  corporations  for  religious,  educational,  benev- 
olent, charitable,  or  scientific  purposes,  giving  to 
such  corporations  power  to  acquire  property,  real  and 
personal,  by  purchase,  devise,  or  bequest  and  hold 
the  same  and  sell  or  mortgage  it  according  to  the  by- 
laws or  a  majority  of  votes  of  the  members.  Catholic 
church  corporations,  according  to  diocesan  statutes, 
consist  of  the  bishop,  vicar-general,  local  pastor,  and 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


113 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


two  trustees.  No  corporation  or  association  for  reli- 
gious purposes  shallacquire  or  hold  real  estate  of  greater 
value  than  $200,000  (lawsof  1909).  Charitable  trusts 
are  favoured  if  conformable  to  the  statute  against  per- 
petuities, which  forbids  suspension  of  power  or  of  alien- 
ations for  a  longer  period  than  the  lives  of  persons  in  be- 
ing at  the  creation  of  condition  (Hager  vs.  Sacrison, 
123  N.  W.  Rep.,  51S).  Cemetery  corporation  may  be 
formed  with  powers  of  regulation.  The  net  proceeds 
must  go  to  protect  and  improve  the  grounds  and  not 
to  the  profit  of  the  corporation  or  members.  Inter- 
ment lot  inalienable,  but  any  heir  may  release  to  an- 
other heir.  Cemetery  grounds  are  exempt  from  all 
process,  lien,  and  public  burdens  and  uses. 

Marriage  and  Divorce. — Any  unmarried  male  of 
the  age  of  eighteen  or  upwards  and  any  unmarried 
female  of  the  age  of  fifteen  or  upwards,  not  otherwise 
disqualified,  are  capable  of  consenting  to  marriage, 
but  if  the  male  is  under  twenty-one  or  the  female  under 
eighteen,  the  licence  shall  not  be  issued  without  the 
consent  of  parents  or  guardian,  if  there  be  any.  Mar- 
riages between  parents  and  children  including  grand- 
parents and  grandchildren,  between  brothers  and  sis- 
ters, of  half  or  whole  blood,  uncles  and  nieces,  aunts 
and  nephews,  or  cousins  of  the  first  degree  of  half  or 
whole  blood,  are  declared  incestuous  and  absolutely 
void,  and  this  applies  to  illegitimate  as  well  as  legiti- 
mate children  and  relations.  A  marriage  contracted  by 
a  person  having  a  former  husband  or  wife,  if  the  former 
marriage  has  not  been  annulled  or  dissolved,  is  illegal 
and  void  from  the  beginning, unless  the  formerhusband 
or  wife  was  absent  and  Ijelieved  by  such  person  to  be 
dead  for  five  years  immediately  proceeding.  Judges 
of  all  courts  of  record  and  justices  of  the  peace,  within 
their  jurisdiction,  "ordained  ministers  of  the  Gospel ", 
and  "priests  of  every  church"  may  perform  the  mar- 
riage ceremony.  The  form  used  by  Friends  or 
Quakers  is  also  valid.  Licences,  issued  by  the  county 
judge  of  the  county  where  one  of  the  contracting 
parties  resides,  must  be  obtained  and  the  persons  per- 
forming the  ceremony  must  file  the  certificate  thereof, 
and  such  licence  with  the  county  judge  within  thirty 
days  after  the  marriage,  such  certificate  to  be  signed 
by  two  witnesses  and  the  person  performing  the  cere- 
mony. Indians  contracting  marriage  according  to 
Indian  custom  and  co-habiting  as  man  and  wife,  are 
deemed  legally  married.  All  marriages  contracted 
outside  of  the  State  and  valid  by  the  laws  of  the  State 
where  contracted,  are  deemed  valid  in  this  State. 
The  original  certificate  and  certified  copy  thereof  are 
eviflences  of  marriage  in  all  courts.  Marriages  may 
be  annulled  for  any  of  the  following  causes  existing 
at  the  time:  (1)  if  the  person  seeking  annulment  was 
under  the  age  of  legal  consent,  and  such  marriage 
was  contracted  without  the  consent  of  parent  or 
guardian,  unless  after  attaining  the  age  of  consent, 
they  lived  together  as  husband  and  wife;  (2)  when 
former  husband  or  wife  of  either  party  was  living  and 
former  marriage  then  in  force;  (3)  when  either  party 
was  of  unsound  mind  imless  after  coming  to  reason 
the  parties  lived  together  as  husband  and  wife;  (4) 
when  consent  was  obtained  by  fraud,  unless  after  full 
knowledge  of  facts  the  party  defrauded  continued  to 
live  with  the  other  in  marriage  relation;  (5)  when 
consent  was  obtained  by  force,  unless  afterwards 
they  lived  freely  together;  (6)  incapacity. 

.'Actions  for  annulment  where  former  husband  or 
wife  is  living,  and  where  party  is  of  unsound  mind, 
may  be  brought  at  any  time  before  the  death  of  either 

Earty.  Actions  for  annulment  for  other  causes  must 
e  brought  by  the  party  injured  within  four  years  after 
arriving  at  age  of  consent  or  by  i)arent  or  guardian 
before  such  time,  also  for  fraud  within  four  years  after 
discovery.  When  a  marriage  is  annulled  children 
begotten  before  the  judgment  are  legitimate  and  suc- 
ceed to  the  estate  of  both  parents.  Marriages  be- 
tween white  persons  and  coloured  persons  of  one 
XL— 8 


eighth  or  more  negro  blood  are  null  and  void  by  Act 
of  1907,  and  severe  penalty  is  provided  against  parties, 
officials,  and  clergy  for  violation  of  the  law.  Divorce 
may  be  granted  for  (1)  adultery,  (2)  extreme  cruelty, 
(3)  wilful  desertion,  (4)  wilful  neglect,  (5)  habitual 
intemperance,  (6)  conviction  of  felony.  Neither 
party  to  a  divorce  may  marry  within  three  months 
after  decree  is  granted.  Wilful  desertion,  wilful 
neglect,  or  habitual  intemperance  must  continue  for 
one  year  before  it  is  a  cause  for  divorce.  As  to  proof 
in  divorce  cases  the  Statute  provides  that  no  divorce 
can  be  granted  on  default  of  the  defendant  or  upon  the 
uncorroborated  statement,  admission,  or  testimony 
of  parties,  or  upon  any  statement  or  finding  of  facts 
made  by  referee,  but  the  court  must  in  addition  to 
any  statement  or  finding  of  referee,  require  proof 
of  facts  alleged.  The  court  has  held  that  the  fact 
of  marriage  alleged  in  complaint  may  be  admitted  in 
answer  without  other  corroboration.  The  restriction 
as  to  corroboration  apphes  to  testimony,  not  to  plead- 
ing, and  is  intended  to  prevent  collusive  divorce. 
This  statute  is  more  restrictive  as  to  proof  than  the 
proposed  resolution.  No.  13,  of  proceedings  of  the 
National  Congress  on  Uniform  Divorce  which  reads: 
"A  decree  should  not  be  granted  unless  the  cause  is 
shown  by  affirmative  proof,  aside  from  any  admissions 
on  the  part  of  the  respondent."  A  residence  of  one 
year  in  the  State  is  required  for  the  plaintiff  in  an  ac- 
tion of  divorce.  Dower  and  Curtesy  are  abolished, 
and  a  deed  of  the  homestead  must  be  signed  by  both 
the  husband  and  wife.  Labour  of  children  under 
fourteen  years  of  age  is  prohibited,  and  stringent  rules 
provide  for  regulation  of  those  under  sixteen,  and 
no  woman  under  eighteen  years  of  age  may  be  com- 
pelled to  work  over  ten  hours ;  age  of  consent  is  eigh- 
teen years. 

Wills. — A  woman  is  of  age  at  eighteen,  and  any 
person  of  sound  mind  may,  on  arriving  at  that  age, 
dispose  of  his  or  her  real  and  personal  property  by 
will.  A  married  woman  may  will  her  property  with- 
out the  consent  of  her  husband.  A  nuncupative  will 
is  hmited  to  .$1000,  and  to  cases  where  the  testator 
is  in  military  service  in  the  field,  or  on  board  ship, 
and  anticipates  death,  or  where  death  is  anticipated 
from  a  wound  received  that  day.  There  must  be  two 
witnesses  who  are  requested  by  the  testator  to  act  as 
such,  ."^n  olographic  will  is  one  dated,  written,  and 
signed  by  the  hand  of  the  testator,  and  requires  no 
other  formalities.  Other  wills  must  be  executed  by 
the  testator  in  presence  of  two  witnesses,  who  in  his 
presence  and  in  the  presence  of  each  other,  subscribe 
as  witnesses. 

Edvcation. — The  educational  system  in  North 
Dakota  is  on  a  broad  basis.  Sections  16  and  36  of  each 
Congressional  township  are  given  to  the  common 
schools  by  Congress,  also  5  per  cent  of  the  net  proceeds 
of  the  sale  of  public  lands  subsequent  to  admission, 
to  be  used  as  a  permanent  fund  for  schools,  interest 
only  to  be  expended  for  support  of  common  schools. 
The  enabling  act  also  gives  72  sections  for  university 
purposes,  to  be  sold  for  not  less  than  ten  dollars  per 
acre,  proceeds  to  constitute  a  permanent  fund,  interest 
only  to  be  expended.  .\lso  90,000  acres  for  the  Agri- 
cultural College,  40,000  acres  each  for  the  School  of 
Mines,  Reform  .'school,  Deaf  and  Dumb  School, 
Agricultural  College,  .'>tate  riiiversity,  two  State 
Normal  Schools;  50,000  acres  for  capital  buildings  and 
170,000  acres  for  such  other  educational  and  chari- 
talili'  iii.slitutions  as  the  legislature  may  determine. 
No  part  of  the  school  fund  may  be  wupA  for  support  of 
any.sectarian  or  denominational  school.  <'oIlege,  oruni- 
versity.  The  Normal  Schools  are  located  at  .Mayville 
and  Valley  City,  the  Industrial  Training  ."School  at 
Ellendale,  the  School  of  J^orestry  at  Bottineau,  the 
Agricultural  College  at  Fargo,  the  State  University 
(Arts,  Law,  Engineering,  Model  High  School,  State 
School   of    Mines,    Pubhc   Health   Laboratory    and 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


114 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


Gradiiato  Dopartnieiits)  :it  (Irimd  I"(irks;  numbor  of 
professors,  instructors,  and  assistants,  (iS;  leoturprs, 
13;  students,  loot).  ClKuital)le  institutions  are  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb  School  at  IJevil's  Lake,  tlie  Hospital 
for  Feeble  Minded  at  (irafton.  the  Insani-  .\sylum  at 
Jamestown,  the  .Sehool  for  the  Blind  at  liathgate,  the 
Soldiers'  Home  at  Lisbon,  the  Heforni  School  at  Man- 
dan.  The  permanent  school  and  institutional  fund 
amounted  to  about  .SIS.OOO.DOO  in  1!K)S;  the  appor- 
tionment from  that  fund  in  1903  was  $274, 348. .SO; 
in  1908,  $54.5,814.66.  Ample  provisions  are  made  for 
State  and  county  institutes,  and  teachers  are  required 
to  attend.  Third  Grade  Certificates  are  abolished. 
The  minimum  salary  for  teachers  is  $45  a  month. 
Provisions  are  made  for  the  extension  of  the  High 
School  system,  and  also  for  consolidated  schools  and 
transportation  of  children  to  the  same.  The  legis- 
lative appropriation  in  1909  for  the  university  was 
$181,000. 

Prisons  and  Reformatories. — The  keeper  of  each 
prison  is  required  to  provide  at  the  expense  of  the 
county  for  each  prisoner  who  may  be  able  and  desires 
to  read,  a  copy  of  the  Bible  or  New  Testament  to  be 
used  by  the  prisoner  at  seasonable  and  proper  times 
during  his  confinement,  and  any  minister  of  the  Gospel 
is  permitted  access  to  such  prisoners  at  seasonable 
and  proper  times  to  perform  and  instruct  prisoners  in 
their  moral  and  religious  duties.  Suitable  provisions 
are  made  for  reduction  of  time  for  good  behaviour,  for 
indeterminate  sentences,  and  paroling  prisoners. 

Sale  of  Liquor. — The  manufacture,  importation, 
sale,  gift,  barter,  or  trade  of  intoxicating  liquors  by 
any  person,  association,  or  corporation  as  a  beverage, 
is  prohibited  by  Article  20  of  the  State  constitution 
and  by  statute.  Exceptions  are  made  in  favour  of 
sale  in  limited  quantities  on  affidavit  of  applicant  by 
druggists  for  medicinal,  mechanical,  scientific,  and 
sacramental  purposes,  under  permit  granted  at  the 
discretion  of  the  district  court.  Not  more  than  one- 
half  pint  may  be  sold  to  any  one  in  one  day  and  the 
purchaser  must  sign  affidavit  stating  the  particular 
disease  for  which  the  same  is  required.  Sales  to 
minors,  habitual  drunkards,  and  persons  whose  rela- 
tives forbid,  are  prohibited.  Places  where  intoxicat- 
ing liquors  are  sold  or  kept  for  sale  or  where  persons 
are  permitted  to  resort  for  purpose  of  drinking  intox- 
icating liquors  are  declared  to  be  common  nuisances. 
The  keeper  is  liable  criminally  and  in  an  action  the 
nuisance  may  be  abated  and  the  premises  closed  for 
one  year.  The  statute  also  provides  for  civil  liability 
against  persons  violating  the  law,  in  favour  of  those 
taking  charge  of  and  providing  for  intoxicated  per- 
sons, and  in  favour  of  every  wife,  child,  parent, 
guardian,  employer,  or  other  person  injured  in  person 
or  property  or  means  of  support  by  any  intoxicated 
person. 

Staiislics  of  the  Protestant  Churches. — The  Epis- 
copalian Church  has  4664  members;  1224  families; 
97  Sunday  School  teachers;  741  pupils;  42  churches 
and  chapels;  5410  sittings;  16  rectories;  795  mem- 
bers in  guilds.  The  value  of  the  churches,  chapels, 
and  grounds  is  $158,055;  rectories  $49,000;  other 
property  $42,850.  There  are  6  parishes;  36  organized 
missions;  and  44  unorganized  missions.  Total  offer- 
ings for  all  purposes  for  the  y*ar  ending  1  June,  1910, 
were  $.32,496.28.  The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
had  in  the  State  in  1908,  223  church  buildings  valued 
at  $600,000,  and  101  parsonages  valued  at  $150,000, 
with  a  membership  of  about  11,000.  The  most  im- 
portant fact  in  connexion  with  this  organization  is  the 
affiliation  of  Wesley  College  with  the  State  university, 
where  the  Methodists  aim  to  give  religious  and  other 
instruction  in  their  own  buildings  and  arrange  for 
their  pupils  to  get  the  benefit  of  secular  instruction 
at  the  State  university.  The  plan  suggests  a  possible 
solution  of  the  much  vexed  question  of  division  of  the 
school  fund.     The  Presbyterian  Church  has  7  presby- 


teries; 175  ministers;  7185  members,  9411  Sunday 
School  members.  They  contributed  for  all  purposes 
in  the  past  year  $150,1)35.  There  arc  1.S5  church 
organizations;  50  preaching  stations;  132  church 
buildings,  and  62  manses.  Value  of  church  manses 
and  educational  property  was  estimated  at  $.800,000 
in  1908.  This  denomination  has  recently  located  at 
Jamestown,  the  Presbvtiiian  unixcrsii  v,  said  to  have 
.an  endowment  fund  of  alicmt  8200, ()()().  '  T\u- Liilhiran 
Church  is  composed  chieily  of  Norwegians  and  other 
Scandinavians.  According  to  the  "Norwegian  Amer- 
ican ",  published  in  Norwegian  at  Minneapolis  in  1907, 
there  were  in  the  State  in  1905,  of  Norwegian  birth 
and  descent.  140.000.  The  Lutheran  church  had  3S0 
congregations,  and  about  240  churches.  The  Baptist 
Church  in  1908  had  a  membership  of  4161,  a  Sunday 
School  enrollment  of  3164;  53  churches,  valued  at 
$191,430;  and  28  parsonages  valued  at  $35,772. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — The  establishment  of  Catho- 
lic missions  in  North  Dakota  cannot  bo  reliably 
traced  to  an  earlier  date  than  1818.  In  that  year  Rt. 
Rev.  J.  Octave  Plessis  of  Quebec  sent  Rev.  Joseph 
Provencher  and  Rev.  Josef  Severe  Dumoulin  to  Fort 
Douglas,  as  St.  Boniface  was  then  called,  and  after  the 
grasshoppers  had  destroyed  the  crops,  the  Selkirk 
colonists  went  in  large  numbers  to  Pembina.  Father 
Provencher  sent  Father  Dumoulin  in  September,  1818, 
to  minister  to  the  spiritual  w-ants  of  the  colonists, 
with  instructions  to  spend  the  winter  at  Pembina. 
When  that  i)lacewas  foimd  to  be  within  the  United 
States,  Father  Dumoulin  was  recalled.  Rev.  George 
Anthony  Beleourt  became  the  second  resident  priest 
of  North  Dakota.  A  gifted  linguist,  well  versed  in 
the  Algonquin  languages  which  included  the  Chip- 
pewa, he  taught  the  latter  to  the  young  missionaries 
and  composed  an  Indian  grammar  and  dictionary, 
still  standard  works.  He  w.as  resident  priest  from 
1831-8  and  often  said  Mass  in  every  camping  place 
from  Lake  Traverse  to  Pembina  and  in  the  in- 
terior of  North  Dakota.  It  was  customary  in  the 
sunnner  for  the  settlers  to  go  to  the  south-western  part 
of  the  State  to  hunt  bison  on  the  prairies,  and  to  take 
their  families  with  them.  The  priest  always  accom- 
panied them  and  in  those  camps  for  the  first  time  the 
children  were  given  an  opportimity  of  religious  in- 
struction. Father  lielcourt  is  said  to  have  evangel- 
ized the  whole  of  the  Turtle  Mountain  Chippewa,  a 
circumstance  which  kept  that  tribe  at  peace  with  the 
government  during  the  Sioux  troubles  following  the 
Minnesota  massacre  in  1862.  Father  De  Smet  spent 
a  few  weeks  with  the  Mandans  on  the  Missouri  in  1840 
and  baptized  a  number  of  their  children.  Father 
Jean  Baptiste  Marie  Genin  is  credited  with  establish- 
ing a  mission  at  St.  Michael's,  Fort  Totten,  in  1865. 
His  name  is  honourably  and  extensively  associated 
with  much  of  the  missionary  history  of  the  State.  The 
first  real  missionary  work  anjoiig  the  Sioux  of  North 
Dakota  dates  from  1874  when  Alajor  Forbes  (a  Cath- 
olic), Indian  Agent  at  Fort  Totten,  with  the  help  of 
the  Catholic  Indian  Bureau,  induced  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  (Grey  Nuns)  of  Montreal  under  Sr.  Mary 
Clapin  to  establish  themselves  in  his  agency.  Father 
Bonnin  came  as  their  chaplain.  Rev.  Claude  Ebner, 
O.S.B.,  was  stationed  at  Fort  Totten,  1877-86. 
Rev.  Jerome  Hunt,  O.S.B.,  has  devoted  his  talent 
and  zeal  to  the  welfare  of  the  Indians  at  Fort  Totten 
Reservation  since  18.82,  and  has  written  and  published 
in  the  Sioux  language,  a  Bible  history,  prayerbook 
with  instruction  and  hymns,  and  a  smaller  book  of 
prayer,  and  for  eighteen  years  has  published  an  Indian 
paper  in  Sioux.  The  Grey  Nuns  at  Fort  Totten  have 
conducted  a  sehool  since  1874. 

Rt.  Rev.  Martin  Marty,  O.S.B.,  was  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  Dakota  until  27  December,  1889,  when  Rt. 
Rev.  John  Shanley  became  Bishop  of  Jamestown;  the 
see  was  later  changed  to  Fargo.  The  number  of 
churches  increased  from  40  in  1890  to  210  in  1908. 


NORTHERN 


115 


NORTHMEN 


After  the  death  of  Bishop  Shanley,  the  diocese  was 
divided.  Rt.  Rev.  James  O'Reilly,  as  Bishop  of 
Fargo,  has  charge  of  the  eastern  part,  and  Rt.  Rev. 
Vincent  Wehrle,  O.S.B.,  rules  over  the  western  part  as 
Bishop  of  Bismarck.  According  to  the  census  of  1907, 
the  Catholic  population  was  70,000  but  a  subsequent 
count  shows  the  number  much  larger,  and  the  latest 
estimate  by  Father  O'DriscoU,  secretary  of  the  Fargo 
diocese,  places  it  at  about  90,000.  There  are  in  the 
two  dioceses,  140  priests;  14  religious  houses;  1  mon- 
astery; 7  academies;  5  hospitals;  and  about  250 
churches.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  have  a  hospital  at 
Fargo  and  one  at  Grand  Forks,  and  an  academy  at 
Jamestown.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict  have  estab- 
lishments at  Richardton,  Glen  Ellen,  Oakes,  Fort 
Yates,  and  a  hospital  at  Bismarck.  The  Presentation 
Nuns  have  an  academy  and  orphanage  at  Fargo.  Sis- 
ters of  Mary  of  the  Presentation  are  established  at 
Wild  Rice,  Oakwood,  Willow  City,  and  Lisbon.  The 
Ursuline  Sisters  conduct  St.  Bernard's  Academy  at 
Grand  Forks.  Three  Sisters  of  Mercy  opened  a  mis- 
sion school  at  Belcourt  in  the  Turtle  Mountains  among 
the  Chippewa  in  1SS4,  and  continued  to  teach  until 

1907,  when  their  convent  was  destroyed  by  fire.  They 
established  at  Devil's  Lake,  St.  Joseph's  hospital  in 
1895  and  the  Academy  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Lake  in 

1908.  The  State  has  several  active  councils  of  the 
Knights  of  Columbus  and  Courts  of  the  Catholic 
Order  of  Foresters.  Among  the  Catholics  distinguished 
in  public  life  are  John  Burke,  three  times  elected 
governor;  John  Carmody,  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court;  Joseph  Kennedy,  Dean  of  the  Normal  College, 
State  University;  W.  E.  Purcell,  U.  S.  Senator;  and 
P.  D.  Norton,  Secretary  of  State. 

Slale  Hist.  Society,  I,  II  (Bismarck,  1906-8);  History  and  Biog- 
raphy of  North  Dakota  (Chicago,  1900);  Irving,  Astoria  (New 
York);  Willahd,  Story  of  the  Prairies  (Chicago,  1903);  North 
Dakota  Blue  Books  (Bismarck.  1899-1909) ;  North  Dakota  Maga- 
zines, pub.  by  Comm.  of  -Agriculture  (Bismarck,  1908);  Catholic 
Almanac  (1910):  Journal  of  the  :i6th  Annual  Convocation  of  the 
Episcopalian  Church  (Fargo,  1  10);  10th  Biennial  Report  of  Supt. 
Pub.  Instruction  (Bismarck,  1908) ;  Minutes  of  Gen.  Assembly  of 
Presbyterian  Church  (Philadelphia,  1910);  L.irned.  Reference 
Digest;  New  .imerican  Ency  (1876);  Norwegian  American  in 
Norwegian  (Minneapolis,  1907) ;  Clapp,  Clays  of  North  Dakota  in 
Economic  Geology,  II,  no.  6  (Sept.  and  Oct.,  1907);  North  Dakota 
Codes  (1905);  Session  Laws  (1907-9);  R003EVELT,  Winning  of  the 
West,  IV  (New  York.  18S9-96);  University  Catalogue  (1910);  The 
Bulletin,  a  diocesan  publication  (Fargo,  March  and  May.  1909). 

M.  H.  Brennan. 

Northern  Missions.  See  Germant,  Vic.\riate 
Apostolic    of    Northern;    Denmark;    Norway; 

Sweden. 

Northern  Territory,  Prefecture  Apostolic  op 
THE. — The  Northern  Territory,  formerly  Alexander 
Land,  is  that  part  of  Australia  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  ocean,  on  the  south  by  South  Australia,  on  the 
east  by  Queensland  and  on  the  west  by  Western  Aus- 
traha.  It  thus  Ues  almost  entirely  within  the  tropics, 
and  has  an  area  of  523,620  square  miles.  It  is  crown 
land,  but  was  provisionally  annexed  to  South  Austra- 
lia, 6  July,  1863.  It  is  practically  uninhabited;  the 
population  is  roughly  estimated  at  between  25,000  and 
30,000,  of  whom  less  than  a  thousand  are  Europeans, 
about  4000  Asiatics  mostly  Chinese,  the  remainder 
being  aborigines.  There  are  but  two  towns,  Palmens- 
ton  at  Port  Darwin,  with  a  population  of  600,  and 
Southport  on  Blackmore  River,  twenty-four  miles 
south.  There  is  transcontinental  telegraphic  com- 
munication (over  2000  miles)  established  in  1872,  be- 
tween Palmerston  and  Adelaide,  but  railroad  com- 
munication extends  only  146  miles  south  of  the  former 
town,  a  distance  of  over  1200  miles  from  the  northern 
terminal  of  the  railway.  There  are  large  navigable 
rivers  in  the  north,  and  Port  Darwin  is  probably  sur- 
passed in  the  world  as  a  deep  water  port  by  Sydney 
Harbour  alone.  The  annual  rainfall  varies  from  sixty- 
two  inches  on  the  coast,  where  the  climate  resembles 
that  of  French  Cochin  China  to  six  inches  at  Char- 
lotte Waters.    Droughts,  cattle  disease,  and  the  finan- 


cial crisis  of  1891  have  combined  to  retard  the  devel- 
opment of  the  country.  John  McDouall  Stuart,  the 
pioneer  explorer,  and  his  successors  declare  that  large 
tracts  in  the  interior  are  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of 
cotton  and  the  breeding  of  cattle,  while  the  govern- 
ment officials  at  Port  Darwin  have  grown  spices,  fibre 
plants,  maize,  and  ceara  rubber  with  great  success. 
The  crown  lands  (only  473,278  of  the  total  334,643,522 
acres  have  been  leased)  are  regulated  by  the  North 
Territory  Crown  Lands  Act  of  1890-1901. 

Northern  Territory  has  a  varied  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory. In  1847,  by  a  decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation 
(27  May),  it  was  made  a  diocese  (Diocese  of  Port  Vic- 
toria and  Palmerston),  Joseph  Serra,  O.S.B.,  conse- 
crated at  Rome,  15  August,  1848,  b^ing  appointed  to 
the  see.  He,  however,  was  transferred  in  1849  before 
taking  possession  to  Daulia,  and  nominated  coadjutor 
"cum  jure  successionis",  and  temporal  administrator 
of  the  Diocese  of  Perth;  he  retired  in  1861  and  died  in 
1886  in  Spain.  He  was  succeeded  by  Mgr  Rosendo 
Salvator,  O.S.B.,  consecrated  at  Naples  on  15  .August, 
1849,  but  he  was  not  able  to  take  possession  of  his  see, 
for  in  the  meantime  the  whole  European  population 
had  abandoned  the  diocese;  consequently  he  returned 
to  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  New  Norcia  in  Western 
Australia  where  he  resided  as  abbot  nullius.  Resign- 
ing the  See  of  Port  Victoria,  1  August,  1888,  he  was 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Adrana,  29  March,  1889. 
Seven  years  previously  the  Jesuits  of  the  Austrian 
Province  were  commissioned  to  establish  a  mission 
for  the  purpose  of  civilizing  and  converting  the 
aborigines;  about  sixteen  members  of  the  order 
devoted  themselves  to  the  work  and  stations  were 
established  at  Rapid  Creek  (St.  Joseph's),  seven 
miles  north-east  of  Palmerston,  Daly  River  (Holy 
Rosar}')  and  Serpentine  Lagoon  (Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus).  There  were  2  churches,  1  chapel,  and  2  mixed 
schools.  In  1891  there  were  about  260  Catholics  in 
the  mission.  However  the  work  did  not  thrive  and 
after  about  twenty  years'  labour  the  Jesuits  withdrew, 
Father  John  O'Brien,  S.J.,  being  the  last  administrator. 
On  their  withdrawal  the  diocese  was  administered  by 
Bishop  William  Kelly  of  Geraldton.  Somewhat  later 
the  mission  was  confided  to  the  Missionaries  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Issoudun  and  established  in  1906  as 
the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  the  Northern  Territory. 
Very  Rev.  Francis  Xavier  Gsell,  M.S.H.,b.  30  Octo- 
ber, 1872,  was  elected  administrator  Apostolic  on  23 
April,  1906.  He  resides  at  Port  Darwin.  At  present 
there  are  in  the  prefecture  3  missionaries,  2  churches, 
and  1  chapel. 

Missiones  Catholicce  (Rome,  1907);  Australasian  Catholic  Di- 
rectory (Sydney,  1910) ;  Gordon,  Australasian  Handbook  for  1891; 
Basedow,  Anthropological  Notes  on  the  North-Western  coastal 
tribes  of  the  Northern  Territory  of  South  Australia  in  Trans.,  Proc. 
and  Reports  of  the  Royal  Society  of  South  Australasia,  XXXI  (Ade- 
laide, 1907),  1-62;  Parsons,  Historical  account  of  the  pastoral  and 
mineral  resources  of  the  North  Territory  of  South  .4  ustralia  in  Proc. 
of  the  Royal  Geog.  Soc.  of  Australasia,  South  .\ustnilin  Branch,  V 
(Adelaide,  1902),  appendix,  1-16;  Holtze,  CapnhiUties  of  the 
Northern  Territory  for  tropical  agriculture  (Adelaide,  1902),  appen- 
dix, 17-27. 

Andrew  A.  MacErlean. 

Northmen,  the  Scandinavians  who,  in  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries,  first  ravaged  the  coasts  of  West- 
em  Eiu'ope  and  its  islands  and  then  turned  from  raid- 
ers into  settlers.  This  article  will  be  confined  to  the 
history  of  their  exodus. 

Tacitus  refers  to  the  "Suiones"  (Germ.,  xliv,  xlv) 
living  beyond  the  Baltic  as  rich  in  arms  and  ships 
and  men.  But,  except  for  the  chance  appearance 
of  a  small  Viking  fleet  in  the  Meuse  early  in  the 
sixth  century,  nothing  more  is  heard  of  the  Scan- 
dinavians until  the  end  of  the  eighth  century, 
when  the  forerunners  of  the  exodus  appeared  as 
raiders  off  the  English  and  Scotch  coasts.  In  their 
broad  outlines  the  pohtical -divisions  of  Scandina\aa 
were  much  as  they  are  at  the  present  day,  except  that 
the  Swedes  were  confined  to  a  narrower  territory. 


NORTHMEN 


116 


NORTHMEN 


The  Finns  occupied  the  northern  part  of  modern  Swe- 
den, and  the  Danes  the  southern  extremity  and  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Ciittogat,  while  tlic  N'orwi'KiatiH 
stretclied  down  the  coast  of  the  Skagcr-liurk,  culliiii^ 
off  tlu'  Sweili's  from  the  Western  si'a.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  those  kingdoms  liore  a  general  resemblanee  to 
the  Teutonii-  pccples,  with  whom  they  were  connected 
in  race  and  language.  In  their  social  condition  and 
religion  they  were  not  unlike  the  Angles  and  Saxons  of 
the  sixth  century.  Though  we  cannot  account  satis- 
factorily for  the  exodus,  we  may  say  that  it  was  due 
generally  to  the  increase  of  the  population,  to  the 
breaking  down  of  the  old  tribal  system,  and  the  efforts 
of  the  kings,  especially  of  Harold  Fairhair,  to  consoli- 
date their  power,  and  finally  to  the  love  of  adventure 
and  the  discovery  that  the  lands  and  cities  of  Western 
Christenilom  lay  at  their  mercy. 

The  Northmen  invaded  the  West  in  three  main 
streams;  the  most  southerly  started  from  South  Nor- 
way and  Denmark 
and,  passing  along 
the  German  coast, 
visited  both  sides  of 
theChannel, rounded 
the  Hret(m  promon- 
tory, and  reached  the 
mouths  of  the  Loire 
and  the  Garonne. 
It  had  an  offshoot  to 
the  west  of  England 
and  Ireland  and  in 
some  cases  it  was 
prolonged  to  the 
coasts  of  Spain  and 
Portugal  (where 
Northmen  came  into 
contact  with  Sara^ 
cen)  and  even  into 
the  Mediterranean 
and  to  Italy.  The 
midmost  stream 
crossed  from  the  same  region  directly  to  the  east  and 
north  of  England,  while  the  northern  stream  flowed 
from  Norway  westwards  to  the  Orkneys  and  other 
islands,  and,  dividing  there,  moved  on  towards  Ice- 
land or  southwards  to  Ireland  and  the  Irish  Sea.  The 
work  of  destruction  which  the  first  stream  of  North- 
men wrought  on  the  continent  is  told  in  words  of  de- 
spair in  what  is  left  of  the  Frankish  Chronicles,  for  the 
pagan  and  greedy  invaders  seem  to  have  singled  out 
the  monasteries  for  attack  and  must  have  destroyed 
most  of  the  records  of  their  own  devastation.  A 
Danish  fleet  appeared  off  Frisia  in  810,  and  ten  years 
later  another  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  but  the 
systematic  and  persevering  assault  did  not  begin  till 
about  835.  From  that  date  till  the  early  years  of  the 
following  century  the  Viking  ships  were  almost  annual 
visitors  to  the  coasts  and  river  valleys  of  Germany  and 
Gaul.  About  850  they  began  to  establish  island 
strongholds  near  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  where  they 
could  winter  and  store  their  booty,  and  to  which  they 
could  retire  on  the  rare  occasions  when  the  Frankish 
or  English  kings  were  able  to  check  their  raids.  Such 
were  Walcheren  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt,  Sheppey 
at  that  of  the  Thames,  Oissel  in  the  lower  Seine,  and 
Noirmoutier  near  the  Loire.  For  over  seventy  years 
Gaul  seemed  to  lie  almost  at  the  mercy  of  the  Danes. 
Their  ravages  spread  backwards  from  the  coasts 
and  river  valleys;  they  penetrated  even  to  Auvergne. 
There  was  httle  resistance  whether  from  king  or  count. 
Robert  the  Strong  did,  indeed,  succeed  in  defending 
Paris  and  so  laid  the  foundations  of  what  was  after- 
wards the  house  of  Capet,  but  he  was  killed  in  866.  In 
the  end  the  success  of  the  Danes  brought  this  period 
of  destruction  to  a  close;  the  raiders  turned  into  col- 
onists, and  in  911  Charles  the  Simple,  by  granting 
Normandy  to  Rollo,  was  able  to  estabUsh  a  barrier 


Viking  Boat,  Norway 


against  further  invasion.  Meanwhile,  England  had 
been  assailed  not  only  from  the  Channel  and  the  south- 
west, but  also  by  Viking  ships  crossing  the  North  Sea. 
Till'  Danes  for  a  time  had  been  even  more  successful 
than  in  tiaul,  for  Nortliern  and  Eastern  <listricts  fell 
altogether  into  their  hands  and  the  fate  of  Wessex 
seemed  to  have  been  decided  by  a  succession  of  I  )anish 
victories  in  871.  Alfred,  however,  succeeded  in  re- 
covering the  upper  hand,  the  country  was  |)artitioned 
between  Dane  and  West  Saxon,  and  for  a  lime  further 
raids  were  stopped  by  tlie  formation  of  a  fleet  and  the 
defeat  of  Hastings  in  893. 

To  Ireland,  too,  the  Northmen  came  from  two 
directions,  from  south  and  north.  It  was  one  of  the 
first  countries  of  the  West  to  suffer,  for  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century  it  was  the  weakest.  The 
Vikings  arrived  even  before  800,  and  as  early  as  807 
their  ships  visited  the  west  coast.  They  were,  how- 
ever, defeated  near  Killamey  in  812  and  the  full  fury 
of  the  attack  did  not 
fall  on  the  country 
till  820.  Twenty 
years  later  there  ap- 
jiear  to  have  been 
three  Norse  "king- 
doms" in  Ireland, 
those  of  Dublin,  Wa- 
terford,  and  Limer- 
ick, with  an  over- 
king,  but  the  Irish 
won  a  series  of  vic- 
tories, while  war 
broke  out  between 
the  Danes  coming  by 
the  Channel  .and  the 
N  orwegians  descend- 
ing from  the  north. 
For  the  next  century 
and  a  half  the  Dan- 
ish wars  continued. 
Neither  party  gained 
a  distinct  advantage  and  both  the  face  of  the  coun- 
try and  the  national  character  suffered.  Finally  in 
1014,  on  Good  Friday,  at  Clontarf,  on  the  shores  of 
Dublin  Bay,  the  Danes  suffered  a  great  defeat  from 
Brian  Born.  Henceforth  they  ceased  to  be  an  aggres- 
sive force  in  Ireland,  though  they  kept  their  position  in 
a  number  of  the  coast  towns. 

During  the  earlier  attacks  on  Ireland  the  Scotch  Is- 
lands and  especially  the  Orkneys  had  become  a  per- 
manent centre  of  Norse  power  and  the  home  of  those 
who  had  been  driven  to  a  life  of  adventure  by  the  cen- 
tralization carried  out  by  Harold  Fairhair.  They  even 
returned  to  help  the  king's  enemies;  to  such  an  extent 
that  about  885  Harold  followed  up  a  victory  in  Norway 
by  taking  possession  of  the  Orkneys.  The  result  was 
that  the  independent  spirits  amongst  the  Vikings 
pushed  on  to  the  Faroes  and  Iceland,  which  had  been 
already  explored,  and  established  there  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  homes  of  Norse  civilization.  About 
a  hundred  years  later  the  Icelanders  founded  a  colony 
on  the  strip  of  coast  between  the  glaciers  and  the  sea, 
which,  to  attract  settlers,  they  called  Greenland,  and 
soon  after  occurred  the  temporary  settlement  in  Vin- 
land  on  the  mainland  of  North  America.  But  the 
prows  of  the  Viking  ships  were  not  always  turned 
towards  the  West.  They  also  followed  the  Norwe- 
gian coast  past  the  North  Cape  and  established  trade 
relations  with  "Biarmaland"  on  the  shores  of  the 
White  Sea.  The  Baltic,  however,  provided  an  easier 
route  to  the  east  and  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  it 
was  a  Swedish  Lake.  By  the  middle  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury a  half-mythical  Ruric  reigned  over  a  Norse  or 
"Varangian"  Kingdom  at,  Novgorod  and,  in  880,  one 
of  his  successors,  Oleg,  moved  his  capital  to  Kiev,  and 
ruled  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea.  He  imposed 
on  Constantinople  itself  in  907  the  humihation  which 


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NORTHROP 


117 


NORWAY 


had  befallen  so  many  of  the  cities  of  the  West,  and 
"  Micklegarth "  had  to  pay  Danegeld  to  the  Norse 
sovereign  of  a  Russian  army.  The  Varangian  ships 
are  even  said  to  have  sailed  down  the  Volga  and  across 
the  remote  waters  of  the  Caspian.  There  is,  however, 
a  second  stage  of  Norse  enterprise  as  remarkable, 
though  for  different  reasons,  as  the  first.  The  Nor- 
man conquests  of  Southern  Italy  and  of  England  and 
in  part  the  Crusades,  in  which  the  Normans  took  so 
large  a  share,  prove  what  the  astonishing  vitality  of  the 
Northmen  could  do  when  they  had  received  Chris- 
tianity ami  l''rankish  civilization  from  the  people  they 
had  ijlunilcrcd. 

It  is  imi)us.sible  to  account  for  the  irresistible  activ- 
ity of  the  Northmen.  It  is  a  mystery  of  what  might 
be  called  "racial  personality".  Their  forces  were 
rarely  numerous,  tlieir  ships  small  and  open,  suited 
to  the  protected  waters  of  their  own  coasts,  most  un- 
suitable for  ocean  navigation,  and  there  was  no  guid- 
ing jjower  at  home.  Their  success  was  due  to  the 
intioinitahlc  courag(>  of  each  unit,  to  a  tradition  of  dis- 
cipline which  niailc  their  compact  "armies"  superior 
in  figliting  qualities  and  activity  to  the  mixed  and  ill- 
organized  forces  which  Prankish  and  English  kings 
usually  brought  against  them.  Often  they  are  said 
to  have  won  a  battle  by  a  pretended  flight,  a  dangerous 
mana'uvrc  cxi'i'iit  witli  \v('Il-dis(i]ilined  troops.  Until 
Alfred  collcclcd  a  firct  fur  tlic  pnitection  of  his  coast 
they  had  tlic  undisputed  counnand  of  the  sea.  They 
were  fortunate  in  the  time  of  their  attack.  Their 
serious  attacks  diil  notbegin  till  the  empire  of  Charle- 
magne was  weakened  from  within,  and  the  Teutonic 
principle  of  tlivision  among  heirs  was  overcoming  the 
Roman  principle  of  unity.  When  the  period  of  recon- 
stitution  began  the  spirit  of  discipline,  which  had  given 
the  Northmen  success  in  war,  made  them  one  of  the 
great  organizing  forces  of  the  early  Middle  Ages. 
Everywhere  these  "Romans  of  the  Middle  Ages"  ap- 
pear as  organizers.  They  took  the  various  material 
provided  for  them  in  Gaul,  England,  Russia,  Southern 
Italy,  and  breathed  into  it  life  and  activity.  But 
races  which  assimilate  are  not  enduring,  and  by  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century  the  Northmen  had  fin- 
ished their  work  in  Europe  and  been  absorbed  into  the 
population  which  they  had  conquered  and  governed. 

There  is  no  complete  history  of  the  Northmen  and  their  work 
in  Europe.  Keary,  Vikings  in  Western  Christendom,  can  be  con- 
sulted with  profit ;  much  is  to  be  found  in  the  histories  of  the  coun- 
tries they  attacked,  especially  in  Palgr.we,  England  and  Nor- 
mandy, I :  cf.  Helmolt,  World's  History,  VI  (London,  1907).  The 
Saga  literature  is  all  of  a  later  date  and  throws  little  trustworthy 
light  on  this  early  period  of  Norse  history:  cf.  ViaFussoN,  Pro- 
legomena to  the  Sturlunga  Saga  (Oxford,  1879). 

F.  F.  Urqdhart. 
Northrop,  Henry  P.    See  Charlkston,  Diocese 

OP. 

Norton,  Christopher,  martyr;  executed  at  Ty- 
burn, 27  May,  1.570.  His  father  was  Richard  Norton 
of  Norton  Conyers,  Yorkshire,  and  his  mother,  Susan 
Neville,  daughter  of  Richard,  second  Baron  Latimer. 
Richard  Norton,  known  as  "Old  Norton",  was  the 
head  of  his  illustrious  house,  which  remained  faithful 
to  the  Catholic  religion.  Despite  this  fact  he  held 
positions  of  influence  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII 
and  Eilward  VI,  was  Governor  of  Norham  Castle 
under  Mary,  and  in  1.568-69  was  sheriff  of  Yorkshire. 
He  had  been  pardoned  for  joining  in  the  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace,  but  he  and  his  brother  Thomas,  his  nine  sons, 
of  whom  Christopher  was  the  seventh,  and  many  of 
their  relatives  hastened  to  take  part  in  the  northern 
uprising  of  1.569.  He  was  attainted  and  fled  to  Flan- 
ders with  four  of  his  sons,  two  of  his  sons  were  par- 
doned, another  apostatized,  Christopher  and  his 
father's  brother  having  been  captured  proved  them- 
selves steadfast  Catholics,  were  hanged,  disem- 
bowelled, and  quartered.  Edmund,  who  apostatized, 
and  a  sister  are  the  subject  of  Wordsworth's  "White 
Doe  of  Rylstone". 


Sahtees,  Hist,  of  Durham.  I.  clx;  Linqahd,  Hist,  of  Eng,  fed. 
1849),  VI,  195;  Records  of  English  Catholics  I,  U. 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 
Norton,  John.    See  Port  Adgusta,  Diocese  op. 
Norton,      John,      Venerable.       See    Palasor, 

Thomas,  Venerable. 

Norway,  comprising  the  smaller  division  of  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
Lapland  and  Sweden,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic. 
The  surface  is  generally  a  plateau  from  which  rise  pre- 
cipitous mountains,  as  Snahatten  (7566  feet)  and 
Stora  Galdhi.ppigen  (about  8399  feet).  The  west 
coa.st  is  deeply  indented  by  fiords.  In  eastern  and 
southern  Norway  the  valleys  are  broader  and  at  times 
form  extensive,  fruitful  plains.  There  are  several 
navigable  rivers,  as  the  Glommen  and  Vormen,  and 
lakes,  of  which  the  largest  is  Lake  Myosen.  The  nu- 
merous islands  along  the  coast,  some  wooded  and 
some  bare,  promote  shipping  and  fishing;  in  the  Lo- 
foten Islands  alone  twenty  million  cod  are  annually 
caught.  The  chmate  is  only  relatively  mild,  with  rain 
almost  daily.  Agriculture  consists  largely  in  raising 
oats  and  barley,  but  not  enough  for  home  consump- 
tion. Rye  and  wheat  are  grown  only  in  sheltered 
spots.  Bread  is  commonly  made  of  oats.  The  culti- 
vation of  the  potato  is  widespread,  a  fact  of  much  im- 
portance. There  are  in  the  country  only  about  160,- 
000  horses;  these  are  of  a  hardy  breed.  Cattle-raising 
is  an  important  industry,  the  number  of  cattle  being 
estimated  at  a  million,  that  of  sheep  and  goats  at  over 
two  millions.  Of  late  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
raising  of  pigs.  The  Lapps  of  the  north  maintain  over 
a  hundred  thousand  reindeer  in  the  grassy  pasture 
land  of  the  higher  plateaus.  The  most  important 
trees  are  pine,  fir,  and  birch;  oak  and  beech  are  not  so 
common. 

Forestry  was  long  carried  on  unscientifically ;  con- 
siderable effort  has  been  made  to  improve  conditions, 
and  wood  is  now  exported  chiefly  as  wrought  or  partly 
wrought  timber.  Silver  is  mined  at  Kongsberg,  and 
iron  at  Roraas,  but  the  yield  of  minerals  is  moderate. 
Coal  is  altogether  lacking.  The  peasants  are  skilful 
wood-carvers,  and  in  isolated  valleys  still  make  all 
nece.ssary  household  articles,  besides  spinning  and 
weaving  their  apparel.  The  Northmen  were  always 
famous  seamen,  and  Norwegians  are  now  found  on 
the  ships  of  all  nations.  The  merchant  marine  of 
about  8000  vessels  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
world.  Good  roads  and  railways  have  greatly  in- 
creased traffic.  A  constantly  increasing  number  of 
strangers  are  attracted  by  the  natural  beauties.  Al- 
though in  this  way  a  great  deal  of  money  is  brought 
into  the  country,  the  morals  and  honesty  of  the  people 
unfortunately  suffer  in  consequence.  The  area  is 
123,843  sq.  miles;  the  population  numbers  2,250,000 
persons. 

The  great  majority  belong  officially  to  the  Lutheran 
state  Church,  but  on  account  of  hberal  laws  there  is  a 
rapid  development  of  sects.  Catholics  did  not  regain 
religious  liberty  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Reports  as  to  their  numbers  vary  from  1500, 
as  given  in  the  Protestant  "Tagliche  Rundschau",  to 
100,000,  as  given  in  the  Catholic  "Germania"  (.see  be- 
low). Norway  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  its 
ruler  since  18  November,  1905,  has  been  King  Haakon 
VII,  a  Danish  prince.  The  colours  of  the  flag  are  red, 
white,  and  blue.  The  country  is  divided  into  20 
counties  and  56  bailiwicks.  Justice  is  administered  by 
district  courts  {sorenskrif verier) .  Eccleciastically  the 
country  is  divided  into  6  dioceses,  with  83  provosts  or 
deans,  and  450  pastors.  The  largest  city  and  the 
royal  residence  is  Christiania  (230,000  inhabitants), 
the  seat  of  government,  of  the  Parliament  (Storthing), 
of  the  chief  executive,  of  the  state  university,  and  of 
other  higher  schools.  The- most  important  commer- 
cial city  is  Bergen  (80,000  inhabitants),  important 
even  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  for  a  long  time  controlled 


NORWAY 


118 


NORWAY 


by  the  Hanscatie  League.  Trnndlijein,  formerly 
Niiiaros,  a  city  of  40,000  iiihahituiits,  was  earlier  tlie 
Bee  of  the  Catholic  archbishops,  ami  the  jilace  where 
the  Catholic  kings  were  crowncil  ami  huricd.  Its  fine 
cathedral,  now  in  process  of  restoration,  contains  the 
bones  of  St.  Olaf,  the  patron  .saint  of  Norway.  The 
army  is  not  highly  trained;  men  lietwecu  twenty-three 
and  thirty-three  years  of  age  are  liable  for  mihtary 
duty.  The  modest  w-cU-manned  navy  is  only  used  for 
coast  defence. 

History. — Unlike  the  Swedes  and  Danes,  the  Nor- 
wegians were  not  organized  even  so  late  as  the  ninth 
centurj-.  The  name  of  king  was  borne  by  the  chiefs 
and  heads  of  separate  clans,  but  their  authority  was 
limited  and  the  rights  of  the  subjects  very  exten- 
sive. Only  by  marauding  expeditions  were  the  Vik- 
ings able  to  gain  honour  and  wealth,  and  at  times  also 
to  acquire  control  of  extensive  districts.  Their  early 
history  is  lost  in  the  fabulous  tales  of  the  bards.  In 
872,  Harold  Haarfager  (Fair-Haired),  after  a  decisive 
sea-Hght  near  Stavanger,  establishetl  his  authority 
over  all  th<'  clans.  Those  refusing  to  submit  left  the 
country  and  their  possessions  were  confiscated.  When 
Harold  divided  his  kingdom  among  several  sons,  its 
permanence  seemed  once  more  uncertain,  but  Hakon 
the  Good  (q.  v.)  restored  a  transient  unity  and  pro- 
cured an  entrance  for  Christianity.  Olaf  Trygvesson 
continued  the  work  of  union  after  Hakon's  death,  and 
promoted  the  spread  of  the  new  faith,  but  in  a  sea-fight 
with  the  united  forces  of  the  Danes  and  Swedes  he  was 
killed  about  1000  near  Svalder  (of  uncertain  location). 
The  kingdom  now  fell  apart,  some  portions  coming  un- 
der Cnut  the  Great  of  Denmark. 

Finally  Olaf,  son  of  Harold  Grenske  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Harold  Haarfager  (1015),  re-established  the 
boundaries  of  Norway,  and  aided  Christianity  to  its 
final  victory.  At  a  later  date  Olaf  became  the  patron 
saint  of  Norway.  His  severity  so  embittered  the 
great  families  that  they  combined  with  Cnut  and 
forced  him  to  flee  the  country.  Returning  with  a  small 
army  from  Sweden,  he  was  defeated  and  killed  in  the 
battle  of  Stiklestad  (29  July,  10-30) .  His  heroic  death 
and  the  marvellous  phenomena  that  occurred  in  con- 
nexion with  his  body  completely  changed  the  feeling 
of  his  opponents.  His  son,  Magnus  the  Good,  was 
unanimously  chosen  his  successor  (1035),  and  the 
Danish  intruders  were  driven  away.  Magnus  died 
childless  in  1047,  and  the  kingdom  went  to  his  father's 
half-brother  Harold,  son  of  Sigurd.  Harold  had  won 
fame  and  wealth  as  a  viking,  and  had  been  an  impor- 
tant personage  at  the  Byzantine  Court.  On  accoimt 
of  his  grimness  he  was  called  Hardrada  (the  Stern). 
Impelled  by  ambition,  he  first  waged  a  bloody  war 
with  Denmark  and  then  attacked  England.  On  an 
incursion  into  Northumberland,  he  was  defeated  at 
the  battle  of  Stamford  Bridge  (1066).  His  son,  Olaf 
the  Quiet,  repaired  the  injuries  caused  the  country  by 
Harold  Hardrada's  policy.  Olaf 's  successor,  Magnus, 
conquered  the  Scotch  islands,  waged  successful  war 
with  Sweden,  and  even  gained  parts  of  Ireland,  where 
he  was  finally  killed.  One  of  his  sons,  Sigurd  Jorsala- 
fari  (the  traveller  to  Jerusalem),  went  on  a  crusade  to 
the  Holy  Land,  while  another  son,  Eystein,  peacefully 
acquired  .Jemtland,  a  part  of  Sweden.  With  Sigurd's 
death  (1130)  the  kingdom  entered  upon  a  period  of  dis- 
order caused  partly  by  strife  between  claimants  to  the 
throne,  partly  by  rivalry  between  the  secular  and  ec- 
clesiastical dignitaries,  whose  partisans  (known  as  the 
Birkebcinar  and  the  Baglar)  perpetrated  unbehevable 
outrages  and  cruelty  on  each  other.  The  power  of  the 
king  sank  steadily,  while  that  of  the  bishops  increased. 
For  a  time  Svcrre  (1177-1202)  seemed  successful,  but 
lasting  peace  was  not  attained  until  the  reign  of  his 
grandson,  Hakon  the  Old  (1217-63).  Hakon  ruled 
with  wisdom  and  force  and  w'as  highly  regarded  by 
the  rulers  of  other  countries.  During  his  reign  Nor- 
way reached  its  greatest  extent,  including  Greenland 


and  Iceland.  He  died  in  the  Orkney  Islands  (12C3) 
while  returning  from  an  expedition  against  the  Scotch 

His  piMK-e-loving  son  Magnus  LdijuUiHie  (the  Law- 
Mi'iidcr)  tried  to  eslalilish  law  and  order  and  prepared 
a  book  of  laws.  His  elforls  to  i)roni<ilc  coinmi'rce  and 
intercourse  resulted  unfiirtunalcly,  as  the  llanseatic 
League,  to  which  he  granted  many  prixilcgcs,  used 
these  to  the  detriment  of  the  (■(juntry,  and  gradually 
brought  it  into  a  state  of  grievous  (h'pendence.  With 
the  death  (1319)  of  the  vigorous  younger  son  of  Mag- 
nus, Hakon  V,  the  male  line  of  Harold  Ilarfager 
became  extinct.  The  crown  went  to  the  three  year 
old  King  Magnus  Eriksson  of  Sweden,  son  of  Hakon's 
daughter,  Ingeborg;  this  brought  about  for  the  first 
time  a  close  imion  between  the  two  kingdoms  of  north- 
ern Scandinavia.  When  King  Magnus  assumed  the 
government  (1332),  it  was  soon  evident  that,  al- 
though possessing  many  good  qualities,  he  lacked 
force,  fie  seldom  came  to  Norway,  and  the  Norwe- 
gians felt  themselves  neglected.  They  forced  him, 
when  holding  court  at  Varberg  (1343),  to  send  his 
younger  son  Hakon  as  viceroy  to  Norway,  where 
Hakon  so'on  gathered  an  independent  court,  and  in 
1335  became  the  actual  ruler.  Seven  years  later  he 
was  elected  King  of  Sweden  by  a  part  of  the  Swedish 
nobihty,  but  had  to  j'ield  to  Duke  Albert  of  Mecklen- 
burg, chosen  by  an  opposing  faction.  In  1363  Hakon 
married  Margaret,  daughter  of  King  Waldemar  of  Den- 
mark, and  won  with  her  a  claim  to  the  Danish  throne. 
As  Waldemar,  when  he  died  in  1375,  left  no  male  de- 
scendants, he  was  succec(l<>(l  by  their  son,  Olaf.  Olaf 
also  became  King  of  Norway  upon  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  died  in  1387.  His  mother,  an  able  and  ener- 
getic ruler,  entered  at  once  upon  the  administration  of 
Denmark.  In  Norway  she  was  not  only  made  ruler  for 
life,  but  her  nephew,  Eric  of  Pomerania,  was  acknow- 
ledged as  the  lawful  heir.  Meanwhile,  Albert  of  Meck- 
lenburg, greatly  disliked  in  Sweden  and  the  estates, 
entered  into  negotiations  with  Margaret,  whose  troops 
took  him  prisoner  (1389).  The  same  year  Eric  was 
acknowledged  King  of  Norway,  and  in  1395-6  as  King 
of  Denmark  and  Sweden.  In  1397  the  chief  men  of 
the  three  countries  met  at  Kalmar  to  arrange  a  basis 
for  a  permanent  legal  confederation  (the  Union  of  Gal- 
mar).  The  plan  failed,  as  no  one  country  was  willing 
to  make  the  sacrifice  necessary  for  the  interest  of  all, 
but  Eric  was  crowned  king  of  the  three  united  lands. 

LTp  to  1408  Margaret  was  the  real  ruler.  With  un- 
wearied activity  she  journeyed  everywhere,  watched 
over  the  administration  of  law  and  government,  cut 
down  the  great  estates  of  the  nobles  for  the  benefit  of 
the  crown,  and  protected  the  ordinary  freeman. 
Denmark  was  always  her  first  interest.  She  placed 
Danish  officials  in  Sweden  and  forced  the  Church  of 
that  country  to  accept  Danish  bishops;  the  result  was 
often  unfortunate,  as  in  the  appointment  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Upsala  (1408).  Margaret's  efforts  to  re- 
gain former  possessions  of  the  three  Scandinavian 
countries  were  successful  only  in  one  case;  she  pur- 
chased the  Island  of  Gotland  from  the  Teutonic 
Knights.  She  died  suddenly  (1412)  in  the  harbour  of 
Flensburg  whither  she  had  gone  to  obtain  Schles- 
wig  from  the  Counts  of  Holstein.  Left  to  him.self, 
the  headstrong  and  hot-tempered  Eric  made  one  mis- 
take after  another  and  soon  foimd  all  the  Hanseatic 
towns  on  the  Baltic  against  him.  Conditions  were 
still  worse  after  the  death  of  his  one  faithful  coun- 
sellor, his  wife  Phihppa,  daughter  of  Henry  IV  of 
England.  In  Sweden  increasing  taxes,  constant  dis- 
putes with  the  clergy,  and  the  appointment  of  bad 
officials  aroused  a  universal  discontent,  which  led 
later  to  dangerous  outbreaks.  Vain  attempts  were 
made  (1436)  to  restore  the  tottering  union.  Disre- 
garding his  promises,  Eric  withdrew  to  Gotland,  where 
he  remained  inactive.  In  1438  his  deposition  was  de- 
clared by  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  his  nephew,  Duke 
Christopher  of  Bavaria,   was   elected    king.     Upon 


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119 


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Christopher's  early  death  (1448)  the  union  was  vir- 
tually dissolved:  the  Swedes  chose  Karl  Knutsson  as 
king,  and  the  Danes  called  Count  Christian  of  Old- 
enburg to  the  throne.  At  first  Norway  wavered 
between  the  two,  but  Christian  was  able  to  retain 
control. 

Of  Christian's  two  sons  Hans  was  at  first  only  ruler 
of  Denmark  and  Norway,  but,  by  an  agreement  made 
at  Calmar,  he  was  able  to  gain  Sweden  also.  Yet  it 
was  only  after  defeating  Sten  Sture  that  his  position 
in  Sweden  was  secure.  King  Hans  I  was  succeeded 
(1.513)  in  Denmark  and  Norway  by  his  son.  Christian 
II.  Christian's  cruelty  to  the  conquered  Swedes  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  defection  of  that  country  to 
Gustavus  Vasa;  consequently,  he  was  indirectly  re- 
sponsible for  the  withdrawal  of  Sweden  from  Catholic 


last  Bishop  of  Holum  in  Iceland,  Jon  Arason,  died  a 
martyr.  The  king  and  the  nobility  seized  the  lands 
of  the  Church.  The  chief  nobles  acquired  inordinate 
influence,  and  the  landed  proprietors,  once  so  proud 
of  their  independence,  fell  under  the  control  of  foreign 
tyrants. 

As  regards  territorial  development  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  Norway  had  a  number  of  tributary  provinces — 
in  the  north,  Finmark,  inhabited  by  heathen  Lapps; 
various  groups  of  islands  south-west  of  Norway  as:  the 
Farve  Islands,  the  Orkneys,  the  Shetlands,  and  the 
Isle  of  Man  in  the  Irish  Sea,  to  which  were  added  later 
Iceland  and  Greenland.  During  the  period  of  the 
union,  Norway  also  included  Bohuslan,  Hiirjedalen, 
Jeratland,  and  some  smaller  districts,  all  now  belong- 
ing to  Sweden.     With  these  islands  and  outlying  ter- 


unity.  Christian  .soon  aroused  dissatisfaction  in  his 
own  country.  Undue  preference  granted  to  the  lower 
classes  turned  the  nobility  against  him,  and  his  un- 
disguised ctlorts  to  open  the  way  for  the  teachings  of 
Luther  repelled  loyal  Catholics.  Serious  disorders 
followed  in  Jutland,  and  Christian,  losing  courage, 
sought  to  save  himself  by  flight.  With  the  aid  of  the 
Hanseatic  League  his  uncle,  Duke  Frederick  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein,  soon  acquired  possession  of  his  king- 
doms. The  new  king  and  his  son.  Christian  III,  were 
fanatical  adherents  of  the  new  doctrine,  and  by  craft 
and  force  brought  about  its  victory  in  Denmark 
(15.39).  In  Norway  Archbishop  Olaf  of  Trondhjem 
laboured  in  vain  for  the  maintenance  of  Catholicism 
and  the  establishment  of  national  independence. 
The  majority  of  the  peasants  were  indifferent  and  the 
impoverished  nobility,  who  hoped  to  benefit  by  the 
introduction  of  the  "pure  Go.spel",  urged  Christian 
on.  After  the  departure  of  the  church  dignitaries 
Christian  acquired  the  mastery  of  the  country  (1.537). 
Norway  now  ceased  to  be  an  independent  state. 
While  retaining  the  name  of  kingdom  it  was  for  nearly 
three  hundred  years  (until  1814)  only  a  Danish  prov- 
ince, administered  by  Danish  oflieials  and  at  times  out- 
rageously plundered.  Here,  as  in  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark, people  were  gradually  and  systematically  turned 
away  from  the  Catholic  Faith,  though  it  was  long  be- 
fore Catholicism  was  completely  extinguished.     The 


ritories  the  monarchy  comprised  about  7000  square 
miles.  The  Scotch  islands  were  lost  towards  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  at  a  later  period  the  col- 
onies in  Greenland  were  totally  neglected.  Originally 
the  kingdom  had  consisted  of  four  provinces,  each 
with  its  own  laws,  but  when  a  system  of  law  for  the 
entire  country  was  introduced,  it  was  divided  into 
eleven  judicial  districts.  The  most  closely  settled 
districts  were  the  fertile  lowlands  on  the  inlets  of 
the  sea,  now  Christiania  and  Trondhjem  fiords.  The 
waterway  from  Trondhjem  to  Oslo,  near  the  present 
Christiania,  was  the  most  important  route  for  traflic. 
There  was  also  much  intercourse  by  water  between 
Oslo  and  Bergen.  Through  the  mountain  districts 
huts  for  the  convenience  of  travellers  (Spdlashigor) 
were  erected,  and  developed  later  into  inns  and  tav- 
erns. The  country  was  unprepared  for  war.  The 
topography  and  economic  conditions  made  it  difficult 
to  mobilize  the  land  forces.  The  soldiers  were  not 
paid,  but  only  fed.  The  chief  state  officials  lived  in 
Bohus,  Akershus,  Tunsberg,  and  the  royal  fortified 
castles  on  the  harbours  of  Bergen  and  Trondhjem. 
Ecclesiastically,  Norway  was  at  first  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Archbishop" of  Lund  (1103);  later  (11.52) 
under  the  Archbishop  of  Trondhjem,  who  had  juris- 
diction over  the  Bishops  of  Bergen,  Stavanger,  Oslo, 
Hamar,  Farve,  Kirkwall  (Orkney  Islands),  Skalholt 
and  Holar  (Holum)  in  Iceland,  and  Gardar  (Garde)  iu 


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120 


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Greenland.  Jemtland  was  subject  to  the  Swedish 
Arclulioccse  of  ITpsala.  There  were  a  thousand  well- 
endowed  ohurehes,  thirty  monasteries,  and  various 
orders  of  women:  Henedietines,  Cistercians,  Pnemon- 
stratcnsians,  Dominicans,  l''ranciscans,  Augustinians, 
and  IJrigittines.  Schools  were  attached  to  the  cathe- 
drals and  to  most  of  the  monasteries.  For  higher  ed- 
ucation Norwegians  went  to  foreign  universities,  es- 
pecially to  Paris. 

From  the  reign  of  Christian  III  Norway  shared  the 
fortunes  of  Denmark.  Christian's  son,  Frederick  II 
(1559-88),  paid  no  attention  to  Norway,  but  much  was 
done  for  the  country  during  the  long  reign  of  Chris- 
tian IV  (1588-1648),  who  endeavoured  to  develop  the 
country  by  encouraging  mining  at  Konsberg  and . 
Roraas,  and  to  protect  it  from  attack  by  improving 
the  army.  Jemtland  and  Hcrj\ulalc!i,  however,  had 
to  be  ceded  to  Sweden.  Frederick  III  1 1(148-70)  was 
alsoobhgedto  cede  Bohuslan.  Frederick  V  (174(5-66) 
encouraged  art,  learning,  commerce,  and  manufac- 
tures. Prosperity  strengthened  the  self-reliance  of 
the  people  and  their  desire  for  poUtical  independence. 
In  1807  they  were  granted  autonomous  administra- 
tion, and  in  1811  a  national  university  was  founded  at 
Christiania.  Political  events  enabled  Sweden  to  force 
Denmark  in  the  Treaty  of  Keil  to  relinquish  Norway. 
Many  of  the  Norwegians  not  being  in  favour  of  this, 
a  national  diet,  held  at  Eidsvold  (17  May,  1814), 
agreed  upon  a  constitution  and  chose  as  king  the 
popular  Danish  prince.  Christian  Frederick.  But  the 
Powers  interfered  and  ratified  the  union  with  Sweden. 
The  Swedish  monarchs,  Charles  John  XIV,  Oscar  I, 
Charles  XV,  and  Oscar  II,  had  a  difficult  position  to 
maintain  in  Norway.  Notwithstanding  zealous  and 
successful  efforts  to  promote  the  material  and  intel- 
lectual prosperity  of  the  land,  they  never  attained 
popularity,  nor  could  they  reconcile  national  disUkes. 
Friction  increased,  the  Norwegian  parliament  growing 
steadily  more  radical  and  even  becoming  the  exponent 
of  republican  ideas.  From  1884  the  Storthing,  which 
now  possessed  the  real  power,  steadfastly  urged  the 
dissolution  of  the  union,  and  on  7  June,  1905,  declared 
it  to  be  dissolved.  The  Swedish  Government  nat- 
urally was  unwilling  to  consent  to  this  revolutionary 
action.  Negotiations  were  successfully  concluded  at 
the  Convention  of  Karlstad,  23  September,  1905. 
The  Norwegians  elected  as  king  Prince  Charles  of 
Denmark,  who,  under  the  title  of  Hakon  VII,  has 
since  then  reigned  over  the  country. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — Little  is  known  of  the 
religious  ideas  of  the  heathen  Norwegians,  and  this 
little  rests  on  later  sources,  chiefly  on  the  Eddas  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  It  seems  certain  that  not  only 
animals,  but  also  human  beings  (even  kings),  were 
sacrificed  to  the  gods,  of  whom  first  Thor  (later  Odin) 
was  the  most  important.  The  early  Norwegians  were 
characterized  by  reckless  courage  and  a  cruelty  that 
alternated  with  generosity  and  magnanimity.  Hakon 
the  Good  and  Olaf  Tryggoesson  laboured  to  introduce 
Christianity,  and  during  the  reign  of  ( )laf  llarold.sson 
Christianity  became,  nominally  at  least,  the  prevail- 
ing religion.  Olaf  Haroldsson  was  a  zealous  adherent 
of  the  new  faith.  He  built  churches,  founded  schools, 
and  exerted  influence  by  his  personal  example.  After 
his  death  he  was  revered  as  a  saint :  the  church  built  at 
Nidaros  (now  Trondhjcm)  over  his  grave  was  replaced 
later  by  the  cathedral  of  Trondhjem,  the  finest  build- 
ing in  Norway.  The  Dioceses  of  Nidaros,  Bergen, 
Oslo,  and  Stavanger  were  soon  founded,  monks  and 
nuns  carried  on  successful  missionary  work,  and  in  a 
short  time  the  land  was  covered  with  wooden  churches 
(Stovkirken)  of  singular  architecture;  the  few  that 
remain  still  arouse  admiration.  Gradually  stone 
churches  with  a  rich  equiijment  were  erected. 

The  Norwegian  l)ishops  were  und(T  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Metropolitan  of  Lund  until  1152,  when  the 
papal  legate,  Nicholas  of  Albano,  transferred  the  juris- 


diction over  the  Norwegian  Church  to  the  Bishop  of 
TroMdhjcm  and  his  succe.s.sors.  The  suffragans  of  the 
new  arclibisliopric  wiTc:  Ilamar,  Farve,  and  Kirkwall 
in  the  (Orkneys,  Skalhuil,  and  llolar  in  Ireland,  and 
Gardarin  (ii-cenlaud.  The  tillics,  lcgall>'  established 
before  lloO  in  the  reign  of  Sigurd  .lonsalafari,  made 
possible  the  foundalion  of  a  huge  number  of  new  par- 
ishes and  strengthened  those  already  existing.  The 
Diocese  of  Oslo  coiit.iincil  the  largest  number,  namely 
300  parishes;  Nidaros  had  280.  There  was  a  chapter 
for  each  see.  Not  much  is  known  of  the  morals 
and  religious  spirit  of  the  people;  it  is  certain  that 
in  the  Catholic  period  nuich  more  in  ijroportion 
was  given  for  purposes  of  religion  than  after  the 
Reformation.  There  are  few  details  of  the  pas- 
toral labours  of  bishops  and  clergy,  but  the  works 
of  Christia  1  charity,  hospices,  lazarettos,  inns  for  pil- 
grims, bear  ready  testimony  to  their  efforts  for  the 
advancement  of  civihzation.  Nor  was  learning  neg- 
lected. As  early  as  the  twelfth  century  the  monk 
Dietrich  of  Trondhjem  wrote  a  Latin  chronicle  of  the 
country,  and  in  12.50  a  Franciscan  wrote  an  account 
of  his  journey  to  the  Holy  Land.  Norwegian  students 
who  desired  degrees  went  to  the  Universities  of  Paris 
and  Bologna,  or,  at  a  later  period,  attended  a  univer- 
sity nearer  home,  that  of  Rostock  in  Mecklenburg. 
With  the  abandonment  of  the  old  Faith  and  its  insti- 
tutions was  associated  the  loss  of  national  independ- 
ence in  1537.  As  early  as  1519  Christian  II  had  be- 
gun to  suppress  the  monasteries,  and  Christian  III 
abetted  the  cause  of  Lutheranism.  Archbishop  Olaf 
Engelloechtssen  and  other  dignitaries  of  the  Church 
were  forced  to  flee;  Mogens  Lawridtzen,  Bishop  of 
Hamar,  died  in  prison  in  1642,  and  Jon  Arason  of 
Holar  was  executed  on  7  November,  1550. 

The  large  landed  possessions  of  the  Church  went 
to  the  king  and  his  favourites.  Many  churches  were 
destroyed,  others  fell  into  decay,  and  the  number  of 
parishes  was  greatly  reduced.  The  salaries  of  the 
preachers,  among  whom  were  very  objectionable  per- 
sons, were  generally  a  mere  pittance.  Fanatics  of  the 
new  belief  thundered  from  the  pulpit  against  idolatry 
and  the  cruelty  of  the  "Roman  Antichrist";  whatever 
might  preserve  the  memory  of  earlier  ages  was  doomed 
to  destruction ;  the  pictures  of  the  Virgin  were  cut  to 
pieces,  burned,  or  thrown  into  the  water;  veneration 
of  saints  was  threatened  with  severe  punishment. 
Notwithstanding  this,  it  was  only  slowly  and  by  the 
aid  of  deception  that  the  people  were  seduced  from 
the  ancestral  faith.  Catholicism  did  not  die  out  in 
Norway  until  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. The  pope  entrusted  the  spiritual  care  of  Nor- 
way, first  to  the  Nunciature  of  Cologne,  and  then  to 
Brussels,  but  the  Draconian  laws  of  Denmark  made 
Catholic  ministration  almost  impossible.  Whether 
the  Jesuits  appointed  to  Norway  ever  went  there  is 
unknown.  A  Dominican  who  reached  the  country 
was  expelled  after  a  few  weeks.  The  Norwegian  con- 
vert Rhugius  was  permitted  to  remain,  but  was  not 
allowed  to  exercise  his  office.  Conditions  remained 
the  same  later,  when  the  supervision  was  transferred 
from  Brussels  to  Cologne,  from  Cologne  to  Hilders- 
heim,  and  thence  to  Osnabriick. 

There  was  no  change  until  the  nineteenth  century 
when  the  laws  of  184i5  and  succeeding  years  released 
all  dissenters,  including  Catholics  who  had  come  into 
the  country,  from  the  control  of  the  Lutheran  state 
Church.  From  the  time  of  its  foundation  the  Luth- 
eran Church  had  wavered  between  orthodoxy  and 
rationalism,  and  was  finally  much  affected  by  the 
Pietistic  movement,  led  by  Ilaugue.  In  1843  a  small 
Catholic  parish  was  formed  in  Christiania,  and  from 
this  centre  efforts  were  made  to  found  new  stations. 
In  1869  Pius  IX  created  an  independent  prefecture 
Apostolic  for  Norway.  The  first  prefect  was  a  French- 
man, Bernard,  formerly  prefect  of  the  North  Pole 
mission.     He  was  followed  by  the  Luxemburg  priest 


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121 


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Fallize,  later  Bishop  of  Alusa,  under  whom  the  mission 
has  steadily  developed,  although  not  yet  large. 
Especially  noteworthy  among  the  men  who  of  late 
years  have  been  reconciled  to  the  Church  are  the 
former  gymnasial  rector  Sverenson,  and  the  author 
Kroogh-Tonning,  doctor  of  theology,  originally  a 
Lutheran  pastor  at  Christiania.  All  monastic  orders, 
Jesuits  excepted,  are  allowed,  but  there  are  no  mon- 
asteries for  men.  On  the  other  hand  the  missionaries 
of  the  female  congregations.  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth, 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  and  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of 
Chambery,  numberingabout  thirty,  have  gained  useful 
and  active  fellow-workers.  There  are  a  few  thousands 
of  Catholics,  for  whom  there  are  churches  in  Chris- 
tiania (St.  Olaf  and  Halvard),  in  Bergen,  Trondhjem, 
Fredrikshald,  Tromso.  Fredrikstad,  Altengaard,  Ham- 
erfest.  Cathohc  hospitals  exist  in  Christiania,  Ber- 
gen, Drammen,  and  Christiansand,  and  there  is  a  num- 
ber of  Catholic  schools  towards  which  the  Protestant 
population  has  shown  itself  friendly.  In  1897,  for  the 
first  time  in  three  hundred  years,  the  feast  of  St.  Olaf 
was  celeljrated  at  Trondhjem. 

HisTORV  OF  .\rt. — During  the  Middle  Ages  art  was 
closely  connected  with  reUgion,  and  its  chief  task  was 
the  building  and  embellishment  of  churches.  Some 
twenty  old  wooden  churches  {Slavkirker) ,  still  in  exist- 
ence, show  with  what  skill  Norwegians  made  use  of 
the  wood  furnished  by  their  forests.  At  a  compara- 
tively early  date,  stone  was  used,  first  in  the  Roman- 
esque, then  in  the  Gothic  buildings.  Some  of  the 
work  thus  produced  has  a  singular  and  characteristic 
charm.  Besides  primitive  churches  of  one  aisle  with 
rude  towers  and  belfries,  as  at  Vossevanger,  there  are 
in  existence  churches  of  three  aisles  with  pleasing, 
and  at  times  relatively  rich  ornamentation.  The 
fagades  of  some  of  these  are  flanked  by  two  towers,  as 
at  Akers,  Bergen,  and  Stavanger.  The  most  striking 
achievements  of  Norwegian  architecture  are  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Magnus  at  Kirkwall  in  the  Orkneys,  and, 
what  is  even  finer,  the  cathedral  at  Trondhjem.  The 
latter  has  had  a  chequered  history.  Built  originally 
in  1077  by  Olaf  the  Quiet  (Kyrre)  as  a  "Christ 
Church"  of  one  aisle  over  the  bones  of  St.  Olaf,  it 
served  at  first  as  the  burial  place  of  the  kings.  When  in 
1152  Trondhjem  (Nidaros)  was  made  an  archdiocese, 
it  became  a  place  of  pilgrimage  for  the  entire  kingdom, 
and  the  gifts  of  the  faithful  made  possible  the  neces- 
sary enlargement  of  the  cathedral.  In  1161  Arch- 
bishop Eystein  Erlandson  began  its  restoration  in  the 
Romanesque  style.  Obliged  to  flee  from  King  Sverri, 
he  became  acquainted  during  his  stay  in  England 
with  Gothic  architecture  and  made  use  of  this  style 
on  his  return.  This  is  especially  evident  in  the  unique 
octagon  erected  over  St.  Olaf's  grave,  evidently  an 
imitation  of  "Becket's  Crown"  in  Canterbury  cathe- 
dral. Eystein's  successors  completed  the  building 
according  to  his  plans.  The  cathedral  was  twice 
damaged  by  fire  but  each  time  was  repaired  (in  1328 
and  in  14.32).  It  fell  into  almost  complete  ruin  after 
the  great  fire  of  5  May,  1.531,  and  for  several  hundred 
years  no  attention  was  paid  to  it.  A  change  came 
with  the  awakening  of  national  pride,  and  the  restora- 
tion of  the  cathedral  is  now  nearing  completion.  Its 
most  valuable  treasures,  the  body  of  the  great  Apostle 
of  Norway  St.  Olaf  and  the  costly  shrine  that  enclosed 
it,  have  disappeared.  In  1537  the  shrine  was  taken  to 
Copenhagen,  robbed  of  its  jewels,  and  melted,  while 
the  bones  of  the  saint  were  buried  by  fanatics  in  some 
unknown  place  to  put  an  end  forever  to  the  veneration 
of  them.  The  wood-carv'ings,  paintings,  and  other 
objects  of  art,  which  formerly  adorned  Norwegian 
churches,  have  been  either  carried  off  or  destroyed. 

This  was  not  so  frequently  the  case  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  country,  and  in  other  districts  .some  few 
objects  escaped.  Among  the  works  of  art  especially 
interesting  m.ay  be  mentioned;  (in  wood-carving)  the 
altar  of  the  Virgin  in  the  Church  of  Our  Lady  at  Ber- 


gen, and  the  altar  in  the  Ringsacker  church  on  Lake 
Nysen;  (in painting)  the  antependium  at  Gal;  (in  re- 
hef  work)  the  doorways  of  the  churches  at  Hyllestad 
and  Hemsedal ;  the  baptismal  font  at  Stavanger,  reli- 
quaries, as  at  Hedal ;  censers,  as  at  Hadsel ;  crucifixes 
and  vestments.  The  finest  medieval  secular  building 
is  King  Haakon's  Hall,  a  part  of  the  former  royal  palace 
at  Bergen.  Beautifully  carved  chairs,  rich  tapestries, 
and  fine  chased  work  are  further  proof  of  the  degree  of 
culture  attained  by  Catholic  Norway. 

History  of  Literature. — Norway  can  hardly  be 
said  to  have  an  indigenous  literature.  As  regards 
material  and  arrangement,  the  clu-onicles  and  narra- 
tives are  very  much  the  same  both  in  the  north  and  the 
south  (for  Icelandic  Sagas  see  Icelan  dig  Liter.ature). 
We  here  treat  specifically  Protestant  literature  only 
so  far  as  individual  writers,  such  as  the  brothers 
Munch,  refer  in  poetry  or  prose  to  the  Catholic  era  in 
Norway,  and  thus  indirectly  further  the  interests  of 
the  Church.  The  historical  investigations  and  writ- 
ings of  Bang,  Dietrichson,  Daae,  and  Bugge  have 
overthrown  many  historical  misstatements  and  judg- 
ments prejudicial  to  Catholicism.  These  works  have 
influenced  even  Protestant  theology  in  Norway,  so 
that  its  position  towards  Rome  is  relatively  more 
friendly  than  in  other  countries.  If  heretofore  no 
Norwegian  Cathohc  has  made  a  great  contribution  to 
the  national  hterature  the  reason  is  obvious.  Of 
late  years,  however,  various  books  have  been  pub- 
lished of  an  edifying,  apologetic,  or  of  a  polemical 
nature.  There  is  a  Cathohc  weekly,  the  "St. 
Olav". 

When  not  otherwise  noted,  the  place  of  publication  is  Chris- 
tiania: Diplomatarium  Norwegicum  (1849 — );  Munch,  Det 
norske  fotkets  histoHt  (8  vols.,  1852-63);  Sahs,  Udsigt  over  den 
norske  historie  (189.3 — );  Odhner,  L&rohok  i  Sveriges,  Norges  och 
Danmarks  hisloria  (7th  ed.,  Stockholm,  1886);  Zohn,  Staat  u. 
Kirche  in  Norwegen  bis  z.  IS.  Jahrh.  (Munich,  1875);  Ketser, 
Den  nOTftke  Kirkes  Historie  under  Katolicismen  (2  vols.,  1856-S); 
R  \v^.,  J'^hi'!*  nr'-r  den  Norske  Kirkes  Historie  under  Katolicismen 
(  i  ^ - :  i  ;  1 1 . 1  ^ '  f  -l^igt  over  den  Norske  Kirkes  Historie  e/ter  Refor- 
mr  :  -"      ;  Storm,  Hist,  topogr.  Skrijter  om  Norge  og  norske 

7,, J. ,       h:  i  Norge  i  det  16de  Aarhundrade  (1895)  \  BavH' 

UAKi:.i..u,  .\<-,i;,„tAe  Fahrten,  II  (Freiburg,  1890);  Dietrichson, 
De  Norske  Ulackirker  (1892);  Idem,  Vore  Faedres  Verk;  Norges 
Kunst  i  Middelalderen  (1906) ;  Idem,  Omrids  af  den  norske  Litera- 
tura  Historie  (Copenhagen,  1866-9);  Schweitzer.  Phil.  Gesch. 
der  skand.  Literatur  (3  vols.,  Leipzig,  1886 — );  Oestergaard, 
Illustreret  Dansk  Lileraturhistorie  (1907);  Halvorsen,  Norsk 
For/atterlexikon  1S74-1S81  (1883 — );  Kirkeleksikon  /or  Norden 
(Copenhagen,  1897 — ),  53  pts.  already  issued:  Die  kathol.  Mis- 
sionen  (Freiburg,  1873 — ) ;  Hermens  and  Kohlschmidt,  Protest. 
Taschenbuch  (Leipzig,  1905). 

P.  Wittmann. 

Norwich  (Nordoviciim;  Norvicum),  Ancient 
Diocese  of. — Though  this  see  took  its  present  name 
only  in  the  eleventh  century,  its  history  goes  back  five 
hundred  years  earlier  to  the  conversion  of  East  Anglia 
by  St.  Felix  in  the  reign  of  King  Sigeberht,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  kingdom  of  his  father  Redwald  on  the 
death  of  his  half-brother  Eorpweald  in  628.  St.  Felix 
fixed  his  see  at  Dunwich,  a  sea-coast  town  since  sub- 
merged, the  site  of  which  is  in  Southwold  Bay.  From 
Dunwich,  St.  Felix  evangelized  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and 
Cambridgeshire,  the  counties  which  formed  the  dio- 
cese. He  was  succeeded  by  Thomas  (647),  Beorhtgils 
(Boniface),  who  died  about  669,  and  Bisi,  on  whose 
death,  in  673,  St.  Theodore,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, divided  the  see  into  two,  with  cathedrals  at 
Dunwich  and  Elmham.  The  following  are  the  lines  of 
episcopal  succession  based  on  the  most  recent  re- 
search, with  approximate  dates  of  accession  where 
known : — 

Dunwich:  Mcc\,  673;  Alric;  vEscwulf;  Eardred; 
Ealdbeorht  I;  Eardwulf;  Cuthwine;  Ealdbeorht  II; 
Ecglaf;  Heardred;  .Elfhun,  790;  Tidfrith,  798;  Waer- 
mund;  Wilred,  825.  Elmham:  Beaduwine,  673; 
Nothbeorht;  Heathulac;  ^thelfrith,  736;  Eanfrith; 
vEthclwulf;  Ealhheard;  Si_bba;  Hunfrith;  St.  Hun- 
beorht;  Cunda  (there  is  some  doubt  as  to  whether 
Cimda  was  Bishop  of  Ehnham  or  Dunwich). 


NOTARIES 


122 


NOTARIES 


The  See  of  Elmhatn  came  to  an  end  about  S70,  when 
St.  Edmund,  KinR  of  the  East  Angles,  and  Hishop  St. 
Hunheorh  were  niurdcredby  the  Danes).  The  country 
wa.s  r:Lva};ed,  the  eliun-hes  and  nionasterie.s  destroyed, 
and  Christianity  wa.f  only  iiraeti.-ied  with  dilheulty. 
Bishop  \\  ilred  ol'  Dunwieh  seems  to  have  reunited  the 
dioi'cscs,  choosing  lOlmham  as  his  see.  His  successors 
at  I'ihuham  were: — 

Husa;  .Ethelweald;  Eadwidf ;  .Elfric  I;  Thcodred  I; 
Theodred  II;  .Ethelstan;  .Elfgar,  1001;  .Elfwine, 
1021 ;  .Elfrie  II ;  .Elfrie  III,  10:i!»;  Stigand,  1040;  Grim- 
cytel,  1042;  Stigand  (restored),  1043;  iEthelmaer, 
1047;  llerfast,  1070.  Bishop  Herfast,  a  chaplain  to 
William  the  Conqueror,  removed  his  bishop's  chair 
to  Thctford.  He  died  in  1084,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Wilham  de  Uellofago  (de  Beaufeu),  also  knov^Ti  as  Wil- 
liam Gal.sagu.s  (10S6-91).  William  de  Bellofago  was 
succeeded  by  Herbert  de  I^osinga,  who  made  a  simoni- 
aeal  gift  to  King  William  Rufus  to  secure  his  election, 
but  being  subsequently  struck  with  remorse  went  to 
Rome,  in  1094,  to  obtaui  absolution  from  the  pope. 
He  foumled  the  priory  of  Norwich  in  expiation  for  his 
sin  anil  at  the  same  time  moved  his  see  there  from 
Thetfonl.  The  chapter  of  secular  canons  was  dis- 
solved and  the  monks  took  their  place.  The  founda- 
tion-stone of  the  new  catliedral  was  laid  in  1096,  in 
honour  of  the  Blessed  Trinity.  Before  his  death,  in 
1119,  he  had  completed  the  choir,  which  is  apsidal  and 
encircled  by  a  procession  path,  and  which  originally 
gave  access  to  three  Norman  chapels.  His  successor, 
Bisho])  Eborard,  completed  the  long  Norman  nave  so 
that  the  cathedral  is  a  very  early  twelfth-century 
building  though  modified  by  later  additions  and  al- 
terations. The  chief  of  these  were  the  Lady  chapel 
{circa  1250,  destroyed  by  the  Protestant  Dean  Gardi- 
ner 1573-89);  the  cloisters  (circa  i;300),  the  west 
window  {circa  1440),  the  rood  screen,  the  spire  and 
the  vault  spanning  the  nave  {circa  1450).  The  cathe- 
dral suffered  much  during  the  Reformation  and  the 
civil  wars. 

The  list  of  bishops  of  Norwich,  with  the  dates  of 
their  accession,  is  as  follows: — 

Herbert  Losinga,  consecrated  in  1091,  translated 
the  see  to  Norwich  in  1094;  Eborard  de  Montgomery, 
1121;  Wilham  de  Turbe,  1146;  .John  of  Oxford,  1175; 
John  de  Grey,  1200;  Pandulph  Masea,  1222;  Thomas 
de  Blun\-ille,  1226;  Ralph  de  Norwich,  1236;  vacancy, 
1236;  William  de  Raleigh,  1239;  vacancv,  1242;  Wal- 
ter de  Suffield,  1245 ;  Simon  de  Walton,  125S ;  Roger  de 
Skeming,  1266;  Wilham  de  Middleton,  127S;  Ralph 
de  Walpole,  1289;  John  Salmon,  1299;  William  de 
Ayerminne,  1.325;  Anthony  Bek,  1337;  William  Bate- 
man,  1344;  Thomas  Percy,  1356;  Henry  le  Despenser, 
1370;  Alexander  de  Totiiigton,  1407;  Richard  Courte- 
nay,  1413;  John  Wakering,  1416;  Wilham  Alnwick, 
1426;  Thomas  Brown,  1436;  Walter  Lyhart,  1446; 
James  Goldwell,  1472;  Thomas  Jane,  1499;  Richard 
Nykke,  1501;  William  Rugg  (schismatic),  1536; 
Thomas  Thirleby  (schismatic  but  reconciled  in  Mary's 
reign),  1550;  John  Hopton,  1554,  who  died  in  1558, 
being  the  last  Catholic  Bishop  of  Norwich. 

The  diocese,  which  consisted  of  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk  with  some  parts  of  Cambridgeshire,  was  di- 
vided into  four  archdeaconries,  Norfolk,  Norwich, 
Suffolk,  and  Sudbury.  At  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century  there  were  1121  parish-churches,  and  this 
number  had  probably  not  changed  much  since  Catho- 
lic times. 

The  chief  religious  houses  in  the  diocese  were: 
the  Benedictine  Abbeys  of  Bury  St.  Edmund's, 
Wymonilham,  and  St.  Henet's  of  Hulm,  the  cathedral 
priory  of  Norwich,  the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Sibton, 
the  abbeys  of  the  Augustinian  Canons  at  Wendling, 
Langley,  and  Laystone.  The  Dominicans  and  Fran- 
ciscans were  both  found  at  Lynn,  Norwich,  Yarmouth, 
Dunwieh,  and  Ipswich ;  the  Dominicans  also  had  houses 
at  Thetford  and  Sudbury ;  the  Franciscans  at  Bury  St. 


Edmund's  and  Walsingham,  where  the  great  shrine  of 
Our  Lady  was;  the  Carmelites  were  at  Lynn,  Nor- 
wich, Yarmouth,  and  Blakeney;  and  the  Augustinian 
friars  at  Norwich,  Lynn,  and  Orford.  There  were  no 
Carthusians  in  the  diocese.  The  arms  of  the  see  were 
azure,  three  mitres  with  their  labels,  or. 

Bbitton,  Hint,  of  the  See  and  Cath.  of  Norwich  (London,  1816); 
Cotton,  UiH.  Angticarm  necnon  Lihrr  fie  nrrhiepifrojns  el  e-piscO' 
pis  Angliu:  (London,  18.W':  ,li«s,,,.,.,  /■„.,■  //,./  ,.f  A',.r„',rl,  (Lon- 
don, 1884):   QUENNELL,  A' '      f)  ,   /    ..// <   ^.  ,,  I  ,,,.,!,, n,  IS! IS): 

Visitations  of  the  Diocesi:'     \  ,,:    i,     ,.  m   ,!,.:ii- 

don,  1888) ;  Winkle,  Cuf/"       ,  •    /     , II -./.s.  II 

(London,  1851);  Goululi^..  a.-.u  S\  ;.i..nl..,.  L,j,,  /,;,,,...  uhU  :sc}- 
mons  of  Herbert  de  Losinga  (LonUuu,  1878) ;  ANHTUuTutii,  Eliis- 
tola  Herberti  de  Losinga  (London.  1846) ;  Hist.  MSS.  Commission, 
First  Report  (giving  a  list  of  principal  records  in  the  bishop's 
registry);  Searle,  Anglo-Saxon  Bishops,  Kings,  and  Nobles  (Cam- 
bridge, 1899). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Notaries  (Lat.  notarius),  persons  appointed  by 
competent  authority  to  draw  up  official  or  authentic 
documents.  These  dooiments  are  issued  chiefly  from 
the  official  adininislrative  bureaux,  the  chanceries; 
secondly,  from  triliunals;  lastly,  others  are  drawn  up 
at  the  request  of  individuals  to  authenticate  their 
contracts  or  other  acts.  The  public  officials  appointed 
to  draw  up  these  three  classes  of  papers  have  been 
usually  called  notaries. 

Etymologically,  a  notary  is  one  who  takes  notes. 
Notes  are  signs  or  cursory  abbreviations  to  record  the 
words  uttered,  so  that  they  may  be  reproduced  later 
in  ordinary  writing.  Notaries  were  at  first  private 
secretaries,  attached  to  the  service  of  jjensons  in  posi- 
tions of  importance.  It  was  natural  for  the  science  of 
notes  to  be  in  high  esteem  among  those  employed  in 
recording  the  transactions  of  public  boards,  and  for 
the  name  notary  to  be  applied  to  these  officials;  so  that 
before  long  the  word  was  used  to  signify  their  occupa- 
tion. 

The  title  and  office  existed  at  the  Imperial 
Court  (cf.  Cod.  Theod.,  VI,  16,  "De  primicerio  et 
notariis"),  whence  they  passed  into  all  the  royal 
chanceries,  though  in  the  course  of  time  the  term  no- 
tary ceased  to  be  used.  This  was  the  case  also  with  the 
chanceries  of  the  pope,  the  great  episcopal  sees,  and 
even  every  bishopric.  There  are  grounds  for  doubting 
whether  the  seven  regional  notaries  of  the  Roman 
Church,  one  for  each  ecclesiastical  district  of  the  Holy 
City,  were  instituted  by  St.  Clement  and  appointed 
by  him  to  record  the  Acts  of  the  martyrs,  as  is  said 
in  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  ("Vita  Clementis",  ed. 
Duchesne,  I,  123);  they  date  back,  however,  to  an 
early  age.  Not  only  were  there  notaries  as  soon  as  a 
bureau  for  ecclesiastical  documents  was  establislied, 
but  in  very  ancient  days  we  find  these  notaries  form- 
ing a  kind  of  college  presided  over  by  a  primicerius; 
the  notice  of  Julius  I  in  the  "Liber  Pontificalis"  re- 
lates that  this  pope  ordered  an  account  of  the  property 
of  the  Church,  intended  as  an  authentic  document, 
to  be  drawn  up  before  the  -primicerius  of  the  nota- 
ries. 

The  latter  were  in  the  ranks  of  the  clergy  and  must 
have  received  one  of  the  minor  orders;  for  the  notariate 
is  an  oflttce  and  not  an  order.  At  intervals  the  popes 
entrusted  the  notaries  of  their  curia  with  various  mis- 
sions. Their  chief,  the  primicerius,  with  whom  a 
secundicerius  is  sometimes  found  later,  was  a  very  im- 
portant personage,  in  fact,  the  head  of  the  pontifical 
chancery;  during  the  vacancy  of  the  papal  chair,  he 
formed  part  of  the  interim  Government,  and  a  letter 
in  640  (Jaff6,  "Regesta",  n.  2040)  is  signed  (the  pope 
being  elected  but  not  yet  consecrated)  by  one 
"Joannes  primicerius  et  servans  locum  s.  sedis  apos- 
tolicK". 

There  were  of  course  many  notaries  in  the  service  of 
the  pontifical  chancery;  the  seven  regional  notaries 

E reserved  a  certain  pre-eminence  over  the  others  and 
ecame  the  prothonotaries,  whose  name  and  office 


NORWICH   CATHEDRAL 


NOTARY 


123 


NOTHOMB 


continued.  The  ordinary  notaries  of  the  chancery, 
however,  were  gradually  known  by  other  names,  ac- 
cording to  their  various  functions,  so  that  the  term 
ceased  to  be  employed  in  the  pontifical  and  other 
chanceries.  The  prothonotaries  were  and  still  are 
a  college  of  prelates,  enjoying  numerous  privileges; 
they  are  known  as  "participants",  but  outside  of 
Rome  there  are  many  purely  honorary  prothono- 
taries. The  official  duties  had  insensibly  almost 
ceased ;  but  Pius  X  in  his  reorganization  of  the  Roman 
Curia  has  appointed  participant  prothonotaries  to 
the  chancery  (Const.  "Sapienti",  29  June,  1908).  A 
corresponding  change  occurred  in  the  bureau.x  of  the 
episcopal  churches,  abbeys,  etc. ;  the  officials  attached 
to  the  chancery  ha\'e  ceased  to  be  known  as 
notaries  and  are  called  chancellor,  secretary,  etc. 
Lastly,  mention  must  be  made  of  the  notaries  of  the 
synodal  or  conciliar  assemblies,  whose  duties  are 
limited  to  the  duration  of  the  assembly. 

Society  in  former  times  did  not  recognize  the  separa- 
tion of  powers;  so,  too,  in  the  Church  the  judicial 
authority  was  vested  in  the  same  prelates  as  the  ad- 
ministrative. Soon,  however,  contentious  matters 
were  tried  separately  before  a  specially  appointed 
body.  The  courts  required  a  staff  to  record  the  trans- 
actions; these  clerks  were  likewise  notaries.  In  most 
civil  courts  they  are,  however,  called  registrars,  clerks 
of  the  court,  etc.,  but  in  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals 
they  retain  the  name  notary,  though  they  are  also 
called  actuaries.  Thus  the  special  law  of  the  higher 
ecclesiastical  tribunals,  the  Rota  and  the  Signatura, 
reorganized  by  Pius  X,  provides  for  the  appointment 
of  notaries  for  these  two  tribunals  (can.  v  and  xx.w). 
The  reason  why  the  head  official  charged  with  drawing 
up  the  documents  of  the  Holy  Office  is  called  the  no- 
tary, as  were  the  clerks  who  in  former  times  drew  up 
the  records  of  the  Inquisition,  is,  doubtless,  that  of  all 
the  Roman  Congregations  the  Holy  Office  is  the  only 
real  judicial  tribunal.  The  notaries  of  ecclesiastical 
tribunals  are  usually  clerics;  the  duties  may  however 
be  confided  to  laymen,  except  in  criminal  cases 
against  a  cleric. 

Finally,  there  is  the  class  of  persons  to  whom  the 
term  notary  is  restricted  in  common  parlance,  to  wit, 
those  who  are  appointed  by  the  proper  authorities 
to  witness  the  documentary  proceedings  between  pri- 
vate persons  and  to  impress  them  with  legal  authen- 
ticity. They  are  not  engaged  in  the  chanceries,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  within  easy  reach  of  private 
individuals;  they  have  a  public  character,  so  that  their 
records,  drawn  up  according  to  rule,  are  received  as 
authentic  accounts  of  the  particular  transaction, 
especially  agreements,  contracts,  testaments,  and 
wills. 

Consequently,  public  notaries  may  be  appointed  only 
by  those  authorities  who  possess  jurisdiction  in  foro 
externa,  and  have  a  chancery,  e.  g.  popes,  bishops,  em- 
perors, reigning  princes,  and  of  course  only  within  the 
limits  of  their  jurisdiction;  moreover,  the  territory 
withiri  which  a  notary  can  lawfully  exercise  his  func- 
tions is  expressly  determined.  There  were  formerly 
Apostolic  notaries  and  even  episcopal  notaries,  duly 
commissioned  by  papal  or  episcopal  letters,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  receive  documents  relating  to  ecclesi- 
astical or  mixed  affairs,  especially  in  connexion  with 
benefices,  foundations,  and  donations  in  favour  of 
churches,  wills  of  clerics,  etc.  They  no  longer  exist; 
th^  only  ecclesiastical  notaries  at  present  are  the  of- 
ficials of  the  Roman  and  episcopal  curia;.  Moreover 
these  notaries  were  layman,  and  Canon  Law  forbids 
clerics  to  acts  as  scriveners  (c.  viii,  "Ne  clerici  vel 
monachi",  1.  Ill,  tit.  50). 

Du  Cangb,  GlossaHum,  s.  v.  Notarius;  Ferraris,  Projnpta 
bihliotheca,  a.  v.  Nolariu^i;  Fagnani,  Corimentaria  in  c.  Sicut  te,  8, 
A^e  Clerici  vel  Tnonafhi ;  and  in  c.  //i  ordinando,  I,  De  simonia; 
H^RicouRT,  Les  lois  ecclesiastiques  de  France  (Paris,  1721),  E, 
xiii;  GiRY,  Manuel  de  diplomatique  (Paria,  1894). 

A.  BOUDINHON. 


Notary.     See  Prothonotary. 

Notburga,  Saint,  patroness  of  servants  and  peas- 
ants, b.  c.  1265  at  Rattenberg  on  the  Inn;  d.  c.  16 
September,  1:313.  She  was  cook  in  the  family  of 
Count  Henry  of  Rothenburg,  and  used  to  give  food  to 
the  poor.  But  Ottilia,  her  mistress,  ordered  her  to 
feed  the  swine  with  whatever  food  was  left.  She, 
therefore,  saved  some  of  her  own  food,  especially  on 
Fridays,  and  brought  it  to  the  poor.  One  day,  ac- 
cording to  legend,  her  master  met  her,  and  com- 
manded her  to  show  him  what  she  was  carrying.  She 
obej'ed,  but  instead  of  the  food  he  saw  only  shavings, 
and  the  wine  he  found  to  be  vinegar.  Hereupon  Ot- 
tilia dismissed  her,  but  soon  fell  dangerously  ill,  and 
Notburga  remained  to  nurse  her  and  prepared  her  for 
death. 

Notburga  then  entered  the  service  of  a  peasant 
in  the  town  of  Eben,  on  condition  that  she  be  per- 
mitted to  go  to  church  the  evenings  before  Sundays 
and  festivals.  One  evening  her  master  urged  her  to 
continue  working  in  the  field.  Throwing  her  sickle 
into  the  air  she  said:  "  Let  my  sickle  be  judge  between 
me  and  you,"  and  the  sickle  remained  suspended  in 
the  air.  Meantime  Count  Henry  of  Rothenburg  was 
visited  with  great  reverses  which  he  ascribed  to  the 
dismissal  of  Notburga.  He  engaged  her  again  and 
thenceforth  all  went  well  in  his  household.  Shortly 
before  her  death  she  told  her  master  to  place  her 
corpse  on  a  vvagon  drawn  by  two  oxen,  and  to  bury 
her  wherever  the  oxen  would  stand  still.  The  oxen 
drew  the  wagon  to  the  chapel  of  St.  Rupert  near 
Eben,  where  she  was  buried.  Her  ancient  cult  was 
ratified  on  27  March,  1862,  and  her  feast  is  celebrated 
on  1-1  September.  She  is  generally  represented  with 
an  ear  of  corn,  or  flowers  and  a  sickle  in  her  hand; 
sometimes  with  a  sickle  suspended  in  the  air. 

Her  legendary  life  was  first  compiled  in  Germany  by  Guari- 
NONI,  in  1646,  Latin  tr.  Roschmann  in  Acta  SS.,  September,  IV, 
717-725;  Hattler,  St.  Notburg,  die  Magd  des  Herrn,  den  glaub- 
wuerdigen  Vrkunden  treuherzig  nacherzaehll,  5th  ed.  (Donauworth, 
1902);  Stadleh,  Heiligen-Lezikon,  IV  (Augsburg,  1875),  586- 
592;  DoNBAR,  Dictionary  of  Saintly  Women,  II  (London,  1905), 
111-U2;  Baring-Gould,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  14  Sept. 

Notburga,  legendary  daughter  of  Dagobert  I,  who 
is  said  to  have  lived  in  a  cave  near  Hochluiuscn  on  the 
Neckar  in  Baden.  Many  legends  an-  icliitcd  as  to  the 
sanctity  and  holiness  of  her  life.  After  her  death  her 
body  was  placed  on  a  chariot  drawn  by  two  white 
oxen  to  the  place  of  buiial,  where  at  present  stands 
the  church  of  Hochhausen.  It  is  very  probable  that 
the  legend  of  St.  Notburga,  the  daughter  of  Dagobert 
I,  is  merely  a  distortion  of  that  of  St.  Notburga  of 
Rattenberg. 

Du  Blois,  La  vie  et  la  Legende  de  Madame  Sainte  Notburga 
(Paris,  1868) ;  Clock,  Ein  Bield  aus  Badens  Sagemvelt  (Karlaruhe, 
1883):  Stammingeh,  Fronconwi  Sancta  (Wurzburg,  1881),  22-34; 
HuFFscHMiD,  Hochhausen  am  Neckar  und  die  heil.  Notburga  in 
Zeitschrift  fiir  die  Geschichte  des  Oberrheins,  new  series,  I  (Freiburg 
im  Br.,  1886),  285-401;  T>\jtis\n,  Dictionary  of  Saintlg  Womcn.U 
(London,  1905),  110. 

Michael  Ott. 

Nothomb,  Jean-Baptiste,  Belgian  statesman,  b.  3 
July,  1805,  at  Messancy,  Luxemburg;  d.  at  Berlin,  16 
September,  1881.  He  received  his  secondary  educa^ 
tion  at  the  alhenee  of  Luxemburg,  studied  law  in  the 
University  of  Liege,  and  was  awarded  a  doctor's  de- 
gree in  1826.  He  practised  law  in  Luxemburg,  then  in 
Brussels,  where  he  took  an  active  part  in  tlie  war  that 
was  then  waged  in  the  press  in  behalf  of  the  independ- 
ence of  Belgium.  During  the  riots  of  August,  1830, 
he  was  in  his  native  pro\'ince;  but  hearing  of  the  fight 
which  had  taken  place  between  the  patriots  and  the 
troops  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  he  hurried  back  to  the 
capital. 

The  provisional  government  appointed  him  secre- 
tary of  the  committee  which  was  preparing  the 
first  draft  of  a  new  constitution.  Three  electoral  dis- 
tricts of  Luxemburg  chose  him  as  their  representative 


NOTITIA 


124 


NOTITIA 


in  the  first  legislature  of  Belgium.  He  declared  for 
the  district  of  Arlon  to  which,  in  1831.  he  g.ave  proof 
of  his  gratitude  by  doing  his  utmost  to  prevent  its 
union  with  Germany.  Nothomb,  who  was  the  young- 
est incniber  of  the  legislative  a.ssembly,  was  appointed 
one  of  its  secretaries  and  a  member  of  the  committee 
on  foreign  affairs.  In  the  chamber  he  strongly  op- 
posed the  advocates  of  the  union  of  Belgium  with 
France  and  those  who  were  for  a  repubhcan  govern- 
ment. His  political  ideal,  which  he  defended  with 
great  oIdciuciicc,  was  a  representative  monarchy  with 
two  hduses,  lilierty  of  the  press,  and  complete  inde- 
pendeuci',  in  their  own  spheres,  of  the  secular  and  re- 
ligious powers. 

From  18.31-36  he  was  general  secretary  for  foreign 
affairs;  ^-ith  Devaux  he  went  to  London  to  carry 
on  secret  negotiations  at  the  conference  which  had 
met  in  that  city  to  settle  the  new  state  of  affairs  cre- 
ated by  the  Belgian  revolution,  and  did  much  to  re- 
move the  difficulties  which  had  delayed  the  departure 
for  Belgium  of  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg.  He  pub- 
lished in  1833  his  "Essai  historique  et  politique  sur  la 
revolution  beige",  a  remarkable  work  which  was 
translated  into  German  and  ItaUan  and  was  reprinted 
three  times  in  the  same  year.  In  1836  Nothomb  re- 
signed as  general  secretary  for  foreign  affairs  and  in 
1S37  became  minister  of  Public  Works  in  the  Catholic 
administration  of  dc  Theux.  He  gave  a  powerful 
impetus  to  the  construction  of  railroads  and  when  he 
resigned  in  1840  more  than  300  kilometres  had  been 
built.  In  the  same  year  he  was  sent  as  an  extraordi- 
nary envoy  to  the  German  Confederation  and  in  1841 
became  minister  of  the  interior  in  a  unionist  adminis- 
tration; but  the  positions  of  the  parties  were  not  what 
they  had  been  in  the  preceding  decade,  and  Nothomb 
Boon  realized  that  a  union  of  the  Catholics  and  Lib- 
erals was  no  longer  possible.  In  1845  he  withdrew 
from  the  political  arena  to  enter  the  diplomatic  corps. 
Ho  was  for  many  years  minister  plenipotentiary  of 
Belgium  in  Berlin.  In  1840  he  had  become  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Brussels;  and  he  received 
many  distinctions  from  foreign  countries. 

Nothomb,  Alphonse,  brother  of  Jean-Baptiste,  b. 
12  July,  1817;  d.  15  May,  1898.  He  had  a  briUiant 
career  in  the  magistracy,  was  minister  of  justice  in 
1855,  and  became  a  member  of  the  lower  house  of  Par- 
liament in  1859.  In  1884  he  was  made  a  minister  of 
State.  Like  his  brother  he  was  a  staunch  Catholic; 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  had  become  a  convert  to 
the  pohtical  creed  of  the  new  Catholic  democratic 
party. 

Juste,  Le  Baron  Noihomb  (Bnissela,  1874) ;  Thonissen,  His- 
toire  du  rkgne  de  lAo-pold  /•"■  (Louvain,  1861);  Htmans,  Histoire 
parlementaire  de  la  Belffique  (Brussels,  1877-80). 

P.  J.  Maeique. 

Notitia  Dignitatum  (Register  of  Offices),  the 
official  liaiullioiik  of  the  civil  and  military  officials  in 
the  later  Roman  Empire.  The  extant  Latin  form  be- 
longs to  the  early  fifth  century.  The  last  addenda  con- 
cerning the  Eastern  Empire  point  to  the  year  397  as  the 
latest  chronological  limit,  while  supplementary  notices 
concerning  the  Western  Empire  extend  into  the  reign 
of  Valentinian  III  (42.5-55).  The  bulk  of  the  state- 
ments, however,  point  to  earlier  years  of  the  fourth 
century,  individual  notices  showing  conditions  at  the 
beginning  of  this  century.  The  first  part  of  the  "  No- 
titia" gives  a  list  of  the  officials  in  the  Eastern  Empire: 
"Notitia  dignit.atum  omnium  tam  civilium  quam  mil- 
itarium  in  partibus  Orientis";  the  second  part  gives  a 
corresponding  list  for  the  Western  Empire:  "Notitia 
...  in  partibus  Occidentis".  Both  give,  first  the 
highest  official  positions  of  the  central  administration, 
then  the  officials  in  positions  subordinate  to  the.se,  and 
also  the  officials  of  the  various  "dioceses"  and  prov- 
inces, the  civil  officials  being  regularly  stated  along 
with  the  miUtary.    In  addition,  the  insignia  of  the  of- 


ficials and  of  the  army  divisions  are  shown  by  draw- 
ings. This  register  was  used  in  the  imperial  chan- 
cery; the  chief  official  of  the  chancery  {primiariua 
jtotariorum)  found  in  it  all  necessary  information  for 
drawing  up  the  announcements  of  the  ajiiiointiMent  of 
officials  and  of  their  positions,  Tlie  "Notitia",  pre- 
served as  it  is  in  an  incomplete  condition,  is  |)artly  an 
abstract,  partly  an  exact  tjanscripl  of  tliis  dflicial  reg- 
ister. It  shows  that  at  vaiinus  pn  imls,  cxtriiding  as 
late  as  the  first  part  of  tlirii  111  I  ccnl  my,  :u  Mil  ions  were 
made  to  the  state  register  and  gives  tlii'  essential  form 
of  the  list  in  the  era  just  mentioned.  It  is,  therefore, 
a  very  important  authority  for  the  divisions  of  the 
Empire,  for  an  understanding  of  the  Uoiiian  bureau- 
cracy, and  for  the  distribution  of  the  army  during  the 
late  Roman  Empire.  The  first  printed  edition  was 
"Notitia  utraque  cum  Orientis  turn  ()<Tidontis" 
(Basle,  1552) ;  the  latest  editions  were  edited  bv  Bock- 
ing  (2  vols.,  Bonn,  1839-53),  and  O.  Seeck,  ""Notitia 
dignitatum.  Accedunt  Notitia  urbis  Constantino- 
politana;  et  Laterculi  provinciarum "  (Berlin,  1876). 
Seeck,  Quwstiones  de  Nnlilin  dignitatum  (Berlin.  1872);  Idem, 
Die  Zeit  des  Vegeliiif:  in  Hrrmrs,  XI  (Berlin.  1876).  77  sqq.; 
Idem,  Zur  Kritik  ,l,r  X^.nim  ,h<i„ilatum  in  Hermes,  IX  (1875), 
217  sqq.;  Steffen'hai.i  n,  l)-r  u.,tfiir/er  Codex  der  Notitia  dignita- 
tum in  Hermes,  XIX  ^!^^!l,  t."is  sqq.;  Mommsen,  Die  Conscrip- 
tionsordnung  der  rom.  Kauazi  il  m  Hermes.  XIX  (1884),  233  sqq.; 
Tedffei^Schwabe,  Oesch.  der  romischen  Literatur  (5tb  ed., 
Leipzig,  1890),  1163. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Notitiae  Episcopatuum,  the  name  given  to  official 
documents  that  furnish  for  Eastern  countries  the  list 
and  hierarchical  rank  of  the  metropolitan  and 
suffragan  bishoprics  of  a  Church.  Whilst,  in  the 
Patriarchate  of  Rome,  archbishops  and  bishops  were 
classed  according  to  the  seniority  of  their  conse- 
cration, and  in  Africa  according  to  their  age,  in 
the  Eastern  patriarchates  the  hierarchical  rank  of 
each  bishop  was  determined  by  the  see  he  occupied. 
Thus,  in  the  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  the  first 
metropolitan  was  not  the  longest  ordained,  but  who- 
ever happened  to  be  the  incumbent  of  the  See  of  Ca'sa- 
rea;  the  second  was  the  Archbishop  of  Ephesus,  and  so 
on.  In  every  ecclesiastical  province,  the  rank  of  each 
suffragan  was  thus  determined,  and  remained  un- 
changed unless  the  fist  was  subsequently  modified. 
The  hierarchical  order  included  first  of  all,  the  patri- 
arch; then  the  greater  metropolitans,  i.  e.,  those  who 
had  dioceses  with  suffragan  sees;  the  autocephalous 
metropolitans,  who  had  no  suffragans,  and  were  di- 
rectly subject  to  the  patriarch;  next  archbishops  who, 
although  not  differing  from  autocephalous  metropoli- 
tans, occupied  hierarchical  rank  inferior  to  theirs,  and 
were  also  immediately  dependent  on  the  patriarch; 
then  simple  bishops,  i.  e.,  exempt  bishops,  and  lastly 
suffragan  bishops.  It  is  not  known  by  whom  this  very 
ancient  order  was  estabfished,  but  it  is  likely  that,  in 
the  beginning,  metropolitan  sees  and  simple  bishop- 
rics must  have  been  classified  according  to  the  date  of 
their  respective  foundations,  this  order  being  modified 
later  on  for  political  and  religious  considerations.  We 
here  append.  Church  by  Church,  the  principal  of 
these  documents. 

A.  Constantinople:  The  "Ecthesis  of  psetido-Epi- 
phanius",  a  revision  of  an  earlier  Notitia  episcopa- 
tuum (probably  compiled  by  Patriarch  Ejiiphanius 
under  Justinian),  made  during  the  reign  of  Ileraclius 
(about  040);  a  Notitia  dating  back  to  the  first  years 
of  the  ninth  century  and  differing  but  little  from 
the  earlier  one;  the  "Notitia  of  Basil  the  Armenian", 
drawn  up  between  820  and  842;  the  Notitia  coni- 
piled  bv  Emperor  Leo  VI  the  Philo.soiilier,  and  Patri- 
arch Nicholas  Mvsticus  between  001  and  !K17,  modify- 
ing the  hierarehical  ord(  r  wliifh  had  liccii  cst.alilished 
in  thesevenlh  century,  but  had  been  disturbed  by  the 
incorporation  of  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  of  Illyri- 
cum  and  .Southern  Italy  in  the  Byzantine  Patriar- 
chate; the  Notitise  episcopatuum  of  Constantine  Per- 


NOTITIA 


125 


NOTKER 


phyrogenitus  (about  940),  of  Tzimisces  (about  980), 
of  Alexius  Comnenus  (about  1084),  of  Nil  Doxapatris 
(1143),  of  Manuel  Comnenus  (about  1170),  of  Isaac 
Angelus  (end  of  twelfth  century),  of  Michael  VIII 
PaliEologus  (about  1270),  of  Andronicus  II  Palxolo- 
gus  (about  1299),  andof  Andnmicus  HI  (about  1330). 
All  these  Notitiae  are  published  in  ( Idzer,  "Unge- 
druckte  und  ungentigend  veroffentliclitc  Texte  der 
Notitise  episcopatuum"  (Munich,  1900);  Gelzer, 
"Georgii  Cyprii  Descriptio  orbis  romani"  (Leipzig, 
1890);  Gelzer,  "Index  lectionum  lente"  (Jena,  1892); 
Parthey,  '  "  Hieroclis  Synecdemus"  (Berlin,  1866). 
The  later  works  are  only  more  or  less  modified  copies 
of  the  Notitia  of  Leo  the  Philosopher,  and  therefore  do 
not  present  the  true  situation,  which  was  profoundly 
changed  by  the  Mussulman  invasions.  After  the  cap- 
ture of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  another  Notitia 
was  written,  portraying  the  real  situation  (Gelzer, 
"Ungedruckte  Texte  der  Notitise  episcopatuum", 
613-37),  and  on  it  are  bascfl  nearly  all  those  which 
have  been  since  written.  The  term  Synlagmation  is 
now  used  by  the  Greeks  for  these  documents. 

B.  We  know  of  only  one  "Notitia  episcopatuum" 
for  the  Church  of  .\ntioch,  viz.  that  drawn  up  in  the 
sixth  century  by  Patriarch  Anastasius  (.see  Vailhfi 
in"Echos  d'Orient",X,  pp.  90-101,  139-145,  363-8). 
Jerusalem  has  no  such  document,  nor  has  Alexan- 
dria, although  for  the  latter  Cielzer  has  collected 
documents  which  may  help  to  supply  the  deficiency 
(Byz.  Zeitschrift,  II,  23-40).  De  Rouge  (Geogra- 
phie  ancienne  de  la  Basse-Egypte,  Paris,  1891,  151- 
61)  has  published  a  Coptic  document  which  has  not 
yet  been  studied.  For  the  Bulgarian  Church  of  Ach- 
rida,  see  Gelzer,  "Byz.  Zeitschrift",  II,  40-66,  and 
"Der  Patriarchat  von  Achrida"  (Leipzig,  1902).  M. 
Gerland  has  just  announced  for  1913  a  critical  and 
definitive  new  edition  of  all  the  Notitiie  episcopa- 
tuum of  the  Churches  of  Constantinople,  Alexandria, 
Antioch,  Jerusalem,  Cyprus,  Achrida,  Ipek,  Russia, 
and  Georgia. 

In  addition  to  the  works  cited,  a  supplementary  bibliography 
will  be  found  in  Krumbacher,  Gesch.  der  byz.  Litt.  (Munich, 
1897),  416.  S.  VAILHfi. 

Notitia   Provinciarum   et    Civitatum   Africse 

(LLstof  thr  I'r.ivin.v.sanilC'ilicsof  AlVicni.alistof  the 
bi.sho])s  and  tlicir.<ii'i's  in  the  Latin  pnivniccs  of  North 
Africa,  arranged  according  to  provinces  in  this  order: 
Proconsularis,  Numidia,  Byzacena,  Mauretania  Cie- 
sariensis,  Mauretania  Sitifensis,  Tripolitana,  Sar- 
dinia. The  cause  of  its  preparation  was  the  summon- 
ing of  the  episcopate  to  Carthage,  1  P^ebruary,  484, 
by  the  Arian  King  of  the  Vandals,  Hunerich  (477-84). 
It  names  also  the  exiled  bishops  and  vacant  sees,  and 
is  an  important  authority  for  the  history  of  the  African 
Church  and  the  geography  of  these  provinces.  It  is 
incorporated  in  the  only  extant  manuscript  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  Vandal  persecution  by  Bishop  Victor  of 
Vita,  and  is  printed  in  the  editions  of  this  work. 

P.  L.,  LVIII.  267  aqq.;  Victoria  de  Vita  Opera,  ed.  Halm  in 
Man.  Germ,  hist.:  Auct.  antiq..  Ill  (Berlin,  1879),  63  aq.:  ed. 
Petscheniq  in  Corp.  script,  eccl.  tat.,  VII  (Vienna,  1881),  xii, 
117  sqq.  J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Notker. — Among  the  various  monks  of  St.  Gall 
who  bore  this  name,  the  following  are  the  most 
important: 

(1)  Notker  Balbulds  (Stammerer),  Blessed, 
monk  and  author,  b.  about  840,  at  .Jonswil,  canton  of  St. 
Gall  (Switzerland) ;  d.  912.  Of  a  distinguished  family, 
he  received  his  education  with  Tuotilo,  originator  of 
tropes,  at  St.  Gall's,  from  Iso  and  the  Irishman 
Moengall,  teachers  in  the  monastic  school.  He  be- 
came a  monk  there  and  is  mentioned  as  librarian 
(890),  and  as  master  of  guests  (892-94).  He  was 
chiefly  active  as  teacher,  and  displayed  refinement  of 
taste  as  poet  and  author.  He  completed  E^chanbert's 
chronicle  (816),  arranged  a  martyrology,  and  com- 
posed a  metrical  biography  of  St.  Gall.    It  is  practi- 


cally accepted  that  he  is  the  "monk  of  St.  Gall"  (moii- 
achus  Sangallensis),  author  of  the  legends  and  anec- 
dotes "Gesta  Caroli  Magni".  The  number  of  works 
ascribed  to  liim  is  constantly  increasing.  He  intro- 
duced the  sequence,  a  new  species  of  religious  lyric,  into 
Germany.  It  had  been  the  custom  to  prolong  the 
Alleluia  in  the  Mass  before  the  Gospel,  modulating 
through  a  skilfully  harmonized  series  of  tones.  Not- 
ker learned  how  to  fit  the  separate  syllables  of  a  Latin 
text  to  the  tones  of  this  j  ubilation ;  this  poem  was  called 
the  sequence  (q.  v.).  formerly  called  the  "jubilation". 
(The  reason  for  this  name  is  uncertain.)  Between 
881-887  Notker  dedicated  a  collection  of  such  verses 
to  Bishop  Liutward  of  Vercelli,  but  it  is  not  known 
wliich  or  how  many  are  his.  Ekkehard  IV,  the  his- 
toriographer of  St.  Ciall,  speaks  of  fifty  sequences 
attributable  to  Notker.  The  hymn,  "Media  Vita", 
was  erroneously  attributed  to  him  late  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  Ekkehard  IV  lauds  him  as  "delicate  of  body 
but  not  of  mind,  stuttering  of  tongue  but  not  of  intel- 
lect, pushing  boldly  forward  in  things  Divine,  a  vessel 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  without  equal  in  his  time ".  Notker 
was  beatified  in  1512. 

Chevalier,  Bio-bibL,  s.  v.;  Mever  von  Knonac  in  Realencyk, 
fur  prot.  TheoL.  a.  v.;  Werner,  Notkcr's  Sequemen  (Aarau,  1901); 
Blume,  Analectahumnica.  LIU  (Leipzig,  1911). 

(2)  Notker  Labeo,  monk  in  St.  Gall  and  author, 
b.  about  950;  d.  1022.  He  was  descended  from  a 
noble  family  and  nephew  of  Ekkehard  I,  the  poet 
of  Waltharius.  "Labeo"  means  "the  thick  lipped", 
later  he  was  named  "the  German"  (Teutonicus)  in 
recognition  of  his  services  to  the  language.  He  came 
to  St.  Gall  when  only  a  boy,  and  there  acquired  a  vast 
and  varied  knowledge  by  omnivorous  reading.  His 
contemporaries  admired  him  as  a  theologian,  philo- 
logist, mathematician,  astronomer,  connoisseur  of 
music,  and  poet.  He  tells  of  his  studies  and  his  liter- 
ary work  in  a  letter  to  Bishop  Hugo  of  Sitten  (998- 
1017),  but  was  obliged  to  give  Ujj  the  study  of  the 
liberal  arts  in  order  to  devote  himself  to  teaching. 
For  the  benefit  of  his  pupils  he  had  undertaken  some- 
thing before  unheard,  namely  translations  from  Latin 
into  German.  He  mentions  eleven  of  these  transla- 
tions, but  unfortunately  only  five  are  preserved:  (1) 
Boethius,  "De  consolatione  philo.sophia; " ;  (2)  Mar- 
cianus  Capella,  "De  nuptiis  Philologiae  et  Mercurii"; 
(3)  Aristotle,  "De  categoriis";  (4)  Aristotle,  "De 
interpretatione";  (5)  "The  Psalter".  Among  those 
lost  are:  "The  Book  of  Job",  at  which  he  worked  for 
more  than  five  years;  "Disticha  Catonis";  Vergil's 
"Bucolica";  and  the  "Andria"  of  Terenz.  Of  his 
own  writings  he  mentions  in  the  above  letter  a  "New 
Rhetoric"  and  a  "New  Computus"  and  a  few  other 
smaller  works  in  Latin.  We  still  possess  the  Rhetoric, 
the  Computus  (a  manual  for  calculating  the  dates 
of  ecclesiastical  celebrations,  especially  of  Easter),  the 
essay  "De  partibus  logics",  and  the  German  essay 
on  Music. 

In  Kegel's  opinion  Notker  Labeo  was  one  of  the 
greatest  stylists  in  German  literature.  "His  achieve- 
ments in  this  respect  seem  almost  marvellous."  His 
style,  where  it  becomes  most  brilliant,  is  essentially 
poetical;  he  observes  with  surprising  exactitude  the 
laws  of  the  language.  Latin  and  German  he  com- 
manded with  equal  fluency ;  .and  while  he  did  not  under- 
stand Greek,  he  was  weak  enough  to  pretend  that  he 
did.  He  put  an  enormous  amount  of  learning  and 
erudition  into  his  commentaries  on  his  translations. 
There  everything  may  be  found  that  w.as  of  interest 
in  his  time,  philosophy,  universal  and  literary  history, 
natural  science,  astronomy.  He  frequently  quotes  the 
classics  and  the  Fathers  of  the  Church.  It  is  charac- 
teristic of  Notker  that  at  his  dying  request  the  poor 
were  fed,  and  that  he  asked  to  be  buried  in  the  clothes 
which  he  was  wearing  in  order  that  none  might  see  the 
heavy  chain  with  which  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
mortifying  his  body. 


NOTO 


126 


NOTORIETY 


Kelle,  Oexch.  tier  deiU.  Lit.  6i.i  zur  Mitte  de.t  It.  Jahrhiudrrts,  I 
(Berlin,  1892).  232-63;  KOoel,  Gfsch.  der  deul.  Lit.  bis  zum  .-lus- 
eang  dfs  MillKlatlers.  I.  2  (StraaburR,  1S97).  598-026-  Piper,  Die 
Schriflen  Notkers,  I-III  (Freiburg,  1882-3). 

Klemens  Loffler. 

(3)  NoTKER  Physicus  (sumamed  Piperis  Gra- 
kdm),  physici.'in  and  painter,  d.  12  Nov.,  975.  He  re- 
ceived his  surname  on  .'iccount  of  his  strict  discijiline. 
ConcerninK  his  life  wo  only  know  that  in  9")!)  or  9.57 
he  became  cilliin'u.f,  and  in  9().")  liosj)Uiiriu.-i  at  St.  Clall. 
Ekkehard  IV  extols  several  of  his  paintings,  and  men- 
tions some  antiphons  and  hymns  of  his  composition 
(e.  g.  the  hymn  "Rector  a-terni  metuende  secli"). 
He  is  probably  identical  with  a  "Notker  notarius", 
who  enjoyed  ^reat  consideration  at  the  court  of  Otto 
I  on  account  of  his  skill  in  medicine,  and  whose  knowl- 
edge of  medical  books  is  celebrated  by  Ekkehard.  In 
940  this  Notker  wrote  at  Quedlinburg  the  confirmation 
of  the  immunity  of  St.  Gall.  This  is  in  accord  with 
the  great  partiality  later  shown  by  the  Ottos  towards 
the  monk,  for  example  when  they  visited  St.  Gall  in 
972. 

Ekkehart  (IV),  r,f  ,,  ,s  ,:,,  /)  i;>illi,  ed.  Meyer  von  Knonau 
in  MiUeil.  zur  valrrlr         ',  si.  Gall,   1877),  cxxiii,  cxlvii; 

BuKQENER, /Wcc/iV;  s  ,11     I  i  h-i.-deln.  1860),  132  aq. ;  SiRET, 

Diet,  des  peirUres  etr.  m.  a  i  I  ,  I'.iri^.  1874),  640;  Wattenb.ich, 
Deulsehlands  Geschichl.^iiutllen.  I  (7th  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1904),  354; 
Rahn,  Gesch.  der  bildenden  Kilnste  in  der  Schweiz  (Zurich,  1876), 
139  sqq. 

(4)  Notker,  nephew  of  Notker  Physicus,  d.  15 
Dec,  975.  We  have  no  documentary  information 
concerning  him  until  his  appointment  as  Abbot  of  St. 
Gall  (971).  Otherwise  also  the  sources  are  silent  con- 
cerning him,  except  that  they  call  him  "abba  benig- 
nus"  and  laud  his  unaffected  piety. 

Ekkehart  (IV),  op.  eit.,  cxxii;  Mabillon,  Acta  SS.  O.S.B.,  V 
(1685),  21. 

(5)  Notker,  Provost  of  St.  Gall  and  later  Bishop 
of  Liege,  b.  about  940;  d.  10  April,  1008.  This  cel- 
ebrated monk  is  not  mentioned  by  the  otherwise  pro- 
lix historians  of  St.  Gall.  He  probably  belonged  to  a 
noble  Swabian  family,  and  in  969  was  appointed  im- 
perial chaplain  in  Italy.  From  969  to  1008  he  was 
Bishop  of  Liege.  Through  him  the  influence  of  St. 
Gall  was  extended  to  wider  circles.  He  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  great  fame  of  the  Liege  Schools,  to  which 
studious  youths  soon  flocked  from  all  Christendom. 
By  procuring  the  services  of  Leo  the  Calabrian  and 
thus  making  possible  the  study  of  Greek,  Notker  gave 
notable  extension  to  the  Liege  curriculum.  Among 
Notker's  pupils,  who  extended  the  influence  of  the 
Liege  schools  to  ever  wider  circles,  may  be  men- 
tioned Hubald,  Gunther  of  Salzburg,  Ruthard  and 
Erlwin  of  Cambrai,  Heimo  of  Verdun,  Hesselo  of  Toul, 
and  .\dalbald  of  Utrecht.  A  noteworthy  architectural 
activity  also  manifested  itself  under  Notker. 

In  Folcwin's  opinion  Notker's  achievements  surpass 
those  of  any  of  his  predecessors:  among  the  buildings 
erected  by  him  may  be  mentioned  St.  .John's  in  Liege, 
after  the  model  of  the  Aachen  cathedral.  Praise- 
worthy also  were  his  services  as  a  politician  under 
Otto  III  and  Henry  II.  He  adhered  faithfully  to  the 
cause  of  the  romantic  Otto,  whom  he  accompanied 
to  Rome.  It  was  also  he  who  brought  back  the  corpse 
of  the  young  emperor  to  Germany.  The  "Gesta 
episcoporum  Leodiensium"  have  been  frequently 
wrongly  attributed  to  him,  although  he  merely  sug- 
gested its  composition,  and  lent  the  work  his  name  to 
secure  it  trniir  r    Miiliority. 

Wattknii'  :  h  '  'II, h  GeschichlsQuellen  im  Mittetalter,  I 
(7thed..  StM!  .'1      1.'.-)  sqq.     A  Vila  Notkeri  (I2th  ceat.) 

is  partly  pr--- r  . '  I  1.  i  '.ii>ir8  of  Orval;  cf.  Kurth,  Biogr.de 
I'evigue  Notf/rr  (lu  XII'  .S'.  in  Bull,  de  la  Comm.  royale  d'hisl.  de 
BeloiQue,  4th  series,  XVII  (1891).  n.  4.;  Biogr.  de  VHtque  N.  au 
XII-  a.  in  Revue  bl-nididine.  VIII  (1891),  309  sqq. 

Franz  Kampers. 

Noto,  Diocese  of  (Neten),  the  ancient  Netum  and 
after  the  Saracen  conquest  the  capital  of  one  of  the 
three  divisions  of  Sicily,  was  among  the  last  cities  to 


surrender  to  the  Normans.  Di'stroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake ill  1(>9H,  it  was  rebuilt  iic.-irly  five  miles  from 
its  primitive  site.  It  cdutaiiis  line  churches,  like  that 
of  St.  Nicholas,  an  arcluedlonical  museum  with  a  col- 
lection of  Syracusan,  Homan,  and  Saracen  coins,  and 
a  library.  Noto  is  tli<'  birthplace  of  the  humanist 
John  Aurispa,  secretary  of  Kugciic  I\'  and  .Nicholas  V. 
In  the  cathedral  is  the  tomb  of  Hlisscd  Cimrad  of 
Piacenza.  The  diocese  was  separated  in  ISM  from 
the  Archdiocese  of  Syracuse,  of  which  Noto  issulTmgan; 
the  first  bishop  w.as  Joseph  Meiiditto.  It  has  19  par- 
ishes; 148,400  inhabitants;  1 1  religious  houses  of  men, 
and  14  of  women;  a  scliool  for  bojs  and  tlirec  for  girls; 
and  a  home  for  invalids. 

CAPPELhETTt,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  XXI.  U.  BeNIGNI. 

Notoriety,  Notorious  (Lat.  Notorielas,  nolnrium, 
from  noliis,  known). — Notoriety  is  the  finality  or  the 
state  of  things  that  arc  notorious;  whatever  is  so 
fully  or  officially  proved,  that  it  may  and  ought  to  be 
held  as  certain  without  further  investifiation,  is  no- 
torious. It  is  difficult  to  express  exact  ly  what  is  meant 
by  notoriety,  and,  as  the  Gloss  says  (in  can.  Manifesta, 
15,  C.  ii,  q.  1),  "we  are  constantly  using  the  word 
notorious  and  are  ignorant  of  its  meaning".  Ordi- 
narily it  is  eciiiivalent  to  public,  manifest,  evident, 
known;  all  these  terms  have  something  in  common, 
they  signify  that  a  thing,  far  from  being  secret,  may  be 
easily  known  by  many.  Notoriety,  in  addition  to  this 
common  idea,  involves  the  idea  of  indis])utable  proof, 
so  that  what  is  notorious  is  held  as  pro\eil  and  serves 
as  a  basis  for  the  conclusions  and  acts  of  those  in  au- 
thority, especially  judges.  To  be  as  precise  as  is  pos- 
sible, "pubhc"  means  what  any  one  may  easily  prove 
or  ascertain,  what  is  done  openly;  what  many  persons 
know  and  hold  as  certain,  is  "manifest";  what  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  persons  have  learnt,  no  mat- 
ter how,  is  "known";  what  is  to  be  held  as  certain  and 
may  no  longer  be  called  in  question  is  "notorious". 

Authorities  distinguish  between  notoriety  of  fact, 
notoriety  of  law,  and  presumptive  notoriety,  though 
the  last  is  often  considered  a  subdivision  of  the  second. 
Whatever  is  easily  shown  and  is  known  by  a  sufficient 
number  of  persons  to  be  free  from  reasonable  doubt 
is  notorious  in  fact.  This  Idnd  of  notoriety  may  refer 
either  to  a  transitory  fact,  e.  g.,  Caius  was  assassi- 
nated; or  permanent  facts,  e.  g.,  Titius  is  parish  priest 
of  this  parish;  or  recurring  facts,  e.  g.,  Sempronius  en- 
gages in  usurious  transactions.  Whatever  has  been 
judicially  ascertained,  viz.,  judicial  admissions,  an  af- 
fair fully  proved,  and  the  judgment  rendered  in  a  law- 
suit, is  notorious  in  law;  the  judge  accepts  the  fact  as 
certain  without  investigation;  nor  will  he  allow,  except 
in  certain  well-specified  cases,  the  matter  to  be  called 
in  question .  ' '  Notorious  "  is  then  used  as  more  or  less 
synonymous  with  "official".  Such  also  are  facts  re- 
corded in  official  documents,  as  civil  or  ecclesiastical 
registries  of  births,  deaths,  or  marriages,  notarial  rec- 
ords. Lastly,  whatever  arises  from  a  rule  of  law  based 
on  a  "violent"  presumption,  for  instance,  paternity 
and  filiation  in  case  of  a  legitimate  marriage,  is  pre- 
sumptively notorious. 

When  a  fact  is  admitted  as  notorious  by  the  judge, 
and  in  general  by  a  competent  authority,  no  proof  of  it 
is  required,  but  it  is  often  necessary  to  show  that  it  is 
notorious,  as  the  judge  is  not  expected  to  know  every 
notorious  fact.  The  notoriety  has  to  be  proved,  like 
any  other  fact  alleged  in  a  trial,  by  witnesses  or  "in- 
struments", that  is,  written  documents.  The  wit- 
nesses swear  that  the  fact  in  question  is  publicly 
known  and  .admitted  beyond  dispute  in  their  locality 
or  circle.  The  documents  consist  especially  in  ex- 
tracts from  the  official  registries,  in  the  copies  of  au- 
thentic judicial  papers,  for  instance,  a  judgment,  or  of 
notarial  papers,  known  as  "notarial  acts",  drawn  up 
by  public  notaries  on  the  conscientious  declarations  of 
well-informed  witnesses. 


NOTRE  DAME 


127 


NOTRE  DAME 


Canonists  have  variously  classified  the  legal  effects 
of  notoriety,  especially  in  matters  of  procedure;  but, 
u!timat('I.\',  they  may  all  be  reduced  to  one:  the  judge, 
and  in  general  tlie  person  in  authority,  holding  what  is 
notorious  lo  l)c  certain  and  proved,  requires  no  further 
information,  and  tlicrefore,  both  may  and  ought  to 
refrain  from  any  juciicial  inquiry,  proof,  or  formalities, 
whicli  would  otiierwise  be  necessary.  For  these  in- 
quiries and  formalities  having  as  their  object  to 
enlighten  the  judge,  are  useless  when  the  fact  is 
notorious.  Such  is  the  true  meaning  of  the  axiom 
that  in  notorious  matters  the  judge  need  not  follow 
the  judicial  procedure  (cf.  can.  14  and  16,  C.  ii,  q.  1; 
cap.  7 and  10,  ''Decohab.  cleric",  lib.  Ill,  tit. ii; cap.  3, 
"De  testib.  cogend.",  lib.  II,  tit.  .xxi).  None  of  the 
essential  solemnities  of  the  procedure  should  ever  be 
omitted.  The  most  interesting  application  of  the  ef- 
fect of  notoriety  in  criminal  matters  is  in  connexion 
with  the  jlngrans  deliclus,  when  the  accused  is  caught 
in  the  criminal  act,  in  which  case  the  judge  is  dis- 
penses!  I'lMin   l]\r   iirii--.il\    iif  :iii\    iH(|uiry. 

F\     ,  -        '  1  ',     ///  Decret.,    tit.  ii; 

Fkiii;.i        /  ,     \  ,   Smith,  Th' Ekmenls 

o/A'.:'.      ■'     ■    /  :      ■  \.  A  \ -i!     1^77    l-^e;  T.iu.NTON,  TAeLau) 
o/(/lf  (7,,irr/.  il,oii.l..li,   r.llK.i,  4.5L'.  ,      „ 

A.  BOUDINHON. 

Notre  Dame,  Congregations  of. — I. — Congre- 
G.\Tiox  OF  XoTRE  D.\ME  DE  MoNTRE.^L. — Marguerite 
Bourgeoys,  the  foundress,  was  born  at  Troyes,  France, 
17  April,  1620.  She  was  the  third  child  of  Abraham 
Bourgeois,  a  merchant,  and  Guillemette  Garnier, 
his  wife.  In  1653  Paul  Chomody  de  Maisonneuve, 
the  founder  of  Ville  Marie  (Montreal),  visited 
Troyes,  and  invited  her  to  go  to  Canada  to  teach; 
she  set  out  in  June  of  that  year,  arrived  at  Ville 
Marie,  and  devoted  herself  to  every  form  of  works 
of  mercy.  She  opened  her  first  school  on  30  April, 
16.57,  but  soon  had  to  return  to  France  for  recruits, 
where  four  companions  joined  her.  A  boarding 
school  and  an  industrial  school  were  opened  and 
sodalities  were  founded.  In  1670  the  foundress  went 
back  to  France  and  returned  in  1672  with  letters 
from  King  Louis  XIV  and  also  with  six  new  com- 
panions. In  1675  she  built  a  chapel  dedicated  to 
Notre  Dame  de  Bon  Secours.  To  insure  greater  free- 
dom of  action  Mother  Bourgeoys  founded  an  un- 
cloistered  community,  its  members  bound  only  by 
simple  vows.  They  had  chosen  2  July,  as  their  pat- 
ronal  feast-day.  Modelling  their  lives  on  that  of  Our 
Lady  after  the  Ascension  of  Our  Lord,  they  aided  the 
pastors  in  the  various  parishes  where  convents  of  the 
order  had  been  established,  by  instructing  children. 

Although  the  community  had  received  the  approba- 
tion of  the  Bishop  of  Quebec,  the  foundress  became 
very  desirous  of  having  the  conditions  of  non-enclosure 
and  simple  vows  embodied  in  a  rule.  To  confer  with 
the  bishop,  who  was  then  in  France,  she  undertook  a 
third  journey  to  Europe.  She  returned  the  next  year, 
and  resisted  the  many  attempts  made  in  the  next  few 
years  to  merge  the  new  order  in  that  of  the  Ursulines, 
or  otherwise  to  change  its  original  character.  In  1683 
a  mission  on  Mount  Royal  was  opened  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  Indian  girls.  This  mission,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  priests  of  St.  Sulpice,  was  removed  in  1701  to 
Sault  au  Recollet,  and  in  1720  to  the  Lake  of  Two 
Mountains.  It  .still  exists.  The  two  towers  still 
standing  on  the  grounds  of  Montreal  College  were 
part  of  a  stone  fort  built  to  protect  the  colony  from 
the  attacks  of  their  enemies;  they  were  expressly 
erected  for  the  sisters  of  that  mission:  one  for  their 
residence,  the  other  for  their  classes. 

The  sisters  continued  their  labours  in  the  schools 
of  Ville  Marie,  and  also  prepared  a  number  of  young 
women  as  Christian  tcacljcrs.  Houses  were  opened  at 
Pointe-aux-Trenililis,  ncnr  Montreal,  at  Lachine,  at 
Champlain  and  Chateau  Richer.  In  16S5  a  mission 
was  established  at  Sainte  Famille  on  the  Island  of  Or- 
leans and  was  so  successful  that  Mgr  de  St.  Vallier, 


Bishop  of  Quebec,  invited  the  sisters  to  open  houses 
in  that  settlement,  which  was  done.  In  1689  he  de- 
sired to  confer  with  Mother  Bourgeoys  in  regard  to  a 
project  of  foundation.  Though  sixty-nine  years  of 
age,  she  set  out  at  once  on  the  long  and  perilous  jour- 
ney on  foot  to  Quebec,  and  had  to  suffer  all  the  incon- 
veniences of  an  April  thaw.  Acceding  to  the  demands 
of  the  bishop  for  the  new  foundation,  she  had  the 
double  consolation  of  obedience  to  her  superior,  and  of 
keeping  her  sisters  in  their  true  vocation  when,  only 
four  years  later,  the  bishop  himself  became  convinced 
that  such  was  necessary.  Mother  Bourgeoys  asked 
repeatedly  to  be  discharged  from  the  superiorship, 
but  not  until  1693  did  the  bishop  accede  to  her  petition. 
Eventually  on  24  June,  1698,  the  rule  and  constitution 
of  the  congregation,  based  upon  those  which  the 
foundress  had  gathered  from  various  sources,  were 
formally  accepted  by  the  members.  The  next  day 
they  made  their  vows.  The  superior  at  the  time  was 
Mother  of  the  Assumption  (Barbier).  Mother  Bour- 
geoys devoted  the  remainder  of  her  life  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  points  of  advice  for  the  guidance  of  her  sister- 
hood. She  died  on  12  January,  1700.  On  7  Dec, 
1878,  she  was  declared  venerable.  The  proclamation 
of  the  heroicity  of  the  virtues  of  the  \'enerable  Mar- 
guerite Bourgeoys  was  officially  made  in  Rome,  19 
June,  1910.  In  1701  the  community  numbered  fifty- 
four  members.  The  nuns  were  self-supporting  and, 
on  this  consideration,  the  number  of  subjects  was  not 
limited  by  the  French  Government,  as  was  the  case 
with  all  the  other  existing  communities.  The  con- 
flagration which  ravaged  Montreal  in  1768  destroyed 
the  mother-house,  which  had  been  erected  eighty- 
five  years  before.  The  chapel  of  Bon  Secours,  built  by 
Mother  Bourgeoys,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1754,  and 
rebuilt  by  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  in  1771. 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
missions  were  established  in  various  parishes  of  the 
Provinces  of  Quebec,  Ontario,  Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  in  the  United 
States;  also,  many  new  academies  and  schools  were 
opened  in  the  city  of  Montreal.  The  normal  school 
in  Montreal,  under  the  direction  of  the  congregation, 
begun  in  1899,  has  worthily  realized  the  hopes  founded 
upon  it.  Of  its  three  hundred  and  eighteen  graduates, 
authorized  to  teach  in  the  schools  of  Quebec,  one 
hundred  and  eighty-four  are  actually  employed  there. 
The  house,  built  after  the  fire  of  1768,  was  demolished 
in  1844  to  give  place  to  a  larger  building.  A  still  more 
commodious  one  was  erected  in  1880.  This  was 
burned  down  in  1893,  obliging  the  community  to  re- 
turn to  the  house  on  St.  Jean-Baptiste  Street.  A  new 
building  was  erected  on  Sherbrooke  Street,  and  here 
the  Sisters  lia\-e  been  installed  since  1908.  The  Notre 
Dame  Ladies'  College  was  inaugurated  in  1908.  To- 
day the  institute,  whose  rules  have  been  definitively  ap- 
proved by  the  Holy  See,  counts  131  convents  in  21 
dioceses,  1479  professed  sisters,  over  200  novices,  36 
postulants,  and  upwards  of  35,000  pupils. 

The  school  system  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre 
Dame  de  Montreal  always  comprised  day-schools  and 
boarding-schools.  The  pioneers  of  Canada  had  to 
clear  the  forest,  to  cultivate  the  land,  and  to  prepare 
homes  for  their  families.  They  were  all  of  an  intelli- 
gent class  of  farmers  and  artisans,  who  felt  that  a 
Christian  education  was  the  best  legacy  they  could 
leave  their  children;  therefore  they  seized  the  opportu- 
nity afforded  them  by  the  nascent  Congregation  of 
Notre  Dame,  to  place  their  daughters  in  boarding- 
schools.  The  work,  inaugurated  in  Canada,  led  to  de- 
mands for  houses  of  the  congregation  in  many  totally 
English  parishes  of  the  LTnited  States. 

The  schools  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame 
everywhere  give  instruction  in  all  fundamental 
branches.  The  real  advantages  developed  by  the  sys- 
tematic study  of  psychology~and  pedagogy  have  been 
fully  turned  to  account.     The  system  begins  with  the 


NOTRE  DAME 


128 


NOTRE  DAME 


kindergarten,  and  the  courses  are  afterwards  gratled 
as  elementary,  model,  commercial,  academic,  and  col- 
legiate. The  firsl  college  opened  was  in  Nova  Scotia 
at  Antigonish,  atiiliated  with  the  university  for  young 
men  in  the  same  jilucr:  since  the  early  years  of  its 
foundation  it  has  annually  seen  a  number  of  Bachelors 
of  Arts  among  its  graduatinsj;  students.  In  liKMt  ihe 
Notre  Dame  Ladi<'s' CollcLre.  in  attiliation  with  Laval, 
wa.sinaugvn-ated  in  Montreal.  The  line  ails  aic  taught 
in  all  the  secondary  schools  and  acailiinirs.  wlnlc  in 
the  larger  and  more  central  houses  these  biarichcs  are 
carried  lo  greater  i)erfection  by  competent  iirofessors. 
The  t<'aching  from  the  very  elements  is  in  conformity 
with  the  best  methods  of  the  day. 

De  Casson,  llialuire  lie  Montrtal,  1  (1673),  62  aq.;  Faillon, 
Vie  lie  la  Shut  Bourgeoya,  II  (18S3) ;  Ransonnet,  Vie  de  la  Sxur 
Boxirgeoys  (1728);  de  AIontgolfier,  Vie  de  la  Sceur  Bourgeoys 
(1818);  Sausseret,  /"  Eloije  Hislorigue  de  la  Saur  Bourgeoys 
(1S64);  Idem,  2'"'  Eloge  Hintorique  de  la  Sceur  Bourgeoys  (1879); 
.Sister  of  the  Conoreoation,  The  Pearl  of  Troyes  (1878),  338- 
08;  Drummond,  The  Life  and  Times  of  Marguerite  Bourgeoys 
(la07). 

Sister  St.  Euphhosine. 

II. — Congregation  op  Notre-Dame  de  Sign,  a 
religious  institute  of  women,  founded  at  Paris  in  May, 
1S43,  by  Marie-Theodore  and  Marie-Alphonse  Ratis- 
bonne  (q.  v.).  Theodore,  at  that  time  sub-director  of 
the  Archconfraternity  of  Our  Lady  of  Victories,  se- 
cured from  Gregory  XVI  permission  to  work  among 
the  Jews  for  their  conversion.  His  brother  Marie- 
Alphonse  was  equally  zealous  and  they  established  a 
congregation  of  sisters  under  the  patronage  of  Our 
Lady  of  Sion,  with  its  mother-house  at  Paris.  The 
new  body  received  warm  encouragement  from  Mgr 
Affre,  Mgr  Sibour,  and  Cardinal  Fornari,  and,  on  15 
January,  1847,  Pius  IX  showed  his  approbation  of  the 
work  by  granting  many  indulgences  to  the  institute. 
Foundations  were  made  in  the  Holy  Land,  the  chief 
being  the  convent,  orphan  asylum,  and  school,  near 
the  Ecce  Homo  arch  in  Jerusalem.  That  of  St.  John's 
in  the  Mountains  was  founded  from  it.  Connected 
with  the  orphanage  in  Jerusalem  under  the  patronage 
of  St.  Peter  are  schools  of  art  and  manual-training. 
At  the  Ecce  Homo  there  are  170  pupils,  Jews,  Mo- 
hammedans, and  Greek  schismatics,  besides  100  day 
scholars. 

There  are  foundations  in  London  and  also  at 
Rome,  Grandbourg  near  Versailles,  Trieste,  Vienna, 
Prague,  Galatz,  Bucharest,  Jassy,  Constantinople, 
Kadi-Koi,  etc.  At  Munich  the  " Sionsverein "  for  the 
support  of  poor  children  in  Palestine  was  founded  in 
1805  through  the  instrumentality  of  Baroness  Th6rese 
von  fiumpjienberg  and  Hermann  Geiger.  The  Sisters 
of  Notre-Dame  de  Sion  number  500,  of  whom  fifty  are 
at  the  Ecce  Homo  and  St.  John's,  and  seven  at  St. 
Peter's.  They  are  directed  spiritually  by  the  Priests 
of  Notre-Dame  de  Sion,  a  congregation  of  secular 
priests,  which  includes  lay  brothers.  At  St.  Peter's  in 
Jerusalem,  there  are  six  priests,  nine  lay  brothers,  and 
some  scholastics.  The  (jerman  settlement  of  Tabgha, 
on  the  Lake  of  Genesareth,  is  in  charge  of  a  priest  of 
Notre-Dame  de  Sion,  assisted  by  a  Lazarist.  There 
is  a  foundation  of  Priests  of  Notre-Dame  de  Sion  at 
Constantinople. 

Heimbccher,  Die  Orden  und  Kongrsgationen,  III  (Paderborn, 
1908),  391;  H£ltot,  Diet,  des  ordres  religicuz. 

Blanche  M.  Kelly. 

III. — Institute  of  Notre-Dame  de  Namttr, 
founded  in  1803  at  Amiens,  France,  by  Bl.  Julie  Bill- 
iart  (b.  1751;  d.  1816)  and  Marie-Louise-Frangoise 
Blin  de  Bourdon,  Countess  of  Gezaincourt,  in  religion 
Mother  St.  .loseph  (b.  17.56;  d.  1838).  The  formation 
of  a  religious  congregation  for  the  education  of  youth 
was  the  result  of  a  formal  order  to  Blessed  Julie  in  the 
name  of  God  by  Pere  Jo.seph  Varin,  S.J. ,  who  discerned 
her  fitness  for  such  an  enterprise.  Mile  Blin  de  Bour- 
don offered  to  defray  the  immediate  expenses.  At 
Amiens,  5  August,  1803,  they  took  a  house  in  Rue 


Neuve,  the  cradle  of  the  institute,  with  eight  orphans, 
children  confided  to  them  by  P^re  Varin.  In  the 
chai)el  of  this  house,  at  Mass  on  2  February,  1803,  the 
two  foundresses  and  their  postulant,  Catherine  Du- 
cIk'iIcI  of  Reims,  made  or  renewed  their  vow  of 
chastity,  to  which  they  added  that  of  devoting  them- 
selves to  the  Christitm  education  of  girls,  fiu'ther  i)ro- 
posing  to  train  religious  teachers  who  sho\ild  go  where- 
ever  their  services  were  asked  for.  Victoire  Leleu 
(Sister  Anastasie)  and  Justine  Gargon  (Sister  St. 
John)  joined  the  institute  this  year  and  with  the 
foundresses,  made  their  vows  of  religion  15  October, 
1804.  The  Fathers  of  the  Faith  who  were  giving 
missions  in  Amiens  sent  to  the  five  sisters  women  and 
girls  to  be  jirepared  for  the  sacraments.  Bl.  Julie  was 
successful  and  on  the  invitation  of  the  missioners  con- 
tinued to  :L,'<si.st  them  in  the  neighbouring  towns. 

Keturning  to  .\miens,  the  foundress  devoted  her- 
self to  the  formation  of  her  little  community.  She 
taught  the  young  sisters  the  ways  of  the  Ki)iritual  life. 
To  attain  the  double  end  of  the  institute,  the  found- 
ress first  secured  teachers,  among  whom  were  Fathers 
Varin,  Enf.antin  and  Thomas,  the  last-named  a  former 
professor  in  the  Sorbonne,  and  Mother  St.  Joseph 
Blin,  to  train  the  novices  and  sisters. 

The  first  regular  schools  of  the  Sisters  of  Notre-Dame 
were  opened  in  August,  1806.  Pupils  flocked  into  the 
class-rooms  at  once.  The  urgent  need  of  Christian 
education  among  all  classes  of  society  in  France  at 
that  time,  led  the  foundresses  to  modify  their  original 
])lan  of  leaching  only  the  poor  and  to  open  schools  for 
the  children  of  the  rich  also.  Simplicity,  largeness  of 
mind,  and  freedom  from  little  feminine  weaknesses, 
marked  the  training  given  to  the  higher  classes.  But 
the  poorest  and  most  forsaken  were  ever  to  remain  the 
cherished  portion  of  the  institute,  and  the  unwritten 
law  that  there  may  be  in  every  mission  free  schools 
without  pay  schools,  but  not  pay  schools  without  free 
schools,  still  remains  in  force.  Mother  Julie  did  not 
require  her  postulants  to  bring  a  dowry,  but  a  modest 
pension  for  the  years  of  probation;  a  sound  judgment, 
good  health,  aptitude  for  the  work  of  the  congregation, 
a  fair  education;  these,  with  unblemished  reputation, 
good  morals,  and  an  inclination  to  piety,  were  the 
qualifications  she  deemed  indispensable.  Within  two 
years  forty  postulants  were  received. 

The  community  lived  under  a  provisional  rule, 
based  upon  that  of  .St.  Ignatius,  drawn  up  by  Mother 
Julie  and  Father  Varin,  which  was  approved  in  1805 
by  Mgr  Jean-Frangois  Demandolx,  Bishop  of  Amiens. 
The  necessary  recognition  was  accorded  on  10  March, 
1807.  Though  time  and  experience  brought  addi- 
tions to  those  first  constitutions,  none  of  the  funda- 
mental articles  have  been  changed:  the  sole  exterior 
labour  in  the  institute  is  the  instruction  of  youth 
in  schools  in  concert  with  the  parochial  clergy;  a 
mother-house,  a  superior-general  who  appoints  the 
local  superiors,  decides  upon  foundations  and  assigns 
their  revenues,  visits  the  secondary  houses  and  moves 
subjects  from  one  to  another  when  necessary;  one 
gratle  only  of  religious,  no  cloister,  but  no  going  out 
save  for  necessity,  no  \'isiting  to  relations,  friends,  or 
public  buildings.  It  was  for  these  points  that  the 
Blessed  Foundress  laboured  and  suffered,  as  the  sub- 
stance of  the  constitutions,  solemnly  approved  by 
Gregory  XVI  in  1844,  shows. 

The  first  branch  hou.se  was  established  at  St.  Nicho- 
las, near  Ghent.  At  the  departure  of  these  five  mis- 
sionaries, 15  December,  1806,  the  religious  habit 
was  assumed  by  the  congregation,  a  private,  religious 
ceremony,  still  unchanged.  The  taking  of  vows  is  also 
private,  but  takes  place  during  Mass.  St.  Nicholas, 
as  well  as  Mother  Julie's  five  other  foimdations  in 
France,  were  all  temporary.  Later  and  jiermanent 
foundations  were  made  in  Belgium:  Namur,  1807, 
which  became  the mother-hou.se  in  1809;  .lumet,  1808; 
St.  Hubert,  1809;  Ghent,  1810;  Zele,  1811;  Gembloux 


NOTRE  DAME 


129 


NOTRE  DAME 


and  Andenncs,  1813;  Flounis,  1S14;  and  all  arrange- 
ments for  Liege  and  Dinant,  though  the  communities 
took  possession  of  these  convents  only  after  1816. 

Mother  St.  Joseph  Blin  de  Bourdon,  the  co-foun- 
dress, was  elected  superior-general  in  succession  to 
Blessed  Mother  Julie.  During  her  generalate  the  in- 
stitute passed  through  the  most  critical  period  of  its 
existence,  owing  to  the  persecutions  of  religious  orders 
by  William  of  Orange-Nassau,  King  of  the  Nether- 
lands. To  compel  them  to  remain  in  statu  quo, 
to  hold  diplomas  obtained  only  after  rigid  examina- 
tions in  Dutch  and  French  by  state  officials,  to  furnish 
almost  endless  accounts  and  writings  regarding  con- 
vents, schools,  finances,  and  subjects,  were  some  of  the 
measures  adopted  to  harass  and  destroy  all  teaching 
orders;  but  Mother  St.  Joseph's  tact,  clear-sightedness, 
and  zeal  for  souls  saved  the  institute.  During  his  tour 
in  1829,  King  William  visited  the  establishment  at 
Namur  and  was  so  pleased  that  he  created  the  mother- 
general  a  Dutch  subject.  The  Revolution  of  1830  and 
the  assumption  of  the  crown  of  Belgium  by  Leopold  of 
Saxe-Gotha  put  an  end  to  the  petty  persecutions 
of  religious.  Mother  St.  Joseph  founded  houses  at 
Thuin,  1817;  Namur  Orphanage,  1823;  Hospital  St. 
Jacques,  1823;  Verviers,  1827;  Hospital  d'Harscamp 
and  Bastogne,  1836,  the  latter  having  been  for  the 
past  thirty  years  a  state  normal  school;  Philippeville, 
1837.  The  most  important  work  of  her  generalate 
was  the  compiling  and  collating  of  the  present  Rules 
and  Constitution  of  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame.  She 
has  left  an  explanation  of  the  rule;  the  particular 
rule  of  each  office ;  the  Directory  and  Customs.  She 
had  preserved  a  faithful  record  of  all  that  Mother 
Julie  had  said  or  written  on  these  points;  hence  the 
will  of  the  foundress  is  carried  out  in  the  smallest  de- 
tails of  daily  life,  and  the  communities  are  alike  every- 
where. Moreover,  she  drew  up  the  system  of  school 
management  which  has  been  followed  ever  since,  with 
only  such  modification  of  curricula  and  discipline  as 
time,  place,  and  experience  have  rendered  indispen- 
sable. This  system  of  instruction  is  based  upon  that 
of  St.  John  Baptist  de  La  Salle,  and  may  be  read 
broadly  in  the  ''Management  of  Christian  Schools," 
issued  by  the  Christian  Brothers.  The  points  of  uni- 
formity in  the  primary  and  secondary  schools  of  all 
countries  are  chiefly:  the  emphasis  laid  upon  thorough 
grounding  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar and  composition,  geography,  and  history;  the 
half  hour's  instruction  daily  in  Christian  doctrine;  the 
half-hourly  change  of  exercise;  the  use  of  the  signal 
or  wooden  clapper  in  giving  directions  for  movements 
in  class;  the  constant  presence  of  the  teacher  with  her 
class  whether  in  the  class-room  or  recreation  ground; 
the  preparation  of  lessons  at  home,  or  at  least  out  of 
class  hours.  Vocal  and  chart  music,  drawing  and 
needlework  are  taught  in  all  the  schools.  No  masters 
from  outside  may  give  lessons  to  the  pupils  in  any  of 
the  arts  or  sciences. 

Mother  St.  Joseph  was  twice  re-elected  superior- 
general,  the  term  being  at  first  fixed  at  ten  years.  To 
give  greater  stability  to  the  government  of  the  insti- 
tute, a  general  chapter  was  convoked  which  should 
settle  by  ballot  the  question  of  life-tenure  of  the  of- 
fice of  sujierior-general.  The  assembly  unanimously 
voted  in  the  affirmative.  In  1819  a  foundation  was 
asked  for  Holland  by  Rev.  F.  Wolf,  S.J.,  but,  on 
account  of  political  difficulties.  Mother  St.  Joseph 
could  not  grant  it.  She  offered,  instead,  to  train 
aspirants  to  the  religious  life.  Accordingly,  two  came 
to  Namur,  passed  their  probation,  made  their  vows, 
and  returned  to  labour  in  their  own  country.  This 
is  the  origin  of  the  congregation  of  Sisters  of  Notre 
Dame,  whose  mother-house  is  at  Coesfield,  and  who 
have  large  schools  in  Cleveland,  Covington,  and  other 
cities  of  the- Middle  West.  Though  not  affiliated  to 
}  Notre  Dame  of  Namur,  they  follow  the  same  rule  and 
regard  Blessed  Mother  Julie  as  their  foundress. 
XL— 9 


Mother  St.  Joseph  died  on  9  February,  1838,  in  the 
eighty-third  year  of  her  age  and  the  twenty-third  of 
her  generalate.  The  preliminary  process  of  her  beati- 
fication is  well  advanced. 

The  third  superior-general  was  Mother  Ignatius  (Th^ 
rese-Josephine  Goethals,  b.  1800;  d.  1842).  Her  ser- 
vices during  the  persecution  under  King  William  were 
invaluable.  Excessive  toil,  however,  told  upon  her 
later,  and  she  died  in  the  fourth  year  of  her  generalate; 
but  not  before  she  had  sent  the  first  colony  of  sisters  to 
America. 

She  was  succeeded  by  Mother  Marie  Therese,  who, 
on  account  of  ill-health,  resigned  her  office  the  fol- 
lowing year  and  Mother  Constantine  (Marie-Jeanne- 
Joseph-Colfin,  b.  1802,  d.  187.5)  was  elected.  She 
ruled  the  institute  for  thirty-three  years,  her  term  of 
office  being  marked  by  the  papal  approbation  of  the 
Rule  in  1844,  the  first  mission  to  England  in  184.5,  to 
California  in  1851,  to  Guatemala  in  1859.  LTnder 
Mother  Aloysie  (Th^rese-Jo.seph  Mainy,  b.  1817,  d. 
1888),  fifth  superior-general,  the  processes  for  the 
canonization  of  Mother  Julie  and  Mother  St.  Joseph 
were  begun  in  1881;  twenty  houses  of  the  institute 
were  established  in  Belgium,  England,  and  America. 
Under  her  successor.  Mother  Aimee  de  Jesus  (Elodie 
DuUaert,  b.  1825,  d.  1907),  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame, 
at  the  request  of  Leopold  II  of  Belgium,  took  charge  of 
the  girls'  schools  in  the  Jesuit  missions  of  the  Congo 
Free  State,  where  three  houses  were  established.  She 
also  sent  from  England  a  community  of  eight  sisiters 
for  the  girls'  schools  in  the  Jesuit  mission  of  Zambesi, 
Mashonaland.  An  academy  and  free  school  were 
opened  later  at  Kronstadt,  Orange  River  Colony, 
South  Africa.  Mother  Aimde  de  Jesus  was  created  by 
the  King  of  Belgium  a  Knight  of  the  Order  of  Leopold, 
and  Sister  Ignatia  was  accgrded  a  similar  honour  after 
fourteen  years  of  labour  in  the  Congo.  During  this  gen- 
eralate Mother  Julie  Billiart  was  solemnly  beatified  by 
Pius  X,  13  May,  1906.  The  present  Superior-general, 
Mother  Marie  Aloysie,  was  elected  in  January,  1908. 

The  first  foundation  in  America  was  made  at  Cin- 
cmnati,  Ohio,  at  the  request  of  the  Right  Reverend 
John  B.  Purcell,  then  Bishop  and  later  the  first  Arch- 
bishop of  Cincinnati.  Sister  Loui.se  de  Gonzague  was 
appointed  superior  of  the  eight  sisters  who  came  here 
for  this  purpose.  After  firmly  establishing  the  insti- 
tute in  America,  failing  health  caused  her  recall  to 
Namur,  where  she  worked  until  her  death  in  1866. 
Upon  Sister  Louise,  another  of  the  original  group,  de- 
volved in  1845  the  charges  of  superiority  not  only 
of  the  house  of  Cincinnati,  but  also  of  the  others 
then  founded  or  to  be  founded  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  Every  year  the  sisters  were  asked  for 
in  some  part  of  the  country  and  the  mother-house  of 
Namur  gave  generously  of  subjects  and  funds  until 
the  convents  in  America  were  able  to  supply  their  own 
needs. 

The  two  provincials  who  have  followed  Sister 
Louise  continued  the  work  along  the  lines  she  had 
traced  out.  Sister  Julie  (b.  1827,  d.  1901)  founded 
fifteen  houses,  including  Trinity  College,  Washington, 
D.  C,  and  a  provincial  house  and  novitiate  at  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio.  Sister  Agnes  Mary  (b.  IS  10.  d.  I'llDi  niade 
three  foundations  and  built  the  first  cliainl  dcdnated 
to  Blessed  Mother  Julie  in  America,  a  beautiful  Liuthic 
structure  in  stone,  at  Moylan,  Pennsylvania. 

In  1846  a  colony  of  eight  sisters  left  Namur  under 
the  care  of  Right  Reverend  F.  N.  Blanchet  and 
Father  de  Smet,  S.J.,  to  labour  among  the  Indians  of 
the  Oregon  mission.  Five  years  later  these  sisters, 
at  the  request  of  the  Right  Reverend  J.  S.  Alemany, 
Bishop  of  San  Francisco,  were  transferred  to  San  Jos6, 
California.  The  first  establishment  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  was  followed  in  course  of  time  by  ten  others, 
which  formed  a  separate  province  from  Cincinnati. 
For  thirty  years  it  was  under  the  wise  care  of  Sister 
Marie  Comehe. 


NOTRE   DAME 


130 


NOTRE  DAME 


In  1851  two  foundations  were  made  in  Ouatemuhi, 
Central  America,  under  government  auspices  and 
with  such  an  outburst  of  welcome  and  esteem  from 
the  people  as  reads  like  a  romance.  In  less  than 
twenty  years  the  reins  of  power  having  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Liberals  and  Freemasons,  the  forty-one 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  were  exiled. 

There  are  three  novitiates  in  America:  at  San  3os6 
for  the  California  Province,  at  Cincinnati  for  the  cen- 
tral [jart  of  the  United  States,  and  at  \\'altham,  Mas- 
sachusetts, for  the  Kastern  States.  The  rule  has  been 
kept  in  its  integrity  in  America  as  in  Europe.  The 
union  with  Namur  has  been  preserved,  and  a  like 
union  has  even  been  maintained  between  all  the  houses 
of  a  province  and  its  centre,  the  residence  of  the 
provincial  superior.  According  to  the  needs  of  the 
schools,  the  sisters  pass  from  house  to  house,  and  even 
from  province  to  province  as  obedience  enjoins. 

It  was  through  the  Redemptorists  that  the  Sisters 
of  Notre  Dame  first  went  to  England.  Father  de 
Buggenoms,  a  Belgian,  superior  of  a  small  mission  at 
Falmouth,  felt  the  urgent  need  of  schools  for  the  poor 
Catholic  children.  He  asked  and  obtained  from  the 
Superior  of  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  at  Namur  a 
community  of  si.\  sisters,  and  with  these  he  opened  a 
small  school  at  Penryn  in  Cornwall.  It  continued 
only  three  years,  however,  as  the  place  afforded  no 
means  of  subsistence  to  a  religious  house.  The  Re- 
demptorists having  established  a  second  English  mis- 
sion at  Clapham,  near  London,  and  having  asked  again 
for  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  for  a  school,  the  community 
of  Penryn  was  transferred  thither  in  1S48.  Through 
the  initiative  of  Father  Buggenoms  the  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Child  Jesus,  a  community  in  the  Diocese  of 
Northampton,  about  fifty  in  number,  were  affiliated  in 
1852  to  the  Institute  of  Notre  Dame,  with  the  consent 
of  the  Bishops  of  Namur  and  Northampton.  Scarcely 
had  the  hierarchy  been  re-established  in  England 
when  the  Government  offered  education  to  the  Catho- 
lic poor ;  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  devoted  themselves 
earnestly  to  this  work,  under  the  guidance  of  Sister 
Mary  of  St.  Francis  (Hon.  Laura  M.  Petre),  who  was  to 
the  congregation  in  England  what  Mother  St.  Joseph 
was  to  the  whole  institute.  Before  her  death  (24 
June,  1886)  eighteen  houses  had  been  founded  in  Eng- 
land.    There  are  now  twenty-one. 

The  most  important  of  these  English  houses  is  the 
Training  College  for  Catholic  School-Mistresses  at 
Mount  Pleasant,  Liverpool,  the  direction  of  which  was 
confided  to  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  by  the  Govern- 
ment in  18.56.  The  "centre  system"  which  admits 
of  the  concentrated  instruction  of  pupil  teachers,  now 
adopted  by  all  the  School  Boards  of  the  larger  English 
cities,  originated  with  the  sisters  at  Liverpool. 

At  the  request  of  the  Scotch  Education  Depart- 
ment, the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  opened  the  Dowan- 
hill  Training  College  for  Catholic  School-Mistresses 
at  Glasgow  in  1895.  Its  history  has  been  an  unbroken 
record  of  academic  successes  and  material  e-xpansion. 
A  second  convent  in  Scotland  has  been  opened  at 
Dumbarton  this  year  (1910). 

Although  "codes"  differ  in  terms  and  requirements, 
it  may  be  said  in  general  that  in  England  and  America 
the  schools  of  Notre  Dame  are  graded  from  kinder- 
garten all  through  the  elementary,  grammar,  and  high 
school  classes.  The  academies  carry  the  schedule  of 
studies  on  to  college  work,  while  Trinity  College, 
Washington,  D.  C,  and  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Liverpool, 
are  devoted  exclusively  to  work  for  college  degrees. 
To  meet  local  difficulties  and  extend  the  benefit  of 
Christian  instruction,  the  sisters  conduct  industrial 
schools,  orphanages  for  girls,  schools  for  deaf  mutes, 
and  for  negroes. 

Annah  of  the  Mothfr-House  of  Notre  Dame,  Namur,  Belgium; 
Sister  of  Notre  Dame,  Life  of  the  Blensed  Julie  Billiart  (Lon- 
don. 1909);  Sister  of  Notre  Dame,  Life  of  the  Rev.  Mother  St. 
Joseph  (Namur,  1850):  Mannix,  Memoir  of  Sister  Louiae  (Bos- 
ton, 1906J ;  Clarke,  The  Hon.  Mrs.  Petre,  in  religion  Sister  Mary 


of  St.  Francis  (London,  189H) ;  Englixh  Foundations  of  the  Sisters  o) 
Notre  Dame  (Liverpool,  1895);  S.N.D.,  Faiien  from  the  Records  of 
Catholic  Education  (Sister  Mary  of  St.  Philip  and  the  Training 
College  at  Mount  Pleasant)  in  The  Crucible,  I,  no.  4,  March,  1908. 
See  Julie  Billiart,  Blessed,  and  Louise,  Sister. 

A  Sister  of  Notre  Dame. 


Statistics  for   1909; 


Belgium 

England 
Scotland 

America 

Africa 

Totals 

49 
1,250 
15,954 
5,969 
1,091 
618 
5,934 
5,004 

18 
700 
36,510 
2,845 
1,246 
93 
8,621 
12.112 

47 

1,489 

31,010 

2,595 

1,107 

54 

18,952 

25,691 

4 
33 
1,586 
50 
60 

2,666 
415 

3,472 
85.060 
11,4,59 

Free  Scholars 

Pay  Scholars 

Sunday  Scholars 

35,507 

IV. — School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  a  religious 
community  devoted  to  education.  In  1910  they 
counted  3170  members  in  Europe  and  3604  in  America, 
a  total  of  6774,  with  about  115,300  pupils  in  America 
and  94,827  in  Europe,  a  total  of  210,127.  In  the 
United  States  they  conduct  parish  schools  in  ten 
archdioceses  and  twenty-five  dioceses,  and  have  charge 
of  eight  orphanages;  in  addition  they  have  parish 
schools  and  an  orphanage  in  the  Diocese  of  Hamilton, 
Canada;  an  Indian  school  at  Harbor  Springs,  Mich.; 
a  school  for  negroes  at  Annapolis;  and  a  deaf-mute 
institute  in  Louisiana.  Their  principal  boarding- 
schools  are:  Baltimore,  Md.;  Fort  Lee,  New  Jersey; 
Quincy,  111.;  Longwood,  Chicago;  Prairie  du  Chien, 
Wis.  Of  their  day  and  high  schools  the  most  prominent 
are  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  Quincy,  111.;  Longwood  and 
Chatawa,  Miss. 

The  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  are  a  branch  of 
the  Congregation  of  Notre-Dame  founded  in  France, 
by  St.  Peter  Fourier  in  1597.  In  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  several  convents  of  the  congrega- 
tion were  established  in  Germany.  Tlie  one  at  Ratis- 
bon  was  suppressed  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  but  it  was  soon  restored  and  remodelled  to 
meet  the  needs  of  modern  times.  Bishop  Wittmann 
of  Ratisbon  and  Father  Job  of  Vienna  effected  the 
change.  While  retaining  the  essential  features  of  the 
rule  and  constitutions  given  by  St.  Peter  Fourier,  they 
widened  the  scope  of  the  Sisters'  educational  work.  In 
1834  their  community  consisted  of  one  former  pupil 
of  the  suppressed  congregation,  Caroline  Gerhardinger, 
who  became  first  Superior  General  (Mother  Theresa 
of  Jesus),  and  a  few  companions.  The  first  convent 
was  in  Neunburgvorm  Wald,  Bavaria.  In  1839  they 
removed  to  a  suburb  of  Munich,  and  in  1843,  into  a  for- 
mer Poor  Clare  convent,  built  in  1284,  and  situated 
within  the  city  limits.  From  this  mother-house  in  the 
year  1847  six  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  on  the  invi- 
tation of  Bishop  O'Connor  of  Pittsburg,  emigrated  to 
America  and  landed  at  New  York  on  31  July.  One 
of  the  Sisters  succumbed  to  the  heat  of  the  season  and 
died  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  on  the  journey  from  New 
York  to  St.  Mary's,  Elk  Co.,  Pa.,  destined  to  be  the 
foundation-house  in  America.  As  St.  Mary's  was  not 
the  place  for  a  permanent  location  the  mother-general 
successfully  negotiated  to  obtain  the  Redemptorists' 
convent  attached  to  St.  James'  Church,  Baltimore, 
Md.  By  3  Nov.,  1847,  three  schools  were  opened. 
The  second  and  last  colony  of  sisters,  eleven  in  num- 
ber, arrived  from  Munich,  25  March,  1848,  and  foun- 
dations were  made  at  Pittsburg,  Philadelphia,  and 
Buffalo. 

On  15  December,  1850,  the  mother-house  was  trans- 
ferred to  Milwaukee,  with  Mother  Mary  Caroline 
Friess  as  vicar-general  of  the  sisters  in  America. 

With  money  donated  by  King  Louis  I  of  Bavaria,  a 
house  was  bought;  this  was  absorbed  later  by  Notre 
Dame  Convent  on  St.  Marj''s  Hill.     On  2  January, 


NOTRE  DAME 


131 


NOTRE  DAME 


1851,  St.  Mary's  parish  school  was  opened  and  St. 
Mary's  Institute  for  boarding  and  day  pupils  soon 
afterwards.  On  31  July,  1876,  owing  to  its  growth 
and  extension,  the  congregation  was  divided  into  two 
provinces:  the  Western,  with  mother-house  at  Mil- 
waukee; and  the  Eastern  with  mother-house  at  Bal- 
timore. A  second  division  of  the  Western  province 
became  necessary,  and  on  19  March,  189.5,  the  Southern 
province  was  formed,  with  its  mother-house  at  St.  Louis. 

Government  of  the  Congregation. — The  Congregation 
of  the  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  is  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  mother-general  at  Munich;  she  and 
her  four  assistants  form  the  generalate.  In  America 
the  government  is  in  the  hands  of  the  commissary- 
general  and  four  assistants.  The  commissariate  is 
elected  for  six  years.  All  professed  sisters  of  the 
teaching  grade  have  a  vote  in  this  election.  The 
congregation  is  divided  into  districts.  The  voting 
sisters  in  each  district  choose  one  chapter-sister. 
These  chapter-sisters  together  with  the  provincials 
elect  the  commissary-general  and  assistants.  The 
election  is  by  secret  ballot,  and  its  results  must  be  con- 
firmed by  the  mother-general  and  the  cardinal-pro- 
tector. At  the  head  of  each  province  there  is  a  mother 
provincial,  elected  with  two  assistants,  by  each  prov- 
ince for  three  years.  For  the  election  of  the  motlier- 
general  and  the  general  chapter,  which  meets  every 
six  years,  a  deputation  of  the  sisters  in  America  is  sent 
to  Munich,  Bavaria.  This  deputation  consists  of  the 
commissary-general  and  the  mother  provincial,  ex 
officio,  and  a  companion  of  each  mother  provincial 
elected  by  the  respective  province.  In  America  a 
general  congregation  is  convened  every  six  years  in  the 
principal  mother-house  at  Milwaukee. 

Training  of  Members. — To  train  members  for  their 
future  life  the  School  Sisters  have  a  candidature  and 
a  novitiate.  The  age  for  admission  into  the  candida- 
ture is  sixteen  to  twenty-seven.  After  two  years' 
probation  and  study,  the  candidate  enters  the  novi- 
tiate, and  two  years  later  makes  temporal  vows  for 
seven  years;  she  then  makes  perpetual  vows  and  be- 
comes a  professed  sister.  The  teacliing  sisters  meet 
at  specified  periods  and  at  appointed  houses  of  the  or- 
der for  summer  schools  and  teachers'  institutes. 

The  principal  houses  of  the  congregation  in  the 
Western  province  are  at  Elm  Grove,  Waukesha  Co., 
Wis.,  the  home  for  aged,  invalid,  and  convalescent  sis- 
ters; at  Prairie  du  Chien,  Wis.,  founded  in  1872,  char- 
tered in  1877,  owing  its  origin  to  the  generosity  of 
Hon.  John  Lawler  (died  on  24  Feb.,  1891)  and  his 
son,  Thomas  C.  Lawler,  of  Dubuque,  Iowa;  at  Long- 
wood,  Chicago,  111.,  establi.shed  and  chartered  in  1872. 
In  1903  the  Legislature  of  Illinois  granted  the  acad- 
emy the  right  to  add  a  college  course  and  confer  the 
degrees  of  .\.B.  and  Ph.B.  In  the  Eastern  province 
at  Baltimore,  Md.,  chartered  in  1864,  charter  amended 
and  powers  of  corporation  enlarged  1896.  The  sisters 
began  their  work  in  Baltimore  in  1848;  owing  to  the 
growth  of  their  academy,  more  commodious  quarters 
became  necessary  and  the  school,  Notre  Dame  of  Mary- 
land, was  transferred  in  1873  to  a  magnificent  estate  of 
seventy  acres  obtained  in  the  suburbs.  To  meet  the 
continual  demand  for  a  more  extensive  curriculum  for 
women,  the  sisters  of  the  convent  applied  in  January, 
1896,  to  the  State  for  the  power  of  conferring  academic 
degrees;  this  was  granted  by  an  Act  of  the  Legislature, 
2  April,  1896,  and  the  convent  has  now  a  college  with 
courses  leading  to  the  baccalaureate,  an  academy  that 
prepares  students  for  the  college,  and  a  grammar  and 
primary  department.  There  is  a  convent  at  Fort  Lee 
on  the  Palisades  of  the  Hudson,  Bergen  County,  N.  J., 
where  a  residence  was  purchased  by  the  sisters  on  2 
Oct.,  1879,  the  school  being  opened  on  21  November, 
1879,  and  chartered  in  June,  1890.  In  the  Southern 
province  the  principal  schools  are  at  Quincy,  111., 
founded  on  28  Dec,  18.59,  as  a  parochial  school,  the 
academy  opened  in  Sept.,  1867;  at  Chatawa,  Miss., 


founded  on  15  October,  1874,  a  deaf-mute  institution; 
at  Chincuba,  La.,  founded  by  Canon  Mignot,  1  Octo- 
ber, 1890,  given  in  charge  of  the  sisters  25  Septem- 
ber, 1892. 

Most  prominent  among  the  sisters  in  America  waa 
Mother  M.  Caroline  Friess,  who  died  on  22  July,  1892, 
after  being  superioress  of  the  congregation  for  forty- 
two  years.  She  was  born  near  Paris,  on  24  August, 
1824,  and  was  called  at  baptism  by  the  name  of  Jose- 
phine. As  a  child  she  was  brought  to  Eichstadt, 
Bavaria,  under  the  tutelage  of  her  uncle,  Mgr  Michael 
Friess.  Even  when  only  a  novice  she  was  given  charge 
of  very  important  schools  in  ISIunich.  She  was  one  of 
the  first  to  volunteer  for  the  missionary  work  in  the 
New  World,  and  emigrated  to  America  in  1847.  It 
soon  became  evident  that  it  was  Sister  Caroline  who 
was  to  develop  the  young  congregation.  She  was  ap- 
pointed vicar  of  the  mother-general  in  America  and 
later  on  elected  as  the  first  commissary-general. 
Under  her  direction  from  four  members  in  1847,  the 
sisterhood  grew  to  two  thousand  in  1892.  Her  life 
was  written  by  Mgr  P.  M.  Abbelen.  Mother  M. 
Clara  Heuck  was  the  third  commissary-general. 
When  the  Eastern  province  was  established  in  1876 
Sister  M.  Clara  waa  appointed  as  novice-mistress. 
Soon  she  became  the  superioress  in  Baltimore  and  the 
second  mother  provincial  in  the  East,  which  position 
she  held  for  three  terms,  after  which  she  was  elected 
commissary-general  at  iVIilwaukee  on  13  May,  1899. 
She  died  at  Milwaukee  on  4  August,  1905,  aged  sixty- 
two.  Sr.  Mary  Josephine. 

V. — Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  (of  Cleveland,  Ohio), 
a  branch  of  the  congregation  founded  by  Blessed  Julie 
Billiart.  In  1850,  Father  Elting  of  Coesfeld,  Ger- 
many, aided  by  the  Misses  Hildegonda  WoUbring  and 
Lisette  Kuehling,  who  became  the  first  members  of 
this  community,  introduced  the  Order  of  Notre  Dame 
into  Westphalia.  The  novices  were  trained  by  three 
sisters  from  the  community  of  Amersfoort,  Holland. 
Soon  they  were  enabled  to  open  a  normal  school  and 
to  take  charge  of  parish  schools.  The  Prussian  Gov- 
ernment objecting  to  teachers  dependent  on  foreign 
authority,  the  sisters  were  compelled  to  sever  their  re- 
lations with  the  mother-house  in  Holland  and  to  erect 
their  own  at  Coesfeld.  When  in  1871,  the  Kultur- 
kampf  broke  out  in  Germany,  the  Sisters  of  Coesfeld, 
though  thev  had  repeatedly  received  at  the  Prussian 
state  examinations,  the  highest  testimonials  as  most 
pffioient  teachers,  were  at  once  expelled.  Thereupon, 
Falliir  Wrslinholt,  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  Cleveland, 
h:L(l  Hishcip  ( lilmour  invite  them  to  his  diocese.  On  5 
July,  1874,  the  superioress-general  accompanied  by 
eight  sisters  arrived  in  New  York,  and  the  following 
day  in  Cleveland.  Their  first  home  was  a  small  frame 
house  near  St.  Peter's  Church.  Two  months  later 
they  took  charge  of  the  parish  school  for  girls.  Pres- 
ently Bishop  Toebbe  of  Covington,  Ky.,  invited  them 
to  his  diocese,  where  they  were  first  employed  as  teach- 
ers of  the  Mother  of  God  schools  in  Covington.  In 
the  autumn  of  1874,  the  sisters  began  to  conduct  the 
parish  schools  of  St.  Stephen's,  Cleveland,  and  of  St. 
Joseph's,  Fremont.  Within  four  years  of  their  first 
arrival  on  the  North  American  continent,  two  hundred 
sisters  had  been  transferred  to  the  missions  in  Ohio 
and  Kentucky.  The  centre  of  the  community  was 
temporarily  at  Covington,  where  in  1875  a  convent 
with  an  academy  was  erected.  The  same  year  the 
superioress-general  came  to  Cleveland,  where  the 
mother-house  was  built  and  an  academy  founded  in 
1878.  In  1883  a  girls'  boarding-school  on  Woodland 
Hills  was  opened.  An  academy  was  founded  in  To- 
ledo, Ohio,  and  opened  September,  1904.  Since  1877 
the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  have  been  in  charge  of  two 
orphanages,  one  at  Cold  Springs,  Ky.,  and  the  other  at 
Bond  Hill  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Cincinnati.  In  May, 
1887,  the  Prussian  Government  allowed  the  sisters  to 


NOTRE  DAME 


132 


NOTRE  DAME 


return  and  thoir  niothcr-liousc  was  pstablished  at 
Miihlhausi^n,  Hlu'iiisli  Prussia.  The  American  branch 
is  under  the  iiiiiiiediale  direction  of  a  provincial  supe- 
rioress, residing  in  Cleveland,  and  numbers  430  sisters. 
The  sisters  conduct  also  upwards  of  forty  parish 
schools,  mostly  in  Ohio  and  Kentucky,  containing 
about  14,000  pupils. 

Arens.  Die  selige  Julie  Billiart  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  190S);  An- 
no/«  of  Notre  Dame  Content  in  Ctevetand  (manuscript). 

Nicholas  Pfeil. 

Notre  Dame  du  Lac,  UMVEnsiTv  of,  in  Northern 
Indiana  near  tlie  boundary  lines  of   Michigan  and 
Illinois.     It  is  owned  and  directed  by  the  Congrega- 
tion of  Holy  Cross,  whose  mother-house  in  the  United 
States  is  located  at  Notre  Dame,  the  name  by  which 
the   university    is   most    commonly    known.     Notre 
Dame  was  founded  in  1842  by  the  Very  Reverend  Ed- 
ward Sorin,  C.S.C.,  late  superior-general  of  his  congre- 
gation, who  came  from  P>ance  at  the  invitation  of  the 
Right   Reverend   Cclestine  A.  L.  Guynemer  de   La 
Hailandiere,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Vincennes.    Nearly  two 
years  passed  before  the  first  building  was  erected  and 
a  faculty  organized.     In  1844  the  university  received 
a  charter  from  the  State.     By  special  act  of  the  Legisr 
lature  of  Indiana,  it  was  given  legal  existence  and  em- 
powered  to   grant   degrees   in   the   liberal   arts   and 
sciences  and  in  law  and  medicine.     Though  no  medi- 
cal faculty  has  been  formed,  all  the  other  departments 
mentioneci  in  the  charter  have  been  established,  and 
collegiate  and  university  degrees  granted  in   each. 
At  the  outset  only  collegiate  instruction  was  given  in 
the  studies  then  regarded  as  best  furnishing  a  liberal 
education.     The  first  faculty  organized  was  that  of 
the  college  of  arts  and  letters,  and  chairs  of  philosophy, 
history,  mathematics,  and  ancient  and  modern  lan- 
guages were  established.     But  the  educational  con- 
ditions in  the  country  near  the  university  were  prim- 
itive, and  few  students  were  ready  to  take  up  college 
■work.     Accordingly,  there  was  soon  founded  a  pre- 
paratorj'  school  at  Notre  Dame  in  which  instruction 
was  given,  not  only  in  subjects  immediately  preparing 
for  college,  but  also  in  the  rudiments.     Soon  after  the 
college  courses  began,  the  needs  of  the  North-West 
demanded  a  school  for  those  preparing  for  the  priest- 
hood.    The  founder  accordingly  provided  a  faculty 
in  theology,  and  six  years  after  the  State  charter  was 
granted,  one-fifth  of  the  students  were  pursuing  theo- 
logical studies.     But  as  intercommunication  between 
the  more  settled  parts  of  the  United  States  increased 
with  more  easy  modes  of  travel,  the  theological  faculty 
was  maintained  only  for  members  of  the  Congregation 
of  Holy  Cross.     To-day  the  university  consists  of  five 
colleges,   each  with  several  departments — arts   and 
letters,  engineering,   science,   architecture,   and  law. 
At  the  head  of  each  college  is  a  dean.     The  faculties 
of  the  five  colleges  are  directed  by  the  president  of  the 
university,  who  governs  in  matters  purely  academic. 
All  otheraffairsareadministeredbyaboardof  trustees. 
Though  yovmg   as  a  university,  Notre  Dame   has 
had  distinct  influence  on  movements  of  the  Church  in 
the  -Middle  \\'est  from  its  foundation.     Founded  at  a 
period  when  the  need  of  missionaries  was  pressing  and 
located  in  a  centre  of  missionary  activity,  its  aid  in 
the   spread  of  Catholicism  in   the  North-West  was 
strong.     The  work  of  the  early  French  missionaries 
was  continued  by  the  religious  at  Notre  Dame,  who 
served  both  as  professors  and  evangelists.     They  sup- 
pHed,   too,  a  Catholic   literature  by  their  doctrinal 
and  scientific  writings  and  by  works  of  fiction.     A  uni- 
versity press  was  early  established,  from  which  has  been 
issued  weekly  a  literary  and  religious  magazine,  the 
"Ave  Maria",  contriljuted  to  by  the  best  writers  of 
Europe  and  America.     By  attracting,  too,  every  year 
a  large  number  of  non-Catholic  students,  the  univer- 
sity has  greatly  lessened  antagonism  to  the  Church 
and  h;is  quickened  religious  feehng  among  the  indif- 
ferent.    Moreover,  in  laws  passed  by  the  State  Legia- 


lature  affecting  the  Church,  and  especially  in  legisla- 
tion regarding  education,  i\u'.  university  is  usually 
consulted,  and  any  protest  from  it  is  respectfully 
heeded.  In  these  matters  Notre  Dame  has  merited 
consideration  by  the  State  not  only  by  her  position 
as  a  leading  university,  but  also  by  a  remarkable  dis- 
play of  patriotism  in  the  Civil  War.  At  the  first  call 
for  arms  seven  of  her  priests,  who  were  acting  as  pro- 
fessors, were  sent  by  Father  Sorin  to  act  as  chaplains; 
and  this  at  a  time  when  the  university  could  ill  spare 
any  of  her  faculty. 

The  progress  of  the  university  has  been  due  largely 
to  its  presidents,  who  have  been,  in  all  cases,  men 
of  scholarly  attainments  and  executive  capabilities. 
Excepting  the  founder,  who  was  the  first  president, 
each  had  served  as  professor  at  Notre  Dame  before 
being  called  to  direct  its  affairs.  In  all  there  have 
been  eight  presidents — the  Very  Reverend  Edward 
Sorin,  the  founder;  Rev.  Patrick  Dillon,  William 
Corby,  Augustus  Lemmonier,  Patrick  Colovin, 
Thomas  Walsh,  Andrew  Morrissey,  and  John  Cava- 
naugh,  all  members  of  the  Congregation  of  Holy  Cross. 
Among  other  professors  who,  by  their  writings  and  re- 
searches, have  contributed  to  the  sciences  which  they 
taught  and  have  added  lustre  to  Notre  Dame,  are  Rev. 
J.  A.  Zahm,  C.S.C.,  author  of  scientific  works  and  pro- 
fessor of  physics;  Rev.  Alex.  Kir.sch,  C.S.C.,  professor 
of  zoology;  Rev.  Jos.  Carrier,  C.S.C.,  professor  of 
botany,  William  Hoynes  and  Timothy  E.  Howard, 
professors  of  law;  Michael  E.  Shawe,  Gartiner  Jones, 
Rev.  N.  H.  Gillespie,  C.S.C.,  Rev.  Daniel  Hudson, 
C.S.C.,  Charles  Warren  Stoddard,  and  Maurice  Francis 
Egan,  professors  of  English  literature;  James  Farnham 
Edwards,  Ubrarian;  Arthur  J.  Stace  and  Martin  J. 
McCue,  professorsof  engineering;  Rev.  John  B.  Scheier, 
C.S.C.,  professor  of  Latin;  Rev.  Louis  Cointet,  C.S.C., 
professor  of  philo.sophy. 

Excepting  the  land  on  which  it  is  built,  donated  by 
Bishop  Hailandiere,  and  a  few  lesser  donations  in 
money,  Notre  Dame  has  developed  into  a  great  uni- 
versity without  financial  aid.  It  opened  as  a  college 
in  September,  1843,  in  a  modest  brick  structure 
erected  to  serve  temporarily  until  a  larger  building 
was  completed  in  1844.  This  was  enlarged  in  1853. 
Farher  Sorin  was  president  continuously  until  1865. 
The  enrolment  of  students  for  many  years  was  small, 
numbering  sixty-nine  in  18.50,  coming  from  four  states 
in  the  Middle  West  and  from  New  York  and  Penn- 
sylvania. By  18G1  the  number  had  advanced  to  two 
hundred,  and  in  that  year  the  faculty  of  the  college 
of  science  was  organized.  In  1865  the  enlarged  cen- 
tral building  of  1853  gave  way  to  a  more  pretentious 
structure;  the  corps  of  professors  was  augmented  to 
forty;  the  university  press  was  established:  the  main 
library  was  added  to,  and  the  equi])iii('nl  of  the  college 
of  science  enlarged.  The  college  of  law  was  formed  in 
1869,  and  the  college  of  engineering  in  1872.  A  fire  in 
April,  1879,  wiped  out  the  labours  of  forty  years,  con- 
suming all  the  university  buildings  except  the  church 
and  the  university  theatre.  Plans  were  at  once  made 
for  rebuilding,  and  the  present  Notre  Dame  begun. 
In  September,  1879,  the  administration  building,  a 
large  structure,  planned  to  form  the  centre  of  a  group, 
was  completed  and  classes  resumed.  A  departure 
from  the  old  system  of  student  life  was  made  in  1887 
when  the  first  residence  hall  containing  private  rooms 
was  erected.  Before  that  time  the  common-room 
system,  modelled  on  college  life  in  Europe,  prevailed. 
In  1900  the  college  of  architecture  was  established. 

The  growth  of  the  University  has  been  steady.  At 
present  (in  1911)  over  one  thousand  students  are  regis- 
tered, from  North  and  South  America  and  from  nearly 
all  the  countries  of  Europe.  All  the  students  live  on 
the  university  grounds.  The  faculties  are  made  up 
of  eighty-five  professors,  including  many  laymen. 
Twenty  buildings  are  devoted  to  university  purposes, 
and  these  with  their  equipment  and  apparatus  are 


NOTTINGHAM 


133 


NOTTINGHAM 


valued  at  $2,800,000.  The  land  belonging  to  Notre 
Dame  is  valued  at  $400,000.  In  the  main  library  are 
eixty-five  thousand  volumes,  while  libraries  in  various 
departments  have  about  ten  thousand  volumes. 

William  Alan  Moloney. 

Nottingham,  Dioce.sb  of  (Nottinghamien),  one 
of  the  original  twelve  English  Dioceses  created  at  the 
time  of  the  restoration  of  the  hierarchy  by  Pius  IX  in 
1850,  embraces  the  counties  of  Nottingham,  Leices- 
ter, Derby,  Lincoln,  and  Rutland,  which  were  com- 
prised in  the  old  Midland  District  or  vicariate,  when 
at  the  request  of  James  II  in  1685,  the  Holy  See  di- 
vided England  into  four  vicariates,  the  London,  the 
Northern,  the  Midland,  and  the  Western.  Prior  to 
1840  when  the  number  of  vicars  Apostolic  was  in- 
creased from  four  to  eight,  the  Midland  District  had 
consisted  of  fifteen  count  ies.  In  1850  Nottingham  could 
count  only  twenty-four  permanent  missions,  many  of 
these  little  better  than  villages.  For  the  most  part 
they  originated  from  chaplaincies  which  had  through 
penal  times  been  maintained  by  the  Catholic  nobility 
and  gentry,  or  had  been  founded  independently  by 
them.  Among  these  there  existed  foundations  of  sev- 
eral religious  orders.  In  Derbyshire  the  Jesuits  had 
missions  at  Chesterfield  and  Spink  Hill;  in  Lincoln- 
shire at  Lincoln,  Boston,  and  Market  Rasen.  The 
Dominicans  were  settled  in  Leicester,  the  Fathers  of 
Charity  carried  on  several  missions  in  Leicestershire, 
and  the  Cistercians  occupied  their  newly  founded 
Abbey  of  Mount  St.  Bernard  in  Charnwood  Forest. 

From  the  appearance  of  the  Jesuits  in  England  in 
1580  at  the  special  request  of  Dr.  Allen,  they  had  done 
much  by  their  devoted  labours  to  keep  alive  the  Faith 
in  the  Nottingham  diocese.  Of  their  missions  men- 
tioned above  some  were  among  the  earliest  of  the  So- 
ciety in  England  dating  back  some  three  hundred 
years.  Derby  was  included  in  the  district  or  college 
of  the  Society  called  the  "Immaculate  Conception", 
founded  by  Father  Richard  Blount,  about  1633,  first 
Provincial  of  the  English  Province.  Extinct  for  many 
years  it  was  partially  revived  in  1842  as  Mount  St. 
Mary's  College,  when  the  present  college  and  convic- 
tus  was  established  by  the  then  provincial,  Father 
Randal  Ly  thegoe.  After  the  Reformation,  the  English 
Province  of  the  Friars  Preachers  ceased  to  exist,  until 
resuscitated  at  Bornhem  in  Flanders  by  Philip  Howard 
(q.  V.)  later  cardinal,  who  became  the  first  prior  of 
the  Dominicaas  in  1675.  The  first  introduction  of 
the  English  Dominicans  from  Bornhem  was  at  Hinck- 
ley, whence  for  many  years  Leicester  was  served  by 
them  at  intervals.  Their  mission  at  Leicester  was 
put  on  a  permanent  basis  only  in  1798  by  the  purchase 
of  a  house  by  Father  Francis  Xavier  Choppelle.  The 
present  church  of  the  Holy  Cross  was  begun  by  Father 
Benedict  Caestrick  in  1815  and  was  opened  in  1819. 
The  dedication  under  the  title  of  Holy  Cross  was 
adopte<l  no  doubt  on  account  of  the  celebrated  relic 
of  the  Holy  Cross  brought  from  Bornhem,  and  now 
in  London.  After  the  lapse  of  three  centuries  a  monas- 
tery of  the  Cistercian  Order  was  resuscitated  in  Eng- 
land by  the  foundation  of  the  Abbey  of  Mount  St. 
Bernard  in  Leicestershire,  made  possible  by  the  as- 
sistance of  Ambrose  Phillips  de  Lisle  of  Grace  Dieu 
Manor,  who  after  his  conversion  in  December,  1825, 
devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  spread  of  the  Faith  in 
England.  This  he  hoped  to  accomplish  by  the  re-es- 
tablishment in  the  country  of  monastic  institutions. 
In  1835  he  purchased  about  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven  acres  of  wild  uncultivated  land  in  Charnwood 
Forest  and  presented  it  to  the  Cistercians.  Beginning 
with  one  brother  who  lived  alone  in  a  four-roomed  cot- 
tage, the  community  rapidly  increased,  and  a  larger 
building  was  erected  as  well  as  a  small  chapel,  opened 
by  Dr.  Walsh  11  October,  1837.  This  also  in  a  short 
time  proving  insufficient,  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury  gen- 
erously offered  them  £2,000,  but  on  condition  that  a 


new  monastery  should  ho  erected,  choo.sing  for  that 
purpose  the  present  site  of  the  abbey.  It  was  built 
from  designs  by  Augustus  Welby  Pugin.  In  1848  by 
Brief  of  Pius  IX  the  monastery  of  Mount  St.  Bernard 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  abbey,  and  Father 
Bernard,  the  first  mitred  abbot  in  England  since  the 
Reformation,  was  consecrated  18  February,  1849.  In 
introducing  the  Cistercians  into  England,  de  Lisle  had 
hoped  that  they  would  undertake  missionary  work 
and  with  this  view  he  had  built  three  chapels,  at  Grace 
Dieu,  Whitwick,  and  the  abbey.  On  the  score  of 
their  rule,  however,  they  declined  to  take  charge  per- 
manently of  the  missions.  De  Lisle  then  decided  to 
bring  from  Italy  members  of  the  Order  of  Charity. 
After  much  negotiation  with  the  head  of  the  order, 
Father  Gentili  came  to  Grace  Dieu  as  chaplain.  This 
was  the  commencement  of  the  settlement  of  this  order 
in  the  diocese.  In  1841  Dr.  Walsh  made  over  to  them 
the  secular  mission  of  Loughborough  founded  in  1S32 
by  Father  Benjamin  Hulme.  The  buildings  were  too 
small  to  permit  of  a  novitiate  and  a  college  of  their  own 
which  they  were  desirous  to  establish.  To  carry  out 
this  twofold  object,  about  nine  acres  were  purchased; 
here  the  foundation  stone  of  the  new  buildings  was  laid 
in  May,  1843,  and  in  1844  was  opened  the  first  college 
and  novitiate  house  of  the  institute  in  England.  The 
Sisters  of  Mercy  had  come  to  Nottingham  in  1844,  and 
in  1846  entered  their  convent  in  close  proximity  to 
the  cathedral. 

The  first  Bishop  of  Nottingham  was  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Wilfiam  Hendren,  O.S.F.,  b.  in  1792,  consecrated  10 
September,  1848,  as  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Western 
District,  transferred  to  the  Diocese  of  Clifton,  29 
Sept.,  18.50,  and  to  Nottingham,  22  June,  1851.  The 
cathedral  church  of  St.  Barnabas  is  of  the  lancet  style 
of  architecture,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  best 
specimens  of  the  work  of  Augustus  Welby  Pugin. 
Owing  to  ill-health  Dr.  Hendren  resigned  in  1853  and 
was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Richard  Roskell,  b.  at  Gateacre 
near  Liverpool,  in  1817.  He  was  sent  to  Ushaw  and 
afterwards  to  Rome,  where  he  took  his  degree  and  was 
ordained  in  1840.  He  was  consecrated  in  the  cathe- 
dral by  Cardinal  Wiseman  on  21  September,  1853. 
During  his  episcopate  a  number  of  missions  were 
founded  in  the  various  coimties  of  the  diocese.  In 
Lincolnshire,  through  the  generosity  of  Thomas  Arthur 
Young  of  Kingerby  Hall,  not  only  was  there  a  church 
and  presbytery  built  at  Gainsborough  and  Grimsby, 
but  the  Premonstratcnsian  order  was  re-introduced 
into  England  at  Crowle  and  Spalding.  In  1874,  ow- 
ing to  Dr.  Roskell's  ill-health,  the  i^ope  appointed 
the  Rev.  Edward  Gilpin  Bagshawe  of  the  London 
Oratory  his  coadjutor.  The  same  year,  however.  Dr. 
Roskell  tendered  his  resignation  and  Dr.  Bagshawe 
was  consecrated  at  the  London  Oratory  12  November, 
1874.  Numerous  missions  necessitated  by  the  devel- 
opment of  the  mining  industry  were  ojjencd  during  his 
administration,  and  various  communities  of  nuns  in- 
troduced into  the  diocese,  which  he  ruled  for  twenty- 
seven  years.  He  resigned  in  1901  and  in  1904  was 
transferred  to  the  titular  Archbishopric  of  Seleucia. 
Rt.  Rev.  Robert  Brindle,  D.S.O.,  his  successor,  was 
born  at  Liverpool,  4  November,  1837.  The  first 
Catholic  chaplain  to  receive  the  pension  for  distin- 
guished and  meritorious  service,  as  well  as  Turkish  and 
Egyijtian  orders  and  medals,  he  was,  on  his  retirement 
from  the  army  in  1899,  on  the  petition  of  Cardinal 
\'aughan,  appointed  his  assistant,  and  on  the  resig- 
nation of  Dr.  Bagshawe,  received  his  Brief  to  the  See 
of  Nottingham  6  November,  1901. 

In  1910  there  were  in  the  diocese  32,000  Catholi(\s; 
84  secular,  and  44  regular,  priests;  75  churches  with 
missions  attached,  31  without  missions;  6  convents  for 
men,  and  9  for  women. 

Foley,  Records:  Purcell,  Life  of  Ambrose  Phillips  dc  lA^le; 
Priory  Church  of  Holy  Cross,  Leicester;  Jewitt  and  CRUlKSHAt^K, 
Cistercian  Records  in  Guide  to  Mt.  St.  Bernard's  Abbey, 

W.  Crost. 


NOURRISSON 


134 


NOVARA 


Nourrisson,  Jean-Fkmx,  philosopher,  b.  at  Thi- 
ers, Depart iiiont  of  Puy-de-D6me,  18  July,  1825; 
d.  at  Paris,  13  June,  1899.  He  received  his  education 
in  the  college  of  his  native  city  and  in  the  College 
Stanislas  (Paris),  where,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  imme- 
diately after  completing  his  studies,  he  was  appointed 
professor.  In  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  his  fa- 
ther, he  applied  himself  first  to  the  study  of  law,  but 
his  own  inclinations  led  him  in  another  direction,  and 
he  finally  tlecidcd  to  devote  himself  to  philosophy. 
Ho  W!is  appointed  to  the  chair  of  philosophy  in  the 
CoUegeStanislas  (1849),  received  the  Doctorate  (1852), 
and  was  made  professor  of  philosophy  successively 
in  the  Lyc(''c  de  Rennes  (1854),  the  University  of 
Clermont-Ferrand  (1855),  the  Lycee  Napoleon,  Paris 
(18.58)  and  the  College  de  France  (1874).  Nourri-sson 
obtained  three  prizes  in  competitions  on  the  philoso- 
phy of  Leibniz  (I860),  and  on  the  role  of  psychology 
in  the  philosophy  of  8t.  Augustine  (1864),  subjects 
proposed  by  the  Institut  de  France.  In  1870  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Acad^mie  des  Sciences  morales 
et  politiques  in  the  section  of  philosophy.  Nourrisson 
was  one  of  the  best  representatives  of  French  spiritu- 
alistic philosophy  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Not 
only  was  he  a  deep  thinker,  a  penetrating  philosopher 
and  historian,  but  a  firm  believer,  convinced  that 
"conscience  remains  hesitating,  and  that  convictions 
come  to  nothing,  unless  the  teachings  of  religion  com- 
plete the  data  of  reason"  (letter  tode  Barante,  5  Dec., 
1856). 

Besides  a  number  of  reports,  memoirs,  and 
articles  in  the  "Journal  des  D6bats",  "Revue  des 
Deux  Mondes",  "Re\'ue  Contemporaine",  "Corres- 
pondant",  etc.,  Nourrisson's  works  are:  "Quid  Plato 
de  ideis  senserit"  (Paris,  1852);  "Essai  .sur  la  philoso- 
phiedeBossuet"  (Paris,  1852);  "Les  Peres  del'Eglise 
latine"  (Paris,  1856);  "Le  cardinal  de  Bi'rulle" 
(Paris,  1856);  "ExTJosition  de  la  theorie  platonicienne 
des  id^es"  (Paris,  1858);  "Tableau  des  progr^s  de  la 
penste  humaine  depuis  Thales  jusqu'S,  Leibniz" 
(Paris,  1858),  the  third  edition  was  augmented  and 
brought  down  to  Hegel's  time  (1867);  "Histoire  et 
philosophic"  (Paris,  1860);  second  enlarged  edition 
tinder  the  title  "Portraits  et  etudes"  (Paris,  1863); 
" La  philosophic  de  Leibniz"  (Paris,  1860);  "Le  dix- 
huitieme  siecle  et  la  Revolution  frangaise"  (Paris, 
1863),  2nd  ed.,  1873,  under  the  title  "L'ancienne 
France  et  la  Revolution" ;  "  La  nature  humaine:  essais 
de  psychologic  appliquee"  (Paris,  1865);  "La  philoso- 
phic de  Saint-Augustin "  (Paris,  1865);  "Spinoza  et  le 
naturaUsme  contemporain "  (Paris,  1866);  "De  la 
Ubert(5  et  du  hazard,  essai  sur  Alexandre  d'Aphrodi- 
sias"  (Paris,  1S70) ; " Machiavel"  (Paris,  1875);  "Trois 
r^volutionnaires:  Turgot,  Necker,  Bailly"  (Paris, 
1885);  "Pascal,  physicien  et  philosophe"  (Paris, 
1885);  "Philosophes  de  la  nature:  Bacon,  Bayle, 
Toland,  Buffon"  (Paris,  1887);  "  Defense  de  Pascal " 
(Paris,  1888);  "  Voltaire  et  le  voltairianisme"  (Paris, 
s.  d.);  "Rousseau  et  le  rousseauisme"  (Paris,  1904), 
a  posthumous  work  edited  byPaul  Nourrisson. 

Tii^DKNAT,  Une  Carriire  Uniteraitaire,  Jean-Felix  Nourrisson 
(Paris,  19U1). 

C.    A.    DUBRAY. 

Nourry,  Le.    See  Le  Nottrry,  Denis-Nicolas. 

Novara,  Diocese  of  (Xovariensis),  the  capital  of 
the  province  of  Xovara,  Piedmont,  Italy,  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  wool,  cotton,  and  silk  textiles,  and 
machinery.  The  cathedral  originally  Romanesque 
has  been  modified.  The  high  altar  is  the  work  of 
Thorwaldsen,  Marchesi,  and  Finelli;  the  baldachin  is 
by  Tenarini,  and  there  are  paintings  by  Bordine, 
Crespi,  and  other  artists,  besides  some  ancient  mo- 
saics; the  baptistery  dates  from  the  fifth  century. 
The  cathedral  archives  contain  codices  and  other 
documents  from  the  eighth  century.    The   church 


of  St.  Gaudentius,  a  work  of  Pellegrino  Pellegrini, 
was  begun  in  1553  to  replace  the;  ancient  basilica 
built  by  St.  fiaudentius  and  torn  down  to  make 
room  for  the  fortifications;  Renaissance  in  style, 
although  the  cupola  does  not  harmonize,  it  con- 
tains valuable  paintings  and  frescoes  by  Lombard, 
Caccia,  Procaccini,  Crespi,  Gilardini,  Sogni,  Saletta, 
and  Fiamminghino.  The  city  has  an  institute  of  arts 
and  trades,  a  museum  of  antiquities,  and  several  pri- 
vate galleries,  among  them  the  Leonardi.  Novara 
was  the  birthplace  of  the  ancient  jurist,  C.  Albucius 
Silo,  Peter  Lombard,  the  philologist  Cattaneo,  the 
painter  Caccia,  and  the  Jesuit  Tornielli.  Novara,  for- 
merly Novaria,  was  inhabited  by  Ligurians  and  Sa- 
lassians.  Under  the  Carolingians,  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
count,  but  the  power  of  the  counts  passed  gradually  to 
the  bishops,  confirmed  by  Otho  I  (969),  in  the  person 
of  Bishop  Aupaldus.  From  the  time  of  Henry  III, 
Novara  was  a  commune,  governed  by  two  consuls  and 
by  a  consul,  called  Maggiorc.  P>equently  at  war  with 
Vercelli  and  Milan,  it  joined  Frederick  Barbarossa 


The  Cathedra 


against  the  latter  city,  but  in  1168  was  compelled  to 
join  the  Lombard  League.  After  the  peace  of  Con- 
stance it  contended  with  the  Counts  of  Bi&ndrate, 
Vercelli,  and  its  own  bishops,  unwilling  to  be  deprived 
of  their  sovereign  rights  in  which  they  had  been  again 
confirmed  by  Frederick  Barbarossa.  LIpon  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  bishop  in  1210,  Innocent  III  threatened 
to  suppress  the  diocese.  Later,  when  iMaitin  dclla 
Torre  became  lord  of  Milan,  Novara  gave  its  allegiance 
tohim,thentothe  Visconti.from  which  time  it  formed 
part  of  the  Duchy  of  Milan,  with  rare  intervals;  in 
1.536-38  it  belonged  to  Monferrato,  1556-1602  to 
the  Farnese  of  Parma,  1734  to  the  Savoy.  Because 
of  its  position,  Novara  has  been  the  scene  of  im- 
portant battles:  in  April,  1500,  Louis  the  Moor,  Duke 
of  Milan,  intended  to  besiege  here  Trivulzi,  appointed 
governor  by  the  King  of  France,  but  abandoned  by  his 
Swiss  troops,  he  was  taken  prisoner.  On  6  June,  1513, 
the  Swiss  in  the  pay  of  the  King  of  Spain,  drove  out 
the  French;  on  10  April,  1812,  the  troops  that  had  re- 
belled against  King  Charles  Felix  were  dispersed  there ; 
on  23  March,  1849,  Radetzky  inflicted  upon  the  Pied- 
montese  a  defeat  that  compelled  King  Charles  Albert 
to  abdicate. 

In  the  fourth  century,  Novara  was  in  the  Diocese  of 
Vercelli;  its  first  bishop,  St.  Gaudentius,  was  conse- 
crated by  St.  Simplicianus,  Bishop  of  Milan  (397-400) . 
St.  Lawrence  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  Faith 
into  Novara.  St.  Julius  and  St.  Julian  assisted 
Gaudentius  in  the  conversion  of  the  diocese.  The 
list  of  bishops  has  been  preserved  on  two  ivory 
diptychs,  one  in  the  cathedral  dates  from  1168;  the 
other  in  the  church  of  St.  Gaudentius  from  1343. 
Among  the  bishops  were  St.  Agabius  (417);  St.  Victor 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


135 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


(489);  St.  Honoratus  (c.  500);  St.  Leo  (c.  700),  biog- 
rapher of  St.  Gaudentius;  Adalgisus  (c.  840),  called 
Gemma  Sacerdotum;  Albertus,  killed  by  the  Counts  of 
Biandrate  in  1081;  Litifredus  (1122)  and  Papiniano 
della  Rovere  (1296);  Guglielmo  Amidano  (1343),  a 
learned  theologian  and  former  general  of  the  Augus- 
tinians;  Pietro  Filargo  (1388),  later  the  Antipope 
Alexander  V;  Bartolomco  Visconti  (1429),  deposed  by 
Eugene  IV,  who  suspected  him  of  treachery,  but  fi- 
nally reinstated;  Cardinal  Gian  Angelo  Arcimboldi 
(1525) ;  Gian  Antonio  Serbelloni  (1560),  founder  of  the 
seminary;  Francisco  Rossi  (1579),  founder  of  a  second 
seminary;  Carlo  Bescap6  (1593),  a  Barnabite  histo- 
rian of  the  diocese;  Benedetto  Odescalchi  (1650),  later 
Innocent  XI.  Suffragan  of  Vercelli,  it  has  372  par- 
ishes; 408,000  inhabitants;  11  religious  houses  of  men 
and  14  of  women;  2  schools  for  boys,  and  6  for  girls; 
and  3  Catholic  weekly  publications. 

Savio,  Gli  anlichi  vescovi  d' Italia,  I,  Piemonte;  Cappelletti, 
Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  XIV:  MORBIO,  Storia  di  Novara  (Milan,  1833). 

U.  Benigni. 

Nova  Scotia. — I.  Geography. — Nova  Scotia  is  one 
of  the  maritime  provinces  of  Canada.  It  forms  part  of 
what  was  formerly  Acadie  or  Acadia  and  now  consists 
of  what  is  known  as  the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  proper 
and  the  1  sland  of  Cape  Breton .  The  island  is  separated 
from  the  mainland  by  the  Gut  or  Strait  of  Canso,  an 
important  international  waterway  connecting  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  with  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  This 
strait  is  about  fifteen  miles  long  and  varies  in  width  from 
half  a  mile  to  two  miles.  Sable  Island,  a  dangerous 
sand  ridge,  on  which  in  1518  a  Frenchman,  named  de 
Lery,  made  a  fruitless  attempt  to  form  a  settlement, 
was  before  the  confederation  of  the  provinces  a  part  of 
the  Pro\-ince  of  Nova  Scotia,  but  by  the  Union  Act 
(British  North  America  Act  of  1867)  this  island 
came  under  the  exclusive  legislative  authority  of  the 
Dominion  Parliament.  It  is  about  twenty-five  miles 
long  and  of  varying  width.  In  some  places  it  is  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  wide.  From  the  numerous  ship- 
wrecks that  have  occurred  there.  Sable  Island  has  be- 
come known  as  "the  graveyard  of  the  Atlantic". 

The  Province  of  Nova  Scotia  lies  between  43°  25' 
and  47°  north  latitude,  and  59°  40'  and  66°  35'  west 
longitude.  On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  Chignecto  Bay,  New  Brunswick,  Northum- 
berland Straits,  and  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  and 
on  all  other  sides  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  penin- 
sula is  connected  with  the  Province  of  New  Brunswick 
by  the  Isthmus  of  Chignecto  which  is  about  twelve 
and  a  half  miles  wide.  The  total  area  of  Nova  Scotia 
is  estimated  at  about  21,428  square  miles.  The  sur- 
face is  undulating.  There  are  three  mountain  ranges, 
namely:  the  Cobequid  Mountains,  commencing  at 
Cape  Chignecto  in  Cumberland  and  running  about 
one  hundred  miles  through  the  Counties  of  Colches- 
ter, Pictou  and  Antigonish ;  the  North  Mountains  ex- 
tending from  Cape  Blomidon  to  Digby  Neck,  about 
one  hundred  and  ten  miles;  and  the  South  Mountains, 
a  low  range  parallel  with  the  North  Mountains  and 
with  some  interruptions  running  through  the  middle 
of  the  peninsula  and  through  the  Island  of  Cape 
Breton,  the  range  being  about  three  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  long.  The  greatest  height  of  these  moun- 
tains is  1700  feet  above  sea-level.  The  rivers  are 
small,  and  no  part  of  the  country  is  far  from  the  sea. 
The  lakes  are  numerous  but  not  large.  The  Bras  d'Or 
Lakes  in  Cape  Breton  divide  the  island  into  two  parts 
and  cover  about  500  square  miles.  The  coastline  of 
Nova  Scotia  is  about  1500  miles  and  there  are  numer- 
ous ports  of  refuge.  The  harbours  of  Halifax,  Louis- 
burg,  and  Sydney  are  among  the  best  in  North 
America.  The  average  temperature  ranges  from  65° 
F.  in  summer  to  2.5°  F.  in  winter.  The  high  tides  on 
the  Bay  of  Fumly  constitute  an  unusual  physical  fea- 
ture of  the  counties  lying  along  the  bay. 


The  resources  of  Nova  Scotia  are  diversified.  Farm- 
ing, mining,  fishing,  lumbering,  and  manufacturing 
yield  an  ample  return  to  the  industry  of  the  inhabit- 
ants. In  the  counties  lying  along  the  Bay  of  Fundy 
and  penetrated  by  the  inlets  are  valuable  dike-lands 
begun  by  the  early  French  settlers,  and  continued 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Acadians  by  the  colonists 
frorn  New  England,  who  in  1760  and  1761  took  pos- 
session of  the  lands  of  the  ex-pelled  Acadians.  The 
agricultural  products  of  the  country  are  hay,  wheat, 
oats,  barley,  potatoes,  and  turnips,  all  of  which  obtain 
a  local  market.  In  the  Annapolis  Valley  about  750,- 
000  barrels  of  apples  are  annually  produced  and 
shipped  to  the  English  markets.  There  are  large  coal 
measures  in  the  Counties  of  Cumberland,  Pictou,  In- 
verness, and  Cape  Breton.  The  coal  is  bituminous, 
and  supplies  the  local  demand  and  a  large  portion  of 
the  markets  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  Iron,  copper, 
and  gypsum  are  also  mined.  The  coast  fisheries  are 
looked  upon  as  very  valuable.  They  consist  of  sal- 
mon, cod,  shad,  halibut,  mackerel,  herring,  shellfish, 
and  are  exported  to  American  and  European  markets. 
The  forests  produce  maple,  birch,  hemlock,  spruce, 
pine,  and  beech.  The  manufacturing  interests  are  also 
extensive,  the  larger  plants  being  the  iron  and  steel 
works  at  Sydney  and  Sydney  Mines. 

II.  Ethnography. — When  the  European  colonists 
first  came  to  Nova  Scotia  they  found  the  country  in- 
habited by  a  tribe  of  Indians  known  as  the  Micmacs. 
These  savages  were  converted  to  Christianity  by  the 
early  French  missionaries.  Their  descendants,  num- 
bering 1542  at  the  time  of  the  last  official  census 
(1901),  belong  to  the  Catholic  Church.  They  live 
principally  on  reservations  set  aside  for  them  by  the 
Government.  The  duty  of  caring  for  the  Indians  has 
been  assigned  by  the  British  North  American  Act  to  the 
Parliament  of  Canada.  The  descendants  of  the  French 
settlers  form  an  important  body.  They  numbered  at 
the  time  of  the  last  census  45, 161.  They  also  are  Catho- 
lics and  are  noted  for  their  industry  and  frugality. 
The  Germans  form  another  important  element.  They 
are  descended  from  the  body  of  German  settlers  who 
arrived  in  Nova  Scotia  shortly  after  the  founding  of 
Halifax,  and  in  1753  removed  to  the  County  of  Lunen- 
burg. Principally  Lutherans  and  Anglicans,  they  are 
thrifty  and  industrious.  The  English  settlers  came  in 
after  the  defeat  of  the  French,  and  after  the  Revolu- 
tionary War  from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand  loyalists 
left  the  United  States  and  settled  in  Nova  Scotia. 
Later  on  came  accessions  from  Ireland  and  Scotland. 
At  the  last  census  these  last-mentioned  races  were  esti- 
mated as  follows:  English,  159,753;  Scottish,  143,382; 
liish,  54,710.  There  were  also  5984  negroes  in  the 
pro\'ince.  They  are  descended  from  slaves  who  were 
i)r(night  to  Nova  Scotia  before  the  abolition  of  slavery 
in  British  dominions.  The  total  population  of  the 
Province  of  Nova  Scotia  in  1901  was  459,572,  of  whom 
129,578  were  returned  as  Catholics. 

III.  History. — John  Cabot  made  his  first  voyage 
from  Bristol  in  search  of  a  westerly  route  to  India  in 
1497.  He  made  a  landfall  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
North  America,  but  whether  on  Labrador,  Newfound- 
land, or  Nova  Scotia  is  uncertain.  No  actual  set- 
tlement immediately  followed  the  voyages  of  the 
Cabots.  In  1604  King  Henry  IV  of  France  gave  a 
commission  to  de  Monts  appointing  him  viceroy  of  the 
territory  lying  between  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River.  De  Monts  arrived  at 
the  mouth  of  the  La  Have  River  on  the  coast  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  he  then  sailed  up  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and 
into  the  sheet  of  water  which  is  now  known  as  the  An- 
napolis Basin.  Here,  near  what  is  now  the  town  of  An- 
napoHs,  a  site  was  chosen  for  a  settlement  and  to  the 
place  de  Monts  gave  the  name  of  Port-Royal.  Leav- 
ing some  of  his  companions  there  he  sailed  along  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  entered  the  St. 
John  River  and  later  made  his  winter  quarters  at  the 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


136 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


mouth  of  the  St.  Croix  Rivpr.  The  rompanions  whom 
he  left  at  Port-Royal  returned  to  France.  The  follow- 
ing year  de  Monts  and  the  survivors  of  his  party  at 
St.  Croix  returned  to  Port-Royal.  Tlii.s  was  the  be- 
ginning of  European  settlement  in  Canada,  and  the 
eolony  thus  <'stal>li.-iluMl  i^  tlic  oldest  lOuropean  .settle- 
ment in  North  .\iiierica  with  (he  exception  of  St.  Au- 
gustine in  Florida.  The  colony  was  temporarily  aban- 
doned in  lt)07,  but  in  UiU)  the  French  returned  and 
remained  in  undisturbed  po.sscssion  until  1613,  when  a 
freebooter  from  X'irginia  named  .Vrftall  made  a  descent 
upon  the  colony  and  totally  ilestroyed  it. 

In  1()21  King  James  1  gave  a  grant  of  Acadia  to  Sir 
William  Alexander  and  changed  the  name  to  Nova 
Scotia;  but  the  efforts  of  Sir  William  Alexander  to 
build  up  an  English  settlement  were  of  little  avail. 
After  the  cajjture  of  Quebec  by  David  Kirke,  peace 
was  maile  between  France  and  Great  Britain  by  the 
Treaty  of  St-Germain-en-Laye  (16.32),  and  Quebec  and 
Nova  Scotia  were  given  back  to  France.  But  in  1654 
Cromwell  sent  out  a  fleet  to  capture  the  Dutch  eolony 
at  Manhattan,  and  a  portion  of  his  fleet  sailed  into 
Annapolis  Basin,  and  Port-Royal  surrendered  to  them. 
After  the  accession  of  Charles  II,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Breda,  Nova  Scotia  was  again  restored  to  France.  In 
1690  Sir  William  Phips  took  command  of  a  naval 
force  from  Massachusetts,  and  he  easily  took  Port- 
Royal,  but  he  left  no  garrison  there  and  the  French 
soon  reoccupied  it.  After  several  years  of  war  terms 
of  peace  were  again  arranged  between  Great  Britain 
and  France  by  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick  (1679)  and 
Nova  Scotia  was  once  again  placed  under  the  rule  of 
France.  The  final  capture  of  Port-Royal  took  place  in 
1710  when  the  French  surrendered  to  Colonel  Nichol- 
son, who  named  the  settlement  Annapolis  in  honour  of 
Queen  Anne.  The  long  warfare  between  the  two  coun- 
tries for  the  possession  of  Nova  Scotia  proper  was 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713), 
which  provided  that  the  peninsula  should  belong  to 
England  and  the  Island  of  Cape  Breton  to  France. 
Annapolis  became  the  capital  of  the  colony  and  the 
only  other  English  settlement  was  at  Canso.  Very 
few  settlers  arrived  in  the  country  for  nearly  forty 
years.  The  French  to  regain  their  position  strongly 
fortified  Louisbiirg  on  the  south-east  coast  of  Cape 
Breton.  War  again  broke  out  and  in  174.5  a  force  was 
sent  from  Massachusetts  under  Colonel  William  Pep- 
perell.  After  a  siege  of  seven  weeks  the  Governor  of 
Louisburg  was  obliged  to  surrender.  To  recapture 
Louisburg  the  French  in  the  year  following  sent  out  a 
powerful  fleet  under  d'Anville.  This  expedition  was 
unfortunate.  The  fleet  encountered  bad  weather  and 
after  the  remnants  of  it  arrived  at  Chebucto  (Halifax) 
Harbour,  the  commander  and  many  of  the  men  died; 
those  who  sun'ivtd  returned  to  France.  Great  Bri- 
tain held  Louisburg  for  three  years  after  the  first  cap- 
ture; and  then  terras  of  peace  were  arranged  by  the 
Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748)  and  Louisburg  was 
given  to  France.  To  strengthen  the  position  of  the 
EngUsh  in  Nova  Scotia  it  was  determined  to  establish 
a  permanent  settlement  on  the  shores  of  Chebucto 
Harbour.  Accordingly  in  June,  1749,  Colonel  Corn- 
wallis  arrived  with  a  number  of  settlers  and  founded 
the  town  of  Halifax.  The  seat  of  government  was 
tran.sfcrrcd  from  Annapolis  to  the  newtown,  andCom- 
wallis  selected  a  council  to  assist  him  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  colony.  Six  years  later  occurred  the 
cruel  expulsion  of  the  Acadians  from  their  fertile  lands 
along  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  Several  thousands  of  these 
people  were  banished  from  Nova  Scotia  and  scattered 
in  the  English  colonies  from  Massachusetts  to  Louis- 
iana. In  many  cases  families  were  separated  and  the 
event  remains  a  dark  blot  on  the  reputation  of  the 
English  governor  of  that  day. 

From  1749  to  17.58  the  governor  of  the  colony  ad- 
ministered its  affairs  with  the  assistance  of  a  council, 
but  there  were  no  representatives  directly  chosen  by 


the  people.  In  the  latter  year  the  lirst  representative 
Assembly  was  convened  in  Halifax.  By  the  laws  of 
that  time  Roman  Catholics  were  disqualified  from 
holding  seats  in  the  legislature. 

In  1756  began  the  famous  Seven  Years'  War;  two 
years  later  the  final  capture  of  Louisburg,  under  Gen- 
eral Amherst,  took  place.  The  siege  lasted  for  seven 
weeks  and  at  hust  the  l''rencli  governor  was  obliged  to 
surrender  unconililionally.  By  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
(1763)  France  ceded  Cape  Breton,  Prince  Edward 
Island,  and  Canada  to  Great  Britain,  and  the  long 
duel  in  North  America  between  the  two  great  Euro- 
pean powers  came  at  last  to  an  end.  Cape  lireton  and 
Prince  Edward  Island  became  a  part  of  Nova  Scotia; 
but  in  1770  Prince  Edward  Island  severed  its  poHtical 
connexion,  as  in  1784  did  Cape  Breton  and  New 
Brunswick.  Cape  Breton  was  reannexed  to  Nova 
Scotia  in  1819.  During  the  Revolutionary  War  Nova 
Scotia  remained  loyal  to  Britain.  Many  people  in  the 
United  States  who  did  not  approve  of  the  war  migrated 
to  the  British  provinces.  These  were  known  as 
Linited  Empire  Loyalists.  In  the  province  to  which 
they  removed  they  received  free  grants  of  land  and 
they  formed  a  valuable  accession  to  the  scant  popula- 
tion. 

At  the  first  session  of  the  Legislature  of  Nova  Scotia 
a  law  was  passed  requiring  all  Catholic  priests  to 
leave  the  country;  and  any  person  who  harboured  a 
priest  was  liable  to  payment  of  a  large  fine.  These 
laws  were  subsequently  repealed.  In  1827  a  Catholic 
was  permitted,  for  the  first  time,  to  take  his  seat  as  a 
member  of  the  Assembly.  While  Nova  Scotia  had 
representative  government  as  early  as  1758,  the  exec- 
utive was  not  in  any  way  responsible  to  the  people; 
affairs  were  so  administered  for  about  seventy  years. 
Then  arose  a  strong  agitation  under  the  brilliant 
leadership  of  Joseph  Howe.  After  several  years  of  dis- 
cussion and  negotiation,  in  1848,  responsible  govern- 
ment was  secured  and  thereafter  the  tenure  of  office  of 
the  government  was  made  to  depend  upon  the  support 
of  the  representatives  of  the  people  in  the  Assembly. 
The  next  twenty  years  were  years  of  continued  prog- 
ress. Steam  communication  was  established  with 
England;  railways  were  built;  and  a  revival  of  trade 
took  place.  In  1867  the  Provinces  of  Nova  Scotia, 
New  Brunswick,  Quebec,  and  Ontario  were  confeder- 
ated as  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  under  the  provision 
of  the  British  North  America  Act.  The  legislative 
functions  of  the  Dominion  and  of  the  provinces  were 
separated, and  subjects  of  local  cc  mcern  were  assigned  to 
the  several  provinces.  Among  the  latter  may  be  men- 
tioned education  and  municiiial  institutions,  solemni- 
zation of  marriage,  and  property  ami  civil  rights. 
Among  the  powers  assignetl  to  the  Dominion  are  the 
postal  service,  census  and  statistics,  military  and 
naval  service  and  defence,  navigation,  banking,  copy- 
rights, marriage  and  divorce,  and  the  regulations  in 
regard  to  the  Indians. 

IV.  Church  and  State. — The  relations  between 
Church  and  State  do  not  give  rise  to  nmch  complaint. 
There  is  no  state  religion,  and  all  religious  denomina- 
tions are  placed  on  an  equality  by  the  law.  The  school 
system  is  undenominational.  The  Catholics  have  no 
separate  schools,  but  in  centres  of  population  where 
they  are  numerous  and  in  country  districts  where  they 
predominate,  they  are  permitted  by  usage  to  have 
teachers  of  their  own  belief.  There  is  perfect  freedom 
of  worship  in  every  respect. 

V.  Division  into  Dioceses,  Population,  etc. — 
The  Province  of  Nova  Scotia  is  divided  into  two  dio- 
ceses: the  Archdiocese  of  Halifax,  which  embraces  the 
eleven  westernmost  counties  of  the  province;  and  the 
Diocese  of  Antigonish,  which  embraces  the  four  coun- 
ties on  Cape  Breton  Island,  and  the  Counties  of  Guys- 
borough,  Pictou,  and  Antigonish  on  the  peninsula. 
According  to  the  last  official  census  there  were  54,301 
Catholics  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Halifax,  and  75,277  in 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


137 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


the  Diocese  of  Antigonish.  By  chapter  31  of  the  Acts 
of  the  Legislature  of  Nova  Scotia  for  the  year  1849, 
the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Halifax  and  his  succes- 
sors were  incorporated  under  the  name  of  "the  Roman 
Catholic  Episcopal  Corporation  of  the  City  and 
County  of  Halifax"  with  perpetual  succession,  and 
power  to  hold,  receive  and  enjoy  real  and  personal 
estate.  In  1SS8,  by  chapter  102  of  the  Acts  of  that 
year,  s.  4,  it  was  provided  as  follows: — "The  Corpora- 
tion may  acquire  by  deed  of  conveyance  or  by  devise 
or  in  any  other  manner  for  the  time  being  recognized 
by  law  lands  within  Nova  Scotia  and  may  have,  hold, 
possess  and  enjoy  the  same  for  the  general  uses  and 
purposes  eleemosynary,  ecclesiastical  or  educational  of 
the  Archdiocese  or  of  any  portion  thereof  or  for  any 
such  uses  or  purposes  and  may  sell,  alien,  exchange, 
assign,  release  mortgage,  lease,  convey  or  otherwise 
dispose  of  such  lands  or  any  part  thereof  for  such  uses 
and  purposes  or  any  of  them  in  the  manner  herein- 
after provided".  This  statute  also  provides  that  all 
Church  property,  real  and  personal,  shall  be  vested  in 
the  corporation  and  used  as  the  property  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  within  the  archdiocese  for 
eleemosynary,  ecclesiastical,  and  educational  purposes. 
The  corporation  executes  a  deed  by  its  corporate  seal 
and  the  signature  of  the  archbishop,  his  coadjutor  or 
vicar-general,  and  one  other  Roman  Catholic  clergy- 
man of  the  archdiocese.  The  Diocese  of  Antigonish 
was  formerly  known  as  the  Diocese  of  Arichat;  by 
chapter  86  of  the  Acts  of  the  Legislature  of  Nova 
Scotia  for  1887  the  name  was  changed  from  Arichat  to 
Antigonish.  The  Roman  Catholic  Episcopal  Corpora- 
tion of  Antigonish  was  created  by  Chapter  74  of  the 
.\cts  of  the  Legislature  of  Nova  Scotia  (1854),  and  the 
legislative  provisions  with  respect  to  this  corporation 
are  substantially  the  same  as  those  relating  to  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Episcopal  Corporation  of  Halifax. 

VL  Tax.\tion  and  Exemption  of  Churches, 
ETC. — The  Assessment  Act  [R.S.N.S..  1900,  c.  73,  sec. 
4,  SS.  (b)]  exempts  from  taxation  every  church  and 
place  of  worship  and  the  land  used  in  connexion 
therewith,  and  every  church  and  burial  ground.  The 
same  statute  also  exempts  the  real  estate  of  every 
college,  academy,  or  institution  of  learning  and  every 
schoolhouse.  The  statute  mentioned  applies  to  all 
property  in  Nova  Scotia  outside  of  the  city  of  Halifax. 
Property  within  the  city  of  Halifax  is  dealt  with  by 
the  Halifax  City  Charter,  S.  33.5,  which  exempts  every 
building  used  as  a  college,  incorporated  academy, 
schoolhouse,  or  other  seminary  of  learning,  and  every 
building  u.sed  for  public  worship  and  the  site,  appur- 
tenances and  furniture  of  each.  This  charter  also 
exempts  every  poorhouse,  almshouse,  orphans'  home, 
house  of  industry,  house  of  refuge,  and  infants'  home, 
while  used  forthe  purposes  indicated  by  their  respective 
designations,  and  all  their  real  and  personal  property. 

VII.  Exemption  of  the  Clergy  from  Public 
Services. — There  are  no  obnoxious  pubHc  duties  re- 
quired to  be  performed  by  clergymen.  The  Juries' 
Act  (R.  S.  N.  S.,  1900,  c.  162,  s.  5)  exempts  from  serv- 
ing on  juries  "clergymen  and  ministers  of  the  Gospel". 
The  Mihtia  Act  (R.  S.,  c.  41,  s.  11)  provides  that  the 
clergy  and  ministens  of  all  religious  denominations, 
professors  in  colleges  and  universities,  and  teachers  in 
religious  orders  shall  be  exempt  from  liability  to  serve 
in  the  militia. 

VHL  Prisons  and  Reformatories. — These  are 
maintained  by  the  State  and  are  non-denominational. 
The  clergy  are  permitted  to  minister  to  the  spiritual 
wants  of  the  people  of  their  own  faith.  At  Halifax 
there  are  two  reformatories  conducted  under  Catholic 
auspices,  namely,  St.  P.atrick's  Home  for  Boys,  and  the 
Gofid  Shepherd  Reformatory  for  women.  Under  the 
pro\isions  of  the  Act  relating  to  prisons  and  reforma- 
tories (R.  S.  C,  c.  148),  whenever  a  boy,  who  is  a 
Catholic  and  under  eighteen  years,  is  convicted  in 
Nova  Scotia  for  an  offence  for  which  he  is  liable  to 


imprisonment,  the  presiding  justice  may  sentence  such 
boy  to  be  detained  in  St.  Patrick's  Home  for  a  term 
not  exceeding  five  years  and  not  less  than  one  year. 
The  statute  provides  also  that  boys  so  detained  shall 
be  educated  and  taught  a  trade.  This  home  is  as- 
sisted from  the  public  funds  and  is  open  at  all  time 
to  public  inspection.  It  is  under  the  direction  of  the 
Christian  Brothers.  The  statute  provides  also  that 
juvenile  offenders  and  vagrants  may  be  sent  to  this 
reformatory.  Similar  provision  is  made  in  the  case  of 
a  girl,  being  a  Catholic  and  above  the  age  of  six- 
teen years,  convicted  of  an  offence  punishable  by  im- 
prisonment in  the  city  prison  or  common  jail  for  a 
term  of  two  months  or  longer.  She  may  be  sentenced 
to  the  Good  Shepherd  Reformatory  at  Halifax,  for  an 
extended  or  substituted  imprisonment  subject  to  con- 
ditions :  (a)  if  she  is  under  the  age  of  twenty-one,  such 
extended  imprisonment  may  be  until  she  attains  the 
age  of  twenty-one,  or  for  any  shorter  or  longer  term 
not  less  than  two  and  not  more  than  four  years;  (b)  if 
she  is  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  or  upwards,  such  ex- 
tended imprisonment  may  be  for  any  term  not  less 
than  one  year  and  not  more  than  two  years.  Catholic 
girls  under  the  age  of  sixteen  may  be  sentenced  in  the 
same  way  to  the  Good  Shepherd  Industrial  Refuge 
at  Halifax,  where  the  sisters  are  in  charge  and  are 
obliged  to  instruct  them  in  reading  and  writing  and  in 
arithmetic  to  the  end  of  simple  proportion,  and  also 
to  teach  them  a  trade  or  occupation  suitable  to  their 
capabilities.  The  Good  Shepherd  Reformatory  re- 
ceives assistance  from  the  public  funds  and  is  subject 
to  inspection  by  a  government  official. 

IX.  Wills  and  Charitable  Bequests. — Every 
person  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  and  upwards 
may  dispose  of  his  property  by  will.  Such  will  must 
be  signed  by  the  testator  in  the  presence  of  two  wit- 
nesses who  shall  subscribe  thereto  as  witnesses  in  his 
presence  and  in  the  presence  of  each  other.  By  stat- 
ute (R.  S.  N.  S.,  1900,  c.  135)  a  devise  or  bequest  of 
real  or  personal  property  to  any  religious  or  charitable 
corporation  or  any  incorporated  institution  of  learning 
is  valid  and  effectual  for  the  purpose  of  vesting  the 
property  in  such  body,  notwithstanding  that  it  was 
not  by  its  act  of  incorporation  empowered  to  take 
or  hold  real  or  personal  property  or  notwithstanding 
any  limit  in  such  act  as  to  the  amount  of  real  or  per- 
sonal property  the  incorporated  body  was  empowered 
to  take  or  hold — provided  the  statute  shall  not  extend 
to  render  valid  or  effectual  any  devise  or  bequest  that 
is  to  be  void  for  another  reason. 

X.  Cemeteries.— By  statute  (R.  S.  N.  S.,  1900, 
c.  132)  it  is  provided  that  any  number  of  persons,  not 
less  than  ten,  may  form  themselves  into  a  company 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  public  cemetery. 
Catholic  cemeteries,  however,  are  owned  by  the 
Episcopal  Corporation  of  the  diocese.  Cemeteries 
are  exempt  from  taxation  and  the  lots  or  plots  owned 
by  individual  proprietors  cannot  be  seized  or  taken  on 
execution. 

XI.  Marriage  Laws. — By  the  provisions  of  the 
British  North  America  Act,  the  subject  of  marriage 
and  divorce  is  assigned  to  the  Dominion  ParHament, 
and  that  of  the  solemnization  of  marriage  to  the  legis- 
lature of  the  province.  The  former  body,  under  this 
distribution,  deals  with  the  capacity  to  contract  mar- 
riage, and  in  pursuance  of  such  power  it  has  enacted 
(R.  S.  C.,c.  105)  that  "a marriage  is  not  invalid  merely 
because  the  woniaii  is  a  sister  of  a  deceased  wife  of  the 
man,  or  a  daughfi-r  of  a  sister  of  a  di'ceased  wife  of 
the  man".  Tlii'  provincial  sliilulr  (H.S.N.S.,  1900, 
c.  Ill)  ficals  with  the  mode  of  Milciriiiizing  a  mar- 
riage williiii  Ihc  prnviiice.  It  prci\i(lcs  that  every 
marriage  shall  he  siilcinni/.cd  liy  a  riiiriisler  of  a  church 
or  religious  denomination,  l)eiiig  a  man  and  resident  in 
Canada,  who  is  recognized  as  duly  ordained  according 
to  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  church  or  denomina- 
tion to  which  he  belongs.     Persons  belonging  to  the 


NOVATIAN 


138 


NOVATIAN 


society  known  :is  tho  Salvulion  Army  may  he  marrif-d 
by  any  duly  appointed  male  commissioner  or  staff 
officer  of  the  society.  No  person  shall  otiiciate  at  the 
solemnization  of  any  marriage  unless  publication  has 
been  made  of  the  banns  of  the  marriage  or  a  licence  has 
been  obtained  for  the  solemnization  of  the  marriage. 
The  banns  shall  be  published  in  any  church  at  the  place 
in  which  one  of  the  parties  resides  by  the  officiating 
clergyman  in  an  audible  voice  during  the  time  of 
Divine  service,  and  if  there  is  more  than  one  public 
service  in  the  church  on  cm  h  SuikImv,  .such  i)ublication 
shall  be  made  at  three  >rM  r:il  -.  r\  iics  held  on  two  or 
more  Sundays;  otherwise  the  pubUL-aliou  may  be  at 
two  several  services  on  two  Sundays.  Every  marriage 
shall  be  solenmized  in  the  presence  of  at  least  two 
witnesses.  After  the  solemnization  of  the  marriage 
the  clergyman  solemnizing  the  same  shall  make  out  a 
certificate  containing  the  date  of  the  marriage,  the 
place  thereof,  the  date  of  the  publication  of  the  banns, 
the  clmrch  in  which  and  the  clergyman  by  whom  the 
banns  were  published,  the  names  of  the  witnesses  and 
his  own  name,  and  the  religious  denomination  to 
which  he  belongs.  The  marriage  register  giving  the 
above  particulars,  and  also  the  names,  ages,  residences, 
etc.,  of  the  parties  and  their  parents  shall  also  be  filled 
up.  Returns  in  the  prescribed  form  shall  be  made  by 
the  clergyman  to  the  nearest  issuer  of  marriage  licences 
within  ten  days  after  the  solemnization.  Forms  for 
that  purpose  are  furnished  by  the  issuer  of  marriage 
licences.  Large  penalties  are  provided  for  solemnizing 
marriage  without  banns  of  marriage  or  licence,  for 
refusing  to  publish  the  banns,  for  solemnizing  under  an 
illegal  licence,  and  for  failing  to  return  the  marriage 
register. 

XII.  Divorce. — In  Xova  Scotia  there  is  a  court 
for  divorce  and  matriinnnial  causes,  and  it  has  juris- 
diction over  all  matters  relating  to  prohibited  mar- 
riages and  divorce,  and  may  declare  any  marriage 
null  and  void  for  impotence,  adultery,  cnielty,  or 
kindred  within  the  degrees  prohibited  in  an  Act  made 
in  the  thirty-second  year  of  King  Henry  the  Eiglith, 
entitled  "An  Act  concerning  pre-contracts,  and 
touching  degrees  of  Consanguinity";  and  whenever 
a  sentence  of  divorce  shall  be  given,  the  court  may 
pronounce  such  determination  as  it  shall  think  fit  on 
the  rights  of  the  parties  or  either  of  them  to  courtesy 
or  dower.  In  the  provinces  of  the  dominion  in  which 
no  divorce  courts  exist,  applications  for  divorce  are 
made  to  Parliament  and  the  evidence  is  taken  and 
considered  by  the  members  of  the  Senate  of  Canada. 
In  Nova  Scotia  there  is  an  appeal  from  the  decision 
of  the  judge  of  the  Divorce  Court  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Nova  Scotia  sitting  in  banco.  When  the 
final  decree  is  for  the  dissolution  of  the  marriage,  the 
statute  enables  either  of  the  parties  to  marry  again 
as  if  the  prior  marriage  had  been  dissolved  by  death; 
but  no  clergyman  shall  be  liable  to  any  penalty  for 
refusing  to  solemnize  the  marriage  of  either  of  the 
parties  who  have  been  divorced.  In  cases  of  divorce 
the  wife  and  husband  are  not  competent  to  testify, 
but  in  proceedings  by  the  wife,  on  account  of  adultery 
coupled  with  cruelty,  the  husband  and  wife  are  com- 
petent and  compellable  to  give  evidence  of  or  relating 
to  such  cruelty. 

XIII.  RELir.iors  Orders,  Schools,  etc. — Sev- 
eral of  the  public  schools  of  the  province  are  taught  by 
members  of  the  religious  orders.  In  such  cases  the 
teai'hers  must  be  licen.sefl  in  the  same  way  as  other 
public  teachers,  and  thev  are  paid  out  of  the  public 
funds.  Besides  the  public  schools  there  are  many  ex- 
cellent private  schools  taught  by  members  of  religious 
orders.  These  do  not  receive  any  assistance  from  the 
public  trea.sury.  The  public  schools  are  maintained 
by  a  grant  from  the  government  and  by  local  taxation 
upon  the  property  holders  of  the  section  or  munici- 
pality. They  are  otherwise  free  and  all  children  of 
Echool  age  are  entitled  to  be  admitted  to  them. 


Brown,  llislnry  of  the  Ishiul  of  Cope  Breton  (London,  1869); 
the  work.s  of  P.^rkman  (Huston.  l.SSL'-l):  Cai.kin,  llintory  of 
Canada  (Halifax.  1907):  Roberts.  Ihslory  of  Canada  (Boston, 
1897);  Calkin.  School  Geoi/raphy  of  the  Il'orW  (Halifax,  1878); 
Revised  Statutes  of  Canada  (Ottawa.  190R) ;  Slalutes  of  Nova  Scotia 
(various  dates);  Statutes  of  Canada  (variovis  dates):  Revised  Stat- 
utes of  Nova  Scotia  (Halifax.  1900).  For  further  bibliography 
see  Halifax,  Archdiocese  of. 

Joseph  A.  Chisholm. 

Novatian  and  Novatianism — Novatian  was  a 
schismatic  of  the  third  centurj',  and  founder  of  the 
sect  of  the  Novatians;  he  Wiis  a  Roman  priest,  and 
made  himself  antipope.  His  name  is  given  as  Nova- 
tus  (Nooi^dTos,  Euscbius;  Noi/dTos,  Socrates)  by  Greek 
writers,  and  also  in  the  verses  of  Damasus  and  Pru- 
dentius,  on  account  of  the  metre. 

Biography. — We  know  little  of  his  life.  St.  Cor- 
nelius in  his  letter  to  Fabius  of  Antioch  relates  that 
Novatian  was  possessed  by  Satan  for  a  season,  ap- 
parently while  a  catechumen ;  for  the  exorcists  attended 
him,  and  he  fell  into  a  sickness  from  which  instant  death 
was  expected;  he  was,  therefore,  given  baptism  by  af- 
fusion as  he  lay  on  his  bed.  The  rest  of  the  rites  were 
not  supplied  on  his  recovery,  nor  was  he  confirmed  by 
the  bishop.  "How  then  can  he  have  received  the 
Holy  Ghost?  "  asks  Cornelius.  Novatian  was  a  man  of 
learning  and  had  been  trained  in  literary  composition. 
Cornelius  speaks  of  him  sarcastically  as  "that  maker 
of  dogmas,  that  champion  of  ecclesiastical  learning". 
His  eloquence  is  mentioned  by  Cyprian  (Ep.  Ix,  .3), 
and  a  pope  (presumably  Fabian)  promoted  him  to  the 
priesthood  in  spite  of  the  protests  (according  to  Cor- 
nelius) of  all  the  clergy  and  many  of  the  laity  that  it 
was  uncanonical  for  one  who  had  received  only  clinical 
baptism  to  be  admitted  among  the  clergy.  The  story 
told  by  Eulogius  of  Alexandria  that  Novatian  was 
Archdeacon  of  Rome,  and  was  made  a  priest  by  the 
pope  in  order  to  prevent  his  succeeding  to  the  papacy, 
contradicts  the  evidence  of  Cornelius  and  supposes  a 
later  state  of  things  when  the  Roman  deacons  were 
statesmen  rather  than  ministers.  The  anonymous 
work  "Ad  Novatianum"  (.\iii)  tells  us  that  Novatian, 
"so  long  as  he  was  in  the  one  house,  that  is  in  Christ's 
Church,  bewailed  the  sins  of  his  neighbours  as  if  they 
were  his  own,  bore  the  burdens  of  the  brethren,  as  the 
Apostle  e.xhorts,  and  strengthened  with  consolation 
the  backsliding  in  heavenly  faith." 

The  Church  had  enjoyed  a  peace  of  thirty-eight 
years  when  Decius  issued  his  edict  of  persecution  early 
in  250.  Pope  St.  Fabian  was  martyred  on  20  Jan., 
and  it  was  impossible  to  elect  a  successor.  Cornelius, 
writing  in  the  following  year,  says  of  Novatian  that, 
through  cowardice  and  love  of  his  life,  he  denied  that 
he  was  a  priest  in  the  time  of  persecution;  for  he  was 
exhorted  by  the  deacons  to  come  out  of  the  cell,  in 
which  he  had  shut  himself  up,  to  assist  the  brethren  as 
a  priest  now  that  they  were  in  danger.  But  he  was 
angry  and  departed,  saying  he  no  longer  wished  to  be 
a  priest,  for  he  was  in  love  with  another  philosophy. 
The  meaning  of  this  story  is  not  clear.  Did  Novatian 
wish  to  eschew  the  active  work  of  the  priesthood  and 
give  himself  to  an  ascetic  life? 

At  all  events,  during  the  persecution  he  certainly 
wrote  letters  in  the  name  of  the  Roman  clergy,  which 
were  sent  by  them  to  St.  Cyprian  (Epp.  xxx  and 
xxxvi).  The  letters  arc  concerned  with  the  question 
of  the  Lapsi  (q.  v.),  and  with  the  exaggerated  claim  of 
the  martyrs  at  Carthage  to  restore  them  all  without 
penance.  The  Roman  clergy  agree  with  Cyprian  that 
the  matter  must  be  settled  with  moderation  by  coun- 
cils to  be  held  when  this  should  be  possible;  the  elec- 
tion of  a  new  bishop  must  be  aw'aitcd;  proper  severity 
of  discipline  must  be  preser\'ed,  such  as  had  always  dis- 
tinguished the  Roman  Church  since  the  days  when  her 
faith  was  praised  by  St.  Paul  (Rom.,  i,  S),  but  cruelty 
to  the  repentant  must  be  avoided.  There  is  evi- 
dently no  idea  in  the  minds  of  the  Roman  priests  that 
restoration  of  the  lapsed  to  communion  is  impossible 


NOVATIAN 


139 


NOVATIAN 


or  improper;  but  there  are  severe  expressions  in  the 
letters.  It  seems  that  Novatian  got  into  some  trouble 
during  the  persecution,  since  Cornehus  says  that  St. 
Moses,  the  martyr  (d.  250),  seeing  the  boldness  of 
Novatian,  separated  him  from  communion,  together 
with  the  five  priests  who  had  been  associated  with 
him. 

At  the  beginning  of  2.51  the  persecution  relaxed,  and 
St.  Cornelius  was  elected  pope  in  March,  "when  the 
chair  of  Fabian,  that  is  the  place  of  Peter,  was  vacant", 
with  the  consent  of  nearly  all  the  clergy,  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  of  the  bishops  present  (Cyprian,  Ep.  Iv,  8-9). 
Some  days  later  Novatian  set  himself  up  as  a  rival 
pope.  Cornelius  tells  us  Novatian  suffered  an  ex- 
traordinary and  sudden  change;  for  he  had  taken  a 
tremendous  oath  that  he  would  never  attempt  to  be- 
come bishop.  But  now  he  sent  two  of  his  party  to 
summon  three  bishops  from  a  distant  corner  of  Italy, 
telling  them  they  must  come  to  Rome  in  haste,  in  or- 
der that  a  division  might  be  healed  by  their  mediation 
and  that  of  other  bishops.  These  simple  men  were 
constrained  to  confer  the  episcopal  order  upon  him  at 
the  tenth  hour  of  the  day.  One  of  these  returned  to 
the  church  bewailing  and  confessing  his  sin,  "and  we 
despatched"  says  Cornelius,  "successors  of  the  other 
two  bishops  to  the  places  whence  they  came,  after  or- 
daining them."  To  ensure  the  loyalty  of  his  support- 
ers Novatian  forced  them,  when  receiving  Holy  Com- 
munion, to  swear  by  the  Blood  and  the  Body  of  Christ 
that  they  would  not  go  over  to  Cornelius. 

Cornelius  and  Novatian  sent  messengers  to  the  dif- 
ferent Churches  to  announce  their  respective  claims. 
From  St.  Cyprian's  correspondence  we  know  of  the 
careful  investigation  made  by  the  Council  of  Carthage, 
with  the  result  that  Cornelius  was  supported  by  the 
whole  African  episcopate.  St.  Dionysius  of  Alexan- 
dria also  took  his  side,  and  these  influential  adhesions 
soon  made  his  position  secure.  But  for  a  time  the 
whole  Church  was  torn  by  the  question  of  the  rival 
popes.  We  have  few  details.  St.  Cyprian  writes 
that  Novatian  "assumed  the  primacy"  (Ep.  Ixix,  8), 
and  sent  out  his  new  apostles  to  many  cities  to  set  new 
foundations  for  his  new  establishment;  and,  though 
there  were  already  in  all  provinces  and  cities  bishops 
of  venerable  age,  of  pure  faith,  of  tried  virtue,  who 
had  been  proscribed  in  the  persecution,  he  dared  to 
create  other  false  bishops  over  their  heads  (Ep.  Iv,  24) 
thus  claiming  the  right  of  substituting  bishops  by  his 
own  authority  as  Cornelius  did  in  the  case  just  men- 
tioned. There  could  be  no  more  startling  proof  of  the 
importance  of  the  Roman  See  than  this  sudden  revela- 
tion of  an  episode  of  the  third  century:  the  whole 
Church  convulsed  by  the  claim  of  an  antipope;  the 
recognized  impossibility  of  a  bishop  being  a  Catholic 
and  legitimate  pastor  if  he  is  on  the  side  of  the  wrong 
pope ;  the  uncontested  claim  of  both  rivals  to  consecrate 
a  new  bishop  in  any  place  (at  all  events,  in  the  West) 
where  the  existing  bishop  resisted  their  authority. 
Later,  in  the  same  way,  in  a  letter  to  Pope  Stephen, 
St.  Cyprian  urges  him  to  appoint  (so  he  seems  to  im- 
ply) a  new  bishop  at  Aries,  where  the  bishop  had 
become  a  Novatianist.  St.  Dionysius  of  Alexandria 
wrote  to  Pope  Stephen  that  all  the  Churches  in  the 
East  and  beyond,  which  had  been  split  in  two,  were 
now  united,  and  that  all  their  prelates  were  now  re- 
joicing exceedingly  in  this  unexpected  peace — in  Anti- 
och,  Ca?sarea  of  Palestine,  Jerusalem,  Tyre,  Laodicea 
of  Syria,  Tarsus  and  all  the  Churches  of  Cilicia,  Cae- 
sarea  and  all  Cappadocia,  the  Syrias  and  Arabia 
(which  depended  for  alms  on  the  Roman  Church), 
Mesopotamia,  Pontus  and  Bithynia,  "and  all  the 
Churches  everywhere",  so  far  did  the  Roman  schism 
cause  its  effects  to  be  felt.  Meanwhile,  before  the  end 
of  251,  Cornelius  had  assembled  a  council  of  sixty 
bishops  (probably  all  from  Italy  or  the  neighbouring 
islands),  in  which  Novatian  was  excommunicated. 
Other  bishops  who  were  not  present  added  their  sig- 


natures, and  the  entire  list  was  sent  to  Antioch  and 
doubtless  to  all  the  other  principal  Churches. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  a  man  of  such  talents  as 
Novatian  should  have  been  conscious  of  his  superior- 
ity to  Cornelius,  or  that  he  should  have  found  priests 
to  assist  his  ambitious  views.  His  mainstay  was  in 
the  confessors  yet  in  prison,  Maximus,  Urbanus,  Nic- 
ostratus,  and  others.  Dionysius  and  Cyprian  wrote 
to  remonstrate  with  them,  and  they  returned  to  the 
Church.  A  prime  mover  on  Novatian's  side  was  the 
Carthaginian  priest  Novatus,  who  had  favoured  laxity 
at  Carthage  out  of  opposition  to  his  bishop.  In  St. 
Cyprian's  earlier  letters  about  Novatian  (xliv-xlviii,  1), 
there  is  not  a  word  about  any  heresy,  the  whole  ques- 
tion being  as  to  the  legitimate  occupant  of  the  place 
of  Peter.  In  Ep.  H,  the  words  "schismatico  immo 
haeretico  furore"  refer  to  the  wickedness  of  opposing 
the  true  bishop.  The  same  is  true  of  "  hajretica;  pravi- 
tatis  nocens  factio"  with  Ep.  liii.  In  Ep.  hv,  Cyp- 
rian found  it  neces,sary  to  send  his  book  "De  lapsis" 
to  Rome,  so  that  the  question  of  the  lapsed  was  al- 
ready prominent,  but  Ep.  Iv  is  the  earliest  in  which 
the  "Novatian  heresy"  as  such  is  argued  against. 
The  letters  of  the  Roman  confessors  (Ep.  liii)  and  Cor- 
nelius (xhx,  1)  to  Cyprian  do  not  mention  it,  though 
the  latter  speaks  in  general  terms  of  Novatian  as  a 
schismatic  or  a  heretic;  nor  does  the  pope  mention 
heresy  in  his  abuse  of  Novatian  in  the  letter  to  Fabius 
of  Antioch  (Eusebius,  VI,  xliii),  from  which  so  much 
has  been  quoted  above.  It  is  equally  clear  that  the 
letters  sent  out  by  Novatian  were  not  concerned  with 
the  lapsi,  but  were  "letters  full  of  calumnies  and  male- 
dictions sent  in  large  numbers,  which  threw  nearly  all 
the  Churches  into  disorder"  (Cornelius,  Ep.  xlix). 
The  first  of  those  sent  to  Carthage  consisted  appar- 
ently of  "bitter  accusations"  against  Cornelius,  and 
St.  Cyprian  thought  it  so  disgraceful  that  he  did  not 
read  it  to  the  council  (Ep.  xlv,  2).  The  messengers 
from  Rome  to  the  Carthaginian  Council  broke  out  into 
similar  attacks  (Ep.  xliv).  It  is  necessary  to  notice 
this  point,  because  it  is  so  frequently  overlooked  by 
historians,  who  represent  the  sudden  but  short-lived 
disturbance  throughout  the  Catholic  Church  caused 
by  Novatian's  ordination  to  have  been  a  division  be- 
tween bishops  on  the  subject  of  his  heresy.  Yet  it  is 
obvious  enough  that  the  question  could  not  present  it- 
self: "Which  is  preferable,  the  doctrine  of  Cornelius 
or  that  of  Novatian?"  If  Novatian  were  ever  so  or- 
thodox, the  first  matter  was  to  examine  whether  his 
ordination  was  legitimate  or  not,  and  whether  his 
accusations  against  Cornelius  were  false  or  true.  An 
admirable  reply  addressed  to  him  by  St.  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria  has  been  preserved  (Eusebius,  VI,  xlv) : 
"Dionysius  to  his  brother  Novatian,  greeting.  If  it 
was  against  your  will,  as  you  say,  that  you  were  led, 
you  will  prove  it  by  retiring  of  your  free  will.  For  you 
ought  to  have  suffered  anything  rather  than  divide 
the  Church  of  God;  and  to  be  martyred  rather  than 
cause  a  schism  would  have  been  no  less  glorious  than 
to  be  martyred  rather  than  commit  idolatry,  nay  in  my 
opinion  it  would  have  been  a  yet  greater  act;  for  in  the 
one  case  one  is  a  martyr  for  one's  own  soul  alone,  in 
the  other  for  the  whole  Church".  Here  again  there 
is  no  question  of  heresy. 

But  yet  within  a  couple  of  months  Novatian  was 
called  a  heretic,  not  only  by  Cyprian  but  throughout 
the  Church,  for  his  severe  views  about  the  restoration 
of  those  who  had  lapsed  in  the  persecution.  He  held 
that  idolatry  was  an  unpardonable  sin,  and  that  the 
Church  had  no  right  to  restore  to  communion  any 
who  had  fallen  into  it.  They  might  repent  and  be  ad- 
mitted to  a  lifelong  penance,  but  their  forgiveness 
must  be  left  to  God;  it  could  not  be  pronounced  in 
this  world.  Such  harsh  sentiments  were  not  alto- 
gether a  novelty.  TertuUian  had  resisted  the  forgive- 
ness of  adultery  by  Pope  Callistus  as  an  innovation. 
Hippolytus  was  equally  inclined  to  severity.     In  vari- 


NOVATIAN 


140 


NOVATIAN 


ous  places  and  at  various  times  laws  were  made  which 
punished  certain  sins  either  with  the  deferring  of 
Communion  till  the  hour  of  death,  or  even  witli  re- 
fusal of  Communion  in  the  hour  of  death.  Even  St. 
Cyprian  approvetl  the  hitter  course  in  the  ease  of  those 
who  refused  to  do  penance  and  only  repi'ntcd  on  their 
death-bed;  but  this  was  because  .such  a  repcMitaiic<- 
seemed  of  dovibtful  sincerity.  But  severity  in  itself 
was  but  cruelty  or  injustice;  there  was  no  heresy  un- 
til it  was  denied  tliut  the  Church  has  the  power  to 
grant  absolution  in  certain  cases.  This  was  Nova- 
tian's  heresy;  and  St.  Cyprian  says  the  Novatians 
held  no  longer  the  Catholic  creed  and  baptismal  inter- 
rogation, for  when  they  said  "  Dost  thou  believe  in  the 
remission  of  sins,  and  everlasting  life,  through  Holy 
Church?"  they  were  liars. 

^\■HITI^'GS.— St.  Jerome  mentions  a  number  of  writ- 
ings of  Novatian,  only  two  of  which  have  come  down 
to  us,  the  "De  Cibis  Judaicis"  and  the  "De  Trini- 
tate".  The  former  is  a  letter  written  in  retirement 
during  a  time  of  persecution,  and  was  preceded  by  two 
otlier  letters  on  Circumcision  and  the  Sabbath,  which 
are  lost.  It  interprets  the  unclean  animals  as  signi- 
fying (HtTcrent  classes  of  vicious  men;  and  explains 
that  the  greater  hberty  allowed  to  Christians  is  not 
to  be  a  motive  for  luxury.  The  book  "  De  Trinitate  " 
is  a  fine  piece  of  writing.  The  first  eight  chapters  con- 
cern the  transcendence  and  greatness  of  God,  who  is 
above  all  thought  and  can  be  described  by  no  name. 
Novatian  goes  on  to  prove  the  Divinity  of  the  Son  at 
great  length,  arguing  from  both  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testaments,  and  adding  that  it  is  an  insult  to  the 
Father  to  say  that  a  Father  who  is  God  cannot  beget 
a  Son  who  is  God.  But  Novatian  falls  into  the  error 
made  by  so  many  early  writers  of  separating  the 
Father  from  the  Son,  so  that  he  makes  the  Father 
address  to  the  Son  the  command  to  create,  and  the 
Son  obeys;  he  identifies  the  Son  with  the  angels  who 
appeared  in  the  Old  Testament  to  Agar,  Abraham, 
etc.  "It  pertains  to  the  person  of  Christ  that  He 
should  be  God  because  He  is  the  Son  of  God,  and  that 
He  should  be  an  Angel  because  He  announces  the 
Father's  Will"  {paterna;  dis positio?ns annunliator  est) . 
The  Son  is  "  the  second  Person  after  the  Father",  less 
than  the  Father  in  that  He  is  originated  by  the 
Father;  He  is  the  imitator  of  all  His  works,  and  is 
always  obedient  to  the  Father,  and  is  one  with  Him 
"by  concord,  by  love,  and  by  afTection". 

No  wonder  such  a  description  should  seem  to  op- 
ponents to  make  two  Gods;  and  consequently,  after  a 
chapter  on  the  Holy  Ghost  (.xxix),  Novatian  returns  to 
the  subject  in  a  kind  of  appendix  (xxx-xxxi).  Two 
kinds  of  heretics,  he  explains,  try  to  guard  the  unity 
of  God,  the  one  kind  (Sabellians)  by  identifying  the 
Father  with  the  Son,  the  other  (Ebionites,  etc.)  by  de- 
nying that  the  Son  is  God;  thus  is  Christ  again  cruci- 
fied between  two  thieves,  and  is  reviled  by  both. 
Novatian  declares  that  there  is  indeed  but  one  God, 
unbegotten,  invisible,  immense,  immortal;  the  Word 
(Sermo),  His  Son,  is  a  substance  that  proceeds  from 
Him  {utibstanlM  prolata),  whose  generation  no  apostle 
nor  angel  nor  any  creature  can  declare.  He  is  not  a 
second  God,  because  He  is  eternally  in  the  Father,  else 
the  Fathi  r  would  not  be  eternally  Father.  He  pro- 
ceeded from  the  Father,  when  the  Father  willed  (this 
syncalabasis  for  the  purpose  of  creation  is  evidently 
distinguished  from  the  eternal  begetting  in  the  Fa- 
ther), and  remained  ivilh  the  Father.  If  He  were 
also  the  unbegotten,  invisible,  incomprehensible,  there 
might  indeed  be  said  to  be  two  Gods;  but  in  fact  He 
has  from  the  Father  whatever  He  has,  and  there  is 
but  one  origin  {origo^principi-um),  the  Father.  "One 
God  is  demonstratecf,  the  true  and  eternal  Father, 
from  whom  alone  this  energy  of  the  Godhead  is  sent 
forth,  being  handed  on  to  the  Son,  and  again  by  com- 
munion of  substance  it  is  returned  to  the  Father."  In 
this  doctrine  there  is  much  that  is  incorrect,  yet  much 


that  seems  meant  to  express  the  consubstantiality  of 
the  Son,  or  at  least  His  generation  out  of  the  substance 
of  the  Father.  But  it  is  a  very  unsatisfactory  unity 
which  is  attained,  and  it  seems  to  be  suggested  that 
the  Son  is  not  immense  or  invisible,  but  tlu'  image  of 
the  Father  capable  of  manifesting  Ilim.  Ilippolytus 
is  in  the  same  difficulty,  and  it  a]i])car8  that  Novatian 
borrowed  from  him  as  well  as  fnun  Tertullian  and 
Justin.  It  would  seem  that  Tcrlulliaii  and  Ilijipoly- 
tus  understood  somewhat  better  than  did  Novatian 
the  traditional  Roman  doctrine  of  the  consubstantial- 
ity of  the  Son,  but  that  all  three  were  led  astray  by 
their  acquaintance  with  the  Greek  theology,  which 
interpreted  of  the  Son  as  God  Scriptural  exjn-essions 
(especially  those  of  St.  Paul)  which  pmjjcrly  ajiply  to 
Him  as  the  God-Man.  But  at  least  Novatian  lias  the 
merit  of  not  identifying  the  Word  with  the  Father,  nor 
Sonship  with  the  prolation  of  the  Word  for  the  purpose 
of  Creation,  for  He  plainly  teaches  the  eternal  genera- 
tion.    This  is  a  notable  advance  on  TertuUian. 

On  the  Incarnation  Novatian  seems  to  have  been 
orthodox,  though  he  is  not  explicit.  He  .speaks  cor- 
rectly of  the  one  Person  having  two  substances,  the 
Godhead  and  Humanity,  in  the  way  that  is  habitual  to 
the  most  exact  Western  theologians.  But  he  very 
often  speaks  of  "the  man"  assumed  by  the  Divine 
Person,  so  that  he  has  been  suspected  of  Nestorianiz- 
ing.  This  is  unfair,  since  he  is  equally  liable  to  the 
opposite  accusation  of  making  "the  man"  so  far  from 
being  a  distinct  personality  that  He  is  merely  flesh 
assumed  {caro,  or  substantia  carnis  el  corporis).  But 
there  is  no  real  ground  for  supposing  that  Novatian 
meant  to  deny  an  intellectual  soul  in  Christ;  he  does 
not  think  of  the  point,  and  is  only  anxious  to  assert 
the  reality  of  our  Lord's  flesh.  The  Son  of  God,  he 
says,  joins  to  Himself  the  Son  of  Man,  and  by  this 
connexion  and  mingling  he  makes  the  Son  of  Man  be- 
come Son  of  God,  which  He  was  not  by  nature.  This 
last  sentence  has  been  described  as  Adoptionism. 
But  the  Spanish  Adoptionists  taught  that  the  Human 
Nature  of  Christ  as  joined  to  the  Godhead  is  the 
adopted  Son  of  God.  Novatian  only  means  that  be- 
fore its  assumption  it  was  not  by  nature  the  Son  of 
God ;  the  form  of  words  is  bad,  but  there  is  not  neces- 
sarily any  heresy  in  the  thought.  Newman,  though 
he  does  not  make  the  best  of  Novatian,  says  that  he 
"approaches  more  nearly  to  doctrinal  precision  than 
any  of  the  writers  of  the  East  and  West"  who  pre- 
ceded him  (Tracts  theological  and  ecclesiastical,  p. 
239). 

The  two  pseudo-Cyprianic  works,  both  by  one  au- 
thor, "DeSpectaculis"  and  "De  bono  pudicitiie",  are 
attributed  to  Novatian  by  Weyman,  followed  by 
Demmler,  Bardenhewer,  Harnack,  and  others.  The 
pseudo-Cyprianic  "De  laude  martyrii"  has  been  as- 
cribed to  Novatian  by  Harnack,  but  with  less  proba- 
bility. The  pseudo-Cyprianic  sermon, ' '  Adversus  Ju- 
da'os",  is  by  a  close  friend  or  follower  of  Novatian  if 
not  by  himself,  according  to  Landgraf,  followed  by 
Harnack  and  Jordan.  In  1900  Mgr  Batiffol  with  the 
help  of  Dom  A.  Wilmart  published,  under  the  title 
of  "Tractatus  Origenis  de  hbris  SS.  Scripturarum", 
twenty  sermons  which  he  had  discovered  in  two  MSS. 
at  Orleans  and  St.  Omer.  Weyman,  Haussleiter,  and 
Zahn  perceived  that  these  curious  homilies  on  the  Old 
Testament  were  written  in  Latin  and  are  not  transla- 
tions from  the  Greek.  They  attributed  them  to  No- 
vatian with  so  much  confidence  that  a  disciple  of 
Zahn's,  H.  Jordan,  has  written  a  book  on  the  theology 
of  Novatian,  grounded  principally  on  these  sernions. 
It  was,  however,  pointed  out  that  the  theology  is  of  a 
more  developed  and  later  character  than  that  of  No- 
vatian. Funk  showed  that  the  mention  of  competentes 
(candidates  for  baptism)  implies  the  fourth  century. 
Dom  Morin  suggested  Gregorius  Bsticus  of  Ilhberis 
(Elvira),  but  withdrew  this  when  it  seemed  clear  that 
the  author  had  used  Ciaudentius  of  Brescia  and  Rufi- 


NOVATUS 


141 


NOVENA 


nus's  translation  of  Origen  on  Genesis.  But  these  re- 
semblances must  be  resolved  in  the  sense  that  the 
"Tractatus"  are  the  originals,  for  finally  Dom  Wil- 
mart  showed  that  Gregory  of  Elvira  is  their  true  au- 
thor, by  a  comparison  especially  with  the  five  homilies 
of  Gregory  on  the  Canticle  of  Canticles  (in  Heine's 
"Bibliotheca  Anecdotorum",  Leipzig,  1848). 

The  Novati anist  Sect. — The  followers  of  Novatian 
named  themselves  Ka8apol,  or  Puritans,  and  affected  to 
call  the  Catliolic  Clmreh  the  Aposlalicum,  Synedrium, 
or  CapitoUniim.  They  were  found  in  every  province, 
and  in  some  places  were  very  numerous.  Our  chief 
information  about  them  is  from  the  "History"  of 
Socrates,  who  is  very  favourable  to  them,  and  tells  us 
much  about  their  bishops,  especially  those  of  Constan- 
tinople. The  chief  works  written  against  them  are 
tlio.se  of  St.  Cyprian,  the  anonymous  "Ad  Novatia- 
num"  (attributed  by  Harnack  to  Sixtus  II,  257-8), 
writings  of  St.  Pacian  of  Barcelona  and  St.  Ambrose 
(De  pa'nitcntia),  "Contra  Novatianum",  a  work  of 
the  fourth  century  among  the  works  of  St.  Augustine, 
the  "Heresies"  of  Epiphanius  and  Philastrius,  and  the 
"Qusstiones"  of  Ambro.siaster.  In  the  East  they 
are  mentioned  especially  by  Athanasius,  Basil,  Greg- 
ory of  Nazianzus,  Chrysostom.  Eulogius  of  Alexan- 
dria, not  long  before  600,  wrote  six  books  against 
them.  Refutations  by  Reticius  of  Autun  and  Euse- 
bius  of  Emesa  are  lost. 

Novatian  had  refused  absolution  to  idolaters;  his 
followers  extended  this  doctrine  to  all  "mortal  sins" 
(idolatry,  murder,  and  adultery,  or  fornication). 
Most  of  them  forbade  second  marriage,  and  they  made 
much  use  of  TertuUian's  works;  indeed,  in  Phrygia 
they  combined  with  the  Montanists.  A  few  of  them 
did  not  rebaptize  converts  from  other  persuasions. 
Theodoret  says  that  they  did  not  use  confirmation 
(which  Novatian  himself  had  never  received).  Eulo- 
gius complained  that  they  would  not  venerate  mar- 
tyrs, but  he  probably  refers  to  Catholic  martyrs. 
They  always  had  a  successor  of  Novatian  at  Rome, 
and"  everywhere  they  were  governed  by  bishops. 
Their  bishops  at  Constantinople  were  most  estimable 
persons,  according  to  Socrates,  who  has  much  to  relate 
about  them.  They  conformed  to  the  Church  in  al- 
most everything,  including  monasticism  in  the  fotarth 
century.  Their  bishop  at  Constantinople  was  invited 
by  Constantine  to  the  Council  of  Nicsea.  He  ap- 
proved the  decrees,  though  he  would  not  consent  to 
union.  On  account  of  the  homoousion  the  Novatians 
were  persecuted  like  the  Catholics  by  Constantius. 
In  Paphlagonia  the  Novatianist  peasants  attacked 
and  slew  the  soldiers  sent  by  the  emperor  to  enforce 
conformity  to  the  ofBcial  semi-Arianism.  Constan- 
tine the  Great,  who  at  first  treated  them  as  schismatics, 
not  heretics,  later  ordered  the  closing  of  their  churches 
and  cemeteries.  After  the  death  of  Constantius  they 
were  protected  by  Julian,  but  the  Arian  Valens  per- 
secuted them  once  more.  Honorius  included  them  in 
a  law  against  heretics  in  412,  and  St.  Innocent  I  closed 
some  of  their  churches  in  Rome.  St.  Celestine  ex- 
pelled them  from  Rome,  as  St.  Cyril  had  from  Alex- 
andria. Earlier  St.  Chrysostom  had  shut  up  their 
churches  at  Ephesus,  but  at  Constantinople  they  were 
tolerated,  and  their  bishops  there  are  said  by  Socrates 
tahave  been  highly  respected.  The  work  of  Eulogius 
shows  that  there  were  still  Novatians  in  Alexandria 
about  600.  In  Phrygia  (about  .374)  some  of  them  be- 
came Quartodecimans,  and  were  called  Prolopnsch- 
ita;  they  included  some  converted  Jews.  Theodosius 
made  a  stringent  law  against  this  sect,  which  was 
imported  to  Constantinople  about  391  by  a  certain 
Sabbatius,  whose  adherents  were  called  Sabbatiani. 

See  the  histories  of  Ceillier,  Tillemont.  etc. ;  recent  histories, 
as  Bric.ht,  GwvTKiN.  BioG.  Duchesne;  the  histories  of  dogma 
bv  Dorne'r.  Harnack,  Loops,  Seeberg,  Bethune-Baker,  and 
ScHWANE,  TixERONT,  etc;  also  Fausbet  (below).  Particular 
studies:  Hefele  in  Kirchenkz.  (1895),  s.  v.  Nomtiamschea 
Schisma;  Stokes  in  Dia.  Christ.  Biog..  a.  w.  Novat\an\am  and 


Novatianus;  Harnack  in  Reatencycl.  filr  prot.  Theol,,  a.  v.  Nova- 
tian. The  two  works  De  Trinitate  and  De  cibis  first  printed  by 
Gangneius,  Tertullian  (Paris.  1545),  and  included  in  subsequent 
editions  of  Tertullian:  first  edited  as  Novatian's  by  Welch-man 
(Oxford,  1724);  the  edition  of  Jack.son  (London,  1728)  is  re- 
printed in  GallamjI,  Bibl.  V,l.  Pnlr..  Ill  (Venice,  1767),  and 
P.  L.,  IIL  The  !..  .  !  I  "J-  r  ■ ./.,  with  introd.  and  notes, 
is  by  Fausset  \('  i  I        l  "'  '  ,  i      -  ^lenied  to  be  Novatian's 

by  Hagemann,  /'  '  I  iilmrg,  1864),  and  is  con- 

sidered a  Latin  trm  i  ik.im  lli[.|."i  m.  Iiy  Qharhy  in  Ilerma- 
(Aeno.  XXIII  (1897).  bi-si  ed.  .il  /'-  . '•  ,/.,.(,;.;  h\- T  . -;nr;r.  if 
and  Weyman  in  j4rcftzu /uriai. /.(  '  <  \l    m     l*'^    : 

see  Weyman,  A^oraitan  w.  jSe/feAvi  (.  '  /  :     / 

LII  (1893).    On  Be  specfacuhs  an.  1  /' ;  -"    W-.,  ,,,:■< 

in  Archiv  fiir  tat.  Lexikogr.  u.  Or.,  Vlil,  i  y\-^:f.i,  lui  t,\piiaiiic 
authorship);  Wetman  in  Hist.  Jahrbuch,  XIII-XIV  (1S'J2); 
Haussleiter  in  Theol.  Literaturblatt  (16  Sept.,  1892;  12  Oct., 
1894);  Demmleb  in  Theol.  Quartalschr..  LXXXVI  (1894),  re- 
printed as  Ueber  den  Verfasser  der  .  .  .  Traktate  De  bono  pud.  u. 
De  Spect.  (Tubingen,  1894) ;  and  see  also  Landgraf  and  Wey- 
man's  ed.  of  De  cibis  (above).  On  De  laude  maTtyrii,  see  Har- 
N.VCK,  Eine  bisher  nicht  erkannte  Schrift  Novatians  vom  Jahre  349- 
60  in  Texle  und  Unters..  XIII,  4b  (Leipzig,  1895).  On  Adv. 
Judtsos,  see  Landgraf,  Ueber  den  pseudocypr.  Traktat  adv.  Jud. 
in  Archiv  fiir  lat.  Lexikogr.  u.  Gr.,  XI,  i  (1S9S);  Harnack,  Zur 
Schrift  Pseudocyprians  Adv.  Jud.  in  Texte  und  Vnt..  XX,  new 
series,  V,  iii  (1900);  Batiffol  and  Wilmart,  Trnn.^f;-  nr,,,,-.;, 
de  libris  SS.  Scripturarum  (Paris,  1900):  for  Nov.i      ;  i'     r- 

ship,  Weyman  in  Archiv  fiir  lat.  Lexik.,  XI  (]'. mi  i,,  ,i  ,; 
Idem  in  Hist.  Jahrb.,  XXI  (1900).  212;  Zahn  ii.  \.  . 
Zeitschr..  XI  (1900).  248:  Haussleiter  in  Thiol.  L..v,.i,'u.  ....j« 
(1900),  nn.  14-16:  Idem  in  Neue  kirchl.  Zeitschr.,  XHI  (1902); 
Jordan,  Die  Theologie  der  neuentdeckten  Predigten  Novatians  (Leip- 
zig, 1902) ;  against  Novatian  auth..  Funk  in  Theol.  Quart,, 
LXXXII  (1900);  MoRiNin  Rnued'hist.  eccl.,  I  (1900),  267;  Idem, 
in  Revue  Benedictine,  XIX  (1902),  225;  BuTLEK  in  Journal  of 
Theol.  Studies,  III  (1901).  113,  254;  Idem  in  Zeitschr.  fiir  N.  T. 
Wiss.,  IV  (1903),  79;  de  Bruyne  in  Revue  Bened.  (1907).  For 
Gregorj'  of  Elvira,  see  Morin  in  Rev.  d'hist.  et  de  litt.  relig.,  V 
(1901),"  145;  KuNSTLE  in  Lit.  Rundschau  (1900),  169;  especially 
WiLMART'a  elaborate  proof  in  Bulletin  de  Litt.  ecclesiastique  de 
Toulouse,  viii-ix  (Oct. -Nov.,  1906),  which  is  summarized  by  Le- 
JAY  in  Rev.  Benfd.,  XXV  (1908),  435;  Butler  in  Jo>irn.  Theol. 
Stud.,  X  (1909),  450. 

John  Chapman. 

Novatus,  Saint,  who  is  mentioned  on  20  June  with 
his  brother,  the  martyr  Timotheus,  was  the  son  of  St. 
Pudens  and  Claudia  Rufina,  and  the  brother  of  Sts. 
Pudentiana  and  Praxedcs.  His  paternal  grandfather 
was  Quintus  Cornelius  Pudens,  the  Roman  senator, 
who  with  his  wife,  Priscilla,  was  among  St.  Peter's 
earliest  converts  in  Rome  and  in  whose  house  the 
Apostle  dwelt  while  in  that  city.  A  portion  of  the 
superstructure  of  the  modern  church  of  St.  Puden- 
tiana (Via  Urbana)  is  thought  to  be  part  of  the  sena- 
torial palace  or  of  the  baths  built  by  Novatus. 

Novena  (from  novem,  nine) ,  a  nine  days'  private  or 
public  devotion  in  the  Catholic  Church  to  obtain  spe- 
cial graces.  The  octave  has  more  of  the  festal  char- 
acter: to  the  novena  belongs  that  of  hopeful  mourn- 
ing, of  yearning,  of  prayer.  "The  number  nine  in 
Holy  Writ  is  indicative  of  suffering  and  grief"  (St. 
Jerome,  in  Ezech.,  vii,  24;— P.  L.,  XXV,  238,  cf. 
XXV,  1473).  The  novena  is  permitted  and  even 
recommended  by  ecclesiastical  authority,  but  still  has 
no  proper  and  "fully  set  place  in  the  liturgy  of  the 
Church.  It  has,  however,  more  and  more  been  prized 
and  utilized  by  the  faithful.  Four  kinds  of  novenas 
can  be  distinguished:  novenas  of  mourning,  of  prep- 
aration, of  prayer,  and  the  indulgenced  novenas, 
though  this  distinction  is  not  exclusive. 

The  Jews  had  no  nine  days'  religious  celebration  or 
nine  days'  mourning  or  feast  on  the  ninth  day  after 
the  death  or  burial  of  relatives  and  friends.  They 
held  the  number  seven  more  sacred  than  any  other. 
On  the  contrary,  we  find  among  the  ancient  Romans 
an  official  nine  days'  religious  celebration  whose  origin 
is  related  in  Livy  (I,  xxxi).  After  a  shower  of  stones 
on  the  Alban  Mount,  an  official  sacrifice,  whether  be- 
cause of  a  warning  from  above  or  of  the  augurs'  ad- 
vice, was  held  on  nine  days  to  appease  the  gods  and 
avert  evil.  From  then  on  the  same  novena  of  sacri- 
fices was  made  whenever  the  like  wonder  was  an- 
nounced (cf.  Livy,  XXI,  Ixii;  XXV,  vii;  XXVI, 
xxiii  etc.). 

Besides  this  custom,  there  also  existed  among  the 


NOVENA 


142 


NOVENA 


Greeks  and  Romans  tliat  of  a  nine  days'  mourn- 
ing, with  a  special  feast  on  the  ninth  day  after  death 
or  burial.  This,  however,  was  rather  of  a  private  or 
family  character  (cf.  Homer,  Iliad,  XXIV,  664,  784; 
Virgil,  .lincid,  V,  0)4;  Tacitus,  Annals,  VI,  v.).  The 
Romans  also  celebrated  their  parentalia  novcndialia, 
a  yearly  novena  (13  to  22  Feb.)  of  commemoration  of 
all  the  departed  members  of  their  families  (cf .  IMomni- 
sen,  "Corp.  Inscript.  Latin.",  I,  3S6  sq.).  The  cele- 
bration ended  on  the  ninth  day  with  a  sacrifice  and  a 
joyful  banquet.  There  is  a  reference  to  these  customs 
m  the  laws  of  the  Emperor  Justinian  ("Corp.  Jur. 
Civil.  Justinian."  II,  Turin,  1757,  696,  tit.  xix,  "De 
sepulchro  violato  ),  where  creditors  are  forbidden  to 
trouble  the  heirs  of  their  debtor  for  nine  davs  after 
his  death.  St.  Augustine  (P.  L.,  XXXIV,  5%)  warns 
Christians  not  to  imitate  the  pagan  custom,  as  there 
is  no  example  of  it  in  Holy  Writ.  Later  on,  the  same 
was  done  by  the  Pseudo-Alcuin  (P.  L.,  CI,  1278),  in- 
voking the  authorit}'  of  St.  Augustine,  and  still  more 
sharply  by  Jolm  Beleth  (P.  L.,  CCII,  160)  in  the 
twelfth  century.  Even  Durandus  in  his  "Rationale" 
(Naples,  1478),  writing  on  the  Office  of  the  Dead, 
remarks  that  "some  did  not  approve  this,  to  avoid  the 
appearance  of  aping  pagan  customs". 

Nevertheless,  in  Christian  mortuary  celebrations, 
one  finds  that  of  the  ninth  day  with  those  of  the  third 
and  seventh.  The  "Constitutiones  Apostohcae" 
(VIII,  xlii;  P.  G.,  I,  1147)  already  speak  of  it.  The 
custom  existed  specially  in  the  East,  but  is  found  also 
among  the  Franks  and  Anglo-Saxons.  Even  if  it  was 
connected  with  an  earlier  practice  of  the  pagans,  it 
nevertheless  had  in  itself  no  vestige  of  superstition. 
A  nine  days'  mourning  with  daily  Mass  was  a  distinc- 
tion, naturally,  which  could  be  shared  by  none  but 
the  higher  classes.  Princes  and  the  rich  ordered  such 
a  celebration  for  themselves  in  their  wills;  even  in  the 
wills  of  popes  and  cardinals  such  orders  are  found. 
Already  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  novena  of  Masses  for 
popes  and  cardinals  was  customary.  Later  on,  the 
mortuary  celebration  for  cardinals  became  constantly 
more  simple,  until  finally  it  was  regulated  and  fixed 
by  the  Constitution  "Praecipuum"  of  Benedict  XIV 
(23  Nov.,  1741).  For  deceased  sovereign  pontiffs  the 
nine  days'  mourning  was  retained,  and  so  came  to  be 
called  simply  the  "Pope's  Novena"  (cf.  Mabillon, 
"Museum  Italicum",  II,  Paris,  1689,  530  sqq.,  "Ordo 
Roman.  XV";  P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  1353;  Const.  "In 
eligendis"  of  Pius  IV,  9  Oct.,  1562).  The  usage  still 
continues  and  consists  chiefly  in  a  novena  of  Masses 
for  the  departed.  A  rescript  of  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Rites  (22  Apr.,  1633)  informs  us  that  such 
novenas  of  mourning,  officia  novendialia  ex  testamenlo, 
were  generally  known  and  allowed  in  the  churches  of 
religious  (Deer.  Auth.  S.  R.  C,  604).  They  are  no 
longer  in  common  use,  though  they  have  never  been 
forbidden,  and  indeed,  on  the  contrary,  novendiales 
precum  el  Missarum  devotiones  pro  defunctis  were  ap- 
proved by  Gregory  XVI  (11  July,  1853)  and  indul- 
genced  for  a  confraternity  agonizantium  in  France 
(Rescr.  Auth.  S.  C.  Indulg.,  382). 

Besides  the  novena  for  the  dead,  we  find  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  novena  of  prepara- 
tion, but  at  first  only  before  Christmas  and  only  in 
Spain  and  France.  This  had  its  origin  in  the  nine 
months  Our  Lord  was  in  His  Blessed  Mother's  womb 
from  the  Incarnation  to  the  Nativity.  In  Spain  the 
Annunciation  was  transferred  for  the  whole  country 
by  the  tenth  Council  of  Toledo  in  656  (Cap.  i;  Mansi, 
"Coll.  Cone",  XI,  34)  to  18  Dec,  as  the  most  fitting 
feast  preparatory  to  Christmas.  With  this  it  appears 
that  a  real  novena  of  preparation  for  Christmas  was 
immediately  connected  for  the  whole  of  Spain.  At 
any  rate,  in  a  question  sent  from  the  Azores  (Insulae 
Angrenses)  to  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites,  an 
appeal  was  made  to  the  "most  ancient  custom"  of 
celebrating,  just  before  Christmas,  nine  votive  Masses 


of  Our  Lady.  And  this  usage,  because  of  the  people 
who  took  part  in  the  celebration,  was  permitted  to 
continue  (28  Sept.,  1658;  Deer.  Auth.,  1093).  A 
French  Ordinarium  (P.  L.,  CXLVIl,  123)  prescribes 
that  the  preparation  for  Christmas  on  the  ninth  day 
should  begin  with  the  O  anthems  and  that  each  day, 
at  the  Magnificat,  the  altar  and  the  choir  should  fee 
incensed.  The  Ordinarium  of  Nantes  and  the  Antiph- 
onary  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  in  place  of  the  seven 
common  O  anthems,  have  nine  for  the  nine  days  be- 
fore Christmas,  and  these  were  sung  with  special 
solemnity  (Martene,  "De  Antiq.  Eccles.  Ritib.",  Ill, 
Venice,  1783,  30).  In  Italy  the  novena  seems  to 
have  spread  only  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Still, 
the  "Praxis  caeremoniarum  sen  sacrorum  Romana; 
Ecclesise  Rituum  accurata  tractatio  "  of  the  Theatine 
Piscara  Castaldo,  a  book  approved  in  1525  by  the 
author's  father  general  (Naples,  1645,  p.  386  sqq.), 
gives  complete  directions  for  the  celebration  of  the 
Christmas  novena  with  Exposition  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament.  The  author  remarks  that  this  novena  in 
commemoration  of  Our  Lord's  nine  months  in  the 
womb  was  solemnly  celebrated  in  very  many  places 
in  Italy.  And  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  Christmas  novena  held  such  a  distinguished 
position  that  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  (7 
July,  1718),  in  a  special  case,  allowed  for  it  alone  the 
solemn  celebration  with  Exposition  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  (Deer.  Auth.,  2250). 

But  before  this,  at  least  in  Sicily,  the  custom  had 
sprung  up  among  religious  of  preparing  for  the  feast 
of  their  founder  with  a  novena  of  Masses,  and  these 
MisscE  novendiales  volivce  were  also  (2  Sept.,  1690)  de- 
clared permissible  (Deer.  Auth.,  1843).  In  general, 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  numerous  novenas  were 
held  especially  in  the  churches  of  religious  and  to  the 
Saints  of  the  various  orders  (cf.  Prola,  "De  novendi- 
aUbussupplicationibus",  Romae  1724,  passim).  Two 
hundred  years  later,  on  application  from  Sicily  for 
Exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  the  celebration 
of  novenas,  special  permission  was  granted  (Deer. 
Auth.,  3728),  and  in  the  decrees'on  the  Missce  voiivce  of 
30  June,  1896,  there  is  really  question  of  the  Missce 
volivce  novendiales  B.  M.  V.  (Deer.  Auth.,  3922  V,  n.  3). 
At  least  in  this  way,  then,  the  novena  is  recognized 
even  in  the  Liturgy. 

At  the  same  time  as  the  novena  of  preparation,  the 
proper  novena  of  prayer  arose,  among  the  faithful,  it 
would  seem,  who  in  their  need  turned  to  the  saints 
with  a  novena,  especially  to  recover  health.  The 
original  home  of  this  novena  must  have  been  France, 
Belgium,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Lower  Rhine. 
Specially  noteworthy  up  to  the  year  1000  are  the 
novenas  to  St.  Hubert,  St.  Marcolf,  and  St.  Mom- 
molus.  St.  Mommolus  (or  Mummolus)  was  con- 
sidered the  special  patron  for  head  and  brain  diseases: 
the  novenas  to  him  were  made  especially  in  the  Holy 
Cross  Monastery  of  Bordeaux,  where  the  saint  was 
buried  (Mabillon,  "Act.  Sanct.  O.  S.  B.",  II,  Venice, 
1733,  645  sqq.;  "Acta  SS.",  August,  II,  351  sqq.; 
Du  Cange,  "Glossarium",  s.  v.  "Novena").  St. 
Marcolf  procured  for  the  kings  of  France  the  power 
to  cure  scrofula  by  a  touch  of  their  hand.  For  this 
purpose,  shortly  after  their  coronation  and  anointing 
at  Reims,  the  kings  had  to  go  in  person  on  pilgrimage 
to  the  tomb  of  St.  Marcolf  at  Corbeny  and  make  a 
novena  there.  Those  who  were  to  be  healed  had  to 
make  a  similar  novena.  But  the  best  known  is  the 
novena  to  St.  Hubert,  which  continues  even  to  our 
day.  This  is  made  against  madness  by  people  bitten 
bya  mad  dog  or  wolf  (ActaSS.,  November,  1, 871  sqq.). 

The  last-named  novena  was  attacked  in  later  times, 
particularly  by  the  Jansenists,  and  was  rejected  as 
superstitious  (cf.  "Acta  SS.",  loc.  cit.,  where  the 
attack  is  met  and  the  novena  justified).  Before  this, 
Gerson,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  had  given  warning 
against  the  superstitious  abuse  of  this  novena.     But 


NOVENA 


143 


NOVENA 


he  does  not  reject  novenas  in  general  and  we  see  from 
his  works  that  in  his  time  they  were  already  wide- 
spread (Opera,  Paris,  1606,  II,  328;  III,  386,  389). 
But  notwithstanding  Gerson's  warning,  novenas  were 
from  that  time  on  ever  more  and  more  in  favour  with 
the  faithful,  to  which  the  many,  even  miraculous, 
effects  of  the  novenas  contributed  not  a  httle.  Bene- 
dict XIV  (De  canonizat.  sanct.,  Ub.  IV,  p.  II,  c.  xiii, 
n.  12)  tells  of  a  number  of  such  miracles  adduced  in 
the  processes  of  canonization.  Catholics  know  from 
their  own  experience  that  the  novena  is  no  pagan, 
superstitious  custom,  but  one  of  the  best  means  to 
obtain  signal  heavenly  graces  through  the  interces- 
sion of  Our  Lady  and  all  the  saints.  The  novena  of 
prayer  is  thus  a  kind  of  prayer  which  includes  in  it,  so 
to  speak,  as  a  pledge  of  being  heard,  confidence  and 
perseverance,  two  most  important  qualities  of  effica- 
cious prayer.  Even  if  the  employment  of  the  number 
nine  in  Christianity  were  connected  with  a  similar  use 
in  paganism,  the  use  would  still  in  no  way  be  blameable 
or  at  all  superstitious.  Not,  of  course,  that  every 
single  variation  or  addition  made  in  whatever  private 
novena  must  be  justified  or  defended.  The  holiest 
custom  can  be  abused,  but  the  use  of  the  number  nine 
can  not  only  be  justified  but  even  interpreted  in  the 
best  sense. 

The  number  ten  is  the  highest,  the  Humerus  maxi- 
nius,  simply  the  most  perfect,  which  is  fitting  for  God; 
the  number  nine,  which  is  lacking  of  ten,  is  the  number 
of  imperfection,  which  is  fitting  for  mortal  kind.  In 
some  such  way  the  Pythagoreans,  Philo  the  Jew,  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  and  the  monks  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  philosophized  on  the  meaning  of  the  number 
nine.  For  this  reason  it  was  adapted  for  use  where 
man's  imperfection  turned  in  prayer  to  God  (cf. 
Jerome,  loc.  cit. ;  Athenagoras,  "Legat.  pro  Chris- 
tian.", P.  G.,  VI,  902;  Pseudo-Ambrosius,  P.  L., 
XVII,  10  sq.,  633;  Rabanus  Maurus,  P.  L.,  CIX,  948 
sq.,  CXI,  491;  Angelomus  Monach.,  In  lib.  Reg.  IV, 
P.  L.,  CXV,  346;  Philo  the  Jew,  "Lucubrationes", 
Basle,  1554,  p.  283). 

In  the  novena  of  mourning  and  the  Mass  on  the 
ninth  day  it  was  remembered  in  the  Middle  Ages  that 
Christ  gave  up  the  ghost  in  prayer  at  the  ninth  hour, 
as  in  the  penitential  books  (cf.  Schmitz,  "  Die  Buss- 
bucher  und  die  Bussdisciplin",  II,  1898,  539,  570,  673), 
or  remarked  that,  by  means  of  Holy  Mass  on  the 
ninth  day,  the  departed  were  to  be  raised  to  the  ranks 
of  the  nine  choirs  of  angels  (cf.  Beleth,  loc.  cit.; 
Durandus,  loc.  cit.).  For  the  origin  of  the  novena  of 
prayer  we  can  point  to  the  fact  that  the  ninth  hour  in 
the  Synagogue,  like  None  in  the  Christian  Church, 
was  a  special  hour  of  prayer  from  the  beginning,  so 
that  it  was  reckoned  among  the  "apostolic  hours" 
(cf.  Acts,  iii,  1;  x,  30;  TertuUian,  "De  jejuniis",  c.  x, 
P.  L.,  II,  966;  cf.  "De  oratione",  c.  xxv,  1, 1133).  The 
Church,  too,  in  the  Breviary,  has  for  centuries  in- 
voked the  Almighty  in  nine  Psalms  and  honoured  Him 
in  nine  Lessons,  while  from  ancient  times  the  Kyrie 
has  been  heard  nine  times  in  every  Mass  (cf.  Duran- 
dus, "Rationale,  De  nona";  Bona,  "Opera",  Venice, 
1764;  "De  divina  psalmodia",  p.  401). 

As  has  been  said,  the  simplest  explanation  of  the 
Christmas  novena  are  the  nine  months  of  Christ  in  the 
womb.  But  for  every  novena  of  preparation,  as  also 
for  every  novena  of  prayer,  not  only  the  best  explana- 
tion but  also  the  best  model  and  example  was  given 
by  Christ  Himself  to  the  Church  in  the  first  Pente- 
cost novena.  He  Himself  expressly  exhorted  the 
Apostles  to  make  this  preparation.  And  when  the 
young  Church  had  faithfully  persevered  for  nine  full 
days  in  it,  the  Holy  Ghost  came  as  the  precious  fruit 
of  this  first  Christian  novena  for  the  feast  of  the  es- 
tablishment and  foundation  of  the  Church.  If  one 
keeps  this  is  mind  and  remembers  besides  that  no- 
venas in  the  course  of  time  have  brought  so  many, 
even  miraculous,  answers  to  prayer,  and  that  finally 


Christ  Himself  in  the  revelation  to  Blessed  Margaret 
Mary  Alacoque  recommended  the  special  celebration 
of  nine  successive  first  Fridays  of  the  month  (cf. 
Vermeersch,  "Pratique  et  doctrine  de  la  devotion  au 
Sacre  Cceur  de  Jesus",  Toumai,  1906,  555  sqq.),  one 
must  wonder  that  the  Church  waited  so  long  before 
positively  approving  and  recommending  novenas 
rather  than  that  she  finally  took  this  step  (cf.  "Col- 
lection de  precis  historiques ",  Brussels,  1859,  "Dea 
neuvaines",  157  sqq.). 

Not  until  the  nineteenth  century  did  the  Church 
formally  recommend  novenas  by  the  concession  of 
Indulgences.  This  brings  us  to  the  last  kind  of 
novenas,  those  which  are  indulgenced.  Apparently 
Alexander  VII  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury granted  Indvdgences  to  a  novena  in  honour  of 
St.  Francis  Xavier  made  in  Lisbon  (cf .  Prola,  op.  cit., 
p.  79).  The  first  novena  indulgenced  in  the  city  of 
Rome,  and  even  there  for  only  one  church,  was  the 
novena  in  preparation  for  the  feast  of  St.  Joseph  in 
the  church  of  St.  Ignatius.  This  was  done  by  the 
Briefs  of  Clement  XI,  10  Feb.,  and  4  March,  1713 
(cf.  Prola,  loc.  cit.;  Benedict  XIV,  "De  canoniz.", 
loc.  cit.).  The  Franciscans,  who  used  before  this  to 
have  a  novena  for  the  feast  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception (cf.  Deer.  Auth.  S.  R.  C,  2472)  received  spe- 
cial Indulgences  for  it  on  10  Apr.,  1764  (Resc.  Auth. 
S.  C.  Indulg.,  215).  Not  until  later,  especially  from 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  were  various 
novenas  enriched  with  Indulgences  in  common  for  the 
whole  Church.  They  number  in  all  thirty-two,  in- 
tended for  the  most  part  as  novenas  of  preparation 
for  definite  feasts. 

They  are  in  detail  as  follows :  one  in  honour  of  the 
Mo.st  Holy  Trinity,  which  may  be  made  either  prior 
to  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Trinity  (first  Sunday  after 
Pentecost)  or  at  any  other  time  of  the  year;  two  to 
the  Holy  Ghost,  one  to  be  made  prior  to  the  feast 
of  Pentecost  for  the  reconciliation  of  non-Catholics 
(this  is  also  made  publicly  in  all  parochial  churches), 
one  at  any  time  of  the  year;  two  novenas  to  the 
Infant  Jesus,  one  to  be  made  before  the  feast  of 
Christmas  and  the  other  at  any  time  during  the 
year;  three  to  the  Sacred  Heart,  one  prior  to  the 
feast  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (the  Friday  after  the  octave 
of  Corpus  Christi),  one  at  any  time  during  the  year, 
and  the  third  that  of  the  nine  first  Fridays,  which  is 
based  on  the  promise  made  to  Blessed  Margaret  Mary 
by  the  Sacred  Heart  assuring  the  grace  of  final  perse- 
verance and  the  reception  of  the  Sacraments  before 
death  to  all  who  should  receive  Holy  Communion  on 
the  first  Friday  of  every  month  for  nine  consecutive 
months ;  it  is  customary  to  offer  this  novena  in  repara- 
tion for  the  sins  of  all  mankind;  eleven  novenas  in 
honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  viz.,  in  honour  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  the  Nativity  of  Mary,  her 
Presentation  at  the  Temple,  the  Annunciation,  the 
Visitation,  the  Maternity  of  Mary,  her  Purification, 
her  Seven  Dolours,  the  Assumption,  the  Holy  Heart  of 
Mary,  and  the  Holy  Rosary;  one  novena  each  in 
honour  of  the  Archangels  Michael,  Gabriel,  and  Raph- 
ael, and  one  in  honour  of  the  Guardian  Angel,  two  to 
St.  Joseph,  one  consisting  of  the  recitation  of  prayers 
in  honour  of  the  seven  sorrows  and  seven  joys  of  the 
foster-father  of  Christ,  prior  to  the  feast  of  St.  Joseph 
(19  March)  and  one  at  any  time  during  the  year;  one 
novena  each  in  honour  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  at  any 
time  during  the  year,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  St.  Paul  of 
the  Cross,  St.  Stanislas  Kotska,  prior  to  his  feast  (13 
November),  St.  Francis  Xavier,  and  one  for  the  Holy 
Souls. 

The  novena  in  honour  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  known 
as  the  "Novena  of  Grace",  originated  as  follows:  in 
1633  Father  Mastrilli,  S.J.,  was  at  the  point  of  death 
as  the  result  of  an  accident,  when  St.  Francis  Xavier, 
to  whom  he  had  great  devotion,  appeared  to  him  and 
urged  him  to  devote  himself  to  the  missions  of  the 


NOVICE 


144 


NOVICE 


Indies.  Father  Mastrilli  then  made  a  vow  before  his' 
provinical  that  he  would  p;o  to  the  Indies  if  God 
spared  his  Hfe,  and  in  anotlicr  aiiparition  (3  Jan.,  1634) 
St.  Francis  Xavier  exacted  of  liim  a  renewal  of  this 
promise,  foretold  his  martyrdom,  and  restored  him  to 
health  so  completely  that  on  that  same  night  Father 
Mastrilli  w;is  in  a  condition  to  write  an  ai  rount  of  his 
cure,  and  the  next  morning  to  celebrate  Mass  at  the 
altar  of  the  saint  and  to  resume  his  community  life.  • 
He  soon  set  out  for  the  Japanese  missions  where  he 
was  martyred,  17  October,  1037.  The  renown  of  the 
miracle  quickly  spread  through  Italy,  and  inspired 
with  confidence  in  the  power  and  goodness  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier,  the  faithful  implored  his  assistance 
in  a  novena  with  such  success  that  it  came  to  be  called 
the  "novena  of  grace".  This  novena  is  now  made 
publicly  in  many  countries  from  4  to  12  March,  the 
latter  being  the  date  of  the  canonization  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier  together  with  St.  Ignatius.  The  conditions 
include  a  visit  to  a  Jesuit  church  or  chapel.  The  in- 
dulgence may  be  gained  on  any  day  of  the  novena, 
and  those  who  are  prevented  by  illness  or  another  le- 
gitimate cause  from  communicating  during  the  no- 
vena may  gain  the  indulgence  by  doing  so  as  soon  as 
possible.  All  of  these  novenas  without  exception 
are  to  be  made,  in  private  or  in  public,  with  pious 
exercises  and  the  reception  of  the  Sacraments,  and 
for  these  usually  a  daily  jiartial  Indulgence  can  be 
gained  and  a  plenary  Indulgence  at  the  end  of  the 
novena.  The  Indulgences  and  the  conditions  for 
gaining  them  are  accurately  given  in  detail  in  the 
authentic  "Raccolta"  and  in  the  works  on  Indul- 
gences by  Beringer  and  Hilgers,  which  have  appeared 
in  various  languages.  The  indulgenced  novenas,  to 
a  certain  extent  official,  have  but  contributed  to  in- 
crease the  confidence  of  the  faithful  in  novenas. 
Hence,  even  the  private  novena  of  prayer  flourishes 
in  our  day.  Through  the  novena  to  Our  Lady  of 
Lourdes,  through  that  to  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  or 
some  other  saint,  the  faithful  seek  and  find  help  and 
relief.  The  history  of  novenas  is  not  yet  written,  but 
it  is  doubtless  a  good  part  of  the  history  of  childlike 
veneration  of  Our  Lady  and  all  the  saints,  of  lively 
confidence  in  God ,  and  especially  of  the  spirit  of  prayer 
in  the  Catholic  Church. 

Joseph  Hilgers 

Novice. — I.  Definition  and  Requirements. — 
The  word  novice,  which  among  the  Romans  meant  a 
newly  acquired  slave,  and  which  is  now  used  to  denote 
an  inexperienced  person,  is  the  canonical  Latin  name 
of  those  who,  having  been  regularly  admitted  into  a 
religious  order  and  ordinarily  already  confirmed  in 
their  higher  vocation  by  a  certain  period  of  probation 
as  postulants,  are  prepared  by  a  series  of  exercises  and 
tests  for  the  religious  profession.  In  Greek,  the  novice 
was  called  apxipw,  a  beginner.  The  religious  life, 
recommended  by  Jesus  Christ  is  encouraged  by  the 
Church  and  any  person  is  allowed  to  become  a  novice 
who  is  not  prevented  by  some  positive  legal  impedi- 
ment. No  minimum  or  maximum  age  is  fixed  by 
canon  law  for  admission  into  the  novitiate.  Those, 
however,  who  have  not  arrived  at  puberty  cannot  enter 
without  the  consent  of  their  parents  or  guardians;  and 
canon  law  ("Si  quis",  I;  "De  regularibus",  III,  31) 
grants  to  parents  one  year  to  compel  the  return  of  a 
child  who  has  entered  without  their  consent.  As  the 
Council  of  Trent  fixes  at  sixteen  years  the  earliest  age 
for  the  profession  which  follows  the  novitiate,  we  may 
conclude  that  the  novice  must  have  completed  his  fif- 
teenth year  if  the  religious  order  requires  one  year  of 
novitiate;  or,  his  fourteenth,  if  the  two  years  be  re- 
quired, and  this  opinion  is  confirmed  in  respect  to 
Regulars,  properly  so-called,  by  the  decree  of  the  Sa- 
cred Congregation  of  Religious  dated  16  May,  1675, 
and  for  nuns  by  that  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Bishops  and  Regulars  dated  28  May,  1689.    Accord- 


ing to  the  rules  of  procedure,  published  by  the  latter 
congregation,  28  June,  1901,  no  person  may  be  ad- 
mitted into  a  new  congregation  under  the  age  of  fif- 
teen years  without  special  iirrniission  of  the  Holy  See. 
The  constitution  of  Cleuicnt  \'II1,  "Cum  ad  Regu- 
larem",  of  19  March,  1603,  requires  the  age  of  nine- 
teen full  years  for  the  reception  of  lay-brothers,  but 
this  constitution  has  not  been  everywhere  carried  into 
effect.  Canon  law  dislinctly  gives  to  clerics  the  right 
to  enter  religion  (ef.  Clcrici.  unic.,  e.  XIX,  i;  Alienum, 
I  eodem,  q.  2;  Benedict  Xl\ ,  C.  "Kx  (|Uo  dilectus", 
14  January,  1747;  the  reply  of  the  Sacred  Congrega- 
tion of  Bishops  and  Regulars  of  20  December,  1859; 
Nilles,  "De  libertate  clcricorum  religionem  ingre- 
diendi").  Even  those  who  have  obtaineil  a  burse  for 
study,  or  who  have  been  maintained  at  the  exjjense  of 
the  seminary  retain  this  right,  although  it  is  admitted 
that  the  founder  of  a  burse,  or  the  donor  of  money  for 
educational  purposes  may  impose  certain  reasonable 
conditions  for  the  use  of  his  gifts,  and  may  stipulate 
for  instance  that  the  cleric  shall  undertake  to  serve 
the  diocese  for  a  certain  number  of  ye.ars,  or  not  to 
enter  into  religion  without  the  consent  of  the  Holy  See. 
Although  the  consent  of  the  bishop  is  not  canonically 
required,  the  cleric  is  recommended  to  inform  him  of 
his  intention  to  enter  a  religious  order,  and  a  similar 
notification  is  required  of  any  cleric  or  priest  occupy- 
ing any  office  or  benefice.  The  bishop  in  fact  must  be 
in  a  position  to  fill  the  vacancy.  For  the  entry  into 
religion  of  a  diocesan  bishop  nominated  or  confirmed 
by  the  Holy  See,  the  consent  of  the  pope  is  required. 
This  does  not  apply  to  a  bishop  who  has  lawfully  re- 
signed his  see,  but  some  authors  consider  that  it  does 
apply  to  titular  bishops. 

However  general  may  be  the  freedom  to  enter  a  re- 
ligious order,  no  person  is  allowed  to  do  this  to  the 
detriment  of  another's  right.  Thus  a  married  man,  at 
least  after  the  consummation  of  marriage,  cannot  en- 
ter into  religion,  unless  his  wife  has  by  her  misconduct 
given  him  the  right  to  refuse  cohabitation  forever,  or 
unless  she  consents  to  his  entrance,  and  agrees  to 
make  a  vow  of  chastity  or  to  enter  into  religion  her- 
self, in  conformity  with  canonical  rules.  The  liberty 
of  a  married  woman  is  similarly  limited  ("Pra?terea  , 
1;  "Cum  sis",  4;  "Ad  Apostolicam",  13;  "Significa- 
vit",  18;  "De  conversione  conjugatorum".  III,  32). 
Parents  may  not  enter  into  religion  without  making 
suitable  provision  for  the  education  and  future  of  their 
children;  nor  children  who  are  under  the  obligation  of 
maintaining  their  parents,  if  their  religious  profession 
would  prevent  them  from  aiding  their  parents  in  any 
grave  necessity.  Debtors  also  are  forbidden,  at  least 
those  who  may  be  expected  to  be  able  to  pay  their 
debts  within  a  reasonable  time  (this  is  a  disputed 
point  but  we  give  the  most  commonly  accepted  opin- 
ion, which  is  that  of  St.  Alphonsus,  "Moral  Theol- 
ogy", bk.  IV,  5,  n.  71).  Moreover,  a  positive  order  of 
Sixtus  V  (Cum  de  omnibus.  1587),  modified  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  by  Clement  VIII  (In  Suprema,  1602),  for- 
bids the  profession  of  persons  involved  in  debts  by 
their  own  fault.  Canon  law  also  excludes  persons 
branded  with  infamy  and  those  connected  with  any 
criminal  proceeding,  also  those  under  an  obligation  to 
render  accounts  of  a  complicated  nature.  (C.  Clement 
VIII,  "In  Suprema",  1602.)  An  illegitimate  child  is 
not  necessarily  excluded,  but  he  cannot  be  received 
into  any  order  in  which  his  father  is  professed  (C. 
Gregory  XIV,  "Circum.specta",  15  March,  1591). 

The  canonical  regulations  spoken  of  above,  concern 
those  religious  orders  in  which  solemn  vows  are  taken. 
Rehgious  congregations  are  governed  generally  by  the 
natural  law  and  their  own  approved  constitutions. 
According  to  the  "Norma>"  (Regulations)  of  1901,  the 
Holy  See  imposes  the  following  disabilities,  and  re- 
serves to  itself  the  right  of  dispensation:  illegitimacy, 
not  removed  by  legitimation;  age,  below  fifteen  and 
above  thirty  years;  vows  binding  a  person  to  another 


NOVICE 


145 


NOVICE 


order;  marriage;  debts  or  liability  to  render  accounts; 
and  for  nuns,  widowhood.  More  recently,  the  decree 
"Ecclesia  Christi"  of  7  September,  1909,  with  which 
must  be  read  the  declarations  of  4  January  and  5 
April,  1910,  renders  invalid,  without  the  permission  of 
the  Holy  See,  the  admission  of  any  person  who  has 
been  expelled  from  a  college  for  immorality  or  other 
grave  fault,  or  of  a  person  who  has  been  dismissed  for 
any  cause  whatever  from  another  religious  order,  a 
seminary,  or  any  institution  for  the  training  of  ecclesi- 
astics or  religious.  A  person  who  has  obtained  a 
dispensation  from  his  vows  cannot  enter  into  any 
order  but  the  one  which  he  left.  This  decree  applies 
both  to  religious  orders,  and  to  congregations  with 
simple  vows,  at  least  to  those  which  are  not  diocesan, 
and  its  effect  has  been  extended  by  the  order  of  4  Jan- 
uary, 1910,  to  religious  communities  of  women.  Only 
formal  expulsion  renders  admission  invalid,  but  the 
fact  of  leaving  college  or  other  institution  under  cir- 
cumstances which  would  make  it  equivalent  to  expul- 
sion makes  it  illicit,  and  the  Holy  See  requires  superi- 
ors to  make  such  inquiries  as  are  necessary  to  prevent 
the  admission  of  unflesirable  persons.  Another  decree 
of  7  September,  1910,  "In  articulo",  while  not  ren- 
dering t  he  rccc'ption  invalid,  forbids  the  admission  of  a 
young  man  who  presents  himself  in  order  to  become  a 
religious  cleric,  unless  he  has  gone  through  a  course  of 
at  least  four  years  of  classical  studies.  (For  these 
decrees  and  their  explanation  see  "De  religiosis  et 
mi.ssionariis",  vol.  V). 

Before  the  taking  of  the  habit,  exact  information 
must  he  secured  to  make  sure  of  the  qualities  and  good 
intentions  of  the  candidates.  These  precautions  are 
happy  substitutions  for  the  rather  rude  test  that  had 
to  be  undergone  in  former  times  (see  Postul.\nt). 
Besides  being  dictated  by  the  natural  law,  they  have 
been  sanctioned  for  the  orders  of  men  by  a  Constitu- 
tion of  Sixtus  V,  "Cum  de  omnibus",  1587,  and  by 
another  Constitution,  "Cum  ad  regularem",  promul- 
gated by  Clement  VHI,  March,  1603,  and  confirmed 
by  Urban  Mil.  (The  ordinances  of  Clement  VIII 
concern  Italy  and  the  adjacent  islands  only.)  In  the 
celebrated  Decree  "Romani  Pontifices"  (25  January, 
184S),  Pius  IX  laid  a  strict  injunction  on  all  superiors 
of  orders  and  congregations  of  men  to  admit  no  one  to 
the  habit  without  testimonial  letters  from  the  ordi- 
nary of  the  diocese  in  which  the  candidate  was  born 
and  of  the  dioceses  in  which  he  has  lived  for  more  than 
a  year  from  the  age  of  fifteen.  This  year  is  explained 
in  a  later  declaration  to  mean  twelve  successive 
months  spent  in  the  same  diocese.  In  these  letters, 
the  ordinaries  ought,  in  as  far  as  they  can,  to  bear 
witness  to  the  candidate's  birth,  age,  conduct,  reputa- 
tion, and  all  other  qualities  that  affect  his  entry  into 
religion.  The  obligation  of  exacting  such  letters  is 
imposed  under  penalty  of  censure,  but  it  does  not  en- 
tail nullity.  Their  receipt  does  not  dispense  superiors 
from  making  their  own  inquiries. 

II.  Juridical  Conditiox. — By  the  fact  of  his  en- 
trance into  an  approved  congregation,  the  novice  be- 
comes an  ecclesiastical  person.  If  he  is  a  novice  in  a 
religious  order,  he  becomes  a  regular  in  the  widest 
sense  of  the  word ;  as  such  he  is  not  bound  by  any  vow, 
but  he  is  protected  by  the  ecclesiastical  immunities, 
and  shares  in  the  indulgences  and  privileges  of  his 
order,  gaining  a  plenary  indulgence  on  the  day  of  his 
admission,  at  least  into  an  order  properly  so  called. 
The  prelate  or  superior  may  exercise  in  regard  to  his 
novices  all  his  powers  of  absolution  in  reserved  cases, 
and  of  dispensations  from  rules  and  precepts  of  the 
Church.  Novices  benefit  also  by  any  exemption  at^ 
tached  to  the  order  to  which  they  belong.  The  juris- 
diction communicated  by  the  superior  of  the  congre- 
gation suffices  to  absolve  them.  It  follows  apparently 
that  a  confessor  approved  only  by  the  ordinary  of  the 
place  could  not  give  them  valid  absolution,  though 
this  point  is  disputed.  According  to  the  common  law 
XI.— 10 


of  regulars,  the  priest  who  is  master  of  novices  is  their 
only  ordinary  confessor.  The  novice  is  bound  to  obey 
the  superior  who  has  jurisdiction  over  him,  and  power 
as  head  of  the  house.  He  is  bound  by  any  private 
vows  he  may  have  taken,  but  these  may  be  indirectly 
annulled  by  the  superior  in  so  far  as  they  are  contrary 
to  the  rules  of  the  order  or  the  exercises  of  the  novi- 
tiate. The  training  of  the  novices  is  entrusted  to  an 
experienced  religious,  ordinarily  distinct  from  the  local 
superior.  The  latter,  though  obliged  to  respect  the 
prerogatives  of  the  novice-master,  remains  the  real  im- 
mediate superior  of  the  novices,  and  outside  that  part 
of  the  house  which  is  called  the  novitiate,  the  direc- 
tion of  the  entire  community  belongs  exclusively  to 
him.  By  canon  law,  the  novice  retains  full  and  entire 
liberty  to  leave  his  order  and  incurs  no  pecuniary  re- 
sponsibility by  the  mere  fact  of  leaving  it.  Vows  of 
devotion  do  not  change  the  juridical  condition  of  the 
novice,  and  they  cease  to  bind  if  he  is  legally  ex-pelled. 
As  soon  as  one  has  made  up  his  mind  to  leave,  it  be- 
comes his  duty  to  inform  the  superior;  and  if  he  fails  to 
do  so,  he  becomes  liable  to  reimburse  the  order  for  any 
unnecessary  ex-pense  it  may  incur  on  his  behalf  after 
his  decision.  This  is  only  natural  justice.  The  order  is 
obliged  to  restore  to  him  his  personal  property  and 
anything  he  may  have  brought  with  him.  As  the 
order  is  not  bound  to  the  novice  by  any  contract,  it 
may  dismiss  him.  According  to  the  regulations  of  28 
Jime,  1901,  in  new  congregations  governed  by  simple 
vows,  the  dismissal  of  a  novice  must  be  approved  by 
the  superior-general  and  his  council.  Dismissal  with- 
out sufficient  cause  would  be  an  offence  against  char- 
ity and  equity,  and  a  superior  guilty  of  such  an  offence 
would  fail  in  his  duty  to  his  order. 

Although  the  reception  of  a  novice  should  be  gra- 
tuitous, theCouncilof  Trent  (c.  16,  Sess.  25,  "Deregu- 
laribus")  permits  the  order  to  stipulate  for  the  pay- 
ment of  his  expenses  while  in  the  novitiate.  In  order 
to  ensure  the  complete  liberty  of  the  novice,  the  same 
council  forbids  him  to  make  any  renunciation  of  his 
property  or  any  important  gift,  and  annuls  such  re- 
nunciation if  made.  Parents  also,  to  whose  property 
the  novice  had  a  right  of  succession,  are  debarred  from 
making  any  considerable  donation.  By  common  law, 
however,  a  novice  may  legally  renounce  his  property 
within  the  two  months  immediately  preceding  his  pro- 
fession, and  this  renunciation  should  also  be  authorized 
by  the  bishop  or  his  vicar-general.  Th.is  formality  of 
authorization  is  not  always  insisted  upon  in  practice. 
The  renunciation  may  extend  to  property  of  which  he  is 
already  possessed,  or  to  such  as  miist  necessarily  de- 
scend to  him  by  right  of  inheritance;  but  not  seem- 
ingly to  such  as  he  has  only  an  expectation  of  receiv- 
ing. He  is  free  to  make  over  his  property  to  his  family, 
his  order,  or  any  pious  work,  or  even  to  pro\'ide  for 
services  and  Masses  after  his  death.  Although  the 
renunciation  takes  effect  only  from  the  dat<'  of  his  pro- 
fession, and  becomes  null  and  void  if  that  profession 
does  not  take  place,  it  is  not  revocable  at  tnc  i)leasure 
of  the  novice  before  his  profession,  unless  he  has  re- 
served to  himself  the  right  to  change  the  disi)osition 
of  his  property.  If  no  renunciation  has  been  made  at 
the  time  of  solemn  profession,  canon  law  assigns  the 
property  either  to  the  monastery  or  to  the  natural 
heirs  of  the  religious.  Common  law  requires  that  the 
solemn  profession  shall  be  preceded  by  a  period  of 
simple  vows;  before  making  these  vow.-;,  the  novice  is 
bound  to  declare  to  whom  he  commits  tlie  ailiuinistra- 
tion  of  his  i):itriniony,  and  how  he  wishes  the  iiu'ome 
to  be  emplnyed,  and  the  eon.seiit  of  the  Holy  See  is 
generallv  required  f{ir  ariv  eliange  in  tliis  arr.'uigeiiient. 
The  religious  is  enl  it  kd  in  provid.'  for  I  lie  ailiiiinistra- 
tion  of  any  addilimiid  prujierty  which  iiKiy  come  to 
him  after  his  sim])le  profession,  and  fur  the  disposal  of 
the  income  of  such  i)roi)erty^  The  law  of  Qw  Council 
of  Trent  does  not  concern  congregations  which  are 
governed  by  simple  vows;  but  in  these  the  power  of  a 


NOVICE 


146 


NOVICE 


novice  to  alionntc  or  retain  his  property  is  provided 
for  by  their  const itvitions.  Generally  speaking,  the 
novice  is  bound,  before  taking  his  vows,  to  declare 
how  he  wishes  his  property  to  be  administered,  and 
the  income  expended.  According  to  the  Regulations 
of  1901,  he  may,  even  after  making  his  vows,  be  au- 
thorized by  the  superior-general  to  modify  these  dis- 
positions. The  renunciation  of  property,  though  not 
made  null  and  void,  is  forbidden  to  the  novice.  The 
Holy  See  does  not  approve  that  any  obligation  should 
be  imposed  upon  the  novice  to  give  even  the  income  of 
his  property  to  his  order;  he  remains  free  to  apply  it  to 
any  reasonable  purjiose.  Solemn  profession  vacates 
all  ecclesiastical  benefices  of  which  the  novice  was  pos- 
sessed ;  the  perpetual  vows  of  congregations  go\erned 
by  simple  vows  vacate  residential  benefices;  that  is  to 
say,  benefices  w'hich  require  residence  are  vacated  by 
the  simple  profession,  which  prepares  the  way  for  sol- 
emn profession,  or  by  the  temporary  vows  which 
precede  perpetual  vows. 

III.  Exercises. — Except  in  the  case  of  some  special 
privilege  of  the  religious  order  (as  with  the  Society 
of  Jesus)  or  some  unavoidable  obstacle,  the  novice 
should  wear  a  religious  habit,  though  not  necessarily 
the  special  habit  of  novices.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
novice,  under  the  guidance  of  the  novice-master,  to 
form  himself  spiritually,  to  learn  the  rules  and  cus- 
toms of  his  order,  and  to  try  himself  in  the  difficulties 
of  the  rehgious  hfe.  The  rule  ordinarily  prescribes 
that  at  the  outset  of  his  religious  career  he  shall  pass 
some  days  in  spiritual  exercises,  and  make  a  general 
confession  of  the  sins  of  his  whole  life.  By  the  Con- 
stitution "Cum  ad  regularem"  of  19  March,  1603, 
renewed  under  Urban  VllI  in  the  Decree  "Sacra  Con- 
gregatio"  of  1624,  Clement  VIIl  laid  down,  for  novi- 
tiates approved  by  the  Holy  See,  some  very  wise  rules 
in  which  he  directed  that  there  should  be  a  certain 
amount  of  recreation,  both  in  the  house  and  out  of 
doors;  and  he  insisted  on  the  separation  of  the  novices 
from  older  religious.  For  a  long  time,  studies,  prop- 
erly so  called,  were  forbidden,  at  least  during  the 
first  year  of  novitiate;  but  a  recent  decree  dated  27 
August,  1910,  while  maintaining  the  principle  that  one 
year  of  the  novitiate  should  be  devoted  especially  to 
the  formation  of  the  religious  character,  recommends 
certain  studies  to  exercise  the  mental  faculties  of 
the  novices,  and  enable  their  superiors  to  form  an 
opinion  of  their  talents  and  capacities  without  involv- 
ing any  excessive  application,  such  as  the  study  of  the 
mother-tongue,  Latin  and  Greek,  repetition  of  work 
previously  done,  reading  the  works  of  the  Fathers, 
etc.,  in  short,  studies  appropriate  to  the  purpose  of  the 
order.  Novices,  therefore,  are  bound  to  give  up  one 
hour  regularly  to  private  study  on  all  days  except 
feast-days,  and  also  to  receive  lessons  limited  to  one 
hour  each,  not  oftener  than  three  times  a  week.  The 
manner  in  which  the  novices  apply  themselves  to 
these  studies  is  to  be  taken  into  account  when  the 
question  arises  of  their  being  admitted  to  profession 
(see  the  decree  annotated  in  Vermeersch,  "Periodica 
de  religio.sis  et  missionariis",  vol.  V,  1910,  n.  442, 
pp.  19.5,  197).  According  to  the  practice  of  the  older 
orders  the  novice  receives  a  religious  name,  differing 
from  his  baptismal  name. 

IV.  DrR.\Tiox. — For  all  religious  orders,  the  Council 
of  Trent  prescribes  a  full  year  in  the  novitiate,  under 
penalty  of  nullity  of  profession.  In  those  orders  which 
have  a  distinctive  habit,  the  novitiate  commences 
with  the  a.ssumption  of  the  habit ;  in  those  which  have 
no  habit,  it  commences  from  the  time  when  the  novice 
is  received  into  the  house  lawfully  assigned  for  the 
purpose  by  competent  authority.  This  year  must  be 
continuous  without  interruption.  It  is  interrupted 
whenever  the  bond  between  the  order  and  the  novice 
is  broken  by  voluntary  departure  or  legal  dismissal; 
and  also  when,  independently  of  the  wish  of  either 
superior  or  novice,  the  latter  is  compelled  to  live  for 


any  considerable  time  in  the  world.  A  dismissal  la 
considered  to  take  effec^t  when  once  the  novice  has 
cnisscil  till'  Ihreshold  of  the  house;  in  case  of  a  volun- 
tary <lei)arture,  a  novice  who  has  left  the  house,  but 
has  kept  his  religious  habit  and  who  returns  after  one 
or  two  days'  absence,  is  considered  as  having  given 
way  to  a  temporary  desire  for  change,  not  sufficient  to 
cause  him  to  lose  the  benefit  of  the  time  already  spent 
in  the  novitiate.  An  interruption  makes  it  necessary 
that  the  novitiate  should  begin  afresh  as  if  nothing 
had  previously  been  done,  and  it  differs  in  this  respect 
from  suspension,  which  is,  so  to  speak,  an  interval  be- 
tween two  effective  periods  of  novitiate.  The  time 
which  passes  during  the  suspension  does  not  count, 
only  the  time  passed  before  the  suspension  being  added 
to  that  which  follows.  The  novitiate  is  suspended 
when  a  novice  is  withdrawn  for  a  certain  time  from 
the  superior's  direction,  but  without  changing  his  con- 
dition. This  would  happen  in  the  case  of  a  temporary 
mental  aberration,  or  an  expulsion  for  some  reason 
shown  afterwards  to  be  unfounded,  and  therefore  an- 
nulled. It  is  generally  held  that  if  a  novice  quits  his 
order  after  having  finished  his  novitiate,  and  is  sub- 
secjuently  readmitted,  he  has  not  to  begin  his  novitiate 
afresh,  unless  it  appears  that  there  has  been  some 
serious  change  in  his  dispositions.  The  law  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  does  not  strictly  apply  to  congrega- 
tions governed  by  simple  vows,  but  the  constitutions 
of  these  congregations  ordinarily  require  a  year  of 
novitiate  at  least,  and  the  "Norma'"  (Regulations)  of 
1901  make  a  complete  and  continuous  year  of  the  novi- 
tiate one  of  the  conditions  of  a  valid  profession. 

The  practice  of  the  Holy  See  has  been  of  late 
years  to  interpret  this  continuity  much  more  strictly 
than  was  formerly  the  case.  Some  persons  consider 
that  one  whole  day  passed  outside  the  novitiate, 
even  for  some  good  reason,  and  with  the  permission 
of  superior,  is  sufficient  to  render  ineffective  the  whole 
of  the  previous  probation,  but  this  is  too  rigorous  an 
interpretation  of  the  rule.  To  avoid  all  danger  of 
offending  against  canon  law,  superiors  will  do  wisely 
not  to  grant  permission  to  pass  the  night  out  of  the 
novitiate,  except  for  a  very  good  reason  and  for  a  very 
short  time.  By  the  Constitutions  of  Clement  VIII, 
"Regularis  disciplinae"  of  12  March,  1596,  and  of 
Innocent  XII,  " Sancti.ssimus "  of  20  June,  1699,  the 
novitiate  house  must  be  approved  by  the  Holy  See, 
and  the  novitiate  cannot  be  validly  passed  elsewhere. 
These  directions  refer  to  Italy  and  the  adjacent  isl- 
ands, and  do  not  apply  to  all  religious  orders.  Never- 
theless some  authors  consider  them  to  be  of  universal 
application.  The  rules  of  congregations  governed  by 
simple  vows  approved  by  the  Holy  See  ordinarily  re- 
serve to  the  Holy  See  the  approbation  of  the  novitiate 
house.  Pius  IX,  in  an  Encyclical  letter  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars  dated  22 
April,  18.51,  required  that  in  all  novitiates  there  should 
be  a  common  life;  pocket-money  and  the  separate  use 
of  chattels  of  whatever  kind  (peculium)  was  forbid- 
den. One  part  of  the  novitiate  house  should  be  re- 
served for  the  novices,  and  strictly  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  dwelling.  The  novitiate  cannot  validly 
be  commenced  except  in  the  house  lawfully  set  apart 
for  the  purpose.  Some  authors  strictly  require  that 
the  novices  shall  never  be  lodged  elsewhere;  but,  al- 
though in  the  orders  whose  nOvitiate  is  bound  to  be 
approved  by  the  Holy  See,  residence  in  this  house  is 
rigorously  insisted  upon,  it  does  not  seem  possible 
that  a  few  days'  absence  should  lessen  the  value  of  the 
probation. 

V.  Hi.sTORY. — The  institution  of  a  time  of  proba- 
tion, in  order  to  prepare  the  candidate  who  has  al- 
ready been  admitted  to  the  religious  life  for  his  profes- 
sion, goes  back  to  very  ancient  times.  According  to 
Mgr  Ladeuze  (Le  c^nobitisme  Pachomien,  p  282),  in 
spite  of  the  testimony  of  the  MS.  life  of  St.  Paohomius 
(MS.  381,  "Patrologia",   IV,   Paris),   the  novitiate 


NOYON 


147 


NUBIA 


did  not  exist  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Paehomius  as  a 
general  institution;  but  from  the  fifth  century  at  least 
it  has  been  the  rule  for  the  Coptic  monks  to  pass 
through  a  novitiate  of  three  years.  (See  the  "Cop- 
tic Ordinal "  in  the  Bodleian  Library  of  Oxford ;  Evetts 
in  "Revue  de  I'Orient  chretien",  II,  1906,  pp.  65, 
140.)  This  term  of  three  years  was  required  also  in 
Persia  in  the  sixth  century  (Labouret,  "LeChristia- 
nisme  en  Per.se",  p.  80).  Justinian,  in  approving  this, 
says  that  he  borrowed  it  from  the  rules  of  the  saints, 
"Sancimus  ergo,  sacras  sequentes  regulas"  (Novella 

V,  "de  monachis",  c.  2,  preface  and  §  I).  Many  West- 
em  orders,  notably  that  of  St.  Benedict,  were  content 
with  one  year.  St.  Gregory  the  Great  in  his  letter  to 
Fortunatus,  Bishop  of  Naples  (bk.  X,  Letter  24,  in 
Migne,  "P.  L.",  LXXVII,  col.  1082-7)  required  two 
years.  Many  orders  of  canons  left  the  time  to  the  discre- 
tion of  the  abbot.  Common  law  did  not  prescribe  any 
term  of  novitiate  and  this  omission  led  to  the  frequent 
shortening,  and  occasionally  to  the  entire  abolition 
of  the  preparatory  probation.  Innocent  III  ["C. 
Apostolicum",  16,  "de  regularibus"  (III,  31)]  directs 
that  the  novitiate  shall  be  dispensed  with  only  in  ex- 
ceptional circumstances,  and  forbids  the  Mendicant 
Orders  to  make  their  profession  within  one  year. 
Finally  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXV,  c.  xv,  "de 
regularibus")  makes  a  year's  novitiate  an  indispensa- 
ble condition  of  valid  profession.  In  the  East,  since 
the  fourth  or  fifth  century,  the  novices  of  Palestine, 
Egypt,  and  Tabenna  have  been  accustomed  to  give 
up  their  secular  dress,  and  put  on  the  habit  given  them 
by  the  community.  This  habit  is  distinguished  from 
that  of  the  professed  by  the  absence  of  the  cuculla 
or  cowl.  Those  of  St.  Basil  kept  their  habits.  This 
practice,  sanctioned  by  Justinian  (Novella,  V,  c.  2), 
was  also  that  of  St.  Benedict  and  the  Benedictines, 
but  the  contrary  use  has  for  a  long  time  past  prevailed. 
(See  Profession;  Postul.\nt;  Nuns.) 

Classical  authors:  St.  Thomas,  Summa  theologica,  II-II,  Q. 
clxxx,  a.  2-7  and  Q.  clsxxix;  P.isserini,  De  hominum  statibui.  III, 
commenting  on  St,  Thomas,  I.  c;  SUAREZ,  De  Religione,  tract.  VII, 
bk.  IV-VI;  Laymann,  Theologia  moralis,  De  statu  religioso,  c.  vi; 
ScHMALZGRtJEBER  in  bk.  Ill  Decr.,  XXXI,  XXXII;  in  bk.  IV,  t. 

VI,  n.  38—42;  Schmier,  JurUprudentia  canonico-civilis,  bk.III.t.  I, 
pt.  I,  c.  iii,  s.  2 ;  Pellizarius,  Manuute  Regularium,  tr.  2 ;  Rotarius. 
Theol.  mor.  Regularium,  t.  I,  bk.  I,  II;  Martene,  De  antiquia  mo- 
nachorumritibus;  lDF,M,Commentarius  in  Teg,  S.  Benedicti;  Thomas- 
BiNi,  Vetus  etNova  Eccleaia  disciplina,  1. 1,  bk.  Ill,  etc.  More  recent 
writers — Angelus  a  SS.  Corde,  Manuale  juris  comviunis  regu- 
larium et  specialis  Carmelitorum  discalceatorum,  t.  I  (Ghent,  Is99) ; 
Bachofen,  Compendium  juris  regularium  (New  York,  1903); 
Bovix,  De  iure  regularium.  t,  I  (Paris,  1857);  Battandier,  Guide 
canonique  pour  lea  constitutions  des  instituts  d  veeuz  simples  (4th 
ed.,  Paris.  1908);  Bastien.  Directoire  canonique  d  Fusage  des  con- 
gregations d  voBux  simples  (2nd  ed.,  Maredsous,  1911);  Heim- 
BUCHER,  Die  Orden  und  Congregationen  der  katholischen  Kirche 
(Paderborn,  1907) ;  Ladeuze,  Etude  sur  le  cenobitisme  Pakhomien 
pendant  le  IV'  siicle  et  la  premiire  moitie  du  V'  (Louvain,  1898); 
NiLLES,  De  Ubertate  clericorum  religionem  ingrediendi  (Innsbruck, 
1886);  Piat,  Pralectiones  iuris  regularis,  t.  I  (Tournai,  1898); 
ScHiEwiETZ,  Vorgesch.  des  Monchtums  oder  das  Ascetentum  der  die. 
ersten  christlichen  Jahrhunderten;  Das  egyptische  Monchtum  im 
nerten  Jahrhundert  in  Archivfiir  Kirchenrecht  (Mainz),  LXXVIII, 
aq.  (separately  published,  1904) ;  Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church 
(London,  1906);  Vermeersch,  De  religiosis  institutis  et  personis, 
I  (2nd  ed.,  Bruges,  1907);  Idem,  Supplementa  et  Monumenta.  II 
(4th  ed.,  Bruges,  1910);  Idem  in  Periodica  de  Religiosia  et  Mis- 
sionariis  (Bruges,  1905);    Wernz,   Jus  decretalium.  III   (Roma, 

1901)-  A.  Vermbersch. 

Noyon.    See  Beauvais,  Diocese  of. 

Nubia,  in  North-eastern  Africa,  extending  from 
Sennar  south  to  beyond  Khartoum  and  including  the 
Egyptian  Sudan.  The  southern  section  includes 
Sennar  with  Dschesireh-el  Dschesire  (Island  of  Isl- 
ands), the  ancient  Meroe;  the  western,  Bahr  el  Abiad, 
Kordofan,  and  Darfur;  the  eastern.  Tarka;  the  cen- 
tral, Dongola;  and  the  northern,  Nubia  proper.  The 
various  tribes  belong  to  the  Ethiopian  or  Berber  fam- 
ily, intermixed  with  Arabians;  in  the  south  negroes 
preponderate.  Nubia  embraces  335^97  square  miles 
and  contains  1,000,000  inhabitants;  Dongola,  Berber, 
Khartoum,  Fashoda,  Sennar,  Fassuglo,  75,042  square 
miles  with  2,500,000  inhabitants;  Taka,  7766  square 


miles  with  1,000,000  inhabitants;  Kordofan,  35,069 
square  miles  with  300,000  inhabitants;  Darfur,  106,- 
070  square  miles  with  4,000,000  inhabitants;  Shegga, 
85,017  square  miles  wuth  1,400,000  inhabitants.  The 
chief  cities  are:  Khartoum,  at  the  junction  of  the  White 
and  Blue  Niles,  founded  in  1823  and  the  starting-point 
of  all  scientific  and  missionary  expeditions,  destroyed 
in  1885  by  the  Mahdi,  rebuilt  in  1898;  Omdurman,  on 
the  Abiad,  founded  by  the  Mahdi;  Sennar,  capital  of 
Southern  Nubia;  Kassala,  capital  of  Taka.  On  the 
Nile  are  Berber,  Abu-Hammed,  Old  Dongola,  and  New 
Dongola,  capital  of  central  Nubia;  in  Nubia  proper, 
Derr,  Wadi  Haifa,  and  Assuan ;  in  Kordofan,  El-Obeid; 
in  Darfur,  El  Fasho.  Formerly  the  port  of  Nubia  was 
Suakin  on  the  Red  Sea;  from  1906  it  has  been  Port 
Sudan.  Nubia  is  administered  by  the  Viceroy  of 
Egypt. 

History. — Nubia  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
Egyptian  Nuh  (gold),  as  the  Egyptians  obtained  most 
of  their  gold  there.  In  the  Bible  it  is  called  Cush. 
Egypt  sought  repeatedly  to  extend  its  southern  bound- 
aries, and  during  the  eighteenth  dynasty  reached 
Wadi  Haifa.  A  temple  was  built  at  Napata  (near  the 
Fourth  Cataract)  by  Amenophis  III,  and  Rameses 
II  w'aged  successful  war  with  the  Ethiopians.  After 
this  there  arose  in  Napata  near  the  sacred  mountain 
Gebel  Barkal  an  independent  theocratic  state;  the  re- 
mains of  many  of  its  temples  are  still  to  be  seen.  Dur- 
ing the  twenty-third  dynasty  the  Nubians  shook  off 
the  Egyptian  yoke,  and  even  conquered  Egypt  (750 
B.  c);  three  Nubian  kings  ruled  the  united  territory 
(732-668).  Psametich  I  (664-10)  drove  out  the  Nu- 
bians, and  Meroe  replaced  Napata,  which  maintained 
its  sovereignty  over  Nubia  until  destroyed  by  the 
native  king  Ergamenes  during  the  reign  of  Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus  (285-47).  During  Roman  rule,  the 
Nubians  attempted  to  gain  the  Thebaid,  but  Petro- 
nius  in  25  b.  c.  conquered  Napata  and  forced  Queen 
Candace  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace.  In  the  third 
century  after  Christ  marauding  incursions  of  Nubian 
tribes  called  the  Blemmyer  forced  Diocletian  to  sum- 
mon the  Nobatee  from  El  Charge  in  the  Nile  valley 
as  confederates  of  the  empire.  Nevertheless  Prima, 
Phcenicon,  Chiris,  Taphis,  and  Talmis  yielded.  In 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  the  Thebaid  was  so  often 
devastated  that  Emperor  Marcian  was  forced  to  con- 
clude an  unfavourable  peace  in  451.  Christianity, 
brought  probably  by  the  hermits  and  monks  of  the 
Thebaid,  began  to  spread  through  the  country.  The 
various  accounts  of  this  event  are  confusing;  Pliny  and 
Mela  give  the  name  of  Ethiopia  to  all  the  countries  in 
this  region,  including  Ab3'ssinia,  while  ecclesiastical 
writers  speak  of  an  Ethiopian  Church,  but  give  no  ac- 
count of  the  conversion  of  individual  lands.  Chris- 
tianity was  not  yet  well  established,  when  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century  under  the  protection  of  the 
empress  Theodora,  the  Alexandrian  priest  Julian  in- 
troduced Monophysitism.  Its  adherents  called  them- 
selves Copts.  The  Nobataean  kings  Silko  and  Eirpa- 
nomos  accepted  Christianity  in  this  form,  and  the 
Monophysite  patriarch  Theodosius,  Bishop  Theodore 
of  Philae,  and  Longinus,  Julian's  successor,  put  the  new 
doctrine  on  a  firm  basis.  In  580  Longinus  baptized  the 
King  of  the  Alodse.  The  final  victory  of  the  Mono- 
physites  was  secured  by  their  union  with  the  Arabs, 
soon  to  be  masters  of  Egypt. 

In  640  Amr  Ben  el-Asi'S,  the  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Arabs,  conquered  Egypt  and  ended  Byzan- 
tine supremacy.  The  Melchite  (Catholic)  patriarch, 
George  of  Alexandria,  fled  to  Constantinople  and  his 
see  remained  vacant  for  over  a  hundred  years.  The 
Copts  secured  peace  only  by  becoming  confederates  of 
the  enemy,  and  in  return  received  nearly  all  the  Catho- 
lic churches;  their  patriarch  alone  exercised  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  entire  territory.  According  to  the  Ara- 
bian Makrizi,  as  related  by  Ibn  Selim,  when  the 
Nubians  requested  bishops  they  received  from  Alex- 


NUEVA   CACERES 


148 


NUEVA  CACERES 


andria  Monophysites,  and  in  this  way  became  and 
remained  Jacobites  or  Copts.  In  the  following  ren- 
turics  niimiTous  t-hurches  and  monasteries  were  built 
even  in  I'pper  Nubia  and  Sennar,  the  ruins  of  which 
yet  remain.  Other  documents  show  that  Nubia  was 
divided  into  three  provinces  with  seventeen  bi.shojis: 
Maracu  with  the  sulTraKaii  Dioceses  of  Korta,  Jbrim, 
Bucoras,  Dunkala,  Sai,  Ternius,  and  Suenkur;  Albaiha 
with  Borra,  Gagara,  Martin,  Arodias,  Banazi,  and 
JMenkesa;  Niexaniitis  with  Soper,  Coucharim,  Takclii, 
and  .\niankul.  Yet  Christianity  was  in  continual 
danger  from  the  Mohannnedaiis.  Nubia  succeeded 
in  freeing  itself  from  the  control  of  Egypt,  which  be- 
came an  independent  Mohanunedan  kingdom  in  909, 
but  in  1173  Saladin's  brother  Schems  Eddawalah 
Turansehah  aclvan<'e(l  from  Yemen,  destroyed  the 
churches,  anil  carried  off  the  bishoj)  and  70,000  Nu- 
bians. At  the  same  time  Northern  Nubia  was  con- 
quered. In  127.5  the  Mameluke  sultan  Djahn  Bei- 
bars  .sent  an  army  from  Egypt  into  Nubia.  Dongola 
was  conquered,  the  Christian  king  David  was  obliged 
to  flee,  and  the  churches  were  plundered.  The  inhab- 
itants escaped  forcible  conversion  to  Mohammedan- 
ism only  by  payment  of  a  head-tax.  Nubia  was  di- 
vided into  jjctty  states,  chief  of  which  was  Sennar, 
founded  in  I4S4  by  the  negro  Funji.  Por  some  time 
Sennar  ruled  Shendi,  Berber,  and  Dongola.  In  the 
eighteenth  centurj-  the  King  of  Sennar  obtained  for 
a  time  Kordofan  also.  From  the  Middle  Ages  there 
is  httle  information  as  to  the  position  of  Christianity; 
Islam  became  supreme,  ])artly  by  force,  partly  by  the 
amalgamation  of  the  native  with  the  Arabian  tribes. 

In  1821  Sennar  and  the  dependent  provinces  sub- 
mitted to  Mohammed  All,  the  founder  of  modern 
Egj-pt.  The  commanding  position  of  the  capital, 
Khartoum,  led  the  Holy  See  to  hope  that  the  conver- 
sion of  Central  Africa  could  be  effected  from  Nubia. 
On  2(5  December,  1845.  the  ProjKiganda  erected  a 
vicariate,  confirmed  by  <  liit^nry  W'l,  3  .\pril,  1846. 
The  Austrian  imperial  family  loni  rilmtcd  funds  and  the 
mission  was  under  the  prnlcrtiun  of  the  Austrian  con- 
sulate at  Khartoum.  Missionary  work  was  begun  by 
the  Jesuits  Ryllo  (d.  1S48J  and  Knoblecher  (d.  1858), 
who  pushed  forward  as  far  as  4°  10'  north  of  the  equa- 
tor, Kirchner,  and  several  secular  priests  (among  whom 
were  Haller,  d.  1854,  and  Gerbl,  d.  1857).  They 
founded  stations  at  Heiligenkreuz  on  the  Abiad  (1855), 
and  at  Santa  Maria  in  Gondokoro  (1851).  In  1861 
the  missions  were  transferred  to  the  Franciscans. 
Father  Daniel  Comboni  (d.  at  Khartoum,  1881) 
founded  an  institute  at  ^'erona  for  the  training  of  mis- 
sionaries to  labour  among  the  negroes  of  Soudan. 
The  Pious  Mothers  of  the  Negro  Country  {Pie  Madri 
della  Nigrizia),  founded  in  1867,  devoted  itself  to  con- 
ducting schools  for  girls  and  dispensaries.  The 
Mahdi,  Mohammed  Ahmed,  in  1880  conquered 
Kordofan,  in  1883  vanquished  the  Egyptian  army, 
and  on  26  January,  1885,  destroyed  Khartoum.  A 
number  of  priests  and  sisters  were  held  for  years 
in  captivity ;  the  name  of  Christian  seemed  obliterated. 
After  the  overthrow  of  his  successor,  Caliph  Abdullah, 
by  the  EngUsh  under  Lord  Kitchener,  2  September, 
1898,  the  miiision  was  re-established.  In  1895  a  mis- 
sion had  been  opened  at  Assuan.  In  1899  Mgr  Roveg- 
gio  w^itli  Fathers  \\'eiler  and  Huber  established  a  station 
at  Omdunnan,  and  in  1900  founded  the  mission  near 
the  Shilluk  and  re-established  the  station  at  Khartoum. 
Under  his  successor,  Geyer,  stations  were  opened  in 
1904  at  Halfaya,  Lul,  Atiko,  Kayango;  in  1905  at 
Mbili  arnong  the  Djur,  at  Wau  in  Bahr  el  Ghazal,  and 
the  mission  at  Suakin,  opened  in  1885,  was  resumed. 
The  Sons  of  the  Sacred  Cro.ss,  as  the  Missionaries  of 
Verona  had  been  called  from  1887,  founded  a  station 
at  Port  Sudan. 

Starting  from  Khartoum  the  missionary  territory  ia 
divided  into  a  northern  and  a  southern  district.  The 
majority  of  the  population  in  the  north  is  Mohamme- 


dan, and  the  chief  task  of  the  missionaries  is  pastoral 
work  among  the  scattered  Christian  communities.  In 
19()S  Kliartoum  ha<l  ti9,341  inhabitants,  Onidurman 
57,9S5,  among  them  about  2307  Europeans,  of  whom 
about  1000  are  Catholics.  Khartoum  is  served  by  2 
fathers,  1  brother,  and  4  sisters;  the  schools  contain  42 
boys  and  75  girls.  In  Onulurmau  there  are  300  Cath- 
olics, 3  fathers.  1  brother,  and  5  sisters;  44  boys  and  45 
girls  attend  the  school.  There  is  also  a  school  for 
girls  at  Halfaya.  At  A.ssuan  there  are  2  fathers,  1 
brother,  and  4  sisters;  34  boys  and  54  girls  are  taught 
in  the  schools.  There  are  500  Catholics  among  the 
workmen.  At  Port  Sudan  the  Catholics  number 
between  200  and  300.  There  are  Catholics  also  at 
Haifa,  Abu-Hammed,  Dongola,  Argo,  Meraui,  Ber- 
ber, Atbara,  Damer,  Shendi,  Kassala,  Duen,  El- 
Obeid,  Bara,  and  Nahud.  The  southern  missions 
among  the  heathen  negroes  have  already  advanced 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  Nubia.  The  statistics  for 
1907  for  the  northern  and  southern  missions  were:  11 
stations,  30  priests,  23  brothers,  41  sisters,  2407  Cath- 
olics, 492  boys  and  girls  in  the  mission-schools. 

Renaudot,  LituTgiarum  orietilatium  cullectio  (2  vola.,  Paris, 
1716);  Le  Quien,  Oriens  christianus,  II  (Paris,  1740),  659-62; 
QcvTREMfeRE,  Memoires  giographiques  et  historigues  sur  I'Egypte, 
II  (Paris,  1811),  1-161;  Bokckhardt,  Travels  in  Nubia  (London, 
1819):  NiEBUHR.  Inscriplionea  Nubienses  (Rome,  1820);  Gau, 
Antiquites  de  la  Nubie  (Paris,  1821-2);  Rosellini,  I  monumenti 
dell  Egitto  e  della  Nubia  (Pisa,  1832-44);  Champollion,  Monu- 
ments de  I'Egypte  et  de  la  Nubie  (2  vols.,  Paris.  1844);  Makrizi, 
Gesch.  der  Copten,  tr.  \VC.stp:n-feld  (Gottingen,  184,5);  Lane- 
Poole,  Wis(.  of  Eiiur'  >•  ''  ■  -1/  /•//'  Ages  (London,  1901);  Butler, 
The  Arab  Conqu,  I  ■  I  '  '  '..l-.rd,  1902);  KuMM,  Nubim  von 
Asswin  bis  Donti"!  •  -  '  i  "li);  Cook,  Handbuuk  fur  Egypt 
and  the  Sudan  (I,..ii.l..ii,  I'n;,  (;i.;ver  in  Kalholische  Missionen 
(Freiburg,  1908). 

Otto  Hartig. 

NuevaCaceres, Diocese  OF  (Nov.\C.\CEREs), created 
in  1595  by  Clcincnt  VIII ;  it  is  one  of  the  four  suffragan 
sees  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Manila,  Philippine  Islands. 
It  comprises  the  provinces  of  Camarines  Sur,  Cama- 
rines  Norte,  ."^-Ibay,  and  Tayabas  in  the  southern  part 
of  Luzon,  the  islands  Ticao,  Masbate,  Burias,  and 
Cantanduanes,  also  numerous  smaller  islands  off  the 
coast  of  Southern  Luzon.  It  includes  a  territory  of 
13,632  square  miles,  and  has  a  population  of  nearly 
600,000.  The  cathedral  and  episcopal  residence  are 
situated  in  the  town  of  Nueva  Caceres,  the  capital  of 
Camarines  Sur.  The  territory  now  included  in  the 
diocese  was  first  visited  by  Augustinian  Friars,  who 
had  accompanied  the  famous  Legaspi-Urdaneta  ex- 
pedition of  1565.  When  the  missionaries  began  their 
labours,  they  found  the  natives  given  over  to  gross 
idolatries  and  superstitions  (adoration  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars,  ancestral  worship),  and  to  the  pro- 
pitiation of  a  multitude  of  deities  by  strange  sacrifices; 
nor  did  they  seem  to  have  any  idea  of  a  supreme 
being.  So  fruitful,  however,  was  the  apostolic  zeal 
of  the  missionaries  that,  within  a  few  years,  many 
thousands  of  converts  were  made  in  Albay,  in  Ca- 
marines Sur,  and  in  Masbate.  Assisted  by  heroic 
Catholiclaymen,  they  gathered  the  natives  into  villages 
or  reductions,  where  they  instructed  them  in  the 
truths  of  religion  and  taught  them  the  advantages  of  a 
settled  civilized  life.  The  Augustinians  had  begun 
the  spiritual  conquest  of  the  diocese,  but,  being  few  in 
number,  they  were  unable  to  attend  to  so  extensive  a 
territory.  In  1578  the  Franciscans  were  called  to 
assist  them.  The  arrival  of  the  latter  gave  a  new  im- 
pulse to  the  work  of  evangelization.  Missions  and  re- 
ductions were  multiplied  in  Albay,  in  Camarines  Sur, 
and  in  Masbate;  and  new  foundations  were  made  in 
the  Province  of  Tayabas.  The  ranks  of  the  mission- 
aries were  strengthened  from  time  to  time  l)y  workers 
from  Spain  and  Mexico;  as  early  as  1595  the  Church 
had  niadesomuch  progress  in  these  parts  that  Clement 
VIII  created  the  Diocese  of  Nueva  Caceres,  taking  the 
name  from  the  town  of  Nueva  Cdceres  founded  in  Ca- 
marines Sur  in  1.579  by  Francisco  de  Sande,  second 
Governor-General    of   the    Philippine    Islands.     The 


NUEVA  PAMPLONA 


149 


NUEVA  SEGOVIA 


first  bishop  was  Francisco  de  Ortega,  an  Augustinian 
friar  wlio  had  laboured  for  several  years  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Manila.  He  took  possession  of  his  diocese  in 
1600.  Tlie  present  bishop  (Rt.  Rev.  John  B.  McGin- 
ley,  con.  1910)  is  liis  twenty-seventh  successor. 

From  tlie  beginning  until"  1890,  the  greater  number 
of  parislies  and  missions  were  cared  for  by  the  Fran- 
ciscans and  tlie  Augustinians.  Although  tlie  latter 
had  resigned  during  the  first  years  in  favour  of  the 
Franciscans,  they  returned  to  the  diocese  some  years 
later  and  convcrtetl  to  the  faith  the  whole  of  Camar- 
ines  Norte.  Each  parish  had  as  its  parish  priest  a 
friar,  assisted,  according  to  the  importance  and  popula- 
tion of  the  district,  by  one  or  more  native  secular  priests. 
Only  in  later  years  were  the  latter  placed  in  full 
charge  of  imjiurtant  parishes.  As  late  as  1897,  out  of 
a  total  of  90  parishes,  43  were  in  charge  of  friars.  The 
bishops  were  also  generally  chosen  from  the  various  re- 
ligious orders,  though  on  several  occasions  members 
of  the  secular  clergy  held  the  see,  the  most  noted 
being  (172o)  the  saintly  Bishop  de  Molina,  a  native  of 
Iloilo,  whose  name  is  still  held  in  veneration.  The 
Lazarists  came  in  1870,  under  Bishop  Gainza,  and 
were  placed  in  charge  of  the  diocesan  seminary  then  in 
process  of  const  ruction.  The  same  prelate  introduced 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  and  placed  them  in  charge  of  the 
academy  and  normal  school  which  he  had  founded. 
In  1886  the  Capuchins  arrived  and  were  given  several 
missions.  In  1898,  on  account  of  the  revolution 
against  Spanish  ride  and  the  feeling  against  the  friars, 
most  of  these  religious  were  withdrawn  from  their 
parishes  antl  missions,  and  secular  clergy  placed  in 
charge.  The  present  (1908)  statistics  of  the  diocese 
are  as  follows:  168  priests,  of  whom  25  are  regulars; 
the  religious  who  are  not  priests  number  12  (sisters  9, 
brothers  3);  122  parishes  with  resident  priests:  without 
resident  priests,  6;  parochial  schools  1st),  with  4ti,0t)0 
children  in  attendance  (24,000  boys  ami  22, (UK)  t;irls); 
one  hospital;  one  academy  for  girls,  wit  li  201)  in  atti-ud- 
ance;  a  diocesan  seminary,  preparatory  and  tlicologi- 
cal,  with  60  students;  a  college  for  secidar  students 
attached  to  the  seminary,  with  500  students.  The 
total  population  of  the  diocese  is  nearly  600,000,  of 
which  nmnber  less  than  lUOO  are  non-Catholic. 

Kl  I  ,,;,,:,,,;,,,,,,/■,'.,,,„,,,  w  ,,l,,M,.i,, 11,  I'iDii;.  < '  r.'.nicax  dela 
Ap.,:!^     ,      ;■  '        .        -     /'.       -  -      '  M  niiln,  1738); 

DE  Zi     t.    ..  n     ■  /  /■'''■, iiii|i"loc,  1803); 

DE  Cu.Mi;.,  A«/.;,.',j  ..'  ,-.■  y  ,,,../  Madim,  1^-11;;  BlumeN- 
TSITT.  Dicaunano  -I/.'../,.-/'.-.  ./.  /■', Spinas  (Manilii,  1895);  DE 
Vioo,  Historiu  de  Filtpinas  (M;,nila,  1876);  Guia  Oficial  de 
FtHpinas  (Manila,  IS'JT);  i>i:  1I[-kht,\,  Estado  de  la  Provincia 
de  San  Gregorio  en  las  lalas  Filipinas  (Binondo,  1865). 

Jos.  J.  Daly. 

Nueva  Pamplona,  Diocese  of  (Neo-Pampilonen- 
Sis),in  Colombia,  South  America,  founded  in  1549  and 
a  see  erected  by  Gregory  XVI  on  25  September,  1835. 
The  city  contains  15,000  inhabitants  and  is  the  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name  in  the  Department 
Norte  de  Satander;  the  diocese  is  sufTragan  of  Bogotd, 
with  a  population  of  325,000,  all  Catholics  except 
about  one  hundred  dissenters,  mostly  foreigners.  The 
first  bishop,  Jos^  Jorge  Torres  Estans,  a  native  of 
Cartagena,  ruled  from  30  August,  1837,  to  17_  April, 
1853,  when  he  died  at  the  age  of  81,  an  exile  in  San 
Antonio  del  Fdchira,  Venezuela.  His  successor,  Jos6 
Luis  Niiio,  named  vicar  Apostolic,  was  consecrated 
in  October,  1856,  and  also  died  an  exile  in  San  Antonio 
del  Fd,chira,  12  February,  1864.  The  third  bishop, 
Bonifacio  Antonio  Toscano,  governed  from  13  Octo- 
ber, 1865,  to  his  retirement  in  1873.  He  convoked 
the  first  diocesan  synod,  and  assisted  at  the  Provincial 
Council  of  New  Granada  in  1868  and  at  the  Vatican 
Council.  Indalecio  Barreto  succeeded  him  3  Decem- 
ber, 1874,  and  died  19  March,  1875,  at  La  Vega  near 
Cucuta.  The  Bishop  of  Panamii,  Ignacio  Antonio 
Parra,  his  successor,  ruled  from  8  June,  1876,  until  his 
death,  21  February,  1908,  Bishop  Parra  had  been 
ejoled  by  the  Liberal  government  from  1877  to  1878  on 


account  of  his  efforts  to  preserve  the  liberty  of  the 
Church.  The  present  incumbent,  Evaristo  Blanco, 
was  transferred  from  the  Diocese  of  Socorro,  15 
August,  1909. 

The  diocese  has  52  parishes,  75  priests,  a  seminary, 
a  normal  school  for  women,  10  secondary  schools  for 
boys  and  13  for  girls,  180  primary  schools  with  an 
average  attendance  of  10,500,  12  charity  hospitals,  4 
orphanages  for  girls,  3  for  boj's,  2  homes  for  the 
aged,  1  convent  of  Poor  Clares,  9  convents  of  the 
Sisters  of  the  Presentation,  4  of  Bethlehemites,  3  of 
Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor.  The  Jesuits,  Eudists,  and 
Christian  Brothers  maintain  schools.  At  present  the 
Catholic  element  is  actively  promoting  good  journal- 
ism and  workingmen's  societies,  in  order  to  counteract 
socialism  and  establish  a  Christian  ideal  of  society. 
Antonio  Jos£  Uribb. 

Nueva  Segovia,  Diocese  op  (Novtb  Segobi«),  in 
the  Philippines,  so  called  from  Segovia,  a  town  in 
Spain.  The  town  of  Nueva,  or  New,  Segovia  was 
in  the  Province  of  Cagayan,  and  was  founded  in  1581. 
Manila  was  the  only  diocese  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
until  14  Aug.,  1595,  when  Clement  VIII  created  three 
others,  namely  Cebii,  Nueva  Cdceres,  and  Nueva 
Segovia.  The  latter  see  was  established  at  Nueva 
Segovia.  About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
the  see  was  transferred  to  Vigan,  where  it  has  since  re- 
mained. The  town  of  Nueva  Segovia  declined,  was 
merged  with  a  neighbouring  town  called  Lalloc,  and 
its  name  preserved  only  by  the  diocese.  Leo  XIII 
(Const.  "Qua;  mari  Sinico")  created  four  new  dio- 
ceses in  the  Philippines,  among  them  Tuguegarao,  the 
territory  of  which  was  taken  from  Nueva  Segovia,  and 
comprises  the  Provinces  of  Cagayan,  Isabela,  Nueva 
Vizcaya,  and  two  groups  of  small  islands.  The  terri- 
tory retained  by  the  Diocese  of  Nueva  Segovia  em- 
braces the  Provinces  of  Ilocos  Norte,  Ilocos  Sur, 
Union,  Pangasinan,  five  towns  in  the  province  of  Tar- 
lac,  the  sub-province  of  Abra,  and  also  a  large  part  of 
what  is  called  the  Mountain  province;  all  this  territory 
lies  between  15°  and  19^  N.  lat.  and  is  located  in  the 
large  island  of  Luzon. 

The  population  of  the  Diocese  of  Nueva  Segovia 
is  about  one  million,  consisting  principally  of  the 
Ilocanos  and  Pangasinanes  tribes,  besides  mountain- 
eers who  are  nearly  all  Igorrotes.  The  Ilocanos  and 
Pangasinanes  live,  mostly,  in  the  plain  between  the 
mountains  on  the  east  and  the  China  Sea  on  the  west. 
They  were  all  converted  by  the  Spaniards,  and,  up  to 
the  present  time  have,  generally  speaking,  remained 
faithful  to  the  Catholic  Church.  Since  the  Ameri- 
can occupation,  a  few  Protestant  sects  have  estab- 
lished themselves  here,  and  have  drawn  a  few  of  the 
ignorant  class  away  from  the  Church.  The  fidelity 
of  the  Catholics  was  severely  tested  by  the  schism  of 
1902,  started  by  Rev.  Gregorio  Aglipay,  an  excom- 
municated priest.  He  was  born  in  this  iliocese,  was  a 
high  military  oflScer  during  the  rising  of  the  natives 
against  the  American  sovereignty,  and  found  much 
sympathy,  especially  in  this  part  of  the  islan<ls.  He 
pretended  to  champion  the  rights  of  the  native  clergy, 
though  the  movement  was  political.  He  drew  with 
him  twenty-one  priests  and  a  large  number  of  lay 
people.  He  and  his  movement  have  been  discredited, 
and  the  people,  in  large  numbers,  have  returned  to  the 
Church.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  Igorrotes  has  been 
converted.  The  Spanish  missionaries  were  evangeliz- 
ing them  until  1898,  when  the  insurrection  against 
the  United  States  broke  out,  and  the  missionaries 
had  to  flee.  Belgian  and  German  priests  have 
taken  the  place  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  mi.ssionary 
field,  and  gradually  are  reclaiming  the  people  from 
their  pagan  and  especially  from  their  bloodthirsty 
customs. 

There  is  at  Vigan  a  seminary-college  under  Spanish 
Jesiiit   Fathers,   with   four  hundred   collegians   and 


NUGENT 


loU 


NUGENT 


twenty  sominarisfs;  there  is  also  a  girls'  oollcge 
founded  by  the  last  Spanisli  bishop,  Monsignor  llevia 
Campoinaues,  whu  had  to  t\eo  in  1S9S.  It  is  in  oliarge 
of  the  Sisters  of  St .  I'aul  ni  C'liartres.  The  Dominican 
Fathers  have  a  boys'  eoUoge  in  Dagupan,  Province  of 
Pangasinan,  and  the  Dominican  Sisters  have  a  girls' 
college  in  Lingayen,  the  capital  of  the  same  prov- 
ince. In  1910  a  parochial  school  and  college,  under 
Belgian  sisters,  was  opened  at  Tagudin,  a  town  of 
the  Mountain  Province,  with  an  attendance  of  805 
girls,  who  receive  manual  as  well  as  intellectual  train- 
ing. A  similar  institution  is  projected  for  the  sub- 
province  of  Abra,  and  will  be  entrusted  to  German 
sisters.  Gradually  parochial  schools  are  being  or- 
ganized, but  in  many  cases  it  has  been  found  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  sustain  the  expense.  The  Spanish 
government  supported  religion  in  all  its  works;  but 
since  the  separation  of  Church  and  State  the  people, 
unaccustomed  to  contribute  directly  to  the  support 
of  religion,  find  the  maintenance  of  ecclesiastical  in- 
stitutions a  difficult  undertaking.  .\t  least  Sunday 
schools  are  possible,  and  gradually  they  are  coming 
into  vogue.  In  Vigan,  out  of  a  population  of  10,000, 
about  2000  go  to  Sunday  school.  There  are  not  and 
never  were  almshouses  or  asylums  of  any  kind.  The 
people  are  very  charitable  towards  the  poor  and  af- 
flicted, who  have  the  custom  of  going  at  stated  times  in 
a  body  to  the  homes  of  the  well-to-do,  where  they  re- 
ceive some  gifts  and  where  they  then  publicly  recite 
the  rosary  for  the  spiritual  good  of  their  benefactors. 
Up  to  1903  nearly  all  the  bishops  of  Nueva  Segovia 
were  Spaniards.  In  that  year  Right  Reverend  D.  J. 
Dougherty,  D.D.,  an  American,  was  appointed.  He 
was  transferred  to  the  Diocese  of  Jaro,  Philippine  Isl- 
ands, and  Right  Reverend  J.  J.  Carroll,  D.D.,  the 
present  (1910)  incumbent,  like  the  former  bishop  an 
American,  succeeded  him. 

James  J.  Carroll. 

Nugent,  Francis,  priest  of  the  Franciscan  Capu- 
chin Order,  founder  of  the  Irish  and  the  Rhenish  Prov- 
inces of  said  order;  b.  in  1569  at  Brettoville,  near  Ar- 
magh, Ireland,  according  to  some;  according  to  others, 
at  Moyrath,  County  Meath;  d.  at  Charleville,  France, 
in  1635.  His  father  was  Sir  Thomas  Nugent  of  Moy- 
rath, and  his  mother  was  the  Lady  Mary,  daughter  of 
Lord  Devlin.  At  an  early  age  he  was  sent  to  France 
to  receive  an  education  which  the  Penal  Laws  denied 
him  at  home.  Before  the  age  of  twenty  he  obtained 
the  degree  of  doctor  at  the  tfni versifies  of  Paris  and 
Louvain,  and  occupied  chairs  in  these  two  centres  of 
learning,  prior  to  his  entrance  into  religion.  He  ac- 
quired a  profound  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Hebrew, 
and  could  speak  a  number  of  European  languages 
fluently.  In  1.5S9  he  joined  the  Capuchin  P'landro- 
Belgian  Province,  taking  the  name  of  f>ancis.  In 
due  course  he  was  professed  and  ordained  priest. 
Towards  the  close  of  1594,  or  the  beginning  of  1595,  he 
was  sent  to  France  to  guide  the  destinies  of  the  French 
provinces  then  being  formed,  and  established  com- 
munities at  Metz  and  Charleville.  Meanwhile  he  con- 
tinued to  deliver  lectures  in  philosophy  and  theology 
at  Pans.  In  1596  he  went  as  custos-general  of  France 
to  the  general  chapter  at  Rome,  and  was  appointed 
commissary  general  of  the  Capuchins  at  Venice. 
Three  years  later,  being  again  in  the  Eternal  City,  he 
took  part  in  a  public  disputation  in  theology  at  which 
Clement  VIII  himself  presided.  Father  Francis  main- 
tained his  thesis  with  skill  and  eloquence,  and  was  en- 
thusiastically awarded  the  palm  of  victory. 

At  the  general  chapter  of  1 599  he  was  relieved  of  the 
provincialate  and  returned  to  Belgium,  where  he  re- 
mained about  eleven  years.  In  1610,  at  the  earnest 
request  of  John  Zwickhard,  Archbishop  of  Mainz, 
seven  friars  of  this  province  were  sent  to  establish  the 
order  in  the  Rhine  country,  and  Father  Francis  was 
appointed  their  commissary  general.     He  founded  a 


convent  at  Pad('rl)()rn  in  1(112,  and  two  years  later 
communities  were  settled  at  Kssen,  .Minister,  and 
.\achen.  He  al.so  established  the  ('{iiifratcrnity  of  the 
Passion  at  Cologne,  and  aimmgst  its  first  pnitectors 
were  his  two  great  friends  Mgr  .^Ibergatti,  the  papal 
nuncin,  and  Frederick  of  Ilohenzollern,  the  dean  of 
the  cathedral.  In  1615  he  began  a  monastery  at 
Mainz,  and  Pope  Paul  V  nominated  him  vicar  .Apo.stolic 
and  commissary  general,  with  full  power  to  cstalilish 
the  order  in  Ireland.  That  country  was  then  passing 
through  a  period  of  terrible  persecution,  hut  theC.aim- 
ehins  braved  every  danger,  mingled  with  the  people, 
and  ministered  to  their  spiritual  ik-ihI.s.  Meanwhile, 
in  1618,  the  monastery  of  Charle\ille,  in  Upper  Cham- 
pagne, became  a  training-school  for  friars  intended  for 
the  Irish  mission,  and  facilities  for  the  sanies  purpo.se 
were  offered  by  the  Flandro-Belgian  Province.  A 
fresh  band  of  workers  was  soon  sent  to  Ireland,  and 
Father  Nugent  was  thus  enabled  to  found  the  first 
monastery  in  Dublin  in  1624.  The  Archbishop  of 
Dublin,  Dr.  Fleming,  in  1629  addressed  to  the  Irish 
clergy  a  letter  commending  the  Capuchin  Fathers, 
specially  mentioning  "their  learning,  prudence,  and 
earnestness  " .  Two  years  later  Father  Nugent  founded 
a  monastery  at  Slane,  in  the  diocese  of  his  friend,  Dr. 
Dease,  who  had  previously  borne  public  testimony  to 
the  merits  of  the  Capuchins.  Owing  to  failing  health, 
he  retired  in  1631  to  Charleville.  He  is  generally 
credited  with  having  procured  the  foundation  at  Lille 
of  a  college  for  the  free  education  of  poor  youths  from 
LHster  and  Meath  for  the  Irish  clergy.  He  died  at 
Charleville  on  the  Feast  of  the  Ascension,  1635. 
Rinuccini  described  him  as  "a  man  of  most  ardent 
zeal  and  most  e.xemplary  piety",  and  the  annalists 
of  the  order  state  that  he  refused  the  Archbishopric  of 
Armagh  offered  him  by  Pius  V,  who  style<l  him  "the 
support  of  the  Church  and  the  light  of  the  orthodox 
faith".  He  wrote  several  works,  of  which  the  princi- 
pal are:  "Tractatus  De  Hibernia",  "Cursus  philo- 
sophicus  et  theologicus",  "De  Meditatione  et  Con- 
scientia;  examine",  "Paradisus  contemplantium", 
"Super  regula  Minorum,  Expositio  Copiosa". 

CoG.\N.  The  Diocese  of  Meath  Ancient  and  Modern,  III  (Dublin, 
1870),  64S;  Bullnrium  Ordinis  F.F.  Minorum.  S. P.  Francisci.  iV, 
V;  Niciii.i  (-.  rh!'l:-'!l.:-r<'  "'•  T".- .,.  ::u.\  Fran.  Cap.  Mon.  (MS., 
1643)  (Du    I;  /  ■  >si;).  Nos.  Ill,  114.   116; 

Bellesiii  I',    '        '     '  A  '.„   Kirche  in    Irland.    II 

(Mainz,  1  v'li i .,  :;r,j  r,,; ,  I'l  i  i  i  ,,k,  ■.(.,  \  nmiU  Capuccini,  I  (Milan. 
1884),  155-160;  Kofco  da  (."esi.vale.  .Storia  delle  Missioni  dei 
Capuccini,  I  (Paris,  1867),  375-380,  403  sq. 

Father  Augustine. 

Nugent,  James,  philanthropist,  temperance  ad- 
vocate and  social  reformer,  b.  3  Rlarch,  1822,  at  Liver- 
pool; d.  27  June,  1905,  at  Formby,  near  Liverpool. 
Educated  at  Ushaw,  1838-43,  and  the  Engfish  College,  • 
Rome,  1843-6,  he  wasordained  at  St.  Nicholas's,  Liver- 
pool, on  30  August,  1846.  After  being  stationed  at 
Blackburn  and  Wigan,  he  was  sent  to  Liverpool  1  Jan- 
uary, 1849.  In  1S51  he  introduced  the  teaching  Sis- 
ters of  Notre  Dame,  now  directing  an  English  Catholic 
training  college  for  teachers  at  Mount  Pleasant.  In 
1853  he  opened  the  Catholic  Institute,  in  which  Dr. 
Newman  delivered  in  October,  1853,  his  lectures  on  the 
Turks.  In  1863  he  was  appointed  chaplain  of  Walton 
Prison,  and  held  the  office  twenty-two  years.  In  1865 
he  established  the  Refuge  for  Homeless  Boys,  which 
from  1865  to  1905  trained  2000  boys.  In  1867  he 
founded  "The  Northern  Press",  which  in  March, 
1872,  became  the  "Catholic  Times".  On  29  Feb- 
ruary, 1872,  he  organized  for  the  spread  of  temperancie 
the  League  of  the  Cross.  This  he  considered  his 
greatest  work.  In  1870  he  began  a  series  of  visits  to 
America.  After  retiring  from  the  chaplaincy  of  Wal- 
ton Prison  in  1885,  he  devoted  nearly  two  years  to 
parochial  work  and  inaugurated  the  new  mission  of 
Blundellsands,  which  he  resigned  in  1887.  To  prevent 
drunkenness  he  instituted  a  series  of  Saturday  night 
free  concerts,  which  gradually  became  a  civic  institu- 


NUMBERS 


151 


NUMBERS 


tion  and  in  1891  established  in  Bevington  Bush  a  Ref- 
uge for  Fallen  Women  and  a  Night  Shelter  for  home- 
less women  which  (1891-1905)  received  2300  poor 
women.  In  1892  Leo  XIII  appointed  him  a  domestic 
prelate.  In  memory  of  his  golden  jubilee  as  a  priest 
he  purchased  for  Temperance  meetings  and  concerts, 
the  Jubilee  Hall  in  Burlington  St.  The  citizens  of 
Liverpool  on  5  May,  1897,  presented  to  him  at  an 
enormous  public  meeting  his  own  portrait  now  in  the 
Liverpool  .\rt  Gallery  and  over  £1300  with  which  he 
began  the  House  of  Providence,  West  Dingle,  for 
young  unmarried  mothers  with  their  first  babies;  200 
such  cases  were  .sheltered  from  1897-1905.  In  1904  at 
the  age  of  eighty-two,  he  visited  America  with  Abbot 
Gasquet  but  taken  ill  at  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  he  hur- 
ried home  to  die.  On  8  December,  1906,  there  was 
erected  near  St.  George's  Hall,  a  bronze  statue  com- 
memorating him  as:  Apostle  of  Temperance,  Protector 
of  the  Orphan  Child,  Consoler  of  tlie  Prisoner,  Re- 
former of  the  Criminal,  Saviour  of  Fallen  Womanhood, 
Friend  of  all  in  Poverty  and  Affliction,  An  Eye  to  the 
Blind,  a  Foot  to  the  Lame,  the  Father  of  the  Poor. 

Catholic  Times,  Liverpool  Daily  Post,  Catholic  Family  Anntial, 
files;  London  Catholic  Weekly  (29  June,  1906). 

James  Hughes. 

Numbers,  the  name  of  the  fourth  book  of  the 
Pentateuch  (q.  v.). 

Numbers,  Use  of,  in  the  Church. — No  attentive 
reader  of  the  ( )ld  Testament  can  fail  to  notice  that  a 
certain  sac'rcdiiess  seems  to  attach  to  particular  num- 
bers, for  example,  seven,  forty,  twelve,  etc.  It  is  not 
merely  the  frequent  recurrence  of  these  numbers,  but 
their  ritual  or  ceremonial  use  which  is  so  significant. 
Take,  for  example,  the  swearing  of  Abraham  (Gen., 
xxi,  28  sqq.)  after  setting  apart  (for  sacrifice)  seven 
ewe  lambs,  especially  when  we  remember  the  etymo- 
logical connexion  of  the  word  nishba  (i'^wJ)  to  take  an 
oath,  with  sheba  (i'2™)  seven.  Traces  of  the  same 
mystical  employment  of  numbers  lie  much  upon  the 
surface  of  the  New  Testament  also,  particularly  in  the 
Apocalypse.  Even  so  early  a  writer  as  St.  Irena?us 
(Haer.,  V,  xxx)  does  not  hesitate  to  explain  the  num- 
ber of  the  beast  666  (Apoc,  xiii,  18)  by  the  word 
AATEINOS  since  the  numerical  value  of  its  constituent 
letters  yields  the  same  total  (30+1+330+5+10+ 
50+  70  +  200=666) ;  while  sober  critics  of  our  own  day 
are  inclined  to  solve  the  mystery  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciples by  simply  substituting  for  Latinus  the  words 
Nero  Ctesar  written  in  Hebrew  characters  which  give 
the  same  result.  Of  the  ultimate  origin  of  the  mystical 
significance  attached  to  numbers  something  will  be 
said  under  Symbolism.  Suffice  it  to  note  here  that 
although  the  Fathers  repeatedly  condemned  the  mag- 
ical use  of  numbers  which  had  descended  from  Baby- 
lonian sources  to  the  Pythagoreans  and  Gnostics  of 
their  times,  and  although  they  denounced  any  system 
of  philosophy  which  rested  upon  an  exclusively  nu- 
merical basis,  still  they  almost  unanimously  regarded 
the  numbers  of  Holy  Writ  as  full  of  mystical  meaning, 
and  they  considered  the  interpretation  of  these  mysti- 
cal meanings  as  an  important  brancli  of  exegesis.  To 
illustrate  the  caution  with  which  they  proceeded  it 
will  be  sufficient  to  refer  to  one  or  two  notable  exam- 
ples. St.  Irena;us  (Ha;r.,  I,  viii,  5  and  12,  and  II, 
xxxiv,  4)  discusses  at  length  the  Gnostic  numerical  in- 
terpretation of  the  holy  name  Jesus  as  the  equivalent 
of  888,  and  he  claims  that  by  writing  the  name  in 
Hebrew  characters  an  entirely  different  interpretation 
is  necessitated.  Again  St.  Ambrose  commenting  upon 
the  days  of  creation  and  the  Sabbath  remarks:  "The 
number  seven  is  good,  but  we  do  not  explain  it  after 
the  doctrine  of  Pythagoras  and  the  other  philos- 
ophers, but  rather  according  to  the  manifestation 
and  division  of  the  grace  of  the  Spirit;  for  the  propliet 
Isaias  has  enumerated  the  principal  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  as   seven"    (Letter   to    Horontianus).      Simi- 


larly St.  Augustine,  replying  to  Tichonius  the  Dona- 
tist,  observes  that  "if  Tichonius  had  said  that  these 
mystical  rules  open  out  some  of  the  hidden  recesses 
of  the  law,  instead  of  saying  that  they  reveal  all  the 
mysteries  of  the  law,  he  would  have  spoken  truth" 
(De  Doctrina  Christiana,  III,  xlii,).  Many  passages 
from  St.  Chrysostom  and  other  Fathers  might  be  cited 
as  displaying  the  same  caution  and  showing  the  reluc- 
tance of  the  great  Christian  teachers  of  the  early  cen- 
turies to  push  this  recognition  of  the  mystical  signifi- 
cance of  numbers  to  extremes. 

On  the  other  hand  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in- 
fluenced mainly  by  Biblical  precedents,  but  also  in 
part  by  the  prevalence  of  this  philosophy  of  numbers 
all  around  them,  the  Fathers  down  to  the  time  of  Bede 
and  even  later  gave  much  attention  to  the  sacredness 
and  mystical  significance  not  only  of  certain  numerals 
in  themselves  but  also  of  the  numerical  totals  given 
by  the  constituent  letters  with  which  words  were 
written.  A  conspicuous  example  is  supplied  by  one  of 
the  earliest  of  Christian  documents  not  included  in  the 
canon  of  Scripture,  i.e.,  the  so-called  Epistle  of  Barna- 
bas, which  Lightfoot  is  inclined  to  place  as  early  as 
A.  D.  70-79.  This  document  appeals  to  Gen.,  xiv,  14, 
and  xvii,  23,  as  mystically  pointing  to  the  name  and 
self-oblation  of  the  coming  Messias.  "Learn,  there- 
fore", says  the  writer,  "that  Abraham  who  first  ap- 
pointed circumcision,  looked  forward  in  spirit  unto 
Jesus  when  he  circumcised,  having  received  the  ordi- 
nances of  three  letters.  For  the  Scriptures  saith  '  And 
Abraham  circumcised  of  his  household  eighteen  males 
and  three  hundred'.  What  then  was  the  knowledge 
given  unto  him?  Understand  ye  that  He  saith  'the 
eighteen '  first,  and  then  after  an  interval  '  three  hun- 
dred'. In  the  eighteen  I  stands  for  10,  H  for  8.  Here 
thou  hast  Jesus  (IH20T2).  And  because  the  cross  in 
the  T  was  to  have  grace,  he  saith  also  '  three  hundred'. 
So  he  revealeth  Jesus  in  two  letters  and  in  the  re- 
maining one  the  cross"  (Ep.  Barnabas,  ix).  It  will,  of 
course,  be  understood  that  the  numerical  value  of  the 
Greek  letters  i  and  v,  the  first  letters  of  the  Holy  Name, 
is  10  and  8=18,  while  T,  which  stands  for  the  form  of 
the  cross,  represents  300.  At  a  period,  then,  when  the 
Church  was  forming  her  liturgy  and  when  Christian 
teachers  so  readily  saw  mystical  meanings  underlying 
everything  which  had  to  do  with  numbers,  it  can 
hardly  be  doubted  that  a  symbolical  purpo.se  must 
constantly  have  guided  the  repetition  of  acts  and 
prayers  in  the  ceremonial  of  the  Holy  Sacrifice  and  in- 
deed in  all  public  worship.  Even  in  the  formula;  of 
the  prayers  themselves  we  meet  unmistakable  traces 
of  this  kind  of  symbolism.  In  the  Gregorian  Sacra- 
mentary  (Muratori,  "Liturgia  Romana  Vetus",  II, 
364)  we  find  a  form  of  Benediction  in  some  codices 
(it  is  contained  also  in  the  Leofric  Missal),  assigned 
to  the  Circumcision  or  Octave  of  the  Nativity,  which 
concludes  with  the  following  words:  "Quo  sic  in  senarii 
numeri  perfectione  in  hoc  saeculo  vivatis,  et  in  septe- 
nario  inter  beatorum  spirituum  aginina  requiescatis 
quatenus  in  octavo  resurrectione  renovati;  jubila;! 
remissione  ditati,  ad  gaudia  sine  fine  mansura  per- 
veniatis.     Amen". 

We  are  fairly  j  ustified  then  when  we  read  of  the  three- 
fold, five-fold,  and  seven-fold  litanies,  of  the  num- 
ber of  the  repetitions  of  Kyrie  eleison  and  Christe  elei- 
son,  of  the  number  of  the  crosses  made  over  the  oblata  in 
the  canon  of  the  Mass,  of  the  number  of  the  unctions 
used  in  administering  the  last  sacraments,  or  the 
prayers  in  the  coronation  of  a  king  (in  the  ancient 
form  in  the  so-called  Egbert  Pontifical  these  prayers 
have  been  carefully  numbered),  of  the  intervals  as- 
signed for  the  saying  of  Masses  for  the  dead,  of  the 
number  of  the  lessons  or  the  prophecies  read  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year,  or  of  the  absolutions  pronounced 
over  the  remains  of  bishops  and  prelates,  or  again  of 
the  number  of  subdeacons  that  accompany  the  pope 
and  of  the  acolytes  who  bear  candles  before  him — we 


NUMISMATICS 


152 


NUMISMATICS 


aro  jiistifiod,  wc  say,  in  assigning  some  mystiral  mean- 
ing to  all  tliose  things,  which  may  not  perhaps  have 
been  very  closely  conceived  by  those  who  institutecl 
these  ceremonies,  but  which  nevertheless  had  an  in- 
fluence in  determining  their  choice  why  the  ceremony 
should  be  performed  in  this  particular  way  and  riot 
otherwise.  (For  explanation  of  the  mystical  signifi- 
cance commonly  attached  to  the  use  of  numbers  sec 
Symbolism.) 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Numismatics  (from  the  Greek  vbfuana,  "legal  cur- 
rency ",)  is  (he  science  of  coins  and  of  medals.  Every 
coin  or  medal  being  a  product  of  the  cultural, economic, 
and  ])olitical  cdiidit  ions  uniU-r  which  it  originated,  this 
science  is  divided  according  to  the  various  civilized 
communities  of  niankinil.  It  is  not  only  a  distinct 
science,  but  also,  in  its  respective  parts,  a  branch  of 
all  those  sciences  which  are  concerned  with  the  history 
of  nations  and  of  their  culture — classical  archajology, 
history  in  its  narrower  sense,  Orientalism,  etc.  Prac- 
tically, only  ancient,  modern,  and  possibly  Oriental 
numismatics  are  of  importance.  Furthermore,  a  dis- 
tinction should  be  made  between  numismatography, 
which  is  chiefly  descrijitive,  and  numismatology, 
which  views  the  coin  from  its  artistic,  economic,  and 
cultural  side. 

The  dependence  of  theoretical  numismatics  on  the 
pursuit  of  coin-collecting  is  clearly  seen  in  the  history 
of  the  science.  The  earliest  publications  of  any  im- 
portance were  written  to  meet  the  needs  of  collectors 
(e.  g.,  the  various  cabinets  of  Taler,  Groschen,  and 
ducats,  and  the  Miinzbelustibungen,  or  "coin-pas- 
times"), whereas  the  foundations  for  a  scientific  treat- 
ment of  ancient  numismatics  were  not  supplied  until 
1790,  by  Eckhel,  and  for  modern  not  until  the  nine- 
teenth century  by  Mader,  Grote,  and  Lelewel.  (It  is 
worth  remembering  that  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  in  "De 
regimine  principis",  II,  xiii,  xiv,  treated  the  subject 
of  money  and  coinage,  and  this  work  was  for  many 
years  the  authority  among  canonists.)  The  oldest  col- 
lection of  coins  of  which  we  have  certain  knowledge 
dates  back  to  the  fifteenth  century,  and  was  made  by 
Petrarch;  his  example  fouml  numerous  imitators. 
Hubert  Goltz,  in  1556-60,  vi-ii^  d  thr  various  collec- 
tions of  Europe,  of  which  thvvr  :ir'  ^,lid  In  have  been 
950.  In  comparison  with  pri\;itc  collections,  which 
are  as  a  rule  scattered  after  the  death  of  their  owTiers, 
the  collections  of  rulers,  states,  or  museums,  possess 
paramount  importance,  and  furnish  the  most  reliable 
basis  for  numismatic  investigations.  As  early  as 
1756  Francis  I  of  Austria  in  two  works  of  great  beauty, 
"  Monnoyes  en  or"  and  "  Monnoyes  en  argent",  made 
know-n  the  treasures  of  his  collection;  and  in  recent 
years  the  great  catalogues,  especially  those  of  the 
British  Museum,  have  become  the  most  important 
sources  of  information  in  this  science.  The  needs  of 
both  collectors  and  theoretical  students  have  called 
into  being  a  large  number  of  numismatic  societies,  as 
well  as  about  100  technical  periodicals,  in  large  part 
published  by  these  societies.  From  the  meetings  of 
the  (ierman  Society  of  Numismatics,  held  from  year 
to  year  in  difTerent  cities,  there  have  developed  in- 
ternational congresses:  Brussels,  1892;  Paris,  1900 
(Records  and  Transactions,  pubhshed  by  Comte  de 
Castellaneand  A.  Blanchet);  Rome,  1903;  (Atti  del 
congrcsso  intemazionale  di  scienze  storiche,  6  vols.); 
Bru.ssels,  1910. 

I.  Coins. — Coins  may  be  defined  as  pieces  of  metal 
that  serve  as  legal  tender.  The  term  includes  ordi- 
nary currency,  commemorative  or  presentation  pieces 
stamped  by  public  authority  in  accordan<!e  with  the 
e.ftablished  .standard,  etc.,  but  not  paper  money  or 
private  coinage.  To  the  last  class  we  refer  the  English 
tokens  which  were  largely  circulated  as  a  result  of  the 
insufficient  supply  of  fractional  coin  about  the  year 
1800;  furthermore,  the  pieces  called  mereaux,  issued, 


especially  by  church  corporations,  as  vouchers  for 
money,  and  afterwards  for\alue  in  general,  likejf(o?!s, 
orcnunters,  and  Rrchiiiiriijxpfriiiiii/r.  When  each  indi- 
viilual  is  no  longer  able  to  wrest  from  the  earth  his  own 
subsistence,  the  neces.sity  arises  for  sharing  l:ibour  and 
distributing  its  products.  This  is  at  first  cfrected  by 
barter  of  conunodities,  which  requires  a  universally 
available  medium  of  exchange  usually  found  in  cattle 
(in  Homer  the  equipment  of  Menelaus  is  valued  at  9 
steers;  that  of  Glacus,  at  100).  Besides  cattle,  prim- 
itive men  have  used  hides,  pelts,  cloth,  etc.,  for  this 
purpose.  Soon,  however,  it  becomes  necessary  to  find 
a  measure  of  value  that  can  be  employed  universally, 
and  for  this  gold,  silver,  and  copper  have  been  used  from 
very  early  times;  in  comparati\'ely  recent  years  after 
experimentation  with  many  other  metals,  nickel  has 
been  added  to  these.  The  first  stage  of  metallic  money 
is  reached  with  the  weighing  out  of  pieces  of  metal  of 
any  shape;  but,  as  only  the  gross  weight  can  be  de- 
termined by  this  procedure,  and  not  the  degree  of  fine- 
ness (a  very  essential  factor  in  the  case  of  the  precious 
metals),  the  necessity  arises  of  certifying  fineness  by 
the  stamp  of  public  authority,  and  this  stamp  makes 
the  lump  of  metal  a  coin.  The  employment  of  only 
one  of  the  metals  mentioned  soon  proves  insufficient: 
it  is  impossible  to  put  into  circulation  gold  coins  of 
sufficiently  small  denomination  or,  using  the  base 
metal,  to  issue  coins  of  sufficiently  high  values.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  to  make  use  of  tw-o  or  three 
metals  at  the  same  time.  This  may  be  done  either 
by  employing  the  one  precious  metal  as  a  measure  of 
value  and  the  other,  together  with  copper,  only  as  a 
commodity  or  subsidiary  coin,  or  else  by  using  both 
metals  concurrently  as  measures  of  value  at  a  ratio 
fixed  by  law  (bimetalfism),  a  course  however,  which 
has  frequently  caused  difficulties  on  account  of  the 
fluctuations  in  the  rate  of  exchange  of  the  two  precious 
metals. 

Inform,  coins  are  usually  circular,  sometimes  oval, 
and  quadrangular;  these  last  are  particularly  common 
in  emergency  coinage,  and  in  Sweden  had  grown  to  an 
immense  size  and  great  w'eight.  There  are  also  found, 
especially  in  the  Far  East,  coins  of  the  most  eccentric 
shapes.  In  addition  to  the  device  and  inscription 
coins  frequently  bear  what  are  called  mint  marks  or 
mint-masters'  marks  which  deserve  special  mention. 
Mint-masters  and  die-sinkers  have  in  many  eases  been 
accustomed  to  distinguish  their  works  by  means  of 
certain  marks  or  letters;  and  the  mints  distinguish 
their  respective  coins  either  by  letters,  indicating  the 
place  of  issue  by  conventional  and  arbitrary  marks,  or 
by  some  other  means — sometimes  scarcely  perceptible 
to  the  uninitiated — such  as  the  placing  of  a  dot  be- 
neath a  particular  letter  of  the  inscription.  In  this 
way  the  various  issues  of  coins,  otherwise  alike,  are 
kept  distinct. 

The  science  of  numismatics  is  materially  advanced 
by  finds  of  coins  in  large  quantities:  in  addition  to  a 
knowledge  of  previously  unknown  types,  such  dis- 
coveries afford  an  instructive  insight  into  the  actual 
circulation  of  coins  at  given  periods  anfl  the  extent  to 
which  certain  coinages  were  current  beyond  the  con- 
fines of  their  own  states,  and  help  us  to  assign  undated 
varieties,  especially  those  of  the  Middle  Ages,  to  some 
particular  mint-master  or  precise  period.  In  the 
study  of  the  science,  as  w'ell  as  in  the  classification  of 
coins,  it  is  the  practice  to  follow-,  chronologically,  three 
great  eras:  the  ancient,  medieval,  and  modern;  geo- 
graphically, the  different  political  divisions  of  the  re- 
spective times.  For  the  Greek  coins,  Eckhel  has 
adopted  an  exemplary  system  which  is  still  in  use. 
Beginning  at  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  he  takes  up  the 
countries  of  the  world,  as  known  to  the  ancients,  in 
the  order  of  their  positions  around  the  Mediterranean : 
first  those  of  Europe,  then  Asia  as  far  as  India, 
and  lastly  Africa  from  Egypt  back  to  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar. 


TYPICAL  COINS  OF  TWENTY-FIVE   CENTURIES 

1.    EOIN'ETAV,  SILVER.      2.    POSIDONIAN,  SILVER.      3.    STR.4CUSAN,  SILVER.      4.   JEWISH  SHEKEL  OF   SILVER. 

5.    ROMAN  AS,  BRONZE.      6.    DENARIUS  WITH  THE  DIOSCURI,  SILVER.      7.    GOLD  COIN  OP  AUGUSTUS. 

8.    BRONZE  COIN  OF  HADRIAN. 

«.    DENIER  OF  CHARLEMAGNE.       10.   TOURNOIS.      11.    PR.'S.GUE  GROSCHEN.       12.    AUGUST.^LIS  OF  FREDERIC  II. 

13    GOLD  FLORIN,  TIME  OF  AMADEUS  OF  S.WOY.       14.  VENETIAN  SEQUIN. 

15.    SALZBURG  RUBENTALER.       16.    SILVER  BRACTEATE  (GERMAN).      17.    CHAISE  d'oR.       18.    NOBLE. 

19.    DOUBLE  SEQUIN  OF  LEO  X,  GOLD. 

20.    GOLD  ZODIAC  PIECE.      21.    SIAMESE  TIHUL.      22.    MARIATERESIENTALER. 


NUMISMATICS 


153 


NinVIISMATICS 


A.  Greek  Coins. — The  term  Greek  is  always  under- 
stood in  ancient  numismatics  to  include  all  coins  ex- 
cept those  of  Roman  origin  and  the  Italian  ois  grave. 
The  monetary  unit  is  the  talent  of  60  minte  (neither 
the  talent  nor  the  mina  being  represented  by  any 
coin),  or  6000  drachmse,  each  being  equal  to  6  obols. 
The  various  currencies  are  in  most  cases  based  upon 
the  Persian  system  of  weights.  The  Persians  had  two 
(lilTcrent  standards  of  weight  for  the  precious  metals: 
for  gold,  the  Euboean;  for  silver,  the  Babylonian. 
The  gold  dari(\  the  common  gold  coin,  corresponding 
to  the  Greek  silver  didrachm,  weighed  8..385  grammes 
(about  129 J  grains);  the  silver  daric  (shekel),  5.57 
grammes  (nearly  87  grains) .  As  the  value  of  silver  to 
that  of  gold  was,  in  antiquity,  as  1  to  10,  the  gold 
daric  is  the  equivalent  of  15  silver  darics.  Other 
standards  of  coinage  were  the  Phocaean,  the  ^Eginetan, 
the  Attic,  the  Corinthian,  the  Ptolemaic,  and  the  cis- 
tophoric  standard  of  Asia  Minor;  some  of  these,  how- 
ever, may  be  derived  from  the  Persian  standaril.  By 
the  substitution  of  the  lighter  Attic  standard  for  the 
old  ^ginetan  Solon  brought  about  the  partial  aboli- 
tion of  debt.  The  most  abundantly  coined  pieces 
were  the  tetradrachm  (25-33mm.  in  diameter)  and 
the  didrachm;  pieces  of  eight,  ten,  and  twelve 
drachmfe  are  exceptional,  and  a  forty-drachma  piece 
is  a  rarity.  In  the  downward  scale  the  division  ex- 
tends to  the  quarter-obolus  {  =  ri  drachma).  In 
Greek  Asia  Minor  coins  made  of  a  mixture  of  gold  and 
silver  (electrum)  were  used.  In  Greece  the  silver 
coinage  greatly  predominated;  copper  coins  do  not 
antedate  400  B.  c,  while  gold  was  but  rarely  minted. 
The  coinage  of  the  Persians,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
very  rich  in  gold,  and  it  was  their  example  that  in- 
fluenced Philip  II  of  Macedon  and  Alexander  the 
Great.  With  a  few  exceptions  the  highest  degree  of 
fineness  was  aimed  at,  the  gold  daric  being  97  per  cent 
fine. 

In  the  early  times  the  coining  was  done  with  a  single 
die:  the  reverse  of  the  blank  metal  was  held  fast  by  a 
peg,  generally  square,  in  the  anvil,  and  so  received  its 
impress  in  the  form  of  a  quadrangular  depression  (in- 
cuse square) ;  in  time  this  square  came  to  be  adorned 
with  lines,  figures,  and  inscriptions.  In  Southern  Italy 
two  dies  that  fitted  into  each  other  were  employed,  so 
that  the  coins  present  the  same  design  in  relief  on  the 
obverse  and  depressed  on  the  reverse  (numini  iricusi). 
The  inscriptions  are  in  different  languages,  according 
to  nationalities.  Bilingual  inscriptions — e.  g.,  Greek- 
Latin — and  inscriptions  in  which  the  language  and 
type  do  not  correspond — e.  g.,  Greek  in  Cypriote 
characters,  also  occur;  and  even  the  Greek  characters 
undergo  numerous  changes  in  form  in  the  course  of 
time.  The  right  of  coinage  being  a  privilege  of  sov- 
ereignty, the  inscriptions  first  mention  the  name  of 
the  sovereign  power  under  whose  authority  the  coin 
was  struck;  in  Greece,  until  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  this  was  the  community.  The  names  of  the 
officials  who  had  charge  of  the  coinage  are  also  found; 
and  later  coins  also  show  the  year,  frequently  reckoned 
from  the  Seleueid  era,  312  B.  c.  The  oldest  coins  had 
their  origin  on  the  ^Egean  coasts,  perhaps  in  Lydia,,  as 
Herodotus  tells  us,  or  at  jEgina,  to  whose  king, 
Pheidon,  the  Parian  chronicle  ascribes  them,  possibly 
earlier  than  600  B.  c.  Various  islands  of  the  same  sea 
furnish  coins  bearing  designs  not  very  dissimilar  to 
these.  The  coins  of  Southern  Italy  are  ot  not  much 
later  date,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  specimens  are 
extant  from  the  city  of  Sybaris,  which  was  destroyed 
in  510  B.  c.  The  early  coins  of  Greece  proper  and 
Asia  Minor  are  thick  pieces  of  metal,  resembling  flat- 
tened bullets,  and,  naturally,  bear  the  simplest  de- 
vices, plants  and  animals,  which  soon  become  typical 
of  particular  localities;  these  are  succeeded  by  the 
heads  and  figures  of  deities  and  men,  sometimes  united 
in  grouiis.  About  400  b.  c.  the  Greek  art  of  die- 
cutting  reached  its  fullest  development,  attaining  a 


degree  of  excellence  unequalled  by  any  later  race: 
Syracuse  holds  the  first  place;  after  it  in  order  come 
Arcadia,  Thebes,  Olynthus,  etc. 

Of  the  non-Hellenic  peoples  whose  coins  are  in- 
cluded in  the  Greek  series,  the  most  important  forus  are 
the  Jews.  At  first  they  made  use  of  foreign  coins,  but, 
as  one  of  the  results  of  the  national  rising  under  the 
Machabees  against  the  Syrians,  the  high  priest ,  Simon, 
received  from  Antiochus  VII  (139-38  b.  c.)  the  right 
of  coinage.  Simon  minted  copper  and  silver.  To 
him  is  ascribed  the  "Shekel  Israel":  obverse  legend 
(Shekel  Israel)  and  a  cup  or  chalice  above  which  is  a 
date  (1-5,  reckoning  from  the  conferring  of  the  right 
of  coinage) ;  reverse,  legend  (Jerusalem  the  Holy)  and 
a  lily-stalk  with  three  buds.  The  rest  of  the  Macha- 
bees— John  Hydranus,  Judas  Aristobulus,  Alexan- 
der Janna;us,  Mattathias  Antigonus,  and  so  on — 
coined  copper  exclusively  with  inscriptions  in  old  He- 
brew or  in  Hebrew  and  Greek.  After  these  came  the 
copper  coins  of  the  Idumaean  prince  Herod  and  his  suc- 
cessors. In  the  time  of  Christ  Roman  coins  were  also 
in  circulation.  This  is  proved  by  the  story  of  the  trib- 
ute money.  "And  they  offered  him  [Christ]  a  penny. 
And  Jesus  saith  to  them:  Whose  image  and  inscrip- 
tion is  this?  They  say  to  him:  Ciesar's"  (Matt.,  xxii, 
19-21).  It  was  only  during  the  two  revolts  of  the  Jews 
against  the  Romans  in  a.  d.  66-70  and  132-135,  that 
silver  was  again  coined  under  Eleazar  and  Simon  and 
Bar-Cochba  respectively.  On  the  Bactrian  coins  of 
the  first  century  after  Chri.st  there  occurs  the  name 
Gondophares,  or  some  similar  name,  supposed  to  be 
identical  with  that  of  one  of  the  three  Magi,  Caspar. 

B.  Roman  Coins. — In  Italy  the  earliest  medium 
of  exchange  was  copper,  which  had  to  be  weighed  at 
each  transaction  ((r.s  rude).  At  first  it  was  used  in 
pieces  of  irregular  form,  later  in  clumsy  bars.  The 
credit  of  having  first  provided  a  legal  tender  is 
ascribed  to  Servius  Tullius,  who  is  said  to  have  had 
the  bars  stamped  with  definite  figures,  mostly  cat- 
tle (primus  signaml  ces;  ces  signalum).  The  intro- 
duction of  true  coins  with  marks  indicating  their 
value  and  the  emblems  of  the  city  belongs  to  a  much 
later  date.  The  monetary  unit  was  the  as  of  12 
ounces  (10.527  oz.  Troy),  equal  to  a  Roman  pound 
(ijbra — hence,  Ubral  standard) ;  usually,  however,  the 
weight  of  an  as  was  only  10  ounces  (about  8j  oz. 
Troy).  The  divisions  of  the  as  (the  semis  =\, 
Iriens  =^,  quadrans  =\,  sextans  =\,  and  unda 
=  I'i),  in  order  that  they  might  be  more  readily  dis- 
tinguished, were  marked  on  one  side  with  as  many 
balls  as  they  contained  ounces.  On  the  one  side  was 
the  representation  of  the  prow  of  a  ship,  the  charac- 
teristic device  of  the  city  of  Rome,  on  the  other,  the 
head  of  a  divinity,  which  varied  with  the  denomina- 
tion of  the  coin.  The  coins  were  round,  in  high,  but 
somewhat  clumsy,  relief,  and  east;  some  were  minted 
in  Campania. 

From  268  b.  c.  the  weight  of  the  as  steadily  de- 
creased; the  libral  standard  became  first  a,  triental, 
then  an  uncial,  and  finally  c-\c\\  a  sriiiiuncial  stand- 
ard— -h  of  the  original  weight.  \\\n\'-  this  reduction 
of  the  standard  facilitated  the  niaiuitaiture  of  coins 
of  larger  values  (dupoTidius,  tn/iufuliiis,  dicussis,  equal 
to  2,  3,  and  10  asses  respectively),  it  resulted  in  giving 
to  copper  coins  a  current  value  far  above  their  intrin- 
sic worth  and  furthered  the  introduction  of  stamped, 
instead  of  cast,  coins.  According  to  Livy  the  first 
silver  coins  were  minted  in  268  b.  c,  this  first  silver 
piece  was  the  denarius,  equal  to  10  asses.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  minor  denominations,  the  quinarius 
(\  denarius)  and  sestertius  (J  denarius).  Besides 
these  the  victoriatus  {\  denarius)  was  coined  for  the 
use  of  some  of  the  provinces  as  a  commercial  currency. 
The  denarius,  weighing  at  first  S  of  a  pound  was  re- 
duced in  217  n.  c.  to  ,\,  the  silver  used  being  almost 
pure.  The  obverse  showrthe  dea  Roma;  the  reverse, 
the  two  Dioscuri;  of  these  stamps  the  former  more 


NUMISMATICS 


154 


NUMISMATICS 


particularly  remained  in  use  for  many  years.  The 
mint  was  managed  by  a  commission  {trestnTt  are  ar- 
gento  auro flando  feriintdo) ,  the  members  of  wliioh  soon 
placed  upon  the  coins  their  names  or  initi:ils,  and  later 
glorified  the  members  of  their  families  and  their  deeds 
(family  or  consular  coins).  Even  at  that  time,  but 
much  more  frequently  in  the  imperial  period,  there 
were  denarii  of  base  metal  which  were  often  thinly 
coated  with  silver  {denarii  subcevati) .  It  rarely  hap- 
pened that  gold  was  coined. 

Csesar  marks  the  transition  to  the  imperial  coinage: 
in  44  n.  r.  the  Senateonlered  the  iiJsueof  coins  bearing 
his  portrait.  Even  Brutus  follmved  this  example,  and 
with  .-Augustus  begins  tlu'  uninterrupted  series  of  por- 
trait coins.  While  C\esar  had  already  claimed  the 
right  of  coining  gold  and  silver,  .Vugustus  claimed  this 
right  for  himself  alone  and  left  to  the  Senate  only  the 
coinage  of  copper;  and  these  copper  coins  are  char- 
acterized by  the  letters  S.  C.  {xnintus  cuiisiillo).  Aure- 
lian  (270-76)  took  even  this  jirivilege  from  the  Senate. 
Beginning  with  the  empire  we  find  a  copious  coinage  of 
gold.  The  principal  coin  is  the  a  ureua,  weighing  about 
123§  grains;  its  obverse  bears  the  name,  title  and  por- 
trait of  the  emjjcror;  its  reverse,  historical  representa- 
tions in  rich  variety,  buildings,  favourite  divinities  of 
the  emperor,  and  personifications  of  the  virtues  that 
adorned,  or  should  have  adorned,  him;  the  members 
of  his  family  are  also  represented.  In  this  respect  the 
series  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian  are  especially  rich. 
With  Xero  begins  the  debasement  of  the  coinage,  par- 
ticularly of  the  silver;  and  this  continued  until  Con- 
stantine  again  established  some  degree  of  order.  He 
introduced  a  new  gold  coin,  the  solidun,  equal  to  /i  of 
a  pound  (about  70  grains),  which  for  centuries  re- 
mained an  important  factor  in  the  development  of  the 
monetarv  system. 

Special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  medals,  pecu- 
liarly large  and  carefully  executed  works  of  the  mint, 
issued  in  commemoration  of  some  event.  They  were 
made  of  gold,  silver,  or  copper,  and  in  the  precious 
metal,  generally  coined  in  conformity  with  the  legal 
standard.  There  are  also  specimens  made  of  copper 
surrounded  by  a  circle  of  yellowish  metal  [viedailles 
des  deux  cuivres).  The  term  conlorniate  is  applied  to 
a  large  circular  copper  coin  with  a  raised  rim,  used 
principally  in  connexion  with  the  circensian  games. 

The  coins  of  the  Roman  emperors  of  the  East, 
which  are  designated  as  Byzantine,  belong,  chrono- 
logically at  least,  to  the  Middle  Ages,  but,  judged  by 
the  standard  observed  in  their  coinage  and,  in  the  be- 
ginning, also  by  the  character  of  the  coins  themselves, 
the  entire  series  is  closely  connected  with  the  issues  of 
the  Roman  Empire.  Copper  was  coined  abundantly, 
silver  rarely,  but  the  greatest  importance  attached  to 
the  gold  coinage.  For  many  years  gold  was  coined 
only  at  Byzantium,  and  these  gold  pieces  served  as  a 
model,  not  only  for  the  gold  coinage  of  the  West, 
which  was  not  resumed  until  the  thirteenth  century, 
but  also  for  that  of  Islam.  Artistic  merit  is  entirely 
lacking  in  the  Byzantine  coins:  their  type  is  rigid  and 
monotonous.  In  place  of  the  former  wealth  and  vari- 
ety of  devices  on  the  reverse,  we  find  religious  sym- 
bols, the  monogram  of  Christ,  and  saints.  The  coin- 
age of  John  VIII,  the  last  of  the  emperors  but  one, 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  the  last 
of  the  Byzantine  series. 

C.  Medieval  Coins. — The  new  states  that  arose 
within  the  territorial  limits  of  the  old  Roman  Empire 
at  first  made  use  of  the  Roman  coins,  of  which  a  suffi- 
ciently large  number  were  in  existence.  The  rare 
autonomous  issues  of  the  period  of  the  racial  migration 
are  very  closely  connected  with  the  Roman  series; 
only  the  Merovingians,  in  France,  made  themselves 
to  some  extent  independent.  Very  soon,  however,  a 
general  decline  began  in  all  matters  connected  with 
coinage;  the  coins  steadily  become  coarser,  gold  cur- 
rency disappeared,  copper  was  coined  only  excep- 


tionally; small  silver  coins  were  the  only  medium  of 
l)ayment.  Charlemagne  restored  some  kind  of  order; 
claiming  the  right  of  coining  as  a  royal  prerogative,  to 
be  exercised  by  the  king  alone,  he  suppressed  all  pri- 
vate coinage,  which  at  that  time  had  assumed  disas- 
trous proportions.  He  furthermore  enjoined  greater 
care  in  minting  and  made  regulations  on  this  point 
which  became  the  standard  for  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  and  which,  in  their  essential  features,  are 
operative  in  England  to  the  present  day.  The  basis 
was  the  talent,  or  pound,  of  silver  (about  11;  oz. 
Troy);  it  was  divided  into  20  shillings  (pound  and 
shillings  being  both  merely  money  of  account)  each 
equal  to  12  pence  (deniers).  The  penny  therefore 
weighed  23^  grains.  The  most  conuijon  designs  on 
the  Carlovingian  coins  are  tin-  nprrscntation  of  the 
cross  and  a  church  adorned  with  (H)luuins,  .surrounded 
by  the  legend  Christiana  religiu. 

The  peculiar  economic  conditions  of  the  Middle 
Ages  gave  rise  to  the  issue  of  silver  coins  of  constantly 
diminishing  weight  and  fineness,  so  that  they  steadily 
became  more  and  more  worthless  and,  as  a  result  of 
the  general  rise  in  values,  could  no  longer  be  used  as 
currency.  In  this  way  a  process  began  which  was  re- 
peated several  times  during  the  Middle  Ages:  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  depreciation  of  the  older  small  coins,  new 
coins,  larger  and  more  valuable,  were  struck  in  some 
city  whence  they  made  their  way  triumphantly 
through  the  whole  of  Europe.  In  course  of  time  these 
in  turn  became  depreciated  and  were  replaced  by  a 
new  issue.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  shilling 
(equal  to  12  pence)  was  first  coined  at  Tours;  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  denier,  which  at  that  time  had 
become   very   thin,   it   was   called   nummus   grossus 


SiLV 


S.\XONY,  1537 — BY  Flotner 


(thick  coin),  and,  from  the  name  of  the  place  where 
it  was  first  coined,  grossus  luronensis,  or  gros  tourriois. 
One  side  has  a  cross  with  the  name  of  the  king  and  a 
legend,  most  commonly  Benedictum  sit  nomen  domini; 
the  other,  a  church.  The  lournois  spread  rapidly 
through  France  and  along  the  Rhine,  and  led  to  the 
minting  of  a  similar  coin  at  Prague  (the  grossus  pra- 
gensis,  or  Prager  Groschen),  which  in  its  turn  was  imi- 
tated in  many  countries.  After  the  Merovingian 
period  the  only  gold  coins  minted  were  the  Auguslales 
of  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  These  were  copies  of 
the  earlier  Roman  coin  and  were  struck  in  Sicily. 
A  regular  gold  coinage  does  not  begin  until  about  1250, 
in  the  Republic  of  Florence.  These  coins  bear,  on  the 
one  side,  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and,  on  the  other,  a 
lily,  the  emblem  of  Florence.  From  this  device  (flos 
lilii),  or  from  the  name  of  the  city,  they  received  the 
name  florin.  Their  weight  was  a  little  more  than  .540 
grains.  A  few  decades  later  the  Doge  of  Venice, 
Giovanni  Dandolo,  began  the  minting  of  a  gold  coin 
which  bears  the  representation  of  the  doge  kneeling 
before  St.  Mark  and  the  effigy  of  Christ  with  the 
legend:  Sit  libi  Christe  datus  quern  tu  regis  iste  ducalus. 
The  last  word  of  this  legend  gave  the  coin  its  name, 
ducato  (ducat);  in  Venice  it  was  also  called  zccchino 
(sequin)  from  la  zecca,  "the  mint".  The  type  of  the 
florin  and  the  name  of  the  ducat  soon  became  current 
throughout  the  world. 

The  transition  to  modern  times  is  marked  by  the 
introduction  of  still  larger  silver  coins.    Of  these,  be- 


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155 


NUMISMATICS 


sides  the  Italian  tesione  and  the  French  franc,  the 
German  Taler  was  the  most  important.  In  1485 
the  Archduke  Sigismund  of  tlie  Tyrol  caused  the  issue 
of  a  new  silver  coin  weighing  2  Loth,  and  of  a  fineness 
of  15  Lolh;  its  value  at  the  rate  of  exchange  of  that 
time  corresponded  to  that  of  the  gold  gulden  and  it 
was  therefore  called  Guldengroschen.  The  example  of 
the  Tyrol  was  soon  followed  by  many  nobles  who  had 
the  right  of  coining;  the  Joachimslaler  (shortened  to 
Taler),  made  in  the  mint  of  the  counts  of  Schlick,  at 
Joachimstal,  originated  the  name  of  Taler  (Dollar), 
which  has  been  retained  to  the  present  day.  Among 
the  most  interesting  of  the  coins  of  this  kind  are  the 
Ruhenlaler,  coined  by  Leonard  of  Keutschach,  Arch- 


age,  thereby  causing  serious  losses  to  those  of  their 
subjects  who  were  engaged  in  trade.  The  cities, 
therefore,  which  had  not  yet  obtained  the  right  of 
coinage,  endeavoured  to  gain  some  control  over  the 
system,  either  by  obtaining  for  themselves  the  right 
of  coining  or  by  farming  mints,  or  by  inducing  the 
owners  of  mints  to  exercise  their  privileges  in  a  more 
reasonable  manner. 

Of  the  German  medieval  coins,  the  "bracteates" 
(Lat.  bractea,  "  a  thin  sheet  of  metal '')  deserve  special 
mention.  They  were  not  personal  ornaments,  like 
the  Scandinavian  bracteates  of  earlier  times,  but 
genuine  coins.  As  the  denier  had  become  thinner  and 
thinner  in  the  course  of  the  eleventh  century,  it  was 


RosrHEN — Maurice  of  Saxony,  1544 — by 
shows  a  aj-mbolical  representation  of  the  Holy  Tn 


bishop  of  Salzburg,  and  named  from  his  armorial  bear- 
ings, a  turnip  (Rube) ;  these  are  counted  among  the 
rarest  and  most  frequently  counterfeited  coins  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

The  monetary  systems  of  the  German  Empire  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages  are  of  the  greatest  interest  with 
respect  not  only  to  the  number  of  its  types  of  coin, 
but  also  the  peculiarity  of  its  evolution.  Charle- 
magne, it  is  true,  had  established  uniformity  of  coin- 
age and  had  caused  the  right  of  coining  to  be  acknowl- 
edged as  exclusively  belonging  to  the  sovereign;  but 
his  weaker  successors  were  gradually  compelled  to 
yield  this,  as  well  as  most  of  the  other  royal  preroga- 
tives, to  the  feudatory  lords,  whose  power  continued 
to  increase  as  that  of  the  paramount  government 
weakened.  Among  these  feudatories  were,  not  only 
all  archbishops  and  bishops,  but  also  the  leading  ab- 
bots and  abljesses  within  the  empire.  The  evolution 
was  gradual.  At  first  permission  was  granted  to  hold 
a  fair  (mercatus),  levy  a  tax  {telonium),  and  erect  a 
mint  (monela)  at  some  place  belonging  to  one  of  the 
feudatories.  At  first  the  mint  may  have  been  only 
an  exchange,  the  profits  of  which,  however,  in  the 
Middle  Ages  were  often  very  considerable,  and  accrued 
to  the  lord.  Then  he  was  permitted  to  have  coins 
struck  Ijearing  hi.s  portrait,  but  had  to  maintain  the 
uniform  standard.  At  length  these  feudatory  lords 
obtained  the  privilege  of  coining  without  any  restric- 
tions. When  this  was  done  uniformity  in  the  cur- 
rency of  the  empire  was  at  an  end,  a  great  diversity 
in  the  coinage  was  rendered  possible,  and  the  right  of 
coining,  instead  of  being  a  prerogative  of  the  emperor, 
became  a  privilege  of  every  feudatory.  These  sought 
to  exploit  this  privilege  as  a  productive  source  of  in- 
come by  constantly  debasing  and  changing  the  corn- 


replaced,  early  in  the  twelfth  century,  in  some  parts 
of  Germany,  by  very  thin  but  rather  large  silver  coins, 
made  with  one  die,  showing  the  same  design,  in  relief 
on  one  side  and  depressed  on  the  other.  These  coins, 
especially  in  the  beginning,  were  carefully  executed 
and  not  without  artistic  merit.  The  city  of  Halle  in 
Swabia  (Wurtemberg)  issued  a  small  fractional  coin 
which  had  a  wide  circulation,  and  was  called  Heller 
from  the  place  of  its  origin.  In  some  respects  the 
evolution  of  French  coinage  resembles  that  of  German: 
here  too  we  find,  in  the  tenth  century,  coinages  of  lay 
and  ecclesiastical  barons  (the  archbishops  of  Vienne, 
Aries,  Reims,  etc.  in  particular) ,  characterized  by  a  fixed 
type  (liipe  immohilise)  which  is  maintained  unaltered 
for  a  long  period.  But  by  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages 
this  coinage  is  confined  to  a  very  few  powerful  feu- 
datories and  in  comparison  with  the  royal  coinage,  is 
no  longer  of  importance.  From  France  we  have  the 
chaise  d'or,  a  gold  coin  that  was  also  largely  minted  in 
other  countries;  it  represents  the  king  seated  upon  a 
Gothic  throne.  In  England  sterlings  and  nobles  were 
struck,  both  of  them  often  counterfeited.  Coins  of 
the  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York  are  extant. 
In  Italy,  because  of  its  numerous  political  divisions,  we 
find  a  diversity  of  coinages  similar  to  that  of  Germany. 
The  scarcity  of  coins  of  ecclesiastical  mints  is  notice- 
able: with  the  exception  of  some  isolated  examples  and 
the  series  of  Aquileja,  Trent,  and  Trieste,  we  have  only 
the  papal  coinages,  which,  following  chiefly  the  Byzan- 
tine model,  begin  with  Adrian  I,  but  do  not  become 
important  until  Clement  V  (the  first  of  whose  coins, 
however,  were  struck  at  Avignon).  While  eastern 
Europe  was  for  the  most  part  under  the  influence  of 
Byzantine,  the  Crusaders  nevertheless  brought  West- 
ern types  into  the  states  founded  by  them  in  the 


NUMISMATICS 


156 


NUMISMATICS 


Orient.  Mohammedan  coinage  appears  only  about  as  tlic  Muria-Tcicsiin  tulrr,  nml  bearing  the  date 
the  year  700;  these  roins,  because  the  Koran  forbids  17S0,  is  even  now  tlie  most  important  commercial  cur- 
pictorial  represent al ions,  bear  only  texts  from  the  reney  in  Central  Africa,  the  Sudan,  Tripoli,  and  Ara- 
Koran  and,  !iencTall.\-,  precise  statements  concerninp;  bia.  The  high  degree  of  perfection  which  had  been 
the  ruler,  tiic  mint-master,  and  the  date  of  coinage.  attained  during  the  last  decades  in  the  technique  of 
D.  Modern  Coins.— With  the  beginning  of  modern  coining  gave  rise,  on  the  one  hand,  to  a  number  of  ex- 
times,  partly  as  the  result  of  the  discovery  of  America  periments  with  coinage  (coins  made  of  aluminum, 
and  the  exploitation  of  its  silver  deposits,  large  silver  Russian  coins  of  platinum,  Belgian  pierced  coins,  Kng- 
pieces  appear  everywhere  in  great  numbers.  As  a  lish  coins  of  two  metals)  most  of  which,  however,  had 
natural  consequence  of  this,  we  find  greater  care  be-  no  decisive  success.  On  the  other  hand,  it  became 
stowed  ui)()n  the  execution  of  the  work,  more  legible  possible  to  pay  greater  attention  to  the  artisstic  side 
characters  in  the  inscriptions,  and  increased  attention  of  coining,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  latest  issues  of  the 
to  the  pictorial  representations  (portraits  and  coatis-  French  and  Italian  mints. 

of-arms).     Several  of  t he  Renaissance  issues,  particu-         II.  Medals. — The  term   medal  (medallia  in  Flor- 

larly  tlie  papal  coins,  are  reckoned  among  the  foremost  ence  =  ^  denier)  is  applied  to  pieces  of  metal,  usually 

works  of  art  of  that  time.     In  the  course  of  the  last  circular,  which,  though  issued  by  a  mint,  are  not  in- 


few  centuries,  countries  which  had  not  come  under 
the  influence  of  the  civilization  of  the  Middle  Ages 
enter  into  numismatic  relations  with  the  others,  e.  g., 
Russia  and  the  Far  East,  China  having  coins  of  the 
most  extraordinary  shapes,  some  perforated,  some  in 
the  form  of  tuning-forks,  sabres,  etc.;  Siam,  lumps  of 
twisted  silver  wire. 

\\'hile  during  the  earlier  centuries  the  monetary  sys- 
tems of  tlie  older  civilized  countries  of  Europe  gener- 
ally devel()[)ed  along  the  lines  estabhshed  in  the  course 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  great 
political  and  economic  revolu- 
tions of  the  nineteenth  century 
brought  into  being  new  forces 
wliich  had  their  effect  on  the 
monetary  systems.  While  the 
changed  relations  of  the  German- 
speaking  peoples  resulted  in  a 
variation  of  their  currencies  (the 
mark  in  Germany,  krone  in 
Austria,  gulden  in  Holland,  and 
franc  in  Switzerland),  the  uni- 
fication of  Italy,  on  the  other  hand,  resulted  in  a  uni 


tended  as  a  medium  of  payment.  Their  material, 
form,  mode  of  manufacture,  and  history  prove  that 
they  were  originally  coins,  though  altered  conditions 
and  needs,  both  artistic  and  cultiu'al,  have  made  them 
independent.  Their  purpose  is  to  commemorate  im- 
portant events  in  the  history  of  a  nation,  so  nnieh  so 
that  attempts  have  been  made  to  write  histories  based 
upon  and  illustrated  by  the  series  of  medals  of  some 
individual  or  of  a  whole  country.  Occasions  for  the 
issue  of  medals  are  found  in  an  accession  to  the  throne, 
a  declaration  of  war,  the  conclu- 
sion of  a  peace,  or  an  alliance, 
the  completion  of  a  public  build- 
ing; it  has  also  been  very  ex- 
tensively used  by  sovereigns  for 
presentation  to  persons  whom 
they  wished  to  honour,  and  in 
such  cases  was  often  a  veritable 
gem  of  the  goldsmith's  art.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  medal  has 
often  been  presented  by  sub- 
jects to  their  sovereign  on  such 
occasions  as  his  marriage,  in  token  of  homage.    But 


form  Italian  monetary  system  (lira).     But  ecomomic     as  an  expression  of  the  culture  of  a  people  the  pri- 


conditions  have  produced  even  more  lasting  results 
than  poHtical.  On  the  23rd  of  December,  1865, 
France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland  formed  the 
Latin  Union,  which  was  joined  in  1868  by  Greece, 
agreeing  upon  a  uniform  regulation  of  the  coinage  of 
these  states  on  the  basis  of  the  French  monetary  sys- 
tem. This  system  has  now  been  adopted  by  a  large 
number  of  states,  which  have  not  themselves  joined 
the    Latin    monetary     Union — Rumania,    Bulgaria, 


vate  medal  possesses  much  greater  interest,  and  in 
this  field  the  German  medal  of  the  Renaissance  and 
the  following  centuries  furnishes  the  most  numerous 
examples.  Portrait  medals  played  the  part  now  taken 
by  photography.  Medals  stamped  with  coats-of- 
arms  also  serve  to  represent  private  individuals,  and 
are  sometimes  put  to  practical  use  as  tokens,  buttons 
for  liveries,  etc.  They  are  used  to  commemorate 
betrothals,  or  marriages,  silver  or  golden  weddings. 


Servia,  Finlantl,  Spain,  and,  at  least  nominally,  many  births  and  baptisms,  and  there  are  a  large  number  of 
of  the  Central  and  South  American  republics,  which  sponsors'  christening  gifts  in  the  shape  of  coins  or 
were  formerly  Si)anish  colonies,  and  furthermore  a  medals  (Patenpfennige)  made  expressly  for  the  pur- 
number  of  smaller  European  states.  Austria-Hungary  pose  and  inscribed  with  the  names  of  the  infant  and 
and  Russia  are  also  approximating  to  this  system,  the  godparent,  the  place  and  date  of  baptism,  and 
Another  monetary  union  was  formed  in  1873  and  in-  generally  a  pious  maxim.  These  Patcnpffnrwiv  were 
cluiles  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway,  the  monetary  often  put  into  rich  settings  to  be  worn  as  ornaments, 
union  being  the  Scandinavian  krone.     The  Portuguese  and  were  handed  down  as  heirlooms  from  generation 


monetary  system  is  still  in  force  in  Brazil,  its  former 
colony.  Even  without  any  formal  convention,  a  coin 
may  gain  currency  in  foreign  lands.  Thus  the  Mexi- 
can dollar,  which  in  name  and  value  is  an  offshoot  of 
the  German  monetary  system,  is  current  coin  on  the 
farther  shore  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  in  the  maritime 


to  generation.  Not  only  the  entrance  into  life  but 
also  death  is  recorded  in  medals;  and  many  such 
pieces  contain  detailed  biographical  notices. 

Very  often  the  medal  serves  a  religious  purpose;  in 
Kremnitz  and  especially  in  Joachimstal  extensive  se- 
ries of  such  religious  coinages  were  struck.     Typo- 


provinces  of  China,  in  Japan,  Siam,  and  part  of  the     logical  representations  found  great  favour,  the  one 


Malay  Archipelago;  it  influences  Central  America  and 
even  many  of  the  African  maritime  provinces.  The 
Indian  rupee,  too,  has  gained  currency  on  the  shore  of 
the  ocean  opposite  the  land  of  its  origin,  on  the  coasts 
of  East  Africa,  Southern  Arabia,  and  the  Malay  pen- 
insula. A  good  example  of  the  crossing  of  economic 
and  political  interests  is  furnished  by  Canada,  where 


side  showing  the  Old-Testament  type,  the  other  the 
New-Testament  antitype.  The  Reforniation  pro- 
duced many  medals  embellished  witli  Biblical  phrases. 
A  favourite  subject  on  religious  ined.ils  u  :is  t  lie  head 
of  Christ:  the  city  of  Vienna  has  for  centuries  used 
medals  bearing  this  design  as  public  marks  of  distinc- 
tion.    At  Easter  medals  with  the  Paschal  Lamb,  at 


the  English  sovereign  is  legal  tender,  although  Cana-  Christmas  others  with  the  Infant  Jesus,  were  given 

dian  currency  follows  the  standard  of  the  United  as  presents.     Of  the  saints,  St.  George  was  most  fre- 

States.     While  the  coins  now  in  circulation  in  Austria  quently  represented,  on  the  Georgstaler  and   Georgs- 

and  Hungary  are  valid  as  currency  in  Liechtenstein  ducnt,  and  a  superstition  prevailed  that  the  wearing 

and  Nlontenegro  and  vice  versa,  an  Austrian  coin  long  of  a  medal  with  the  image  of  St.  George  was  a  pro- 

Bince  put  out  of  circulation  in  Austria  itself,  known  tection  against  wounds.     A  similar  superstition  was 


NUMISMATICS 


157 


NUMISMATICS 


connected  with  the  representation  of  St.  Roch  and  St. 
Sebastian  or  of  St.  Rosalia,  as  also  of  the  cross  with 
the  brazen  serpent,  as  a  protection  against  the  plague. 
There  is  also  an  interminable  series  of  wholly  super- 
stitious amulets,  astrological  and  alchemistic  coinages 
which  i)rofess  to  be  the  product  of  an  alchemistic 
transmutation  from  a  base  into  a  precious  metal. 
The  imperial  coin-cabinet  at  Vienna  contains  one  of 
these  pieces,  probalily  the  largest  medal  in  existence, 
weighing  about  15 '2  lbs.  avoirdupois;  and  adorned 
with  the  portraits  of  forty  ancestors  of  the  Emperor 
Leopold  I,  in  whose  presence  the  transmutation  is 
supposed  to  have  taken  place.  Thus  the  numerous 
and  manifold  purposes  for  which  the  medal  has  been 
employed  faithfully  reflect  the  cultural  conditions 
which  led  to  its  coinage  and  are  a  source  of  informa- 
tion that  has  not  yet  been  fully  appreciated. 

True  medals  were  unknown  to  antiquity;  their  func- 
tions were  in  many  respects — particularly  as  memo- 


bracteate  perpetuates  the  memory  of  a  pilgrimage  of 
Duke  Boleslav  III  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Adalbert  in 
Gnesen.  A  denier  of  Ladi.slaus  I  of  Bohemia  shows 
the  repulsive  head  of  Satan  with  a  descriptive  legend 
on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  a  church.  Luschin  was 
able  to  account  for  this  device  as  follows:  after  a  suc- 
cession of  serious  elemental  disturbances  in  Bohemia 
there  came,  in  the  midst  of  a  terrible  hurricane,  a 
meteoric  shower,  during  which  many  persons  declared 
they  beheld  Satan  in  human  form  near  the  castle; 
this  denier  was  then  struck,  bearing  on  either  side  the 
head  of  Satan  and  the  Church  of  God.  Such  coins 
as  these  in  some  measure  serve  the  purpose  of  com- 
memorative medals. 

The  first  true  medal  appeared  in  Italy  towards  the 
close  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Francesco  II  Car- 
rara, Lord  of  Padua,  had  two  medals  struck,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  ancient  Roman  medallions:  one,  in  memory 
of  his  father,  Francesco  I,  recalls  the  later  medal- 


Bronze  Medal  of  Leonello  d'Este,  1444 — bt  Vittore  Pisano 
The  reverse  shows  Cupid  holding  a  music  scroll  and  a  lion  singing 


rials  of  important  events — performed  by  coins.  In 
contrast  with  the  monotonous  and  generally  inartistic 
coins  of  the  present  day,  the  coins  of  antiquity,  and 
more  particularly  those  of  Greece,  were  masterpieces 
of  the  art  of  the  die-engraver,  who  was  not  compelled 
to  seek  other  opportunities  to  display  his  skill. 
Among  the  liomans  conditions  were  analogous,  with 
the  exception  that  the  medallions  of  the  emperors  ap- 
proximate somewhat  to  the  character  of  our  medals, 
although  they  are,  as  a  rule,  duplicates  of  the  legal 
monetary  unit;  the  tokens  (tessera;),  struck  for  the 
games,  and  the  contorniates  are  even  more  closely 
related  to  the  medal.  The  few  gold  issues  of  the 
Emperor  Louis  the  Pious  (814-40)  also  resemble 
medals,  and  in  the  further  course  of  the  Middle  Ages 
we  meet  with  a  large  number  of  coins  which  were  evi- 
dently intended  to  commemorate  some  event  in  his- 
tory, although  tlieir  devices  are  often  very  difficult  to 
explain;  there  is  many  a  puzzle  here  still  awaiting 
.solution.  As  the  symbol  of  Henry  the  Lion,  the 
powerful  Duke  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  the  lion  plays 
an  important  role  on  his  coins.  But  his  adversary, 
Otho  of  Wittelsbach,  who,  when  Henry  the  Lion  had 
been  outlawed,  received  the  Duchy  of  Bavaria,  em- 
ployed this  symbol  also  and  issued  deniers  which  pic- 
ture him  in  pursuit  of  a  lion  or  with  the  severed  head 
of  a  lion  in  his  hand.  Coins  are  also  very  frequently 
used  to  commemorate  enfeoffments,  and  these  bear 
a  representation  of  the  liege  lord  from  whom  the 
kneeling    vassal    receives    the    gonfalon.     A    Polish 


lions  of  Commodus  and  Septimius  Severus;  the  other, 
commemorating  the  capture  of  Padua  in  1390,  has  a 
portrait  of  Francesco  II  analogous  to  that  of  the  Em- 
peror Vitellius  on  his  sesterces.  The  reverse  in  each 
case  bears  the  punning  device  of  the  Carrara  family, 
a  cart  (carro) .  These  medals  are  struck  in  bronze  and 
silver.  To  the  same  period  belong  the  medal-like 
trial-pieces  made  by  the  Sesto  family  of  Venice,  a  family 
of  die-cutters.  These,  too,  were  stamped ;  but  the  de- 
veloijment  of  the  medal  in  the  next  period  was  not  due 
to  sliLiiipi'd  i)icces.  Even  before  the  middle  of  the 
fiftcciitli  century  ItaUan  art  suddenly  reaches  the  cli- 
max in  this  department  with  the  cast  medal.  Vittore 
Pisano,  a  painter  (b.  about  1.380,  in  the  Province  of 
Verona;  d.  145.5  or  1456)  is  the  oldest  and  most  impor- 
tant of  the  medallists.  Like  those  of  his  followers,  his 
works  are  cast  from  wax  models  or  models  cut  in  iron, 
a  process  which  frequently  makes  it  necessary  for  the 
pieces  to  be  afterwards  chiselled.  He  signs  his  work 
opus  Pisani  pidoris.  The  medals  are,  for  the  most 
jjart,  of  large  size,  and  arc  coated  with  an  artificial 
patina.  On  the  obverse  they  present  expressive  por- 
traits, gci\ci-ally  in  profile;  on  the  reverse,  l)eautiful 
and  ingenious  allegories:  thus  of  Leonello  d'Este,  a 
lion  singing  from  a  sheet  of  music  h<'ld  by  C'upid;  or  of 
Alfonso  of  Najjles,  an  eagle  that  generously  gives  up 
the  slain  deer  to  the  vultures.  Even  tliough  it  can  be 
proved  that  Pisano  made  us<'  of  certain  iirototypes 
which  in  turn  were  possibly  derived  from  seals,  his 
fame  as  the  real  creator  of  the  medallic  art  is  not  ma- 


NUMISMATICS 


158 


NUMISMATICS 


terially  diminished  by  that  fact.  Both  in  composition 
and  in  execution  he  hsxs  hardly  been  equalled,  as,  for 
instance,  in  his  representations  of  the  nobler  animals, 
the  Uon,  casle,  horse. 

Pisano  travelled  through  the  whole  of  Italy,  and 
portraj-ed  the  prominent  princes  and  influential  men 
of  his  time;  he  made  the 
mcdallic  art  so  popular  that 
thenceforth  artists,  in  all  the 
important  art  centres  of 
Italy,  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  medals.  Such 
were  Matteo  de'  Pasti,  an 
admirable  artist  at  the 
court  of  Rimini;  the  Vene- 
tians Giovanni  Boldu  and 
Gentile  Bellini,  the  latter 
of  whom  made  a  port  rait - 
medal  for  the  sultan  IVIehe- 
met;  the  Mantuan  Speran- 
dio,  the  most  prolific  medallistof  the  fifteenth  century, 
and  many  others.  At  this  time,  too,  the  stamped 
medal  returns  to  prominence.  In  Rome  Benvcnuto 
Cellini  and,  after  him,  Caradosso,  and  especially  the 
masters  of  the  papal  mint  are  deserving  of  mention. 
The  imitations  of  the  bronze  coinages  of  the  Roman 
emperors  by  Cavino  are  truly  admirable.  Finally,  at 
a  somewhat  later  period,  Italian  medallists  are  found 
in  the  service  of  foreign  princes: 
Jacopo  da  Trezzo  in  the  Nether- 
lands, the  two  Abondio  in  Ger- 
many. Tlie  Italian  medal  exerts 
the  most  powerful  influence  upon 
the  development  of  the  older 
French  productions.  The  Italian 
Laurana  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century  struck  the  first 
French  medals,  and  the  works 
of  the  next  period  clearly  show 
Itahan  characteristics.  Not  un- 
til the  seventeenth  century  did 
a  new  style  appear,  in  which  the 
drapery  especially  is  admirably 
reproduced;  the  most  prominent  artists  were  Jean 
Richier,  at  Metz,  and,  later,  Guillaume  Dupr6  and 
Jean  Warin. 

In  Germany,  the  earliest  large  silver  pieces  were 
coined  at  Hall  in  the  TjtoI,  under  the  influence  of 
Italian  coinages;  and  to  Gian  Marco  Cavallo,  who  was 
invited  to  Hall  as  engraver  to  the  mint,  these  coins 
owe  their  important  position  in  the  history  of  art  and 
their  demonstrable  influence  upon  many  of  the  medals 
of  Germany.  These,  the  oldest  specimens  of  the 
German  mcdallic  art,  being  at  the  same  time  coins, 
were  stamped;  but,  like  the  Italian,  the  German 
medal  does  not  reach  its  highest  perfection  in  stamped, 
but  in  cast  pieces.  A  considerable  number  of  models 
made  of  boxwood,  of  Kehlheim  stone,  and,  later,  of 
wax  are  still  extant.  These  portraits  in  wood  or  stone 
were  at  first  regarded  as  final,  and  only  by  degrees  did 
they  come  to  be  used  as  models  for  casting  in  metal. 
These  cast  medals,  which  made  their  appearance  at 
the  art-centres  of  Germany  (in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  Augsburg  and  Nuremberg)  like- 
wise owe  their  origin  to  the  Italian  medal.  But  only 
their  origin ;  the  further  development  of  the  German 
medal  follows  entirely  original  and  independent  lines 
until  it  reaches  a  degree  of  excellence,  on  a  level  with 
the  Itahan.  It  is  true  that  the  Germans  fail  to  produce 
the  magnificent  designs  with  their  wealth  of  figures 
that  we  find  on  the  reverse  of  Italian  medals;  instead, 


families  of  the  middle  classes  than  was  the  case  in 
Italy. 

The  German  medal  reaches  its  prime  soon  after  the 
year  1500,  considerably  later  than  the  Italian:  among 
the  oldest  examples  that  have  come  down  to  us  are 
those  of  Albrecht  Diirer.  Many  of  the  artists  give 
us  no  clue  at  all  to  their  identity  or  sign  tliemselvcs 
by  marks  or  symbols  that  are  often  difficult  to  inter- 
pret. It  has  now  become  possible,  however,  to  as- 
sign definitely  a  long  series  of  very  valuable  medals  to 
Peter  Flotner,  a  master  of  Nuremberg,  who  must 
therefore  be  considered  as  one  of  the  foremost  of  all 
medallists;  he  is  closely  followed  by  Matthes  Gebel. 
Other  noteworthy  medallists  of  this  period  are  Hans 
Daucher,  most  of  whose  work  was  done  for  the  Court 
of  the  Palatinate;  Hans  Schwarz  of  Nuremberg,  "the 
best  counterfeiter  in  wood",  who  executed  a  large 
number  of  works  for  the  members  of  the  Diet  of  Augs- 
burg of  1518;  Jacob  Stampfer,  in  Switzerland;  Fried- 
rich  Hagenauer,  one  of  the  most  popular  artists; 
Joachim  Descliler,  who  finally  settled  in  Austria, 
where,  especially  in  the  mints  of  Vienna,  Kremnitz, 
and  Joachimstal,  a  large  number  of  medals  were 
struck  at  this  period,  not  all  of  them,  however,  to  the 
advantage  of  the  mcdallic  art;  Hans  Reinhard,  from 
whom  we  have  a  number  of  very  carefully  chiselled 
pieces,  and  Tobias  Wolf,  both  in  Saxony.  By  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century  the  German  medal  has 
clearly  passed  its  zenith  and  be- 
comes dependent  upon  foreign, 
and,  at  first,  esjjecially  Italian 
works.  In  the  Netherlands  the 
art  attained  a  high  degree  of 
perfection.  The  great  names 
here  are  Stephanus  Hollandicus 
and,  somewhat  later,  Konrad 
Bloc,  both  of  the  second  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
Peter  van  .'^beele  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  In  England  the 
medallists  are  for  the  most  part 
foreigners;  of  the  native  artists, 
who  do  not  appear  until  very 
late,  the  most  deserving  of  mention  are  Th.  Simon  and 
William  and  L.  C.  Lyon.  Caspar  and  Simon  Passe 
on  the  other  hand  attain  great  artistic  skill  in  the  pro- 
duction of  very  carefully  engraved  small,  thin  silver 
pieces.  The  other  states  are  of  less  importance;  they 
employed  for  the  most  part  foreign  artists. 

The  high  artistic  level  which  the  medal  attained  in 
Italy  and  Germany  at  the  beginning  of  the  modern 


Silver  Medal — Modern  French — by  Dnpuis 
age  could  not  be  maintained  permanently.     For  while 


excellent  pieces  of  work  were  produced  here  antl  there, 
medals  as  well  as  coins,  as  works  of  art,  deteriorated 
we  find,  more  commonly,  excellent  representations  of  more  and  more.  Not  until  after  the  middle  of  the 
coats  of  arms.  The  great  strength  of  the  German  nineteenth  century  did  the  art  receive  a  fresh  impetus 
medal  lies  in  the  loving  care  bestowed  upon  the  execu-  and  that  first  in  France.  Considering  merely  its  ex- 
tion  of  the  accurate  portrait  on  the  obverse;  and  this  ternal  manifestations,  it  is  possible  even  to  fix  the  ex- 
accords  with  the  purpo.se  of  the  medal,  which  was  act  date  of  the  beginning  of  this  movement.  On  2 
much  more  widely  distributed  among  the  prominent     May,   1868,  the  chemist  Dumas,  president  of  the 


NUNC 


159 


NUNC 


Ancient  Coina:  Eckhel,  DoctrtTia  nummorum  veterum  (Vienna. 
1792-98):  MioNNET,  Description  des  medailles  antiques  grecques 
el  romaines  (6  vols,  and  supprement,  Paris,  1806-13;  9  vols.,  1819- 
37) ;  Head,  Historia  numorum.  A  Manual  of  Greek  Numismatics 
(Oxford,  1887) ;  A  Catalogue  of  Greek  Coins  in  the  British  Museum 
(London,  1878 — ) ;  Barth^lemt,  Nouveau  manuel  de  numisma- 
/iquc  ana>?ine  (Paris,  1890);  Imhoop-Blumer,  Monnaies  grecques 
(Paris,  1883);  Madden,  Coins  of  the  Jews,  Vol.  Ill  of  Numismata 
Orientalia  (London,  1886);  Saulct,  Recherches  sur  la  numisma- 
tique  judaique  (Paris,  1854);  Babelon,  Description  historique  el 
ologique  des  monnaies  de  la  reptihlique  romaine  vulgairement 


Comity  Consultatif  des  Graveura  of  the  Paris   mint  d'archMogie   (Bmssels,  then    Paris    ISSl--);    Reme   suisse  de 

,  i.  J      „      jj   „       :„♦; „    4.  4.U     J   f  „+.,  l.:^u  numismatique;  Numismatic  Chronicle  (London);  Rivista  italiana 

delivered  an  address  pointing  out  the  defects  which  ^,-  numismatica  (Milan);  Gazzetta  numismatica  (Rome);  Journal 

prevented  the  artistic  development  of  the  medal,  and,  international  d'arcMologie  numismatique  (.\then3) 

as  president  of  the  mint,  appealing  for  their  amend-  * 
ment.  He  particularly  mentioned  the  bad  taste  of 
the  lettering,  the  polish,  the  high  rim  etc.  If  this 
address  dealt  rather  with  the  outer  form,  a  new  view 
of  the  true  purpose  of  the  medal  had  already  been 
gradually  created.  Following  the  productions  of 
Oudines,  Paul  Dubois,  Chapus,  above  all  Herbert 
Ponsoarmes  (the  first  to  oppose  the  polishing  of  medals) 
and  later  Degeorges,  Chaplains,  and  Daniel  Dupris, 
Oscar  Roty,  by  far  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
French  medallists,  won  distinction.  He  excels  not 
only  as  a  portraitist,  but  more  particularly  in  the  com- 
position of  the  reverse:  his  fine  allegories  (e.  g.,  on  the 
medal   for  merit   in   connexion  with   the  education 

of   girls — the  Republic   teaching   maidens,  the  future      don,  1889);  Sabatier,  Description  gtntrale  des  mo7tnaies  byzan- 
mothers  of  men)  recall  the  artists  of  the  QuaUrocenlo,      ""^|X"al  Ind^'kodern  Coins:   Lelewel,    Numismatique 

which  he  carefully  studied,  but  did  not,  as  a  rule,  —    •     - 

directly  imitate.  Just  as  the  execution  of  the  medal 
is  preceded  by  long  and  careful  deliberation  as  to  how 
the  fundamental  idea  is  to  be  worked  out  (Ponscar- 
mes  seems  to  have  led  the  way  in  this)  so  the  execu- 
tion itself  receives  to  the  very  last  moment  the  most 


tion  ginirale  des  monnaies  <l< 
Sabatier,  Description  gent  in 
SEN,  Geschichte  des  rOmiseh<  n    U'/  <  -    .    -  ' 
MANT,  La  monnaie  dans  Vantiquiti  (Paris, 
cription  historique  des  monnaies   frappei 

communement  appelees  medailles  imperiales  (Paris,   i8.^9-6S;  2d 
1888-92) ;  Stevenson,  A  Dictionary  of  Roman  Coins  (Lon- 


-86) ;  Cohen,  Descrip- 
rumaine  (Paris,  1857) ; 
"  s  contomiates;  MoMM- 
( Berlin,  1860);  Lenor- 
878-79) ;  Cohen,  Des- 
I'empire  ■ 


moyen-Age  (Paris,  1835):  Blanchet,  Nouveau  manuel  de  nu 
matique  du  moyen-dge  et  moderne  (Paris,  1890) ;  Engei^Serrure, 
Numismatique  du  moyen-dge  (Paris,  1891-1905) :  Idem,  Traiti 
de  la  numismatique  moderne  contemporaine  (Paris,  1897-99) ; 
Grdeber,  Handbook  of  the  Coins  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
(London,  1898). 

Medals:   Armand,   Les   medailleurs  italiens  des  quinzi^me  ei 
siecles  (Paris,  1883-87);  Friedlander,  Die  italienischen 


careful  attention.    Only  the  artist  S  hand  must  touch      Schaumilntzen  des  ISten  Jahrhunderts  (Berlin,  1880-82);  Heiss, 

hiswork.The 

French    medal    has 

thus  attained  great 

results,    even    when 

judged  merely  on  its 

technical  merits. 

Independently  of 
the  French  move- 
ment, a  medallic  re- 
vival has  begun  in 
Austria.  Anton 
Scharff  brought 
about  a  restoration 
of  the  medallic  style 
and  an  emancipa- 
tion from  the  rigid 
conventional  forms; 
working  side  by  side  with  him  are  Josef  Thautenheym,     le  und  ir.  Jahrhunderts  {Ber^u.  1884)  (reprinted  from  Zeit- 

wuiKiug  muc  uy  ii.uc  „,„„*„,.  „f  tv,„  tofVinirrMP      schrift  fur  Numismatik,  XII  (1885  ;  S1MON19,  L'ort  de  medaillier 

the  elder,  htefan  .Schwartz,  a  master  Ot  the  technique      ^^  Belgique  (Jemeppe,   1904);  Medallic  Illustrations  of  the  His- 
Of  the  chiselled  medal,  and  Franz  Xaver  Pawllk.      Ke-      t„y  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (published  by  the  British  Mu- 

cently  Rudolf  Marschall  has  won  a  high  reputation  '    '    '       -       "     "'    ""  "        '"- 

as  a  portraitist,  and  received  the  commission  to  exe- 
cute medals  for  both  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X.  The 
French  and  Viennese  medals  have  called  forth  in  other 
countries  an  activity  which  has  already  resulted  in 
many  beautiful  specimens  of  medallic  art. 

General  Numismatics:  Dannenbehg,  Grundzuge  der  Milnz- 
kunde  (Leipzig,  1892);  Halke,  Einleitung  m  das  Studium  der 
Numismatik  (Berlin,  1889);  v.  Sallet,  Munzen  und  MedaiUen 
(Berlin,  1898);  Babelon,  Notice  sur  la  monnaie  (Pans,  1898); 
Ambrosoli,  Manuale  de  Numismatica  (Milan,  189o);  Lane- 
PoOLE,  Coins  and  Medals  (London,  1894);  E.  and  F.  Gnecchi, 
Guida  numismatica  universale  (Milan,  1903)  ;HlRSCH,  Bibliotheca 
numismatica  omnium  gentium  (Nuremberg,  1760) ;  LlPsins,  Bibli- 
oteca  numaria  (Leipzig,  1801);  LmTZMANS,  BMioteca  numarm 
(1800-66).  On  Abbreviations:  Schmid,  Clams  numismatica 
(Dresden,  1840);  Rentzmann,  Numismatisches  Legmdm  Lexikon 
des  MUtelaUers  und  der  NeuzeU  (2  parts,  Berlin,  1865-bb,  supple- 
ment, 1878) ;  ScHLicKEiSES,  Erkldrung  der  Abkurzungen  auf  MiXn- 
zen  3rd  ed.  bv  Pallman.v  (Berlin,  1896):  Cappelu,  Lexicon 
ahbreiiaturarum  (Leipzig,  1901).  Dictionaries:  de  Basinghen, 
Traite  rfes  mnnnaies  (Paris,  1764);  Schmieder,  HandwOrterbuch 
derg'samml,,,  Munzkunde  (Halle  and  BerUn,  1811,  1815^  "" 
■    -ietto  del 


Goi-D  Medal  of  Leo  XIII  by  RtjnoLF  M. 


Mnhillr   (Drcsdc 


Les  medailleurs  de  la  re- 
naissance  (Paris,  1882—); 
Keary,  a  Guide  to  the 
Italian  Medals  (London, 
1882) ;  Fabriczy,  Me- 
daiUen der  italienischen 
Renaissance  (Strasburg, 
1903);  Poey  d'Avant, 
Tresor  de  numismatique 
et  de  glyptique  (Paris, 
1839 — ) :  Mazerolle, 
Les  medailles  frani^aises 
du  15.  siicle  au  moitii 
du  17.  (Paris,  1902); 
DoMANiG,  Die  deutsche 
Medaille  in  kunst-  und 
kulturhistarischer  Hin- 
sicht  nach  dem  Bestande 
der  Medaillensammlung 
des  ah.  Kaiserhauses 
(Vienna,  1907);  Erman, 
deutsche  Medaille  des 


LlCHTWARK,  Die  Wiederweckung  der 
,  1895);  DoMPlERRE  de  Chaufetie,  Les  mi- 
modernes  (Haarleben,  1898 — );  Marx,  Les  mi- 
cotitemporains  (Paris) ;  Marx,  Les  medailles 
I-  et  A  I'etranger  (Paris,  1901);  LoEHR,  Wiener 
a.  1899;  supplement,  1902). 

Aug.  v.  LoEHR. 


Nunc  Dimittis  (The  Canticle  op  Simeon),  found 
in  St.  Luke's  Gospel  (ii,  29-32),  is  the  last  in  historical 
sequence  of  the  three  great  Canticles  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, the  other  two  being  the  Magnificat  (Canticle 
of  Mary)  and  the  Benedictus  (Canticle  of  Zachary). 
All  three  are  styled,  by  way  of  eminence,  the  "Evan- 
gehcal  Canticles"  (see  Canticle).  The  title  is 
formed  from  the  opening  words  in  the  Latin  Vulgate, 
"Nuncdimittisservum  tuum,  Domine"  etc.  ("Now 
thou  dost  dismiss  thy  ser\'ant,  O  Lord"  etc.).  The 
circumstances  under  which  Simeon  uttered  his  song- 
petition,  thanksgiving,  and  prophecy  are  narrated 
=„u=,ji..,   ,„, ...«.» -      .  by   St.    Luke    (ii,    21-35)    (.see   Candlemas).     The 

1897).     Periodicals:    Historische    MUnzbelustigunqen    (1729-50);      ^QrJjj  following   those  quoted  above,    "according  tO 
Numismatische  Zeitung  {Vfeisaeasee,  18Zi-73)\  BUUterJtg  Munz-  wnrH   in   npare"     nre  evnlninpd  hv  v    26'   "And 

freunde  (Leipzig.   1865—):   Numismatischer  Anzeiger  (.Hanover.      thy  wora  m  peace    ,   are  expiameci   Dy  V.  ^o.       rtnu 
-  ^--    ■  ■■    "     -■     ■      ■•'   '"-<■-    >'>■'<— ^■    A-,.„,.-     jjg  Ijj^j  received  an  answer  from  the  Holy  Ghost, 

that  he  should  not  see  death,  before  he  had  seen  the 
Christ  of  the  Lord."  Brief  though  the  Canticle  is, 
it  abounds  in  Old-Testament  allusions.  Thus,  in 
the  following  verses,  "Because  my  eyes  have  seen  thy 
salvation"  alludes  to  Isaias,  Hi,  10,  rendered  afterwards 
by  St.  Luke  (iii,  6),  "And  all  flesh  shall  see  the  salva- 
tion of  God".  Verse  31,  '^.^Tiich  thou  hast  prepared 
before  the  face  of  all  peoples"  accords  with  the  Psalm- 


'.smatici  in  sette  lingue  (Mila 


iouo— ,,  Zeitschrift  fir  Numismatik  (Berlin,  1874—); 
matisches  Literaturblatt  (Berlin,  1880—);  Berliner  MunzbldUer 
(1880—);  Frankfurter  Munzblatter.  now  Frankfurter  MUnzzeitung 
(1901 — );  Zeitschrifl  und  Monatsblatt  der  numismatischen  Oeaell- 
schaft  in  Wien  (1870—);  Zeilschrift  und  Mitteilungen  derOs^. 
Gesellschaft  zur  Fbrderung  der  MUnz-  und  Medaillenkunde  (IS90— ) , 
Mitteilungen  der  bayrischen  numismatischen  Gesellschaft  [l»7^—)- 
Revue  numismatique  (Paris,  1856— ) ,  hirinerly  ««! 
matique  fran^aise  (Blois,  1835— 56)_ 


_  ?  de  la 

manque  jran,;aise  vu.u.=.,   •>,„..   „„, ,  'Yearbook  oi  the  SociUi  f< 
taise  de  numismatique  (1866—);  Bulletin  international  de 
matique  (Paris,  1902—)     "  '^'' " — '•"■"  "  "' 


„^..,„.  ,.».„,  .„„-     , .-  .«ma(iff.«  (Tirlemont, 

then   Brussels,    1842—);   Bulletin   mensuel  de  numismatique  et 


NUNCIO 


160 


NXTNCIO 


ist  (xcvii,  2);  and  verse  32,  "A  light  to  the  revehition 
of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  glory  of  thy  people  Israel", 
recalls  Isaias,  xlii,  G. 

The  text  of  the  Nunc  Dimittis  is  given  in  full  in  the 
brief  ('\cnin.!;  praver  found  in  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions (Mook  VII,  xlviii)  (P.  G.,  I,  lO,-)?).  In  the 
HiiMuui  Oilier,  the  rantiele  is  assigned  to  Complin. 
If  8t.  Ik-nediet  did  not  originate  this  canonical  Hour, 
he  gave  to  it  its  liturgical  character;  but  he  neverthe- 
less did  not  include  the  Canticle,  which  was  after- 
wards incorporated  into  tlie  richer  Complin  Ser- 
vice of  the  Roman  Rite,  where  it  is  preceded  by 
the  beautiful  resjionsory,  "In  manus  tuas,  Domine, 
commendo  .spiritinn  meum"  (Into  thy  hands,  O  Lord, 
I  conmiend  my  spirit)  etc..  with  the  Antiphon  follow- 
ing. "Salva  nos.  Domine,  vigilantes,  cuslodi  nos  dor- 
mientes"  (O  Lord,  keep  us  waking,  guard  us  sleeping) 
etc. — all  this  harmonizing  exquisitely  with  the  sjiirit 
of  the  Xunc  Dimittis  and  with  the  general  character 
of  the  closing  Hour  of  the  Office.  In  the  blessing  of 
the  candles  on  the  feast  of  the  Purification  of  the 
lilessed  \'irgin,  the  Canticle,  of  course,  receives  great 
prominence  both  in  its  text  and  in  the  references 
to  Simeon  in  the  preceding  prayers.  Its  last  verse, 
"Lumen  ad  revclationem"  etc.,  forms  the  Antiphon 
which  not  only  precedes  and  ifollows  the  Canticle, 
but  also  precedes  every  verse  of  it  and  the  Gloria 
Patri  and  Sicut  erat  of  the  concluding  doxology.  The 
symbolism  of  the  Canticle  and  of  its  Antiphon  is 
further  emphasized  by  the  lighted  candles  of  Candle- 
mas. The  complete  Canticle  also  forms  the  Tract  in 
the  Mass  of  the  feast,  when  the  2  February  follows 
Septuagesima. 

For  a  fuller  explanation  of  the  Nunc  Dimittis,  the  following 
commentaries  (in  English)  may  be  consulted;  Cornelius  a 
L.vpiDE,  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  tr.  Mobsman  (London,  1892),  113-116-, 
McEviLLY,  An  Exposition  o/  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  (New  York, 
188S),  61,  62;  Breen,  A  Harmonized  Exposition  of  the  Four  Gos- 
pels, I  (Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1899),  209-16;  Makbach,  Carmina 
Scripturanim  lstr:iahurL'.  1907),  438-40  (gives  detailed  references 
totheuseof  ii.  ..  .  m  M:i..i3  and  Office) ;  The  Office  of  Compline, 
in  Latin  an  ;  /  "linff  to  the  Roman  Rife,  with  full  Grego- 

rianNoiati"  I:  .  1  "^^'r.  Squire  in  Grove,  Dt'rf.  o/ Music  a?id 
Musicians,  m\  l -  --  \  -  A  ■i".c  Dimittis,  an  explanation  of  its  use  in 
Anglican  Evensong;  Husenbeth,  The  Missal  for  the  Use  of  the 
Laity  (London,  1903),  562-66,  for  the  prayers  and  canticles  on  the 
feast  of  the  Purification 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Nuncio,  an  ordinary  and  permanent  representative 
of  the  pope,  vested  with  both  political  and  ecclesias- 
tical powers,  accredited  to  the  court  of  a  sovereign  or 
assigned  to  a  definite  territory  with  the  duty  of  safe- 
guarding the  interests  of  the  Holy  See.  The  special 
character  of  a  nuncio ,  as  distinguished  from  other  papal 
envoys  (such  as  legates,  collectors),  consists  in  this: 
that  his  office  is  specifically  defined  and  limited  to  a 
definite  district  (his  nunciature),  wherein  he  must  re- 
side; his  mission  is  general,  embracing  all  the  interests 
of  the  Holy  See;  his  office  is  permanent,  requiring  the 
appointment  of  a  successor  when  one  incumbent  is  re- 
called, and  his  mission  includes  both  diplomatic  and 
ecclesiastical  powers.  Nuncios,  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word,  first  appear  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
office,  however,  was  not  created  at  any  definite  mo- 
ment or  by  any  one  papal  ordinance,  but  gradually 
developed  under  the  influence  of  various  historical 
factors  into  the  form  in  which  we  find  it  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  first  permanent  representatives 
of  the  Holy  See  at  secular  courts  were  the  apocrisarii 
(q.  v.;  see  also  Legate)  at  the  Byzantine  Court.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  popes  sent,  for  the  settlement  of 
important  ecclesiastical  or  political  matters,  legates 
{legati  a  latere,  q.  v.)  with  definite  instructions  and  at 
times  with  ordinary  jurisdiction.  The  officials,  sent 
from  the  thirteenth  century  for  the  purpose  of  collect- 
ing taxes  either  for  the  Roman  Court  or  for  the  cru- 
sades, were  called  nuntii,  nuntii  apn.itoh'ci.  During 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  this  title  was 
given  also  to  papal  envoys  entrusted  with  certain 
other  affairs  of  an  ecclesiastical  or  diplomatic  nature. 


Frequently  they  were  given  the  right  of  granting  cer- 
tain privileges,  favours,  and  benefices.  During  the 
Great  Western  Schism  and  the  period  of  the  reform 
councils  (fifteenth  century),  such  cmbiissies  were  more 
frequentlj'  resorted  to  by  the  Holy  See.  Then  were 
also  gradually  established  permanent  diplomatic  rep- 
resentation at  the  various  courts.  ^^  ith  previous 
forms  of  i)apal  rei)resentation  as  a  precedent  and 
nidclelled  ujinn  the  permanent  dijilomatic  legations  of 
teniiiciiMJ  .sdvercigii.s.  there  lin:dly  arose  in  the  six- 
teenth eenturv  the  permanent  nunciatures  of  the 
Holy  See. 

The  exact  date  of  the  establishment  of  many  of  the 
nunciatures  is  not  easy  to  determine,  as  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  fix  exactly  in  all  cases  when  an  earlier  type  of 
papal  envoy  was  replaced  by  a  nuncio  proper,  and  es- 
pecially as  in  the  beginning  we  find  interruptions  in 
the  succession  of  envoys  who,  owing  to  their  powers 
and  their  office,  must  be  regarded  as  real  nuncios.  The 
necessity  of  resisting  Protestantism  was  a  special  fac- 
tor in  the  increase  of  the  nunciatures.  After  the 
Council  of  Trent  they  became  the  chief  agents  of  the 
popes  in  their  efforts  to  check  the  spread  of  heresy  and 
to  carry  out  true  reform.  The  fact  that  in  1537  the 
papal  correspondence  with  foreign  [low  ers,  pre\'iousIy 
carried  on  by  the  pope's  private  secretary,  was  handed 
over  by  Pavil  III  to  the  vice-chancellor.  Cardinal  Alex- 
ander F;iniese,  was  the  chief  element  within  the  curia 
which  led  to  the  permanence  of  nunciatures.  Thereby 
the  political  correspondence  of  the  Holy  See  lost  its 
somewhat  private  character,  and  was  entrusted  to  the 
secretariate  of  state,  with  which  the  nuncios  were 
henceforth  to  be  in  constant  comniunciation.  The 
popes  akso  employed  extraordinary  en^•oys  for  special 
purposes.  Angelo  Leonini,  sent  to  Venice  by  Alexan- 
der VI  in  1500,  is  commonl)-  regarded  as  the  first  nun- 
cio, as  we  understand  the  term  to-day.  In  Spain  the 
collector-general  of  the  papal  exchequer,  Giovanni 
Ruffo  dei  Teodoli,  was  also  gi\cn  diplomatic  powers: 
he  resided  in  the  country,  and  discharged  these  two 
offices  from  1506  to  1518  or  1519.  As  his  successors 
were  appointed  collectors-general  with  fiscal,  and  po- 
litical representatives  with  di|il(j|ii;itic  iiowers,  so  that 
from  thenceforth  the  Spanish  nunciature  may  be  re- 
garded as  permanent.  The  beginning  of  a  papal  nun- 
ciature in  Germany  dates  from  1511  when  Julius  II 
sent  Lorenzo  Campeggio  to  the  Imperial  Court.  His 
mission  was  ratified  in  1513  by  Leo  X,  and  from  1530 
a  nuncio  was  permanently  accredited.  The  nuncios 
often  accompanied  Emperor  Charles  V,  even  when  he 
resided  outside  the  empire.  Another  German  nuncia- 
ture was  established  in  1524,  when  Lorenzo  Pimpinella 
was  sent  to  the  court  of  King  Ferdinand  of  Austria. 
The  first  real  nuncio  in  France  was  Leone  Ludovico  di 
Canossa  (1514-17).  The  French  nunciature  contin- 
ued from  the  Council  of  Trent  to  the  Revolution. 

After  the  Council  of  Trent  a  luiinber  of  new  nun- 
ciatures were  erected.  In  Italy  dii)l(>matic  represen- 
tatives were  appointed  for  Piediiionl,  Milan,  Tuscany 
(Florence),  and  for  Naples,  where  the  nunciature  tjn- 
derwent  the  same  develo])ment  as  in  Spain.  The 
nunlius  entrusted  with  the  duty  of  collecting  the  papal 
taxes  received  also  diplomatic  powers,  and  was  recog- 
nized in  this  capacity  by  Philii)  II  in  1569.  Portu- 
gal and  Poland  likewise  received  permanent  nuncios 
shortly  after  the  Council  of  Trent.  To  foster  Catho- 
lic revival  new  nunciatures  were  erected  in  the  southern 
parts  of  the  German  Empire.  Thus,  in  1573,  Barto- 
lomeo  Portia  was  made  nuncio  of  Salzburg,  Tyrol,  and 
Bavaria,  although  no  further  successor  was  appointed 
after  153S.  In  1580  Germanico  Malaspina  was  ap- 
pointed first  nuncio  of  Styria,  but  this  nunciature  was 
discontinued  in  1621.  Bishop  Bonhomini  arrived  in 
Switzerland  in  1579,  and  up  to  1581  with  great  zeal 
and  success  introduced  ecclesiastical  reforms.  In 
1586  Giovanni  Battista  Santonio  succeeded  him, 
whereupon  the  Swiss  nunciature  became  permanent. 


NUNCIO 


161 


NUNCIO 


In  Cologne  a  nunciature  was  erected  in  1584  for  north- 
western Germany  and  the  Rhine,  but  in  1596  the 
Netherlands  was  detached  from  the  Nunciature  of  Co- 
logne and  received  its  own  nuncio,  who  was  to  reside  in 
Brussels  (Nunciature  of  Flanders).  The  jurisdiction 
of  the  Nunciature  of  Flanders  extended  also  to  the 
English  missions.  Thus,  toward  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  nunciatures  were  fully  developed. 

A  dispute  concerning  the  rights  of  the  pope  in  the 
erecting  of  nunciatures  and  the  competency  of  the 
nuncios  themselves  arose  in  1785,  when  Pius  VI  deter- 
mined to  establish  a  new  nunciature  in  Munich  at  the 
request  of  Charles  Theodore,  Elector  of  Bavaria.  The 
elector  desired  the  appointment  of  a  special  nuncio, 
because  princes  subject  to  the  emperor  alone  were 
bishops  of  Bavarian  dioceses,  but  did  not  reside  in 
Bavaria,  thus  greatly  impeding  the  exercise  of  ecclesi- 
astical administration.  The  three  spiritual  electors 
(the  Archbishops  of  Cologne,  Mainz,  and  Trier)  pro- 
tested on  the  ground  that  thereby  their  metropolitan 
rights  would  be  violated.  The  pope,  however,  ap- 
pointed Zoglio,  titular  Archbishop  of  Athens,  as  nun- 
cio, and  to  him  Charles  Theodore  ordered  his  clergy 
to  have  recourse  in  future  in  all  ecclesiastical  matters 
within  his  jurisdiction.  The  three  electors,  imbued 
with  Febronianism  (q.  v.),  formed  a  coalition  with  the 
Archbishop  of  Salzburg,  hoping  to  recover  their  pre- 
tended primitive  metropolitan  rights  by  ignoring  the 
nuncio  and  by  giving  decisions  and  granting  dispensa- 
tions on  their  own  authority,  even  in  cases  canonically 
reserved  to  the  pope.  As  Rome  refused  to  support 
them,  they  appealed  to  Joseph  II,  who,  in  accordance 
with  his  principles,  heartily  approved  of  their  efforts, 
pledged  them  his  full  support,  declared  that  he  would 
never  allow  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  of  the  em- 
pire to  be  curtailed,  and  that  consequently  he  would 
recognize  the  nuncios  only  in  their  political  character. 
At  the  Congress  of  Ems  (q.  v.),  the  three  elector  arch- 
bishops passed  resolutions  embodying  their  conten- 
tions. Despite  this  protest,  Pacca  and  Zoglio  contin- 
ued to  exercise  their  spiritual  jurisdiction  in  Cologne 
and  Munich  respectively,  received  appeals  from  the 
decisions  of  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  granted  dispen- 
sations in  cases  reserved  to  the  pope.  On  the  other 
hand  the  four  archbishops  arbitrarily  extended  their 
own  authority,  granting  dispensations  from  solemn 
religious  vows  as  well  as  from  matrimonial  impedi- 
ments, and  erecting  ecclesiastical  tribunals  of  third 
instance.  The  emperor  brought  the  controversy  be- 
fore the  Imperial  Diet  of  Ratisbon  in  1788,  but  with- 
out definite  results.  The  archbishops,  opposed  both 
by  the  cathedral  chapters  and  the  suffragan  bishops, 
renewed  communications  with  the  pope,  who  on  l4 
Nov.,  1789,  issued  an  extensive  document  giving  a  de- 
tailed exposition  of  the  rights  of  the  Holy  See  and 
those  of  its  envoys  (Ss.  D.  N.  Pii  pp.  VI.  Responsio  ad 
Metropolitanos  Moguntino,  Treviren.,  Colonien.  et 
Salisburgen.,  supre  Nuntiaturis  apostolicis,  Rome, 
1789).  Frederick  William  II,  King  of  Prussia,  also 
recognized  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Nuncio  of  Cologne  in 
the  territory  of  Cleves,  and  in  Mainz  his  ambassadors 
opposed  the  pretentions  of  the  emperor.  The  French 
revolution  ended  the  dispute.  Owing  to  the  political 
development  of  Italy  in  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
papal  nunciatures  disappeared  completely.  With  the 
dissolution  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  the  Imperial 
German  nunciature  became  the  Austrian  nunciature, 
when  Francis  II  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Aus- 
tria. The  partition  of  Poland  ended  the  nunciature 
there.  The  first  state  outside  of  Europe  to  receive  a 
papal  representative  was  Brazil.  At  first  an  inter- 
nuncio was  assigned  to  that  country,  but  of  late  years 
a  nuncio  has  resided  there. 

At  present  there  are  four  papal  nunciatures  of  the 

first  class,  four  of  the  second,  two  internunciatures, 

and  several  delegations.     The  nunciatures  of  the  first 

class  are:  (1)  Menna;  (2)  Paris,  where  the  nunciature 

XI.— 11 


was  re-established  after  the  Revolution,  after  Cardi- 
nal Caprara  had  first  been  sent  thither  as  legatus  a  la- 
tere by  Pius  VII.  Since  the  rupture  of  diplomatic  re- 
lations between  France  and  the  Holy  See  in  1904,  this 
office  has  had  no  incumbent;  (3)  Madrid,  which,  since 
the  Council  of  Trent,  has  been  the  permanent  resi- 
dence of  the  papal  nuncio  for  Spain.  It  has  a  special 
tribunal,  the  Rota,  which  serves  only  as  a  court  of  ap- 
peals from  the  diocesan  and  metropolitan  courts,  but 
cannot  handle  any  cases  of  first  instance.  Litigants 
are  free  to  appeal  from  its  decisions  to  the  sovereign 
pontiff;  (4)  Lisbon,  which  had  at  first  a  nunciature 
only  of  the  second  class.  It  included  a  special  court 
for  ecclesiastical  matters,  but  this  was  abolished  in  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century.  From  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  sixteenth  century  Portugal  always  had 
a  nuncio,  although  disputes  arose  at  different  times. 
The  nunciatures  of  the  second  class  are:  (1)  the  Swiss 
nunciature  which,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  com- 
prised tlie  Dioceses  of  Constance,  Basle,  Ciore,  Sion, 
and  Lausanne.  Since  the  religious  troubles  of  1873 
there  has  been  no  incumbent;  (2)  since  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  only  nunciature  in  Ger- 
many has  been  that  of  Munich  (the  last  nuncio  of 
Cologne  was  Annibale  della  Genga,  later  on  Pope  Leo 
XII) ;  (3)  Brussels,  the  residence  of  the  Nuncio  of  Bel- 
gium as  successor  of  the  former  Nuncio  of  Flanders. 
During  the  time  of  the  French  occupation  this  position 
was  vacant.  It  was  only  in  1829  that  Coppacini  was 
sent  to  Brussels  as  internuncio;  in  1841,  it  was  again 
raised  to  a  nunciature.  Fornari,  the  first  nuncio,  was 
succeeded  in  1843  by  Gioacchino  Pecci,  afterwards 
Leo  XIII.  In  1880  the  Liberal  Ministry  severed  all 
diplomatic  relations  with  the  Holy  See;  the  old  status 
was  restored,  when  in  1885  the  Catholic  party  re- 
gained power;  (4)  Brazil.  In  1807  Lorenzo  Caleppi, 
the  Nuncio  of  Portugal,  followed  John  VI  in  his  flight 
to  Brazil.  In  1829  a  special  internuncio,  Felice  Os- 
tini,  was  appointed  for  Brazil;  this  marks  the  begin- 
ning of  diplomatic  relations  between  the  Holy  See  and 
the  other  states  of  South  America.  In  1902  the  papa! 
Internuncio  of  Brazil  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
nuncio. 

The  internunciatures  are:  (1)  the  Internunciature  of 
Holland  and  Luxemburg.  Since  the  separation  of 
these  countries,  the  internuncio  receives  distinct  cre- 
dential letters  for  the  two  governments.  From  the 
time  of  the  Peace  Conference  at  the  Hague  Holland 
has  onl}'  a  charge  d'affaires;  (2)  the  Internunciature 
of  Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay,  which  was 
erected  in  1900.  There  had  been  accredited  to  these 
countries  a  papal  delegate  since  1847,  and  an  inter- 
nuncio, Mgr  Barili,  had  been  sent  in  1851  to  what  was 
then  New  Granada.  The  Apostohc  delegates  form  a 
lower  rank  of  papal  representatives  of  diplomatic  and 
ecclesiastical  character.  There  are  five  Apostohc 
Delegations  in  South  and  Central  America:  (1)  Chile, 
(2)  Columbia,  (3)  Costa-Rica,  (4)  Ecuador,  Bolivia, 
and  Peru,  (5)  San  Domingo,  Haiti  and  Venezuela,  all 
erected  during  the  nineteenth  century.  Owing  to  re- 
peated religious  troubles  these  delegations  have  often 
been  vacant.  Costa-Rica  has  been  without  a  delegate 
for  a  considerable  period.  It  is  necessary  to  distin- 
guish these  Apostolic  delegations  of  a  diplomatic  char- 
acter from  those  which  are  merely  ecclesiastical. 

The  powers  to  papal  nuncios  correspond  to  the  two- 
fold character  of  their  mission.  As  the  diplomatic 
representatives  of  the  pope,  they  treat  with  the  sov- 
ereigns or  head  of  republics  to  whom  they  are  accred- 
ited. With  their  mission  they  are  given  special  cre- 
dentials as  well  as  special  instructions,  whether  of  a 
public  or  of  a  private  nature.  They  also  receive  a 
secret  code  and  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  ambassa- 
dors. Their  appearances  in  public  are  regulated  in 
conformity  with  general  diplomatic  customs.  They 
also  have  certain  distinctions,  especially  that  of  being 
ex-olficio  dean  of  the  entire  diplomatic  body,  within 


NUNCIO 


162 


NUNCIO 


their  nunciature,  and  tlierefore  on  public  occasions 
take  procodeiice  of  all  (iiplonuitio  representatives.  In- 
ternuncio ami  delegates  enjoy  a  similar  right  of  prece- 
dence over  all  other  diijloniatic  representatives  of 
equal  rank.  This  privilege  of  papal  envoys  was  ex- 
pressly recognized  by  the  Congress  of  \'i(>nna  in  1815 
and  is  universally  observed.  Nuncios  enjoy  the  title 
of  "Excellency"  and  the  same  special  honours  as  am- 
bassadors. In  addition  to  their  diplomatic  position 
nuncios  have  an  ecclesiastical  mission,  and  possess  or- 
dinarj-  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  The  latter  point  is 
especially  stated  in  the  "Responsio"  of  Pius  VI  to  the 
Rhenish  archl)ishops,  and  was  reaffirmed  by  Pius  IX 
in  a  letter  to  Archbishop  Darboy  of  Paris  in  1863,  as 
also  in  a  declaration  of  the  Cardinal  Secretary  of  State 
Jacobini  addressed  to  Spain,  15  April,  1885.  The 
ample  ecclesiastical  faculties,  granted  in  the  Middle 
Ages  to  the  legates  a  latere  and  other  papal  envoys, 
had  led  to  abuses;  the  Council  of  Trent,  therefore,  en- 
acted that  papal  envoys  (legati  a  latere,  nuncii,  guber- 
natores  ecclesiastici,  aut  alii  quarumcumque  faculta- 
tum  vigore)  were  not  to  impede  bishops  or  to  disturb 
their  ordinary  jurisdiction  nor  to  proceed  against 
ecclesiastical  persons  until  the  bishop  had  first  been 
applied  to  and  had  shown  himself  negligent  (Sess. 
XXIV.,  cap.  XX  de  ref .). 

Apart  from  the  special  faculties  in  conferring  eccle- 
siastical benefices  and  in  granting  spiritual  favours,  the 
nuncios  had  the  power  of  instituting  proceedings  and 
giving  decisions  in  cases  of  ecclesiastical  administra- 
tion and  discipline  reserved  to  the  pope.  The  nuncia- 
tures had  special  courts,  principally  for  cases  of  ap- 
peal. To-day  such  a  court  is  attached  only  to  the 
Nunciature  of  Spain.  In  all  other  points  nuncios  en- 
joy essentially  the  same  rights  in  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters. They  are  the  representatives  of  the  pope,  and 
is  such  are  the  organs  through  which  he  exercises  his 
ordinary  and  immediate  supreme  jurisdiction.  It  is 
their  special  duty  to  supervise  ecclesiastical  adminis- 
tration, and  on  this  they  report  to  the  cardinal  sec- 
retary of  state ;  they  grant  dispensations  in  cases 
reserved  to  the  pope,  carry  on  the  process  of  informa- 
tion for  the  nomination  of  new  bishops,  give  permis- 
sion for  reading  forbidden  books,  and  enjoy  the  privi- 
lege of  granting  minor  indulgences.  In  special  cases 
they  are  delegated  for  the  settlement  of  important  ec- 
clesiastical affairs.  In  virtue  of  their  position  certain 
ecclesiastical  honours  are  due  to  them  as  laid  down  in 
the ' '  Csremoniale  Episcoporum  " .  Pius  X  introduced 
a  change  in  the  practice  hitherto  followed  with  regard 
to  nuncios,  so  that  now  they  hold  their  position  longer 
than  formerly,  and  a  nuncio  of  the  first  class,  after  his 
recall,  is  not  regularly  raised  to  the  cardinalate. 

PiEPF.R,  Zur  Ent.^UftungsQesch.  der  siHndigen  Nuntiaturen  {Frei- 
burg, Isyij;  BlAtDET.  Lf.^  nunciatures  apostoliques  permanentei 
jusqu'i'-  l'''>y  in   .1 /(7(a/ts  .4fa(/fmt(f  6'cien(iaru7n  Fennic(E  (Helsin- 

Bki,  1'""      1' .,  Origincs  des  nonciatures  permanentes  in  Rt- 

vu<  ■:  III  1906),  52-70,  217-238;  Idem,  Origines  de  la 

nam  in  Revue  des  quest,  histor.,  LXXVIII  (1905), 

10:i  -  -        ,  iJie  Nuntiatur  von  Neapet  im  16.  Jahrh.  in 

Hu-l;,.  .,„:..„..  .vl\  (1S93),  70-82;  Idem,  Zur  spanischen  Nun- 
liatur  im  10.  u.  17.  Jahrh.  in  Rom.  Quarlalsch..  VII  (1893),  447- 
81;  Friedensburg,  Anfdnge  der  Nuntiatur  xtl  Deutschland  in 
Nuntialurber.  aus  Deut^rhhiml  I,  part  I,  xxxviii,  sqq.;  PlEPER,  Die 
•pdpstl.  Legaien  u.  A'l/':^  -  '  /)-  ;/f  rhland,  Franhreich  u.  Spaiiien 
sail  der   Mitie  des   1'       '  I      Mimater,   1897);    Maere,  Les 

oriffines  de  la  nondah.  m  Rexme  d'hisloire  eccles..  VII 

(1906),  565-84,  80.5-.' ,  m  l\,  ■  , '.^^.  Los  despachos  dela  Diplo- 
macia  ponlificia  en  E-^funu.  1  ,:>l;iiJriU,  1896);  Badmgarten,  Der 
Papst,  die  Regierung  u.  Verwalluny  der  hi.  Kirche  in  Rom  (Mvin- 
chen,  1904),  447  sqq. 

Nuxci.4TrRE  Reports,  the  official  reports  concern- 
ing their  entire  field  of  work  sent  by  the  papal  nuncios 
and  legates  (or  their  representatives)  to  the  pope 
or  the  cardinal  secretary  of  state.  The  contents 
of  these  dispatches  are  in  accordance  with  the  com- 
mission received  by  the  legate  or  nuncio.  The  re- 
ports of  the  nuncios  filling  permanent  nunciatures, 
on  whom  rested  the  protection  of  .all  the  interests  of  the 
papacy  within  their  special  territory,  relate  to  all  the 
more  important  ecclesiastical  or  political  questions 


which  had  any  connexion  whatever  with  their  com- 
mission. The  objects  of  the  reports  are:  (1)  to  give 
the  most  exact  information  possible  concerning  all 
political  and  ecclesiastical  occurrences  which  might  be 
of  importance  to  the  pope  or  the  cardinal  secretary  of 
state;  (2)  to  give  exact  inforiiuition  concerning  the 
action  the  nuncios  have  taken  witli  resjiect  to  such 
occurrences;  (3)  to  send  news  concerning  the  ])rinces 
to  whose  courts  they  are  accredited,  and  concerning 
the  persons  who  are  in  personal  eont;[ct  with  the 
princes,  or  appear  at  court  on  account  of  )Milil  ic;d  mat- 
ters, or  in  any  way  have  a  share  in  ec<'l(si;i.stical  and 
political  affairs.  In  doing  this  attention  is  naturally 
paid  both  to  the  instructions  that  had  been  given  to 
the  nuncio  before  he  left  for  his  post,  and  to  the  letters 
regularly  received  from  the  office  of  the  papal  secre- 
tary of  state,  from  the  pope,  or  from  other  officials. 
Taken  in  a  wider  sense,  nunciature  reports  also  include 
those  letters  of  the  nuncios  concerning  the  affairs  of 
their  nunciatures,  addressed  to  cardinals  or  others  hav- 
ing high  official  rank  in  the  Curia.  From  the  first 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  bureau  of  the 
papal  secretary  of  state  was  fully  developed  and  the 
permanent  nunciatures  received  their  ultimate  organi- 
zation, the  reports  of  the  nuncios  were  sent  regularly 
(from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  often 
weekly).  They  were  written  sometimes  in  Latin, 
sometimes  in  Italian.  If  important  matters  were 
treated,  especially  those  concerning  which  negotia- 
tions needed  to  be  carried  on  in  the  most  secret  man- 
ner possible,  the  nuncio  employed  the  cipher  given 
him  before  going  to  this  position. 

Although  the  individual  dispatches  vary  greatly  in 
worth,  yet,  as  a  whole,  the  nunciature  reports  form  a 
very  important  source  from  the  sixteenth  century  (es- 
pecially during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centu- 
ries) both  for  the  history  of  the  Church  and  for  politi- 
cal history.  Only  a  very  small  proportion  either  of 
the  reports  made  by  papal  legates  in  the  second  half  of 
the  fifteenth  century  or  in  the  early  years  of  the  six- 
teenth century  have  been  preserved.  From  the  sec- 
ond decade  of  the  sixteenth  century  a.  much  greater 
number  survive,  and  from  the  middle  of  this  century 
the  reports  of  individual  nuncios  frequently  exist  in 
unbroken  sequence.  Most  of  the  manuscript  reports 
are  in  the  Vatican  archives,  and  are  classified  in  six- 
teen series,  according  to  the  nunciatures.  The  classi- 
fication does  not  agree,  however,  with  the  present  ar- 
rangement of  the  nunciatures,  the  series  given  being 
as  follows:  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  Belgium,  Eng- 
land, Germany  (the  imperial  nunciature),  Cologne, 
Bavaria,  Switzerland,  Poland,  Savoy,  Genoa,  Venice, 
Florence,  Naples,  and  Malta.  Individual  reports  are 
also  in  other  divisions  of  the  archives.  The  nuncia- 
ture reports  brought  together  in  the  archives  of  the 
Vatican  show  serious  gaps,  especially  for  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  reason  is  that  the  diplomatic  corre- 
spondence of  the  Curia  in  that  era  was  not  systematic- 
ally brought  together  and  preserved  in  a  papal  archive, 
but  was  frequently  purloined  by  the  copyists,  cardi- 
nal favourites,  and  their  secretaries,  just  as  the  letters 
dispatched  from  Rome  were  retained  by  the  nuncios 
and  their  heirs,  and  thus  became  dispersed  to  some  ex- 
tent in  family  archives.  For  example,  the  greater  part 
of  the  nunciature  reports  pertaining  to  the  reign  of 
Paul  III  (1534-49)  are  now  in  the  state  archives  of 
Naples,  to  which  they  came  along  with  the  archives  of 
the  Farnese  family.  Other  collections  of  reports  are 
to  be  found  in  various  Italian  archives.  The  reports 
preserved  are  either  the  original  drafts  made  by  the 
nuncios  themselves,  or  the  original  letters  drawn  up  in 
accordance  with  these,  or  copies  of  the  original  let- 
ters. As  regards  the  reports  written  in  cipher,  a  key 
can  generally  be  found. 

On  account  of  the  great  historical  importance  of 
the  reports  an  effort  has  been  made,  since  the  opening 
of  the  Vatican  archives  for  general  research,  to  pub- 


NUNEZ 


163 


NUNEZ 


lish  them  together  with  supplementary  documents 
(especially  the  instructions  and  letters  sent  to  the 
nuncios) .  Heretofore  more  has  been  done,  in  the  way 
of  publication,  for  the  German  nunciatures  than  for 
the  others.  H.  Lammer  published  a  series  of  nuncia- 
ture reports  from  Germany  as  early  as  1860  in  his 
"Monumenta  Vaticana  historiam  ecclesiasticam  sse- 
culi  XVI  illustrantia";  upon  the  opening  of  the  Vati- 
can archives,  the  assistant  archivist.  Father  Balan, 
brought  out  further  material  pertaining  to  the  same 
subject  in  his  work  "  Monumenta  reformationis  Luth- 
eranae"  (Ratisbon,  1883-4).  Father  Dittrich  treats 
the  reports  sent  by  the  nuncio  Giovanni  Morone  from 
the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  (1541)  in  the  "Historisches  Jahr- 
buch  der  Gorresgescllschaft",  IV  (1883),  395-472, 
618-73,  and,  as  a  complement  to  this,  edited  the 
"  Nuntiaturberichte  Morones  vom  deutschen  Konigs- 
hofe"  for  the  years  1539-40  in  "Quellen  und  Forsch- 
ungen  aus  dem  Gebiete  der  Geschichte",  I  (Pa- 
derborn,  1892).  In  the  mean  time  three  historical 
in.stitutes  at  Rome  (the  Prussian,  the  Austrian,  and 
that  of  the  Gorresgescllschaft)  divided  among  them  the 
publication  of  all  the  nunciature  reports  sent  from  the 
German  Empire  for  the  period  of  the  sixteenth  and 
the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  centuries.  These 
societies  have  already  published  a  large  number  of 
volumes:  the  first  division,  extending  to  1559,  is  being 
published  by  the  Prussian  Institute;  there  have  ap- 
peared so  far  vols.  I-IV,  VIII-X,  and  XII,  comprising 
the  nunciatures  of  Vergerio,  Morone,  Migganelli, 
Varallo,  Poggio,  Bertano,  and  Camiani,  the  legations 
of  Farnese,  Cervini,  Campegio,  Aleander,  andSfon- 
drato  (Gotha-Berlin,  1892 — ).  The  second  division 
covering  the  period  1560-72,  was  undertaken  by  the 
Austrian  Institute;  up  to  the  present  vols.  I  and  III, 
containing  the  reports  of  the  nuncios  Hosius  and  Bel- 
fino,  have  appeared  (Vienna,  1897-1903).  A  third 
division,  covering  the  years  1572-85,  was  also  assigned 
to  the  Prussian  institute  which  has  already  issued  this 
series  (Berlin,  1892 — ):  vol.  I,  containing  the  struggle 
over  Cologne;  vol.  II,  containing  the  Diets  of  Ratisbon 
(1576)  and  of  Augsburg  (1582);  vols.  III-V,  contain- 
ing the  nunciature  of  Bartoloma?us  of  Portia.  At  this 
point  begin  the  publications  of  the  Institute  of  the 
Gorresgescllschaft,  which  has  so  far  edited  in  four 
volumes  the  reports  of  the  nuncios  Bonomi  (Bonho- 
mini),  Santonio,  Frangipani,  Malaspina,  and  Sega, 
and  the  nunciature  correspondence  of  Caspar  Gropper 
(Paderborn,  1895 — ).  The  period  a.ssigned  to  this 
institute  covers  1585-1605.  With  1606  begins  an- 
other period  (the  fourth  division),  assigned  to  the 
Prussian  Institute  and  covering  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. Of  this  division  two  volumes  have  been  pub- 
lished containing  the  reports  of  the  nuncio  Paletto 
(Berlin,  1895 — ).  In  this  way  the  material  concern- 
ing the  German  nunciatures  for  the  period  from  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  that  is  for  the  age  of  the  Reformation, 
will  be  available  at  a  not  far  distant  date. 

Professors  Reinhard  and  Steffens  of  Fribourg  under- 
took the  editing  of  the  nunciature  reports  for  Switzer- 
land and  began  with  Nuncio  Bonomi  (Bonhomini),  of 
whose  reports  one  volume  has  been  issued  (Solothurn, 
1907);  the  introductory  volume  completed  by  Stef- 
fens after  Reinhard's  death  has  since  appeared  (Solo- 
thurn, 1910).  As  regard  other  countries  the  reports 
of  the  nuncio  Andrea  da  Burgo,  who  was  in  Hungary 
during  the  years  1524-6,  have  been  issued  in  the 
"Monumenta  Vaticana  Hungarian",  second  series, 
vol.  I:  "Relationes  oratorura  pontificiorum "  (Buda- 
pest, 1884).  For  France  the  publication  of  the  nunci- 
ature reports  has  been  begun  in  the  "Archives  de  I'his- 
toire  religieuse  de  France";  of  this  Fraikin  undertook 
the  nunciatures  during  the  pontificate  of  Clement  VII 
and  has  issued  so  far  vol.  I  (Paris,  1906),  covering  the 
3'ears  1525-7,  and  including  the  nunciatures  of  Capino 
da  Capo  and  Roberto  Acciainolo,  and  the  legation  of 


Cardinal  Salviati.  Ancel,  meanwhile,  began  the  nunci- 
atures during  the  reign  of  Paul  IV,  and  edited  (vol.  I, 
pt.  i)  the  dispatches  of  Sebastiano  Gualterio  and  Ce- 
sare  Brancato  (1554-7).  The  general  reports  of  Otta- 
vio  Mirto  Frangipani  and  Fabio  della  Lionessa,  the 
nuncios  in  Flanders  (1605  and  1634),  have  been  pub- 
lished by  Cauchie  in  the  "  Analectes  pour  servir  k I'his- 
toire  ecclfeiastique  de  la  Belgique"  (Louvain).  The 
publication  of  the  dispatches  of  the  papal  nunciature 
in  Spain  has  been  commenced  by  Hinojosa,  "Los 
Despachos  de  la  Diplomacia  Pontificia  en  Espana",  I 
(Madrid,  1896).  So  far  no  comprehensive  publica- 
tion of  this  kind  has  been  undertaken  for  Italy,  al- 
though individual  reports  have  been  published.  Tolo- 
mei  has  treated  the  Venetian  nunciature  during  the 
pontificate  of  Clement  VII,  "La  nunziatura  di  Vene- 
zia  nel  pontificato  di  Clemente  VII"  (Turin,  1892), 
and  Curasi  has  edited  the  dispatches  that  have  been 
preserved  of  the  legation  of  Giacomo  Gherardi,  "  Dis- 
pacci  e  letere  di  Giac.  Gherardi,  nunzio  pontificio 
a  Firenze  e  Milano,  11  settembre,  1487-10  ottobre, 
1490",  in  "Studi  e  Testi",  fasc.  xxi  (Rome,  1909). 
Besides  these  comprehensive  publications  various 
historians  in  treating  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  in  their  works  have  made  use  of  and  pub- 
lished individual  dispatches  of  this  kind. 

See  the  introductiona  to  the  different  publications  of  the  nun- 
ciature reporta  and  the  bibliography  of  the  article  Nuncio. 

J.    P.   KiRSCH. 

Nunez  (Nonios),  Pedro,  mathematician  and  as- 
tronomer, b.  at  Alcacer-do-Sol,  1492;  d.  at  Coimbra, 
1577.  He  studied  ancient  languages,  philosophy,  and 
medicine  at  Lisbon  and  mathematics  at  Salamanca. 
In  1519  he  went  as  inspector-general  of  customs  to 
Goa,  India,  returning  to  become  in  1.529  royal  cosmog- 
rapher.  After  lecturing  for  three  years  at  Lisbon,  a 
professorship  of  higher  mathematics  was  established 
for  him  at  the  University  of  Coimbra,  which  he  held 
from  1544  to  1562.  His  utterances  on  science  plunged 
him  into  discussions  with  foreign  savants,  particularly 
the  French  mathematician,  Oronce  Fine.  Having  been 
tutor  in  the  reigning  family,  he  was  enabled  to  spend 
his  last  years  in  ease. 

To  mathematics,  astronomy,  and  navigation, 
Nunez  made  important  contributions.  He  devised  a 
method  for  obtaining  the  highest  common  divisor  of 
two  algebraic  expressions.  In  his  "  De  crepusculis  "  he 
announced  a  new  and  accurate  solution  of  the  astro- 
nomical problem  of  minimum  twilight  and  suggested 
an  instrument  for  the  measurement  of  angles.  The 
nonius,  never  in  common  use,  consisted  essentially  of 
forty-six  concentric  circles  divided  into  quadrants  by 
two  diameters  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  each  quad- 
rantal  arc  being  divided  into  equal  parts,  the  number 
of  parts  diminishing  from  ninety  for  the  outermost  arc 
to  forty-five  for  the  innermost.  If  one  side  of  any 
angle  is  made  to  coincide  with  one  of  the  radii,  the 
vertex  of  the  angle  falling  at  the  centre  of  the  circles, 
the  other  side  of  the  angle  will  fall  on  or  near  some 
point  of  division  of  one  of  the  arcs.  If  then  a  is  the 
number  of  parts  intercepted  and  n  is  the  whole  num- 
ber of  parts  in  the  relevant  arc,  the  magnitude  of  the 
angle  will  be  90X  -ifdegrees.  In  "De  arte  navigandi" 
he  announced  his  discovery  and  analysis  of  the  curve 
of  double  curvature  called  the  rumhus,  better  known 
as  loxodrome,  which  is  the  line  traced  by  a  ship  cutting 
the  meridians  at  a  constant  angle.  His  collected 
works  were  published  under  the  title  "Petri  Nonii 
Opera"  (Basle,  1592).  Among  them  are:  "Tratado 
da  sphera  com  a  theorica  do  sol  e  da  lua  e  o  primeiro 
livro  da  gcographia  de  Claudio  Ptolomeo  Alexan- 
drino"  (Lisbon,  1537);  " De  crepusculis  liber  unus" 
(Lisbon,  1542);  "De  arte  atque  ratione  na\ngandi" 
(Coimbra,  1546);  "De  erratis  Orontii  Finei"  (Coim- 
bra, 1546);  "Annotatio  in  extrema  verba  capitis  do 
chmatibis     (Cologne,  1566);  "Livro  de  algebra  em 


NUNS 


164 


NUNS 


arithmptioa  p  ppomctria"  (Antwerp,  1567);  "Annota- 
<;6es  !i  Mcchanica  de  Aristotelcs  e  ils  theoricas  dos 
planetas  de  Purbachio  com  a  arte  de  Navegar"  (Coim- 
bra,  1578). 

AIo.vTDCLA,  HUtoiredee  math.  (Paris,  1799.  1802);  NavaRRETE, 
Recherches  sur  leg  progrks  de  Vastronomic  et  des  sciences  nautiquea 
en  Espagne.  Fr.  tr.  de  Mofrab  (Paris,  1839) ;  Stockler,  Ensaio 
historico  sobre  a  origem  c  progrcssos  das  vuuhematicas  em  Portugal. 

Paul  H.  Linehan. 

Nuns.  I.  Origin  and  History. — The  institution  of 
nuns  and  sisters,  who  devote  themselves  in  various  re- 
ligious orders  to  the  practice  of  a  life  of  perfection, 
dates  from  the  first  ages  of  tiie  Church,  and  women 
may  claim  with  a  certain  pride  that  they  were  the  first 
to  embrace  the  religious  state  for  its  own  sake,  with- 
out regard  to  missionary  work  and  ecclesia,stical  func- 
tions proper  to  men.  St.  Paul  speaks  of  widows,  who 
were  called  to  certain  kinds  of  church  work  (I  Tim.,  v, 
9),  and  of  virgins  (I  Cor.,  vii),  whom  he  praises  for  their 
continence  and  their  devotion  to  the  things  of  the 
Lord.  In  the  earliest  times  Christian  women  di- 
rected their  fervour,  some  towards  the  service  of  the 
sanctuarj-,  others  to  the  attainment  of  perfection. 
The  virgins  were  remarkable  for  their  perfect  and  per- 
petual chastity  which  the  Catholic  Apologists  have 
extolled  as  a  contrast  to  pagan  corruption  (St.  Justin, 
"Apol.",  I,  c.  15;  Migne,  "P.  G.",  VI,  350;  St.  Am- 
brose, "De  Virginibus",  Bk  I,  c.  4;  Migne,  "P.  L.", 
XVI,  193).  Many  also  practised  poverty.  From  the 
earliest  times  they  were  called  the  spouses  of  Christ, 
according  to  St.  Athanasius,  the  custom  of  the  Church 
("Apol.  ad  Constant.",  sec.  33;  Migne,  "P.O."  XXV, 
639).  St.  Cyprian  describes  a  virgin  who  had  broken 
her  vows  as  an  adulteress  ("Ep.  62",  Migne,  "P.  L.", 
IV,  370) .  Tertullian  distinguishes  between  those  vir- 
gins who  took  the  veil  publicly  in  the  assembly  of  the 
faithful,  and  others  known  to  God  alone;  the  veil 
seems  to  have  been  simply  that  of  married  women. 
Virgins  vowed  to  the  service  of  God,  at  first  continued 
to  live  with  their  families,  but  as  early  as  the  end  of 
the  third  century  there  were  community  houses  known 
as  -n-apeevQi/es;  and  certainly  at  the  beginning  of  the 
same  century  the  virgins  formed  a  special  class  in  the 
Church,  receiving  Holy  Communion  before  the  laity. 
The  office  of  Good  Friday  in  which  the  virgins  are 
mentioned  after  the  porters,  and  the  Litany  of  the 
Saints,  in  which  they  are  invoked  with  the  widows, 
show  traces  of  this  classification.  They  were  some- 
times admitted  among  the  deaconesses  for  the  baptism 
of  adult  women  and  to  exercise  the  functions  which 
St.  Paul  had  reserved  for  widows  of  sixty  years. 

When  the  persecutions  of  the  third  century  drove 
many  into  the  desert,  the  solitary  life  produced  many 
heroines;  and  when  the  monks  began  to  live  in  monas- 
teries, there  were  also  communities  of  women.  St. 
Pachomius  (292-346)  built  a  convent  in  which  a  num- 
ber of  religious  women  lived  with  his  sister.  St.  Je- 
rome made  famous  the  mona.'^tery  of  St.  Paula  at  Beth- 
lehem. St.  Augustine  addressed  to  the  nuns  a  letter 
of  direction  from  which  subsequently  his  rule  was 
taken.  There  were  monasteries  of  virgins  or  nuns  at 
Rome,  throughout  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  and  the  West. 
The  great  founders  or  reformers  of  monastic  or  more 
generally  religious  life,  saw  their  rules  adopted  by 
women.  The  nuns  of  Egypt  and  Syria  cut  their  hair, 
a  practice  not  introduced  until  later  into  the  West. 
Monasteries  of  women  were  generally  situated  at  a 
distance  from  those  of  men;  St.  Pachomius  insisted 
on  this  separation,  also  St.  Benedict.  There  were,  how- 
ever, common  houses,  one  wing  being  set  apart  for 
women  and  the  other  for  men,  more  frequently  adjoin- 
ing houses  for  the  two  sexes.  Justinian  abolished 
these  double  houses  in  the  East,  placed  an  old  man 
to  look  after  the  temporal  aff.airs  of  the  convent,  and 
appointed  a  priest  and  a  deacon  who  were  to  perform 
their  duties,  but  not  to  hold  any  other  communication 
with  the  nuns.     In  the  West,  such  double  houses  ex- 


isted among  the  hospitallers  even  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  a  number  of 
clergy  of  the  principal  churches  of  the  West,  without 
being  bound  by  religious  profession,  chose  to  live  in 
community  and  to  observe  a  fixed  rule  of  life.  This 
canonical  life  was  led  also  by  women,  who  retired  from 
the  world,  took  vows  of  chastity,  dressed  modestly  in 
black,  but  were  not  bound  to  give  of  their  property. 
Continence  and  a  certain  religious  profession  were  re- 
quired of  married  women  whose  husbands  were  in 
Sacred  Orders,  or  even  received  episcopal  consecra- 
tion. 

Hence  in  the  ninth  century  the  list  of  women  vowed 
to  the  service  of  God  included  these  various  classes: 
virgins,  whose  .solemn  consecration  was  reserved  to 
the  bishop,  nuns  bound  by  religious  ijrofe.ssion,  canon- 
esses  hving  in  common  without  religious  profession, 
deaconesses  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  church,  and 
wives  or  widows  of  men  in  Sacred  Orders.  The 
nuns  sometimes  occupied  a  special  house;  the  en- 
closure strictly  kept  in  the  East,  was  not  considered 
indispensable  in  the  West.  Other  monasteries  al- 
lowed the  nuns  to  go  in  and  out.  In  Gaul  and  Spain 
the  novitiate  lasted  one  year  for  the  cloistered  nuns 
and  three  years  for  the  others.  In  early  times  the 
nuns  gave  Christian  education  to  orphans,  young 
girls  brought  by  their  parents,  and  especially  girls  in- 
tending to  embrace  a  religious  Ufe.  Besides  those  who 
took  the  veil  of  virgins  of  their  own  accord,  or  decided 
to  embrace  the  religious  life,  there  were  otliers  offered 
by  their  parents  before  they  were  old  enough  to  be 
consulted.  In  the  West  under  the  discipline  in  force 
for  several  centuries,  these  oblates  were  considered  as 
bound  for  life  by  the  offering  made  by  their  parents. 
The  profession  itself  might  be  expressed  or  implied. 
One  who  put  on  the  religious  habit,  and  lived  for  some 
time  among  the  professed,  was  herself  considered  as 
professed.  Besides  the  taking  of  the  veil  and  simple 
profession  there  was  also  a  solemn  consecration  of 
virginity  which  took  place  much  later,  at  twenty-five 
years.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Mendicant 
Orders  appeared  characterized  by  a  more  rigorous 
poverty,  which  excluded  not  only  private  property, 
but  also  the  possession  of  certain  kinds  of  property 
in  common.  Under  the  direction  of  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi,  St.  Clare  founded  in  1212  the  Second  Order 
of  Franciscans.  St.  Dominic  had  given  a  consti- 
tution to  nuns,  even  before  instituting  his  Friars 
Preachers,  approved  22  December,  1216.  The  Car- 
melites and  the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine  also  had  cor- 
responding orders  of  women;  and  the  same  was  the 
case  with  the  Clerks  Regular  dating  from  the  sixteenth 
century,  except  the  Society  of  Jesus. 

From  the  time  of  the  Mendicant  Orders,  founded 
specially  for  preaching  and  missionary  work,  there 
was  a  great  difference  between  the  orders  of  men  and 
women,  arising  from  the  strict  enclosure  to  which 
women  were  subjected.  This  rigorous  enclosure 
usual  in  the  East,  was  imposed  on  all  nuns  in  the  West, 
first  by  bishops  and  particular  councils,  and  afterwards 
by  the  Holy  See.  Boniface  VIII  (1294-1.309)  by  his 
constitution  "Periculoso",  inserted  in  Canon  Law 
[c.  un,  De  statu  regularium,  in  VI"  (III,  16)]  made  it 
an  inviolable  law  for  all  professed  nuns;  and  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  (Sess.  XXV,  De  Reg.  et  Mon.,  c.  v)  con- 
firmed that  constitution.  Hence  it  was  impossible 
for  religious  to  undertake  works  of  charity  incompat- 
ible with  the  enclosure.  The  education  of  j'oung  girls 
alone  was  permitted  to  them,  and  that  under  some- 
what inconvenient  conditions.  It  was  also  impossible 
for  them  to  organize  on  the  lines  of  the  Mendicant 
Orders,  that  is  to  say  to  have  a  superior  general  over 
several  houses  and  members  attached  to  a  province 
rather  than  to  a  monastery.  The  difficulty  was  some- 
times avoided  by  having  tertiary  sisters,  bound  only 
by  simple  vows,  and  dispensed  from  the  enclosure. 
The  Breviary  commemorates  the  services  rendered 


NUNS 


165 


NUNS 


the  Order  of  Mercy  by  St.  iMary  of  Cervellione.  St. 
Pius  V  took  more  radical  measures  by  his  constitution 
"Circa  pastoralis",  of  25  May,  1.56(5.  Not  only  did 
he  insist  on  the  observance  of  the  constitution  of  Boni- 
face VIII,  and  the  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  but 
compelled  the  tertiaries  to  accept  the  obligation  of 
solemn  vows  with  the  pontifical  enclosure.  For 
nearly  three  centuries  the  Holy  See  refused  all  appro- 
bation to  convents  bound  by  simple  vows,  and  Urban 
VIII  by  his  constitution  "Pastoralis"  of  31  May, 
1631  abolished  an  English  teaching  congregation, 
founded  by  Mary  Ward  in  1609,  which  had  simple 
vows  and  a  superior  general. 

This  strictness  led  to  the  foimdation  of  pious  as- 
sociations called  secular  because  they  had  no  per- 
petual vows,  and  leading  a  common  life  intended  for 
their  own  personal  sanctification  and  the  practice  of 
charity,  e.  g.  the  Daughters  of  Charity,  founded  by 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  The  constitution  of  St.  Pius  V 
was  not  always  strictly  observed;  communities  ex- 
isted approved  by  bishops,  and  soon  tolerated  by  the 
Holy  See,  new  ones  were  formed  with  the  sanctions 
of  the  diocesan  ordinaries.  So  great  were  the  services 
rendered  by  these  new  communities  to  the  poor,  the 
sick,  the  young,  and  even  the  missions,  that  the  Holy 
See  expressly  confirmed  several  constitutions,  but  for 
a  long  time  refused  to  approve  the  congregations  them- 
selves, and  the  formula  of  commendation  or  ratification 
contained  this  restriction  citra  tamen  approbalionem 
conservatorii  (without  approbation  of  the  congre- 
gation). As  political  difficulties  rendered  less  easy 
the  observance  of  solemn  vows,  especially  for  women, 
the  Holy  See  (rom  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
declined  to  approve  any  new  congregations  with  sol- 
emn vows,  and  even  suppressed  in  certain  countries, 
Belgium  and  France,  all  solemn  professions  in  the  old 
orders  of  women.  The  constitution  of  Benedict  XVI, 
"Quamvis  justo"  of  30  April,  1749,  on  the  subject  of 
the  Congregation  of  English  Virgins  was  the  prelude  to 
the  legislation  of  Leo  XIII,  who  by  his  constitution 
"Condita;"  of  S  December,  1900,  laid  down  the  laws 
common  to  congregations  with  simple  vows,  dividing 
these  into  two  great  classes,  congregations  under  dioc- 
esan authority,  subject  to  the  bishops,  and  those 
under  pontifical  law. 

II.  V.4HI0US  Kinds  of  Nuns.  —  (1)  As  regards 
their  object  they  may  be  purely  contemplative,  seeking 
personal  perfection  by  close  union  with  God;  such  are 
most  of  the  strictly  enclosed  congregations,  as  Pre- 
monstratensian  Canonesses,  Carmelites,  Poor  Clares, 
CoUettines,  Redemptoristines;  or  they  may  combine 
this  with  the  practice  of  works  of  charity,  foreign 
missions,  like  the  White  Sisters  of  Cardinal  Lavigerie, 
and  certain  Franciscan  Tertiaries;  the  education  of 
young  girls,  like  the  Ursulines  and  Visitandines;  the 
care  of  the  sick,  orphans,  lunatics,  and  aged  persons, 
Ukemanyof  thecongregation.s  ciIIimI  lIos|)ital!ers,  Sis- 
ters of  Charity,  Daughters  of  St .  \'inccnt  dc  Paul,  and 
Little  Sisti'rs  of  the  Poor.  When  tlic  works  of  mercy 
are  corporal,  and  above  all  carried  on  outside  the  con- 
vent, the  congregations  are  called  active.  Teaching 
communities  are  classed  rather  among  those  leading  a 
mixed  life,  devoting  themselves  to  works  which  in 
themselves  require  union  with.  God  and  contempla- 
tion. The  constitution  "Conditce"  of  Leo  XIII  (8 
December,  1900)  charges  bishops  not  to  permit  sisters 
to  open  houses  as  hotels  for  the  entertainment  of 
strangers  of  both  sexes,  and  to  be  extremely  careful  in 
authorizing  congregations  which  live  on  alms,  or  nurse 
sick  persons  at  their  homes,  or  maintain  infirmaries 
for  the  reception  of  infirm  persons  of  both  sexes,  or 
sick  priests.  The  Holy  See,  by  its  Regulations  (Xor- 
mae)  of  28  June,  1901,  declares  that  it  does  not  ap- 
prove of  congregations  whose  object  is  to  render  c<t- 
tain  services  in  seminaries  or  colleges  for  male  pupils, 
or  to  teach  children  or  young  people  of  both  sexes;  and 
it  disapproves  their  undertaking  the  direct  care  of 


young  infants,  or  of  lying-in  women.  These  services 
should  be  given  only  in  exceptional  circumstances. 

(2)  As  regards  their  origin,  congregations  are  either 
connected  with  a  first  order  or  congregation  of  men,  as 
in  the  case  of  most  of  the  older  congregations,  Carmel- 
ites, Poor  Clares,  Dominicans,  Reformed  Cistercians 
of  La  Trappe,  Redemptoristines  etc.,  or  are  founded 
independently,  like  the  Ursulines,  Visitandines,  and 
recent  institution.  In  the  regulations  of  28  June, 
1901,  Art.  19,  52,  the  Holy  See  no  longer  approves  of 
double  foundations,  which  establish  a  certain  subor- 
dination of  the  sisters  to  similar  congregations  of  men. 

(3)  As  regards  their  juridical  condition,  we  distinguish 
(a)  nuns  properly  so-called,  having  solemn  vows  with 
papal  enclosure,  whose  houses  are  monasteries;  (b) 
nuns  belonging  to  the  old  approved  orders  with  solemn 
vows,  but  taking  only  simple  vows  by  special  dispensa- 
tion of  the  Holy  See;  (c)  sisters  with  simple  vows  de- 
pendent on  the  Holy  See;  (d)  sisters  under  diocesan 
government.  The  house  of  sisters  under  simple  vows, 
and  the  congregations  themselves  are  canonically 
called  conservatoria.  These  do  not  always  fulfil  all  the 
essential  conditions  of  the  religious  state.  Those 
which  do  are  more  correctly  called  religious  congrega- 
tions than  the  others,  which  are  called  pia;  congrega- 
tiones,  pice  societales  (pious  congregations  or  pious  soci- 
ties.)  Nuns  of  the  Latin  Church  only  are  considered 
here. 

III.  Ndns  Properly  So  Called. — Nuns  prop- 
erly so-called  have  solemn  vows  with  a  strict  enclos- 
ure, regulated  by  pontifical  law  which  prevents  the 
religious  from  going  out  (except  in  very  rare  cases,  ap- 
proved by  the  regular  superior  and  the  bishop),  and 
also  the  entrance  of  strangers,  even  females,  under 
pain  of  excommunication.  Even  admission  to  the 
grated  parlour  is  not  free,  and  interviews  with  regulars 
are  subject  to  stringent  rules.  Though  some  mitiga- 
tions have  been  introduced  partly  by  local  usage, 
partly  (In  the  case  of  certain  convents  in  America)  by 
express  concession  of  the  Holy  See.  The  building 
should  be  so  arranged  that  the  inner  courts  and  gardens 
cannot  be  overlooked  from  outside,  and  the  windows 
should  not  open  on  the  public  road.  By  the  fact  of 
their  enclosure,  these  monasteries  are  independent  of 
one  another.  At  the  head  of  the  community  is  a  su- 
perior often  called  the  abbess,  appointed  for  hfe  by 
the  chapter,  at  least  outside  Italy,  for  in  Italy,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  two  Sicilies,  the  constitution  "Exposcit 
debitum"  (1  January,  1583)  of  Gregory  XIII  requires 
that  they  should  be  re-elected  every  three  years  (see 
"Periodica  de  Religiosis",  n.  420,  vol.  4,  158).  The 
election  must  be  confli'med  by  the  prelate  to  whom  the 
monastery  is  subject,  the  pope,  the  bishop,  or  the  regu- 
lar prelate.  The  bishop  presides  over  the  ballot,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  nuns  subject  to  regulars,  and  he  has 
always  the  right  to  be  present  at  the  election.  The 
president  collects  the  votes  at  the  grating.  Without 
having  jurisdiction,  the  abbess  exercises  authority 
over  all  in  the  house,  and  commands  in  virtue  of  their 
vows.  Monasteries  not  exempt  are  subject  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishop;  exempt  monasteries  are 
placed,  some  under  the  immediate  authority  of  the 
Holy  See,  others  vmder  that  of  a  regular  First  Order. 
In  the  absence  of  any  other  formal  direction,  the  Holy 
See  is  understood  to  delegate  to  the  bishop  the  annual 
visitation  of  monasteries  immediately  subject  to  the 
pope,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  superiors.  This  visita- 
tion is  made  by  the  regular  prelate  in  the  case  of  mon- 
asteries dependent  on  a  First  Order;  but  the  bishop 
has  in  all  cases  authority  to  insist  on  the  maintenance 
of  the  enclosure,  and  to  control  the  temporal  adminis- 
tration; he  also  approves  the  confessors. 

The  erection  of  a  monastery  requires  the  consent  of 
the  bishop,  and  (at  least  in  practice  nowadays)  of  the 
Apostolic  See.  The  bishop,  W  himself,  or  in  consulta- 
tion with  the  regular  superior,  determines  the  number 
of  nuns  who  can  be  received  according  to  the  amount 


NUNS 


166 


NUNS 


of  their  ordinary  revenues.  The  recent  Council  of 
Bishops  of  Latin  America,  at  Rome  in  1S99,  required 
that  tilt'  numliiT  sliouM  not  ho  loss  than  twelve.  It  is 
Bomeliiiics  permitted  to  receive  a  certain  number  of 
supernumeraries  wlio  paj'  a  double  dowry,  never  less 
than  four  hundred  crowns,  and  remain  supernume- 
raries all  their  lives.  According  to  the  decree  of  23 
May,  1659,  candidates  must  be  at  least  fifteen  years 
old.  The  decree  "Sanctissimus"  of  4  January,  1910, 
annuls  the  admission  to  the  novitiate  or  to  any  vows, 
if  granted  without  the  consent  of  the  Holy  See,  of 
pupils  expelled  for  any  grave  reason  from  a  secular 
school,  or  for  any  reason  whatever  from  any  institu- 
tion preparatory  to  the  religious  life,  or  of  former  nov- 
ices or  professed  sisters  expelled  from  their  convents. 
Professed  sisters  dispensed  from  their  vows  cannot, 
without  the  consent  of  the  Holy  See,  enter  any  congre- 
gation, but  the  one  they  have  quitted  (see  Novice; 
Postul.^nt;  "Periodica  de  Religiosis",  n.  368,  vol.  5, 
98).  The  admission  is  made  by  the  chapter,  but,  be- 
fore the  clothing,  and  also  before  the  solemn  profes- 
sion, it  is  the  duty  of  the  bishop,  by  himself  or  (if  he  is 
prevented)  by  his  vicar-general  or  some  person  dele- 
gated by  either  of  them,  to  inquire  into  the  question  of 
the  candidate's  reUgious  vocation,  and  especially  as  to 
her  freedom  of  choice.  The  candidate  must  provide  a 
dowTy  of  at  least  two  hundred  crowns  unless  the  foun- 
der consents  to  accept  a  smaller  sum.  With  certain 
exceptions,  the  dowry  of  choir  sisters  cannot  be  dis- 
pensed with;  it  must  be  paid  before  the  clothing,  and 
invested  in  some  safe  and  profitable  manner.  On  sol- 
emn profession,  it  becomes  the  property  of  the  con- 
vent, which  has,  however,  no  right  of  alienation;  it  is 
returned  as  a  matter  of  equity  to  a  religious  who  en- 
ters another  order,  or  to  one  who  returns  to  the  world 
and  is  in  want. 

After  the  novitiate  the  religious  cannot  at  first,  ac- 
cording to  the  decree  "Perpensis"  of  3  May,  1902, 
take  any  but  simple  vows  whether  perpetual  or  for  a 
year  only,  if  it  is  customary  to  take  annual  vows.  The 
admission  to  vows  is  made  by  the  chapter,  with  the 
consent  of  the  regular  superior  or  the  bishop.  Some 
writers  hold  that  the  bishop  is  bound,  before  this  pro- 
fession, to  make  a  fresh  inquiry  into  the  vocation  of 
the  novice,  and  tliis  inquiry  does  not  dispense  from 
that  which  the  Council  of  Trent  prescribes  before  sol- 
emn profession  (see  the  answer  of  19  January,  1909; 
"Periodica  de  Religiosis",  n.  317,  vol.  4,  341).  This 
period  of  simple  vows  ordinarily  lasts  for  three  years, 
but  the  bishop  or  the  regular  prelate  may  prolong  it  in 
the  case  of  nuns  who  are  under  twenty-five  years. 
During  this  period,  the  religious  keeps  her  property, 
but  makes  over  the  administration  of  it  to  any  one 
she  may  choose.  She  is  bound  to  the  rules  and  the 
choir,  but  not  to  the  private  recitation  of  the  Divine 
Office;  she  can  take  part  in  chapters,  except  in  those 
in  which  others  are  admitted  to  vows;  she  cannot  be 
elected  superior,  mother-vicaress,  mistress  of  novices, 
assistant,  counsellor,  or  treasurer.  She  participates  in 
all  the  indulgences  and  spiritual  privileges  of  those 
who  have  taken  their  solemn  vows;  and  although  the 
solemnly  professed  take  precedence,  once  the  solemn 
profession  is  made,  the  seniority  is  regulated  by  the 
date  of  simple  profession,  without  regard  to  any  delay 
in  proceeding  to  solemn  profession.  The  dispensation 
of  vows  and  dismissal  of  nuns  are  reserved  to  the  Holy 
See.  The  outward  solemnity  of  profession  takes  place 
at  the  first  simple  profession;  the  other  takes  place 
without  any  solemnity.  Only  the  prelate  or  the  ordi- 
nary can  admit  to  the  latter,  but  a  consultative  chapter 
is  held,  whose  decision  is  announced  by  the  superior. 
Solemn  profession  carries  with  it  the  inability  to  pos- 
sess property  (except  in  case  of  a  papal  indult  such  as 
that  enjoyed  by  Belgium  and  perhaps  also  Holland), 
annuls  a  marriage  previously  contracted  but  not  con- 
summated, and  creates  a  diriment  impediment  to  any 
subsequent  marriage.    Nuns  are  generally  obliged  to 


recite  the  Divine  Office,  like  religious  orders  of  men; 
but  the  Visitandines  and  some  monasteries  of  Ursu- 
lines  recite  only  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
even  in  choir.  The  obligation  of  this  office,  even 
choral,  does  not  bind  under  pain  of  mortal  sin,  as  the 
Holy  See  has  declared  for  the  Llrsulines;  whether  it 
can  be  omitted  without  venial  sin  depends  appar- 
ently on  the  constitutions. 

The  bishop  appoints  the  ordinary  confessor,  also 
the  extraordinary  or  additional  confessors  of  monas- 
teries subject  to  him,  and  approves  the  confessor 
nominated  by  the  regular  prelate  of  a  monastery  sub- 
ject to  a  First  Order.  The  approbation  for  one  mon- 
astery is  not  valid  for  another.  As  a  rule  there  should 
be  only  one  ordinary  confessor,  who  should  be  changed 
every  three  years.  Since  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXV  De  Reg.,  c.  x),  a  confessor  extraordinary  should 
visit  the  monastery  two  or  three  times  a  year.  Bene- 
dict XIV,  by  his  Bull  "Pastoralis"  of  5  August,  1748, 
insisted  on  the  appointment  of  a  confessor  extraordi- 
nary, and  also  on  the  provision  of  facilities  for  sick 
nuns.  More  recently,  the  decree  "Queni  ad  modum" 
of  17  October,  1890,  ordains  that,  without  asking  for 
any  reason,  a  superior  shall  allow  her  subjects  to  con- 
fess to  any  priest  among  those  authorized  by  the  bish- 
ops, as  often  as  they  think  it  necessary  for  their  spirit- 
ual necessities.  Besides  the  ordinary  or  extraordinary 
confessors,  there  are  additional  confessors,  of  whom 
the  bishop  must  appoint  a  sufficient  number.  The 
ordinary  confessor  cannot  be  a  religious  except  for 
monasteries  of  the  same  order  as  himself;  and  in  that 
case  the  extraordinary  confessor  cannot  belong  to  the 
same  order.  The  same  decree  gives  to  confessors  the 
exclusive  right  of  regulating  the  communions  of  the 
nuns,  who  have  the  privilege  of  communicating  daily 
since  the  decree  "Sacra  Tridentina"  of  20  December, 
1905  (see  "Periodica  de  Religiosis",  n  110,  vol.  2,  66), 
and  it  forbids  superiors  to  interfere  unasked  in  cases 
of  conscience.  The  subjects  are  free  to  open  their 
minds  to  their  superiors  but  the  latter  must  not, 
directly  or  indirectly,  demand  or  invite  such  confi- 
dence. 

IV.  Nuns  of  the  Old  Orders  ■without  Solemn 
Vows. — Since  the  French  Revolution,  various  an- 
swers of  the  Holy  See  have  gradually  made  it  clear  that 
neither  in  Belgium  nor  in  France  are  there  any  longer 
monasteries  of  women  subject  to  papal  enclosure,  or 
bound  by  solemn  vows.  (Cf .  for  France  the  reply  of 
the  Penitentiary  of  23  December,  1835;  for  Belgium 
the  declaration  of  the  Apostolic  visitor  Corselis  of 
1836;  Bizzarri,  "Collectanea,  1st  ed.,  p.  504,  note; 
Bouix,  "  De  regularibus",  vol.  2,  123  sq.).  After  long 
deliberation,  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars  decided  (cf .  letter  of  2  September,  1864,  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Baltimore)  that  in  the  United  States 
nuns  were  under  simple  vows  only,  except  the  Visitan- 
dines of  Georgetown,  Mobile,  Kaskaskia,  St.  Louis, 
and  Baltimore,  who  made  solemn  profession  by  virtue 
of  special  rescripts.  It  added  that  without  special 
indult  the  vows  should  be  simple  in  all  convents 
erected  in  the  future.  Since  then  the  monastery  of 
Kaskaskia  has  been  suppressed.  The  Holy  See  per- 
mitted the  erection  of  a  monastery  of  Visitandines 
with  solemn  vows  at  Springfield  (Missouri).  Accord- 
ing to  the  same  letter,  the  Visitandines  with  solemn 
vows  must  pass  five  years  of  simple  profession  before 
proceeding  to  solemn  profession  (Bizzarri,  "Collec- 
tanea", 1st  ed.,  778-91).  Except  in  the  case  of  a  pon- 
tifical indult  placing  them  in  subjection  to  a  first  order 
these  nuns  are  bound  by  the  following  rules;  (a)  The 
bishop  has  full  jurisdiction  over  them ;  he  may  dispense 
from  all  constitutions  not  reserved  to  the  Holy  See, 
and  from  particular  impediments  to  admission,  but 
may  not  modify  the  constitutions.  The  vows  are  re- 
served to  the  Holy  See.  but  the  French  bishops  have 
received  power  to  dispense  from  all  vows  except  that  of 
chastity.     The  bishop  presides  and  confirms  all  clec- 


NXTNS 


167 


NTTNS 


tions,  and  has  the  right  to  require  an  account  of  the 
temporal  adiiiinistration.  (b)  The  superior  retains 
such  power  as  is  adapted  to  the  vows  and  the  necessi- 
ties of  community  hfe.  (c)  The  obhgation  of  the 
Divine  Office  is  such  as  imposed  by  the  rule;  the  en- 
closure is  of  episcopal  law.  (d)  The  vow  of  poverty 
does  not  prevent  the  possession  of  property.  As  a 
rule,  dispositions  of  property  "inter  vivos  "  and  by  will 
cannot  be  licitly  made  without  the  consent  of  the 
superior  or  the  bishop.  Unless  forbidden  by  the 
bishop,  the  superior  may  permit  the  execution  of  such 
instruments  as  are  necessary  for  the  purpose,  (e)  In- 
dulgences and  spiritual  privileges  (among  which  may 
be  reckoned  the  use  of  a  special  calendar)  remain 
intact,  (f)  In  principle,  the  prelate  of  the  First  Or- 
der is  without  authority  over  the  nuns. 

V.  Religious  Congregations  and  Pious  So- 
cieties UNDER  Pontifical  Authority,  (a)  Con- 
gregalions. — Since  the  constitution  "Conditse"  of  8 
December,  1900,  and  the  Regulations  of  28  June, 
1901,  we  possess  precise  rules  by  which  to  distinguish 
the  congregations  governed  by  pontifical  law.  Before 
formally  approving  a  congregation  and  its  constitu- 
tions, the  Holy  See  is  accustomed  to  give  its  commen- 
dation first  to  the  intentions  of  the  founders  and  the 
purpose  of  the  foundation,  and  then  to  the  congrega- 
tion itself.  The  second  decree  of  commendation  has 
the  effect  of  bringing  the  congregation  into  the  number 
of  those  which  are  governed  by  pontifical  law,  and 
especially  by  the  second  part  of  the  constitution  "  Con- 
ditae".  Bizzarri  in  his  "Collectanea"  gives  a  hst  of 
congregations  so  commended  up  to  1864  (1st  ed,  861 
sqq.).  This  approbation  is  not  usually  granted  until 
the  congregation  has  existed  for  some  time  under  the 
authority  of  the  bishop.  The  congregations  are  con- 
stituted on  the  model  of  the  newer  religious  orders, 
that  is  to  say  they  group  several  houses,  each  governed 
by  a  local  superior,  under  the  indirect  authority  of  a 
superior  general;  many,  but  not  all,  are  divided  into 
provinces.  Many  form  communities  of  tertiaries, 
who  as  such  have  a  share  in  the  spiritual  privileges  of 
the  order  to  which  they  are  affiliated.  Except  in  the 
case  of  a  special  privilege,  like  that  which  places  the 
Daughters  of  Charity  under  the  Superior  General  of 
the  Priests  of  the  Mission  (see  decree  of  25  May,  1888) 
the  Holy  See  no  longer  permits  a  bishop,  or  the  dele- 
gate of  a  bishop,  or  the  superior  general  of  a  congrega- 
tion of  men  to  be  superior  over  a  congregation  of  sis- 
ters. Before  the  regulations  of  1901  the  rules  of  new 
congregations  differed  in  many  respects.  The  details 
if  internal  government  which  follow  apply  to  newly 
established  congregations  rather  than  to  the  older 
ones,  like  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

The  government  of  the  congregations  is  vested  in 
the  general  chapter,  and  in  the  superior  general  as- 
sisted by  a  council  with  certain  rights  reserved  to  the 
bishops,  under  protection  and  supreme  direction  of 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Religious.  This  is  the 
only  coinpetent  Congregation  since  the  reform  of  the 
Roman  Curia  by  the  constitution  "Sapienti"  of  29 
June,  1908.  The  general  chapter  includes  in  all  ca,ses 
the  superior  general,  her  counsellors,  the  secretary 
general,  the  treasurer  general,  and  if  the  congrega- 
tion is  divided  into  provinces,  the  provincial  superiors, 
and  two  delegates  from  each  province,  elected  by  the 
provincial  chapter.  If  there  are  no  provinces,  the 
general  chapter  includes  (besides  those  mentioned 
above)  all  superiors  of  houses  containing  more  than 
twelve  nuns,  accompanied  by  one  religious  under  per- 
petual vows  elected  by  all  the  professed  sisters  (includ- 
ing those  under  temporary  vows)  of  such  houses.  The 
less  important  houses  are  grouped  among  themselves 
for  this  election,  or  annexed  to  a  principal  house. 
This  chapter  ordinarily  meets  every  six  or  twelve 
years,  being  summoned  by  the  superior  general  or 
mother  vicaress;  but  an  extraordinary  meeting  may 
be  called  on  the  occurrence  of  a  vacancy  in  the  office 


of  superior,  or  for  any  other  grave  reason  approved  by 
the  Holy  See.  The  general  chapter  elects  by  an 
absolute  majority  of  votes  in  secret  ballot  the  superior 
general,  the  counsellors  or  assistants  general,  the  sec- 
retary general,  and  the  treasurer  general,  and  deliber- 
ates on  important  matters  affecting  the  congregation. 
In  many  cases  especially  when  there  is  a  question  of 
modifying  the  constitutions,  the  permission  and  con- 
firmation of  the  Holy  See  are  required.  The  capitular 
decrees  remain  in  force  till  the  next  chapter.  The 
bishop  as  delegate  of  the  Holy  See,  presides  over  the 
elections  in  person  or  by  his  representative.  After 
the  ballot  he  declares  the  election  valid,  and  an- 
nounces the  result.  The  provincial  chapter,  com- 
posed of  the  provincial,  the  superiors  of  houses  con- 
taining at  least  twelve  nuns,  and  a  delegate  from  each 
principal  house  (as  above)  has  no  other  office, 
according  to  common  law,  but  to  depute  two  sisters 
to  the  general  chapter. 

The  superior  general  is  elected  for  six  or  twelve 
years;  in  the  former  case  she  may  be  re-elected,  but 
for  a  third  consecutive  term  of  six  years,  or  a  second  of 
twelve  years,  she  must  receive  two-thirds  of  the  votes, 
and  the  consent  of  the  Holy  See.  She  may  not  resign 
her  office  except  with  the  consent  of  the  Sacred  Con- 
gregation, which  has  the  power  to  depose  her.  The 
house  in  which  she  resides  is  considered  the  mother- 
house,  and  the  permission  of  the  Holy  See  is  necessary 
for  a  change  of  residence.  She  governs  the  congrega- 
tion according  to  the  approved  constitutions,  and  is 
bound  to  make  a  visitation  every  three  years  either 
personally  or  by  a  deputy,  to  exercise  a  general  control 
over  the  temporal  administration,  and  to  submit  to 
the  Sacred  Congregation  an  official  report  counter- 
signed by  the  ordinary  of  the  principal  house.  (See 
the  instruction  accompanying  the  decree  of  16  July, 
1906,  "Periodica  de  Religiosis",  n.  134,  vol.  2,  128 
sqq.).  The  superior  general  nominates  to  the  differ- 
ent non-elective  offices,  and  decides  the  place  of  resi- 
dence of  all  her  subjects.  The  counsellors  general  as- 
sist the  superior  general  with  their  advice,  and  in  many 
matters  the  consent  of  the  majority  is  required.  Two 
of  them  must  live  with  the  superior  general,  and  the 
rest  must  be  accessible.  According  to  the  regulations 
of  1901,  the  approval  of  the  general  council  is  required 
for  the  erection  and  suppression  of  houses,  the  erection 
and  transfer  of  novitiates,  the  erection  of  new  prov- 
inces, the  principal  nominations,  the  retention  of  a 
local  superior  for  longer  than  the  usual  term  of  office, 
the  dismissal  of  a  sister  or  novice,  the  deposition  of  a 
superior,  mistress  of  novices  or  counsellor,  the  provis- 
ional appointment  of  a  counsellor  deceased  or  deprived 
of  office,  the  nomination  of  a  visitor  not  a  member  of 
the  council,  the  choice  of  a  meeting  place  of  the  gen- 
eral chapter,  the  change  of  residence  of  the  superior 
general,  the  execution  of  all  contracts,  the  auditing  of 
accounts,  all  pecuniary  engagements,  the  sale  or  mort- 
gage of  immovable  property,  and  the  sale  of  movable 
property  of  great  value.  For  an  election  there  must 
be  a  full  meeting  of  the  council,  and  provision  must  be 
made  to  replace  any  members  who  are  prevented  from 
attending.  In  case  of  a  tie,  the  superior  has  a  casting 
vote. 

The  secretary  general  keeps  the  n^inutes  of  pro- 
ceedings, and  has  charge  of  the  archives.  The  treas- 
urer general  administers  the  property  of  the  whole 
congregation.  The  provinces  and  the  houses  have  also 
their  own  property.  The  Holy  See  insists  that  the 
safes  containing  valuables  shall  have  three  locks,  the 
keys  of  which  shall  be  kept  by  the  superior,  the  treas- 
urer, and  the  oldest  of  the  counsellors.  In  her  adminis- 
tration the  treasurer  must  be  guided  by  the  complica- 
ted rules  of  the  recent  in.struction  "Inter  ea"  of  30 
July,  1909,  which  refer  especially  to  pecuniary  engage- 
ments. The  consent  of  the  Holy  See  is  required  before 
any  liability  can  be  incurred  exceeding  ten  thousand 
francs,  and  in  case  of  smaller  liabihties  than  this  but 


NUORO 


168 


NUREMBERQ 


Btill  of  any  coiiBidprnWo  amount,  the  superiors  must 
take  the  advice  of  their  councils.  A  council  should  at 
once  be  appointed  if  there  is  none  already  existing  (cf. 
"Periodica  de  Religiosis",  n.  331,  vol.  5,  1 1  sqq).  The 
bishop  must  test  the  vocation  of  po.itvilants  before 
they  take  the  veil,  and  before  profession;  he  presides 
over  chapters  of  election,  permits  or  forbids  collections 
from  door  to  door;  is  responsible  for  the  observance  of 
partial  enclosure,  such  as  is  compatible  with  the  ob- 
jects of  the  congregation.  No  house  can  be  estab- 
lished -n-ithout  his  consent.  To  him  also  belongs  the 
supreme  spiritual  direction  of  the  communities,  and 
the  nomination  of  the  chaplain  and  confea.sors.  The 
Holy  See  reserves  to  itself  the  vows,  even  temporary 
ones.  The  dismissal  of  a  professed  sister  under  per- 
petual vows  must  be  ratifii>d  by  the  Holy  See.  The 
dismissal  of  a  novice  or  of  a  professed  sister  imder  tem- 
porary vows  is  within  the  power  of  the  general  coun- 
cil, if  "justified  by  grave  reasons ;  but  this  dismissal  does 
not  relieve  from  vows  for  which  recourse  must  be  had 
to  the  Holy  See.  The  Holy  See  alone  can  authorize 
the  suppression  of  houses,  the  erection  or  transfer  of  a 
novitiate,  the  erection  of  a  province,  the  transfer  of  a 
mother-house,  and  any  important  alienations  of  prop- 
erty, and  borrowings  above  a  certain  sum. 

The  Holy  See  permits,  though  it  does  not  make  oblig- 
atory, the  division  of  a  community  into  choir  sisters 
or  teaching  sisters,  and  lay  sisters.  Though  not  op- 
posed to  the  formation  of  associations  which  help  the 
work  of  the  congregation  and  have  a  share  in  its  mer- 
its, it  forbids  the  establishment  of  new  third  orders.  A 
period  of  temporary  vows  should  precede  the  taking  of 
perpetual  vows.  Such  is  the  general  law.  At  the 
expiration  of  the  term,  temporary  vows  must  be  re- 
newed. The  vow  of  poverty  does  not  generally  forbid 
the  acquisition  and  retention  of  rights  over  property, 
but  only  its  free  use  and  disposal.  A  dowry  is  gener- 
ally required,  of  which  the  community  receives  the  in- 
come only,  until  the  death  of  the  sister,  and  the  fruits 
of  their  labours  belong  entirely  to  the  congregation. 
The  vow  of  chastity  creates  only  a  prohibitorj'  impedi- 
ment to  marriage.  The  bishops  generally  regulate  the 
confessions  of  the  reUgious  under  simple  vows,  by  the 
same  rules  as  those  of  nuns  in  strict  enclosure ;  but  in 
public  churches  sisters  may  go  to  any  approved  con- 
fessor. In  all  that  concerns  communions  and  direc- 
tion of  conscience,  the  decrees  "Quem  ad  modum" 
and  "Sacra  Tridentina"  apply  to  these  congregations 
as  well  as  to  monasteries  of  nuns.  These  religious  con- 
gregations have  not  generally  any  obligation  of  choir, 
but  recite  the  Little  Office  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and 
other  prayers.  They  are  bound  to  make  a  daily  medi- 
tation of  at  least  half  an  hour  in  the  morning,  some- 
times of  another  half  hour  in  the  evening,  and  an 
annual  retreat  of  eight  days. 

(b)  Pious  societies  which  can  only  be  called  congre- 
gations by  a  wide  extension  of  the  word,  are  those 
which  have  no  perpetual  vows,  such  as  the  Daughters 
of  Charity,  who  are  free  for  one  day  in  each  year,  or 
those  which,  if  they  have  perpetual  vows,  have  no  out- 
ward sign  by  which  they  can  be  recognized:  this  single 
fact  is  sufficient  to  deprive  them  of  the  character  of 
religious  congregations  (see  answer  of  11  August,  1889, 
"De  Religiosis  Institutis",  vol.  2,  n.  13). 

VI.  Diocesan  Conoreo.\tions. — For  a  long  time 
the  bishops  had  great  latitude  in  approving  new  con- 
gregations, and  gave  canonical  existence  to  various 
charitable  institutions.  In  order  to  avoid  an  excessive 
increaise  in  their  number,  Pius  X  by  his  Motu  Propria 
"Dei  Providentis"  of  16  July,  1906,  required  the  pre- 
vious authorization  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  before 
the  bishop  could  establish,  or  allow  to  be  established 
any  new  tliocesan  institution ;  and  the  Sacred  Congre- 
gation refuses  to  authorize  any  new  creation  except 
after  approval  of  the  title,  habit,  object,  and  work  of 
the  proposed  community,  and  forbids  that  any  sub- 
stantial change  should  be  made  without  its  authority. 


Notwithstanding  that  pontifical  intervention,  the  con- 
gregation remains  diocesan.  'I'he  bishop  approves  the 
constitutions  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  approved  by  the  Holy  See.  As  it  re- 
mains diocesan  we  may  conclude  that  the  Roman  dis- 
ciplinary decrees  do  not  affect  it  imless  this  is  clearly 
stated.  Diocesan  congregations  have  the  bishop  as 
their  first  superior.  It  is  his  duty  to  control  admis- 
sions, authorize  dismissals,  and  dispense  from  vows, 
except  that  one  reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  the  absolute 
and  perpetual  vow  of  chastity.  He  must  be  careful 
not  to  infringe  the  rights  acquired  by  the  community. 
Not  only  does  he  preside  over  elections  but  he  confirma 
or  annuls  them,  and  may  in  case  of  necessity  depose  the 
superior,  and  make  provision  for  filling  the  vacancy. 
These  congregations  are  sometimes  composed  of 
houses  indejjendent  of  one  another;  this  is  frequently 
the  case  with  Sisters  Hospitallers,  and  sometimes  sev- 
eral houses  and  local  superiors  are  grouped  under  one 
superior  general.  Some  of  the  congregations  are  con- 
fined to  one  diocese,  while  others  extend  to  several  dio- 
ceses: in  the  latter  case,  each  diocesan  ordinary  has 
under  him  the  houses  in  his  dioceses  with  power  to 
authorize  or  suppress  them.  The  congregation  itself 
depends  on  the  concurrence  of  the  bishops  in  whose 
dioceses  any  houses  are  situated;  and  this  concurrence 
is  necessary  for  its  suppression.  Such  is  the  common 
law  of  the  constitution  "Conditae".  Before  it  can 
spread  into  another  diocese,  a  diocesan  congregation 
must  have  the  consent  of  the  bishop  to  whom  it  is  sub- 
ject, and  often  by  agreement  among  bishops  a  real 
superiority  is  reserved  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  of 
origin.  As  to  the  laws  by  which  they  are  governed,  a 
great  number  of  congregations,  especially  those  de- 
voted to  the  care  of  the  sick  in  hospitals,  follow  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustine  and  have  special  constitutions; 
others  have  only  constitutions  peculiar  to  themselves; 
others  again  form  commimities  of  tertiaries.  The 
curious  institution  of  Beguines  (q.  v.)  still  flourishes 
in  a  few  cities  of  Belgium. 

Historical:  Besse,  Les  Minnef-  d'Orient  anlh-ieurs  au  concile  de 
Chalchidoine  U.Sl)  (Paris,  1900);  Le  Monachisme  Africain,  IV- 
VI.  5  (Paris,  8.  d.) ;  Butler,  The  Lausiac  Hist,  of  Patladius  (Cam- 
bridge, 1898):  De  Buck-Tinnebroeck,  Examen  Historicum  et 
canonicum  lihri  R.  D.  Verhoeven,  De  Regiilarium  et  Scpcutarium 
iuribus  et  officiis,  I  (Ghent,  1847) ;  Duchesne,  Les  origines  du  cuUe 
chrHien  (Paris) ;  Funk,  Lehrbuch  der  Kirchengesch,  (Paderbom, 
(1898):  Gasquet,  Saggio  slorico  delta  Costituzxone  monastica 
(Rome.  1896) ;  Heimbucher,  Die  Orden  und  Kottgregationen  der 
Katholischen  Kirche  (3  vol.,  Paderborn,  1896-1908);  H^lyot. 
Hist,  des  ordres  monastiques,  religieux  et  militaires  (8  vol.,  Paris, 
1714-19) ;  Ladeuze,  Etude  sur  le  cinobitisme  Pakhomien  pendant  le 
IV^  si^cle  et  la  premiere  moitiS  du  V'  (Louvain,  1898):  Marin, 
Les  Moines  de  Constantinople  depuis  la  fondation  de  la  ville  jusqu'd 
la  mart  de  Photius  (Paris,  1897),  (cf.  Pargoire  infra);  Mart^ne, 
Cojnmentariua  in  regulam  S.P.  Benedicti,  De  antiquis  monachorum 
ritibus;  Pargoire.  Les  debuts  du  monachisme  a  Constantinople  in 
Revue  des  questions  historiques  (vol.  65,  1899);  Schiewietz,  Z)a» 
morgenldndische  Monchtwn  (Mainz,  19()4) :  Spreitzenhofez.  Die 
Entwicklung  des  alien  Monchtums  in  Jtalien  von  seiner  ersten  An- 
fdngen  bis  zum  Auftreten  des  hi.  Benedict  (Vienna,  1894) ;  Thomab- 
8IN,  Veins  et  nova  Ecclesim  disciplina,  I,  1,  3;  Wilpert.  Die  Gottge- 
tveihien  Jungfrauen  in  der  ersten  Jahrhunderten  der  Kirche  (Frei- 
burg im  Br.,  1892) ;  Doctrinal,  besides  the  general  works  of  the 
classical  authors:  Bastien,  Directoire  canonique  A  Vusage  des  Con- 
gregations d  voEur  simples  (Maredsous,  1911) ;  Battandier,  Guide 
canonique  pour  les  Constitutions  des  Tnstituts  d  vaux  simples  (4th 
ed.,  Paris.  1908);  Bouix,  Tractatus  de  iure  regularium  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1856):  Pellizarius,  Tractatus  de  Monialibus  (1761);  Piat, 
Prcelecliones  iuris  Regularium  (2  vol.,  Tournai,  1898) ;  Rotarius, 
Theolagia  moralis  regularium,  3  vols.;  Tamburini,  De  iure  abba- 
tissarum  et  aliarum  Monialium:  Vebmeehsch  in  De  Religiosis  In- 
stitutis et  Personi.1  2  vols.  (1st  vol.,  2nd  ed.,  1907;  2nd  vol.,  4th 
ed.,  1910) ;  De  Religiosis  et  Missionariis  Periodica,  ab  anno  1905. 

A.  Vermeehsch. 

Nuoro.     See  Galtelli-Nuoro,  Diocese  of. 

Nuptial  Blessing.    See  Mass,  Ncptiai. 

Nuremberg  (Xijrn'berg),  second  largest  city  in 
Bavaria,  .situated  in  a  plain  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
Pegnitz.  Of  uncertain  origin,  it  is  first  mentioned  as 
Noremberc  in  a  document  issued  by  Emperor  Henry 
III  at  a  diet  held  in  the  town.  The  palace  was  recon- 
structed as  a  fortified  castle  between  1025  and  1050. 


NUREMBERG 


169 


NUREMBERG 


The  population  increased  when  Henry  IV  transferred 
(1062)  from  Ftirth  to  Nuremberg  the  right  to  hold  a 
fair  and  to  coin  money.  The  cult  of  its  patron  St. 
Sebald,  also  helped  its  development.  In  times  of  war 
the  emperors  often  found  refuge  in  the  town,  for 
which  Henry  V  granted  it  freedom  from  custom 
duties  (1112).  King  Lothair  (1112-1137)  claimed 
Nuremberg  as  part  of  his  empire,  while  the  Hohen- 
staufen  brothers,  Conrad  and  Frederick,  claimed  it 
as  part  of  their  inheritance  under  the  Salic  law.  In 
1130  the  city  surrendered  to  the  emperor  and  the 
Guelph  Henry.  The  latter  possessed  it  until  1138, 
when  it  reverted  to  the  empire.  Conrad  III  liked  to 
visit  the  flourishing  city,  and  made  it  an  asylum  for 
the  then  persecuted  .Jews.  Several  diets  took  place  in 
Nuremberg  under  Frederick  Barbarossa,  who  built 
a  splendid  new  imperial  castle  adjoining  the  old  castle 
of  the  burggraves  (li urggrafen) .  From  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century  the  city  was  independent  of  the  burg- 
graves, who,  in  the  early  times,  in  their  capacity  as  im- 
perial officials,  exercised  jurisdiction  in  all  judicial  and 
military  matters  and  appropriated  two-thirds  of  all 
moneys  collected  in  criminal  and  civil  cases.  When 
the  burggraves  (at 
first  descendants  of 
the  house  of  Raabs 
in  Lower  Austria, 
and,  when  it  became 
extinct  in  1190,  the 
house  of  Zollern)  en- 
deavoured to  extend 
their  private  posses- 
sions at  the  expense 
of  the  empire,  the 
emperors  of  the 
twelfth  century  took 
over  the  administra- 
tion of  the  imperial 
possessions  belong- 
ing to  the  burg,  and 
installed  a  castellan 
or  overseer  in  the 
imperial  castle.  This 
castellan  not  only 
administered  the  im- 
perial lands  sur- 
rounding Nurem- 
berg, but  levied  taxes 

and  constitutetl  the  _  v/Aon-t  uu 

highest  judicial  court  in  matters  relating  to  poaching 
and  forestry;  he  also  was  the  appointed  protector  of 
the  various  ecclesiastical  establishments,  churches, 
and  monasteries,  even  of  the  Bishopric  of  Bamberg. 
The  privileges  of  this  castellanship  were  transferred  to 
the  city  during  the  last  years  of  the  fourteenth,  and 
the  first  years  of  the  fifteenth  centuries.  The  strained 
relations  between  the  burggraves  and  the  castellan 
finally  broke  into  out  open  enmity,  which  greatly  in- 
fluenced the  history  of  the  city. 

In  1219  Nuremberg  became  a  free  imperial  city, 
when  Frederick  II  presented  it  with  a  most  important 
charter,  freeing  it  from  all  authority  excepting  that  of 
the  emperor  himself.  The  administration  was  en- 
trusted to  a  council,  presided  over,  since  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  by  the  Reichsschultheiss.  The 
"Schoff'enkollegium",  who  assisted  this  oflicial  in  his 
judicial  work,  also  sat  in  the  council.  The  council  be- 
came more  and  more  independent,  an<l  in  1320  was 
invested  by  Louis  the  Bavarian  with  supreme  juris- 
diction. This  conflicted  with  the  rights  (pf  the  Schul- 
theios  (usually  a  knight),  whose  appoint  I  uent,  however, 
rested  with  the  council  after  1396.  Thisaccunuilation 
of  rights  and  privileges  made  the  power  of  the  council 
eqtial  to  that  of  the  sfivereign  or  territorial  lords, 
while  the  acquisition  of  the  imperial  forest  near  Nurem- 
berg had  furnished  a  basis  for  future  development. 
Until  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Kleine 


(little)  or  reigning  council  consisted  of  thirteen  magis- 
trates and  thirteen  councillors;  towards  the  end  of  the 
century  were  added  eight  members  of  the  practically 
unimportant  Grnsse  (great)  council,  and,  since  1370, 
eight  representatives  of  the  artisans'  associations. 
The  members  of  the  council  were  chosen  by  the  people 
usually  from  the  wealthier  class;  this  custom  led  to  the 
establishment  of  a  circle  of  "eligibles",  to  which  the 
artisan  class  was  strongly  opposed  as  being  politically 
an  illegal  element.  With  the  increasing  importance 
of  handicraft  a  spirit  of  independence  developed 
among  the  artisans,  and  they  determined  to  have  a 
voice  in  the  government  of  the  city.  In  1349  the 
members  of  the  trade  unions  unsuccessfully  rebelled 
against  the  patricians.  Their  unions  were  then  dis- 
solved, and  the  oligarchic  element  remained  in  power 
while  Nuremberg  was  a  free  city. 

Ecclesiastically  speaking,  Nuremberg  belonged  first 
to  the  Bishopric  of  Eichstatt,  and  from  101.5  to  that 
of  Bamberg.  In  place  of  the  oldest  chapel  in  Nurem- 
berg, the  Peterskapellc,  a  church  was  consecrated  in 
1070  to  St.  Sebaldus;  this  was  replaced  by  a  new  edi- 
fice in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  second  church  in 
importance  was  the 
Lorcnzkirche,  built 
about  1278.  There 
also  arose  the  Gothic 
St.  Jacob's  Church 
(twelfth  century), 
which  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Teu- 
tonic Knights  in 
1209;  the  Scots  Ab- 
bey (1 140) ;  the  mon- 
asteries and  chapels 
of  the  Franciscans, 
1227  (thirteenth  cen- 
turv),  the  Augustin- 
ians  (1218);  the  Do- 
minicans (1248);  the 
Carmelites  (1255); 
the  Carthusians 
(1382);  the  Order  of 
Mary  ISlagda,lene 
(Riiiiriiiiii'h)  incor- 
l>or;i  I  e<l    with   the 

P •Cliires  in  1279, 

and  the  cloister  of  St. 
Nuremberg  Catherine,  a  society 

of  nurses.  The  hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  founded 
1334-39.  At  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century 
Nuremberg  had  become  wonderfully  developed. 
Charles  IV  conferred  upon  it  the  right  to  conclude  alli- 
ances independently,  thereby  placing  it  upon  a  politi- 
cally etiual  foi  it  ing  with  the  princes  of  the  empire.  The 
city  protected  itsi'lf  from  hostile  attacksby  a  wall  and 
successfully  defended  its  extensive  trade  against  the 
barons.  I'requent  fights  took  place  with  the  burngra\cs 
without,  however,  inflicting  lasting  damage  U|i(in  tlie 
city.  After  the  castle  had  been  destroyec  1 1  )y  lire  in  1420 
during  a  feud  between  Count  Frederick  (since  1417 
Margrave  of  Brandenburg)  and  the  Duke  of  Bavaria- 
Ingolstadt,  the  ruins  and  the  forest  belonging  to  the 
castlewerepurchasedby  the  city  (1427),  wliieli  Ihereliv 
became  master  of  all  that  lay  within  its  bimndaries. 
The  imperial  castle  had  been  ceded  to  t  he  <it  y  by  Em- 
peror Sigismund  in  1422,  on  condition  that  tlie  imperial 
suite  of  rooms  should  be  reserve<l  for  tlie  emperor. 
Through  these  and  other  acquisitions  the  city  accu- 
mulated considei-iMe  territory.  In  1  est  tlie  [iiipiila- 
tion  was  about  2'_',s(l(l  including  714(i  p<rsons  (jiLililied 
to  bear  arms,  381  secular  and  regular  i)ricst.s;  7  1 1  Jews 
.and  non-citizens,  'i'he  Hussite  wars,  the  plagu(^  of 
1437,  the  fights  with  the  buiggraves  (then  also  mar- 
graves of  Brandenburg,  Anspach,  and  Bayreuth,  re- 
duced it  to  20,800  in  1450; 

At  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  war  of 


HUREMBERa 


170 


NUREMBERa 


succession  in  Landshut  brought  new  poBsessionB  to 
NurcmberR  (the  ally  of  Duke  Albert  of  Bavaria-Mu- 
nich), so  that  it  possessed  more  (25  sq.  miles)  than  any 
imperial  free  city;  it  was  called  the  Empire's  Treasure 
Box  on  account  of  its  political  importance,  its  indus- 
trial power,  and  superior  cult  ure.  It  had  now  reached 
the  pinnacle  of  its  splendour.  As  an  indication  of  its 
importance  as  an  art  and  science  centre  during  the 
fourti'(  nth,  tifteentli  and  sixteenth  centuries,  it  records 
sucli  iKiincs  as  Peter  \ischer,  Adam  Krafft,  Veit  Stoss, 
Michael  Wohlgemuth,  Albert  Durer,  Hans  Sachs, 
CJonrad  Celtes,  Willibald  and  Charitci*  Pirkheimer, 


Main  Portal,  St.  Sebaldus,  Nchemberq 
Johann  Mliller  (Hegiomontanus),  Hartmann  Schedel, 
Martin  Behaim  and  others. 

In  1521  Luther's  creed  was  preached  by  some  of  the 
clergy,  among  whom  was  Andrew  Osiander,  preacher 
at  St.  Lornzkirche;  there  was  also  a  distinct  leaning 
towards  the  new  teaching  among  the  members  of  the 
council.  They  prohibited  processions,  passion  plays 
during  the  Easter  tide,  and  other  celebrations.  After 
1.524  the  possessions  of  the  monasteries  and  cleri- 
cal institutions  were  confiscated;  in  1525  the  coun- 
cil accepted  lAither's  religion;  the  Dominicans,  Car- 
melites and  Minorites  were  forbidden  to  preach  or  to 
hear  confessions;  a  preacher  was  placed  over  convents 
and  the  reception  of  any  more  novices  forbidden. 
About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  city 
had  become  almost  Protestant;  only  the  members  of 
the  Teutonic  Knights  remained  faithful;  they  suffered 
many  restrictions  and  the  loss  of  their  church.  After 
the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1529,  when  most  of  the  Prot- 
estant estates  of  the  empire  formed  the  League  of 
Smalkald,  Nuremberg  did  not  join.  The  Diet  of 
Nuremberg,  1532,  ga\'e  religious  freedom  at  least  for  a 
time:  Protestants  were  allowed  to  continue  the  inno- 
vations already  introduced  by  them  and  all  processes 
begun  against  them  in  the  Imperial  Chamber,  on  ac- 


count of  these  innovations,  were  suspended,  pending 
the  settlement  of  the  whole  religious  question  by  a 
great  council  to  be  called  within  the  year.  The  aid 
against  the  Turks  which  the  enip<nir  and  king  desired 
was  granted.  By  consent  of  the  Lutlieraiis  the  follow- 
ers of  Zwingli  were  exempted  from  tin'  provisions  of 
this  peace.  During  this  period  Numulierg  remained 
as  neutral  as  possible,  so  as  not  to  quarrel  with  the  em- 
peror and  yet  to  retain  its  whole  creed  of  the  (iospel; 
it  therefore  accepted  the  interim  regulation.  During 
the  revolution  of  the  princes  against  Charles  V,  in 
1552,  Nuremberg  endeavoured  to  ])urcliase  its  neu- 
trality by  the  payment  of  100, (100  gul.lcn;  but  Mai- 
grave  Albert  Alcibiades,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  re- 
volt, attacked  the  city  without  declaring  war  and 
forced  it  to  conclude  a  disadvantageous  peace.  At  the 
Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  the  possessions  of  the 
Protestants  were  confirmed  by  the  emperor,  their  re- 
ligious privileges  extemled  and  tlu'ir  independence 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Bamberg  af- 
firmed while  the  secularizing  of  the  possessions  of  the 
mona.steries  was  approved. 

The  unsettled  state  of  affairs  in  the  first  half  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  revolution  in  commerce  and 
trade  due  to  the  discovery  of  America  and  the  circum- 
navigation of  Africa,  and  the  difficulties  in  trade 
cau,sed  by  the  territorial  sovereigns,  were  responsible 
for  the  ilecline  of  the  importance  and  affluence  of  the 
city.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  it  did  not  always 
succeed  in  preserving  its  policy  of  neutrality.  Fre- 
quent quartering  of  Imjierial,  Swedish  and  League  sol- 
diers, war-contributions,  demands  for  arms,  semi- 
compulsory  presents  to  commanders  of  the  warring 
armies  and  the  cessation  of  trade,  caused  irreparable 
damage  to  the  city.  The  population,  which  in  1620 
had  been  over  45,000,  sank  to  25,000. 

After  the  religious  war  Nuremberg  remained  aloof 
from  the  quarrels  and  affairs  of  the  world  at  large;  but 
contributions  were  demanded  for  the  .-\ustrian  War  of 
Succession  and  the  Seven  Years'  War,  the  former 
amounting  to  six  and  a  half  million  guldens.  Restric- 
tions of  imports  and  exports  deprived  the  city  of  many 
markets  for  its  manufactures,  especially  in  Austria, 
Prussia  and  Bavaria,  and  the  eastern  and  northern 
countries  of  Europe.  The  Bavarian  elector,  Charles 
Theodore,  appropriated  part  of  the  land  which  had 
been  obtained  in  the  war  of  succession  in  Landshut 
and  which  ever  since  had  been  claimed  by  Bavaria; 
Prussia  also  claimed  part  of  the  territory  of  Nurem- 
berg. Realizing  its  weakness,  the  city  asked  to  be  in- 
corporated in  the  Kingdom  of  Pru.ssia,  but  Frederick 
WiUiam  II  refused  the  request,  fearing  to  ofTend  Aus- 
tria, Russia,  and  France.  At  the  imperial  diet  in  1803 
the  independence  of  Nuremberg  was  affirmed.  But 
on  the  signing  of  the  Rheinhund  (Rhenish  Federation) 
12  July,  1806,  the  city  was  handed  over  to  Bavaria 
8  Sept.  Its  population  was  then  25,200  and  its  public 
debt  twelve  and  a  half  million  guldens.  After  the  fall 
of  Napoleon  its  trade  and  commerce  revived;  the  skill 
of  its  inhabitants  together  with  its  favourable  situation 
soon  rendered  the  city  prosperous,  particularly  after 
its  public  debt  had  been  acknowledged  as  a  part  of  the 
Bavarian  national  debt.  Incorporated  in  a  Catholic 
country  the  city  was  compelled  to  refrain  from  further 
discrimination  against  the  Catholics,  who  had  been 
excluded  from  the  rights  of  citizenship.  Catholic  ser- 
vices had  been  celebrated  in  the  city  by  the  priests  of 
the  order  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  often  under  great 
difficulties.  Their  possessions  having  been  confiscated 
by  the  Bavarian  government  in  ISOti,  I  hey  were  given 
the  Frauenkirche  on  the  Market  in  1S09;  in  1810  the 
first  Catholic  parish  was  established,  which  in  1818 
numbered  101(3  souls. 

In  1817  the  city  was  included  in  the  department 
Rezalkreis  (later  Mittelfranken).  The  establishment 
of  railways  and  the  joining  of  Bavaria  to  the  German 
Customs  Union  (Zollverein),  commerce  and  industry 


NUSCO 


171 


NUTTER 


opened  the  way  to  great  prosperity.  In  1852  there 
were  53,638  inhabitants,  40,441  Protestants  and  6616 
CathoUcs.  Since  tliat  time  it  has  become  the  most 
important  industrial  city  of  Bavaria  and  one  of  the 
most  prosperous  towns  of  southern  Germany.  In 
1905  its  population,  including  several  incorporated 
suburbs,  was  291,351—86,943  Catholics,  196,913  Prot- 
estants, 3738  Jews  and  3766  members  of  other  creeds; 
the  present  population  is  estimated  at  340,000. 

Nuremberg  belongs  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Bamberg 
and  possesses  notable  churches.  For  want  of  means 
the  buililingof  churches  could  not  keep  pace  with  the 
growth  of  the  community;  this  condition  rendered 
(lifficult  the  work  of  ministry.  The  Catholic  churches 
at  present  accommodate  barely  8000  people,  while 
the  Catholics  in  the  city  number  over  90,000.  The 
most  beautiful  church  is  the  Liebfrauenkirche  (Church 
of  Our  Dear  Lady),  built  131.5-61  in  Gothic  style;  it  is 
one  of  the  greatest  ornaments  of  the  city  (Essenwein, 
"Die  Liebfrauenkirche  in  NUrnberg",  Nuremberg, 
1881).  Other  churches  are,  the  St.  Elisabethenkirche, 
a  mighty  edifice,  in  antique  style,  begun  in  1784,  secu- 
larized in  1806,  purchased  by  the  Catholics  in  1885 
(Schrotter,  "Die  Kirche  der  heiligen  Elisabeth  in 
Niirnberg",  Nuremberg,  1903);  the  St.  Klarakirche,  a 
Gothic  structure,  built  in  1339,  turned  over  to  the 
Catholics  in  1857;  the  Herz-Jesu-kirche,  a  basilica  in 
early  Gothic  style,  erected  1898-1902;  the  Walpurgis- 
kapelle  in  the  castle,  dating  from  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury; the  temporary  structures:  St.  Joseph  (1897-8); 
St.  Anthony  (1899-1900);  St.  Karl  Borromaus  (1903- 
4) ;  and  a  new  church  at  present  being  erected. 

Roth,  Gesch.  des  Nurnbergschen  Uandds  (4  vols..  Leipzig,  1800- 
2) ;  M.4RX,  Gesch.  der  Reichastadt  N.  (Nurnberg,  1856) ;  Ghillant, 
N.  hist.  u.  topog.  nach  den  alteslen  vorhandenen  Quellen  u.  Urkun- 
den  (Munich,  1863);  Chroniken  der  deutschen  Stddte,  I-III.  X,  XI 
(Leipzig,  1862-74);  Herold,  AU-N.  in  seinen  OoUesdienslen 
(Gutersloh,  1890) ;  Roth.  Die  Einfiihrung  der  Reformation  in  N. 
(Wurzburg,  1885);  Mummenhoff.  AU-N.  (Bamberg,  1890); 
Idem,  Die  Burg  zu  N.  (Nurnberg.  1892);  Idem,  N.  Ursprung  u. 
Alter  in  den  Darsteltungen  der  Geschichtschreiher  u.  im  Lichte  der 
Gesch.  (Nurnberg,  1908);  KuUurgeschichtl.  Bilder  aus  Ifs  Ver- 
gangenheit  (14  parts,  Nurnberg,  1894-1902);  Roesel.  AU-N. 
(Niirnberg,  1895) :  Reicke.  Gesch.  der  Reichsstadt  N.  (Niirnberg, 
1896);  RlfiE,  N.  (Leipzig,  1900),  dealing  with  the  hist,  of  art;  Von 
ScHUH.  Die  Stadl  I^s  im  Jubilaumsjahr  1906  (Niirnberg.  1906); 
Meyer.  Gesch.  der  Burggrafschaft  N.  u.  der  spdtem  Markgrafschaf- 
len  Ansbach  u.  Bayreuth  (Tubingen,  1908);  ScHRaxTEB.  Gesch.  der 
Stadt  N.  (Niirnberg.  1909);  Weiss.  Gesch.  der  Stadt  N.  bis  zum 
Uebergang  der  Reichsstadt  an  das  Kfinigreich  Bayem  1806  (Niirn- 
berg, 1909) ;  Die  kathol.  Kirchen  in  N.  (Nurnberg,  1909) ;  Mitteil. 
des  Vereins  fur  die  Gesch.  der  Stadl  N.  (18  vols.,  Niirnberg,  1879- 
1909). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Nusco,  Diocese  op  (Ncscana),  in  the  province 
of  Avellino,  Italy,  suffragan  of  Salerno,  dates  from 
the  eleventh  century.  Among  its  bishops  were  Guido 
(1004);  St.  Amatus  (1167),  author  of  a  history  of  the 
Normans  in  Apulia  and  Calabria;  Roger  (1198),  who 
restored  the  cathedral;  Cardinal  Pietro  Paolo  Parisio 
(1538),  who  presided  at  the  Council  of  Trent;  Fran- 
cesco .\rcudio  (1639),  a  Theatine;  Fulgenzio  Arminio 
Monforte  (1669),  an  Augustinian.  In  1820  Monte- 
martino  was  united  to  Nusco.  St.  John,  a  Benedic- 
tine (1084),  was  first  Bishop  of  Montemartino;  forty  of 
his  successors  are  known.  Nusco  has  19  parishes, 
with  38,300  inhabitants,  and  4  religiou.s  houses. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d'  Italia,  XX. 

U.  Benioni. 

Nussbaum,  Johann  Nepomdk  von,  German  sur- 
geon, b.  at  Munich  2  Sept.,  1829;  d.  there  31  Oct., 
1890.  He  made  his  studies  in  the  University  of  Mu- 
nich where  he  was  a  pupil  of  Thiersch  and  later  the 
cUnieal  assistant  of  Von  Rothmund.  He  received  his 
doctor's  degree  in  1853,  the  subject  of  his  dissertation 
being  "Ueber  Cornea  Artificialis".  The  following 
four  years  he  spent  in  foreign  travel,  studying  surgery 
under  N^laton,  Chassaignac,  and  Maisonneuve  in 
Paris,  Langenbeck  in  Berlin,  and  Textor  in  Wiirzburg. 
In  1857  he  became  a  Privat-docent  (with  a  thesis  on  the 
treatment  of  various  conditions  of  the  cornea).     In 


1860  be  was  appointed  professor  of  surgery  at  the 
University  of  Munich  which  office  he  held  for  nearly 
thirty  years.  His  lectures  were  noted  for  their  prac- 
tical character.  He  studied  under  Spencer  Wells  in 
England  which  enabled  him  to  greatly  aid  the  devel- 
opment of  pelvic  surgery.  Later  he  learned  antisepsis 
from  Lister  and  was  instrumental  in  introducing  it 
into  the  surgical  clinics  of  Germany.  His  best-known 
work,  "Leitfaden  zur  antiseptischen  Wundbehand- 
lung"  (Hints  for  the  antiseptic  treatment  of  wounds), 
went  through  five  editions  and  was  translated  into  a 
number  of  foreign  languages.  Altogether  his  publica- 
tions number  almost  100,  the  best  known  of  which 
deal  with  ovariotomy,  the  transplantation  of  bone, 
radical  operation  for  hernia,  and  phases  of  the  treat- 
ment of  cancer.  During  the  war  of  1871  Nussbaum 
was  consultant  surgeon-general  to  the  Bavarian 
troops.  Throughout  his  life  he  was  a  Catholic  and 
died  pronouncing  the  words  "  Praised  be  Jesus  Christ " ' . 

Paoel,  Biograph.  Diet,  der  hervorrag,  Aerzte  des  19.  Jahrh.  (Ber- 
lin, 1901);  Idem.  Biograph.  Lex.  der  hervorrag.  Aerzte  (Berlin); 
Kneller,  Das  Chrislentum  und  die  Vertreter  der  neueren  Naturwia- 
senschaft  (Freiburg,  1904).  JamES  J.   WalSH. 

Nutter,  John,  Venerable.  SeeHAYDOCK,  George, 

Venerable. 

Nutter,  Robert,  Vener.^ble,  Enghsh  m.artyr;  b. 
at  Burnley,  Lancashire,  c.  1550;  executed  at  Lancas- 
ter, 26  July,  1600.  He  entered  Brasenose  College, 
O.xford  in  1564  or  1565,  and,  with  his  brother  John, 
also  a  martyr  (see  Haydock,  George),  became  a 
student  of  the  English  College,  Reims.  Having  been 
ordained  priest,  21  Dec,  1581,  he  returned  to  England. 
On  2  Feb.,  1583-4  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower, 
where  he  remained  in  the  pit  forty-seven  days,  wear- 
ing irons  for  forty-three  days,  and  twice  subjected  to 
the  tortures  of  "the  scavenger's  daughter".  On  10 
November,  1584,  he  was  again  consigned  to  the  pit, 
where  he  remained  until,  on  21  Jan.,  1584-5,  he,  with 
twenty  other  priests  and  one  layman,  was  shipped 
aboard  the  "Mary  Martin"  of  Colchester,  at  Tower 
Wharf.  Landing  at  Boulogne,  2  Feb.,  he  revisited 
Reims  in  July,  but,  on  30  November,  was  again 
committed  to  prison  in  London,  this  time  to  New- 
gate, under  the  alias  of  Rowley.  In  1587  he  waa 
removed  to  the  Marshalsea,  and  thence,  in  1589-90, 
was  sent  to  Wisbech  Castle,  Cambridgeshire.  There, 
in  1597,  he  signed  a  petition  to  Father  Garnet  in  fa- 
vour of  having  a  Jesuit  superior;  but,  on  8  Nov.,  1598, 
he  and  his  fellow  martyr,  Venerable  Edward  Thwing, 
with  others,  besought  the  pope  to  institute  an  arch- 
priest. 

Venerable  Edward  Thwing  was  the  second  eon  of 
Thomas  Thwing,  of  Heworth,  near  York,  and  Jane 
(n(5e  Kellet,  of  York),  his  wife.  He  was  at  the  English 
^College,  Reims,  12  July  to  12  August,  1583;  and  20 
'July,  1585,  to  2  Sept.,  1587,  having  spent  the  interval 
with  the  Jesuits  at  Pont-^-Mousson.  On  2  Sept., 
1587  he  set  out  for  Rome,  returning  to  become  a  reader 
in  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  a  professor  of  rhetoric  and 
logic.  He  was  ordained  priest  at  Laon  in  the  following 
December.  On  4  Nov.,  1592,  he  went  to  Spa  suffering 
from  ulcer  in  the  knee.  He  returned  to  the  English 
College,  which  had  in  the  meantime  been  transferred 
from  Reims  to  Douai,  and  went  on  the  mission  in 
1.597.  He  seems  to  have  been  immediately  arrested 
and  sent  to  Wisbech,  whence  he  and  Nutter  escaped  to 
Lancashire,  were  arrested,  May,  1600,  tried  at  the 
next  assizes  and  condemned  for  being  priests.  Both 
suffered  on  the  same  day. 

Catholic  Record  Society  Publications  (London,  privately  printed 
1905—),  I,  110,  II,  248,  252.  256,  270.  273,  277.  279,  282;  III,  16, 
156.  384,  385.  388:  (Shalloner.  Memoirs  of  Missionary  Priests,  I, 
120-21;  Knox,  First  and  Second  Diaries  of  the  English  College, 
Douai.  passim ;  Oillow.  Bibt.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  V,  203;  Waine- 
WRIOHT.  Ven.  John  Nutter  in  Catholic  Truth  .Society's  penny 
biographies ;     Hollinshed^    Chronicles,    IV     (London.     1807-8), 


printed    1875).  230;    Oxford    Historical    .Society   Publicati< 

(Oxford,  1910),  33.  John  B.  Wainewright. 


NUYENS 


172 


NTSSA 


Nuyens,  Wilhelmus,  historian,  b.  18  August; 
1S23,  at  Avcnhorn  in  Holland;  d.  10  December,  1894, 
at  Westwoud  near  Horn.  Having  completed  his  Hu- 
manistic studies  in  Enkhuizen,  he  studied  medicine  at 
Utrecht,  1S12,  received  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1848, 
and  began  practising  in  \\'cst\voml.  He  devoted  some 
of  his  spare  time  to  Uterature  and  history,  and  he  pub- 
lished, in  1S5G,  a  volume  of  poems  entitled:  "De 
laatste  Dochtcr  der  Hohenstaufen",  on  subjects 
chiefly  from  the  Middle  Ages.  Then  came  a  series  of 
historical  works,  first  among  which  was  "  Het  Katho- 
licismus  in  betrekking  met  de  beschaving  van  Eu- 
ropa"  (Amsterdam,  lSoG-1857,  in  2  volumes),  a  his- 
tory of  the  influence  of  Catholicism  upon  the  culture 
and  ci\-ilization  oi  Euroiiean  nations.  In  several 
pamphlets  aiul  in  that  voluminous  work,  "Geschiede- 
nis  der  Ueg<Ting  van  Pius  IX"  (Amsterdam,  1802- 
63),  he  treated  the  Roman  question  of  1859.  His  chief 
work,  "(jcschiedenis  der  nederlandsche  Beroerten  in 
de  XVI.  eeuw"  (Amsterdam,  1865-70,  in  8  parts),  a 
history  of  the  revolutionary  wars  of  the  Netherlands 
from  1559  to  1598,  discloses  no  new  sources,  but  ex- 
amines facts  with  sagacity  and  impartiality,  and  ar- 
ranges them  with  skill,  thereby  showing  to  the  Catho- 
hes  what  rights  they  were  entitled  to  in  the  State. 
New  editions  appeared  in  18S6  and  1904.  Somewhat 
as  a  sequel  he  wrote:  " Geschiedenis  der  kerkehjke  en 
politieke  geschillen  in  de  republiek  der  zeven  veree- 
nigde  provincien  (1598-1625)"  (Amsterdam,  1886-87 
in  two  parts).  Intended  for  popular  reacUng  are: 
"Algemeen  Geschiedenis  des  nederlandschen  Volks- 
vande  vroegste  tijden  tot  op  onze  dagen"  (Amsterdam, 
1871-82,  in  20  parts;  new  edition,   1896-98,  in  24 


landsche  Geschiedenis  voor  de  jeugd"  (Amsterdam, 
1870;  25th  edition,  1905,  by  G.  F.  I.  Douwes).  He 
published  a  number  of  pamphlets  and  articles  in  peri- 
odicals on  topics  of  the  times,  especially  in  "Onze 
Wachter",  edited  by  him  from  1871  to  1874  in  collabo- 
ration with  Schaepmann.  He  was  an  energetic  de- 
fender of  the  rights  and  the  privileges  of  Catholics,  and 
one  of  the  first  to  champion  the  freedom  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church  in  the  Netherlands.  Catholics  erected  a 
monument  to  him  in  the  church  at  Westwoud  and  set 
aside  the  surplus  of  the  money  contributed  as  a  per- 
petual fund,  called  "Nuyensfund",  to  aid  the  work  of 
Cathohc  historians  of  the  Netherlands. 

GoRRis,  Dr.  W.  J.  F.  Nuyens,  beschouwd  in  het  licht  van  zijn 
tijd  (Nimwegen,  190S).  PaTRICIUS  ScHluiQER. 

Nyassa,  Vicariate  Apostolic  op,  in  Central 
Africa,  bounded  north  by  the  Anglo-German  frontier, 
east  by  Lake  Nyassa,  south  by  the  Anglo-Portuguese 
frontier,  west  by  a  line  running  northward  past  Lake 


Bangwelo.  It  is  under  the  oare  of  tlie  White  Fathers 
and  W!i8  founded  by  Father  I^echaptois  in  June,  1889, 
at  Mponda,  Nyassaland.  This  region  passing  under 
British  control,  the  missionaries  moved  to  Mambwe 
between  Nyassa  and  Tanganika  in  1891,  but,  finding 
the  region  desolated  by  the  slave-hunters,  they  pro- 
ceeded to  Ubemba,  a  liigh  plateau  to  the  west  wliere 
the  Congo  rises.  In  December,  1S94,  Fr.  \'an  Oost 
settled  at  Kaiambi  in  Panda,  with  permission  of  the 
chief  Mkaca,  but  was  expelled  by  Mkaca's  suzerain, 
Kiti-Mkulu.  Fr.  Dupont,  however,  succeeded  in 
founding  a  permanent  station  there  in  July,  1895. 
The  natives  are  well-built  and  warlike;  they  are  being 
taught  agriculture  by  the  fathers.  On  13  February, 
1S!)7,  tlie  mission  was  made  a  vicariate  Apostolic,  Fr. 
Joscpli  Dupont  (b.  at  Geste,  Maine  et  Loire,  France, 
in  IS")."))  being  appointed  superior  and  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Tibaris.  When  King  Momaniba  was 
dying  in  1898,  he  asked  Mgr  Dupont  to  become  king; 
the  bishop  accepted  the  post  temporarily  to  prevent 
the  customary  hecatomb  following  the  sovereign's 
death.  In  1904  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  vicar- 
iate was  formed  into  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Shird. 
The  population  is  about  1,000,000,  speaking  Kibemba 
and  Kinyassa;  catechumens,  30,000;  baptized,  2000; 
missionary  priests,  50;  Missionary  Sisters  of  Our  Lady 
of  Africa,  8;  catechists,  127;  churches,  9;  chapels,  25; 
stations,  6  in  Ubemba  and  3  in  Angoniland;  schools, 
34;  orphanages,  4. 

PiOLET,   Les    Missions  franQaises,  V  (Paris),  422-26;    Duff, 
Nyassaland  under  the  Foreign  Office  (London,  1900). 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Nyitra.    See  Nedtra,  Diocese  of. 

Nyssa,  a  titular  see  in  Cappadocia  Prima,  suffragan 
of  Caisarea.  It  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  (V,  vii,  viii). 
in  the  "Itinerarium  Antonini"  in  the  "Synedemus' 
of  Hierocles  (699),  and  the  Greek  "Notitia;  episco- 
patuum",  but  its  history  and  exact  location  are  un- 
known. It  should  be  sought  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Kizil  Irmak  (ancient  Halys),  ten  miles  above  Kessik 
Keupru  (Ramsay,  "Asia  Minor",  287,  305).  Texier 
("Asie  Mineure",  Paris,  1862,  588)  wrongly  identifies 
it  with  Nev  Sheir.  Hamilton  (Researches,  II,  265) 
speaks  of  a  modern  village  called  Nirse,  or  Nissa,  but 
the  maps  show  no  place  of  this  name.  Le  Quien 
(Oriens  Christ.,  I,  391)  names  ten  bishops  of  Nyssa. 
The  last  qualified  as  metropolitan  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  is  certainly  only  a  titular  bishop.  To  the 
list  may  be  added  Joannicius,  who  lived  in  1370 
(Miklosich  and  MuUer,  "Acta  patriarchatus  Con- 
stantinopolitani",  Vienna,  1860,  I,  537).  About  this 
time  Nyssa  must  have  disappeared;  but  its  name 
still  recalls  the  memory  of  the  glorious  Doctor,  St. 
Gregory. 

S.    PfiTRlDilS. 


o 


Oakeley,  Frederick,  b.  5  Sept.,  1802,  at  Shrews- 
bury; d.  30  Jan.,  1880,  at  Islington,  the  youngest  son 
of  Sir  Charles  Oakeley,  Bart,  he  graduated  at  Christ- 
church  in  1824,  and  three  years  later  was  elected 
Fellow  of  Balliol,  where  he  afterwards  became  the  close 
friend  of  W.  G.  Ward,  with  whom  he  joined  the 
Tractarian  party.  In  1839  he  became  incumbent  of 
Margaret  Chapel,  the  predecessor  of  the  well-known 
All  Saints,  Margaret  Street,  London,  soon  noted  for 
its  high  church  services:  he  was  a  frequent  visitor  to 
0.\ford,  and  stood  by  Ward  at  the  time  of  his  con- 
demnation in  1845.  He  defended  Tract  XC  and  in 
consequence  his  bishop  suspended  him.  He  retired 
to  Newman's  community  at  Littlemore,  and  a  few 
weeks  later  followed  him  into  the  Catholic  Church. 
After  a  short  course  of  theology  at  St.  Edmund's  Col- 
lege, he  was  ordained  by  Dr.  Wiseman  in  1847.  The 
next  thirty-three  years  were  spent  as  a  canon  of  the 
Westminister  chapter  and  missionary  rector  of  St. 
John's,  Islington.  Short-sighted,  small  of  stature, 
lame,  he  exercised  a  wide  influence  by  his  personality, 
his  writings,  and  the  charm  of  his  conversation.  His 
chief  works  are:  Before  his  conversion:  "Aristotelian 
and  Platonic  Ethics'^  (Oxford,  1S37);  "WTiitehall 
Sermons"  (Oxford,  1837-9)  "The  Subject  of  Tract 
XC  examined"  (London,  1841);  "Homilies"  (London, 
1842);  "Life  of  St.  Augustine"  (Newman's  series, 
Toovey,  1844).  After  his  conversion:  "Practical  Ser- 
mons" (London,  1848);  "The  Order  and  Ceremonial 
of  the  Mass"  (London,  1848) ;  "The  Catholic  Florist" 
(London,  1851);  "The  Church  of  the  Bible"  (London, 
1857);  "Lyra  Liturgica"  (London,  1865);  "Historical 
Notes  on  the  Tractarian  Movement"  (London,  1865); 
"The  Priest  on  the  Mission"  (London,  1871). 

Did.  of  Nat.  Bioa-.  s.  v.;  Bihl.  Did.  Eng.  Cath..  a.  v.;  Ward, 
Oxford  Movement:  The  Catholic  Reviml  (London,  1889  and  1893); 
MozLET,  Reminiscences  (18S2) ;  Browne,  An/ials  of  Tractarian 
Movement;  Obituary  notices  in  Tablet,  Weekly  Register. 

Bernard  Ward. 

O  Antiphons  (Roman  Breviary:  Antiphonce  ma- 
jores,  "greater  antiphons"),  the  seven  antiphons  to  the 
Magnificat  in  the  ferial  Office  of  the  seven  days  pre- 
ceeding  the  vigil  of  Christmas;  so  called  because  all 
begin  with  the  interjection  "O".  Their  opening  words 
are:  (1)  "O  Sapientia",  (2)  "O  Adonai",  (3)  "O  Radix 
Jesse",  (4)  "O  Clavis  David",  (5)  "O  Oriens",  (6)  "O 
Rex  Gentium",  (7)  "O  Emmanuel".  Addressed  to 
Christ  under  one  or  other  of  His  Scriptural  titles,  they 
conclude  witli  a  distinct  petition  to  the  coming  Lord 
(e.  g. :  "O  Wisdom  .  .  .  come  and  teach  us  the  way  of 
prudence";  "O  Adonai .  .  .  come  and  redeem  us  by  thy 
outstretclied  arm";  "O  Key  of  David  .  .  .  come  and 
lead  from  prison  the  captive  sitting  in  darkness  and 
in  the  shadow  of  death"  etc.).  Couched  in  a  poetic 
and  Scriptural  phraseology  they  constitute  a  notable 
feature  of  the  Advent  Offices.  These  seven  antiphons 
are  found  in  the  Roman  Breviary;  but  other  medieval 
Breviaries  added  (1)  "O  virgo  virginum  quomodo 
fiet"  etc.,  still  retained  in  the  Roman  Breviary  as  the 
proper  anliphon  to  the  Magnificat  in  the  second  Ves- 
pers of  the  feast  Expectatio  Partus  B.M.V.  (18  De- 
cember), the  prayer  of  this  feast  being  followed  by  the 
antiphon  "O  Adonai"  as  a  commemoration  of  the 
ferial  office  of  18  December;  (2)  "O  Gabriel,  nuntius 
ooelorum',  subsequently  replaced,  almost  universally, 
by  the  thirteenth-centurj'  antiphon,  "O  Thoma 
Didyme",  for  the  feast  of  the  Apostle  St.  Thomas  (21 


173 


December).  Some  medieval  churches  had  twelve 
greater  antiphons,  adding  to  the  above  (1)  "O  Rex 
Pacifice",  (2)  "O  Mundi  Domina",  (3)  "O  Hierusa- 
lem",  addressed  respectively  to  Our  Lord,  Our  Lady, 
and  Jerusalem.  Gueranger  gives  the  Latin  text  of  all 
of  these  (except  the  "O  Mundi  Domina"),  with  ver- 
nacular prose  translation  ("Liturgical  Year",  Advent, 
Dublin,  1870,  508-531),  besides  much  devotional  and 
some  historical  comment.  The  Parisian  Rite  added 
two  antiphons  ("O  sancte  sanctorum"  and  "O  pastor 
Israel")  to  the  seven  of  the  Roman  Rite  and  began  the 
recitation  of  the  nine  on  the  15th  of  December.  Prose 
renderings  of  the  Roman  Breviary  O's  will  be  found 
in  the  Marquess  of  Bute's  translation  of  the  Roman 
Breviary  (winter  volume).  Gueranger  remarks  that 
the  antiphons  were  appropriately  assigned  to  the  Ves- 
per Hour  because  the  Saviour  came  in  the  evening 
hour  of  the  world  (vcrgenie  mundi  vespere,  as  the 
Church  sings)  and  that  they  were  attached  to  the  Mag- 
nificat to  honour  her  through  whom  He  came.  By  ex- 
ception to  the  rule  for  ferial  days,  the  seven  antiphons 
are  sung  in  full  both  before  and  after  the  canticle. 
"In  some  Churches  it  was  formerly  the  practice  to 
sing  them  thrice:  that  is,  before  the  Canticle,  before 
the  Gloria  Patri,  and  after  the  Sicut  erat"  (Gueranger). 
There  are  several  translations  into  English  verse,  both 
by  Catholics  and  non-Catholics,  the  most  recent  being 
that  in  Dom  Gregory  Ould's  "Book  of  Hymns 
(Edinburgh,  1910.  no.  5)  by  W.  Rooke-Ley,  in  seven 
quatrains  together  with  a  refrain-quatrain  giving  a 
translation  of  the  versicle  and  response  ("Rorate", 
etc).  The  seven  antiphons  have  been  found  in  MSS. 
of  the  eleventh  century.  A  paraphrase  of  some  of 
these  is  found  in  the  hymn  "Veni,  veni,  Emmanuel" 
given  by  Daniel  in  his  "Thesaurus  H>'mnologicus " 
(II,  336)  and  translated  by  Neale  in  his  "Medieval 
Hymns  and  Sequences"  (3rd  ed.,  London,  p.  171)  and 
others,  and  used  in  various  hymn-books  (Latin  text 
in  "  The  Roman  Hymnal",  New  York,  1884,  139). 
Neale  supposed  the  hymn  to  be  of  the  twelfth  century, 
but  it  has  not  been  traced  back  further  than  the  first 
decade  of  the  eighteenth  century.  For  first  lines  of 
translations,  see  "Juhan's  Diet,  of  Hymnol."  (2nd 
ed.,  London,  1907,  74,  i;  1551,  i;  1721,  i).  For  the 
Scriptural  sources  of  the  antiphons,  see  John,  Mar- 
quess of  Bute,  "Roman  Breviary",  Winter,  203,  also 
Marbach's  "Carmina  Scripturarum"  etc.  (Strasburg, 
1907)  under  "O"  in  the  Index  Alphabelicus. 

Thurston,  The  Oreal  Antipko/ts,  Heralds  of  Christmas  in  The 
Month  (Dec,  1905).  616-631.  gives  liturgical  uses,  literary  illus- 
trations, and  peculiar  cuatoma  relating  to  the  antiphons;  ques- 
tions the  view  of  Cabrol,  L^Avent  Liturgique  in  Revue  B^idictine 
1905),  n.  4,  that  they  do  not  antedate  the  ninth  century,  gives 
much  illustration  (notably  from  The  Christ  of  Cynewulf  written 
circa  800)  to  show  that  they  "are  much  older",  and  knows  "no 
valid  reason  for  regarding  them  as  posterior  to  the  rest  of  the 
Roman  Antiphonary  or  to  the  time  of  Pope  Gregory  himself": 
Cabrol  in  Diet,  d^archiologie  et  liturgie  chritienne,  s.  v.  Avent,  re- 
peats (col.  3229)  his  view,  but  in  a  foot-note  refers  the  reader  to 
Thurston's  article  in  The  Month;  Baylet,  Greater  Antiphons  of 
Advent  in  Pax  (an  Anglican  periodical,  6  Dec,  1905),  231-239; 
Staley,  O  Sapientia  in  Church  Times  (13  Dec,  1907),  p.  812; 
WiTHERoy,  0  Sapientia,  Seven  Sermons  on  the  Ancient  Antiphons 
for  Advent  (London.  1906). 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Oates'g  Plot,  a  term  conventionally  used  to  desig- 
nate a  "Popish  Plot"  which,  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  II  of  England,  Titua  Oates  pretended  to  have 
discovered.  Oates  was  b.  at  Oakham,  Rutlandshire, 
in  1649.  His  father,  Samuel  Oates,  is  said  to  have  been 


OATES'S  PLOT 


174 


OATES'S  PLOT 


a  ribbon-weaver  in  Norfolk  who,  having  taken  a  de- 
gree at  Cambridge,  afterwards  became  a  minister  of 
the  Estabhslied  Church. 

Titus  Gates  began  his  career  at  Merchant  Taylors' 
School  in  1G65,  when  he  was  sixteen.  He  was  ex- 
pelled two  years  later  and  went  to  a  school  at  Scdles- 
combe,  near  Hastings,  whence  he  passed  to  Cambridge 
in  16t57,  being  entered  as  a  sizar  in  Gonville  and  Cains 
College,  whence  he  afterwards  migrated  to  St.  John's. 
His  reputation  at  Cains,  accdrding  to  a  fellow  student, 
was  that  of  "the  most  ilUtcnit<'  dunce,  inoa])able  of 
improvement";  at  St.  John's,  Dr.  Watson  wrote  of 
him:  "He  was  a  great  dunce,  ran  into  debt,  and,  being 
sent  away  for  want  of  money,  never  took  a  degree". 
"Removing  from  there",  says  Echard,  "he  slipped 
into  Orders",  and  was  preferred  to  the  vicarage  of 
Bobbing  in  Kent,  on  7  ^Iarch,  1673.  At  this  time  or 
earlier,  according  to  the  evidence  of  Sir  Denis  Ash- 
burnham  at  Father  Ireland's  trial,  "he  did  swear  the 
Peace  against  a  man"  and  was  forsworn,  but  they  did 
not  proceed  upon  the  indictment.  Next  year  he  left 
Bobbing,  with  a  licence  for  non-residence  and  a  repu- 
tation for  dishonesty,  to  act  as  curate  to  his  father  at 
Hastings.  There  father  and  son  conspired  to  bring 
against  Wm.  Parker,  the  schoolmaster,  an  abomi- 
nable charge  so  manifestly  trumped  up  that  Samuel 
was  ejected  from  his  living,  while  Titus,  charged  with 
perjury,  was  sent  to  prison  at  Dover  to  await  trial. 
Having  broken  jail  and  escaped  to  London,  unpur- 
sued,  he  next  procured  an  appointment  as  chaplain  on 
board  a  king's  ship  sailing  for  Tangier,  but  within 
twelve  months  was  expelled  from  the  Navy. 

In  August,  1676,  he  was  frequenting  a  club  which 
met  at  the  Pheasant  Inn,  in  Fuller's  Rents,  and  there, 
for  the  first  time,  he  met  Catholics.  His  admittance 
into  the  Duke  of  Norfolk's  household,  as  Protestant 
chaplain,  followed  almost  immediately.  On  Ash 
\^'ednesday,  1677,  he  was  received  into  the  Catholic 
Church.  The  Jesuit  Father  Hutchinson  (alias  Berry) 
was  persuaded  to  welcome  him  as  a  repentant  prodigal 
and  Father  Strange,  the  provincial,  to  give  him  a  trial 
in  the  F.nclisii  College  at  Valladolid.  Five  months 
later,  ( )ai(  >  «  :i^  ixpcDed  from  the  Spanish  college  and, 
on  30  <  III  ,  lii77,  was  scut  back  to  London.  In  spite 
of  his  di.-j;iacu,  the  Jesuit  provincial  was  persuaded  to 
give  him  a  second  trial,  and  on  10  Dec.  he  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  seminary  at  St.  Omers.  He  remained 
there  as  "a  younger  student"  till  23  June,  1678. 
After  being  expelled  from  St.  Omer's  also,  he  met 
Tonge,  probably  an  old  acquaintance,  and  conceived 
and  concocted  the  story  of  the  "Popish  Plot". 

Israel  Tonge  was,  as  Echard  describes  him,  "a  city 
divine,  a  man  of  letters,  and  of  a  prolifick  head,  fill'd 
with  all  the  Romish  plots  and  conspiracies  since  the 
Reformation".  There  is  some  evidence  and  con- 
siderable likelihood  that  he  not  only  suggested  the 
idea  of  the  plot  to  Oates  by  his  talk,  but  actually  co- 
operated in  its  invention.  At  Stafford's  trial  Oates 
declared  that  he  never  was  but  a  sham  Catholic.  If 
this  be  true,  we  may  accept  Eehard's  assertion  as 
probable:  that  Tonge  "persuaded  him  [Oates]  to  in- 
6inuat('  himself  among  the  Papists  and  get  particular 
a<'quainlance  with  them".  Moreover,  it  is  credibly 
reported  that,  at  a  great  supper  given  in  the  city  by 
Alderman  Wilcox  in  honour  of  Oates,  when  Tonge 
was  present,  the  latter's  jealousy  led  to  a  verbal  quar- 
rel between  the  two  informers,  and  Tonge  plainly  told 
Oates  that  "he  knew  nothing  of  the  plot,  but  what 
he  learned  from  him".  Tonge  may  or  may  not  have 
helped  Oates  in  the  manufacture  of  his  wares;  but  he 
undoubtedly  enabled  him  to  bring  them  to  market 
and  dispose  of  them  to  advantage.  With  the  help  of 
Kirkby,  a  man  associated  with  the  royal  laboratory, 
he  succeeded  in  bringing  the  plot  before  the  careless 
and  sceptical  notice  of  King  Charles. 

Oates'  depositions,  as  they  may  be  read  in  his  "True 
and  Exact  Narrative  of  the  Horrid  Plot  and  Con- 


spiracy of  the  Popish  Party  against  the  Life  of  His 
Sacred  Majesty,  the  Government  and  the  Protestant 
Religion,  etc.,  published  by  the  Order  of  the  Right 
Honorable  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal  in  Par- 
liament assembled  ",  are  in  themselves  clumsy,  puerile, 
ill-written,  disjointed  libels,  hardly  worth  notice  but 
for  the  frenzied  anger  they  aroused.  The  chief  items 
tell  of  a  design  to  assassinate  the  king,  or  ratlier  a 
complication  of  plots  to  do  away  with  "48"  or  "the 
Black  Bastard" — His  Majesty's  supposed  designa- 
tions among  the  Catholic  conspirators.  Pickering,  a 
Benedictine  lay  brother,  antl  Grove  (Honest  William), 
a  Jesuit  servant,  are  told  off  to  shoot  hiiii  with 
"jointed  carabines"  and  silver  bullets,  in  considera- 
tion of  £1,500  to  be  paid  to  Grove  and  30,000  Masses 
to  be  said  for  Pickering's  soul.  To  make  more  cer- 
tain of  the  business,  the  king  is  to  be  poisoned  by  Sir 
George  Wakeman,  the  queen's  physician,  at  a  cost 
of  £15,000.  Furthermore  he  is  to  be  stabbed  by  An- 
derton  and  Coniers,  Benedictine  monks.  All  these 
methods  failing,  there  are  in  the  background  four 
Irish  ruffians,  hired  by  Dr.  Fogarthy,  who  "were 
to  mind  the  King's  Postures  at  Winsdor"  and  have 
one  pound  down  and  £80  afterwards  in  full  discharge 
of  their  expenses.  There  is  some  frivolous  talk  of 
other  assassinations — of  the  removal  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  the  Duke  of  Ormonde,  Herbert,  Lord  Bishop 
of  Hereford  and  some  lesser  fry.  And  Oates  himself 
is  offered  and  actually  accepts  £50  to  do  away  with 
the  1;errible  Dr.  Tonge,  "who  had  basely  put  out  the 
Jesuits'  morals  in  English". 

Summing  up  the  plot  with  the  help  of  someone  more 
scholarly  than  himself,  Oates  makes  the  following 
declaration:  "The  General  Design  of  the  Pope,  Society 
of  Jesus,  and  their  Confederates  in  this  Plot,  is,  the 
Reformation,  that  is,  (in  their  sense)  the  Reduction  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  all  His  Majesties  Do- 
minions by  the  Sword  (all  other  wayes  and  means  being 
judged  by  them  ineffectual)  to  the  Romish  Religion 
and  Obedience.  To  effect  this  design;  1.  The  Pope 
hath  entitled  himself  to  the  Kingdomes  of  England  and 
Ireland.  2.  Sent  his  Legate,  the  Bishop  of  Cassal 
in  Italy  into  Ireland  to  declare  his  Title,  and  take 
possession  of  that  Kingdom.  3.  He  hath  appointed 
Cardinal  Howard  his  Legat  for  England  to  the  same 
purpose.  4.  He  hath  given  Commission  to  the  Gen- 
eral of  the  Jesuites,  and  by  him  to  While,  their  Provin- 
cial in  England,  to  issue,  and  they  have  issued  out,  and 
given  Commissions  to  Captain  Generals,  Lieutenant 
Generals,  etc.,  namely,  the  General  of  the  Jesuites  hath 
sent  Commissions  from  Rome  to  Langhorn  their  Ad- 
vocate General  for  the  Superior  Officers:  And  White 
hath  given  Commissions  here  in  England  to  Colonels, 
and  inferior  Officers.  5.  He  hath  by  a  Consult  of  the 
Jesuits  of  this  Province  Assembled  at  London,  con- 
demned His  Majesty,  and  ordered  Him  to  be  a.ssassi- 
nated,  etc.  6.  He  hath  Ordered,  That  in  case  the 
Duke  of  York  will  not  accept  these  Crowns  as  forfeited 
by  his  Brother  unto  the  Pope,  as  of  his  Gift,  and  settle 
such  Prelates  and  Dignitaries  in  the  Church,  and  such 
Officers  in  Commands  and  places  Civil,  Naval  and 
Military,  as  he  hath  commissioned  as  above,  extirpate 
the  Protestant  Religion,  and  in  order  thereunto  ex 
post  f ado,  consent  to  the  assassination  of  the  King  hia 
Brother,  Massacre  of  His  Protestant  Subjects,  firing 
of  his  Towns,  etc.,  by  pardoning  the  Assassins,  Mur- 
derers and  Incendiaries,  that  then  he  be  also  poysoned 
or  destroyed,  after  they  have  for  some  time  abused 
His  Name  and  Title  to  strengthen  their  Plot,  weak- 
ened and  divided  the  Kingdoms  of  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland  thereby  in  Civil  Wars  and  Rebellions  as 
in  His  Father's  Time,  to  make  way  for  the  French  to 
seize  these  Kingdoms,  and  totally  ruine  their  Infantry 
and  Naval  Force." 

Besides  this  Papal,  there  appears  also  another 
French  plot,  or  correspondence  (an  afterthought,  sug- 
gested to  Oates  by  the  discovery  of  Coleman's  letters). 


DATES 'S  PLOT 


175 


OATES'S  PLOT 


carried  on  by  Sir  Ellis  Layton,  Mr.  Coleman  and 
others.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  so  flimsy  a 
fabric  would  have  been  brought  to  the  ground  by  the 
first  breath  of  criticism.  But  it  was  taken  up  by  the 
Whig  Party  and  made  into  what  Echard  calls  "a  po- 
Htioal  contrivance".  Shaftesbury,  their  leader,  u.sed 
it  for  all  its  worth.  It  was  quite  commonly  called 
"the  Shaftesbury  Plot".  Whether,  as  some  beheve, 
he  had  a  hand  in  constructing  the  plot  or  not,  verj' 
much  of  the  blame  of  its  consequences  must  rest  upon 
the  use  he  made  of  it.  Chiefly  by  the  influence  and 
machinations  of  Shaftesbury  and  his  party.  Parlia- 
ment was  incited  to  declare  that  "there  hath  been  and 
still  is  a  damnable  and  hellish  Plot,  contrived  and 
carry'd  on  by  popish  recusants,  for  the  assassinating 
and  murdering  the  King  and  for  subverting  the 
government  and  rooting  out  and  destroying  the  Prot- 
estant Religion."  Many  who,  with  Elliot,  thought 
Oates's  stories  of  the  '  ^0,000  Black-hills,  the  Army 
of  Spanish  Pilgrims  and  Mililary  commissions  from 
General  D'Oliva  (S.J.)  so  monstrously  ridiculous  that 
they  offer  an  intolerable  affront  to  the  understanding 
of  any  man  who  has  but  a  very  indifferent  account 
of  the  affairs  of  Europe",  nevertheless  thought  also 
that,  "because  His  majesty  and  council  have  declar'd 
there  is  a  Fopis/i-Plot,  therefore  they  have  reason 
to  believe  one." 

Gates  had  now  become  the  most  popular  man  in  the 
country  and  acclaimed  himself  as  "the  Saviour  of  the 
Nation".  He  assumed  the  title  of  "Doctor",  pro- 
fessing to  have  received  the  degree  at  Salamanca,  a 
city  it  is  certain  he  never  visited;  put  on  episcopal  at- 
tire; was  lodged  at  Whitehall;  went  about  with  a  body- 
guard; was  received  by  the  primate;  sat  at  table  with 
peers;  and,  though  snubbed  by  the  King,  was  solemnly 
thanked  by  Parliament,  which  granted  him  a  salary  of 
£12  a  week  for  diet  and  maintenance,  occasional  gifts  of 
£50  or  so,  and  drafts  on  the  Treasury  to  meet  his  bills. 
Yet,  Dates  would  have  forsworn  himself  to  little  pur- 
pose but  for  the  mysterious  death  of  Sir  Edmund 
Berry  Godfrey,  the  magistrate  before  whom  Oates's 
depositions  had  been  sworn.  The  Whig  Party  put  the 
blame  of  this  crime — if  murder  it  was — upon  the 
Catholics.  Godfrey  had  been  a  friend  to  Catholics 
rather  than  an  enemy,  and  had  made  use  of  the  infor- 
mation received  from  Gates  to  do  them  a  service:  no 
good  could  come  to  them,  and  no  harm  to  their  ene- 
mies, by  robbing  the  magistrate  of  the  copy  of  Oates's 
deposition  which  he  retained.  Moreover,  both  his 
pockets  and  his  house  were  undisturbed  by  the  sup- 
posed assassins.  Nevertheless  the  unanimous  verdict 
was  murder,  the  murder  of  a  good  Protestant  and  a 
magistrate  who  had  to  do  with  the  plot.  "The  capi- 
tal and  the  whole  nation",  says  Macaulay,  "went  mad 
with  hatred  and  fear.  The  penal  laws,  which  had 
begun  to  lose  something  of  their  edge,  were  sharpened 
anew.  Everywhere  justices  were  busied  in  searching 
houses  and  seizing  papers.  All  the  gaols  were  filled 
with  Papists.  London  had  the  aspect  of  a  city  in  a 
state  of  siege.  The  train  bands  were  under  arms  all 
night.  Preparations  were  made  for  barricading  the 
great  thoroughfares.  Patrols  marched  up  and  down 
the  streets.  Cannon  were  planted  round  W^hitehall. 
No  citizen  thought  himself  safe  unless  he  carried  under 
his  coat  a  small  flail  loaded  with  lead  to  brain  the 
Popish  assassins."  For  awhile,  every  word  that  Gates 
said  was  believed.  The  courts  of  law,  before  which 
the  arrested  Catholics  were  brought,  were  blind  and 
deaf  to  his  shufflings  and  contradictions  and  lies. 
Other  disreputable  witnesses  were  picked  up  in  the 
gutter  or  prisons  and  encouraged  to  come  forward, 
and  were  paid  handsomely  for  bringing  additional 
perjuries  to  corroborate  those  of  their  chief.  The 
lord  chief  justice  on  the  Bench  would  listen  to  nothing 
which  discredited  the  king's  witnesses;  and  although, 
in  trials  where  the  prisoners  were  denied  counsel,  he 
himself  should,  by  ancient  custom,  have  looked  to 


their  interests,  he  exerted  the  full  authority  of  the 
Court  to  bring  about  their  condemnation.  Sixteen 
innocent  men  were  executed  in  direct  cormexion  with 
the  Plot,  and  eight  others  were  brought  to  the  scaf- 
fold as  priests  in  the  persecution  of  Catholics  which 
followed  from  it.  The  names  of  those  executed  for 
the  plot  are:  in  1678  Edward  Coleman  (Dec.  3);  in 
1679,  John  Grove,  WilUam  Ireland,  S.J.  (Jan.  24), 
Robert  Green,  Lawrence  Hill  (Feb.  21),  Henry  Berry 
(Feb.  28),  Thomas  Pickering,  O.S.B.  (May  14),  Rich- 
ard Langhorn  (June  14),  John  Gavan,  S.J.,  William 
Harcourt,  S.J.,  Anthony  Turner,  S.J.,  Thomas  White- 
bread,  S.J.,  John  Fenwick,  S.J.  (June  20);  in  1680, 
Thomas  Thwing  (Oct.  23),  William  Howard,  Viscount 
Stafford  (Dec.  29);  in  16S1,  Oliver  Plunket,  Arch- 
bishop of  Armagh  (July  1).  Those  executed  as 
priests  were:  in  1679,  William  Plessington  (July  19), 
Philip  Evans,  John  Lloyd  (July  22),  Nicholas  Post- 
gate  (Aug.  7),  Charles  Mahony  (Aug.  12),  John  Wall 
(Francis  Johnson),  O.S.F.,  John  Kemble  (Aug.  22), 
Charles  Baker  (David  Lewis),  S.J.  (Aug.  27). 

It  remains  to  be  said  about  "the  Popish  Plot"  that, 
since  the  day  when  its  inventor  was  discredited,  no 
historian  of  any  consequence  has  professed  to  believe 
in  it.  A  few  vaguely  assert  that  there  must  have  been  a 
plot  of  some  sort.  But  no  particle  of  evidence  has  ever 
been  discovered  to  corroborate  Gates's  pretended  reve- 
lations. A  contemporary  Protestant  historian  says: 
"After  the  coolest  and  strictest  examinations,  and 
after  a  full  length  of  time,  the  government  could  find 
very  little  foundation  to  support  so  vast  a  fabrick,  be- 
sides down-right  swearing  and  assurance:  not  a  gun, 
sword  or  dagger;  not  a  flask  of  powder  or  a  dark  Ian- 
thorn,  to  effect  this  villany;  and  excepting  Coleman's 
writings,  not  one  scrap  of  an  original  letter  or  commis- 
sion, among  the  great  numbers  alleged,  to  uphold  the 
reputation  of  the  discoveries."  Since  then  the  public 
and  private  archives  of  Europe  have  been  liberally 
thrown  open  to  students,  and  the  most  of  them  dili- 
gently examined;  yet,  as  Mr.  Marks,  also  a  Protestant, 
wrote  a  few  years  ago:  "Through  all  the  troublous 
times  when  belief  in  the  Popish  Plot  raged,  one 
searches  in  vain  for  one  act  of  violence  on  the  part  of 
Catholics.  After  the  lapse  of  two  hundred  years,  no 
single  document  has  come  to  light  establishing  in  any 
one  particular  any  single  article  of  the  eighty-one." 

In  January,  1679,  Gates,  whose  reputation  was  al- 
ready declining,  together  with  his  partner,  Bedloe, 
laid  an  indictment  before  the  Privy  Council  in  thir- 
teen articles,  against  Chief  Justice  Scroggs,  because  of 
the  part  he  took  in  the  acquittal  of  \\'akeman,  Mar- 
shall, Rumley,  and  Corker;  and  in  the  same  year,  the 
Rev.  Adam  Elliot  was  fined  £200  for  saying  that 
"Gates  was  a  perjur'd  Rogue,  and  the  Jesuits  who  suf- 
fered, justly  died  Martyrs."  But  in  August,  1681, 
Israel  Backhouse,  master  of  Wolverhampton  Gram- 
mar School,  when  charged  with  a  similar  libel  was  ac- 
quitted. In  the  same  year.  Gates  was  thrust  out  of 
Whitehall,  and  next  year  (Jan.,  1682)  Elliot  prose- 
cuted him  successfully  for  perjury.  In  April,  1682,  his 
pension  was  reduced  to  £2  a  week.  In  June  of  that 
year  he  was  afraid  to  come  forward  as  a  witness  against 
Kearney,  one  of  the  four  supposed  Irish  ruflians  de- 
nounced by  him  in  his  depositions.  Then,  while  King 
Charles  was  still  hving,  he  vainly  presented  petitions 
to  the  king  and  to  Sir  Leoline  Jenkins  against  the  plain 
speaking  of  Sir  Roger  L'Estrange,  and  two  months 
later  (10  May),  he  was  himself  committed  to  prison 
for  calling  the  Duke  of  York  a  traitor.  On  18  June, 
he  was  fined  by  Judge  Jeffreys  £100,000  for  scandalum 
magnalum.  Then,  in  May,  16S0,  he  was  tried  for  per- 
jury, and  condemned  to  be  whipped,  degraded,  and 
pilloried,  and  imprisoned  for  life.  Jeffreys  said  of  him : 
"He  has  deserved  more  punishment  than  the  laws  of 
the  land  can  inflict." 

When  William  of  Orange  came  to  the  throne.  Gates 
left  prison  and  entered  an  unsuccessful  appeal  in  the 


OATHS 


176 


OATHS 


House  of  Lords  against  his  sentence.  Later,  he  ob- 
tained a  royal  pardon  and  a  pension,  which  was  with- 
drawn in  1093  at  the  instance  of  (Jueen  Mary,  whose 
father,  James  II,  he  had  scandalously  attacked,  .^fter 
Marj-'s  death,  he  was  granted  from  the  Treasury  £500 
to  pay  his  debts  and  £300  per  annum  during  the  life- 
time of  himself  and  his  wife.  In  1690  he  was  taken 
up  by  the  Baptists,  only  to  be  again  expelled  the  min- 
istry, this  time  for  "a  discreditable  intrigue  for  wring- 
ing a  legacy  from  a  devotee".  In  1691  he  attempted 
another  fraudulent  plot,  but  it  came  to  nothing.  He 
died  in  .\xe  Yard,  on  12  July,  1705. 

Besides  the  "  Narrative  of  the  Horrid  Plot  and  Con- 
spiracy of  the  Popish  Party"  (London,  1679),  Gates 
wrote  "The  Cabinet  of  Jesuits'  secrets  opened"  (said 
to  be  translated  from  the  Italian),  "issued  and  com- 
pleted by  a  gentleman  of  Quality"  (London,  1679), 
"The  Pope's  Warehouse;  or  the  Merchandise  of  the 
Whore  of  Rome"  (London,  1679),  dedicated  to  the 
Earl  of  .Shaftesbury,  "The  Witch  of  Endor;  or  the 
witchcrafts  of  the  Roman  Jezebel,  in  which  you  have 
an  account  of  the  Exorcisms  or  conjurations  of  the 
Papists",  etc.  (London,  1679);  "EkcixBacriXiKi),  or  the 
Picture  of  the  late  King  James  drawn  to  the  Life" 
(Part  I,  London,  1696;  Parts  II,  III,  and  IV,  1697). 

Pollock,  The  Popish  Plot  (London.  1903) ;  Marks,  Who  Killed 
Sir  Edmund  Berry  Godfreyt  (London,  1905);  Stale  Trials:  Sec- 
combe  in  Diet.  Nat.  Hiog.,Q.v.\  Cobbett,  Parliamentary  History, 
IV;  Ch.\rle8  Dodd,  Church  History  oj  England,  III  (London, 
1737);  Salmon.  Examination  of  Burnet's  History,  II  (London, 
1724);  Eluot,  a  Modest  Vindication  of  Titu^  Oates  (London. 
1682);  Foley,  Records  S.  J.,  V  (London,  1879);  Macaulay,  Lin- 
OABD,  B.VUS.  History  of  England.        CuTHBERT   AlMOND. 

Oaths. — I.  Notion  and  Divisions. — An  oath  is 
an  invocation  to  God  to  witness  the  truth  of  a  state- 
ment. It  may  be  express  and  direct,  as  when  one 
swears  by  God  Himself;  or  implicit  and  tacit,  as  when 
we  swear  by  creatures,  since  they  bear  a  special  rela- 
tion to  the  Creator  and  manifest  His  majesty  and  the 
supreme  Truth  in  a  special  way:  for  instance,  if  one 
swear  by  heaven,  the  throne  of  God  (Matt.,  v,  34), 
by  the  Holj'  Cross,  or  by  the  Gospels.  Imprecatory 
oaths  are  also  tacit  (see  below).  To  have  an  oath 
in  foro  inlerno,  there  must  be  the  intention,  at  least 
virtual,  of  invoking  the  testimony  of  God,  and  a  word 
or  sign  by  which  the  intention  is  manifested.  Oaths 
maybe:  (1)  assertory — or  affirmative — if  we  call  God 
to  witness  the  assertion  of  a  past  or  present  fact ; 
promissory,  if  we  call  Him  to  witness  a  resolution 
which  we  bind  ourselves  to  execute,  or  a  vow  made  to 
Him,  or  an  agreement  entered  into  with  our  neighbour, 
or  a  vow  made  to  God  in  favour  of  a  third  party ;  every 
promissory  oath  includes  of  necessity  an  assertory 
oath  (see  below).  A  promissory  oath  accompanied  by 
a  threat  against  a  third  party  is  said  to  be  commina- 
tory;  (2)  contestatory — or  simple — if  there  is  a  mere 
invocation  of  the  Divine  testimony;  imprecatory — or 
execratorj' — as  in  the  formula  "So  help  me  God"; 
if  at  the  same  time  we  call  upon  God  as  a  judge  and 
avenger  of  perjury,  offering  Him  our  property  and 
especially  our  life  and  eternal  salvation,  or  those  of 
our  friends,  as  a  pledge  of  our  sincerity.  Thus  the  ex- 
pression: "Upon  my  soul",  often  used  without  any 
intention  of  swearing,  may  be  either  contestatory — 
the  soul  being  in  a  special  manner  the  image  of  God — 
or  execratory — if  we  wish  to  call  down  upon  our  soul 
Divine  punishment,  either  temporal  or  eternal,  in  ca.se 
we  be  wanting  in  sincerity;  (3)  private,  if  used  be- 
tween private  individuals;  public,  if  exacted  by  public 
authorities;  public  oaths  are  divided  into:  (a)  doctrinal, 
by  which  one  declares  that  he  holds  a  given  doctrine, 
or  promises  to  be  faithful,  to  teach,  and  to  defend  a 
given  doctrine  in  the  future;  (b)  political,  which  have 
as  their  object  the  exercise  of  any  authority  whatso- 
ever, or  submission  to  such  an  authority  or  laws;  (c) 
judicial,  which  are  taken  in  courts  of  justice  either  by 
the  parties  to  the  suit  or  the  witnesses  thereof. 

II.    Lawfulness  and  Conditions. — An  oath  is 


"  licit,  and  an  act  of  virtue,  under  certain  conditions. 
It  is,  in  effect,  an  act  of  homage  rendered  by  the  crea- 
ture to  the  wisdom  and  omnipotence  of  the  Creator — 
it  is  therefore  an  act  of  the  virtue  of  religion;  more- 
over, it  is  an  excellent  way  of  affording  men  security 
in  their  mutual  intercourse.  It  is  justified  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testament ;  the  faithful  and  the  Church  from 
Apostolic  times  to  the  present  day  have  employed 
oaths;  and  canonic;d  letrislation  and  doctrin,al  decrees 
have  affirmed  their  hiufulncs.s.  Imiiroper  use  is  often 
made  of  oaths,  an<l  the  haliit  of  swearing  may  easily 
lead  to  abuses  and  even  to  perjury.  In  counselling 
men  "not  to  swear  at  all"  (M.att.,  Vj34)  Christ  meant, 
as  the  Fathers  and  ecclesiastical  writers  explain,  to  be 
so  truthful  that  men  could  lirlicvc  them  without  need 
of  oath  to  confirm  wli;it  they  s:iy.  He  did  not  forbid 
the  use  of  oaths  under  inopcr  conditions,  when  neces- 
sary to  satisfy  others  of  our  truthfulness.  These  con- 
ditions are  (Jer.,  iv,  2):  (1)  Judgment,  or  careful  and 
reverent  consideriition  of  the  necessity  or  utility  of 
the  oath;  for  it  would  be  showing  a  want  of  the  respect 
due  to  God,  to  invoke  Him  as  witness  in  trivial  mat- 
ters; on  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  wrong  to  require 
a  grave  or  extreme  necessity.  To  swear  without  a 
sufficient  reason,  being  an  idle  use  of  God's  name,  is 
venial  sin;  (2)  truth,  for  what  we  affirm  should  be  in 
conformity  with  the  truth.  Consequently  in  case  of 
an  assertory  oath,  our  affirmation  must  be  truthful, 
and  in  a  promissory  oath  we  must  have  the  intention 
of  doing  what  we  are  promising.  To  swear  falsely 
constitutes  the  sin  of  perjury,  always  mortal  in  its 
nature:  for  it  is  an  insult  to  the  Divine  Truth  to  call 
God  in  witness  to  a  lie;  besides,  such  an  act  is  likely 
to  do  injury  to  the  common  good;  see  the  propositions 
condemned  by  Innocent  XI,  prop,  x.xiv;  (.3)  justice  re- 
quiring: (a)  in  the  case  of  an  assertory  oath,  that  it  be 
lawful  to  make  the  affirmation  which  one  wishes  to 
corroborate;  failure  to  observe  this  condition  is  a 
venial  sin,  as  when  boasting  of  some  evil  deed  one 
should  swear  to  it;  it  is  a  grievous  sin,  if  one  employs 
an  oath  as  the  means  and  instrument  of  sin,  at  least 
of  mortal  sin,  for  example,  to  make  a  person  believe  a 
grave  detraction;  (b)  in  the  case  of  a  promissory  oath, 
justice  requires  that  one  be  able  to  assume  licitly  the 
obligation  of  doing  the  thing  promised.  It  is  a  mor- 
tal sin  to  promise  an  oath  to  do  a  grievously  illicit 
thing;  and  it  is,  in  the  opinion  of  St.  Alphonsus 
Liguori,  a  mortal  sin  to  swear  to  do  a  thing  which  is 
illicit  though  not  grievously  so. 

III.  Obligation  Arising  from  a  Promissory 
Oath. — In  a  promissory  oath,  we  call  on  God  not  only 
as  a  witness  of  our  desire  to  fulfil  the  promise  we  make, 
but  also  as  a  guarantee  and  pledge  for  its  future  exe- 
cution; for  at  the  proper  moment  He  will  require  us, 
under  pain  of  sin  against  the  virtue  of  religion,  to  do 
what  we  have  promised  in  His  presence;  whence  it 
follows  that  it  is  a  sin  against  religion  not  to  perform, 
when  we  can,  what  we  promised  under  oath:  a  mortal 
sin  if  the  matter  is  grave;  a  venial  sin  (according  to 
the  more  common  and  more  probable  opinion),  if  the 
matter  is  not  grave.  Certain  conditions  are  requisite 
before  a  promissory  oath  ent.ails  the  obligation  of  ful- 
filling it,  notably  the  intention  of  swearing  and  of 
binding  oneself,  full  deliberation,  the  la%vfulness  of 
making  the  promise,  as  well  as  the  lawfulness  and  pos- 
sibility of  executing  it,  etc.  Several  causes  may  put 
an  end  to  this  obligation:  intrinsic  causes,  such  as  a 
notable  change  occurring  after  the  taking  of  the  oath, 
the  cessation  of  the  final  cause  of  the  oath;  or  ex- 
trinsic causes,  such  as  annulment,  dispensation,  com- 
mutation, or  relaxation  granted  by  a  competent  au- 
thority, a  release,  express  or  tacit,  either  by  the  person 
in  whose  favour  the  obligation  w.as  undertaken,  or  by 
a  competent  authority  to  whom  the  beneficiarj-  is  sub- 
ject. 

See  general  works  on  moral  theology,  especially:  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  Sam.  Theol.,  II-II,  Q.  Ixxxix,  Q.  icviii;  St.  Alphonsos 


OATH 


177 


OATHS 


LiGUORl,  Theot.  mor.,  lib.  IV,  tract.  II,  cap.  ii;  Noldin,  Theol. 
Mar..  II  (7th  ed.),  nn.  243  aqq.;  Lehmkuhl,  Theol.  mor.,  I  C2nd 
ed.),  nn.  552  sqq.;  Goepfert,  Der  Bid  (Mainz,  1883);  Sl.iter, 
A  Manual  oj  Moral  Theology,  I  (New  York,  1909),  240  sqq. 

A.  Vander  Heeren. 
Oath,  Missouri  Test.    See  Test  Oath,  Missouri. 

Oaths,  English  Post-Reformation.  The  English 
Reformation  having  been  imposed  by  the  Crown,  it 
was  natural  that  submission  to  the  essential  points  of 
its  formularies  should  have  been  exacted  with  some 
solemnity,  by  oath,  test,  or  formal  declaration,  and 
that  these  should  change  with  the  varying  moods  of 
those  who  dominated  in  the  State. 

I. — Oath  of  Royal  Supremacy. — This  oath  was 
imposed  in  March  1534  (26  Henry  VIII,  c.  1).  The 
title  "Supreme  Head"  had  first  been  introduced  by 
Henry  VIII  into  a  decree  of  convocation,  11  February, 
1531 ;  and  had  been  strenuously  resisted  by  the  clergy. 
Though  it  did  not  as  yet  have  any  religious  significance, 
and  might  be  a  matter  of  compliment  only,  it  might, 
they  feared,  receive  another  interpretation  later.  But 
acting  under  the  advice  of  Fisher,  Warham,  and 
others,  whose  orthodoxy  is  above  suspicion,  they  sub- 
mitted after  adding  the  conditional  phrase,  "  quantum 
per  legem  Dei  licet".  Two  years  later  a  change  had 
taken  place,  which  had  previously  seemed  inconceiv- 
able. The  king  had  actually  broken  with  the  pope, 
and  Parliament  had  enacted  that  the  king  should  be 
"taken,  accepted  and  reputed  the  only  supreme  head 
on  Earth  of  the  church  of  England"  by  every  one  of 
his  subjects.  But  no  formula  for  the  oath  was 
laid  down  in  the  Act,  and  great  differences  seem  to 
have  prevailed  in  practice.  Many  long  "acknowledg- 
ments of  supremacy"  are  extant  (Camm,  "English 
Martyrs",  I,  401)  but  it  would  seem  that  most  people 
were  only  asked  to  swear  to  the  Succession,  that  is  to 
the  king's  marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn,  which  the  pope 
condemned,  and  which  therefore  involved  the  suprem- 
acy, though  the  form  of  the  Oath  of  Succession  pre- 
served in  The,  Lords'  Journals,  refers  to  the  supremacy 
with  insidious  lightness.  We  do  not  know  what  was 
its  form,  when  Fisher  and  More  refused  to  sign  it. 
They  were  ready  to  accept  the  succession  of  Anne 
Boleyn's  children,  but  refused  the  supremacy  (Bridg- 
ett,  hifra  2()4-S6). 

The  Act  of  Sujiremacy  was  repealed  by  Queen  Mary 
(1  Ph.  and  M.  e.  8)  and  revived  by  Elizabeth  (1  Eliz.  c. 
1).  The  formula  then  adopted  ran:  "I,  A.  B.,  do  ut- 
terly testify  and  declare  in  my  conscience,  that  the 
Queen's  Highness  is  the  only  supreme  Governor  of  the 
Realm  ...  as  well  in  all  Spiritual  or  Ecclesiastical 
things  or  causes  as  Temporal,  &c.  &c.  &c.  So  help 
me  God."  This  was  not  to  be  proposed  at  once  to 
every  one;  but  was  to  be  taken  by  the  clergy,  and  by 
all  holding  office  under  the  Crown;  by  others,  when 
asked.  This  moderation  in  exacting  the  oath  helped 
to  prevent  an  outcry  against  it,  and  enabled  the  Gov- 
ernment to  deal  with  the  recalcitrant  in  detail.  Many 
years  elapsed,  for  instance,  before  it  was  imposed  on 
the  graduates  of  the  universities.  The  last  laws  passed 
by  Elizabeth  against  Catholics  (1592-3)  enjoined  a 
new  test  for  Recusants  (35  Eliz.  c.  2).  It  comprised 
(1)  A  confession  of  "grievous  offence  against  God  in 
contemning  her  Majesty's  Government ";  (2)  Royal 
Supremacy;  (3)  A  clause  against  dispensations  and 
dissimulations,  perhaps  the  first  of  its  sort  in  oaths  of 
this  class.  The  success  of  Elizabeth's  "settlement  of 
religion",  had  been  really  due  to  her  alliance  with  the 
party  afterwards  called  Puritans,  and  they  were  not 
in  love  with  the  supremacy,  or  unaware  that  it  was 
unpopular  and  tyrannical. 

In  order  to  excuse  their  persecutions  they  there- 
fore preferred  (especially  after  the  excommunication 
of  the  queen)  to  make  an  informal  test  by  asking  the 
suspected  person  whether  he  would  fight  against  the 
,  pope,  if  he  sent  an  army  to  restore  Catholicism.  The 
Catholics  called  this  the  "bloody  question".  There 
XI.— 12 


was  no  law  to  enfo.ce  an  answer,  there  was  no  specific 
penalty  for  refusal.  But  those  who  refused  to  answer, 
were  decried  as  traitors;  and  then  proceeded  against  to 
the  uttermost  by  other  persecuting  laws.  Those  who 
in  their  answers  showed  any  loyalty  to  the  Holy  See 
were  in  the  same  plight,  a  mark  for  persecution  till 
they  bent  or  broke.  But  those  who  answered  disre- 
spectfully, were  treated  less  cruelly. 

Towards  the  end  of  Ehzabeth's  reign,  a  split  began 
in  the  Catholic  ranks  on  this  subject.  Some  of  the 
priests  who  had  joined  in  the  well-known  Appeal 
against  the  archpriest  Blackwell  had  afterwards  pre- 
sented to  EHzabeth  a  "Protestation  of  Allegiance" 
(Tierney-Dodd,  infra,  iii,  Ap.  188).  Declarations  of 
loyalty  there  had  been  before  in  plenty:  those  made 
by  the  martyrs  being  often  extraordinarily  touching. 
But  the  signatories  of  1603,  perhaps  stimulated  by 
Cisalpine  ideas,  for  the  Protestation  was  drawn  up 
in  Paris,  besides  protesting  their  loyalty,  went  on  to 
withhold  from  the  pope  any  possible  exercise  of  the 
deposing  power.  Before  this  Catholic  loyalists  had 
only  denied  the  validity  of  the  deposition  pronounced 
by  Pius  V.  Several  reasons  seemed  to  justify  this 
Protestation,  at  the  time  it  was  made  (see  Bishop, 
William),  though  unfortunate  developments  fol- 
lowed later. 

II. — Oath  of  Allegiance  of  James  I  (1606)  also 
called  the  Oath  of  Obedience.  After  the  Gunpow- 
der Plot  (q.  V.)  a  systematic  effort  was  made  to  perse- 
cute Catholics  at  every  turn  from  the  cradle  to  the 
grave,  by  penalizing  Catholic  baptisms,  marriages, 
burials,  as  well  as  education,  acquisition  of  property, 
&c.  An  attempt  was  also  made  to  divide  and  dis- 
grace Catholics  in  the  matter  of  allegiance.  It  was 
known,  from  the  "Protestation",  that  there  were  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  on  the  subject  of  the  pope's  depos- 
ing power,  an  J  an  oath  of  allegiance  was  drafted  to 
make  capital  out  of  those  differences  (for  the  author- 
ship of  the  formula,  see  Thurston  infra,  and  Tierney- 
Dodd,  iv,  71).  The  more  important  clauses  are  the 
following: — "I,  .*.  B.,  do  truly  and  sincerely  acknowl- 
edge, &c.  that  our  sovereign  lord.  King  James,  is  law- 
ful and  rightful  King  &c.  and  that  the  pope  neither  of 
himself  nor  by  any  authority  of  Church  or  See  of 
Rome,  or  by  any  other  means  with  any  other,  has  any 
power  to  depose  the  king  &c.,  or  to  authorize  any  for- 
eign prince  to  invade  him  &c.,  or  to  give  licence  to  any 
to  bear  arms,  raise  tumults,  &c.  &c.  Also  I  do  swear 
that  notwithstanding  any  sentence  of  excommunica- 
tion or  deprivation  I  will  bear  allegiance  and  true 
faith  to  his  Majesty  &c.  &c.  And  I  do  furtlicr  swear 
that  I  do  from  my  heart  abhor,  destcsl ,  iiiid  abjure,  as 
impious  and  heretical  thisdamnablcddi't  I  iiiiviTiil  posi- 
tion,— that  princes  which  bo  cxciiiniiiiiTiicalrd  liy  the 
pope  may  be  deposed  or  murdcivd  li\  I  licir  siilijccts  or 
by  any  other  whatsoever.  And  I  do  hclimc  Ihat  the 
pope  has  no  power  to  absolve  me  from  this  f)ath.  I  do 
swear  according  to  the  plain  and  common  sense,  and 
understanding  of  the  same  words  &c.  &c.  &c."  (3 
James  I,  c.  4).  This  oath  was  proclaimed  law  on  22 
June,  1606. 

Objections. — On  22  September  following  the  pope 
condemned  the  formula,  "It  cannot  be  taken,  as  it 
contains  many  things  evidently  contrary  to  faith  and 
salvatioii."  It  was  prudent  of  the  pope,  not  to  at- 
tempt to  enumerate  the  objectionable  points,  for  this 
would  have  increased  the  tension,  and  it  is  even  now 
diiTicult  to  specify  them,  partly  because  of  the  ambi- 
guity of  the  terms  used;  iiartly  lucaiisc  of  Die  deceitful 
interpretation  put  upon  tlirm  li\  I  lie  ImihIisIi  .iiilhori- 
ties.  For  James  now  liypomlicilly  asserted  lliat  his 
oath  was  no!  meant  to  encroac-li  u|ion  anyone's  con- 
scientious convictions.  Hereupon  minimizers  began 
to  maintain  tiiat  tiio  words  of  the  oatii  might  be  inter- 
preted by  the  intention  of  the  law-giver,  that  the  oath 
might  therefore  be  takeiir  But  it  is  necessary  here  to 
advert  to  the  Church's  doctrine  concerning  veracity  in 


OATHS 


178 


OATHS 


oaths.  These  we  believe  to  be  addressed  to  God  him- 
self and  to  be  accepted  in  the  precise  sense  of  the 
words  pronounced.  If  King  James  had  made  his 
subjects  swear  specifically  "  in  the  sense  by  him 
explained",  the  oath  might  perhaps  have  been  en- 
dured, but  when  he  made  them  "swear  according  to 
the  plain  and  common  sense,  and  understanding  of  the 
same  words",  to  what  was  injurious  to  Catholic  con- 
sciences, this  could  not  be  tolerated.  Of  the  many 
objections  raised  against  the  oath  the  following  are 
perhaps  the  chief. 

A.—Objectionahtc  Words. — The  most  objectionable 
words  were  those  in  which  the  deposing  power  was 
sworn  to  be  "impious,  heretical  and  damnable."  In 
previous  centuries  generations  and  generations  of 
loyal  subjects,  and  numberless  patriots  and  lawyers, 
and  doctors  and  saints  of  the  Church  (with  exceptions, 
of  course,  but  upon  the  whole  in  a  large  majority)  had 
considered  that  this  power  was  a  valuable  safeguard 
for  liberty  both  religious  and  civil.  In  later  days 
some  people  might  think  it  out  of  date,  inapplicable, 
extinct,  perhaps  even  a  mi.stake.  But  to  call  God  to 
witness  that  one  execrated  it  as  "impious,  heretical 
and  damnable",  was  what  no  God-fearing  adherent  of 
the  old  Faith,  who  knew  what  he  said  and  to  whom  he 
spoke,  could  conscientiously  do.  Indeed  anyone  who 
carefully  weighs  the  terms  of  this  oath,  will  see  that 
the  rights  of  the  pontiff  are  so  unreservedly  denied, 
that  no  room  whatsoever  is  left  for  the  assertion  of 
ecclesiastical  liberties.  This  shows  the  affinities  of  the 
oath  with  Gallicanism  (q.  v.),  which  was  acquiring 
such  vogue  upon  the  continent  in  those  days.  The 
Sorbonne,  on  30  June,  1681,  very  shortly  before  ap- 
proving the  Galilean  articles,  censored  the  English 
oath,  and  found  in  it  very  little  to  object  to  (Butler,  I, 
351).  The  words  here  under  discussion  also  evidently 
presume  that  he  who  takes  the  oath  believes  in  the 
"Divine  right  of  kings". 

B. — The  Deposing  Power. — While  all  Catholics 
would  condemn  the  extreme  statements  just  men- 
tioned, as  to  the  deposing  power,  there  were  also  many 
at  that  time,  and  they  of  the  highest  name,  who  con- 
sidered any  denial  of  that  power  as  illicit.  Two  or 
three  generations  only  had  passed  since  the  discipline 
of  papal  deposition  for  extreme  cases  of  misgovern- 
ment  had  been  generally  accepted.  In  some  parts  of 
Europe  it  was  still  the  law.  Many,  and  Paul  V  with 
his  medieval  ideals  was  among  them,  had  not  yet  per- 
ceived that  this  discipline  would  never  be  in  vogue 
again,  even  in  Catholic  countries.  This  explains  why 
Bellarmine,  Persons,  and  several  other  early  oppo- 
nents of  the  oath  went  further  in  their  condemnation 
of  it  than  later  theologians  would  have  done.  At  the 
same  time  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  Catholic  re- 
sistance to  the  oath  was  chiefly  or  solely  due  to  belief 
in  the  deposing  power.  This  statement,  however,  is 
often  made  by  Protestants  (e.  g.,  Hallam)  and  also  by 
the  Catholic  writers,  like  Preston  and  others  who 
wrote  in  defence  of  the  oath,  or  who  had  Galilean  lean- 
ings, such  as  Charles  Butler  and  Canon  Tierney  (But- 
ler, I,  359,  396;  IV,  120,  &c. ;  Tierney-Dodd,  IV,  78  n., 
81  n.).  We  have  seen  on  the  contrary  that  there 
were  from  the  first  English  Catholic  Non-jurors  who 
explicitly  rejected  the  deposing  power.  Doctor  Wil- 
liam Bishop,  for  instance,  did  this,  but  still  underwent 
imprisonment  for  refusing  the  oath;  and  he  was  after- 
wards made  a  bishop  by  the  Holy  See. 

C. — Fraudulent  Object  of  the  Oath. — It  was  always 
known  that  the  loyalty  of  the  Catholic  body  was  un- 
impeachable. The  reign  of  Charles  I  and  the  fall  of 
the  Stuarts  showed  that  is  was  really  far  stronger  than 
that  of  any  other  religious  bo<ly.  The  Oath  of  Alle- 
giance was  designed  to  obscure  this.  As  a  man's  repute 
for  veracity  may  be  impaired  by  prolonged  examina- 
tion on  the  subject  of  mental  reservation  and  the  like, 
and  by  exacting  oaths  about  truthfulness,  so  these 
elaborate  protests  against  the  deposing  power  were 


intended  to  throw  doubt  upon  the  loyalty  of  Cut  ho- 
lies, and  so  to  divide  and  disgrace  them,  and  this  it 
actually  did.  Like  all  religious  tests  imposed  by  ene- 
mies it  was  something,  not  to  amend,  but  to  avoid 
altogether. 

D. — The  Dishonour  to  the  Holy  See. — This  oath  and 
all  those  of  a  similar  character  amount  to  a  statement 
beforehand  of  "the  conditions  under  which  the  Holy 
See  will  be  ilisobeyed",  and  Home  has  ever  considered 
such  proposals  as  dishonourable  to  herself,  just  as  a 
nation  would  consider  it  a  disgrace  to  lay  down  be- 
forehand the  terms  under  which  her  soldiers  were  to 
capitulate. 

E. — The  Controversy. — The  archpricst  Blackwell, 
then  head  of  the  English  clergy ,  had  at  liist  disapproved 
of  the  oath,  then  allowed  it.  tlirn  ul'tiT  the  pope's 
Brief  disallowed  it  again,  and  finally  being  arrested 
and  thrown  into  prison,  took  the  ii;ith,  relying  on 
James's  statement  that  no  encroacli  II  icTit  nn  (■(ln,■^cience 
was  intended,  and  recommended  tlie  faithful  to  do 
the  like.  The  pope  at  once  issued  a  new  Brief  (23 
August,  1607),  repeating  his  prohibition,  and  on  28 
Sept.,  1607,  Cardinal  Bellarmine  wrote  to  Blackwell 
exhorting  him  to  obey  the  Brief  at  any  cost.  As  this 
also  proved  ineffectual  a  new  archpriest,  George 
Birkhead,  or  Birkett,  was  appointed  1-10  P"eb.,  1608, 
and  Blackwell  was  informed  that  his  faculties  would 
be  taken  away  if  he  did  not  retract  in  two  months. 
This,  however,  he  still  refused  to  do,  and,  much  to 
King  James's  satisfaction,  continued  to  defend  his 
opinion  for  three  years  before  he  was  finally  sus- 
pended. Blackwell's  example,  as  may  be  imagined, 
had  but  too  great  an  influence,  and  he  found  succes- 
sors in  his  unfortunate  apostolate  for  many  a  year 
afterwards. 

Meantime  James  had  himself  undertaken  to  answer 
the  missives  sent  to  Blackwell.  This  he  did  anony- 
mously in  a  tract  with  the  quaint  title,  "Triplici  nodo, 
triplex  cuneus  "  ("A  triple  wedge  for  a  triple  knot",  i.e., 
for  two  Briefs  and  the  Cardinal's  letter).  This  was 
answered  by  Bellarmine,  also  anonymously,  "  Respon- 
sio  ad  librum:  Triplici  nodo,  triplex  cuneus"  (1608). 
James  now  dropped  his  anonymity,  and  reprinted  his 
tract  with  a  "Premonition  to  Christian  Princes",  and 
an  appendix  on  his  adversaries'  supposed  mistakes 
(Jan.,  1609).  Upon  this,  Bellarmine  published,  now 
also  using  his  own  name,  his  "Apologia  pro  respon- 
sione  ad  librum  Jacobi  I"  (1609).  James  opposed  to 
this  a  treatise  by  a  learned  Scottish  Catholic,  W.  Bar- 
clay, "De  potestate  papae"  (1609).  Barclay  was  a 
decided  Galilean,  and  Bellarmine's  answer,  "Tracta- 
tus  de  potestate  summi  pontificis  in  rebus  temporali- 
bus"  (1610),  gave  such  offence  to  the  gallicanizing 
party  in  France,  that  it  was  publicly  burnt  in  Paris  by 
a  Decree  of  26  Nov.,  1610.  A  similar  fate  befell  Father 
Suarez's  answer  to  James  through  an  arrf(  of  26  June, 
1614;  but  this  decree  was  eventuallj'  withdrawn  at  the 
request  of  the  pope.  At  every  stage  of  the  contest  be- 
tween the  two  champions  a  host  of  minor  combatants 
joined  the  fray.  Here  it  must  suffice  to  enumerate 
the  chief  names.  On  the  Catholic  syde.  Cardinal  Du- 
perron,  Leonard  Lessius,  Jacob  Gretser,  Thomas 
Fitzherbert,  Martin  Becan,  Caspar  Scioppi,  Robert 
Persons,  Adolph  Schulckenius  (who  according  to  Som- 
mervogel  is  an  independent  writer,  not  a  pseudonym 
for  Bellarmine,  as  has  been  asserted),  N.  Coeffeteau, 
A.  Euda-nion  Joannes.  On  the  other  side  Bishop 
Lancelot  Andrewes,  William  Barlow,  Robert  Burhill, 
Pierre  du  Moulin,  and  especially  the  Benedictine 
Roger  \\'iddrington,  vere  Preston.  Most  of  the  Prot- 
estant books  written  in  Latin,  together  with  all  the 
publications  of  Preston  and  Barclay,  were  put  upon 
the  Roman  Index. 

F. — Suhsequenl  History. — Some  ideas  of  the  press- 
ure caused  by  the  oath  may  be  gathered  from  the 
Acts  of  the  \'encrable  martyrs,  Drury,  Atkinson,  Al- 
mond, Thulis,  Arrowsmith,  Herst,  Gervase,  Thomas 


OATHS 


179 


OATHS 


Garnett,  Gavan,  and  Heath;  the  last  two  have  left  writ- 
ings against  it.  Another  illustration  will  be  found 
in  the  history  of  the  first  Lord  Baltimore,  whose  at- 
tempt to  settle  in  Virginia,  where  the  oath  had 
been  introduced  in  1609,  was  defeated  by  it.  The 
second  Lord  Baltimore,  on  the  other  hand,  ordered 
his  adventurers  to  take  the  oath,  but  whether  he 
insisted  on  this  is  uncertain  (Hughes,  "Soc.  of  Jesus 
in  N.  America",  pp.  260-1,  451  and  passim).  King 
Charles  I  generally  recognized  that  Catholics  could 
not  conscientiously  take  the  Oath  of  Supremacy,  and 
frequently  exerted  his  prerogative  to  help  them  to 
avoid  it.  On  the  other  hand  his  theory  of  the  Di- 
vine right  of  kings  induced  him  to  favour  the  Oath  of 
Allegiance,  and  he  was  irritated  with  the  Catholics 
who  refused  it  or  argued  against  it.  Urban  VIII  is 
said  to  have  condemned  the  oath  again  in  1626  (Reusch, 
327),  and  the  controversy  continued.  Preston  still 
wrote  in  its  defence;  so  also,  at  King  Charles's  order, 
did  Sir  William  Howard  (1634) ;  this  was  probably  the 
future  martyr  (q.  v.).  Their  most  important  oppo- 
nent was  Father  Edward  Courtney  (vere  Leedes;  cf. 
Gillow,  "Bibl.  Diet.",  s.  v.  Leedes,  Edward),  who  was 
therefore  imprisoned  by  Charles.  The  matter  is  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  dispatches  and  the  "Rela- 
tione" of  Panzani  (q.  v.),  the  papal  agent  to  Queen 
Henrietta  Maria  (Maziere  Brady,  "Catholic  Hier- 
archy", Rome,  18S3,  p.  SS). 

III.  Oath  of  Abjdration  under  the  Common- 
wealth, 1643. — When  the  Puritan  party  had  gained 
the  upper  hand  during  the  civil  wars,  the  exaction  of 
the  Oaths  of  Supremacy  and  Allegiance  fell  into  desue- 
tude, and  they  were  repealed  by  the  Act  of  February, 
1650,  and  their  place  taken  by  an  "engagement  of 
allegiance"  to  the  Commonwealth.  But  the  lot  of 
the  Catholics  was  not  only  not  ameliorated  thereby; 
it  was  made  far  worse  by  the  enactment  of  an  "Oath 
of  Abjuration".  This  was  passed  19  August,  1643, 
and  afterwards,  in  1656,  reissued  in  an  even  more  ob- 
jectionable form.  Everyone  was  to  be  "adjudged  a 
Papist"  who  refused  this  oath,  and  the  consequent 
penalties  began  with  the  confiscation  of  two  thirds  of 
the  recusant's  goods,  and  went  on  to  deprive  him  of 
almost  every  civic  right.  Monstrous  as  the  enact- 
ments were,  their  barbarity  caused  some  shame  among 
the  more  high-minded,  and  in  practice  they  were 
sparingly  enforced.  They  checked  the  gaUicanizing 
party  among  the  English  Catholics,  which  had  at 
first  been  ready  to  offer  forms  of  submission  similar 
to  the  old  oath  of  Allegiance,  which  is  stated  (Reusch, 
335)  to  have  been  condemned  anew  about  this  time 
by  Innocent  X.  The  chief  writer  on  the  Catholic 
side  was  the  lawyer  Austin,  who  generally  used  the 
pseudonym  Birchley. 

IV.  The  Test  Oath,  1672,  1678,  also  known  as 
the  Declaration  or  Attestation  Oath. — The  first 
Parliament  after  the  Restoration  revived  the  Oaths  of 
Supremacy  and  Allegiance,  which  were  taken  on  14 
July,  1660.  The  Catholics  in  England  being  at  first 
in  some  favour  at  Court,  managed,  as  a  rule,  to  escape 
taking  it.  In  Ireland  the  old  controversy  was  revived 
through  an  address  to  the  Crown,  called  "The  Irish 
Remonstrance",  which  emphasized  the  principles  of 
the  condemned  Oath  of  Allegiance.  It  had  been 
drawn  up  by  a  Capuchin  friar  (who  afterwards 
left  the  order),  called  Peter  Walsh  (Valesius),  who 
published  many  books  in  its  defence,  which  pub- 
lications were  eventually  placed  upon  the  Index. 
(Maziere  Brady,  "Catholic  Hierarchy",  Rome,  1888, 
p.  126.)  After  the  conversion  of  James,  then  Duke 
of  York,  the  jealousy  of  the  Protestant  party  in- 
creased, and  in  1672  a  Test  Act  was  carried  by 
Shaftesbury,  which  compelled  all  holders  of  office  un- 
der the  Crown  to  make  a  short  "Declaration  against 
Transubstantiation",  viz.,  to  swear  that  "there  is  not 
any  transubstantiation  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  ...  at  or  after  the  conaecration  thereof  by 


any  person  whatsoever"  (25  Chas.  II,  c.  2).  This 
test  was  effective:  James  resigned  his  post  of  Lord 
High  Admiral.  But  when  the  country  and  the  Parlia- 
ment had  gone  mad  over  Oates's  plot,  1678,  a  much 
longer  and  more  insulting  test  was  devised,  which 
added  a  further  clause  that  "The  invocation  of  the 
virgin  Mary,  or  any  Saint  and  the  Sacrifice  of  the 
Mass  .  .  .  are  superstitious  and  idolatrous  .  .  and 
that  I  make  this  declaration  without  any  evasion, 
equivocation,  or  mental  reservation  whatsoever,  and 
without  any  dispensation  already  granted  me  by  the 
pope,  &c.,  &c.  (30  Chas.  II,  ii.  1).  In  modern  times, 
the  formula  has  become  notorious  (as  we  shall  see) 
under  the  title  of  "the  Iving's  Declaration".  At  the 
time  it  was  appointed  for  office  holders  and  the  mem- 
bers of  both  Houses,  except  the  Duke  of  York.  On 
the  death  of  Charles,  James  II  succeeded,  and  he 
would  no  doubt  have  gladly  abolished  the  anti-Catho- 
lic oaths  altogether.  But  he  never  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  bringing  the  project  before  Parliament.  Of 
the  Oaths  of  Supremacy  and  Allegiance  we  hear  le.ss 
in  this  reign,  but  the  Test  was  the  subject  of  constant 
discussion,  for  its  form  and  scope  had  been  expressly 
intended  to  hamper  a  reform  such  as  James  was  insti- 
tuting. He  freed  himself,  however,  more  or  less  from 
it  by  the  Dispensing  Power,  especially  after  the  decla- 
ration of  the  judges,  June,  1686,  that  it  was  contrary  to 
the  principles  of  the  constitution  to  prevent  the  Crown 
from  using  the  services  of  any  of  its  subjects  when 
they  were  needed.  But  the  Revolution  of  1688 
quickly  brought  the  Test  back  into  greater  vogue  than 
ever.  The  first  Parliament  summoned  after  the  tri- 
umph of  William  of  Orange  added  a  clause  to  the  Bill 
of  Rights,  which  was  then  passed,  by  which  the  Sov- 
ereign was  himself  to  take  the  Declaration  (1  W.  &  M., 
sess.  2,  c.  2.).  While  the  Test  was  obligatory  on  hold- 
ers of  every  sort  of  office,  there  was  little  need  to  insist 
on  the  old  Oaths  of  Supremacy  and  Allegiance.  They 
were  therefore  cut  down  to  a  line  or  two,  and  joined 
with  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  King  William  (1  W.  &  M., 
sess.  1,  c.  8).  By  this  unworthy  device  no  Catholic 
could  ever  be  admitted  to  accept  the  new  regime, 
without  renouncing  his  faith.  This  law  marks  the 
consummation  of  Enghsh  anti-Catholic  legislation. 

V.  The  Irish  Oath  of  1774  to  E.mancipation, 
1829. — For  ninety  years  there  seemed  no  hope  of  ob- 
taining legislative  relief  from  the  pressure  of  the  penal 
laws,  and  the  first  relaxations  were  due  to  external 
pressure.  In  1770  General  Burgoyne  had  proposed  to 
free  Catholic  soldiers  from  the  obligations  of  the  Test, 
but  in  vain.  In  1771,  however,  it  was  necessary  to 
pacify  Canada,  and  the  Quebec  Act  was  passed,  the 
first  measure  of  toleration  for  Cathohcs  sanctioned  by 
Parliament  since  the  days  of  Queen  Mar>'  Tudor. 
Soon  after  began  the  war  of  American  Indipcndcnce, 
the  difficulties  of  which  gradually  awakened  English 
statesmen  to  the  need  of  reconciling  Catholics.  The 
Irish  Government  took  the  first  step  by  undoing  Wil- 
liam Ill's  wicked  work  of  joining  the  profession  of 
fidelity  to  the  sovereign  with  the  rejection  of  papal  au- 
thority. In  1774  an  oath  was  proposed  of  allegiance 
to  King  George  (§  1)  and  rejection  of  the  Pretender 
(§  2),  but  without  prejudice  to  the  pope's  spiritual  au- 
thority, or  to  any  dogma  of  the  Faith.  The  alleged 
malpractice  of  "no  faith  with  heretics"  was  renounced 
(5  3),  so  was  the  deposing  power  (§  4),  but  without  the 
objectionable  words,  "impious,  damnable  and  hereti- 
cal." The  "temporal  and  civil  jurisdiction  of  the 
pope,  direct  and  indirect  within  the  realm"  was  also 
abjured  (§  5),  and  the  promise  was  given  that  no  dis- 
pensation from  this  oath  should  be  considered  valid 
(§  6).  This  Irish  Oath,  of  1774,  was  accepted  by  the 
legislative  authorities  as  proof  of  loyalty,  and  it  was 
freely  taken,  though  several  clauses  were  infelici- 
tously  worded,  though  no  advantage  accrued  from  so 
doing.  In  1778  however,  the  first  ReHef  Bill,  also 
caUed  Sir  George  Savile's  Act,  to  relieve  the  English 


OAXACA 


180 


OAXACA 


Catholics  from  the  worst  consequences  of  the  penal" 
laws,  came  before  the  ICiiphsli  Parliament,  and  in  it 
was  emlio<iioil  the  Irisli  Outli  (18  (ieorge  111,  e.  00). 
This  Act  was  passed  with  Ultle  difhculty,  and  the  oath 
was  taken  without  remonstrance  by  the  clergy  of  all 
schools. 

The  relief  given  by  the  Bill  of  1778  was  so  imperfect 
that  further  legislation  was  soon  called  for,  and  now 
the  disadvantages  of  the  system  of  tests  were  acutely 
felt.  A  committee  of  lay  Cathohcs,  with  (iallicanjjro- 
clivities,  who afterwardscharacteristically called  tliem- 
selves  tlie  Cisalpine  Club  were  negotiating  with  the 
Government  (see  Butler,  Ch.ihles).  To  them  it  was 
represented  tiiat  if  more  concessions  were  required 
more  assurances  should  be  given.  They  were  accord- 
ingly presented  witti  a  long  "  Protest  ",  which  not  only 
rejel'tcd  the  alleged  malpracl  ices,  already  disowned  by 
the  Irisli  Oath,  but  declaimed  against  them  and  others 
of  the  same  kind  in  strong  l)Ut  untheological  language. 
It  reintroduced,  for  instance,  the  objectionable  terms 
"impious,  heretical  and  damnable"  of  James's  Oath 
of  Allegiance.  That  complications  might  have  ensued 
from  signing  such  a  document  was  not  difficult  to  fore- 
see. Nevertheless,  the  committee  insisted  (1)  that 
words  would  be  understood  in  a  broad  popular  way, 
and  (2)  that,  to  obtain  the  Relief  -Act,  it  must  be  signed 
instantly.  To  prevent  such  a  misfortune,  it  was  freely 
signed  by  laity  and  clergy,  and  by  the  four  vicars 
Apostolic,  but  two  of  these  recalled  their  names. 
When,  however,  the  signatures  had  been  obtained,  the 
new  Relief  Bill  was  brought  forward  by  Government, 
with  an  oath  annexed  founded  on  the  Protest  (hence 
called  the  "Protestation  Oath"),  which  excluded  from 
relief  those  who  would  not  swear  to  it,  and  accept  the 
name  of  "Protesting  Catholic  Dissenters".  A  crisis 
had  arisen  for  the  Catholic  Church  in  England;  but 
with  the  crisis  came  the  man.  It  was  John  Milncr  (q. 
v.),  then  only  a  country  priest,  to  whose  energy  and 
address  the  dissipation  of  this  danger  was  chiefly  due. 
The  Second  Relief  Act,  therefore,  passed  (1791)  with- 
out changing  the  previous  oath,  or  the  name  of  Catho- 
lics. Though  the  Emancipation  Bill  was  eventually 
carriedwithoutanyte.sts,  this  was  not  foreseen  at  first. 
The  Catholic  Committee  continued  its  endeavours  for 
disarming  Protestant  prejudices,  but  their  proposals 
(like  the  Veto)  too  often  savoured  of  Gallicanism.  So 
too  did  the  oath  annexed  to  the  bill  proposed  in  1813, 
which  from  its  length  was  styled  the  "Theological 
Oath".  Eventually,  owing  to  the  growing  influence 
exercised  by  Daniel  O'Connell  and  the  Irish,  Catholic 
Emancipation  was  fully,  if  tarchly,  granted  without 
any  tests  at  all  in  1829. 

VI.  Repeal  op  the  Statutory  Oaths  against 
CATHOLicirs-,  1867-1910.— The  Relief  Bills,  hitherto 
mentioned,  were  generally  measures  of  relief  only, 
leaving  the  old  statutes,  oaths,  and  tests  still  upon 
the  Statute  Book,  and  some  of  the  chief  officers  of 
State  had  still  to  take  them.  The  actual  repeal  of  the 
disused  tests  and  oaths  of  Wilham  III  have  only  taken 
place  in  quite  recent  times.  In  1867  the  Declaration 
was  repealed  (30,  31  Vict.,  c.  75).  After  this,  the  only 
person  bound  to  pronounce  the  oath  was  the  king 
himself  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign.  In  1871 
the  Promi.ssorv  Oaths  Bill  removed  all  the  old  Oaths 
of  Allegiance  (34,  3.5  Vict.,  c.  48).  In  1891  the  first 
attempt  was  made  by  Lord  Herries  in  the  House  of 
Lords  to  get  rid  of  the  king's  Declaration,  but  the 
amendments  ofTered  by  Government  were  so  insignifi- 
cant that  the  Catholics  themselves  voted  against  their 
being  proposed  at  all.  In  1901  strong  resolutions 
were  passed  against  its  retention  by  the  Canadian 
House  of  Commons,  as  also  by  its  hierarchy,  and 
these  were  emphasized  by  similar  petitions  from  the 
hierarchies  of  Australia,  and  the  Catholics  of  the 
English  colonies.  In  1904.  lOO.'i,  and  1908  bills  or 
motions  to  the  same  cITcct  were  introduced  by  Lord 
Braye,  Lord  Grey,  Lord  Llandaff,  the  Duke  of  Norfolk, 


and  Mr.  Redmond,  but  without  the  desired  effect. 
After  the  death  of  Iving  Edward  VII,  however.  King 
George  V  is  beheved  to  have  urged  the  Government  to 
bring  in  a  repealing  Act.  This  w;is  done  and  public 
opinion,  after  some  wavering,  finally  declared  itself 
strongly  on  the  side  of  the  Bill,  which  wsus  carried 
through  both  Houses  by  large  majorities,  and  received 
Royal  Assent  on  3  August,  1910,  thus  removing  the 
last  anti-Catholic  oath  or  declaration  from  the  English 
Constitution. 

General. — See  the  articles  Bellarmine;  Butler,  Charles; 
Challoner;  England  since  the  Reformation;  P'ibuer,  John; 
Milner;  Potnter.  For  the  full  texts  of  the  Acts  of  Parliament 
see  The  Statutes  at  Large  (London,  I7fi2 — );  Scobell,  Collection 
of  Ada,  ieJ,0-ie66  (London,  1657-58);  Statutes  at  Large  (.Ireland) 
(Dublin,  1765 — ).  For  the  debates  in  the  parliament,  see  Han- 
sard, Parliamentary  Debates;  Journals  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
Journals  of  the  //oujfe  of  Commons;  CoBBETT,  Parliamrrilari/  Hist, 
of  Englami  (London,  1806);  Butler,  Mem.  of  English  Catholics 
(London,  1819),  Catholic,  but  with  Gallican  proclivitie.s;  Flana- 
gan, Hist,  of  the  Church  in  England  (London,  1857) ;  Gillow, 
Bibl.  Diet.;  Diet.  Nat.  Biog. 

Particular  Oaths. — L — Bridgett,  Life  of  B.  John  Fisher  (Lon- 
don, 1888) :  Gairdner,  Lollardy  and  the  Reformation  in  England 
(London,  1908);  Camm,  Lives  of  English  Martyrs  (London,  1904). 
II. — TiERNEY,  Dodd's  Church  History  of  England,  IV  (London, 
1851) ;  Reusch,  Index  der  verbotenen  BUcher  (Bonn,  1883) ;  Som- 
MERVOGEL,  Bibl.  dc  la  C.  de  Jisus  (Paris,  1890) ;  de  la  SEnvifeRB, 
De  Jacobo  I.  cum  Card.  R.  Bellarmino  disputante  (Paris,  1900). 
III. — Birchley  ivere  Austin),  The  Catholique's  Plea  (London, 
1659);  Idem,  Reflections  on  the  Oaths  of , Supremacy  and  Allegiance 
(London,  1661);  Pugh,  Blacklo's  Cabal  (a.  1.,  1680).  IV. — 
Thurston,  Titus  Oates's  Test  (London,  1909) ;  Idem  in  The  Tablet 
(London,  13  August,  1910),  292.  V. — Milner,  Supplementary 
Memoirs  of  English  Catholics  (London,  1S20) ;  Burton,  Life 
and  Times  of  Bishop  Challoner  (London,  1909);  Ward,  Dawn  of  the 
Catholic  Reriral  (London,  1909);  LiNOARD,  The  Catholic  Oath  in 
The  Catholic  Miscellany  (1S32,  1833).  Ill,  368;  IV,  100.  VI.— 
Lord  Llandaff  (Matthews),  The  Papal  Declaration  in  Report 
of  the  Ninth  Eucharistic  Congress  held  at  Westminster,  1908,  50; 
Bridgett,  The  Religious  Test  Acts  in  The  Month  (London,  May, 
1895),  58;  Idem,  The  English  Coronation  Oath  in  The  Month  (Lon- 
don, March,  1896),  305;  Gerard,  The  Royal  Declaration  in  The 
Month  (London,  May,  1901),  449. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Oazaca  (or  Antequbra),  Archdiocese  of, 
situated  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Republic  of 
Mexico,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Bishopric  of 
Huajuapam  and  the  Archbishopric  of  Puebla,  on  the 
east  by  the  Bishopric  of  Vera  Cruz,  on  the  west  by 
that  of  Tehuantepec,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  When  the  conquest  of  New  Spain  was  ac- 
complished, Herndn  Cort(5s  sought  the  aid  of  the 
powerful  TIaxcaltecas,  who  had  establislied  a  repub- 
lic and  were  at  war  with  the  Aztec  Emperor  Mocte- 
zuma.  Out  of  gratitude  to  the  TIaxcaltecas,  the 
first  bishopric  that  was  founded  on  the  American 
continent  was  called  Tlaxcala,  that  of  Mexico  was 
second,  and  later  that  of  Guatemala.  Oaxaca,  the 
fourth  in  the  order  of  succession,  was  established, 
imder  the  name  of  Antequera,  by  Paul  III,  21  July, 
1535.  the  first  bishop,  the  Right  Rev.  Juan  L6pez 
de  Zdrate,  ha\ing  been  preconized  that  same  year. 
From  then  to  the  present  day  only  thirty  bishops 
have  governed  the  diocese,  the  last  being  the  Most 
Rev.  Eulogio  G.  Gillow,  preconized  23  May,  1887. 
On  23  June,  1891,  Antequera  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  an  archbishopric  by  Leo  XIII,  and  has,  at  the 
present  time  as  suffragan  dioceses,  Chiapas,  Yucatan, 
Tabasco,  Tehuantepec,  and  Campeche. 

Prior  to  the  Conquest  the  religion  of  the  entire 
extensive  region  now  compri.sed  in  the  Archbishopric 
of  Antequera,  or  Oaxaca,  was  idolatry  in  various 
forms,  according  to  the  different  races  that  popu- 
lated this  district,  the  Mixteca,  Zapoteca,  Mixe,  an- 
thinanteca  predominating,  although  twenty-two  en- 
tirely different  dialects  are  known  among  them. 
The  famous  ruins  of  Mitla  indicate  that  the  most 
venerable  priest  of  the  entire  American  continent 
resided  there,  one  who  was  greatly  venerated  not 
only  by  the  different  villages  of  the  ancient  Anahuac, 
but  by  others;  as  those  of  Peru.  We  know  from 
history  that  when  the  conquerors  landed  in  Vera 
Cruz,  Moctezuma  consulted  the  High-Priest  .\chiutla, 
who  announced  to  him  that  the  oracle  had  predicted 


OBADIAH 


181 


OBEDIENCE 


the  end  of  his  empire.  Abjectly  crushed,  the  Em- 
peror yielded  to  the  Spaniards.  The  kings  of 
Zaachila  and  Tehuantepec  received  baptism  and 
submitted  to  tlie  mild  yoke  of  the  Church.  After 
the  conquest  of  Moctezvmia's  empire  tlie  Spaniards 
who  penetrated  to  Tenoclititlan  were  amazed  to  see 
the  wealth  that  Moctezuma  had  accumulated,  and  in 
all  probability  knew  that  a  great  part  of  the  gold 
came  from  Oaxaca.  This  would  explain  why  from 
the  first  they  turned  their  footsteps  towards  Oaxaca, 
where  the  first  Mass  was  celebrated  on  25  Nov., 
1521,  feast  of  St.  Catherine,  martyr.  Beginning  then 
development  was  very  rapid,  as  much  perhaps  from 
the  fact  that  Cortes  was  created  Marquis  of  Valle  de 
Oaxaca,  in  recognition  of  his  distinguished  services, 
as  because  of  the  rich  mineral  resources  of  the  coun- 
try, whose  importance  was  such  that  it  ranked  ne.xt 
to  the  City  of  Mexico  itself.  Missionaries  of  the 
different  religious  orders  were  introduced:  Francis- 
cans, Dominicans,  Augustinians,  Jesuits,  Friars  of 
the  Oriler  of  Mercy,  Carmelites,  Brothers  of  St.  John. 
Betlilelicmites,  and  Oratorians.  All  these  congrega- 
tions built  handsome  churches  in  the  capital  of 
Oaxaca,  which  are  still  in  existence,  with  their  con- 
vents and  subordinate  houses  annexed.  The  Do- 
minicans laboured  most  zealously  for  the  conversion 
of  the  natives  by  means  of  missions  and  parochial 
work.  Four  Bishops  of  Oaxaca  have  been  drawn 
from  that  order,  wliile  four  other  orders  have  each 
contributed  one. 

The  arclibishopric  at  the  present  time  comprises 
besides  the  metropolitan  chapter,  which  is  composed 
of  the  dean,  archdeacon,  an  i  chanter,  a  theological 
censor,  a  canon  penitentiary,  and  six  other  canons. 
There  is  a  master  of  ceremonies,  a  priest  sacristan  of 
the  main  cathedral,  and  four  choir  chaplains.  The 
ecclesiastical  government  consists  of  a  vicar-general, 
a  secretary  of  the  Executive  Council,  and  two  assist- 
ants. The  duties  of  the  Provisorato  are  discharged 
by  the  provisor,  fiscal  promoter,  defender  of  the 
Holy  Office,  and  diocesan  attorney.  There  is  also 
a  Commission  of  Rites,  composed  of  four  ecclesiastics, 
one  of  Christian  Doctrine  under  the  charge  of  six 
ecclesiastics,  and  a  School  Board  made  up  of  three 
clergymen  and  two  laymen. 

There  are  3  parishes  in  the  city  each  with  its 
respective  church,  and  19  other  churches,  that  of 
St.  Dominic  being  notable  for  the  beauty  of  its 
architecture  and  the  richness  of  its  ornamentation. 
The  cathedral,  which  has  a  nave  and  four  aisles,  is 
remarkable  for  the  exquisite  style  and  ornateness  of 
its  decorations,  the  beauty  of  its  altars,  sacred  ves.sels, 
and  vestments,  the  present  bishop  having  devoted 
great  thought  and  expenditure  to  improvements  of 
this  kind,  which  increase  the  dignity  of  the  service. 
There  exist  in  the  archdiocese  25  foranias  (deaneries) 
which  comprise  132  parishes  and  223  priests. 

Only  within  recent  years  have  there  been  any 
Protestants  in  Oaxaca;  these  hold  their  services  in 
private  houses.  It  is  not  easy  to  give  exactly  the 
number  of  CathoUcs  belonging  to  the  archbishopric, 
because  they  are  chiefly  natives  who  live  in  the  rural 
districts  and  surrounding  mountains,  but  the  popu- 
lation is  estimated  in  1910  at  1,041,035.  The  State 
does  not  sanction  the  existence  of  religious  communi- 
ties of  men  or  women.  Since  they  must  carry  on  their 
various  works  without  attracting  public  notice,  it  is 
difficult  to  give  statistics  either  of  their  number,  or 
of  the  institutions  under  their  care.  So,  too,  while  the 
parochial  schools  are  steadily  increasing'  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  give  their  exact  number.  In  the  city 
of  "Oaxaca  (in  1910  pop.  37,469)  there  is  a  seminary 
di\-ided  into  three  sections:  ordained  students 
{clericales),  seminarians  {seminaristas) ,  and  prepara- 
tory students  (apostolicos) ,  of  whom  102  are  interns, 
under  the  charge  of  6  Paulist  Fathers,  6  assistant 
professors,  and  3  coadjutor  brothers.     The  College 


of  the  Holy  Ghost,  established  to  train  the  sons  of 
the  best  families  for  various  careers,  has  70  boarders 
and  250  day  scholars  under  the  direction  of  8  eccle- 
siastics and  several  professors.  There  are  3  select 
academies  for  young  women,  with  an  attendance  of 
600;  6  free  schools  for  boys,  with  1600  pupils,  and 
4  for  girls,  with  700.  Among  the  charitable  institu- 
tions under  Catholic  control  are  a  day  nursery  ac- 
commodating SO  children  under  the  care  of  5  nurses, 
a  charity  hospital  with  24  beds,  12  for  men  and  12 
for  women,  and  a  home  for  the  poor  with  about 
90  inmates. 

GiLLow,  ApunieB  HisUricoa  (Mexico,  1S89);  Battandieb, 
Ann.  Ponlif.  (Paris,  1906). 

EULOGIO  G.  GiLLOW. 

Obadiah.     See  Abdias. 

Obazine,  Monastery  of.  Diocese  of  Tulle,  founded 
by  St.  Stephen  of  Obazine  about  1 134.  After  his  ordi- 
nation St.  Stephen,  with  another  priest,  Pierre,  began 
the  eremitical  life.  They  attracted  a  number  of  fol- 
lowers and  with  the  sanction  of  Eustorge,  Bishop  of 
Tulle,  built  a  monastery  on  a  site  granted  them  by  the 
Viscount  Archambault. 

Before  1142  they  had  no  estabUshed  rule;  however, 
in  this  year,  St.  Stephen  was  clothed  with  the  regular 
habit.  He  had  Cistercian  monks  train  his  followers  in 
their  mode  of  life,  and  affiliated  his  abbey  to  Citeaux 
(1147).  The  number  increasing,  several  foundations 
were  made.  Among  the  most  illustrious  abbots  of 
Obazine  were  Fran9ois  d'Escobleau  (d.  1628),  Arch- 
bishop of  Bordeaux,  and  Charles  de  la  Roche-Aymon 
(d.  1777),  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Rennes.  The 
monastery  was  confiscated  by  the  Government  during 
the  Revolution  (1791).  The  abbatial  church,  partly 
restored,  now  serves  as  a  parish  church. 

Le  Nain,  Hist,  de  Citenuz  (Paris.  1696-7) ;  GmsEHT,  Notice  tur 
le  Cartulaire  d'Obazine  iTuUe,  1890):  Vie  de  S.  Etienne  d' Obazine 
(Tulle,  1881):  Gallia  chrisl.,  II;  Manrique,  Annates  cisterc. 
(Lyons,  1642);  Janauschek.  Origines  cislerc.  (Vienna,  1877); 
HenriQuez,  Mcnologium  cislerc.  (.\ntwerp,  1630), 

Edmond  Obrecht. 

Obba,  titular  see  in  Byzacena,  northern  Africa,  of 
unknown  history,  although  mentioned  by  Polybius 
(XIV,  vi,  under  the  name  of  Abba),  and  Titus  Livius 
(XXX,  vii).  Situated  on  the  highway  from  Carthage 
to  Theveste  (Tebessa),  seven  miles  from  Lares  (Lor- 
beus)  and  sixteen  from  Althiburus  (Henshir  Medina), 
it  is  the  modern  Ebba.  Three  bishops  are  known, 
Paul,  present  at  the  Council  of  Carthage  in  225,  prob- 
ably the  Paul  mentioned  in  the  Martyrology  for  19 
January;  FeUcissimus,  a  Donatist,  present  at  the  con- 
ference at  Carthage  in  411;  and  Valerianus,  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  553. 

TouLOTTE,  Geog.  de  V .Afrique  chritienne:  Proconsulaire  (Rennea 
and  Paris,  1892),  225. 

S.  PJCTRinfes. 

Obedience  (Lat.  obcedire,  "to  hearken  to",  hence 
"to  obey")  is  the  compl>'ing  with  a  command  or  pre- 
cept. It  is  here  regarded  not  as  a  transitory  and  iso- 
lated act  but  rather  as  a  virtue  or  principle  of  righteous 
conduct.  It  is  then  said  to  be  the  moral  habit  by 
which  one  carries  out  the  order  of  his  superior  with 
the  precise  intent  of  fulfilling  the  injunction.  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  considers  the  obligation  of  obedience 
as  an  obvious  consequence  of  the  subordination  estab- 
Ushed in  the  world  by  the  natural  and  positive  law. 
The  idea  that  subjection  of  any  sort  of  one  man  to  an- 
other is  incompatible  with  human  freedom — a  notion 
that  had  vogue  in  the  religious  and  political  teachings 
of  the  post-Reformation  period — he  refutes  by  show- 
ing that  it  is  at  variance  with  the  constituted  nature 
of  things,  and  the  positive  prescriptions  of  Almighty 
God.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  whilst  it  is  possible 
to  discern  a  general  aspect  of  obedience  in  some  acts  of 
all  the  virtues,  in  so  far  as  obedience  stands  for  the  ex- 
ecution of  anything  that  is  of  precept,  it  is  con- 
templated in  this  article  aa  a  definitely  special  virtue. 


OBEDIENCE 


18ii 


OBEDIENCE 


The  element  that  difTerentiates  it  adequately  from 
other  good  habits  is  found  in  the  last  part  of  the  defini- 
tion already  given.  Stress  is  put  upon  the  fact  that 
one  not  only  does  what  is  actually  enjoined  but  docs 
it  with  a  mind  to  formally  fall  in  with  the  will  of  the 
commander.  It  is  in  other  words  the  homage  rendered 
to  authority  which  ranks  it  as  a  distinct  virtue. 
Among  the  virtues  obedience  holds  an  exalted  place 
but  not  the  highest.  That  distinction  belongs  to  the 
\artues  of  faitli.  hope,  anil  charity  (q.  v.)  which  unite 
us  immediately  with  Almighty  God.  Amongst  the 
moral  virtues  obedience  enjoys  a  primacy  of  honour. 
The  reason  is  that  the  greater  or  lesser  excellence  of  a 
moral  virtue  is  determined  by  the  greater  or  lesser 
value  of  the  object  which  it  qualifies  one  to  put  aside 
in  order  to  give  oneself  to  God.  Now  amongst  our 
various  possessions,  whether  goods  of  the  body,  or 
goods  of  the  soul,  it  is  clear  that  the  human  will  is  the 
most  intimiitely  personal  and  most  cherished  of  all. 
So  it  happens  I  hat  obedience,  which  makes  a  man  yield 
up  the  most  dearly  prized  stronghold  of  the  individual 
soul  in  order  to  do  the  good  pleasure  of  his  Creator, 
is  accounted  the  gre;itcst  of  the  moral  virtues.  As  to 
whom  we  are  to  obey,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  first 
we  are  bound  to  offer  an  unreserved  service  to  Al- 
mighty God  in  all  His  commands.  No  real  difficulty 
against  this  truth  can  be  gathered  from  putting  in 
juxtaposition  the  unchangeableness  of  the  natural  law 
and  an  order,  such  as  that  given  to  Abraham  to  slay 
his  son  Isaac.  The  conclusive  answer  is  that  the  ab- 
solute sovereignty  of  God  over  life  and  death  made  it 
right  in  that  particular  instance  to  undertake  the  kill- 
ing of  an  innocent  human  being  at  His  direction. 
On  the  other  hand  the  obligation  of  obedience  to  su- 
periors under  God  admits  of  limitations.  We  are  not 
bound  to  obey  a  superior  in  a  matter  which  does  not 
fall  within  the  limits  of  his  preceptive  power.  Thus  for 
Instance  parents,  although  entitled  beyond  question 
to  the  submission  of  their  children  until  they  become 
of  age,  have  no  right  to  command  them  to  marry. 
Neither  can  a  superior  claim  our  obedience  in  contra- 
vention of  the  dispositions  of  a  higher  authority. 
Hence,  notably,  we  cannot  heed  the  behests  of  any  hu- 
man power  no  matter  how  venerable  or  undisputed  as 
against  the  ordinances  of  God.  All  authority  to  which 
we  bow  has  its  source  in  Him  and  cannot  validly  be 
used  against  Him.  It  is  this  recognition  of  the  au- 
thority of  God  vicariously  exorcised  through  a  human 
agent  that  confers  upon  the  act  of  obedience  its  special 
merit.  No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  set  down  for  de- 
termining the  degree  of  guilt  of  the  sin  of  disobedience. 
Regarded  formally  as  a  deliberate  scorning  of  the  au- 
thoritj'  itself,  it  would  involve  a  divorce  between  the 
soul  and  the  supernatural  principle  of  charity  which  is 
tantamount  to  a  grevious  sin.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
many  other  things  have  to  be  taken  account  of,  as  the 
greater  or  less  advertence  in  the  act,  the  relatively  im- 
portant or  trifling  character  of  the  thing  imposed, 
the  manner  of  enjoining,  the  right  of  the  person  who 
commands.  For  such  reasons  the  sin  will  frequently 
be  esteemed  venial. 

RlcKABY,  Aquina.1  Elhicui  (London,  1896);  St.  Thomas 
Aqcinas,  Summa  Theologica  (Turin,  1885);  Tapparelli,  Dritto 
Jfaturale  (Rome,  1900) ;  Spiraoo,  The  Catechism  Explained  (New 
York,  1899). 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 

Obedience,  Religious,  is  that  general  submission 
which  religious  vow  to  God,  and  voluntarily  promise  to 
their  superiors,  in  order  to  be  directed  by  them  in  the 
ways  of  perfection  according  to  the  purpose  and  consti- 
tutions of  their  order.  It  consists,  according  to  Lessius 
(DeJustitia,  II,  xlvi,  37),  in  a  man's  allowing  himself  to 
be  governed  throughout  his  life  by  another  for  the  sake 
of  God.  It  is  compo.sed  of  three  elements:  (a)  the  sacri- 
fice offered  to  God  of  his  own  independence  in  the 
generality  of  his  actions,  at  least  of  such  as  are  ex- 
terior; (b)  the  motive,  namely,  personal  perfection, 


Jind,  as  a  rule,  also  the  performance  of  spiritual  or  cor- 
poral works  of  mercy  and  charity;  (c)  the  express  or 
implied  contract  with  an  order  (formerly  al.so  with  a 
person),  whichaceeptstheobligationto  lead  him  to  the 
end  for  which  he  accepts  its  laws  and  direction.  Re- 
ligious obedience,  therefore,  does  not  involve  that  ex- 
tinction of  all  individuahty,  so  often  alleged  against 
convents  and  the  Church;  nor  is  it  unlimited,  for 
it  is  not  possible  either  physically  or  morally  that  a 
man  should  give  himself  up  absolutely  to  the  gui<lance 
of  another.  The  choice  of  a  superior,  the  object  of 
obedience,  the  authority  of  the  hierarchical  Church, 
all  exclude  the  idea  of  arbitrary  rule. 

I. — The  Canonical  Rule  of  Obedience. — A. — The  Su- 
periors.— By  Divine  law,  religious  persons  arc  subject 
to  the  hierarchy  of  the  Church;  first  to  the  pope,  then 
to  the  bishops,  unless  exempted  by  the  pope  from 
episcopal  jurisdiction.  This  hierarchy  was  instituted 
by  Christ  in  order  to  direct  the  faithful  not  only  in  the 
way  of  salvation,  but  also  in  Christian  perfection.  The 
vow  of  obedience  in  the  institutes  approveil  by  the 
Holy  See  is  held  more  and  more  to  be  made  equally  to 
the  pope,  who  communicates  his  authority  to  the 
Roman  congregations  entrusted  with  the  direction  of 
religious  orders.  The  superiors  of  the  dilTcnnt  or- 
ders, when  they  are  clerics  and  exempt  from  cpiscoijal 
jurisdiction,  similarly  receive  a  jiart  of  this  authority; 
and  every  one  who  is  placed  at  the  head  of  a  commu- 
nity is  invested  with  the  dumestii^  authority  necessary 
for  its  good  government;  the  vow  by  which  the  re- 
ligious offers  to  God  the  obedience  which  he  promises 
to  his  superiors  confirms  and  defines  this  authority. 
But  the  right  to  demand  obedience  in  virtue  of  the 
vow  does  not  necessarily  belong  to  all  superiors;  it 
is  ordinarily  reserved  to  the  head  of  the  community; 
and  in  order  to  enforce  the  obligation,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  superior  should  make  known  his  intention  to 
bind  the  conscience;  in  certain  orders  such  expressions 
as  "I  will",  "I  command",  have  not  such  binding 
force.  The  instructions  of  the  Holy  See  require  that 
the  power  of  binding  tlie  conscience  by  command  .shall 
be  employed  with  the  utmost  prudence  and  discretion. 

B. — The  liniits  of  the  obligation. — The  commands  of 
superiors  do  not  extend  to  what  concerns  the  inward 
motion  of  the  will.  Such  at  least  is  the  teaching  of 
St.  Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  cvi,  a.  5,  and  Q.  clxxxvi,  a.  2). 
Obedience  is  not  vowed  absolutely,  and  without  limit, 
but  according  to  the  rule  of  each  order,  for  a  superior 
cannot  command  anything  foreign  to,  or  outside,  his 
rule  (except  in  so  far  as  he  may  grant  dispensations 
from  the  rule).  No  appeal  lies  from  his  order,  that 
is  to  say,  the  obligation  of  obedience  is  not  suspended 
by  any  appeal  to  higher  authority;  but  the  inferior  has 
always  the  right  of  extra-judicial  recourse  to  a  higher 
authority  in  the  order  or  to  the  Holy  See. 

II. — The  Moral  Significance. — The  religious  is 
bound  morally  to  obey  on  all  occasions  when  he  is 
bound  canonically,  and  whenever  his  disobedience 
would  offend  against  the  law  of  charity,  as  for  instance 
by  bringing  discord  into  the  community.  By  reason 
of  the  vow  of  obedience  and  of  the  religious  profession 
a  deliberate  act  of  obedience  and  submission  adds  the 
merit  of  an  act  of  the  virtue  of  religion  to  the  other 
merits  of  the  act.  This  extends  even  to  the  obedience 
of  counsel  which  goes  beyond  matters  of  regular  ob- 
servance, and  is  also  limited  by  the  prescriptions  of 
higher  laws,  whether  human  or  Divine. 

III. — The  Evangelical  Foundation. — The  evangelical 
foundation  of  religious  obedience  is  first  of  all  found 
in  the  perfect  accord  of  that  obedience  with  the  spirit 
of  the  Gospel.  Freedom  from  ambition  which  leads 
a  man  to  choose  a  position  of  inferiority,  implies  a 
spirit  of  humility  which  esteems  others  as  superior, 
and  willingly  yields  them  the  first  place;  the  sacrifice 
of  his  own  independence  and  his  own  will  presupposes 
in  a  high  degree  that  spirit  of  self-denial  and  mortifica- 
tion which  keeps  the  passions  under  proper  restraint; 


OBEDIENTIARIES 


183 


OBEDIENTIARIES 


the  readiness  to  accept  a  common  rule  and  direction 
manifests  a  spirit  of  union  and  concord  which  gen- 
erously adapts  itself  to  the  desires  and  tastes  of  others; 
eagerness  to  do  the  will  of  God  in  all  things  is  a  mark 
of  the  charity  towards  God  which  led  Christ  to  say  "  I 
do  always  the  things  which  please  my  Father"  (John, 
vii,  29).  And  since  the  Church  has  invested  superiors 
with  her  authority,  religious  obedience  is  supported 
by  all  those  texts  which  recommend  submission  to 
lawful  powers,  and  especially  by  the  following:  "He 
that  heareth  you,  heareth  me"  (Luke,  x,  16). 

Philosophically  religious  obedience  is  justified  (a) 
by  the  experience  of  the  mistakes  and  illusions  to 
which  a  man  relying  on  his  own  unaided  opinions  is 
liable.  The  religious  proposes  to  rule  his  whole  life 
by  devotion  to  God  and  his  neighbour;  how  shall  he 
best  realize  this  ideal?  By  regulating  all  his  actions 
by  his  own  judgment,  or  by  choosing  a  prudent  and 
enlightened  guide  who  will  give  his  advice  without  any 
consideration  of  himself?  Is  it  not  clear  that  the  latter 
alternative  shows  a  resolution  more  sincere,  more  gen- 
erous, and  at  the  same  time  more  likely  to  lead  to  a 
successful  issue?  This  obedience  is  justified  also  (b) 
by  the  help  of  example  and  counsel  afforded  by  com- 
munity life  and  the  acceptance  of  a  rule  of  conduct,  the 
holiness  of  which  is  vouched  for  by  the  Church;  (c) 
lastly,  since  the  object  of  religious  orders  is  not  only 
the  perfection  of  their  members,  but  also  the  perform- 
ance of  spiritual  and  corporal  works  of  mercy,  they 
need  a  union  of  efforts  which  can  only  be  assured  by 
religious  obedience,  just  as  military  obedience  is  indis- 
pensable for  success  in  the  operations  of  war. 

Religious  obedience  never  reduces  a  man  to  a  state 
of  passive  inertness,  it  docs  not  prevent  the  use  of  any 
faculty  he  may  possess,  but  sanctifies  the  use  of  all. 
It  does  not  forbid  any  initiative,  but  subjects  it  to 
a  prudent  control  in  order  to  preserve  it  from  indiscre- 
tion and  keep  it  in  the  line  of  true  charity.  A  member 
of  a  religious  order  has  often  been  compared  to  a  dead 
body,  but  in  truth  nothing  is  killed  by  the  religious  vow 
but  vanity  and  self-love  and  all  their  fatal  opposition 
to  the  Divine  will.  If  superiors  and  subjects  havesome- 
times  failed  to  understand  the  practice  of  religious 
obedience,  if  direction  has  sometimes  been  indiscreet, 
these  are  accidental  imperfections  from  which  no 
human  institution  is  free.  The  unbounded  zeal  of 
men  like  St.  Francis  Xavier  and  other  saints  who  loved 
their  rule,  the  prominent  part  which  religious  have 
taken  in  the  mission  field,  and  their  successes  therein, 
the  savage  war  which  the  enemies  of  the  Faith  have 
at  all  times  waged  against  the  religious  orders;  all 
these  things  furnish  the  most  eloquent  testimony  to 
the  happy  influence  of  religious  obedience  in  develop- 
ing the  activity  which  it  sanctifies.  The  expression 
"blind  obedience"  signifies  not  an  unreasoning  or  un- 
reasonable submission  to  authority,  but  a  keen  appre- 
ciation of  the  rights  of  authority,  the  reasonableness 
of  submission,  and  blindness  only  to  such  selfish  or 
worldly  considerations  as  would  lessen  regard  for 
authority. 

,\t  present,  religious  have  taken  a  far  greater  part 
than  formerly  in  civil  and  public  life,  personally  ful- 
filling all  the  conditions  required  of  citizens,  in  order  to 
exercise  their  right  of  voting  and  other  functions  com- 
patible with  their  profession.  Obedience  does  not  in- 
terfere with  the  proper  exercise  of  such  rights.  No 
political  system  rejects  the  votes  of  persons  in  de- 
pendent positions,  but  all  freely  permit  the  use  of 
any  legitimate  influence  which  corrects  to  some  extent 
the  vicious  tendency  of  equalitarianism:  the  influence 
of  religious  superiors  is  limited  to  safeguarding  the 
higher  interests  of  religion.  As  to  the  functions  to  be 
fulfilled,  the  superior,  by  the  very  fact  of  permitting 
his  subjects  to  undertake  them,  grants  all  the  liberty 
that  is  required  for  their  honourable  fulfilment. 

Historically. — Though  St.  Paul  and  the  other  early 
hermits  were  not  in  a  position  to  practise  religious  obe- 


dience, it  was  already  manifested  in  the  docility  with 
which  their  imitators  placed  themselves  under  the 
guidance  of  some  older  man.  St.  Cyprian,  in  his 
letter  "Dehabitu  virginum",  shows  us  that  at  Rome 
the  virgins  followed  the  direction  of  the  older  women. 
Obedience  was  then  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of  education, 
from  which  those  were  dispensed  who  were  considered 
perfect  and  ripe  for  a  solitary  life.  This  idea  is  found 
also  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict. 
St.  Pachomius  (a.  d.  292-346)  understanding  the  im- 
portance of  obedience  in  community  Ufe  made  it  the 
foundation  of  the  religious  life  of  the  cenobites, 
preaching  by  his  own  example,  and  inculcating  upon 
all  superiors  the  necessity  of  a  scrupulous  observance 
of  the  rules  of  which  they  were  the  guardians.  The 
monks  (cf.  Cassian,  "Institutions")  thus  saw  in  per- 
fect obedience  an  excellent  application  of  their  uni- 
versal spirit  of  self-renunciation.  Later,  St.  Bernard 
insisted  on  the  complete  suppression  of  self-will,  i.  e., 
of  that  will  which  sets  itself  in  opposition  to  the  de- 
signs of  God  and  to  all  that  is  commanded  or  desired 
for  the  good  of  the  community.  The  obedience  of  the 
Eastern  monks  was  imperfect  and  defective  by  reason 
of  the  facility  with  which  they  changed  from  one  su- 
perior or  monastery  to  another.  St.  Benedict,  in  con- 
sequence, advancing  a  step  farther,  introduced  a  new 
rule  binding  his  monks  by  a  vow  of  stability.  A  cer- 
tain choice  of  rules  still  existed,  which  seemed  likely 
to  be  hurtful  to  the  common  life,  for  some  monasteries 
had  various,  sets  of  rules,  each  set  having  its  own  ob- 
servants. The  reforms  in  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict 
brought  into  existence  monastic  congregations  known 
by  the  identity  of  their  observances,  and  these  were 
the  forerunners  of  the  mendicant  orders  with  their 
rules  which  have  become  canonical  laws.  St.  Thomas 
thus  had  before  him  all  the  material  necessary  to  en- 
able him  to  treat  fully  of  the  subject  of  religious  obe- 
dience in  his  "SummaTheologica",  in  which  he  makes 
it  clear  that  the  vow  of  obedience  is  the  chief  of  the 
vows  of  religion. 

St.  Thomas.  Summa  Theologica,U-U.  QQ.  104  et  186;  Idem, 
Opusc.  de  perfect,  vitw  spirit.,  c.  x,  xii;  Idem,  Summa  contra  Gen- 
tiles; see  also  the  Commentaries  of  C.\jetan  and  Billuart  in  the 
portion  of  the  Summa  Theol.  cited  above:  Bellarmine,  Controv, 
de  monachis,  1,  2,  c.  xxi;  Suarez,  De  rcligione,  tr.  7,  X,  and  tr. 
10,  IV,  c.  xiu-xv;  De  Vale.ntia,  In  II-II,  disp.  10.  q.  4,  De  statu 
relig.,  punetum  I  and  2;  Elliot.  Life  of  Father  Hecker  (New  Yorlc, 
1896;  French  tr.  by  Klein);  Maignen,  Le  P.  Hecker  est-il  un 
saint/  (Paris.  1898) ;  Ladeoze.  Etude  sur  le  cenobitisme  Pakhomien 
pendant  le  IV^  siicle  et  la  premiere  moiti^  du  cinquikme  (Louvain, 
1898);  ScHIEWlETZ,  Das  morgenland.  Monchtum  (Mainz.  1894); 
Harnack.  Das  Mdnchtum,  seine  Ideale  und  seine  Gesch. 

A.  Vermeersch. 

Obedientiaries,  a  name  commonly  used  in  medie- 
val times  for  the  lesser  officials  of  a  monastery  who 
were  appointed  by  will  of  the  superior.  In  some  cases 
the  word  is  used  to  include  all  those  who  held  office  be- 
neath the  abbot,  but  more  frequently  the  prior  and 
sub-prior  are  excluded  from  those  signified  by  it.  To 
the  obedientiaries  were  assigned  the  various  duties 
pertaining  to  their  different  offices  and  they  possessed 
considerable  power  in  their  own  departments.  There 
was  always  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  abbot  or  superior, 
but  in  practice  most  details  were  settled  by  the  "cus- 
tomary" of  the  monastery.  The  list  that  follows 
gives  the  usual  titles  of  the  obedientiaries,  but  in  some 
monasteries  other  names  were  used  and  other  oflicial 
positions  may  be  found :  thus,  forexaniple,  to  this  day, 
in  the  great  Swiss  monastery  of  Einsiefleln  the  name 
"dean"  is  given  to  the  official  who  is  called  prior  in  all 
other  Benedictine  houses. 

(1)  The  "cantor",  or  "precentor",  usually  as- 
sisted by  the  "sub-cantor  ,  or  "succentor"  (see 
Cantor).  (2)  The  sacrist,  or  sacristan,  who  had 
charge  of  the  monastic  church  and  of  all  things  neces- 
sary for  the  services.  He  had,  as  a  rule,  several  assist- 
ants; (a)  the  subsaorist,  also  known  as  the  secretary, 
the  "matricularius",  or-the  master  of  work;  (b)  the 
treasurer;  (c)  the  "revestiarius".     (3)  The  cellarer. 


OBERAMMERGAU 


184 


OBLATES 


or  bursar,  who  acted  as  chief  purveyor  of  all  food- 
stufTs  to  the  monastery  and  as  general  steward.  In 
recent  times  the  name  procurator  is  often  found  used 
for  this  otlicial.  He  had  as  assistants:  (a)  the  sub- 
cellarer;  (h)  the  "graniitorius".  Chapter  xxxi  of  St. 
Benedict's  Rule  tells  "  Whsit  kind  of  man  the  Cellarer 
ought  to  bo";  in  practice  this  position  is  the  most  re- 
sponsible one  after  that  of  abbot  or  superior.  (4) 
The  rcfectorian,  who  had  charge  of  the  frater,  or  re- 
fectory and  its  furniture,  including  such  things  as 
crockery,  cloths,  dishes,  spoons,  forks,  etc.  (."3)  The 
kitchener,  who  presided  o\cr  the  cookery  department, 
not  only  for  the  coimiuiiiily  but  for  all  guests,  de- 
pendants, etc.  (0)  The  novice  master  (see  Novice), 
whose  assistant  was  sometimes  called  the  "zelator". 
(7)  The  infirmarian,  besides  looking  after  the  .sick 
brethren,  was  also  responsible  for  the  quarterly  "blood 
letting"  of  the  monks,  a  custom  almost  universal  in 
medieval  monasteries.  (8)  The  guest-master,  whose 
duties  are  dealt  with  in  chapter  liii  of  St.  Benedict's 
Rule.  (9)  The  almoner.  (10)  The  chamberlain,  or 
"vestiarius". 

Besides  these  officials  who  were  appointed  more  or 
Jess  permanently,  there  were  certain  others  appointed 
for  a  week  at  a  time  to  carrj'  out  various  duties. 
These  posit  ions  were  usually  filled  in  turn  by  all  below 
the  rank  of  sub-prior,  though  very  busy  officials,  e.  g., 
the  cellarer,  might  be  excused.  The  chief  of  these 
was  the  hebdomadarian,  or  priest  for  the  week.  It 
was  his  duty  to  sing  the  conventual  mass  on  all  days 
during  the  week,  to  intone  the  "Deus  in  adjutorium" 
at  the  beginning  of  each  of  the  canonical  hours,  to 
bless  holy  water,  etc.  The  antiphoner  was  also  ap- 
pointed for  a  week  at  a  time.  It  was  his  duty  to  read 
or  sing  the  invitatory  at  Matins,  to  give  out  the  first 
antiphon  at  the  Psalms,  and  also  the  versicles,  respon- 
soria  after  the  lessons  etc.  The  weekly  reader  and 
servers  in  the  kitcheri  and  refectory  entered  upon  their 
duties  on  Sunday  when,  in  company  with  the  servers 
of  the  previous  week,  they  had  to  ask  and  receive  a 
special  blessing  in  choir  as  directed  in  chapters  xxxv 
and  xxxviii of  St.  Benedict's  Rule.  Nowadays  the  ten- 
dency is  towards  a  simplification  in  the  details  of  mo- 
nastic life  and  consequently  to  a  reduction  in  the 
number  of  officials  in  a  monastery,  but  all  the  more 
important  offices  named  above  exist  to-day  in  ever}' 
monaster}-  though  the  name  obedientiaries  has  quite 
dropped  out  of  everyday  use. 

Gasqitet.  English  Mmiastic  Life  (London.  1904),  58-110;  Cus- 
tomary of  .  ,  .  St.  Augustine's,  Canterbury,  and  St.  Peter's,  West- 
minster, ed.  Thompson  (London,  1902);  The  Ancren  Riwle,  ed. 
Morton  (London,  1853);  Feasey,  Monasticism  (London,  1898), 
175-252.  See  bibliography  appended  to  Monasticism,  Western, 
and  also  to  tlie  articles  on  the  various  monastic  orders. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Oberammergau.    See  Passion  Plan's. 

Oblate  Sisters  of  Providence,  a  congregation  of 
negro  iiiuis  liMindi'il  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  by  the  Rev. 
Jacques  Hector  Niclidias  .Joubert  de  la  Muraille,  for 
the  education  of  coloured  children.  Father  Joubert 
belonged  to  a  noble  French  family  forced  by  the  Revo- 
lution to  take  refuge  in  San  Domingo.  Alone  of  his 
family,  he  escajied  from  a  massacre  and  went  to  Balti- 
more, entering  St.  Mary's  Seminary.  After  his  ordina- 
tion he  was  given  charge  of  the  coloured  Catholics  of  St . 
Mary's  chapel.  Finding  he  was  making  no  headway  as 
the  sermons  were  not  remembererl  and  there  were  no 
schools  where  the  children  could  be  taught,  he  formed 
the  idea  of  founding  a  religious  community  for  the 
purpose  of  educating  these  children.  In  this  he  was 
encouraged  by  his  two  friends.  Fathers  Babade  and 
Tessier.  He  was  introduced  to  four  coloured  women, 
who  kept  a  small  private  school,  and  lived  a  retired  life 
with  the  forlorn  hope  of  consecrating  their  lives  to 
God.  Father  Joubert  made  known  to  them  his  plans 
and  they  offered  to  be  at  his  service.  With  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  a  novitiate  was 


begun  and  on  2  July,  1829,  the  first  four  sisters.  Miss 
Ehsabeth  Lange  of  Santiago,  Cuba,  Miss  Mary  Rosine 
Boegues  of  San  Domingo,  Mitis  Mary  l''raiices  Balas 
of  Sati  Domingo,  Miss  Mary  Theresa  Duchemin  of 
Baltimore  made  their  vows.  Sister  Mary  Flisaheth 
was  clioscn  superior,  and  Rev.  Father  Joubert  was  ap- 
pointed director.  Gregory  XVI  ap])nive(l  the  order 
2  October,  1831  under  the  title  of  Oblate  Sisters  of 
Providence.  At  present  the  .sisters  conduct  schools 
and  orphanages  at  Baltimore,  Washington,  Leaven- 
worth, St.  Louis,  Normandy  (Mo.),  and  4  hou.ses  in 
Cuba,  2  in  Havana,  1  in  Santa  Clara,  1  in  Cardenas. 
The  mother-house  and  novitiate  is  tit  Baltimore. 
There  were  130  sisters,  9  novices,  and  7  postulants 
in  1910. 

Heimbucher,  Die  Orden  u.  Kong.  d.  kath,  Kirche,  III  (Pader- 
born,  1908),  573;  Catholic  Directory  (1910). 

Magdalen  Gk.\tin. 

Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate. — I.  Name  and 
Origin. — The  first  members  of  this  society,  founded 
in  1816,  were  known  as  "Missionaries  of  Provence". 
They  received  the  title  of  "Missionary  Oblates  of 
Mary  Immaculate"  and  approbation  as  a  congrega- 
tion under  simple  vows  in  a  Brief  of  Leo  XII  dated  17 
Felsruary,  1826.  The  founder,  Charles  Joseph  Eugene 
de  Mazenod  (b.  at  Aix,  1  August,  1782),  left  France  at 
an  early  age  on  account  of  the  Revolution,  and  re- 
mained four  years  at  N'enice,  one  at  Naples,  and  three 
at  Palermo,  before  returning  to  Paris,  where  he  en- 
tered St.  Sulpice  in  1808.  He  was  ordained  priest  at 
Amiens  on  21  December,  1811.  In  1818  he  had  gath- 
ered a  small  community  around  him,  and  made  his 
religious  profession  at  the  church  of  the  Mission,  Aix, 
with  MM.  Mounier,  Tempier,  Mye,  and  Moreau  as 
fellow-priests,  and  MM.  Dupuy,  Courtes,  and  Su- 
zanne as  scholastic  students.  He  became  \'icar-Gen- 
eral  of  Marseilles  in  1823,  titular  Bishop  of  Icosia  and 
coadjutor  in  1834,  and  Bishop  of  Marseilles  in  1837. 
In  1856  he  was  named  senator  and  member  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour  by  Napoleon  III,  and  died  in  1861, 
having  been  superior-general  of  his  congregation  from 
1816  to  that  date. 

II.  Members  and  Organization. — The  congrega- 
tion consists  of  priests  and  lay-brothers,  leading  a 
common  life.  The  latter  act  as  temporal  coadjutors, 
farm  or  workshop  instructors  in  industrial  and  refor- 
matory schools,  and  teachers  and  catechists  on  the 
foreign  missions.  The  central  and  supreme  authority 
of  the  society  is  two-fold :  (1)  intermittent  and  extraor- 
dinary, as  vested  in  the  general  chapter  meeting 
once  in  six  years,  and  composed  of  the  general  admin- 
istrators, provincials,  vicars  of  missions,  and  delegates 
from  each  province  or  vicariate;  (2)  ordinary,  as 
vested  in  the  superior-general  elected  for  life  by  the 
general  chapter,  and  assisted  by  a  council  of  four  as- 
sistants and  a  bursar-general,  named  for  a  term  of 
years,  renewable  by  the  same  authority.  The  general 
administration  was  situated  at  Marseilles  until  1861, 
when  it  was  transferred  to  Paris;  the  persecutions  of 
1902  obliged  its  removal  to  Liege  in  1903,  whence  it 
was  transferred  to  Rome  in  1905.  The  congregation 
is  officially  represented  at  the  Holy  See  by  a  procura- 
tor-general named  by  the  central  administration;  this 
authority  also  elects  the  chaplain-general  of  the  Holy 
Family  Sisters  of  Bordeaux,  founded  by  Abb6  de 
Noailles,  and  bv  him  confided  to  the  spiritual  direc- 
tion of  the  Oblate  Fathers.  Until  1851  all  Oblate 
houses  were  directly  dependent  on  the  central  admin- 
istration. The  general  chapter  held  in  that  year  di- 
vided its  dependencies  into  provinces  and  missionary 
vicariates,  each  having  its  own  provincial  or  vicar 
aided  by  a  council  of  four  consultors  and  a  bursar.  At 
the  head  of  each  regularly  constituted  house  is  placed 
a  local  superior  aided  by  two  assessors  and  a  bursar, 
all  named  by  the  provincial  administration.  The  edu- 
cational establishments  also  possess  a  special  council 
of  professors  and  directors. 


DELATES 


185 


OBLATES 


III.  Recruiting  is  made  l)y  means  of  junior- 
ates,  novitiates,  and  scholasticates.  (a)  Juniorales  or 
Apostolic  Schools. — The  first  establishment  of  this  de- 
scription was  founded  in  1841  bj'  the  Oblates  of  Notre 
Dame  des  Lumieres  near  Avignon,  and  their  example, 
soon  followed  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  at  Avignon,  be- 
came widely  adopted  in  France.  The  congregation 
has  at  present  thirteen  juniorates  situated:  at  Ottawa, 
Buffalo,  San  Antonio  (Texas),  St.  Boniface  (Mani- 
toba) and  Strathcona  (Alberta)  in  the  new  world;  St. 
Charles  (Holland),  Waereghem  (Belgium),  Sancta 
Maria  a  Vico  and  Naples  (Italy),  Urmieta  (Spain), 
and  Belcamp  Hall  (Ireland)  in  Europe;  Colombo  and 
.Jaffna  in  the  Island  of  Ceylon,  (b)  Noviliales  are 
fed  from  thi'  juniorates,  and  also  from  colleges,  semi- 
naries, and  s;>'ninasia.  They  are  at  present  thirteen 
ill  number  and  situateil  at  Lachine  (Canada),  Tewks- 
burv  (Massachusi^tlsl,  San  Antonio  (Texas),  St. 
Charles  (.Maiiif  .>lia  i.  St.  ( icrlaeh,  Ililnfeld,  and  Maria 
Engelport  (.tiernianyj,  Niewenhove  (Belgium),  LeBes- 
tin  (Luxemburg),  St.  Pierre  d'Aoste  (Italy),  Urmieta 
(Spain),  Stillorgan  (Ireland),  and  Colombo  (Ceylon), 
(c)  Scholasticates  receive  novices  who  have  been  ad- 
mitted to  temporal  vows  at  the  end  of  a  year's  proba- 
tion. The  first  scholasticate  of  the  congregation  was 
dedicated  to  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Montolivet,  Mar- 
seilles, in  1857;  it  was  transferred  to  Autun  in  1861, 
to  Dublin  in  1880,  to  St.  Francis  (Holland)  in  1889, 
and  to  Liege  in  1891.  The  ten  establishments  at 
present  occupied  are  situated  at  Ottawa,  Tewksbury, 
San  Antonio,  Rome,  Liege,  Hiinfeld,  Stillorgan,  Turin, 
and  Colombo  (2). 

IV.  Ends  and  Means.  —  The  congregation  was 
formed  to  repair  the  havoc  caused  by  the  French  Rev- 
olution, and  its  very  existence  so  soon  afterwards  was 
a  sign  of  religious  revival.  Its  multiple  ends  may 
thus  be  divided:  (a)  Primary:  (1)  To  revive  the  spirit 
of  faith  among  rural  and  industrial  populations  by 
means  of  missions  and  retreats,  in  which  devotion  to 
the  Sacred  Heart  and  to  Mary  Immaculate  is  recom- 
mended as  a  supernatural  means  of  regeneration. 
"He  hath  sent  me  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  poor", 
has  been  adopted  as  the  device  of  the  congregation. 

(2)  Care  of  young  men's  societies.  Catholic  clubs,  etc. 

(3)  Formation  of  clergy  in  seminaries,  (b)  Secondary 
or  Derived. — To  adapt  itself  to  the  different  circum- 
stances arising  from  its  rapid  development  in  new 
countries,  the  congregation  has  necessarily  extended 
its  sphere  of  action  to  parochial  organization,  to  the 
direction  of  industrial  or  reformatory  schools,  of  estab- 
lishments of  secondary  education  in  its  principal  cen- 
tres, and  of  higher  institutions  of  learning,  such  as  the 
University  of  Ottawa  (see  Ottawa,  University  of). 

V.  Promine.nt  Members,  Past  and  Present. — 
(a)  Superior  Generals:  Mgr  de  Mazenod  (1816);  Very 
Rev.  J.  Fabre  (1861);  L.  SouUier  (1893);  C.  Augier 
(1898);  A.  Lavillardiere  (1906);  Mgr  A.  Dontenwill 
(1908).  (b)  Oblate  Bishops:  (1)  Deceased:  de  Maz- 
enod, Bishop  of  Marseilles;  Guibert  (1802-86),  Cardi- 
nal Archbishop  of  Paris;  Semeria  (1813-68),  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Jaffna;  Guigues  (1805-74),  first  Bishop  of 
Ottawa;  Allard  (1806-89),  first  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Natal;  Faraud  (1823-90),  first  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Athabaska-Mackenzie;  D'Herbomez  (1822-90),  first 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  British  Columbia;  Boiijean  (1823- 
92),  first  Archbishop  of  Colombo;  Tache  (1823-94), 
first  Archbishop  of  St.  Boniface;  Balain  (1828-1905), 
Archbishop  of  Auch;  M61izan  (1844-1905),  Arch- 
bishop of  Colombo;  Grandin  (1829-1902),  first  Bishop 
of  St.  Albert;  Glut  (1832-1903),  Auxiliary  Bishop  of 
Athabaska-Mackenzie;  Jolivet  (1826-1903),  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Natal;  Durieu  (1830-99),  first  Bishop  of 
New  Westminster;  Anthony  Gaughren  (1849-1901), 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Orange  River  Colony;  (2)  Living: 
Dontenwill,  Augustin,  titular  Archbishop  of  Ptole- 
mais,  and  actual  superior  general;  Langevin,  Arch- 
bishop of  St.  Boniface  (consecrated  1895);  Coudert, 


Archbishop  of  Colombo  (1898);  Grouard,  Vicar  Apos- 
tohc  of  Athabaska  (1891);  Pascal,  Bishop  of  Prince 
Albert  (1891);  Joulain,  Bishop  of  Jaffna  (1893) ;  Legal, 
Bishop  of  St.  Albert  (1897);  Breynat,  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Mackenzie  (1902) ;  Matthew  Gaughren,  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  Orange  River  Colony  (1902);  Delalle,  Vicar 
Apostohc  of  Natal  (1904);  JNliller,  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Transvaal  (1904);  Joussard,  Coadjutor  of  Athabaska 
(1909);  Cenez,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Basutoland  (1909); 
Fallon,  Bishop  of  London,  Ontario  (1910);  Charlebois, 
first  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Keewatin,  Canada  (1910). 

VI.  Principal  Undertakings. — (a)  General.  (1) 
In  canonically  constituted  countries  a  parish  church 
or  public  chapel  is  attached  to  each  establishment  of 
Oblates.  The  parishes  are  all  imividfil  witli  .schools, 
while  many  have  colleges  or  ac-a<l('iiiies  and  a  hu.siiital. 
Several  of  the  parochial  residences  (e.  g.,  Buffalo, 
Montreal,  Quebec,  etc.)  serve  as  centres  for  mission- 
aries who  assist  the  parochial  clergy  by  giving  retreats 
or  missions  and  taking  temporary  charge  of  parishes. 
(2)  In  new  or  missionary  countries,  the  posts  are  con- 
sidered as  fixed  residences  from  which  the  missionaries 
radiate  to  surrounding  fields  of  action  (e.  g.,  Edmonton 
and  Calgary,  Alberta).  Each  of  these  centres  pos- 
sesses fully  equipped  schools,  whilst  many  have  con- 
vents, boarding  schools,  and  hospitals.  Instruction 
is  given  in  English,  French,  or  native  tongues  by  re- 
ligious communities  or  by  the  fathers  and  brothers 
themselves.  Indigenous  mission  work  is  carried  on 
by  the  periodical  recurrence  of  missions  or  retreats,  and 
the  regular  instructions  of  catechists.  The  printing 
press  is  much  used,  and  the  congregation  has  pub- 
lished complete  dictionaries  and  other  works  in  the 
native  idioms  among  which  it  labours. 

(b)  Special. — (1)  Canada. — Until  recent  years  the 
evangelization  of  the  Canadian  West  and  of  British 
Columbia  was  the  almost  exclusive  work  of  the  Oblate 
Fathers,  as  that  of  the  extreme  north  still  is.  Cathe- 
drals, churches,  and  colleges  were  built  by  them,  and 
often  handed  over  to  secular  clergy  or  to  other  reli- 
gious communities  (as  in  the  case  of  the  St.  Boniface 
College,  which  is  at  present  flourishing  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Society  of  Jesus).  The  Archiepiscopal 
See  of  St.  Boniface  since  1853,  and  the  episcopal  Sees  of 
St.  Albert,  Prince  Albert,  with  the  Vicariates  of  Atha- 
baska and  Mackenzie  since  their  foundation,  have 
been,  and  are  still  occupied  by  Oblates.  That  of  New 
Westminster  ceased  to  be  so  in  1908.  The  Diocese  of 
Ottawa  had  an  Oblate  as  first  bishop,  and  owes  the 
foundation  of  most  of  its  parishes  and  institutions  to 
members  of  the  congregation,  who  have  also  founded 
a  number  of  the  centres  in  the  new  Vicariates  of  Temis- 
kaming  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  as  well  as  in  the 
Diocese  of  Chicoutimi.  Among  the  recent  labours  of 
the  Oblates  in  the  West  a  special  iiK'iitiiin  inu.st  be 
given  to  the  religious  organization  of  Gcrnums,  Poles, 
and  Ruthenians.  The  new  Vicariate  of  Keewatin 
(1910)  is  entrusted  to  an  Oblate  bishop,  whose  mission- 
aries are  devoted  to  the  regeneration  of  nomadic  In- 
dian tribes.  (2)  South  Africa. — The  Oblates  have 
founded  and  occupy  the  four  vicariates  Apostolic  of 
Natal,  Orange  River,  Basutoland'  and  Transvaal,  as 
also  the  Prefecture  .\postolic  of  Cimbebasia.  Its 
members  served  as  military  chaplains  on  both  sides 
during  the  Boer  war.  (3)  Asia. — The  immense  Dio- 
ceses of  Colombo  and  Jaffna,  with  their  flourishing 
colleges  and  missions,  are  the  achievement  of  the  en- 
terprising zeal  of  Oblate  Fathers  under  Mgr  Boiijean, 
O.M.I.  (4)  Western  Au.stralia.  A  mis.sionary  vicar- 
iate was  founded  from  the  British  Province  in  1894, 
and  is  actively  engaged  in  parochial  and  reformatory 
work. 

VII.  Establishments  of  Education  and  Forma- 
tion.— (a)  For  the  Congregation.  (1)  Scholasticates 
affording  a  course  of  two  years  in  philosophy  and  so- 
cial science  (three  years  in  Rome),  and  of  four  years  in 
theology  and  sacred  sciences  according  to  the  spirit 


OBLATES 


186 


OBLATES 


and  method  of  St.  Thoniius,  The  Roman  scholastics 
follow  till-  pronramme  of  the  dregorian  University, 
and  gradiuiti'  in  philosoiihy,  theology,  euiioii  law,  and 
Scripture.  The  seholastics  at  Ottawa  graduate  in 
philosoijhy  and  tlieology  at  the  university,  of  which 
they  form  an  integral  part.  (2)  Novitiates  giving 
religious  formation  with  adapted  studies.  (3)  ,Iunior- 
ates  providing  a  complete  classical  course  jin-para- 
tory  to  the  sacred  sciences.  The  Ottawa  junimists 
make  their  course  at  the  neighbouring  university,  and 
graduate   in   the  Facultv  of  .Vrts.      (b)   Higher  Edu- 


(.3),  Rritish  Columbia  (.3),  and  .\ustralia  (1).  There 
are  also  about  fifteen  Indian  boarding-schools  in  the 
Canadian  West.  (,'))  Hefonnatory  scliools  at  Glen- 
cree  and  Phihpstown  and  Maggona  iu  Ceylon. 

VIII.  Celebrated  Sanctuaries  and  Pilgrim 
AGES.— (a)  Of  the  Sacred  Heart.— (1)  The  Basihca  of 
the  National  Vow  at  Paris,  a  world  centre  of  adoration 
and  reparation,  was  directed  by  Oblate  Fathers  from 
1876  until  the  expulsions  of  1902.  (2)  The  construc- 
tion of  a  similar  basilica  for  Belgium  was  entrusted  to 
them  by  Leopold  11  in  ,Ian.,  1903.     (3)  The  parishes 


STATISTICS 


General  .administration,  Rome . 


Central  Province 


^Belgian  "       

London  (Ontario),  Diocese  of. 
Canadian  Province  -|  g^^^^^^ 
United  States — First  Prov.(No 

••     —Second  "    (.South) 

Manitoban  Province 

Alberta-Saskatchewan,     Vicariate 
of  (Dioceses  of  St.  Albert  and 

Prince  Albert) 

Athabaska,  Vicariate  Apostoli 
Mackenzie,          "                 " 
British  Columbia,  Vicariate  Apos- 
tolic of - 

Keewatin.  Vicariate  .\postolic  c 
^Yukon,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 


Asia.     Vicariate  of  Mis-  j  Archd.  of  Colombo 
sions  of  Ceylon.  I  Diocese  of  Jaffn; 


fNatal,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

Kimberley  "  " 

Africa-J  Basutoland"  " 

Transvaal   "  " 

LCimbebasia"  " 


Oceania.     Vicariate  of  Missiona;  Australia. . 


Scho- 
lasti- 
cates 


Semi- 
naries 
and 
Colleges 


Indus- 
trial 
and 
Reform- 
School; 


15 


478 


caiion. — (1)  Concerning  the  Ottawa  University  see 
the  special  artich;.  (2)  Grand  Seminaries. — Until 
the  persecution  of  1902  the  congregation  was  in  charge 
of  these  establishments  at  Marseilles,  Frejus,  Ajaccio, 
and  Romans.  It  is  at  present  entrusted  with  those 
of  Ajaccio,  Ottawa  (in  connexion  with  the  university), 
San  .\ntonio,  Colombo,  and  Jaffna.  The  two  last- 
named  are  occupied  in  the  formation  of  a  native  clergy 
and  have  already  provided  over  forty  jiriests.  (c) 
Secondary  education:  (1)  classical  colleges  with  a 
course  in  English  are  provided  at  Buffalo,  St.  Albert 
(Alberta),  San  .\ntonio,  St.  Louis  (British  Columbia), 
St.  Charles  (Natal).  Two  important  institutions  at 
Colombo  are  affiliated  to  the  University  of  Cambridge; 
mo.st  of  the  professors  have  been  in  residence  there, 
and  prepare  their  pupils  for  the  London  matriculation 
and  Cambridge  Local  examinations.  (2)  Prepara- 
tory seminaries  are  established  at  St.  Albert,  San  An- 
tonio, Ceylon  (2),  and  New  Westminster.  (3)  Nor- 
mal schools  for  lay  teachers  are  conducted  at  Jaffna 
and  Ceylon.  (4)  Industrial  schools  with  full  instruc- 
tion in  farming  and  craftsmanship  by  lay  brothers  and 
assistants   in    Manitoba    (3),    Alberta-Saskatchewan 


of  .St.  Sauveur,  Quebec,  and  St.  Jose|)h's,  Lowell,  are 
important  centres  of  Sacred  Heart  devotion  in  the 
New  World,  (b)  To  the  Blessed  Virgin. — Until  the  ex- 
pulsions of  1902  the  Oblates  directed  the  ancient  pil- 
grimage shrines  of  Notre  Dame  des  Lumi^res,  Avi- 
non;  N.  D.  de  r0.sier,  Grenoble;  N.  D.  de  Bon  Secours, 
Viviers;  N.  D.  de  la  Garde  (Marseilles);  N.  D.  de 
Talence  and  N.  D.  d'.4rcachon,  Bordeaux;  N.  D.  de 
Sion,  Nancy;  and  the  national  pilgrimage  of  N.  D.  de 
Pontmain  near  Laval,  erected  after  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian war.  During  several  years  they  revived  the  an- 
cient glories  of  N.  D.  du  Laus,  Ciap;  N.  D.  de  Clery, 
Orleans;  N.  D.  de  la  Rovere,  Mentone.  In  England 
they  have  the  restored  pre-Reformation  shrine  of  Our 
Lady  of  Grace  at  Tower  Hill,  London,  and  in  Canada 
the  shrines  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary  at  Cap  de  la 
Madeleine,  Quebec,  and  Our  Lady  of  Lourdes  at  Ville 
Marie  and  Duck  Lake,  Saskatoon.  In  Ceylon  they 
have  the  national  pilgrimage  to  Our  Lady  of  Madhu. 
(c)  To  variou.i  Saints. — The  ancient  sanctuary  of  St. 
Martin  of  Tours  was  re-excavate<l  and  revived  by 
Oblate  Fathers  under  Cardinal  Guibert  in  1862 
(see  "Life  of  Ldon  Papin  Dupont",  London,  1882). 


OBLATES 


187 


OBLATES 


Ceylon  possesses  votive  churches  to  St.  Anne  at  Co- 
lombo and  St.  Anthony  at  Kochchikadai,  and  the 
Canadian  West  that  of  St.  .\nne  at  Lake  St.  Anne, 
which  is  largely  frequented  by  Indians  and  half-breeds, 
as  well  as  white  people. 

IX.  FOUND.^TION  OF  ReLIGIODS  COMMUNITIES.— 

Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary  (Lon- 
geuil,  1843);  Grey  Nuns  of  Ottawa,  separated  from 
the  Montreal  community  by  Bishop  Guigues  in  1845; 
Oblate  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  Mary  Immacu- 
late founded  at  St.  Boniface  by  Archbishop  Langevin 
(1905);  and  a  community  of  over  300  native  sisters, 
and  one  of  teaching  brothers  of  St.  Joseph  in  Ceylon. 

X.  Apostolate  of  the  Press. — (a)  Periodicals 
on  the  Work  of  the  Congregation:  "Missions  des  O.  M. 
I.",  printed  at  Rome  for  the  congregation  only;  "Pe- 
tites  annales  des  O.  M.  I."  (Liege);  " Maria Immacu- 
lata"  (German),  Hiinfeld,  New  Brunswick;  the  "Mi.s- 
sionary  Record",  started  in  1891,  was  discontinued  in 
1903.  (b)  General  Newspapers,  etc.:  the  "North  West 
Review"  (Winnipeg),  "Western  Catholic"  (Vancou- 
ver), "Patriote  de  I'Ouest"  (Duck  Lake,  Saska- 
toon), "Ami  du  Foyer"  (St.  Boniface),  "Die  West 
Canada"  (German),  "Gazeta  Katolika"  (Polish), 
and  a  recently  established  Ruthenian  journal  (Win- 
nipeg), "Kitchiwa  Match  Sacred  Heart  Review  in 
Cris"  (Sacred  Heart  P.  O.  Alta),  "Cennad  Llyde- 
wig.  Messenger  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Welsh-Eng- 
lish" (Llaanrwst,  North  Wales);  "Ceylon  Catholic 
Messenger",  separate  editions  in  English  and  Cin- 
galese, and  the  "Jaffna  Guardian"  in  English-Tamil; 
Parochial  Bulletins  at  St.  Joseph's,  Lowell,  Mattawa 
(Ontario),  and  St.  Peter's,  Montreal. 

In  connexion  with  the  table  given  on  page  186,  the 
following  points  may  be  mentioned:  (1)  the  "houses" 
are  parochial  establishments  or  missionary  centres, 
not  mission  posts;  (2)  the  table  is  calculated  according 
to  the  provinces  or  vicariates  of  the  congregation, 
which  are  not  always  coterminous  with  ecclesiastical 
divisions ;  (3)  the  figures  given  for  France  represent  the 
state  of  affairs  before  1902.  Since  that  date  a  large 
number  of  religious  remain  in  France,  though  isolated. 
Several  establishments  have  been  transferred  to  Bel- 
gium, Italy,  and  Spain;  (4)  scholastics,  novices,  and 
juniorists  are  not  included. 

I.  FouND.vTiON  AND  DEVELOPMENT. — Rambert,  Vie  dc  Mgr  de 
Mazenod  (2  vols.,  Tours,  1883);  Ricard.  Mgr  de  Mazenod  (Paris, 
1892) ;  Cooke.  Sketches  o/  the  Life  of  Mgr  de  Mazenod  and  Oblate 
Missionary  Labours  (2  vols.,  London,  1879):  Baffie.  Bishop  de 
Mazenod:  His  Inner  Life  and  Virtues,  tr.  Dawson  (London,  1909); 
Missions  des  O.  M.  I.  Petites  annales;  Missionary  Record;  Missions 
Catholiques  (7  vols..  Paris),  passim. 

IL  .America  and  Canada. — Morice,  Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Church 
in  Western  Canada  (2  vols.,  Toronto,  1910);  Tach£,  A  Page  of  the 
Hist,  of  the  Schools  in  Manitoba  (St.  Boniface,  1893) ;  Idem,  Vingt 
annees  USiS-es)  de  Missions  dans  le  N.  0.  de  l'Am6rique  (Mon- 
treal, 1866);  Morice,  Au  Pays  de  fours  noir  (Paris,  1897);  Des- 
rosiers  and  Fournet,  La  Race  Franfatse  en  Amerique  (Montreal. 
1910),  vii;  Parizot.  Reminiscences  of  a  Texas  Missionary  (San 
Antonio,  1899). 

See  also  the  following  articles:  Basctoland;  Blood  Indians; 
British  Columbia;  Colombo;  J.ipfna;  Missions,  Catholic 
Indian,  of  Canada;  Canada. 

F.  Blanchin. 

Oblates  of  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Charles.    See 

Ambrosians. 

Oblates  of  Saint  Francis  de  Sales,  a  congre- 
gation nf  iiri.'sts  f.iun.li'il  (.riniiiiilly  l>y  Saint  Francis 
do  S:ilcs  at  the  icquist  of  S:iint  J:imMicChantal.  The 
establishment  at  Thonon  wasapreparatorysteptoward 
carrying  out  his  design,  the  accomplishment  of  which 
was  prevented  by  his  death.  With  Saint  Jane  Frances 
de  Chantal's  encouragement  and  assistance,  Raymond 
Bonal  of  Adge,  in  France,  carried  out  his  plan  but  this 
congregation  died  out  at  the  beginning  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Two  hundred  years  later  it  was  re- 
vived by  Ven.  Mother  Marie  de  Sales  Chappuis, 
who  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity,  7  October,  1875,  and 
Abbe  Louis  .■\lexandpr  Alphonse  Brisson,  a  professor  in 
theScminarvof  Troyes.  In  1S69  Father  Bris.son began 
Saint  Bernard's  College,  near  Troyes.  In  September, 


Pere  Brisson 

Founder  and  First  General  of  the  Oblato 

of  St.  Francis  de  Sales 


1871,  Father  Gilbert  (d.  10  November,  1909)  joined 
him,  and  Mgr  Ravinet,  Bishop  of  Troyes,  received 
them  and  four  companions  into  the  novitiate.  The 
Holy  See  approved  temporarily  their  constitutions, 
21  Dec,  1875.  The  first  vows  were  made  27  Au- 
gust, 1876.  The  definitive  approbation  of  their  con- 
stitution was  given  on  8  December,  1897.  The 
members  of  the  institute  are  of  two  ranks,  clerics  and 
lay-brothers.  The  postulate  lasts  from  six  to  nine 
months;  the  novitiate  from  one  year  to  eighteen 
months.  For  the 
first  three  years 
the  vows  are  an- 
nual, after  that 
perpetual.  The  in- 
stitute is  governed 
by  a  superior  gen- 
eral elected  for  life, 
and  five  counsel- 
lors general  elected 
at  each  general 
chapter,  which 
takes  place  every 
ten  years.  The 
congregation  grad- 
ually developed  in 
France.  It  num- 
bered seven  col- 
leges and  five  ot  her 
educational  houses 
when  the  Govern- 
ment closed  them 
all,  31  July,  1903. 
The  founder  re- 
tired to  Plancy 
where    he    died  2 

February,  1908.  The  mother-house  was  transferred 
to  Rome,  and  the  congregation  divided  into  three 
provinces,  Latin,  German,  and  English.  The  first  com- 
prises France,  Belgium,  Italy,  Greece,  and  South  Amer- 
ica; the  second  Austria,  the  German  Empire  and  the 
southern  half  of  its  South-west  African  colony;  the 
third,  England,  United  States,  and  the  north-western 
part  of  Cape  Colony.  Each  province  is  administered 
by  a  provincial,  appointed  by  the  superior  general 
and  his  council  tor  ten  years.  He  is  assisted  by  three 
counsellors  elected  at  each  provincial  chapter,  which 
meets  every  ten  years,  at  an  interval  of  five  years  be- 
tween the  regular  general  chapters. 

The  Latin  province  has  a  scholasticate  at  Albano. 
In  1909  the  church  of  Sts.  Celsus  and  Julian  in  Rome 
was  given  to  the  Oblates.  The  novitiate  for  the  Latin 
and  German  provinces  is  in  Giove  (LTmbria).  The 
Ecole  Commerciale  Stc  Croix,  in  Naxos  (Greece),  has 
about  fifty  pupils,  and  the  College  St.  Paul  at  Pirseua 
(Athens)  about  two  hundred.  Four  Fathers,  sta- 
tioned in  Montevideo  (Uruguay)  are  occupied  with 
mission  work.  They  have  a  flouri.shing  Young  Men's 
Association.  In  Brazil,  three  Fathers  luive  the  dis- 
trict of  Don  Pedrito  do  Sul  (11,000  square  niilcis  with 
a  Catholic  population  of  20.000).  The  headr|uartrrs 
of  the  Uruguay-Brazil  mission  is  at  Montevidro, 
Uruguay.  One  Oblate  is  stationed  in  Ecuador,  where 
before  the  Revolution  of  1897  the  congregation  had 
charge  of  the  diocesan  seminary  of  Riobamba,  several 
colleges,  and  parishes.  In  1909  a  school  for  the 
congregation  was  opened  at  Dampicourt,  Belgium. 
The  German  province  has  a  preparatory  school  of 
about  forty  students  in  Schmieding  (Upper  Austria). 
They  have  charge  of  St.  Anne's  (French)  church  in 
Vienna,  al.so  the  church  of  Our  Lady  of  Dolours  in 
Kaa.sgraben,  Vienna,  which  is  served  by  six  Oblates. 
At  Artstetten,  the  Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand 
gave  them  charge  of  the  parish  (1907)  and  assisted 
them  to  build  a  school.  With  the  consent  of  the 
German  Governmeiit.'^ardiniil  Fischer  gave  them 
the  church  of  Marienburg  in  1910.    Several  Fathers 


OBLATES 


18S 


OBLATI 


are  engaged  in  mission  work.  The  English  province 
founded  its  novitiate  in  Wihnington,  Delaware, 
23  September,  1903,  and  transferred  it  to  Childs, 
Md.  (1907).  A  scholasticate  is  attached.  The 
Fathers  in  Wilmington  conduct  a  high  school  for 
boys,  and  are  chaplains  of  several  religious  com- 
munities, the  county  alms-house,  the  state  insane 
hospital,  the  Ferris  Industrial  School  for  boys,  and 
the  county  and  state  prison.  In  1910  the  parish  of 
St.  Francis  de  Sales,  Salisbury,  Md.  (1209  square 
miles  with  a  population  of  70,C)00),  was  confided  to 
the  Oblates. 

In  Walmer  (Kent,  England)  they  have  a  board- 
ing school  for  boys,  the  chaplaincy  of  the  Visita- 
tion Convent  and  Academy  of  Hoselands,  and  a  small 
parish  in  Faversham.  To  this  province  belongs  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  Orange  River.  (For  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  Orange  River  and  the  Apos- 
tolic Prefecture  of  Great  Namaqualand,  see  Or.\nge 
River,  Vic.\ri.\te  Apostolic  of  the.) 

H.UIUON,  Vie  de  St.  Franfois  de  Sales  (1909),  I,  428  seq.,  487; 
n,  164.  27.5;  (Eums  de  Ste  de  Chanlal,  ed.  Plon,  IV.  593;  VII, 
602;  Catholic  World,  LXXIV,  234-243;  Echo  of  the  Oblates  of 
St.  Francis  de  Sales,  I,  6-8,  145-51. 

J.  J.  ISENRING. 

Oblates  of  Saint  Frances  of  Rome.  See  Frances 
OF  RoiiE,  S.\i.\t;  Oblati. 

Oblati,  Oblatse,  Oblates,  is  a  word  used  to  de- 
scribe any  persons,  not  professed  monks  or  friars,  who 
have  been  ofTered  to  God,  or  have  dedicated  them- 
selves to  His  service,  in  holy  religion.  It  has  had  various 
particular  uses  at  different  periods  in  the  history  of 
the  Church.  The  children  vowed  and  given  by  their 
parents  to  the  monastic  life,  in  houses  under  the  Rule 
of  St.  Benedict,  were  commonly  known  by  the  name 
during  the  century  and  a  half  when  the  custom  was 
in  vogue,  and  the  councils  of  the  Church  treated  them 
as  monks — that  is,  until  the  Council  of  Toledo  (6.56) 
forbade  their  acceptance  before  the  age  of  ten  and 
granted  them  free  permission  to  leave  the  monastery, 
if  they  wished,  when  they  reached  the  age  of  puberty. 
At  a  later  date  the  word  "oblate"  was  used  to  describe 
such  lay  men  or  women  as  were  pensioned  ofT  by  royal 
and  other  patrons  upon  monaateries  or  benefices, 
where  they  lived  as  in  an  almshouse  or  hospital.  In 
the  eleventh  century,  it  is  on  record  that  Abbot  Wil- 
liam of  Hirschau  or  Hirsau,  in  the  old  Diocese  of 
Spires,  introduced  lay  brethren  into  the  monastery. 
They  were  of  two  kinds:  the/ra(re.s  barbati  or  conversi, 
who  took  vows  but  were  not  claustral  or  enclosed 
monks,  and  the  oblati,  workmen  or  servants  who  vol- 
untarily subjected  themselves,  whilst  in  the  service  of 
the  monastery,  to  religious  obedience  and  observance. 
Afterwards,  the  different  status  of  the  lay  brother  in 
the  several  orders  of  monks,  and  the  ever-varying 
regulations  concerning  him  introduced  by  the  many 
reforms,  destroyed  the  distinction  between  the  con- 
versus  anfl  the  oblalus.  The  Cassinese  Benedictines, 
for  instance,  at  first  carefully  diflferentiated  between 
convern,  cnmmixtii,  and  nblati;  the  nature  of  the  vows 
and  the  forms  of  the  habits  were  in  each  case  specifi- 
cally distinct.  The  cnnversun,  the  lay  brother  prop- 
erly so  called,  made  solemn  vows  like  the  choir  monks, 
and  wore  the  scapular;  the  commissus  made  simple 
vows,  and  was  dressed  like  a  monk,  but  without  the 
scapular;  the  oblalus  made  a  vow  of  obedience  to  the 
abbot,  gave  himself  and  his  goods  to  the  monaster}', 
and  wore  a  sober  secular  dress.  But,  in  162.5,  we  find 
the  conversua  reduced  below  the  status  of  the  commis- 
sus, inasmuch  as  he  was  permitted  only  to  make  simple 
vows  and  that  for  a  j-ear  at  a  time;  he  was  in  fact  un- 
distinguishable,  except  by  his  dress,  from  the  oblalus 
of  a  former  century.  Then,  in  the  later  Middle  Ages, 
oblalus,  con/rater,  and  donalus  became  interchange- 
able titles,  given  to  any  one  who,  for  his  generosity  or 
special  service  to  the  monastery,  received  the  privilege 


of  lay  membership,  with  a  share  in  the  prayers  and 
good  works  of  the  brethren. 

Canonically,  only  two  distinctions  were  ever  of  any 
consequence :  first,  that  between  those  who  entered  re- 
ligion "per  modum  professionis"  and  "per  modum 
simplicis  conversionis",  the  former  being  monachi  and 
the  latter  oblati:  secondly,  that  between  the  oblate  who 
was  "mortuus  mundo"  (that  is,  who  had  given  him- 
self and  his  goods  to  religion  without  reservation),  and 
the  oblate  who  retained  some  control  over  his  person 
and  his  possessions — the  former  only  {plene  oblalus) 
was  accounted  a  persona  ccclrsiaslica,  with  enjoyment 
of  ecclesiastical  privileges  and  immunity  (Benedict 
XIV,  "De  Synodo  Dioce.",  VI). 

Congregations  of  Oblates.  Women. — (1)  The 
first  society  or  congregation  of  oblates  was  that 
founded  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  St.  Frances  of 
Rome,  to  which  the  name  of  Collatines  has  been  given — 
apparently  by  mistake.  St.  Frances,  wife  of  Lorenzo 
Ponzani,  gathered  around  her  (in  142.5,  according  to 
Baillet)  a  number  of  widows  and  girls,  who  formed 
themselves  into  a  society  or  confraternity.  In  1433,  as 
their  own  annals  witness,  she  settled  them  in  a  house 
called  Tor  de'  Specchi,  at  the  foot  of  the  Capitol,  giv- 
ing them  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict  and  some  constitu- 
tions drawn  up  under  her  own  direction,  and  putting 
them  under  the  guidance  of  the  Olivetan  monks  of  S. 
Maria  Nuova.  In  the  same  year  she  asked  confirma- 
tion of  her  society  from  Eugenius  IV,  who  commis- 
sioned Gaspare,  Bishop  of  Cosenza,  to  report  to  him 
on  the  matter,  and  some  days  later  granted  the  request, 
with  permission  to  make  a  beginning  of  observance 
in  the  house  near  S.  Maria  Nuova,  while  she  was  seek- 
ing a  more  commodious  habitation  near  S.  Andrea  in 
Vinci.  They  have  never  quitted  their  first  establish- 
ment, but  have  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified  it. 
The  object  of  the  foundation  was  not  unlike  that  of  the 
Benedictine  Canonesses  in  France — to  furnish  a  place 
of  pious  seclusion  for  ladies  of  noble  birth,  where 
they  would  not  be  required  to  mix  socially  with 
any  but  those  of  their  own  class,  might  retain  and  in- 
herit property,  leave  when  it  suited  them,  marry  if 
they  should  wish,  and,  at  the  same  time,  would  have 
the  shelter  of  a  convent  enclosure,  the  protection  of 
the  habit  of  a  nun,  and  the  spiritual  advantages  of  a 
life  of  religious  observance.  They  made  an  oblation 
of  themselves  to  God  instead  of  binding  themselves 
by  the  usual  profession  and  vows.  Hence  the  name 
of  oblates.  The  observance  has  always  been  suffi- 
ciently strict  and  edifying,  though  it  is  permitted  to 
each  sister  to  have  a  maid  waiting  on  her  in  the  convent 
and  a  lackey  to  do  her  commissions  outside.  They 
have  a  year's  probation,  and  make  their  oblation,  in 
which  they  promise  obedience  to  the  mother  presi- 
dent, upon  the  tomb  of  St.  Frances  of  Rome.  There 
are  two  grades  amongst  them :  the  "  Most  Excellent ", 
who  must  be  princesses  by  birth,  and  t;he  "Most  lllu.s- 
trious",  tho.se  of  inferior  nobility.  Their  first  presi- 
dent was  Agnes  de  Lellis,  who  resigned  in  favour  of 
St.  Frances  when  the  latter  became  a  widow.  After 
her  death,  the  Olivetan  general.  Blessed  Geronimo 
di  Mirabello,  broke  off  the  connexion  between  the 
oblates  and  the  Olivetans.  The  convent  and  treasures 
of  the  sacristy  have  escaped  appropriation  by  the 
Italian  government,  because  the  inmates  are  not,  in 
the  strict  sense,  nuns. 

(2)  Differing  little  from  the  Oblates  of  St.  Frances 
in  their  ecclesiastical  status,  but  unlike  in  every  other 
respect  are  the  Donne  Convertite  delta  Marhlalena,  un- 
der the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  a  congregation  of  fallen 
women.  They  had  more  than  one  house  in  Rome. 
Without  any  previous  novicesliip,  they  promise  obedi- 
ence and  make  oblation  of  themselves  to  the  mona.s- 
tery  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  and  St.  Lucy.  At  Or- 
vieto  there  are  similar  houses  of  oblate  penitents 
under  the  Rule  of  Mount  Carinel. 

(3)  The    Congregation   of  Philippines   (so    named 


OBLATION 


189 


OBLIGATION 


after  St.  Philip  Neri,  their  protector),  founded  by 
lUitiho  Brandi,  had  the  care  of  100  poor  girls,  whom 
they  brought  up  until  they  either  married  or  em- 
braced religion.  These  oblates  began  reUgious  ob- 
servance at  S.  Lucia  della  Chiaviea,  were  transferred 
to  Monte  Citorio,  and,  when  the  convent  there  was 
pulled  down  by  Innocent  XII  in  169.3,  returned  to  S. 
Lucia.     They  adopted  the  Augustinian  Rule. 

(4)  The  Daughters  of  the  Seven  Dolours  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  a  development  out  of  some  confraternities  of 
the  same  name,  founded  by  St.  Philip  Benizzi,  estab- 
lished a  house  at  Rome  in  16.52.  Their  object  was  to 
take  in  infirm  women  who  would  not  be  received  in 
other  congregations.  They  followed  the  Augustinian 
Rule  and  promised  stability,  conrersio  morum,  and 
obedience  according  to  the  constitutions. 

Congregations  OP  Obl.\tes.  Men. — (1)  Earliest 
in  origin  of  the  societies  or  congregations  of  priests 
known  as  oblates  is  that  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  It  is 
an  institute  of  regular  clerks,  founded  by  the  saint  in 
1578  for  the  better  administration  of  his  diocese  and 
to  enable  the  more  spiritual-minded  of  his  clergy  to 
lead  a  more  detached  and  unworldly  life.  They  live, 
whenever  and  wherever  it  is  possible,  in  common. 
They  make  a  simple  vow  of  obedience  to  their  bishop 
and,  by  doing  so,  bind  themselves  to  exceptional 
service  and  declare  their  willingness  to  undertake 
labours  for  the  salvation  of  souls  which  are  not 
usually  classed  among  the  duties  of  a  parish  priest. 
From  their  constitution  it  is  evident  that  their  use- 
fulness and  develo]]ment,  and  even  existence,  depend 
on  the  bishop  and  the  interest  he  takes  in  them.  At 
present,  they  are  nowhere  a  large  or  important  body, 
and  perhaps  do  not  meet  with  the  encouragement 
they  deserve. 

(2)  The  greatest  and  best-known  congregation  of 
oblate  priests,  that  of  Mary  Immaculate  (O.M.I.), 
is  dealt  with  in  a  special  article.  Connected  with 
the  institute  and  under  its  direction  are  the  Oblate 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family. 

(3)  The  Oblates  of  Mary,  not  to  be  confounded 
with  those  of  Mary  Immaculate  or  with  the  Marists, 
are  a  society  of  Piedraontese  priests  founded  in  1.S4.5. 
They  have  houses  at  Turin,  Novara,  and  Pinerolo,  and 
send  missionaries  to  Burma,  Ava,  and  Pegu  in  the 
East  Indies. 

(4)  By  a  decree  of  Pope  Leo  XIII,  dated  17  June, 
1898,  the  Oblati  seculares  O.S.B.— that  is,  those  who 
have  received  the  privilege  of  the  scapular,  and,  for 
their  friendliness  and  good  offices,  have  been  admitted 
as  confratres  of  any  Benedictine  monastery  or  congre- 
gation— are  now  granted  all  the  indulgences,  graces, 
and  privileges  conceded  to  those  of  any  other  congre- 
gations, more  particularly  the  Cassinese.  The  pope 
further  states  that,  since  "Benedictine  Oblates  cannot, 
at  the  same  time,  be  tertiaries  of  the  Franciscan  or  any 
other  order,  it  is  "congruous"  that  they  should  have 
peculiar  privileges.  He,  therefore,  grants  them  the 
plenary  indulgence  on  the  day  of  clothing  and  the 
chief  feasts  of  oblates  etc.;  twice  a  year  the  blessing 
in  the  encyclical  letters  of  Pope  Benedict  XIV;  the 
general  absolution  which  tertiaries  are  able  to  receiveon 
certain  days  during  confession,  with  the  jileiiary  in- 
dulgence annexed  to  it  {adhibita  formula  pro  Trrtiafiis 
pTiTscripta) ;  the  special  plenary  indulgence  at  the  hour 
of  death  (observetur  ritus  et  formula  a  constitutione 
P.  P.  Bened.  XIV  "Pia  Mater");  an  indulgence  of 
seven  years  and  seven  quarantines  every  time  they 
hear  Mass  cnrde  sallem  contrili — in  a  word,  all  and  each 
of  the  privileges  and  favours  granted  to  the  lay  ter- 
tiaries of  St.  Francis  and  of  other  orders. 

Mlyot,  Hisl.  drs  ordm  mnn.:  MloHE.  Did.des  ord.Te!.:  Goscn- 
l.ER,  Diet,  cncyd.  de  la  IhfnI.  ailh..  s.  v.  Oblate:  ClLMET,  Comment. 
in  Rea-  S.  P.  BeiiedicH:  Hei.mbucheh,  Z)ie  Orden  u.  Kongreg.  der 
kalh.  Kirche  (Paderborn,  1907-8). 

J.  C.  Almond. 
Oblation.     See  Host  (Canonico-Liturgical). 


Obligation,  a  term  derived  from  the  Roman  civil 
law,  defined  in  the  "Institutes"  of  Justinian  as  a 
"legal  bond  which  by  a  legal  necessity  binds  us  to  do 
something  according  to  the  laws  of  our  State"  (III, 
13).  It  was  a  relation  by  which  two  persons  were 
bound  together  (ohligati)  by  a  bond  which  the  law 
recognized  and  enforced.  Originally  both  parties  were 
considered  to  be  under  the  obligation  to  each  other; 
subsequently  the  term  was  restricted  to  one  of  the 
parties,  who  was  said  to  be  under  an  obligation  to  do 
something  in  favour  of  another,  and  consequently 
that  other  had  a  correlative  right  to  enforce  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  obligation.  The  transference  of  the  term 
from  the  sphere  of  law  to  that  of  ethics  was  easy  and 
natural.  In  ethics  it  acquired  a  wider  meaning  and 
was  used  as  a  synonym  for  duty.  It  thus  became  the 
centre  of  some  of  the  fundamental  problems  of  ethics. 
The  question  of  the  source  of  moral  obligation  is  per- 
haps the  chief  of  these  problems,  and  it  is  certainly 
not  one  of  the  easiest  or  least  important.  We  all 
acknowledge  that  we  are  in  general  under  an  obliga- 
tion not  to  commit  murder,  but  when  we  ask  for  the 
ground  of  the  obligation,  we  get  almost  as  many  dif- 
ferent answers  as  there  are  systems  of  ethics. 

The  prevailing  Catholic  doctrine  may  be  explained 
in  the  following  terms.  By  moral  obligation  we  under- 
stand some  sort  of  necessity,  imposed  on  the  will,  of 
doing  what  is  good  and  avoiding  what  is  evil.  The 
necessity,  of  which  there  is  question  here,  is  not  the 
physical  coercion  exercised  on  man  by  an  external  and 
stronger  physical  force.  If  two  strong  men  seize  me 
by  the  arms  and  drag  me  whither  I  would  not  go,  I 
act  under  necessity  or  compulsion,  but  this  is  not  the 
necessity  of  moral  obligation.  The  will,  which  is  the 
seat  of  moral  obligation,  is  incapable  of  being  physically 
coerced  in  that  manner.  It  cannot  be  forced  to  will 
what  it  does  not  will.  It  is  indeed  possible  to  conceive 
that  the  will  is  necessitated  to  action  by  the  antece- 
dent conditions.  The  doctrine  of  those  who  deny  free 
will  is  easily  intelligible  although  we  deny  that  it  ia 
true.  The  will  is  indeed  necessitated  by  its  own  na- 
ture to  tend  towards  the  good  in  general;  we  cannot 
wish  for  what  is  evil  unless  it  presents  itself  to  us  under 
the  appearance  of  good.  We  also  necessarily  wish 
for  happiness,  and  if  we  found  ourselves  in  presence  of 
some  object  which  fully  satisfied  all  our  desires,  and 
contained  in  itself  nothing  to  repel  us,  we  should  be 
necessitated  to  love  it.  But  in  this  life  there  is  no 
such  object  which  can  fully  satisfy  all  our  desires 
and  thus  make  us  completely  happy.  Health, 
friends,  fame,  wealth,  pleasures,  singly  or  all  com- 
bined, are  incapable  of  filling  the  void  in  our  hearts. 
Though  in  their  mca,sure  desirable,  all  earthly  goods 
are  limited,  and  man's  (Mpai'il y  for  good  is  unlimited. 
.411  earthly  goods  arc  (I.  r.Tti\  r;  we  recognize  their 
defects  and  the  evil  whirli  the  pursuit  or  po.ssession  of 
them  entails.  Considered  with  their  defects,  they 
repel  as  well  as  attract  us;  our  wills  therefore  are  not 
necessitated  by  them.  In  the  i)re.sence  of  any  earthly 
good  our  wills  are  free,  at  least  after  the  first  involun- 
tary tendency  to  what  attracts  theni;  they  are  not 
necessitated  (o  full  and  deliberate  action. 

Theneiis^itv,  I  lien,  which  constitutes  the  e.s.sence  of 
moral  oliliual  n^n  must  be  of  the  kind  which  an  end 
that  must  lie  .itlaiued  lays  upon  us  of  adopting  the 
necessary  means  towards  obtaining  that  end.  If  I  am 
bound  to  cross  the  ocean  and  I  am  unable  to  fly,  I 
must  go  on  board  ship.  That  is  the  only  means  at  my 
disposal  for  attaining  the  end  which  I  am  bound  to 
obtain.  Moral  obligation  is  a  necessity  of  this  kind. 
It  is  the  necessity  that  I  am  under,  of  employing  the 
necessary  means  towards  the  obtaining  of  an  end 
which  is  also  necessary.  The  necessity,  then,  which 
moral  obligation  lays  upon  us  is  the  necessity,  not  of 
the  determinism  of  nature,  nor  of  the  physical  coercion 
of  an  external  and  stronger  force,  but  it  is  of  the  same 
general  character  as  the  necessity  that  we  are  under 


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190 


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of  employing  the  necessary  means  in  order  to  attain 
an  end  which  must  be  obtained.  There  is,  however, 
a  special  quality  in  the  necessity  of  iiiorul  obligation 
which  is  peculiar  to  itself.  We  all  uiiproriatc  this 
when  we  say  that  children  are  "obliged  "  to  obey  their 
parents,  that  they  "ought"  to  obey  them,  that  it  is 
their  "duty"  to  do  so.  We  do  not  simply  mean  by 
those  assertions  that  obedience  to  parents  is  a  neces- 
sary means  towards  their  own  education,  and  for 
securing  the  peace,  harmony,  and  affection,  which 
should  reign  in  the  home.  We  do  not  simply  mean 
that  the  happiness  of  parents  and  children  depends 
upon  such  obedience.  Although  society  at  large  is 
much  concerned  that  children  should  be  trained  in 
respect  and  deference  towards  lawful  authority,  yet 
even  the  demands  of  society  do  not  explain  what  we 
mean  when  we  affirm  that  children  are  obliged  to  obey 
their  parents.  There  is  a  peremptoriness,  a  sacredness, 
a  universality  about  the  obligation  of  duty,  which 
can  only  be  explained  by  calling  to  mind  what  man  is, 
what  is  his  origin,  and  what  is  his  destiny.  Man  is  a 
creature,  made  by  God  his  Creator,  with  Whom  he  is 
destined  to  live  for  all  eternity.  That  is  the  end  of 
man's  life  and  of  his  every  action,  imposed  on  him 
by  his  Maker,  who  in  making  man  ordered  every  fibre 
of  his  nature  to  the  end  for  which  he  was  made.  That 
doctrine  explains  the  peremptoriness,  the  sacredness, 
the  universality  of  moral  obligation,  made  known  to 
us,  as  it  is,  by  the  dictates  of  conscience.  The  doc- 
trine has  seldom  been  put  in  clearer  or  more  beautiful 
language  than  by  Cardinal  Newman  in  his  Letter  to 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk  (p.  55):— 

"The  Supreme  Being  is  of  a  certain  character, 
which,  expressed  in  human  language,  we  call  ethical. 
He  has  the  attributes  of  justice,  truth,  wisdom,  sanc- 
tity, benevolence  and  mercy,  as  eternal  characteris- 
tics in  His  Nature,  the  very  Law  of  His  being,  identi- 
cal with  Himself;  and  next,  when  He  became  Creator, 
He  implanted  this  Law,  which  is  Himself,  in  the  in- 
telligence of  all  His  rational  creatures.  The  divine 
Law  then  is  the  rule  of  ethical  truth,  the  standard 
of  right  and  wrong,  a  sovereign,  irreversible,  absolute 
authority  in  the  presence  of  men  and  Angels.  "The 
eternal  law,'  says  St.  Augustine,  'is  the  Divine  Reason 
or  Will  of  God,  commanding  the  observance,  forbid- 
ding the  disturbance,  of  the  natural  order  of  things.' 
'The  natural  law,'  says  St.  Thomas,  'is  an  impression 
of  the  Divine  Light  in  us,  a  participation  of  the  eternal 
law  in  the  rational  creature.'  This  law,  as  appre- 
hended in  the  minds  of  individual  men,  is  called  'con- 
science' ;  and  though  it  may  suffer  refraction  in  passing 
into  the  intellectual  medium  of  each,  it  is  not  thereby 
BO  affected  as  to  lose  its  character  of  being  the  Di- 
vine Law,  but  still  has,  as  such,  the  prerogative  of  com- 
manding obedience.  '  The  Divine  Law,'  says  Cardinal 
Goussct,  'is  the  supreme  rule  of  actions;  our  thoughts, 
desires,  words,  acts,  all  that  man  is,  is  subject  to  the 
domain  of  the  law  of  God;  and  this  law  is  the  rule  of 
our  conduct  by  means  of  our  conscience.  Hence  it 
is  never  lawful  to  go  against  our  conscience;  as  the 
Fourth  Lateran  Council  says, '  Quidquid  fit  contra  con- 
scientiam,  ajdificat  ad  gehennam.'  .  .  .  The  rule  and 
measure  of  duty  is  not  utility,  nor  ex^pedience,  nor  the 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number,  nor  State  conven- 
ience, nor  fitness,  order,  and  the  pulchrum.  Con- 
science is  not  a  long-sighted  selfishness,  nor  a  desire  to 
be  consistent  with  oneself;  but  it  is  a  messenger  from 
Him  who  both  in  nature  and  in  grace,  speaks  to  us 
behind  a  veil,  and  teaches  and  rules  us  by  His  repre- 
sentatives. Conscience  is  the  aboriginal  Vicar  of 
Chiist,  a  prophet  in  its  informations,  a  monarch  in  its 
peremptoriness,  a  priest  in  its  blessings  and  anathe- 
mas, and  even  though  the  eternal  priesthood  through- 
out the  Church  could  cease  to  be,  in  it  the  sacerdotal 
principle  would  remain  and  would  have  a  sway." 

An  injustice  would  be  done  to  the  foregoing  doc- 
trine if  it  were  classed  with  Mysticism,  innate  ideas, 


and  Intuitionism.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  in  the  strict- 
est sense  rational.  It  asserts  that  we  can  know  God, 
our  Creator  and  Lord,  that  we  can  know  ourselves  and 
the  bonds  that  bind  us  to  (Jod  antl  to  our  fellow-men. 
We  can  know  the  actions  which  it  is  right  and  becom- 
ing that  such  a  being  as  man  should  perform.  We  can 
and  do  know  that  God,  Whom  as  our  Creator  and 
Lord  we  are  bound  to  obey,  commands  us  to  do  what 
is  right  and  forbids  us  to  do  what  is  wrong.  Tliat 
is  the  eternal  law,  the  Divine  reason,  or  the  Divine 
will,  which  is  the  source  of  all  moral  obligation.  Moral 
precepts  are  the  commands  of  God,  but  they  are  also 
the  behests  of  right  reason,  inasmuch  as  they  are 
merely  the  rules  of  right  conduct  by  which  a  being 
such  as  man  is  shoidd  be  guided. 

An  objection  is  sometimes  urged  against  the  method 
of  analysing  moral  obligation  which  we  have  followed. 
It  is  said  that  moral  obligation  cannot  be  explained  as 
a  moral  necessity  of  adopting  the  necessary  means  to 
the  end  of  moral  action,  for  it  may  be  asked  what 
is  the  moral  obligation  of  the  end  itself.  The  Utili- 
tarians, for  example,  maintained  that  the  end  of 
human  action  should  be  the  greatest  happiness  of 
the  greatest  number.  But  a  man  may  well  ask, 
why  he  should  be  bound  to  direct  his  actions  towards 
securing  the  greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  num- 
ber. It  is  plain  what  answer  should  be  given  to 
such  a  question  on  the  principles  laid  down  above. 
God  is  our  Creator  and  Lord,  and  as  such  and  because 
He  is  good.  He  has  every  right  to  our  obedience  and 
service.  We  need  not  go  beyond  the  preceptive  will 
of  God  in  our  analysis;  it  is  obligatory  upon  us  from 
the  very  nature  of  God  and  our  relation  to  Him.  The 
rules  of  morality  are  then  moral  laws,  imposing  on  us 
an  obligation  derived  from  the  will  of  God,  our  Crea- 
tor. That  obligation  is  the  moral  necessity  that  we 
are  under  of  conforming  our  actions  to  the  demands 
of  our  rational  nature  and  to  the  end  for  which  we  ex- 
ist. If  we  do  what  is  not  conformable  to  our  rational 
nature  and  to  our  end,  we  violate  the  moral  law  and 
do  wrong.  The  effect  on  ourselves  of  such  an  action 
is  twofold  according  to  Catholic  theology.  A  bad 
action  does  not  merely  subject  us  to  a  penalty  assigned 
to  wrongdoing,  the  sanction  of  the  moral  law.  Be- 
sides this  rcatus  poen(e,  there  is  also  the  reatus  culpce 
in  every  moral  transgression.  The  sinner  has  com- 
mitted an  offence  against  God,  something  which  dis- 
pleases Him,  and  which  puts  an  end  to  the  friendship 
which  should  exist  between  the  Creator  and  creature. 
This  state  of  enmity  is  accompanied,  in  the  super- 
natural order  to  which  we  have  been  raised,  by  the 
privation  of  God's  grace,  and  of  the  rights  and  priv- 
ileges annexed  to  it.  This  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  effects  ijroduced  on  the  soul  by  sin,  the 
liability  to  punishment  is  merely  a  secondary  conse- 
quence of  it.  This  shows  how  far  from  the  truth  we 
should  be  if  we  attempted  to  explain  moral  obligations 
by  mere  liability  to  punishment  which  wrongdoing 
entails  in  this  world  or  in  the  next. 

The  sense  of  moral  obligation  is  an  attribute  of 
man's  rational  nature,  and  so  we  find  it  wherever  we 
find  man.  However,  in  the  early  history  of  ethical 
speculation  the  notion  is  not  prominent.  Before 
philosophers  began  to  inquire  into  the  meaning  and 
origin  of  moral  obligation,  they  busied  themselves 
about  what  is  the  good,  and  what  the  end  of  human 
activity.  This  was  the  question  which  occupied  the 
philosophers  of  ancient  Greece.  What  is  the  highest 
good  for  man?  In  what  does  man's  happiness  con- 
sist? Is  it  pleasure,  or  virtue  practised  for  its  own 
sake  or  for  the  gratification  and  self-esteem  that  it 
brings  to  the  virtuous  man?  With  the  exception  of 
the  Stoics,  the  Greek  philosophers  did  not  much  dis- 
cuss the  question  of  duty  and  moral  obligation.  They 
thought  that,  of  course,  when  a  man  knew  where  his 
highest  good  lay,  he  could  not  but  pursue  it.  Vice 
was  really  ignorance,  and  all  that  was  necessary  to 


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191 


OBLIGATION 


subdue  it  was  a  training  in  philosophy.  But  the  first 
principle  of  the  Stoics  was:  "life  according  to  nature". 
That  was  the  "becoming",  the  "proper"  thing, 
whether  it  brought  pleasure  or  pain,  which  the  Stoic 
philosopher  indeed  reckoned  of  no  importance,  and  af- 
fected to  despise.  This  philosophy  appealed  power- 
fully to  the  native  sternness  of  the  Roman  character, 
and  it  was  considerably  influenced  and  developed  by 
the  ideas  of  Roman  jurisjjrudcnce.  Thus  the  treatise 
of  PaniBtius,  a  Stoic  of  the  second  century  before 
Christ,  "On  the  Things  That  Are  Becoming",  was 
paraphrased  by  Cicero  in  the  next  century,  and  be- 
came his  well-known  treatise  "On  Duties".  Cicero 
remarks,  and  the  remark  is  significant,  that  Panietius 
had  not  given  a  definition  of  what  duty  is.  According 
to  Cicero  it  has  reference  to  the  end  of  good  actions, 
and  is  expressed  in  precepts  to  which  the  conduct  of 
life  can  be  conformed  in  all  its  particulars  (De  officiis, 
I,  iii).  The  working  out  of  the  doctrine  concerning 
the  law  of  nature  is  due  to  a  large  extent  to  the  Roman 
lawyers,  and  Costa  Rosetti,  a  recent  Austrian  writer 
on  ethics,  could  find  no  words  more  suited  to  sum  up 
the  common  Catholic  teaching  on  the  point  than  a 
passage  from  Cicero's  "De  republica"  (III,  xxii). 
We  cannot  do  better  than  give  a  translation  of  the 
passage  here,  as  it  will  show  clearly  how  fully  the  doc- 
trine of  a  law  of  nature  imposing  a  moral  obligation 
on  man  had  been  developed  before  it  was  adopted  by 
the  Fathers  (Lactantius,  "Dediv.  inst.",  VI,  viii): 

"Right  reason  is  a  true  law,  agreeing  with  nature, 
infused  into  all  men,  unchanging,  eternal,  which  sum- 
mons to  duty  by  its  commands,  deters  from  wrong 
by  forbidding  it,  and  which  nevertheless  neither 
commands  and  forbids  the  good  in  vain,  nor  prevails 
with  the  bad  by  commanding  and  forbidding  them. 
It  is  not  permitted  to  abrogate  this  law,  nor  is  it  al- 
lowed to  derogate  from  it  in  anything,  nor  is  it  possible 
to  abrogate  it  wholly.  We  can  neither  be  released 
from  this  law  by  popular  vote,  nor  should  another  be 
sought  for  to  gloss  and  interpret  it.  It  is  not  one 
thing  at  Rome,  another  at  Athens;  one  thing  now,  and 
another  afterwards;  but  one,  eternal  and  immutable 
law  will  govern  all  men  for  ever,  and  there  will  be  one, 
the  common  master  and  ruler  of  all,  God.  He  it  was 
that  proposed  and  carried  this  law,  and  whoever  does 
not  yield  obedience  to  it  will  revolt  against  himself, 
and  by  offering  an  affront  to  the  nature  of  man  he  will 
thereby  suffer  the  greatest  penalties,  even  if  he  avoids 
other  supposed  sanctions." 

The  Stoic  indeed  understood  this  doctrine  in  a  pan- 
theistic sense.  His  god  was  the  universal  reason  of 
the  world,  of  which  a  particle  was  bestowed  on  man  at 
his  birth.  It  only  needed  the  Christian  doctrine  of  a 
personal  God,  the  Creator  and  Lord  of  all  things. 
Who  in  many  ways  manifests  His  law  to  man,  but 
more  especially  through  and  in  the  voice  of  conscience, 
to  turn  it  into  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  moral  obliga- 
tion which  has  been  analysed  above.  In  the  teaching 
of  Christ,  right  conduct  is  summed  up  in  the  observ- 
ance of  the  commandments.  Those  commandments 
constitute  the  law  of  God,  which  He  came  not  to  de- 
stroy but  to  fulfil.  He  required  their  observance  un- 
der the  most  terrible  sanctions.  St.  Paul,  of  course, 
only  preached  the  doctrine  of  his  Master.  The  legalism 
which  he  rejected  was  the  ceremonial  and  the  merely 
outward  observance  of  the  Pharisees,  not  the  internal 
and  the  external  observance  of  the  moral  law.  Al- 
though the  Gentile  had  not  the  moral  law  written  on 
tablets  of  stone,  yet  he  had  it  written  on  the  fleshy 
tablets  of  his  heart,  and  his  conscience  bore  witness 
to  it,  as  did  that  of  the  Jew  (Rom.,  ii,  14).  This  is  the 
doctrine  still  taught  in  the  Catholic  Church.  It  de- 
rives straight  from  Christ  and  His  Apostles,  though  it 
is  often  expressed  in  the  language  of  Stoicism,  inter- 
preted according  to  the  exigences  of  Christian  doc- 
trine. Since  the  Reformation  it  has  been  the  fashion 
with  many  to  reject  it  as  legalism  in  favour  of  what 


is  called  Christian  liberty.  Christian  liberty,  how- 
ever, interpreted  by  private  judgment,  developed  into 
various  systems  of  so-called  independent  morality. 

Thomas  Hobbes  (1588-1679)  is  justly  regarded  as 
one  of  the  chief  pioneers  of  modern  thought.  Accord- 
ing to  Hobbes,  man  in  the  state  of  nature  seeks  noth- 
ing but  his  own  selfish  pleasure,  but  such  individual- 
ism naturally  leads  to  an  internecine  war  in  which 
every  man's  hand  is  against  his  neighbour.  In  pure 
self-interest  and  for  self-preservation  men  entered  into 
a  compact  by  which  they  agreed  to  surrender  part 
of  their  natural  freedom  to  an  absolute  ruler  in  order 
to  preserve  the  rest.  The  State  determines  what  is 
just  and  unjust,  right  and  wrong;  and  the  strong  arm 
of  the  law  provides  the  ultimate  .sanction  for  right 
conduct.  The  .same  fundamiiital  principles  form  the 
groundwork  of  the  empirical  pliilosophy  of  Locke  and 
a  long  train  of  followers  down  to  the  present  day. 
Some  of  these  followers  indeed  denied  that  all  the 
motives  that  influence  man's  conduct  are  .selfish;  they 
insist  on  the  existence  of  sympathetic  and  social  feel- 
ings in  men,  but  whether  selfish  or  social,  all  are  rooted 
in  a  sensist  philosophy.  The  hneal  descent  of  these 
views  may  be  traced  from  Hobbes  and  Locke,  through 
Hume,  Paley,  Bentham,  the  two  Mills,  and  Bain,  to  H. 
Spencer  and  the  Evolutionists  of  our  own  day.  This 
sensist  philosophy,  of  course,  has  had  its  opponents. 
Cudworth  and  the  Cambridge  Platonists  strove  to  de- 
fend the  essential  and  eternal  distinction  of  good  and 
evil  by  reviving  Platonism.  Butler  insisted  on  the 
claims  of  conscience,  while  the  Scotch  school,  Price, 
Reid,  and  Dugald  Stewart,  postulated  a  moral  sense 
analogous  to  the  sense  of  beauty,  which  infallibly  in- 
dicates the  right  course  of  conduct.  In  Germany, 
Kant  formulated  his  ethical  system  to  counteract 
the  scepticism  of  Hume.  Moral  obligation,  accord- 
ing to  him,  is  derived  from  the  categorical  impera- 
tive of  the  autonomous  reason.  Kant's  philosophy, 
through  Fichte  and  Schelling,  gave  birth  to  the  pan- 
theism of  Hegel.  A  small  but  influential  school  of 
English  Hegelians,  represented  by  such  men  as  T.  H. 
Green,  Bradley,  Wallace,  Bosanquet,  and  others,  re- 
gard conscience  as  the  voice  of  man's  true  self,  and 
man's  true  self  as  ideally  one  with  God.  English 
philosophic  thought  is  thus  divided  into  the  schools  of 
Materialism  and  Pantheism,  much  as  Epicureanism 
and  Stoicism  divided  the  ancient  world.  Pragma- 
tism, a  product  of  American  thought,  may  without  in- 
justice be  compared  to  the  scepticism  of  the  Athenian 
Academy.  Each  and  all  of  these  systems  contain 
grave  errors  about  the  nature  of  man  and  about  his 
position  in  the  world,  and  so  it  is  no  wonder  that  they 
fail  to  account  for  moral  obligation.  (See  Deter- 
minism; Duallsm;  Duty;  Ethics;  Fatalism;  Free 
Will;  Hedonism;  Kant,  Philosophy  of;  Law;  Pan- 
theism; Positivism.) 

Obligations,  PROFEssioNAL.^The  office  of  a  judge, 
inasmuch  as  he  is  appointed  by  public  authority  to 
administer  justice  according  to  the  laws,  demands  in 
the  first  place  competent  knowledge  of  the  laws 
which  are  to  be  admiiiistcrod.  Not  Ic.ss  important  in 
a  judge  is  a  lofty  sense  of  justice  and  an  upright  char- 
acter which  cannot  be  deflected  from  the  pathof  duty 
by  either  fear  or  favour.  The  ju<lge,  too,  must  em- 
ploy at  least  ordinary  diligence  in  the  conduct  of  the 
cases  that  come  before  him,  so  that  as  far  as  possible 
a  just  sentence  may  be  arrived  at.  He  must  not 
transgress  the  limits  of  his  authority,  and  he  must  ob- 
serve the  rules  of  procedure  laid  down  for  his  guidance. 
These  obligations  of  a  judge  follow  from  the  nature 
of  his  oflnce,  and  he  binds  himself  implicitly  to  fulfil 
them  when  he  accepts  that  oflire.  .Judges  also  usually 
take  an  o.alli  by  which  they  expressly  bind  themselves 
to  administer  justice  uprightly,  without  fear  or  favour. 
Selling  justice  for  bribes  is  rightly  regarded  as  a  hei- 
nous ofTence  in  a  judge,  and  besides  being  liable  to  se- 
vere punishment,  it  involves  the  obligation  of  making 


OBLIGATION 


192 


OBLIGATION 


restitution,  as  there  is  no  just  title  to  retain  the  price 
of  justice.  Natural  equity  requires  that  all  should 
be  jiresuined  to  be  innocent  who  have  not  been  proved 
to  be  sjuilty  of  crime,  and  so  a  judge  must  give  those 
wlio  are  accused  the  benefit  of  tlie  doubt,  ulicii  llie 
crime  imputed  to  them  cannot  be  clearly  pinvrd.  In 
ci\il  actions  he  is  bound  to  give  sentciirr  aironliii';  lo 
the  merits  of  the  case,  and  so  in  default  of  certainty 
of  riglit,  he  must  decide  in  favour  of  tlie  party  who 
has  tlie  better  claim.  What  has  been  said  of  judges 
is  applicable  in  due  measure  to  magistrates,  referees, 
arbitrators,  and  jurymen,  all  of  whom  are  invested 
with  .some  of  the  functions  of  a  judge. 

.Vdvocates  and  lawyers  are  persons  skilled  in  the 
law  who  for  payment  undertake  the  legal  business  of 
clients.  They  are  obliged  to  have  the  knowledge  and 
skill  which  are  reciuireii  for  the  ilue  discharge  of  their 
oflice,  and  which  tlicy  implicitly  profess  to  have  when 
they  offer  their  scr\iics  (cj  the  public.  They  must  also 
employ  at  least  ordinary  diligence  and  care  in  the  con- 
duct of  the  business  entrusteil  to  them.  They  must 
keep  faith  with  their  clients  and  use  only  just  means  to 
obtain  the  objects  which  they  desire.  As  they  act 
for  and  in  the  name  of  their  clients,  they  must  not 
undertake  a  cause  which  is  clearly  unjust,  otherwise 
they  will  be  guilty  of  co-operating  in  injustice,  and 
will  be  bound  to  make  restitution  for  all  the  unjust 
damage  which  they  cause  to  others.  However,  pre- 
vious certainty  of  thejusticeof  acauseisnot  necessary 
in  order  that  a  lawyer  may  rightly  undertake  it;  it 
will  be  sufficient  if  the  justice  of  the  cause  to  be  under- 
taken is  at  least  probable,  for  then  it  may  be  hoped 
that  the  truth  will  be  made  clear  in  the  course  of  the 
trial.  As  soon  as  an  advocate  is  satisfied  that  his 
client  has  no  case,  he  should  inform  him  of  the  fact, 
and  should  not  proceed  further  with  the  case.  An  ad- 
vocate may  always  undertake  the  defence  of  a  crimi- 
nal, whether  he  be  guilty  or  not,  for  even  if  his  de- 
fence of  a  real  culprit  is  successful,  no  great  harm  will 
usually  be  done  by  a  guilty  man  escaping  the  punish- 
ment which  he  deserves.  To  justify  a  criminal  ac- 
cusation of  another  there  must  be  morally  certain 
evidence  of  his  guilt,  as  otherwise  there  will  be  danger 
of  doing  serious  and  unjust  harm  to  the  reputation  of 
one's  neighbour. 

From  the  Decree  of  the  Holy  Office,  19  Dec,  1860, 
in  answer  to  the  Bishop  of  Southwark,  it  is  clear  that 
in  England  an  advocate  may  undertake  a  case  where 
there  is  question  of  judicial  separation  between  hus- 
band and  wife.  Even  in  an  action  for  divorce  in  a 
civil  court  he  may  defend  tlie  action  against  the  plain- 
tiff. If  the  marriage  has  already  been  pronounced  null 
and  void  by  competent  ecclesiastical  authority,  a 
Catholic  advocate  may  impugn  its  validity  in  the  civil 
courts.  Moreover,  for  just  reason,  as,  for  example, 
to  obtain  a  variation  in  the  marriage  settlement,  or  to 
prevent  the  necessity  of  having  to  maintain  a  bastard 
child,  a  Catholic  lawyer  may  i^etition  for  a  divorce  in 
the  civil  court,  not  with  the  intention  of  enabling  his 
client  to  marry  again  while  his  spouse  is  still  living, 
but  with  a  view  to  obtaining  the  civil  effects  of  divorce 
in  the  civil  tribunal.  This  opinion  at  any  rate  is  de- 
fended as  probable  by  many  good  theologians.  The 
reason  is  becau.se  marriage  is  neither  contracted  nor 
dissolved  before  the  civil  authority;  in  the  formalities 
prescribed  for  marriage  by  civil  law  there  is  only  ques- 
tion of  the  civil  authority  taking  cognizance  of  who  are 
married,  and  of  the  civil  effects  which  now  therefrom. 

In  canon  law  excommunicated  and  infamous  persons, 
accomplices,  and  others  are  debarred  from  prosecuting 
criminals,  but  as  a  general  rule  any  one  who  has  full 
use  of  his  senses  may  prosecute  according  to  American 
and  English  law.  Nobody  should  undertake  a  prose- 
cution when  greater  evil  than  good  would  follow  from 
it,  or  when  there  is  not  moral  certainty  as  to  the  guilt 
of  the  accused.  However,  it  may  be  done  for  the 
sake  of  the  public  good,  and  there  may  be  an  obliga- 


tion to  do  it,  as  when  one's  office  compels  one  to  under- 
take the  task,  or  the  defence  of  the  innocent  or  the 
public  good  requires  it,  or  a  precept  of  obedience  com- 
mands it.  Thus  by  ecclesiastical  law  heretics  and 
priests  guiltv  of  solicitation  in  the  sacred  tribunal  are 
to  l.e  ,li'i[oinieed  lo  the  ordinary. 

Till-  (li'liiKhint  ill  :i  riiiiiinal  trial  is  not  himself  sub- 
jecti-d  loexaniiiKilion,  aec'oriUng  to  English  law,  unless 
he  offers  liiniself  voluntarily  to  give  evidence,  and  then 
he  may  be  examined  like  a  witness.  In  canon  law 
the  accused  is  examined,  and  the  question  arises 
whether  he  is  bound  to  tell  the  truth  against  himself. 
He  is  bound  to  tell  the  truth  if  he  is  interrogated  ac- 
cording to  law;  canon  law  prescribes  that  when  there 
is  semiijlind  pmlmlio  of  the  crime  and  this  is  made 
clear  to  the  defendant  he  should  l>e  interrogated. 

The  defendant  may  in  self-defence  make  known  the 
secret  crime  of  a  witness  against  him,  if  it  really  con- 
duces to  his  defence;  but,  of  course,  he  may  never  im- 
pute false  crimes  to  anybody.  A  criminal  maj-  not  de- 
fend himself  against  lawful  arrest,  for  that  would  be 
to  resist  lawful  authority,  but  he  is  not  compelled  to 
deliver  himself  up  to  justice,  and  it  is  not  a  sin  to  es- 
cape from  justice  if  he  can  do  so  without  violence. 
The  law  prescribes  that  he  shall  be  kept  in  durance, 
not  that  he  shall  voluntarily  remain  in  custody.  A 
criminal  lawfully  condemned  to  death  is  not  obliged 
to  save  his  life  by  escape  or  other  means  if  he  can  do 
so;  he  should  submit  to  the  execution  of  the  sentence 
passed  upon  him,  and  may  do  so  meritoriously. 

Charity  or  obedience  may  impose  an  obligation  to 
give  evidence  in  a  court  of  justice.  If  serious  harm 
can  be  prevented  by  offering  one's  self  as  a  witness, 
there  will  as  a  rule  be  an  obligation  to  do  so,  and  obedi- 
ence imposes  the  obligation  when  one  is  summoned  by 
lawful  authority.  A  witness  is  bound  by  his  oath  and 
by  the  obedience  due  to  lawful  authority  to  tell  the 
truth  in  answer  to  the  questions  lawfully  put  to  him. 
He  is  not  bound  to  incriminate  himself,  nor,  of  course, 
may  the  seal  of  confession  ever  be  broken. 

The  canon  law  laid  it  down  that  the  testimony  of 
two  witnesses  of  unsuspected  character  was  neces- 
sary and  sufficient  evidence  of  any  fact  alleged  in  a 
court  of  justice.  The  testimony  of  a  solitary  witness 
was  not  usually  sufhcient  or  admissible  evidence  of  a 
crime,  and  in  keeping  with  this  the  theologians  d(«ided 
that  a  solitary  witness  should  not  declare  what  he 
knew  of  a  crime,  inasmuch  as  he  was  not  lawfully 
interrogated.  English  law,  however,  with  most 
modern  systems,  admits  the  testimony  of  one  wit- 
ness, if  credible,  as  sufficient  evidence  of  a  fact,  and 
so  as  a  rule  there  will  be  an  obligation  on  such  a  one 
of  answering  according  to  his  knowledge  when  ques- 
tioned lawfully  in  a  court  of  justice. 

A  doctor  who  holds  himself  out  as  ready  to  under- 
take the  care  of  the  sick  must  have  competent  knowl- 
edge of  his  profession  and  must  exercise  his  office  at 
least  with  ordinary  care  and  diligence;  otherwise  he 
will  sin  against  justice  and  charity  in  exposing  himself 
to  the  risk  of  seriously  injuring  his  neighbour.  Unless 
he  is  bound  by  some  special  agreement  he  is  not  ordi- 
narily obliged  to  undertake  any  particular  case,  for 
there  are  usually  others  who  are  willing  and  able  to 
give  the  necessary  a.ssistance  to  the  sick.  Even  in 
time  of  pestilence  he  will  not  commit  sin  if  he  leave 
the  neighbourhood,  unless  he  is  bound  to  remain  by 
some  special  contract. 

He  should  not  make  exorbitant  charges  for  his  ser- 
vices, nor  multiply  visits  uselessly  and  thus  increase 
his  fees,  nor  call  in  other  doctors  without  necessity. 
On  the  other  hand,  even  at  serious  inconvenience,  he 
should  visit  a  patient  whose  case  he  has  undertaken 
when  called  as  far  as  is  reasonable,  and  he  should  be 
ready  to  call  in  other  doctors  for  consultation  when 
necessary  or  when  he  is  asked  to  do  so.  He  is  some- 
times bound  by  the  general  law  of  charity  to  give  his 
assistance  gratis  to  the  poor. 


O'BRAEIN 


193 


O'BRUADAIR 


He  may  not  neglect  safer  remedies  in  order  to  try 
tiiose  which  are  less  safe,  but  there  is  nothing  to  pre- 
vent him  from  prescribing  what  will  probably  do  good 
if  it  is  certain  that  it  will  not  do  harm.  In  a  desperate 
case,  with  the  consent  of  the  sick  person  and  of  his 
relations,  he  may  make  use  of  what  will  probably  do 
good  though  it  may  also  probably  do  harm,  provided 
that  there  is  nothing  better  to  be  done  in  the  circum- 
stances. It  is  altogether  wrong  to  make  experiments 
with  doubtful  remedies  or  operations  on  living  human 
beings;  fiat  experimentum  in  corpore  vili. 

When  the  patient  is  in  danger  of  death,  the  doctor 
is  bound  out  of  charity  to  warn  him  or  those  who  at- 
tend on  him,  that  he  may  make  all  necessary  prep- 
arations for  death.  (See  Abortion;  Anesthesia; 
Craniotomy;  HYrNOTisM.) 

Teachers  hold  the  place  of  parents  with  regard  to 
those  committed  to  their  charge  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
struction. They  are  bound  in  justice  to  e.xercise  due 
care  and  fliligence  in  the  discharge  of  their  office. 
They  must  have  the  knowledge  and  skill  which  that 
office  demands. 

Cronin,  The  Science  of  Ethics  (London,  1909);  Meter,  Institu- 
tiones  Juris  naturalis  (Freiburg,  1885) ;  SiDGWiCK,  The  Methods  of 
Ethics  (London.  1890) :  Ballerini-Palmieri,  Opus  morale  (Prato, 
1892),  tr.  iii,  U;  viii,  527;  Hunter,  Roman  Law  (London,  18S5); 
Slater,  .4  Manual  of  Moral  Theology,  I  (New  York,  1908);  see 
Bishop;  Celib.^cy;  Clerics;  Priesthood;  Reugious;  Vows. 

T.  Slater. 

O'Braein,  Tighernach,  Irish  annalist  and  Abbot 
of  Roscommon  and  Clonmacnoise,  d.  108S.  Little  is 
known  of  his  personal  history  except  that  he  must 
have  been  born  in  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh 
century  and  that  he  came  of  a  Connaught  family. 
His  "  Annals"  (among  the  earliest  of  Irish  annals)  are 
of  the  greatest  value  to  the  historian  of  Ireland  be- 
cause of  the  author's  attempt  to  synchronize  Irish 
events  with  those  of  the  rest  of  Europe  from  the 
earliest  times  to  his  own  day.  His  learning  is  shown 
by  his  quotations,  among  others,  from  the  works  of 
the  Venerable  Bede,  Josephus,  Eusebius,  and  Orosius, 
not  to  speak  of  the  Vulgate.  But  his  sources  for 
the  Irish  portions  of  the  "Annals  "  are  not  now  discov- 
erable because  of  the  loss  of  the  Irish  manuscripts 
from  which  he  drew  his  information.  Only  fragments 
of  Tighernach's  "Annals"  are  now  extant;  these  are 
in  a  vellum  of  the  twelfth  century  and  one  of  the 
fourteenth  century  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford, 
and  in  a  fourteenth-century  MS.  in  Trinity  College 
Library  (Dublin).  These  fragments  were  published  by 
Dr.  O'Conor  in  his  "Rcrum  Hibernicarum  Scrip- 
tores"  (1825),  but  O'Conor's  text  is  full  of  errors. 
They  have  recently  been  published  and  translated  by 
Whitley  Stokes  in  the  "Revue  Celtique"  (vols.  XVI, 
XVII,  XVIII).  Two  pages  in  facsimile  are  given  in 
Gilbert's  "National  Manuscripts  of  Ireland",  part  I. 

O'CtTRRT,  Lectures  on  the  Manuscript  Materials  of  Ancient  Irish 
History  (Dublin,  1873),  57. 

Joseph  Ddnn. 

Obregonians  (or  Poor  Infirmari ans)  ,  a  small  con- 
gregation of  men,  who  professed  the  Rule  of  the  Third 
Order  of  .St.  Francis,  founded  by  Bernardino  Obre- 
g6n  (b.  .5  May,  l.')40,  at  Las  Huelgas  near  Burgos, 
Spain;  d.  6  Aug.,  1,599).  Of  a  noble  family  Obreg6n 
was  .an  officer  in  the  Sjjanish  army,  but  retired  and 
dedicated  himself  to  the  service  of  the  sick  in  the  hos- 
pitals of  Madrid.  Others  became  associated  with  him 
in  hospital  service  and  in  1567  by  consent  of  the  papal 
nuncio  at  Madrid  the  new  congregation  was  founded. 
To  the  three  ordinary  vows  was  added  that  of  free 
hospitality.  The  congregation  did  not  found  hospi- 
tals but  served  in  those  already  existing.  It  sjiread 
in  Spain  and  its  dependencies,  in  Belgium  and  the 
Indies.  Obreg6n  went  to  Lisbon,  1592,  and  there 
founded  an  asylum  for  orphan  boys;  returning  to 
Spain  he  assisted  King  Philip  II  in  his  last  illness 
(1598).  Paul  V,  1609,  allowed  the  Obregonians  to 
XL— 13 


wear  over  the  grey  habit  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis  a  black  cross  on  the  left  side  of  the  breast,  to 
distinguish  them  from  similar  congregations.  Since 
the  French  Revolution  they  have  entirely  disappeared. 

De  Herrera  Y  Maldonado,  Vida  y  Virtudes  del  .  .  .  Bernar- 
dino de  Obregon  (Madrid,  1634) ;  DE  Gdbernatis,  Orbis  Seraphi- 
cus,  II  (Lvona,  I6S5),  940;  Ratzinger,  Gesch.  der  kirchlichen 
Armenpflege  (2  ed„  Freiburg,  1884),  509. 

LivAEius  Oligeb. 

Obreption  (Lat.  06  and  repere,  "to  creep  over"), 
a  canonical  term  applied  to  a  species  of  fraud  by  which 
an  ecclesiastical  rescript  is  obtained.  Dispensations 
or  graces  are  not  granted  unless  there  be  some  motive 
for  requesting  them,  and  the  law  of  the  Church  re- 
quires that  the  true  and  just  causes  that  lie  behind  the 
motive  be  stated  in  every  prayer  for  such  dispensation 
or  grace.  When  the  petition  contains  a  statement 
about  facts  or  circumstances  that  are  supposititious  or, 
at  least,  modified  if  they  really  exist,  the  resulting  re- 
script is  said  to  be  vitiated  by  obreption.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  silence  had  been  observed  concerning 
something  that  essentially  changed  the  state  of  the 
case,  it  is  called  subreption.  Rescripts  obtained  by 
obreption  or  subreption  are  null  and  void  when  the 
motive  cause  of  the  rescript  is  affected  bj'  them.  If  it 
is  only  the  impelling  cause,  and  the  substance  of  the 
petition  is  not  affected,  or  if  the  false  statement  was 
made  through  ignorance,  the  rescript  is  not  vitiated. 
As  requests  for  rescripts  must  come  through  a  person 
in  ecclesiastical  authority,  it  is  his  duty  to  inform  him- 
self of  the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  causes  alleged  in  the 
petitions,  and  in  case  they  are  granted,  to  see  that  the 
conditions  of  the  rescript  are  fulfilled. 

Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1906) ;  Laurentius, 
Institutiones  Juris  Ecclesiastici  (Freiburg,  1903). 

William  H.  Fanning. 

O'Brien,  Terence  Albert,  b.  at  Limerick,  1600; 
d.  there,  31  October,  1651.  He  joined  the  Domini- 
cans, receiving  the  name  Albert  at  Limerick,  where  his 
uncle,  Maurice  O'Brien,  was  then  prior.  In  1622  he 
studied  at  Toledo  and  after  eight  years  returned  to 
Limerick,  to  become  twice  prior  there  and  once  at 
Lorrha,  and  in  1643  provincial  of  his  order  in  Ireland. 
His  services  to  the  Catholic  Confederation  were  highly 
valued  by  the  Supreme  Council.  At  Rome  he  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  Master  in  Theology,  and  on  his 
return  made  a  visitation  of  two  houses  of  his  province 
at  Lisbon,  where  it  was  reported  that  LTrban  VIII  was 
about  to  appoint  him  coadjutor  to  the  Bishop  of  Emly. 
He  was  again  named  for  the  coadjutorship  by  the 
Supreme  Council  at  the  end  of  1645,  and  recommended 
by  the  nuncio  Rinuccini.  Subsequently,  at  the  peti- 
tion of  many  bishops,  Rinuccini  WTote  (17  March, 
1646)  that  Burgat,  Vicar-General  of  Emly,  was  a  suit- 
able person  for  the  coadjutorship.  In  August  he  re- 
newed his  recommendation  of  Father  Terence  O'Brien, 
who  was  named  coadjutor  with  the  right  of  succession, 
in  March,  1647,  and  eight  months  later  was  conse- 
crated by  Rinuccini.  Throughout  the  ensuing  troubles 
he  adhered  to  the  nuncio.  He  signed  the  declaration 
against  Inchiquin's  truce  in  1648,  and  the  tleclaration 
against  Ormond  in  1650.  When  Limerick  was  be- 
sieged in  1651,  he  urged  a  stubborn  resistance  and  so 
embittered  the  Ormondists  and  tlie  Parliamentarians, 
that  in  the  capitulation  he  was  excluded  from  quarter 
and  protection.  The  day  after  the  surrender,  he  with 
Major  General  Purcell  and  Father  Wolf  were  dis- 
covered in  tli<'  pest-house,  brought  before  a  court  mar- 
tial and  ordered  for  execution,  which  took  place  on  the 
following  day. 

Meeban,  Memoirs  of  the  Irish  Hierarchy  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century  (Bth  cd.,  Dublin,  about  1888);  O'Reilly,  Memorials  of 
those  who  suffered  for  the  Catholic  Faith  (London,  1868) ;  McRPHT, 
Our  Martyrs  (Dublin,  1896);  de  Bubgo,  Hibemia  Dominicana 
(Cologne,  1702);  Walsh  in  Irish  Eccl.  Rec,  Feb.,  1894. 

O'Bruadair,  David,  an  Irish  poet,  b.  about  1625, 
most  prob:ibly  in  the  barony  of  Barrymore,  Co.  Cork, 


OBSERVANTS 


194 


O'CALLAGHAN 


but  according  to  many  authorities  in  that  of  Connello, 
Co.  Limerick;  d.  January,  109S.  He  was  well  edu- 
cated in  the  Irish,  Latin,  anil  English  languages.  His 
historical  poems  show  the  influcMic  of  Geoffrey  Keat- 
ing, his  favourite  Irish  uuth<ir.  He  wrote  elegies  on 
the  deaths  of  many  historically  prominent  members 
of  the  leading  Minister  families,  especially  the  Bourkes 
of  Cahirmoyle,  the  I'itzgeraUls  of  Claonghlais,  and  the 
Barrys  of  Co.  Cork,  who  later  befriended  him  in  his 
poverty.  All  his  i>oems,  whether  historical,  social,  or 
elegiac,  are  marked  by  a  freshness  rare  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  and  they  furnish  many  interesting  de- 
tails .about  the  life  and  manners  of  his  time.  Two  of 
his  epithalamia,  a  form  of  composition  rare  in  Irish 
literature,  have  been  preserved.  They  were  written 
to  celebrate  the  marriages  of  the  sisters,  Una  and 
Eleanor  Bourke  of  Cahirmoyle.  His  satires  when  di- 
rected against  the  Cromwellian  Planters  or  the  Duke 
of  Ormonde  and  his  flatterers  are  bitter,  but  lighter 
and  more  humorous  when  treating  themes  of  local 
interest,  as  in  the  case  of  his  witty  proverbial  "  Guagan 
Gliog",  or  his  mock-heroic  defence  of  the  smiths  of 
Co.  Limerick.  His  religious  poems  exhibit  great 
beauty  and  depth  of  feeling,  especially  the  poem  on 
the  Passion  of  Christ.  Others  like  those  on  the  schis- 
matical  movement  of  the  Remonstrants  (1666-70) 
and  on  the  Oates  Plot  (1678-82)  are  polemical  and  con- 
tain details  not  found  elsewhere. 

His  political  poems  treating  the  events  of  Irish  his- 
tory from  the  CromwelUan  Plantation  (1652)  to  the  end 
of  the  War  of  the  Revolution  (1691)  reveal  his  great 
political  foresight  and  independent  views.  His  "  Suim 
Purgadora  bhfear  n-Eireann  "  summarizes  the  history 
of  Ireland  from  1641  to  1684,  and  a  series  of  poems 
commemorates  the  exciting  events  of  the  reign  of 
James  II  (1685-91).  Being  written  from  a  national 
and  Catholic  standpoint,  these  poems,  owing  to  the 
dearth  of  Irish  documents  relating  to  that  period,  are 
invaluable  for  the  light  which  they  throw  upon  the 
sentiments  of  the  Irish  nobles  and  people  during  that 
half-century  of  war,  confiscation,  and  persecution. 
Despite  his  enthusiasm  for  the  national  cause,  O'Brua- 
dair  is  no  mere  eulogizer,  and  in  "  An  Longbhriseadh  " 
(The  Shipwreck,  1691),  he  criticizes  the  army  and  its 
leaders  severely.  He  warmly  defended  the  conduct  of 
Sarsfield  in  the  negotiations  preceding  the  close  of  the 
war  (1691).  His  views  upon  this  subject,  when  com- 
pared with  those  of  Colonel  O'Kelly  in  his  "Macarite 
Excidium",  enable  us  to  appreciate  better  the  diver- 
gence of  opinions  in  Irish  military  circles  in  regard  to 
the  acceptance  of  the  terms  offered.  O'Bruadair  was  a 
master  of  the  art  of  versification,  and  wrote  with  ease 
and  grace  in  the  most  varied  and  complicated  syllabic 
and  assonantal  metres.  His  style  is  vigorous,  his  lan- 
guage classical,  and  his  vocabulary  extensive;  but  a 
fondness  for  archaic  expressions  prevented  most  of 
his  poems  from  being  popular  in  the  succeeding 
centuries.  He  is  copious  in  illustration,  careful  to 
avoid  repetition,  and  never  sacrifices  reason  to 
rhythm.  Though  he  was  an  expert  scribe  and  an  in- 
dustrious copyist  of  ancient  historical  MSS.,  the  only 
existing  manuscript  in  his  handwriting  seems  to  be 
H.  1.  18  fol.  4  to  14  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  It  contains  three  of  his  latest  poems  (1693- 
4),  some  genealogical  matter  taken  from  "Leabhar 
Iris  Ui  Mhaoilchonaire"  and  the  "Rental"  of  Baron 
Bourke  of  Castleconnell,  Co.  Limerick.  Most  of  his 
poems  are  preserved  in  three  early  manuscripts:  23  M. 
25-23  M.  34,  by  Eoghan  O  Caoimh  (1702),  and  23  L. 
37,  by  Seaghan  Stac  (1706-9),  both  in  the  Library  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  Dublin,  and  Add.  29614, 
by  Seaghan  na  Raithineach  (1725),  in  the  British 
Museum.  Others  are  to  be  found  in  various  MSS. 
in  the  above-mentioned  libraries  and  in  those  of 
Trinity  College,  Dubhn,  Maynooth,  while  a  few  are 
preser\'ed  in  MSS.  in  private  hands.  A  complete  col- 
lection of  his  writings  with  translation,  of  which  the 


first  volume  has  appeared  (1910),  is  in  course  of  pub- 
lication by  the  present  writer  for  the  Irish  Texts 
Society,  London. 

O'Gbadt,  Catalogue  of  Irish  MSS.  in  Brilish  Museum,  517, 
etc.,  cODtaiDs  many  t-xtracts  from  the  poems;  O'Reilly,  Irish 
Writers  in  Transactions  of  the  Ibemo-Celtic  Society  for  18S0,  I 
(Dublin,  1820),  i.  p.  cxcvi;  Hyde,  Literary  History  of  Ireland 
(London,  1899),  592-4;  Hull.  Teit  Book  oj  Irish  Literature,  II 
(Dublin  and  London,  1908),  188-97.  < 

John  MacErlean. 
Observants.    See  Friars  Minor,  Order  op. 
Obsession.    See  Possession,  Demoniacal. 

O'CallaghaxijEDMUND  Bailey,  physician,  publicist, 
and  historian,  b.  at  Mallow,  Cork,  29  Feb.,  1797;  d. 
at  New  York,  29  May,  1880.  His  eldest  brother  Theo- 
dore held  a  commission  intheEnghsh  army;  the  others, 
Eugene  and  David,  became  priests  and  were  distin- 
guished for  their  learning.  On  completing  his  educa- 
tion in  Ireland,  Edmund  went  to  Paris  (1820)  to  study 
medicine.  In  1830  he  settled  in  Montreal  and  besides 
the  practice  of  medicine,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
National  Patriotic  movement  and  in  1834  became  ed- 
itor of  its  organ  the  "Vindicator".  Elected  to  the 
Provincial  Parliament  in  1836  he  held  a  conspicuous 
position  in  debate  for  [jopular  rights,  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  unsuccessful  insurrection  of  1837,  was  at- 
tainted of  treason,  fled  to  the  United  States,  remained 
nearly  a  year  the  guest  of  Chancellor  Walworth  in 
Saratoga,  and  in  1838  resumed  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine in  Albany,  where  he  edited  the  "  5f  orthern  Light ", 
an  industrial  journal. 

The  anti-rent  agitation  of  the  time  led  him  to  study 
the  land-rights  of  the  Patroons.  Attracted  by  the 
rich  but  neglected  old  Dutch  records  in  the  possession 
of  the  State,  he  mastered  the  Dutch  language  and  in 
1846  published  the  first  volume  of  "History  of  New 
Netherland",  the  first  real  history  of  New  York  State. 
The  result  of  its  publication  was  the  official  commis- 
sion of  J.  R.  Brodhead  by  the  New  York  State  Legis- 
lature to  search  the  archives  of  London,  Paris,  and  The 
Hague,  and  to  make  copies  of  documents  bearing  on 
New  York  colonial  history.  These  documents  were 
published  in  eleven  quarto  volumes  (1855-61)  under 
the  editorship  of  O'Callaghan  and  are  a  monument  of 
care  and  ability.  In  1848  he  was  made  keeper  of  the 
historical  MSS.  of  New  York  State,  and  in  this  capac- 
ity served  for  twenty-two  years.  He  was  the  first  to 
call  public  attention  to  the  value  of  the  Jesuit  Rela- 
tions, and  read  a  paper  before  the  New  York  Histori- 
cal Society,  giving  description  of  their  purpose  and 
scope.  James  Lenox  began  to  collect  the  scattered 
copies  and  the  Lenox  Library  in  New  York,  contains 
the  only  complete  set  or  series  of  printed  Jesuit  Rela- 
tions. The  Thwaites  edition  in  seventy-three  volumes 
was  based  on  the  Lenox  set  of  the  French,  Latin,  and 
ItaUan  texts.  O'Callaghan  dedicated  to  Lenox  his 
"List  of  the  editions  of  the  Holy  Scripture  and  parts 
thereof  Printed  in  America  Previous  to  1860".  An 
edition  of  this  work  with  annotations  by  Lenox  is  in 
the  Lenox  Library,  New  York.^ 

In  1870  O'Callaghan  went  to  New  York  and  as- 
sumed the  task  of  editing  its  municipal  records,  but 
through  difficulties  about  financial  resources  they 
were  never  published.  Though  highly  esteemed  for 
his  medical  learning,  O'Callaghan's  great  claim  on 
the  gratitude  of  posterity  is  his  historical  work. 
The  clearness  of  his  style  with  accuracy  of  detail 
gave  authority  to  his  writings,  which  contain  a  mine 
of  original  information  about  New  York  colonial 
history. 

Published  works:  "History  of  New  Netherland" 
(New  York,  1846-9);  "Jesuit  Relations"  (New  York, 
1847);  "Documentary  History  of  New  York"  (Albany, 
1849-51);  "Documents  relating  to  the  Colonial  His- 
tory of  New  York"  (Albany,  1855-61);  "Remon- 
strance of  New  Netherland  from  original  Dutch 
MSS."  (Albany,  1856);  "Commissary  Wilson's  Or- 


O'CAROLAN 


195 


OCCASIONALISM 


derly  Book "  (Albany,  1857) ;  "Catalogue  of  Historical 
papers  and  parchments  in  New  York  State  Library" 
(Albany,  1849);  "Orderly  Book  of  Lieut.  Gen.  John 
Burgoyne"  (Albany,  1860);  "WoUey's  two  years' 
Journal  in  New  York"  (New  York,  1860);  "Names 
of  persons  for  whom  marriage  licenses  were  issued 
previous  to  17S4"  (Albany,  1860);  "Journal  of  the 
Legislation  Council  of  the  State  of  New  York,  1691- 
1775"  (Albany,  1860);  the  companion  work:  "Min- 
utes of  the  Execution  Council  of  the  State  of  New 
York",  begun  by  the  state  historian  Mr.  Paltsits  in 
1910;  "Origin  of  the  Legislation  Assemblies  of  the 
State  of  New  York"  (Albany,  1861);  "A  list  of  the 
Editions  of  Holy  Scripture  and  the  parts  thereof 
printed  in  America  previous  to  1860"  (Albany,  1861); 
"A  Brief  and  True  Narrative  of  hostile  conduct  of  the 
barbarous  natives  towards  the  Dutch  nation",  tr. 
from  original  Dutch MSS.  (Albany,  1863);  "Calendar 
of  the  Land  Papers"  (Albany,  1864);  "The  Register 
of  New  Netherland  1626-74"  (Albany,  1865);  "Cal- 
endar of  Dutch,  English,  and  Revolutionary  MSS.  in 
the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State"  (Albany,  1865- 
68);  "New  York  Colonial  Tracts",  4  vols.:  (1)  "Jour- 
nal of  Sloop  Mary";  (2)  "Geo.  Clarke's  voyage  to 
America";  (3)  "Voyages  of  Slavers";  (4)  "Isaac 
Robin's  letters  1718-30"  (Albany,  1866-72);  "Laws 
and  Ordinancesof  New  Netherland  1638-74"  (Albany, 
1868);  Index  to  vols.  1,  2,  3  of  transl.  of  Dutch  MSS. 
(Albany,  1870);  "Copie  de  Trois]  Lettres  ^crites  en 
annees  par  le  Rev.  P.  C.  Lallemant"  (Albany,  1870); 
"Relation  de  ce  qui  s'est  passe  en  la  Nouvelle  France 
en  I'ann^e  1626"  (Albany,  1870);  "Lettre  du  Rev.P. 
Lallemant  22  Nov.,  1629"  (Albany,  1870);  "Lettre 
du  Pere  Charles  Lallemant  1627  "  (Albany,  1870) ;  "  De 
Regione  et  moribus  Canadensium,  auctore  Josepho 
Juvencio"  (Albany,  1871);  "CanadicaeMissionisRela- 
tio  161 1-13"  (Albany,  1871)  ;"Missio  Canadensis,  epis- 
tola  ex  Portu-regali  in  Acadia  a  R.  P.  Petro  Biardo" 
(Albany,  1870);  "Relatio  Rerum  Gestacum  in  Novo- 
Francica  missione  annis  1613-4"  (Albany,  1871); 
"Records  of  New  Amsterdam  165.3-74",  tr.  by  O'Cal- 
laghan  were  published  by  Berthold  Fernon  (New 
York,  1897). 

O'Callaghan,  a  Collection  of  MSS.  and  Letters  in  the  Library 
of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C,  2  vols,  of  documents  and  9  vols. 
of  correspondence;  Shea  in  Magazine  of  American  History,  V,  77; 
Walsh  in  Records  of  Amer.  Cathol.  Hist.  Soc.  (March,  1905)  r 
Bibl.  Bull,  no.  26  (Albany,  1901) ;  Report  of  Brodhead  as  agent  to 
procure  and  transcribe  documents  in  Europe  relative  to  Colonial 
History  of  New  York;  New  York  State  Senate  Doc,  no.  47. 

John  T.  Driscoll. 

O'CaroIan,  Torlogh  (Irish,  Toirdhealbhach 
0  Cearbhallain),  usually  spoken  of  as  the  "last  of 
the  Irish  bards",  b.  in  the  County  Meath,  Ireland, 
in  1670;  d.  at  Ballyfaruon,  1737.  He  early  became 
blind  from  an  attack  of  small-pox.  Descended  from 
an  ancient  family,  he  achieved  renown  as  a  harper. 
His  advent  marks  the  passing  of  the  old  Gaelic  distinc- 
tion between  the  bard  and  the  harper.  Celebrated 
as  poet,  composer,  and  harper,  he  composed  probably 
over  two  hundred  poems,  many  of  them  of  a  lively, 
Pindaric  nature,  and  mostly  addressed  to  his  patrons 
or  fair  ladies  belonging  to  the  old  county  families, 
where  he  loved  to  visit  and  where  he  was  always  a 
welcome  guest.  His  poems  are  full  of  curious  turns 
and  twists  of  metre  to  suit  his  airs,  to  which  they  are 
admirably  wed,  and  very  few  are  in  regular  stanzas. 
There  are  a  few  exceptions,  as  his  celebrated  "Ode 
to  Whiskey",  one  of  the  finest  Bacchanalian  songs 
in  any  language,  and  his  more  famous  but  immea- 
surably inferior  "  Receipt  for  Drinking".  His  harp 
is  preserved  in  the  hall  of  the  O'Conor  Don  at 
Clonalis,  Roscommon.  Hardiman  printed  twenty- 
four  of  his  poems  in  his  "Irish  Minstrelsy",  and 
the  present  writer  has  collected  about  twelve  more, 
which  seem  to  be  all  that  survive  of  his  literary 
output.  Moore  utilized  many  of  his  "planxties" 
for    his    "Melodies",    as    in    "The    Young    May 


Moon",  "O  Banquet  Not",  "Oh,  the  Sight  En- 
trancing". No  complete  and  accurate  collection 
of  his  airs  has  been  made,  though  many  of  them 
were  introduced  into  ballad  operas.  The  follow- 
ing note  in  Irish  in  the  WTiting  of  his  friend  and 
patron  Charles  O'Conor  occurs  in  one  of  the  Stows 
MSS:  "Saturday  the  XXV  day  of  March,  1738, 
Toirrdealbhach  O  Cerbhalldin,  the  intellectual  sage 
and  prime  musician  of  all  Ireland  died  to-day,  in  the 
68th  year  of  his  age.  The  mercy  of  God  may  his  soul 
find,  for  he  was  a  moral  and  a  pious  man." 

Walker,  Irish  Bards  (Dublin,  1786);  O'Reillt,  Irish  Writers 
(Dublin,  1820):  Goldsmith,  Essays;  Hardiman,  Irish  Minstrelsy, 
I  (London,  1831) — this  volume  contains  a  portrait  of  Carolan 
"from  an  original  painting":  Grattan-Flood,  A  H  istory  of  Irish 
Music  (Dublin.  1905),  xxi;  O'Caholan,  Collection  (Dublin,  1747— 
Grattan-Flood  savs  he  has  traced  five  other  editions  between  the 
years  1780  and  1804);  O'Neill,  Irish  Folk  Music  (Chicago.  1910). 

Douglas  Hyde. 

Occasionalism  (Latin  occasio)  is  the  metaphysical 
theory  which  maintains  that  finite  things  have  no 
efficient  causality  of  their  own,  but  that  whatever 
happens  in  the  world  is  caused  by  God,  creatures  be- 
ing merely  the  occasions  of  the  Divine  activity.  The 
occasion  is  that  which  by  its  presence  brings  about  the 
action  of  the  efficient  cause.  This  it  can  do  as  final 
cause  by  alluring  the  effici.^^t  cause  to  act,  or  as  sec- 
ondary efficient  cause  by  impelhng  the  primary  cause 
to  do  what  would  otherwise  be  left  undone.  Occasion- 
ahsm  was  foreshadowed  in  Greek  philosophy  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  Stoics  who  regarded  God  as  pervading 
nature  and  determining  the  actions  of  all  beings 
through  the  fundamental  instinct  of  self-preservation. 
It  appeared  openly  in  the  Arabian  thought  of  the 
Middle  Ages  (cf .  Stein,  II,  193-245  itifra) ;  but  its  full 
development  is  found  only  in  modern  philosophy,  as 
an  outgrowth  of  the  Cartesian  doctrine  of  the  relation 
between  body  and  mind.  According  to  Descartes 
the  essence  of  the  soul  is  thought,  and  the  essence 
of  the  body  extension.  Body  and  soul  therefore 
have  nothing  in  common.  How  then  do  they  in- 
teract? Descartes  himself  tried  to  solve  this  problem 
by  attributing  to  the  soul  the  power  of  directing  the 
movements  of  the  body.  But  this  idea  conflicted  with 
the  doctrine  involved  in  his  denial  of  any  immediate 
interaction  between  body  and  mind.  The  first  step 
toward  a  solution  was  taken  by  Johannes  Clauberg 
(1625-65).  According  to  him  all  the  phenomena  of 
the  outside  world  are  modes  of  motion  and  are  caused 
by  God.  When  therefore  the  mind  seems  to  have 
acted  upon  the  outside  world,  it  is  a  pure  delusion. 
The  soul,  however,  can  cause  its  own  mental  processes, 
which  have  nothing  in  common  with  matter  and  its 
modes  of  action.  Matter,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot 
act  upon  mind.  The  presence  of  certain  changes  in 
the  bodily  organism  is  the  occasion  whereupon  the 
soul  produces  the  corresponding  ideas  at  this  partic- 
ular time  rather  than  any  other.  To  the  soul  Clau- 
berg also  attributes  the  power  of  influencing  by  means 
of  the  will  the  movements  of  the  body.  The  Occasion- 
alism of  Clauberg  is  different  from  that  of  later  mem- 
bers of  the  school ;  with  him  the  soul  is  the  cause  which 
is  occasioned  to  act — with  the  others  it  is  God. 

Louis  de  la  Forge  (Tractatus  de  mente  humana, 
1666)  is  regarded  by  some  as  the  real  father  of  Occa- 
sionalism. His  starting-point  was  the  problem  of  the 
relation  between  energy  and  matter.  Following  the 
Cartesian  method,  he  argued  that  what  cannot  be 
clearly  and  distinctly  conceived  cannot  be  held  as  true. 
We  can  form  no  clear  idea  of  the  attraction  exerted  by 
one  body  on  another  at  a  distance  nor  of  the  energy  that 
moves  a  body  from  one  place  to  another.  Such  an 
energy  must  be  something  totally  different  from  mat- 
ter, which  is  absolutely  inert;  the  union  between  mat- 
ter and  energy  is  inconceivable.  Matter  then,  cannot 
be  the  cause  of  the  physical  phenomena;  these  must 
be  produced  by  God,  the  first,  universal,  and  total 
cause  of  all  motion.     In  his  theory  of  the  union  be- 


OCCASIONS 


196 


OCCASIONS 


tweon  body  and  soul,  do  la  Forge  approached  the 
later  Leibnizian  doctrine  of  a  pre-e.stal)lish('d  liar- 
mony.  God  must  have  willed  ami  broufjht  about  the 
union  between  body  and  soul,  therefore  He  willeil  to  do 
all  that  is  necessary  to  perfect  this  union.  The  union 
between  body  and  niinil  involves  the  appearance  of 
thoughts  in  coi\sciousiu'ss  at  the  presence  of  bodily 
activities  and  the  sequence  of  bodily  movements  to 
carr>-  out  the  ideas  of  the  mind.  God  williuf;  the 
union  between  body  and  mind  willed  also  to  iiroduce, 
as  first  and  universal  cause,  the  thoufihls  that  should 
correspond  to  the  organic  moveiiu'Uls  of  sensation, 
and  the  movements  which  follow  upon  the  presence 
of  some  conscious  processes.  But  there  are  other 
movements  for  which  the  soul  itself  is  responsible  as 
efficient  cause,  and  these  are  the  effects  of  the  spon- 
taneous activitv  of  our  free  will. 

The  Occasionalism  of  Arnold  Geulincx  (1624-1669) 
is  ethical  rather  than  cosmological  in  its  inception. 
The  first  tract  of  his  "Ethics"  (Land's  ed.  of  the 
Opera,  The  Hague,  1891-93)  is  a  study  of  what  he 
termed  the  cardinal  virtues.  These  are  not  prudence, 
temperance,  justice,  and  fortitude.  Virtue  according 
to  Geulincx  is  the  love  of  God  and  of  Reason  (III, 
16-17;  29).  The  cardinal  virtues  are  the  properties 
of  virtue  which  immediately  flow  from  its  very  essence 
and  have  nothing  to  do  with  anything  external.  These 
properties  are  diligence,  obedience,  justice,  humility 
(III,  17).  The  division  which  Geulincx  makes  of 
humility  is  one  of  fundamental  importance  in  his  phi- 
losophy. It  divides  his  view  of  the  world  into  two 
parts — one,  the  understanding  of  our  relation  to  the 
world,  and  the  other,  the  concept  of  our  relation  to  God. 
Huraihty  consists  in  theknowledgeof  self  and  the  for- 
saking of  self.  I  find  in  myself  nothing  that  is  my  own 
but  to  know  and  to  will.  I  therefore  must  be  conscious 
of  all  that  I  do,  and  that  of  which  I  am  not  conscious  is 
not  the  product  of  my  own  causality.  Hence  the  uni- 
versal principle  of  causality — guod  7iescis  quo  modo  fiat, 
nonfacis — if  you  do  not  know  how  a  thing  is  done  then 
you  do  not  do  it.  Since  then,  the  movements  of  my 
body  take  place  without  my  knowing  how  the  nervous 
impulse  passes  to  the  muscles  and  there  causes  them 
to  contract  I  do  not  cause  my  own  bodily  actions.  "  I 
am  therefore  a  mere  spectator  of  this  machine.  In 
it  I  form  naught  and  renew  naught,  I  neither  make 
anything  here  nor  destroy  it.  Everything  is  the 
work  of  someone  else  "  (111,33).  This  one  is  the  Deity 
who  sees  and  knows  all  things.  The  second  part  of 
Geulincx's  philosophy  is  connected  with  Occasional- 
ism as  the  effect  with  the  cause.  Its  guiding  principle 
is:  Where  you  can  do  nothing  there  also  you  should 
desire  nothing  (III,  222).  This  leads  to  a  mysticism 
and  asceticism  which  however  must  not  be  taken  too 
seriously  for  it  is  tempered  by  the  obligation  of  caring 
for  the  body  and  propagating  the  species. 

Nicolas  Malebranche  (q.  v.)  developed  Occasional- 
ism to  its  uttermost  limit,  approaching  so  near  to  Pan- 
theism that  he  himself  remarked  that  the  difference 
between  himself  and  Spinoza  was  that  he  taught  that 
the  universe  was  in  God  and  that  Spinoza  said  that  God 
was  in  the  universe.  Starting  out  with  the  Cartesian 
doctrine,  that  the  essence  of  the  soul  is  thought  and  that 
of  matter  is  extension,  he  sought  to  prove  that  crea- 
tures have  no  causality  of  their  own .  Experience  seems 
to  tell  us  that  one  body  acts  upon  another,  but  all  that 
we  know  is  that  the  movement  of  one  body  follows  upon 
that  of  another.  We  have  no  experience  of  one  body 
causing  the  movement  of  another.  Therefore,  says 
Malebranche,  one  body  cannot  act  upon  another.  By 
a  similar  argument  he  attempts  to  prove  that  body 
cannot  act  upon  mind.  Since  experience  can  tell  us 
only  that  a  sensation  follows  upon  the  stimulus,  there- 
fore the  stimulus  is  not  the  cause  of  the  sensation. 
He  uses  the  argument  of  Geulincx  to  prove  that  mind 
cannot  act  upon  body.  Not  only  is  there  no  interac- 
tion between  body  and  mind,  and  between  one  body 


and  another,  but  there  is  no  causality  within  the  mind 
itself.  Our  sensations,  for  example,  are  not  caused 
by  bodies,  and  are  independent  of  ourselves.  There- 
fore they  must  be  produced  by  some  higher  being. 
Our  ideas  cannot  be  created  by  the  mind.  Neither 
can  they  be  copied  from  a  present  object,  for  one 
would  have  first  to  perceive  the  object  in  order  to  copy 
it,  after  which  the  production  of  an  idea  would  be 
superfluous.  Our  ideas  cannot  be  all  possessed  as 
comi)letc  products  from  the  beginning,  because  it  is 
a  fact  t  hat  the  mind  goes  through  a  process  of  gradual 
development.  Nor  can  the  mind  possess  a  faculty 
that  produces  by  a  sufficient  causality  its  own  ideas, 
because  it  would  have  to  produce  also  the  ideas  of  ex- 
tended bodies  and  extension  is  excluded  from  the 
essence  of  the  mind  and  therefore  from  the  scope  of 
its  causal  efficiency.  If  then  there  is  no  way  of  ac- 
counting for  ideas  and  sensations  either  by  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  mind  itself  or  by  that  of  the  outside  world 
they  must  be  produced  by  God,  the  infinite,  omni- 
present, universal  Cause.  God  knows  all  things  be- 
cause He  produced  all  things.  Therefore  the  ideas  of 
all  things  are  in  God,  and  on  account  of  His  most  in- 
timate union  with  our  souls  the  spirit  can  see  what  is 
in  God. 

Among  the  Occasionalists  is  also  mentioned  R.  H. 
Lotze  (1817-Sl).  His  Occasionalism  is  really  only  a 
statement  that  we  are  ignorant  of  any  interaction  be- 
tween body  and  mind,  or  between  one  material  thing 
and  another.  He  is  not  an  Occasionalist  in  the  meta- 
physical sense  of  the  word.  In  estimating  the  value 
of  the  Occasionalistic  position  we  must  realize  that 
it  sprang  from  a  twofold  problem,  the  interaction  of 
body  and  mind  and  the  relation  of  body,  mind,  and 
world  to  God,  the  first  cause  of  all.  The  success  of 
the  Occasionalist  answer  to  the  first  diflnculty  was  de- 
pendent upon  the  fate  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy. 
If  man  is  composed  of  two  absolutely  distinct  sub- 
stances that  have  nothing  in  common,  then  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Occasionalists  is  logically  necessary  and 
there  is  no  interaction  between  body  and  mind. 
What  appears  to  be  such  must  be  due  to  the  efficient 
causality  of  some  external  being.  This  difficulty  was 
not  felt  so  keenly  in  Scholastic  philosophy  because  of 
the  doctrine  of  matter  and  form,  which  explains  the 
relation  of  body  and  soul  as  that  of  two  incomplete 
but  complementary  substances.  Very  soon,  too,  it  be- 
gan to  lose  its  hold  upon  modern  thought.  For  Car- 
tesianism  led,  on  the  one  hand,  to  a  Monistic  Spirit- 
ualism and,  on  the  other,  to  Materialism.  In  either 
case  the  very  foundations  of.Occasionalism  were  under- 
mined. In  its  attempt  to  solve  the  second  difficulty, 
Occasionalism  did  not  meet  with  any  particular  suc- 
cess. From  its  doctrine  of  the  relation  between  body 
and  soul  it  argued  to  what  must  be  the  relation  be- 
tween God  and  the  creature  in  general.  The  super- 
structure could  not  stand  without  the  foundation. 

St.  Th()Ma8,  Summa,  I,  Q.  cv,  a.  5;  Kayserling.  Die  Idee  der 
Kausalitat  in  den  Lehren  der  Occasuinalislrn  (Heidelberg,  1896); 
MtiLLER,  Johannes  Clauberp  und  ,  <  j  -  >',lht:,.:  an  Cartesianismtti 
mit  besonderer  Beriicksichtigunfj  ■-<  '  1      '         i  ,s*ts  zu  der  ocea- 

sionatistinchen  Theorie  (Jena,  18!ll  ■    I  i  >  i  it,  Arnold  Geulincx 

als  Hauplvertreler  der  okkasionali  n  rl.<  ,i  M.  i<, /ilij/sik  und  Ethik 
(Tubingen,  1882) ;  Idbm,  LeibniU  und  Gnilinrz  (Tubingen,  1884); 
Samtleden.  Geulincx  ein  Vorgttnger  Spinozas  (Halle,  1885);  Set- 
FARTH,  Louis  de  la  Forge  und  seine  Stellung  im  Occasionalismus 
(Jena,  1887) :  Stein,  Zur  Genesis  des  Occaaionalismus  in  Archiv/Ur 
Ge8ch.  der  Phil.,  I  (1888),  53-61;  Idem,  Antike  und  miltelalterliche 
VoTUiufer  des  Occasionalismusin  Arch.  J.  Gesch.d.  Phil.,  II  (1889, 
V.y.i-2\Ti)\  TucH,  Lotzes  Stellung  zum  Occasionalismus  (Hamburg, 
181)7) ;  nee  also  bibliography  under  Malebranche. 

Tho.mas  v.  Moore. 

Occasions  of  Sin  are  external  circumstances 
whether  of  things  or  persons  which  either  because  of 
their  special  nature  or  because  of  the  frailty  common 
to  humanity  or  peculiar  to  some  individual,  incite  or 
entice  one  to  sin.  It  is  important  to  remember  that 
there  is  a  wide  difference  between  the  cause  and  the 
occasion  of  sin.     The  cause  of  sin  in  the  last  analysis 


OCCLEVE 


197 


OCCULT 


is  the  perverse  human  will  and  is  intrinsic  to  the  hu- 
man composite.  The  occasion  is  something  extrinsic 
and,  given  the  freedom  of  the  will,  cannot,  properly 
speaking,  stand  in  causal  relation  to  the  act  or  vicious 
habit  which  we  call  sin.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
in  general  the  same  obligation  which  binds  us  to  re- 
frain from  sin  requires  us  to  shun  its  occasion.  Qui 
tenelur  ad  finem,  tenetur  ad  media  (he  who  is  bound 
to  reach  a  certain  end  is  bound  to  employ  the  means 
to  attain  it).  Theologians  distinguish  between  the 
proximate  and  the  remote  occasion.  They  are  not 
altogether  at  one  as  to  the  precise  value  to  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  terms.  De  Lugo  defines  proximate  occa- 
sion (DepoEnit.,disp.  14,  n.  149)  as  one  in  which  men  of 
like  calibre  for  the  most  part,  fall  into  mortal  sin,  or  one 
in  which  experience  points  to  the  same  result  from  the 
special  weakness  of  a  particular  person.  The  remote 
occasion  lacks  these  elements.  All  theologians  are 
agreed  that  there  is  no  obligation  to  avoid  the  remote 
occasions  of  sin  both  because  this  would,  practically 
speaking,  be  impossible  and  because  they  do  not  in- 
volve serious  danger  of  sin.  As  to  the  proximate  oc- 
casion, it  may  be  of  the  sort  that  is  described  as 
necessary,  that  is,  such  as  a  person  cannot  abandon 
or  get  rid  of.  Whether  this  impossibility  be  physical 
or  moral  does  not  matter  for  the  determination  of 
the  principles  hereinafter  to  be  laid  down.  Or  it 
may  be  voluntary,  that  is  within  the  competency  of 
one  to  remove.  Moralists  distinguish  between  a  prox- 
imate occasion  which  is  continuous  and  one  which, 
whilst  it  is  unquestionably  proximate,  yet  confronts 
a  person  only  at  intervals.  It  is  certain  that  one  who 
is  in  the  presence  of  a  proximate  occasion  at  once  vol- 
untary and  continuous  is  bound  to  remove  it.  A  re- 
fusal on  the  part  of  a  penitent  to  do  so  would  make  it 
imperative  for  the  confessor  to  deny  absolution.  It  is 
not  always  necessary  for  the  confessor  to  await  the 
actual  performance  of  this  duty  before  giving  absolu- 
tion; he  may  be  content  with  a  sincere  promise,  which 
is  the  minimum  to  be  required.  Theologians  agree 
that  one  is  not  obliged  to  shun  the  proximate  but 
necessary  occasions.  Nemo  tenelur  ad  impossibile  (no 
one  is  bound  to  do  what  is  impossible).  There  is  no 
question  here  of  freely  casting  oneself  into  the  danger 
of  sin.  The  assumption  is  that  stress  of  unavoidable 
circumstances  has  imposed  this  unhappy  situation. 
All  that  can  then  be  required  is  the  employment  of 
such  means  as  will  make  the  peril  of  sin  remote.  The 
difficulty  is  to  determine  when  a  proximate  occasion 
is  to  be  regarded  as  not  physically  (that  is  plain 
enough)  but  morally  necessary.  Much  has  been 
written  by  theologians  in  the  attempt  to  find  a  rule 
for  the  measurement  of  this  moral  necessity  and  a 
formula  for  its  expression,  but  not  successfully.  It 
seems  to  be  quite  clear  that  a  proximate  occasion  may 
be  deemed  necessary  when  it  cannot  be  given  up 
without  grave  scandal  or  loss  of  good  name  or  with- 
out notable  temporal  or  spiritual  damage. 

Slater.  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908) :  Ballerini,  Opus 
Theologicum  Morale  (Prato,  1900);  G^NICOT,  TheologitE  Moralis 
Insliluliones  (Louvain,  1898). 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 

Occleve  (or  Hoccleve),  Thomas;  little  is  known 
of  his  life  beyond  what  is  mentioned  in  his  poems. 
He  was  b.  about  1368;  d.  in  1450.  The  place  of  his 
birth  and  education  is  unknown.  When  about  nine- 
teen he  became  a  clerk  in  the  Privy-Seal  Office,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  held  for  at  least  twenty-four  years.  It 
is  recorded  in  the  Patent  Rolls  (1399)  that  he  received 
a  pension  of  £10  a  year.  In  his  poem  "La  Male 
R^gle",  written  in  1406,  he  confesses  to  having  lived 
a  life  of  pleasure  and  even  of  dissipation,  but  his  mar- 
riage in  1411  seems  to  have  caused  a  change  in  his 
career,  and  his  poem  "De  Regimine  Principum", 
written  soon  afterwards,  bears  witness  to  his  reform. 
In  1424  he  was  granted  a  pension  of  £20  a  year  for 
life.     His  name  and  reputation  have  come  down  to  us 


linked  with  those  of  Lydgate;  the  two  poets  were  fol- 
lowers and  enthusiastic  admirers  of  Chaucer.  It  is 
most  probable  that  Occleve  knew  Chaucer  personally, 
as  he  has  left  three  pa.ssages  of  verse  about  him,  and,  in 
the  MS.  of  the  "  De  Regimine",  a  portrait  of  Chaucer 
(the  only  one  we  possess),  which  he  says  he  had 
painted  "  to  put  other  men  in  remembrance  of  his  per- 
son". He  was  a  true  Chaucerian  as  far  as  love  and 
admiration  could  make  him,  but  he  was  unable  to  im- 
itate worthily  his  master's  skill  in  poetry.  Occleve 
has  left  us  a  body  of  verse  which  has  its  own  interest, 
but  none  of  which,  as  poetry,  can  be  placed  much 
above  mediocrity.  Nevertheless,  there  are  many 
things  which  give  pleasure.  There  is  his  devoted  love 
to  Our  Lady,  which  causes  some  of  the  poems  he  wrote 
in  her  honour  (especially  " The  Moder  of  God")  tobe 
among  his  best  efforts.  There  is  his  admiration  of 
Chaucer,  already  spoken  of,  and  there  is  also  sound 
morality,  and  a  good  deal  of  "the  social  sense"  in  the 
matter  of  his  poems.  Though  he  had  no  humour,  he 
could  tell  a  story  well,  and  in  several  poems  he  enlists 
our  sympathy  by  the  frank  recognition  of  his  weak- 
ness both  as  man  and  poet. 

His  work  consists  of:  a  long  poem,  "De  Regimine 
Principum"  (the  Government  of  Princes),  addressed 
to  Prince  Henry,  afterwards  Henry  V;  it  is  written 
in  the  seven-line  stanza  and  contains  much  varied 
matter,  religious,  moral,  social,  and  political;  two 
verse  stories  from  the  "Gesta  Romanorum";  three 
other  poems  of  some  length,  largely  autobiographical, 
"La  Male  Regie",  "A  Complaint",  and  "A  Dia- 
logue"; "Ars  sciendi  mori"  (the  Art  of  learning  to 
die)  a  specimen  of  his  work  at  its  best,  most  of  it  in  the 
seven-line  stanza,  but  with  an  ending  in  prose;  many 
other  poems,  chiefly  Ballades,  and  mostly  short,  with 
the  exception  of  "Cupid's  Letter"  and  the  interesting 
expostulation  with  Sir  John  Oldcastle  concerning  his 
heresy,  "O  Oldcastle,  alas  what  ailed  thee  To  slip 
into  the  snare  of  heresie?".  All  the  above  poems  are 
contained  in  the  Early  English  Text  Society's  edition 
of  Occleve's  works  (London,  1892-7). 

FuRNiVALL  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  IX  (reissued,  London,  1908); 
Idem  in  Prefaee  to  E.  Bng.  Text  Socy.  Edition  of  Works  (Lond., 
1892-7);  Saintsbury  in  Camb.  Hist.  ofEng.  Literature,  II  (Cana- 
bridge,  190S). 

K.  M.  Warren. 

Occult  Art,  Occultista. — Under  this  general  term 
are  included  various  practices  to  which  special  articles 
of  the  Encyclopedia  are  devoted:  Animism;  Astrol- 
ogy; Divin.\tion;  Fetishism.  The  present  article 
deals  with  the  form  of  Occultism  known  as  "  Magic". 
The  English  word  magic  is  derived  through  the  Latin, 
Greek,  Persian,  Ass5'rian  from  the  Sumerian  or  Tu- 
ranian word  imga  or  emga  ("deep",  "profound"),  a 
designation  for  the  Pro  to-Chaldean  priests  or  wizards. 
Magi  became  a  standard  term  for  the  later  Zoroas- 
trian,  or  Persian,  priesthood  through  whom  Eastern  oc- 
cult arts  were  made  known  to  the  Greeks;  hence  fidyot 
(as  also  the  kindred  words  iiayiKis,  fiayela),  a  magi- 
cian or  a  person  endowed  with  secret  knowledge  and 
power  like  a  Persian  magus.  In  a  restricted  sense 
magic  is  understood  to  be  an  interference  with  the 
usual  course  of  physical  nature  by  apparently  inade- 
quate means  (recitation  of  formularies,  gestures,  mix- 
ing of  incongruous  elements,  and  other  mysterious  ac- 
tions), the  knowledge  of  which  is  obtained  through 
secret  communication  with  the  force  underlying  the 
universe  (God,  the  Devil,  the  soul  of  the  world,  etc.); 
it  is  the  attempt  to  work  miracles  not  by  the  power  of 
God,  gratuitously  communicated  to  man,  but  by  the 
use  of  hidden  forces  beyond  man's  control.  Its  ad- 
vocates, despairing  to  move  the  Deity  by  supplication, 
seek  the  desired  result  b^'  evoking  powers  ordinarily 
reserved  to  the  Deity.  It  is  a  corruption  of  religion, 
not  a  preliminary  stage  of  it  as  Rationalists  main- 
tain, and  it  appears  as  an  accompaniment  of  decadent 
rather  than  of  rising  civilization.     There  is  nothing 


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to  show  that  in  Babylon,  Greece,  and  Rome  the  use  of 
magic  decreased  as  these  nations  progressed;  on  the 
contrary,  it  increased  as  they  dcchned.  It  is  not  true 
that  "rehgion  is  the  despair  of  magic";  in  reahty, 
magic  is  but  a  disease  of  rehgion. 

'rhe  disease  has  been  widespread;  but  if  one  land 
may  be  designated  as  the  liome  of  magic  it  is  Chaldea, 
or  Southern  Babylonia.  The  earliest  written  records 
of  magic  are  found  in  the  cuneiform  incantation  in- 
scriptions which  Assyrian  scribes  in  800  B.  c.  copied 
from  Babylonian  originals.  Although  the  earliest 
religious  talilcts  refer  to  divination  and  in  the  latest 
Chaldean  period  astrology  proper  absorbed  the  en- 
ergy of  the  Babylonian  hierarchy,  medicinal  magic 
anti  nature  magic  were  largely  practised.  The  Baru- 
priest  as  the  diviner  seems  to  have  held  the  foremost 
rank,  but  hardly  inferior  was  the  Ashipu-priest,  the 
priest  of  incantations,  who  recited  the  magical  formu- 
laries of  the  "Shurpu",  "Maklu",  and  "Utukku". 
"Shurpu"  (burning)  was  a  spell  to  remove  a  curse  due 
to  legal  uncleanness;  "Maklu"  (consuming)  was  a 
counter-spell  against  wizards  and  witches;  "Utukki 
limmuti"  (evil  spirits)  was  a  series  of  sixteen  forraulse 
against  ghosts  and  demons.  The  "Asaski  marsuti" 
was  a  series  of  twelve  formulae  against  fevers  and  sick- 
ness. In  this  case  the  evil  influence  was  first  trans- 
ferred to  a  wax  figure  representing  the  patient  or  an 
animal  carcass,  and  the  formulae  were  recited  over 
the  substitute.  Ti'i  tablets,  nine  in  number,  give 
recipes  against  headache.  The  "Labartu"  incanta- 
tions repeated  over  little  figures  were  supposed  to 
drive  away  the  ogres  and  witches  from  children.  All 
these  formula  pronounced  over  the  figures  were  ac- 
companied by  an  elaborate  ritual,  e.  g.,  "A  table  thou 
shalt  place  behind  the  censer  which  is  before  the  Sun- 
God  (Statue  of  Shamash),  thou  shalt  place  thereon  4 
jugs  of  sesame  wine,  thou  shalt  set  thereon  3X12  loaves 
of  wheat,  thou  shalt  add  a  mixture  of  honey  and  butter 
and  sprinkle  with  salt:  a  table  thou  shalt  place  behind 
the  censer  which  is  before  the  Storm-God  (Statue  of 
Adad)  and  behind  the  censer  which  is  before  Mero- 
dach". 

The  magicians  mentioned  above  were  authorized  and 
practi-sed  "white",  or  benevolent,  magic;  the  "Kash- 
shapi",  or  unauthorized  practitioners,  employed 
"  black  "  magic  against  mankind.  That  the  latter  had 
preternatural  powers  to  do  harm  no  one  doubted; 
hence  the  severe  punishment  meted  out  to  them.  The 
Code  of  Hammurabi  (c.  2000  b.  c.)  appointed  the  or- 
deal by  water  for  one  who  was  accused  of  being  a 
sorcerer  and  for  his  accuser.  If  the  accused  was 
drowned,  his  property  went  to  the  accuser;  if  he  was 
saved,  the  accuser  was  put  to  death  and  his  property 
went  to  the  accused.  This  of  course  took  place  only 
if  the  accusation  could  not  be  satisfactorily  proven 
otherwise.  The  principal  god  invoked  in  Chaldean 
Magic  were  Ea,  source  of  all  wisdom,  and  Marduk 
(Merodach)  his  son,  who  had  inherited  his  father's 
knowledge.  A  curiously  naive  scene  was  supposed  to 
be  enacted  before  the  application  of  a  medicinal  spell : 
Marduk  went  to  Ea's  house  and  said:  "  Father,  head- 
ache from  the  underworld  hath  gone  forth.  The 
patient  does  not  know  the  reason;  whereby  may  he  be 
reheved?"  Ea  answered:  "O  Marduk,  my  son,  what 
can  I  add  to  thy  knowledge?  What  I  know  thou 
knowest  also.  Go,  my  son  Marduk";  and  then  fol- 
lows the  prescription.  This  tale  was  regularly  re- 
peated before  use  of  the  recipe. 

Without  suggesting  the  dependence  of  one  national 
system  of  magic  upon  another,  the  similarity  of  some 
ideas  and  practices  in  the  magic  of  all  peoples  must 
be  noted.  All  rely  on  the  power  of  words,  the  utter- 
ance of  a  hidden  name,  or  the  mere  existence  of  the 
name  on  an  amulet  or  stone.  Magic  was  supposed 
to  be  the  triumph  of  intellect  over  matter,  the  word 
being  the  key  to  the  mysteries  of  the  physical  world: 
utter  the  uame  of  a  malignant  influence  and  its  power 


is  undone;  utter  the  name  of  a  benevolent  deity  and 
force  goes  out  to  destroy  the  adversary.  The  re- 
peated naming  of  Gibel-Nusku  and  his  attributes  de- 
stroyed the  evil  influence  in  the  wax  figure  represent- 
ing the  person  concerned.  The  force  of  the  Gnostic 
lAii  was  notorious.  In  Egyptian  magic  a  mere  ag- 
glomeration of  vowels  or  of  meaningless  syllables  was 
supposed  to  work  good  or  evil.  Their  barbarous 
sounds  were  the  object  of  ridicule  to  the  man  of  com- 
mon sense.  In  many  eases  they  were  of  Jewish,  or 
Babylonian,  or  Aramaic  origin  and  because  unin- 
telligible to  Egyptians,  the  words  were  generally  cor- 
rupted beyond  recognition.  Thus  on  a  demotic  papy- 
rus is  found  the  prescription:  "in  time  of  storm  and 
danger  of  shi]3wreck  cry  Anuk  Adonai  ('J1S1JS)  and 
the  disaster  will  be  averted";  on  a  Greek  papyrus  the 
name  of  the  Assyrian  Ereskihal  is  found  as  Epca-yix<'^\. 
So  potent  is  a  name  that  if  an  inscribed  amulet  be 
washed  and  the  water  drunk,  or  the  charm  written 
on  papyrus  be  soaked  in  water  and  this  taken,  or  if 
the  word  be  written  on  hard-boiled  eggs  without  shell 
and  these  eaten,  preternatural  powers  come  into  play. 
Another  prevalent  idea  in  magic  is  that  of  substitu- 
tion: the  person  or  thing  to  be  affected  by  the  spell 
is  replaced  by  his  image,  or,  like  the  "ushabtiu" 
figures  in  Egyptian  tombs,  images  replace  the  pro- 
tective powers  invoked,  or  lastly  some  part  (hair,  nail- 
parings,  garments,  etc.)  take  the  place  of  the  whole 
person.  The  almost  universal  "magic  circle"  is  only 
a  mimic  wall  against  the  wicked  spirits  outside  and 
goes  back  to  Chaldean  magic  under  the  name  of 
usurtu,  made  with  a  sprinkling  of  lime  and  flour.  If 
the  medical  wizard  or  the  Indian  sorcerer  surrounds 
himself  or  others  with  a  rampart  of  little  stones,  this 
is  again  but  the  make-believe  of  a  wall. 

After  Babylonia  Egypt  was  foremost  in  magic ;  the 
medieval  practice  of  alchemy  shows  by  its  name  its 
Egyptian  origin.  Coptic  exorcisms  against  all  sorts 
of  diseases  abound  amongst  the  papyri  pertaining  to 
magic,  and  magic  claims  a  great  part  of  ancient 
Egyptian  literature.  Unlike  Babylonian  magic,  how- 
ever, it  seems  to  have  retained  to  the  last  its  medicinal 
and  preventive  character;  it  rarely  indulged  in  astrol- 
ogy or  prediction.  Egyptian  legend  spoke  of  a  magi- 
cian Teta  who  worked  miracles  before  Khufu  (Cheops) 
(c.  3800  B.  c),  and  Greek  tradition  tells  of  Nectane- 
bus,  last  native  King  of  Egypt  (358  b.  c),  as  the 
greatest  of  magicians. 

That  the  Jews  were  prone  to  magic  is  evidenced  by 
the  strict  laws  against  it  and  the  warnings  of  the 
Prophets  (Exod.,  xxii,  18;  Deut.,  xviii,  10;  Is.,  iii,  18, 
20;  Ivii,  3;  Mich.,  v,  11 ;  cf.  IV  Kings,  x.xi,  6).  Never- 
theless, Jewish  magic  flourished,  especially  just  before 
the  birth  of  Christ,  as  appears  from  the  Book  of  Enoch, 
the  Testament  of  the  Twelve  Patriarchs,  and  the 
Testament  of  Solomon.  Origen  testifies  that  in  his 
day  to  adjure  demons  was  looked  upon  as  specifically 
"Jewish",  that  these  adjurations  had  to  be  made  in 
Hebrew  and  from  Solomon's  books  (In  Math.,  xxvi, 
63,  P.  G.,  XIII,  1757).  The  frequency  of  Jewish 
magic  is  also  corroborated  by  Talmudic  lore. 

The  Aryan  races  of  Asia  seem  somewhat  less  ad- 
dicted to  magic  than  the  Semitic  or  Turanian  races. 
The  Medes  and  the  Persians,  in  the  earlier  and  purer 
period  of  their  Avesta  religion,  or  Zoroastrianism,  seem 
to  have  a  horror  of  magic.  When  the  Persians,  after 
their  conquest  of  the  Chaldean  Empire,  finally  ab- 
sorbed Chaldean  characteristics,  the  magi  had  become 
more  or  less  scientific  astronomers  rather  than  sor- 
cerers. The  Indians,  likewise,  to  judge  from  the  Rig- 
veda,  were  originally  free  from  this  superstition.  In 
the  Yajurveda,  however,  their  liturgical  functions  are 
practically  magic  performances;  and  the  Atharvaveda 
contains  little  else  than  magical  recitations  against 
every  ill  and  for  every  happening.  The  Sutras,  fi- 
nally, especially  those  of  the  Grihya  and  Sautra  ritual, 
show  how  the  higher  aspects  of  rehgion  had  been  over- 


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grown  by  magical  ceremonies.  Against  this  degenera- 
tion the  Vedanta  makes  a  vigorous  stand  and  attempts 
to  bring  the  Indian  mind  back  to  earlier  simplicity 
and  purity.  Buddhism,  which  at  first  disregarded 
magic,  fell  a  prey  to  the  universal  contagion,  espe- 
cially in  China  and  Tibet. 

The  Aryans  of  Europe,  Greeks,  Romans,  Teutons, 
Celts,  were  never  so  deeply  infected  as  the  Asiatics. 
The  Romans  were  too  self-reliant  and  practical  to  be 
terrified  by  magic.  Their  practice  of  divination  and 
auguries  seems  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Etrus- 
cans and  the  Marsi;  the  latter  were  considered  experts 
in  magic  even  during  the  empire  (Verg.,  "Ma.", 
VII,  750,  sqq.;  PUny,  VII,  ii;  XXI,  xiii).  The  Dii 
Aurunci,  to  avert  calamities,  used  magical  power,  but 
they  were  not  native  Roman  deities.  The  Romans 
were  conscious  of  their  common  sense  in  these  matters 
and  felt  themselves  superior  to  the  Greeks.  In  the 
first  century  of  our  era  Oriental  magic  invaded  the 
Roman  Empire.  Pliny  in  his  "Natural  History  "  (77 
A.  D.)  in  the  opening  chapters  of  Bk.  XXX,  gives  the 
most  important  extant  discussion  on  magic  by  any 
ancient  writer,  only  to  brand  all  magic  as  imposture. 
None  the  less  his  book  is  a  storehouse  of  magic  recipes, 
e.  g.:  "Wear  as  an  amulet  the  carcass  of  a  frog  minus 
the  claws  and  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  russet-coloured 
cloth  and  it  will  cure  fever"  (Bk.  XXXII,  xxxviii). 
Such  advice  argues  at  least  a  belief  in  medicinal  magic. 
But  among  the  Romans  it  may  be  said  that  magic 
was  condemned  in  every  age  by  many  of  the 
best  spirits  of  their  day:  Tacitus,  Favorinus,  Sextus 
Empiricus,  and  Cicero  who  even  demurred  against 
divination.  Officially  by  many  laws  of  the  empire 
against  "malefici"  and  "mathematici"  magic  was 
forbidden  under  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Claudius,  and 
even  Caracalla;  unofficially,  however,  even  the  em- 
perors sometimes  dabbled  in  magic.  Nero  is  said  to 
have  studied  it;  but  failing  to  work  miracles,  he  aban- 
doned it  in  disgust.  Soon  after  the  magicians  found 
an  imperial  supporter  in  Otho,  and  tolerance  under 
Vespasian,  Hadrian,  and  M.  Aurelius,  and  even  finan- 
cial aid  under  Alexander  Scverus. 

The  Greeks  regarded  Thessaly  and  Thrace  as  the 
countries  especially  addicted  to  magic.  The  goddess 
Hecate,  who  was  thought  to  preside  over  magical 
functions,  was  originally  a  foreign  deity  and  was 
probably  introduced  into  Greek  mythology  by  Hesiod. 
She  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Iliad  or  Odyssey  though 
magic  was  rife  in  Homeric  times.  The  great  mythical 
sorceress  of  the  Odyssey  is  Circe,  famous  for  the  well- 
known  trick  of  changing  men  into  beasts  (Od.,  X-XII). 
In  later  times  the  foremost  magician  was  Medea, 
priestess  of  Hecate;  but  the  gruesome  tales  told  of  her 
express  the  Greek  horror  for,  as  well  as  behef  in,  black 
magic.  Curse  formula?  or  magic  spells  against  the 
lives  of  one's  enemies  seem  to  have  found  no  mightier 
name  than  Hermes  Chthonios.  As  earth-god  he 
was  a  manifestation  of  the  world-soul  and  controlled 
nature's  powers.  In  Egypt  he  was  identified  vrith 
Thoth,  the  god  of  hidden  wisdom,  became  the  keeper 
of  magic  secrets  and  gave  his  name  to  Trismcgistic  lit- 
erature. Greece,  moreover,  welcomed  and  honoured 
foreign  magicians.  Apuleius,  by  education  an  Athe- 
nian, in  his  "Golden  Ass"  (c.  150  a.  d.),  satirized  the 
frauds  of  contemporary  wonder-workers  but  praised 
the  genuine  7nagi  from  Persia.  When  accused  of 
magic,  he  defended  himself  in  his  "Apology"  which 
shows  clearly  the  public  attitude  towards  magic  in  his 
day.  He  quoted  Plato  and  Aristotle  who  gave  cre- 
dence to  true  magic.  St.  Hippolytus  of  Rome  (A 
Refutation  of  All  Heresies,  Bk.  IV)  gives  a  sketch  of 
the  \vizardry  practised  in  the  Greek-speaking  world. 

Teutons  and  Celts  also  had  their  magic,  though  less 
is  known  of  it.  The  magical  element  in  the  First 
Edda  and  in  the  Beowulf  is  simple  and  closely  con- 
nected with  nature  phenomena.  Woden  (Wodan) 
who  invented  the  runes,  was  the  god  for  healing  and 


good  charms,  Loki  was  a  malignant  spirit  who  har- 
assed mankind  and  with  the  witch  Thock  caused  the 
death  of  Baldur  (Balder).  The  magic  of  the  mistletoe 
seems  to  be  an  heirloom  from  earliest  Teutonic  times. 
The  magic  of  the  Celts  seems  to  have  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  druids,  who,  though  perhaps  mainly  diviners, 
appear  also  as  magicians  in  Celtic  heroic  literature. 
As  they  wrote  nothing,  httle  is  known  of  their  magical 
lore.  For  modern  magic  amongst  uncivilized  races  con- 
sult especially  Skeat's  "Malay  Magic"  (London,  1900). 

Magic  as  a  practice  finds  no  place  in  Christianity, 
though  the  belief  in  the  reality  of  magical  powers  has 
been  held  by  Christians  and  individual  Christians 
have  been  given  to  the  practice.  Two  main  reasons 
account  for  the  belief:  first,  ignorance  of  physical  laws. 
When  the  boundary  between  the  physically  possible 
and  impossible  was  uncertain,  some  individuals  were 
supposed  to  have  gained  almost  limitless  control  over 
nature.  Their  souls  were  attuned  to  the  symphony  of 
the  universe;  they  knew  the  mystery  of  numbers  and 
in  consequence  their  powers  exceeded  the  common 
understanding.  This,  however,  was  natural  magic. 
But,  secondly,  belief  in  the  frequency  of  diabolical  in- 
terference with  the  forces  of  nature  led  easily  to  belief 
in  real  magic.  The  early  Christians  were  emphati- 
cally warned  against  the  practice  of  it  in  the  "  Didache" 
(v,  1)  and  the  letter  of  Barnabas  (xx,  1).  In  fact  it 
was  condemned  as  a  heinous  crime.  The  danger,  how- 
ever, came  not  only  from  the  pagan  world  but  also 
from  the  pseudo-Christian  Gnostics.  Although  Si- 
mon Magus  and  Elymas,  that  "child  of  the  devil", 
(Acts,  xiii,  6  sqq.)  served  as  deterrent  examples  for  all 
Christians,  it  took  centuries  to  eradicate  the  propen- 
sity to  magic.  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  St.  Augustine, 
St.  Chrysostom,  and  St.  Ephraem  inveighed  against 
it.  A  more  rational  view  of  religion  and  nature  had 
hardly  gained  ground,  when  the  Germanic  nations 
entered  the  Church  and  brought  with  them  the 
inclination  for  magic  inherited  from  centuries  of  pa- 
ganism. No  wonder  that  during  the  Middle  Ages 
wizardry  was  secretly  practised  in  many  places 
notwithstanding  innumerable  decrees  of  the  Church 
on  the  subject.  Belief  in  the  frequency  of  magic 
finally  led  to  stringent  measures  taken  against  witch- 
craft (q.  v.). 

Catholic  theology  defines  magic  as  the  art  of  per- 
forming actions  beyond  the  power  of  man  with  the 
aid  of  powers  other  than  the  Divine,  and  condemns  it 
and  any  attempt  at  it  as  a  grievous  sin  against  the 
virtue  of  religion,  because  all  magical  performances,  if 
undertaken  seriously,  are  based  on  the  expectation  of 
interference  by  demons  or  lost  souls.  Even  if  under- 
taken out  of  curiosity  the  performance  of  a  magical 
ceremony  is  sinful  as  it  either  proves  a  lack  of  faith 
or  is  ayain  superstition.  The  Catholic  Church  admits 
in  principle  the  possibility  of  interference  in  the 
course  of  nature  by  spirits  other  than  God,  whether 
good  or  evil,  but  never  without  God's  permission. 
As  to  the  frequency  of  such  interference  especially 
by  malignant  agencies  at  the  request  of  man,  she 
observes  the  utmost  reserve. 

R.  Campbell  Thompson,  Semitic  Magic  (London,  1908); 
Thorndyke,  The  Place  of  Magic  in  the  intellectual  history  of  Eu- 
rope in  Stud.  Hist,  Econom.  of  Columbia  University,  XXIV  (New 
York.  1905) ;  Budge,  Egyptian  Magic  (London,  1899) ;  Schebman, 
Griechische  Zauberpapyri  (Leipzig,  1909) ;  Kiesewetter,  Gesch. 
des  neuren  Okkultismus  (Leipzig,  1891) ;  Wiedemann,  Magic  und 
Znuberei  im  alien  Egypten  (Leipzig,  1905) ;  Lang,  Magic  and  Re- 
ligion  (London,  1910) ;  Habert,  La  religion  des  peuples  nan  civili- 
ses (Paris,  1907) ;  Idem,  La  Magie  (Paris,  1908) ;  Abt,  Die  Apologie 
des  Apulejics  u.  d,  antikc  Zauberei  (1908);  Weinel.  Die  Wirkung 
des  Geistes  .  .  .  bis  auf  IrerUtus  (Freiburg,  1899);  Du  Prel, 
Magie  als  Naturwissenschaft  (2  vols.,  1899);  Mathers,  The 
Book  of  Sacred  Magic  (1458),  reprinted  (London,  1898);  Fraser, 
The  Golden  Bough:  a  Study  in  Magic  and  Beligion  (3  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 19C)0).  This  last-mentioned  work  is  indeed  a  storehouse  of 
curious  information,  but  is  to  be  used  with  the  utmost  caution, 
as  it  is  vitiated  by  the  author's  prejudices.  Readers  are  warned 
against  the  following  works,  winch  are  either  books  on  conjuring 
or  productions  of  the  Rationalist  Press  AoENcr;  Conybeare, 
Mifth,  Magic  and  Morals;  Evans,  The  Old  and  New  Magic; 
A.  Thompson,  Magic  and  Mystery.  J.  p.  AbENDZBN. 


OCCURRENCE 


200 


O'CONNELL 


Occurrence  (in  I,iTrnc.Y^.  —  I.  Definition. — Oc- 
currence is  the  coiiK'iilini;  or  occurring  of  two  litur- 
pical  offices  on  one  ami  t  lie  same  ilay ;  concurrence  is  the 
succession  of  two  ofiiccs,  sit  tliat  the  second  vespers 
of  one  occur  at  the  same  time  as  the  first  vespers  of  the 
other.  The  chief  causes  of  occurrence  are:  (1)  the 
variableness  of  the  feast  and  cycle  of  Raster,  while 
the  other  feasts  are  fixed;  (2)  Ihc  annual  change  of  the 
Dominical  Letter,  wlierehy  Sunday  falls  successively 
on  dillerent  dates  of  the  same  nionlli  (sccCalendar; 
Do.MiMCAL  Letter).  Occurrence  may  be  accidental  or 
perpetual.  (1)  The  calendar  gives  as  a  fixed  feast 
for  2S  May  the  feast  of  St.  Augustine  of  Canterbury; 
on  the  other  hand  on  JS  May,  1891,  the  table  of  mov- 
able feasts  marked  tliat  day  as  the  feast  of  Corpus 
Christ  i ;  t  hus  on  2S  A  lay,  1 S91 ,  these  two  offices  fell  on 
the  same  day — that  is  there  was  an  occurrence.  But 
as  t  his  coincidence  was  due  to  a  variable  cause,  and  did 
not  happen  the  following  years,  the  occurrence  was 
accidental.  (2)  The  patronal  feast  of  churches  is  cel- 
ebrated with  an  octave;  in  the  case  of  a  church  hav- 
ing St.  Martin  (11  November)  as  its  patron,  the  octave 
day  (18  November)  falls  on  a  fixed  feast  marked  in 
the  Calendar:  "Dedication,  etc  .  .  .";  consequently, 
there  is  in  such  a  church  each  year  a  coinciding  of  two 
offices  on  18  November;  this  occurrence  is  said  to  be 
perpetual. 

n.  Rules  to  be  Obser\'ed. — In  case  of  an  oc- 
currence two  questions  arise:  (1)  Which  office  is  to 
have  the  preference?  (2)  What  is  to  be  done  concern- 
ing the  less  favoured  office?  (1)  The  two  offices 
must  be  compared  from  the  point  of  view  of  dignity 
and  of  necessity,  taken  either  separately  or  together. 
As  to  dignity,  Christmas,  the  Assumption,  etc.,  prevail 
over  the  feasts  of  saints ;  as  to  necessity,  the  first  Sun- 
day of  Advent  being  privileged  prevails  (if  it  falls  on 
30  November)  over  the  Office  of  St.  Andrew  the  Apos- 
tle; a  fortiori,  an  office  favoured  by  both  conditions 
will  be  preferred.  (2)  As  to  the  less  favoured  office,  it  is 
treated  differently  according  as  the  recurrence  is  per- 
petual or  accidental.  If  perpetual,  the  authority  of  the 
Holy  See  should  inter\^ene  to  operate  a  change  that 
will  be  effectual  each  year;  the  mention  of  the  feast  is 
maintained  on  the  day  on  which  it  falls,  but  the  office 
is  changed  to  the  first  free  day  (a  day  not  occupied  by 
another  office,  double  or  semi-double);  liturgists  call 
this  change  muiatio  (not  translatio).  When  the  oc- 
currence is  accidental,  the  compiler  of  the  diocesan 
ordo,  with  the  approval  of  the  ordinary,  decides,  in 
conformity  with  the  rubrics,  what  is  to  be  done  for 
the  year.  Either  the  office  in  question  is  transferable, 
in  which  the  regulations  of  title  X,  "De  translatione", 
are  to  be  followed;  or  else  it  is  not  transferable,  when 
it  must  be  seen  if  it  is  to  be  omitted  completely,  or  if 
a  commemoration  of  it  may  be  made  on  the  day  in 
question.  The  whole  matter  is  provided  for  in  the 
general  rubrics  of  the  Breviary. 

To  give  an  instance  of  concurrence,  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal calendar  marks  the  feast  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua 
on  13  June,  and  that  of  St.  Basil  on  14  June;  these  two 
fe;ists  being  of  double  rite  have  first  and  second  Ves- 
pers; on  the  evening  of  13  June,  therefore,  the  second 
Vespers  of  St.  Anthony  and  the  first  Vespers  of  St. 
Basil  happen  at  the  same  time,  and  there  is  said  to  be 
a  concurrence  of  the  two  offices. 

Gavanti,  TheaauruK  mcr.  ril.  mm  additionihua  Merati  (3  vols., 
Venice.  1769);  CurETva,  lleorlololiia  (Urbini.  16.57);  Menohini, 
Blemenla  jurin  lUurg.  (Rome,  1907) ;  Van  deh  Stappen,  Tractaius 
de  offic.  die.  (MecbUo,  1898) 

Fernand  Cabrol. 

Oceania,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Central. — 
The  whole  of  Oceania  had  at  first  been  entrusted  by  the 
I'rop.ag.mda  to  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of 
Jesus  and  Marj-  (1S2.5);  but  the  territory  proving  too 
large,  the  western  portion  was  afterwards  formed  into 
a  vicariate  .\postoli(t  and  given  to  the  Society  of  Mary 
(1836),  Mgr  Pompallier  being  appointed  vicar  Apos- 


tolic of  Western  Oceania.  In  1.S12,  the  Propaganda 
created  the  vicariate  Apostolic  of  Central  Oceania, 
comprising  New  Caledonia,  the  Tonga,  Samoa,  and 
]*'iji  Islands.  By  a  further  subdivision,  the  vicariate 
included  only  the  Tonga,  the  Wallis  Islands,  Futuna, 
and  Niue.  The  Tonga  Islands  extend  from  15°  to 
22°  S.  lat.  and  from  173°  to  176°  W.  long.  Km6  is 
three  hundred  miles  to  the  east.  The  \^'allis  Islands 
lie  in  1.3°  S.  lat.  and  178°  W.  long.;  Futuna,  in  40°  14' 
S.  lat.  and  179°  33'  W.  long.  These  archipelagos  are 
divided  among  several  more  or  less  constitutional 
monarchies;  the  Kingdoms  of  Tonga,  Niue,  Wallis, 
and  the  two  Kingdoms  of  Futuna.  Tonga  and  Niu6 
are  under  British  protectorate,  Wallis  and  Futuna, 
under  French.  Freedom  of  worship  is  theoretically 
recognized  everywhere  except  in  Niue,  which  is  ex- 
clusively Protestant.  Wallis  and  Futuna  are  entirely 
Catholic.  In  Tonga  there  are  Catholics,  Methodists 
belonging  to  the  Sydney  conference,  independent 
Methodists  forming  a  national  Church,  some  Angli- 
cans, .\dventists,  and  Mormons.  The  total  popula- 
tion is  34,000,  with  9200  Catholics.  There  are  35 
churches;  21  European  and  1  native  Marist  priests,  and 
3  native  secular  priests;  28  schools  with  2039  children; 
2  colleges;  1  seminary.  The  establishments  for  girls 
are  under  the  care  of  52  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of 
Mary.  The  boys'  schools  are  conducted  by  native 
lay  teachers;  the  colleges  and  the  seminary  by  priests. 
The  islands  are  divided  into  districts,  with  resident 
missionaries  who  assemble  every  month  for  an  ecclesi- 
astical conference.  There  are  annual  retreats  for  the 
priests,  for  the  sisters,  and  for  the  catechists,  be- 
sides general  retreats  for  the  faithful  about  every  two 
years.  In  each  village  there  is  a  sodahty  of  men 
(Kan  Apositolo)  and  another  of  women  {Fakafeao). 
The  yearly  number  of  baptisms  averages  310;  of  mar- 
riages, 105.  Mgr  Bataillon  was  the  first  vicar  Apos- 
tolic, succeeded  by  Mgr  Lamaze,  at  whose  death 
(1906)  succeeded  his  coadjutor,  Mgr  Amand  Olier, 
S.M.,  the  present  (1910)  vicar  Apostolic.  The  vicar- 
iate has  given  to  the  Church  the  proto-martyr  of 
Oceania,  Bl.  P.  Chanel. 

Mangeret,  Mgr  Bataillon  et  les  missions  de  I'Oceanie  Centrate 
fT,vnn^,  ISS4I:  Monfat,  Les  Tonga  (Lyons,  1893);  Hervier,  Les 

M 1/     ,  Irs  en  Ocianie  (Paris,  1902);  Nicolet,  Le  Martyr 

'/'    /  t       i"n,  1907);  Proceedings  of  the  First  Australasian 

''  '  ■        ,      ,  (Sydney,  1900);  Soane  Malia,  Cliez  tes  Mtri- 

til  '.:  1^  :  i  i':  ijlque  (Lyons  and  Paris,  1910). 

Joseph  Blanc. 
Ochrida.    See  Achrida. 

O'Clery,  Michael.    See  Four  Masters,  Annals 

OF  THE. 

O'Clery,  Peregrine.  See  Four  Masters,  An- 
nals of  the. 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  b.  at  Carhen,  near  Cahirci- 
veen,  Co.  Kerry,  Ireland,  1775;  d.  at  Genoa,  1847. 
The  O'Connells,  once  great  in  Kerry,  had  suffered 
severely  by  the  penal  laws,  and  the  family  at  Carhen 
was  not  rich.  An  uncle,  Maurice  O'Connell  of  Darry- 
nane,  resident  in  France,  bore  the  expense  of  educat- 
ing DanielandhisbrotherMaurice.  In  1791  they  were 
sent  to  the  Irish  College  at  Liege,  but,  Daniel  being 
beyond  the  prescribed  age  for  admission,  they  pro- 
ceeded to  St.  Omer's  in  France,  and  after  a  year  went 
to  Douai.  Daniel  gave  evidence  of  industry  and 
ability  at  St.  Omer's,  but  at  Douai  his  stay  was  short, 
for,  owing  to  the  French  Revolution,  the  two  O'Con- 
nells returned  home  (1793).  In  1794  Daniel  became 
a  law  student  at  Lincoln's  Inn  and  in  1798  was  called 
to  the  Irish  Bar.  The  era  of  penal  legislation  in  Ire- 
land had  ceased,  and  already  a  serious  breach  had 
been  made  in  the  penal  code.  By  a  series  of  remedial 
mea.sures,  ending  with  the  Catholic  Relief  Act  of  1793, 
Catholics  were  placed  in  many  respects  on  a  level  with 
other  denominations,  but  were  still  excluded  from 
Parliament,  from  the  inner  bar,  and  from  the  higher 
civil  and  military  offices;  and  the  recall  of  Fitzwilliam 


O'CONNELL 


201 


O'CONNELL 


(1795)  .and  the  events  following  showed  that  no  fur- 
ther concessions  would  be  given.  O'Connell  could 
not  see  why  Catholics  who  paid  taxes  and  were  obe- 
dient to  the  law  should  not  have  a  share  in  the  spend- 
ing of  the  taxes  and  in  the  making  of  the  laws.  He 
detested  violence  as  a  weapon  of  reform,  respected 
religion  and  the  rights  of  property,  and  therefore 
hated  the  French  Revolution  as  he  did  the  Rebellion 
of  1798.  The  Union  he  abhorred  because  it  destroyed 
Ireland's  separate  nationality;  and  he  has  recorded  his 
anger  at  hearing  the  ringing  of  the  bells  of  St.  Patrick's 
cathedral  when  the  .\et  of  Union  was  passed,  and  his 
resolution  to  tlo  something  to  undo  it.  He  believed 
that  moderation  was  the  true  character  of  patriotism, 
and  that  the  rights  of  Ireland  could  be  won  by  peace- 
ful agitation,  but  he  had  no  faith  in  the  efficacy  of 
agitation  such  as  had  been 
carried  on  by  the  Catholic 
body.  Leaders  like  Lords 
Trimlcstown  and  Fingal  at- 
tracted no  enthusiasm,  and  the 
CatholicCommittee, controlled 
by  such  men  and  meeting  to- 
gether to  present  petitions  and 
make  periodic  professions  of 
loyalty,  were  simply  ploughing 
the  sands.  The  support  of  the 
ma.sses  should  be  enlisted,  there 
should  be  organization  and 
vigour,  and  the  Catholics 
should  demand  concession  not 
as  a  favour  but  as  a  right. 
O'Connell  was  the  leader  for 
such  a  movement ;  a  man  strong 
in  body  and  mind,  a  great  ora- 
tor, debater,  and  lawyer,  a 
master  of  sarcasm  and  invec- 
tive; a  man  who  could  wrinj; 
truth  from  a  reluctant  witness, 
or  curb  the  insolence  of  a  par- 
tisan judge,  or  melt  a  jury  by 
his  moving  appeal.  Address- 
ing an  audience  of  coreligionists 
he  was  unequalled.  The  peo- 
ple felt  proud  of  such  a  leader, 
and  were  ready  to  follow  wher- 
ever he  led. 

O'Connell's  first  appearance 
on  a  public  platform  was  in 
Dubhn  (1800),  when  he  de- 
nounced the  contemplated 
Union,  and  declared  that  the 
Catholics  wanted  no  such 
Union,  and  that  if  a  LTnion  were  to  be  the  alterna- 
tive to  the  re-enactment  of  the  penal  laws  they  would 
prefer  the  penal  laws.  In  the  subsequent  years  he 
regularly  attended  the  meetings  of  the  Catholic 
Committee  and  infused  more  v-igour  and  energy 
into  its  proceedings,  and  by  1810  he  had  become  the 
most  trusted  and  powerful  of  the  Catholic  leaders. 
In  1810  he  sent  out  a  circular  from  Dublin  inviting  the 
people  to  form  local  committees  in  correspondence 
with  the  central  committee.  The  Government,  afraid 
of  having  a  national  organization  to  deal  with,  pro- 
claimed all  such  local  committee  meetings,  under  the 
Convention  .\ct  of  1793;  but  the  magistrates  in  many 
cases  refused  to  carry  out  the  proclamations,  and 
when  the  Dublin  committee  met,  some  of  the  leaders 
were  arrested  and  prosecuted.  But  O'Connell  suc- 
cessfully defended  the  first  of  the  accused,  Mr.  Sheri- 
dan. 

From  1812  to  1817  the  Irish  Government  was  little 
else  than  a  long-sustained  duel  between  O'Connell  and 
the  new  chief  secretary.  Sir  Robert  Peel.  Both  were 
able  and  determined,  and  between  them  began  a  per- 
sonal enmity  which  ended  only  with  their  lives.  Peel 
championed  privilege  and  ascendency  and  attacked 


the  Catholic  leaders.  O'Connell  retorted  by  calling 
him  "Orange  Peel".  O'Connell  turned  the  Catholic 
Committee  into  the  Catholic  Board,  but  Peel  pro- 
claimed the  Board  as  he  had  proclaimed  the  Com- 
mittee; and  while  O'Connell  continued  to  agitate, 
Peel  continued  to  pass  acts  and  enforce  them.  Mean- 
time one  noted  event  happened  which  further  en- 
deared O'Connell  to  the  people.  The  Dublin  Corpora- 
tion had  always  been  reactionary  and  bigotedj  always 
the  champion  of  Protestant  ascendancy.  O'Con- 
nell in  a  public  speech  in  1815  called  it  a  "beg- 
garly corporation".  The  aldermen  and  councillors 
were  enraged  and,  finding  that  O'Connell  would  not 
apologize,  one  of  their  number,  D'Esterre,  sent  him  a 
challenge.  D'Esterre  was  a  noted  duellist  and  the 
hope  was  that  if  O'Connell  attempted  to  fight  there 
would  be  an  end  to  his  career. 
To  the  surprise  of  all  O'Connell 
met  D'Esterre  and  shot  him 
dead.  He  bitterly  regretted 
the  deed,  and  to  the  end  of 
his  days  he  never  missed  an 
opportunity  of  assisting  the 
D'Esterre  family.  With  all 
his  popularity,  the  Catholic 
cause  was  not  advancing.  The 
question  of  the  veto  was  being 
agitated,  and  in  consequence 
there  was  division  and  weak- 
ness in  the  Catholic  ranks. 
O'Connell,  though  a  fervent 
Catholic,  opposed  the  veto, 
and  declared  that  while  willing 
to  have  his  religion  from  Rome 
he  must  have  his  politics  from 
home.  In  1821  there  was  a 
gleam  of  hope,  when  the  new 
KingGeorge  I\'  visited  Ireland. 
.\s  Prince  of  Wall's  lie  hud  been 
the  friend  of  the  Lilseral  leaders, 
and  as  such  it  was  expected 
that  he  would  favour  Liberal 
measures.  But  he  left  Ireland 
without  saying  a  word  in  fa- 
vour of  Emancipation. 

.4t  last  O'Connell  deter- 
mined to  rouse  the  masses  in 
earnest  and,  in  conjunction 
with  a  young  lawyer,  Mr. 
Shell,  he  founded,  in  1823, 
the  Catholic  Association. 
The  declared  object  was  to 
win  Emancipation  "by  legal 
and  constitutional  means",  and  in  order  to  evade 
the  Convention  Act  the  .i^ssociation  assumed  no  del- 
egated or  representative  character.  It  was  a  club, 
its  members  meeting  weekly  and  paying  an  annual 
subscription.  O'Connell  worked  unceasingly  to 
spread  the  organization,  and  though  progress  was  slow 
success  came  at  last;  and  by  1825  a  vast  organization 
had  spread  over  the  land,  exercising  all  the  powers  of 
government.  In  each  district,  usually  under  the  pres- 
idency of  the  clergy,  there  was  a  branch  of  the  Cath- 
olic Association,  where  local  grievances  were  venti- 
lated, and  subscriptions  received  and  sent  to  Dublin 
to  the  central  association,  whence  came  advice  in  diffi- 
culties and  speakers  for  local  meetings.  In  1825  the 
Government,  alarmed  at  the  power  of  an  organization 
W'hich  was  a  serious  rival  to  the  executive,  passed  a 
bill  suppressing  it.  But  O'Connell,  e.xperienced  in  de- 
feating Acts  of  Parliament,  changed  the  name  to  the 
New  Cathohc  Association,  and  the  work  of  agitation 
went  on.  As  much  as  five  hundred  pounds  a  week 
was  subscribed,  and  in  1826  the  Association  felt  strong 
enough  to  put  up  a  candidate  for  Waterford,  who 
succeeded  against  all  the  territorial  influence  of  the 
Beresfords;  similar  victories  were  won  in  Monaghan, 


O'CONNELL 


202 


O'CONOR 


Westmeath,  and  Louth.  In  1828  came  the  Clare 
election  when  O'Connell  himself  was  nominated.  It 
was  known  that  he  could  not  as  a  Catholic  take  the 
Parliaiiiculary  oath;  but  if  he,  the  representative  of 
6,l)()0,(H)0,  were  driven  from  the  doors  of  Parliament 
solely  because  of  his  creed,  the  effect  on  public  opinion 
woukl  be  great.  O'Connell  was  elected,  and  when 
he  presented  himself  in  Parliament  he  refused  to  take 
the  oath  olTered  him.  The  crisis  had  come.  The 
Catholic  millions,  organized  and  defiant,  would  have 
Emancipation;  the  Orangemen  would  have  no  con- 
cession; and  Ireland,  in  the  end  of  1828,  was  on  the 
brink  of  civil  war.  To  avoid  this  calamity  Peel  and 
Wellington  struck  their  colours,  and  in  1829  the  Cath- 
olic Relief  Act  was  passed. 

Henceforth  O'Connell  was  the  Uncrowned  King  of 
Ireland.  To  recompense  him  for  his  services  and  to 
secure  these  services  for  the  future  in  Parliament,  he 
was  induced  to  abandon  the  practice  of  his  profession 
and  to  accept  instead  the  O'Connell  Tribute,  which 
from  the  voluntary  subscriptions  of  the  people  brought 
him  an  income  of  £1600  a  year.  His  first  care  was 
for  Repeal,  but  his  appeals  for  Protestant  co-operation 
were  not  responded  to,  and  the  associations  he  formed 
to  agitate  the  question  were  all  proclaimed.  In  this 
respect  the  Whigs,  whom  he  supported  in  1832,  were 
no  better  than  the  Tories.  He  denounced  them  as 
"base,  brutal  and  bloody";  yet  in  18.35  ho  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  them  by  accepting  the  Lichfield 
House  Compact,  and  he  kept  them  in  oflSce  till  1841. 
During  these  years  Drummond  effected  reforms  in  the 
Irish  executive,  and  measures  affecting  tithes,  poor 
law,  and  municipal  reform  were  passed.  But  Repeal 
was  left  in  abeyance  till  Peel  returned  to  power,  and 
then  O'Connell  established  the  Repeal  Association. 
Its  progress  was  slow  until  in  1842  it  got  the  support  of 
the  Nation  newspaper.  In  one  year  it  advanced  with 
giant  strides,  and  in  1843  O'Connell  held  a  series  of 
meetings,  some  of  them  attended  by  hundreds  of 
thousands. 

The  last  of  these  meetings  was  to  be  held  at  Clon- 
tarf  in  October.  Peel  proclaimed  the  meeting  and 
prosecuted  O'Connell,  and  in  1844  he  was  convicted 
and  imprisoned.  On  appeal  to  the  House  of  Lords 
the  judgment  of  the  Irish  court  was  reversed  and 
O'Connell  was  set  free.  His  health  had  suffered,  and 
henceforth  there  was  a  lack  of  energy  and  vigour  in  his 
movements,  a  shifting  from  Repeal  to  Federalism  and 
back  again  to  Repeal.  He  also  quarrelled  with  the 
Young  Irelanders.  Then  came  the  avdnl  calamity  of 
the  famine.  O'ConneU's  last  appearance  in  Parlia- 
ment was  in  1847  when  he  pathetically  asked  that  his 
people  be  saved  from  perishing.  He  was  then  se- 
riously ill.  The  doctors  ordered  him  to  a  warmer  cU- 
mate.  He  felt  that  he  was  dying  and  wished  to  die  at 
Rome,  but  got  no  further  than  Genoa.  In  accordance 
with  his  wish  his  heart  was  brought  to  Rome  and  his 
body  to  Ireland.  His  funeral  was  of  enormous  di- 
mensions, and  since  his  death  a  splendid  statue  has 
been  erected  to  his  memory  in  Dublin  and  a  round 
tower  placed  over  his  remains  in  Glasnevin. 

O'Connell  was  married  to  his  cousin  Mary  O'Con- 
nell and  had  three  daughters  and  four  sons,  all  the 
latter  being  at  one  time  or  other  in  Pariiament. 

John  O'Conneli.,  third  son  of  the  above;  b.  at 
Dubhn,  24  December,  1810;  d.  at  Kingstown,  Co. 
Dubhn,  24  May,  1858.  He  was  returned  M.P.  for 
Youghal  (18.32),  Athlone  (1837),  and  Kilkenny 
(1841-47).  As  a  politician  he  was  not  tactful,  and, 
came  in  conflict  with  the  Young  Ireland  party.  As  a 
writer  his  "Repeal  Dictionary"  (1845)  showed  much 
literary  and  polemical  power.  In  1846  he  published  a 
selection  of  his  father's  speeches,  prefaced  by  a  me- 
moir. His  "Recollections  and  Experiences  during  a 
Parliamentary  Career  from  1833  to  1848"  was  issued 
in  two  volumes  (1849).  As  a  Whig,  and  also  a  cap- 
tain in  the  militia,  he  fell  into  disfavour  with  his  Lim- 


erick constituents.  He  retired  from  politics  1857,  and 
accepted  a  lucrative  Government  appointment. 

FiTZPATBicK,  O'ConneU's  Correspondence  (London,  1888)- 
Houston,  O'ConneU's  Journal  (London,  1906);  Dunloi',  O'Con- 
neU  (New  York.  1900);  McDonaoh,  Life  of  O'ConneU  (London, 
1903);  O'Neill  Daunt,  Personal  Recollections  of  O'Connell  (Lon- 
don, 1848) ;  CuBACK.  Life  and  Times  of  O'ConneU  (London.  1872); 
Cloncurrt,  Personal  Recollections  (Dublin.  1849);  Duppt! 
Young  Ireland  (London,  1896);  Mitchel,  History  of  Ireland 
(London,  1869);  Fitzpatrick,  Dr.  Doyle  (Dublin,  1880);  Leckt, 
Leaders  of  Public  Opinion  (London,  1871);  Nemours  Godre 
O'ConneU.  sa  tie,  son  ceuvre  (Paris.  1900);  Shaw  Lefevre,  ftei 
and  O'ConneU  (London.  1887);  John  O'Connell.  RecoUectiona 
(London.  1849);  Madden,  Ireland  and  its  Rulers  (London.  1844); 
Colchester.  Diary  (London,  18B1) ;  Wtse,  History  of  the  Catholic 
Association  (London,  1829);  D'Alton,  History  of  Ireland  (Lon- 

do°.  1910-  E.  A.  D'Alton. 

O'Connell,  Dennis  Joseph.  See  San  Francisco, 
Archdioce,se  of. 

O'Connell,  William  H.  See  Boston,  Archdio- 
cese OF. 

O'Connor,  John  Joseph.    See  Newark,  Diocese 

OF. 

O'Connor,  Patrick  Joseph.  See  Armidale,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

O'Connor,  Richard  A.  Sec  Peterborough,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

O'Conor,  Charles,  b.  in  the  city  of  New  York,  22 

January,  1804;  d.  at  Nantucket,  Mass.,  12  May,  1884. 
His  father,  Thomas  O'Conor,  who  came  to  New  York 
from  Ireland  in  1801,  was  "one  of  the  active  rebels  of 
1798",  a  devoted  Cathohc  and  patriot,  less  proud 
of  the  kingly  rule  of  his  family  than  of  the  adher- 
ence of  the  O'Conors  to  their  ancient  faith  and  patri- 
otic principles.  He  married  (1803)  a  daughter  of  Hugh 
O'Connor,  a  fellow  countryman,  but  not  a  kinsman, 
who  had  come  to  the  United  States  with  his  family  in 
or  about  1790.  Of  this  marriage  Charles  O'Conor 
was  bom. 

In  1824,  in  his  native  city,  he  was  admitted  to  the 
practice  of  the  law.  In  1827  he  was  successful  as 
counsel  in  the  case  of  a  contested  election  for  trustees  of 
St.  Peter's  Church  in  New  York.  From  the  year  1828 
his  rise  in  his  profession  was  continuous.  As  early 
as  1840  an  interested  observer  of  men  and  events, 
Philip  Hone,  refers  in  his  diary  to  "an  able  speech" 
by  this  "distinguished  member  of  the  New  York  bar" 
(Tuckerman,  "The  Diary  of  Philip  Hone ",  New  York, 
1889,  II,  37).  In  1843  by  the  case  of  Stewart  against 
Lispenard,  his  professional  standing  became  most  se- 
curely established.  At  the  June  term  in  this  year 
of  the  highest  court  of  the  State  twenty  cases  were 
argued.  Of  these  he  argued  four.  In  1846  he  had 
reached  "the  front  ranks  of  the  profession,  not  only 
in  the  City  and  State  of  New  York,  but  in  the  United 
States"  (Clinton,  "Extraordinary  Cases",  New  York,  I, 
1 ) .  Doubtless,  to  his  repute  as  a  jurist  should  be  attrib- 
uted his  nomination  by  all  political  parties  for  the  New 
York  State  Constitutional  Convention  of  that  year. 
Subsequent  to  his  very  early  manhood,  office-holding 
could  not  have  attracted  him.  He  once  wrote  that  if 
elected  to  office  he  would  accept  only,  if  impelled  by 
"a  sense  of  duty  such  as  might  impel  the  conscripted 
militia-man"  (see  "U.  S.  Catholic  Historical  Maga- 
zine", New  York,  1891-92,  IV,  402,  and  his  response 
to  tender  in  1872  of  the  presidential  nomination, 
ibidem,  399).  Concerning  voting  for  public  oflicers 
he  expressed  himself  in  a  similar  manner,  such  vot- 
ing being,  he  contended,  "the  performance  of  a 
duty  "  and  no  more  a  personal  right  than  payment  of 
taxes  or  submitting  to  military  service,  although 
termed  "  somewhat  inaptly  "afranchise  (see  "Address 
before  the  New  York  Historical  Society  ",  New  York, 
1877) .  During  the  convention  "it  was  the  wonder  of 
his  colleagues,  how  in  addition  to  the  faithful  work 
performed  in  committee  he  could  get  time  for  the  re- 
search that  was  needed  to  equip  him  for  the  great 
speeches  with  which  he  adorned  the  debates"  (Alex- 


DANIEL  O'CONNELL 


O'CONOR 


203 


OCTAVARIUM 


ander,  "A  Political  History  of  the  State  of  New  York", 
New  York,  1906,  II,  112).  His  views,  however,  were 
not  those  of  the  majority.  First  of  a  minority  of  only 
six  members  he  voted  against  approving  a  new  State 
Constitution  of  which  after  it  had  been  in  force  many 
years,  he  stated  that  it  "gave  life,  vigor  and  perma- 
nency to  the  trade  of  politics,  with  all  its  attendant 
malpractice"  (see  Address,  supra). 

Notable  among  cases  previous  to  1843  in  which  he 
was  counsel  was  Jack  t).Martin,12Wendell311,andl4 
Wendell  507;  and  during  the  twenty  years  following 
1843  the  Mason  %vill  case  as  well  as  the  Parish  will  case 
(see  Delafield  v.  Parish,  2.5  New  York  Court  of  Appeals 
Reports,  9) .  Probably,  the  most  sensational  of  his  cases 
during  the  latter  period  was  the  action  for  divorce 
brought  against  the  celebrated  actor,  Edwin  Forrest, 
O'Conor's  vindication  of  the  character  of  his  client, 
Mrs.  Forrest,  eliciting  great  professional  and  popular 
applause  (see  Clinton,  op.  cit.,  71,  73,  U.  S.  Catholic 
Historical  Magazine,  supra,  428).  When  in  1865 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Southern  Confederacy,  Jef- 
ferson Davis  was  indicted  for  treason,  O'Conor  be- 
came his  counsel.  Among  O'Conor's  later  cases,  the 
trials  concerning  property  formerly  of  Stephen  Jumel 
(see,  for  narrative  of  one  of  these,  Clinton,  op.  cit., 
c.  XXIX)  displayed,  as  had  the  Forrest  divorce  case, 
his  ability  in  the  capacity  of  trial  lawyer  and  cross- 
examiner,  while  one  of  the  cases  in  which  his  learning 
concerning  the  law  of  trusts  appeared  was  the  case 
of  Manice  against  Manioe,  43  New  York  Court  of 
Appeals  Reports,  303.  In  1871,  he  commenced  with 
enthusiasm  as  coun.sel  for  the  State  of  New  York  pro- 
ceedings against  William  M.  Tweed  and  others,  ac- 
cused of  frauds  upon  the  City  of  New  York,  declaring 
that  for  his  professional  services  he  would  accept 
no  compensation.  In  the  autumn  of  1875  and  while 
these  proceedings  were  uncompleted,  he  was  pros- 
trated by  an  illness  which  seemed  mortal,  and  the 
cardinal  archbishop  administered  the  sacraments. 
Slowly,  however,  he  regained  some  measure  of 
strength,  and,  on  7  February,  1876,  roused  by  a  news- 
paper report,  he  left  his  bedroom  to  appear  in  court, 
"unexpected  and  ghost-hke"  (according  to  an  eye- 
witness), that  he  might  save  from  disaster  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  cause  of  the  State  against  Tweed  (see  Breen, 
"Thirty  Years  of  New  York  Politics",  New  York, 
1S99,  54.5-52).  In  1877  he  appeared  as  coun.sel  be- 
fore the  Electoral  Commission  at  the  City  of  Washing- 
ton. His  last  years  were  passed  on  the  Island  of  Nan- 
tucket, where,  in  1880,  he  took  up  his  abode,  seeking 
"quiet  and  a  more  genial  climate".  But  even  here  he 
was  occasionally  induced  to  participate  in  the  labours 
of  his  beloved  profession. 

When  ho  ])assed  away,  many  seemed  to  concur  in 
opinion  with  Tildcn  that  O'Conor  "was  the  greatest 
jurist  among  all  the  English-speaking  race"  (Bigelow, 
"  Letters  and  literary  memorials  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden", 
II,  643). 

United  States  Catholic  Historical  Magazine,  IV  (New  York, 
1891-2),  22.5,  396;  Finotti,  Bibliographia  Calholica  Americana 
{New  York,  1872),  209,  216;  Lewis,  Great  American  Lawyers, 
V  (Philadelphia,  1908),  83;  Coudert,  Addresses,  etc.  (New 
York  and  London,  1905),  198;  Veedeh,  Legal  Masterpieces  (St. 
Paul,  1903),  11,  820;  Hill,  Decisive  Battles  of  the  Law  (New  York 
and  London),  212,  221,  226-7;  Johnson,  Reports  of  cases  decided 
by  Chief  Justice  Chase  (New  York,  1876),  1,  106. 

Charles  W.  Sloane. 

O'Conor,  Charles,  often  called  "the  Venerable", 
b.  at  Belanagare,  Co.  Roscommon,  1710;  d.  1791,  was 
descended  from  an  ancient  and  princely  Catholic 
family.  Cultured,  educated,  an  Irish  scholar,  O'Conor 
was  almost  the  only  Irishman  of  his  time  who  studied 
the  records  of  his  country,  and  who  did  what  he  could 
to  preserve  the  Irish  manuscripts.  He  scanned  these 
with  a  calculating  and  mathematical  mind,  contin- 
ually figuring  up  and  noting  upon  the  margins  the 
dates  of  kings,  princes,  prelates,  foundations  etc.,  and 
pointing  out  conflicting  dates.     He  was  the  only  Irish- 


man with  whom  Samuel  Johnson  corresponded  with 
reference  to  Irish  hterature.  Irish  was  his  native 
language,  so  that  he  was  one  of  the  last  great  Irishmen 
who  continued  the  unbroken  traditions  of  their  race. 
His  private  diaries  and  note-books  in  which  he  jotted 
down  household  affairs,  expenses  etc.  (now  preserved 
by  his  direct  descendant  the  O'Conor  Don  H.  M.  L. 
at  Clonalis)  were  written  largely  in  classic  Irish.  His 
best  known  work  is  his  "Dissertations  on  the  History 
of  Ireland"  published  in  17.53  which  led  to  his  corre- 
spondence with  Dr.  Johnson,  who  urged  him  to  write 
an  account  of  pre-Norman  Ireland.  His  collection  of 
Irish  manuscripts  passed  to  his  grandson,  the  younger 
Charles,  and  later  formed  the  renowned  Stowe  Col- 
lection in  the  possession  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
whose  librarian  the  younger  Charles  became.  This 
collection,  including  the  famous  Stowe  Missal  and  the 
original  of  the  first  part  of  the  "Annals  of  the  Four 
Masters,"  was  for  years  inaccessible  to  Irish  scholars, 
but  has  now  been  deposited  in  the  Royal  Irish  Acad- 
emy. A  man  of  affairs,  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Committee  in  1757,  and  with 
Dr.  Curry,  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  real  lay  leaders 
and  representatives  of  the  Irish  Catholics  during  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Charles  O'Conor 
(grandson  of  the  above),  wrote  the  "Memoirs  of  the 
Life  and  Writings  of  the  late  Charles  O'Conor  of  Bel- 
anagare ".  This  is  a  very  rare  book,  the  author  having 
suppressed  it,  and  destroyed  the  manuscript  of  the  sec- 
ond volume  when  ready  for  press.  Its  destruction  was 
a  great  loss  to  the  Irish  history  of  the  period.  The 
present  O'Conor  Don  possesses  many  of  his  letters; 
others  are  in  the  Gilbert  Library  now  acquired  by  the 
Corporation  of  Dublin. 

O'CuRRY,  Manuscript  Materials  (Dublin,  1878),  p.  115; 
O'Conor  Don,  The  O'Conors  of  Connaught  (Dublin,  1891) ;  Webb, 
Compendium  of  Irish  Biography  (Dublin,  1870). 

Douglas  Hyde. 

Octavaxium  Romanum,  a  Uturgical  book,  which 
may  be  considered  as  an  appendix  to  the  Roman 
Breviary,  but  which  has  not  the  official  position  of  the 
other  Roman  liturgical  books.  The  first  mention  of 
this  book  dates  from  Sixtus  V.  In  order  to  intro- 
duce a  greater  variety  in  the  selection  of  lessons, 
he  ordered  the  compilation  of  an  Octavarium  to  com- 
prise the  lessons  proper  to  each  day  of  the  octaves. 
The  plan  was  not  executed  during  his  pontificate 
(158,5-90),  When  the  question  of  correcting  the 
Breviary  was  raised  anew  under  Clement  VIII 
(1,592-1605),  the  projected  Octavarium  was  again 
spoken  of.  The  consultors,  the  most  distinguished 
of  whom  was  Baronius,  were  in  favour  of  the  sug- 
gested compilation.  Gavanti,  who  was  also  a  con- 
suitor,  undertook  the  work,  but  his  book  did  not 
appear  till  1628.  Its  title,  which  is  descriptive,  is 
"Octavarium  Romanum,  Lectiones  II  et  III  Noc- 
turni  complectens,  recitandas  infra  octavas  Fes- 
torum,  prajsertim  patronorum  locorum  et  titularium 
Ecclcsiarum  qua-  cum  octavis  celebrari  debent,  juxta 
rubricas  Breviarii  Romani,  a  Sacra  Rituum  Congrega- 
tione  ad  usum  totius  orbis  ecclesiarum  approbatum" 
(Antwerp,  1628).  In  addition  to  the  letter  of  appro- 
bation, the  Brief  of  Urban  VIII,  and  the  dedication, 
the  book  includes  a  few  pages  on  the  origin,  cause,  and 
rites  of  octaves.  The  body  of  the  work  consists  of  a 
collection  of  readings,  or  lessons,  for  the  feasts  of  the 
Holy  Trinity,  the  Transfiguration,  the  Holy  Cross, 
several  feasts  of  Our  Lady  (Conception,  Purification, 
Visitation,  Our  Lady  of  the  Snows),  the  feasts  of  St. 
Michael,  the  Apostles,  Saints  Mary  Magdalene,  Mar- 
tha, John,  Athanasius,  Monica,  Nereus  and  Achilleus, 
the  Seven  Brothers,  Apolhnarius,  the  feast  of  the  Be- 
heading of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  of  Sts.  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus,  Basil,  Francis,  Clement  etc.  Then 
follow  the  lessons  for  the  commons.  They  are  drawn 
from  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  and  are  varied  and 
well-selected.     Numerous    editions    have    appeared 


OCTAVE 


204 


OCTAVE 


since  then,  with  occasional  variations.  One  of  the 
most  recent  is  by  Pustet  (Ratisbon,  1883).  The  read- 
ing of  the  Octavariura  is  not  obligatory. 

ZaCCaRia.  Onomaslicon,  02;  Idkm,  Bibliolheca  RiUiaKs.  I,  134; 
Bkrgel.  Dir  Ementlation  ites  rdrnischen  Breviers  unter  Klcmctts 
VIII  in  Zeilschrift  far  kathol.  Thcal.,  VIII  (Innsbruck.  1SS4). 
296.  300  sq.;  BACMEn-BiBON,  Hisloire  dxt  Briviaire,  II  (Paris, 
1905),  252.  273  sq.     See  also  Octave. 

Fernand  Cabrol. 

Octave. — I.  Origin. — It  is  the  number  seven,  not 
eight,  that  plays  the  principal  role  in  Jewish  heortol- 
ogy,  and  (l(iiii'in:itcs  the  cycle  of  the  year.  Every 
seventh  day  is  a  sal)b;itli ;  the  seventh  month  is  sacred; 
the  seventh  year  is  a  sabbatical  year.  The  jubilee 
year  was  brought  about  by  the  number  seven  multi- 
plied by  seven;  the  feast  of  the  Azymes  lasted  seven 
days,  like  the  paschal  feast;  the  feast  of  Pentecost 
was  seven  times  seven  days  after  the  Pasch;  the 
feast  of  the  Tabernacles  lasted  seven  (iays,  the 
days  of  convocation  numbered  seven  (Willis,  "  Wor- 
ship of  the  Old  Covenant",  190-1;  "Diet,  of  the 
Bible",  s.  V.  Feast  and  Fasts,  I,  859).  However, 
the  octave  day,  without  having  the  symbolic  im- 
portance of  the  seventh  day,  had  also  its  role.  The 
eighth  day  was  the  day  of  circumcision  (Gen.,  xxi, 
4;  Lev.,  xii,  3;  Luke,  i,  59;  Acts,  vii,  8  etc.).  The 
feast  of  the  Tabernacles,  which  as  we  have  said  lasted 
seven  days,  was  followed  on  the  eighth  by  a  solemnity 
which  may  be  considered  as  an  octave  (Lev.,  xxiii,  36, 
39;  Num.,  xxix,  35;  II  Esd.,  viii,  18);  the  eighth  day 
was  the  day  of  certain  sacrifices  (Lev.,  xiv,  10,  23;  xv, 
14,  29;  Num.,  vi,  10).  It  was  on  the  eighth  day,  too, 
that  the  feast  of  the  dedication  of  the  Temple  under 
Solomon,  and  of  its  purifications  under  Ezechias  con- 
cluded (II  Par.,  vii,  9;  xxix,  17).  The  ogdoad  of  the 
Egyptians  and  similar'  numerical  phantasies  among 
other  peoples  had  no  influence  on  Christian  liturgy. 
Gavanti's  opinion  that  the  custom  of  celebrating  the 
octave  of  feasts  dates  back  to  the  days  of  the  Apostles 
is  devoid  of  proof  (Thesaurus  sacr.  rit.,  31  sq.).  At 
first  the  Christian  feasts  have  no  octaves.  Sunday, 
which  may  in  a  sense  be  considered  the  first  Christian 
feast,  falls  on  the  seventh  day;  the  feasts  of  Easter  and 
Pentecost,  which  are,  with  Sunday,  the  most  ancient, 
form  as  it  were  only  a  single  feast  of  fifty  days.  The 
feast  of  Christmas,  which  too  is  very  old,  had  origi- 
nally no  octave. 

In  the  fourth  century,  when  the  primitive  idea  of 
the  fifty  days'  feast  of  the  paschal  time  began  to  grow 
dim,  Easter  and  Pentecost  were  given  octaves.  Pos- 
sibly at  first  this  was  only  a  baptismal  custom,  the 
neophj'tes  remaining  in  a  kind  of  joyful  retreat  from 
Easter  or  Pentecost  till  the  following  Sunday.  More- 
over, the  Sunday  which,  after  the  feasts  of  Easter  and 
Pentecost,  fell  on  the  eighth  day,  came  as  a  natural 
conclusion  of  the  seven  feast  days  after  these  two 
festivals.  The  octave,  therefore,  would  have  in  a 
certain  sense  developed  of  its  own  accord.  If  this 
be  so,  we  may  say,  contrary  to  the  common  opinion 
that  Christians  borrowed  the  idea  of  the  octave 
from  the  Jews,  this  custom  grew  spontaneously  on 
Christian  soil.  However,  it  must  be  said  that  the 
first  Christian  octave  known  to  history  is  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  Churches  of  Tyre  and  Jerusalem,  under 
Constantine,  and  that  these  solemnities,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  dedication  of  the  Jewish  Temple,  lasted 
eight  days  (Eusebius,  "De  vita  Constant".,  Ill, 
XXX  sq.;  Sozomen,  "Hist,  eccl.",  II,  xxvi).  This 
feast  may  possibly  have  influenced  the  adoption 
of  the  octave  by  the  Christians.  From  the  fourth 
century  onwards  the  celebration  of  octaves  is  men- 
tioned more  frequently.  It  occurs  in  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions,  the  sermons  of  the  Fathers,  the 
Councils  ("Const.  Apost.",  VIII,  xxxiii;  V,  xx;  Au- 
gustine, "De  div.  temp.",  i;  "Ep.",  Iv,  .32,  33  etc.; 

Peregrinatio  Etheria;",  ed.  Gamurrini,  p.  100;  cf. 
Cabrol,  "Etude  sur  La  Peregrinatio",  Paris,  1895,  pp. 


116-7;  "Concil.  Matisc.  11",  ii;  "Concil.  in  Trullo", 
Ivi). 

11.  Celebration  of  Octaves  in  Ancient  and 
Modern  Times. — The  liturgy  of  the  octave  assumed 
its  present  form  slowly.  In  the  first  period,  that  is 
from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  and  even  seventh  century, 
little  thought  seems  to  have  been  given  to  varying  the 
liturgical  formula;  during  the  eight  days.  The  sacra- 
mentaries  of  Gelasius  and  St.  Gregory  make  no  men- 
tion of  the  intervening  days;  on  the  octave  day  the 
office  of  the  feast  is  repeated.  The  dies  odnva  is  in- 
deed made  more  prominent  by  the  liturgy.  The  Sun- 
day following  Easter  (i.  e.  Sunday  in  albis)  and  the  oc- 
tave day  of  Christmas  (now  the  Circumcision)  are 
treated  very  early  as  feast  days  by  the  liturgy.  Cer- 
tain octaves  were  considered  as  privileged  days,  on 
which  work  was  forbidden.  The  courts  and  theatres 
were  closed  ("Cod.  Theod.",  XV,  tit.  v  de  spect.  leg. 
5;  IX,  de  qua;st.  leg.  7;  "Cone.  Mog.",  813,  c.  xxxvi). 
After  Easter,  Pentecost,  and  Christmas  had  received 
octaves,  the  tendency  was  to  have  an  octave  for  all 
the  solemn  feasts.  Etheria  speaks  of  the  feast  of  the 
Dedication  (cf.  Cabrol,  op.  cit.,  pp.  128-9).  Theo- 
demar,  a  contemporary  of  Charlemagne,  speaks  only 
of  the  octaves  of  Christmas  and  the  Epiphany,  but  it 
must  not  be  concluded  that  he  was  ignorant  of  those 
of  Easter  and  Pentecost,  which  were  more  celebrated. 

The  practice  of  having  octaves  for  the  feasts  of  the 
saints  does  not  seem  to  be  older  than  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, and  even  then  it  was  peculiar  to  the  Latins. 
From  the  ninth  centuiy  it  becomes  more  frequent. 
The  capitularies  of  Charlemagne  speak  of  the  octaves 
of  Chri.stmas,  the  Epiphany,  and  Easter.  Amalarius, 
after  mentioning  the  four  octaves  of  Christmas,  the 
Epiphany,  Easter,  and  Pentecost,  tells  us  that  it  was 
customary  in  his  time  to  celebrate  the  octaves  of  the 
feasts  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  and  other  saints,  "quo- 
rum festivitas  apud  nos  clarior  habetur,  .  .  .  et 
quorum  consuetudo  diversarum  ecclesiarum  octavas 
celebrat"  (De  eccl.  offic,  IV,  xxxvi).  In  the  thir- 
teenth century  this  custom  extends  to  many  other 
feasts,  under  the  influence  of  the  Franciscans,  who 
then  exerted  a  preponderating  influence  on  the  forma- 
tion of  the  modern  Breviary  (Biiumer-Biron,  "Hist, 
du  Breviaire",  II,  31,  71,  199).  The  Franciscan 
feasts  of  Sts.  Francis,  Clare,  Anthony  of  Padua,  Ber- 
nadine  etc.,  had  their  octaves.  At  the  time  of  the 
reformation  of  the  Breviary  (Breviary  of  St.  Pius  V, 
1568)  the  question  of  regulating  the  octaves  was  con- 
sidered. Two  kinds  of  octaves  were  distinguished, 
those  of  feasts  of  our  Lord,  and  those  of  saints  and  the 
dedication.  In  the  first  category  are  further  dis- 
tinguished principal  feasts — those  of  Easter  and  Pen- 
tecost, which  had  specially  privileged  octaves,  and 
those  of  Christmas,  the  Epiphany,  and  Corpus  Christi, 
which  were  privileged  (the  Ascension  octave  was  not 
privileged).  Octaves,  which  exclude  all  or  practi- 
cally all  occuring  and  transferred  feasts,  are  called 
privileged.  The  octaves  of  saints  were  treated  al- 
most Hke  that  of  the  Ascension.  This  classification 
entafled  the  application  of  a  certain  number  of  ru- 
brics, the  details  of  which  can  be  found  in  Biiumer- 
Biron,  op.  cit.,  II,  199-200.  For  the  changes  in- 
troduced under  Leo  XIII,  cf.  ibid.,  462,  and  also 
the  rubrics  of  the  Breviary.  Under  OcTAVARinM 
Romanum  there  is  an  account  of  Gavanti's  attempt 
to  provide  a  more  varied  oflice  for  the  octaves. 

The  Greeks  also  to  a  certain  extent  admitted  the 
celeljration  of  octaves  into  their  liturgy.  However, 
we  must  be  careful  not  to  confuse,  as  is  too  often  done, 
the  apodosis  of  the  Greeks  with  the  octave.  Al- 
though having  the  same  origin  as  the  Latin  octave, 
the  apodosis  differs  from  the  octave  in  this,  that  it 
occurs  sometimes  on  the  eighth,  and  sometimes  on  the 
fifth,  the  fourth,  or  the  ninth  (see  Pdtrides  in  "Diet. 
d'arch<''ol.  et  de  liturgie  chrdt.",  s.  v.  Apodosis). 

Amauakius,  De  eccles.  officiia,  IV,  xxxvi;  Micrologua,  xUv,  in 


O'CULLENAN 


205 


O'DALY 


p.  L..  CLI.  1010;  Zaccaria.  Otiomaslicoit,  61;  Idem,  Bibliotheca 
ritualis,  II,  414;  Dresser,  De  ftstis  diebus  christianorum  et  ethni- 
corum  (Wurzburg,  1588) ;  Grancolas,  Commentarius  hist,  in  brev, 
rum.  (Venice,  1734),  137;  HospiviiAtij  Festa  Christianorum  hoc  est 
de  origine,  progressu,  c<rremoniis  et  ritibus  (Zurich,  1593),  26;  HlT- 
TORP,  De  div.  calh.  eccl.  officiis  et  mysteriis  (Paris,  1610),  486  sq.; 
Gavanti,  Thesaurus  sacror.  riluum  cum  adnot.  merati,  II,  31  aq.; 
GuYETus,  Heortologia  (Urbino,  1728),  113  sq.;  Pittonus.  Tracta- 
tus  de  octavis  festorum  qua  in  ecclesia  universali  celebrantur  (Venice, 
1739);  MartJ:ne,  De  antiq.  eccles.  rit.  (ed.  17S8),  III,  xxv,  n.  1, 
pp.  182  sqq.;  Baumer-Bibon,  Hist,  du  Brmaire,  II  (Paris,  1893), 
199  etc;  Duchesne,  Christian  Worship^  Its  Origin  etc.  (London, 
1904),  287. 

Fernand  Cabrol. 

O'CuUenan,  Gelasius  (Glaisne),  Cistercian, 
Abbot  of  Boyle,  Ireland,  b.  probably  near  Assaroe 
Abbey,  Ballyshannon,  Co.  Donegal;  martyred,  21 
Nov.,  1580.  Three  of  hi.s  brothers  were  Cistercian 
abbots,  and  a  fourth  Bishop  of  Raphoe.  Gelasius, 
the  eldest,  studied  at  Salamanca  University,  went 
thence  to  Paris  where  he  took  his  doctorate  at  the 
Sorbonne,  made  his  monastic  profession,  and  was 
created  Abbot  of  Boyle,  Co.  Roscommon.  This  ab- 
bey had  been  confiscated  and  granted  to  Cusack, 
Sheriff  of  Meath;  but  the  Irish  regulars  continued  to 
appoint  superiors  to  their  suppressed  houses.  The 
young  abbot  went  immediately  to  Ireland  and  is  said 
to  have  obtained  restoration  of  his  abbey.  He  was, 
however,  seized  at  Dublin  by  the  Government  and 
imprisoned  with  Eugene  O'Mulkeeran,  Abbot  of  Holy 
Trinity  at  Lough  Key.  Refusing  to  conform,  they 
were  tortured  and  finally  hanged  outside  Dublin, 
21  November,  1580.  O'Cullenan's  body  was  spared 
mutilation  through  his  friends'  intercession.  His 
clothes  were  divided  as  a  martyr's  relics  among  the 
Catholics. 

Hartry,  Triumphalia  Monasterii  S.  Crucis,  ed.  Murphy  (Dub- 
lin, 1895):  O'Reilly,  Memorials  of  those  who  suffered  for  the  Catho- 
lic Faith  (London,  1868);  Murphy,  Our  Martyrs  (Dublin,  1896). 


O'Curry,  Eugene  (Eoghan  O  Comhraidhe),  Irish 
scholar,  b.  at  Dunaha  near  Carrigaholt,  Co.  Clare, 
1796;  d.  18(52.  His  father,  a  farmer  of  modest  means, 
was  an  Irish  scholar,  a  good  singer,  and  well-informed 
as  to  the  traditions  of  his  people.  His  son  Eugene, 
or  Owen,  grew  up  amid  perfect  Irish  surroundings,  and 
soon  learned  to  read  the  Irish  MSS.  which  were  still 
common  among  the  people.  After  the  fall  of  Napo- 
leon (1815),  there  followed  a  period  of  much  agricul- 
tural distress  in  Ireland,  and  the  O'Curry  farm  was 
broken  up.  In  1834  Eugene  joined  the  number  of 
men  engaged  upon  the  topographical  and  histori- 
cal part  of  the  Ordnance  Survey  of  Ireland,  Petrie, 
Wakeman,  Clarence  Mangan  the  poet,  and  last  but 
not  least  John  O'Donovan  (q.  v.).  In  search  of  in- 
formation concerning  Irish  jjlaces  O'Curry  visited  the 
British  Museum  (where  he  catalogued  the  Irish  MSS. 
for  the  authorities),  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford, 
the  Library  of  Trinity  College,  the  Royal  Irish  Acad- 
emy, and  other  places.  But  the  Government,  afraid, 
it  is  said,  of  the  national  memories  that  the  work  was 
evoking,  abandoned  the  survey  three  or  four  years 
later  and  dissolved  the  staff.  The  great  collection  of 
materials,  upwards  of  400  quarto  volumes  of  letters 
and  documents  bearing  upon  the  topography,  social 
history,  language,  antiquities,  and  genealogies  of  the 
districts  surveyed,  was  stowed  away. 

After  this  O'Curry  earned  his  livelihood  by  reading, 
copying,  and  working  on  the  MSS.  in  Trinity  College 
and  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  The  first  Archa-ologi- 
cal  Society  was  founded  in  1840,  relying  chiefly  upon 
the  assistance  of  O'Curry  and  O'Donovan.  In  1853 
O'Curry  joined  the  council  of  the  Celtic  Society  and 
pubUshed  for  them  two  Irish  texts,  the  "Battle  of 
Moyleana,"  and  the  "Courtship  of  Momera",  with  ex- 
cellent translation  and  notes.  In  1855  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Irish  history  and  archaiology  in 
the  recently  founded  Catholic  University  of  Ireland, 
whose  first  rector  was  John  Henry  (afterwards  Cardi- 


nal) Newman.  His  lectures,  published  at  the  expense 
of  the  university  (1860)  under  the  title  of  "The  Manu- 
script Materials  of  Ancient  Irish  History",  proved  an 
invaluable  mine  of  information  upon  the  ancient  MSS. 
of  Ireland  and  their  contents — annals,  genealogies, 
histories,  epics,  historical  tales,  saints'  lives,  and  other 
ancient  matters  ecclesiastical  and  civil.  "O'Curry", 
writes  D'Arbois  De  Jubainville  (L'Epopee  celtique 
en  Irlande,  p.  xvi),  "is  the  first  man  who  studied  at 
their  sources  the  epics  of  Ireland."  His  book  was  a 
revelation,  and  opened  up  an  entirely  new  world  to 
European  scholars.  It  was  followed  by  a  series  of 
thirty-eight  lectures  "on  the  Manners  and  Customs  of 
the  Ancient  Irish",  published  later  (1873)  under  the 
editorship  of  Dr.  W.  K.  Sullivan. 

O'Curry,  a  self-taught  man  and  with  little  or  no 
classical  knowledge,  was  one  of  Ireland's  most  ener- 
getic workers.  Scarcely  an  Irish  book  was  to  be  found 
which  he  did  not  read  and  scarcely  a  rare  manuscript 
existed  in  private  hands  of  which  he  did  not  make  a 
copy.  In  this  way  he  gained  an  outlook  over  the  field 
of  Irish  literature,  so  full  and  so  far-reaching  that 
though  strides  have  been  made  in  scientific  scholarship 
since  his  day,  no  one  has  come  ever  near  him  since  in 
his  all-round  knowledge  of  the  literature  of  Ireland. 
He  transcribed  accurately  Duald  MacFirbis's  book  on 
Irish  genealogies,  the  Book  of  Lismore,  and  scores  of 
others.  The  last  work  he  was  engaged  on  was  the 
Brehon  Laws  (q.  v.) ;  of  these  he  tr.anscribed  eight 
large  volumes,  and  made  a  preliminary  translation  in 
thirteen  volumes.  O'Curry  was  severely  tried  by 
government  officials  who  took  upon  themselves,  in 
crass  ignorance  and  in  defiance  of  all  rules  of  scholar- 
ship, to  dictate  to  the  master  how  the  translation  and 
compilation  of  the  Brehon  Laws  were  to  be  carried 
on.  O'Curry  has  left  a  fully  written  posthumous 
statement  of  the  incredible  treatment  to  which  he  and 
O'Donovan  were  subjected,  and  his  account  of  how  he 
was  the  first  scholar  since  the  death  of  the  great  anti- 
quarian, Duald  MacFirbis  (murdered  in  1670),  who 
was  able  to  penetrate  and  get  a  grip  of  the  long  for- 
gotten language  of  the  ancient  law  tracts,  is  one  of  the 
most  curious  things  in  literature.  Many  men,  such  as 
Todd,  Petrie,  Graves,  Reeves,  were  deeply  indebted  to 
O'Curry,  for  with  a  rare  generosity  he  freely  communi- 
cated the  treasures  of  his  knowledge  to  all  who  asked 
him. 

Webb,  Compendium  of  Irish  Biog.  (Dublin,  1878);  Memoir  in 
Irish  Monthly  Magazine  (April,  1874).  Cf.  also:  Lectures  on  the 
Manuscript  Materials  of  Ancient  Irish  History  (re-issue,  Dublin, 
1878);  On  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Irish  (3  vols. 
Dublin,  1873) ;  The  Battle  of  Magh  Leana  etc.  (Dublin,  1855). 

Douglas  Hyde. 

O'Daly,  Daniel,  diplomatist  and  historian,  b.  in 
Kerry,  Ireland,  1595;  d.  at  Lisbon,  30  June,  1662.  On 
his  mother's  side  he  belonged  to  the  Desmond  branch 
of  the  Geraldines,  of  which  branch  his  paternal  ances- 
tors were  the  hereditary  chroniclers  or  bards.  He  be- 
came a  Dominican  in  Tralee,  Co.  Kerry;  took  his  vows 
in  Lugo,  studied  at  Burgos,  gained  his  doctorate  of 
theology  in  Bordeaux,  and  returned  as  priest  to  Tra- 
lee. In  1627  he  was  sent  to  teach  theology  in  the 
newly  established  College  for  Irish  Dominicans  at 
Louvain.  In  1629  he  went  to  Madrid  on  business  con- 
nected with  this  college  and,  seeing  that  Philip  IV  of 
Spain  favoured  the  project,  he,  assisted  by  three  of  his 
Irish  brethren,  established,  in  Lisbon,  the  Irish  Do- 
minican College  of  which  he  became  the  first  rector. 
He  conceived  the  project  of  erecting,  near  Lisbon,  a 
convent  of  Irish  Dominican  nuns,  to  serve  as  a  refuge 
in  time  of  persecution.  Philip  granted  permission  to 
do  so  on  condition  that  he  should  raise  a  body  of  Irish 
soldiers  for  Spanish  service  in  the  Low  Countries. 
O'Daly  set  sail  for  Limerick  and  got  the  men.  On  his 
return  to  Madrid  (1639),  Belem  on  the  Tagus,  four 
miles  below  the  city,  was  selected  as  a  site  and,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  Countess  of  Atalaya,  the  convent 


O'DALY 


206 


O  DEUS 


of  Our  Lady  of  Bom  Successo  was  built.  The  king 
had  such  rdufidenco  in  him  that  lio  made  him  envoy  to 
Charlrs  I  of  England,  to  the  exiled  Charles  II,  and  to 
Pope  Innocent  X  (1().50).  ThcCiiu'cnof  Portugal  also 
sent  him  as  envoy  to  Pope  Alexander  VIII. 

In  the  year  1055  he  was  sent  as  envoy  from  John  IV 
of  Portugal  to  Anne  of  Austria  and  Louis  XIV  to  con- 
clude a  treaty  between  Portugal  and  France.  Here 
as  elsewhere,  success  attended  him;  but  while  nego- 
tiations abroad  and  matters  of  government  at  home 
afforded  opportunities  of  serving  the  House  of  Bra- 
ganza,  he  would  not  accept  any  honour  in  return.  His 
acquaintances  praise  his  straightforwardness,  honesty, 
tact,  and  disinterestedness.  He  refused  the  Archbish- 
opric of  Bragaand  the  Primacy  of  Goa  and  the  Bishop- 
ric of  Coimbra;  nor  would  he  accept  the  titles  of  Privy 
Councillor  or  Queen's  Confessor,  though  he  held  both 
offices.  In  1665  he  published  "  Initium,  Incrementum, 
et  Exitus  Famihae  Geraldinorum,  Desmonia;  Comi- 
tum,  Palatinorum  Kyerria;  in  Hibernia,  ac  Persecu- 
tionis  Ha>reticorum  Descriptio"  etc.,  his  work  on  the 
Earls  of  Desmond,  for  which  he  availed  himself  of  the 
traditional  knowledge  of  his  ancestors.  In  the  first 
part  he  describes  the  origin  of  the  Munster  Geraldines, 
their  varying  fortunes,  and  their  end  in  the  heroic 
struggle  for  faith  and  fatherland.  It  is  our  chief  au- 
thority on  this  subject.  The  second  part  treats  of  the 
cruelties  inflicted  on  the  Irish  Catholics,  and  of  the 
martyrdom  of  twenty  Dominicans,  many  of  whom  had 
been  with  him  in  Lisbon.  The  work  was  translated 
into  French  by  Abb6  Joubert  (1697),  and  into  English 
by  the  Rev.  C.  P.  INIeehan,  Dublin  (2nd  edition  an- 
notated, 1878.)  During  these  years  his  chief  concern 
was  to  put  his  college  on  a  firm  basis  and  to  make  it 
render  the  greatest  possible  service  to  Ireland.  Bom 
Successo  became  too  small  for  the  number  of  students. 
In  1659  he  laid  the  first  stone  of  a  larger  building 
-which  was  called  Corpo  Santo.  To  provide  funds  for 
these  houses  he  consented  to  become  Bishop  of  Coim- 
bra and,  in  consequence.  President  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil; but  before  the  papal  Bull  arrived  he  died.  His 
remains  reposed  in  the  cloister  of  Corpo  Santo  until 
the  earthquake  of  1755;  the  inscription  on  his  tomb 
recorded  that  he  was  "In  variis  Regum  legationibus 
felix,  .  .  .  Vir  Prudentia,  Litteris,  and  Religione  con- 
spicuus.'  (Successful  in  embassies  for  kings  .  .  .A 
man  distinguished  for  prudence,  knowledge,  and  vir- 
tue.) A  few  years  after  the  catastrophe,  on  the  same 
spot,  with  the  same  name  and  object,  a  new  college 
and  church  arose,  which,  with  Bom  Successo,  keep 
O'Daly's  memory  fresh  in  Lisbon  to  the  present  day. 

MS.  pre.served  in  Bom  Successo;  Letter  of  O'Daly  published 
by  Meehan  (1878);  Baro.v  (wlio  knew  O'Daly),  Libri  guingue 
apologetici  (Paris,  1666);  Echabd.  Script.  Ord.  Prad.  (Paria, 
1719-21);  Hibernia  Dominiccna  contains  much  additional  infor- 
mation; Meehan,  Introduction  to  his  translation:  Bellesheim, 
Geach.  der  kath.  Kirche  in  Ireland,  II.  Ill  (for  an  original  letter  of. 
Ill,  756);  O'CoNNELL,  Dominic  O'Daly  in  Faith  and  Fatherland 
(Dublin,    1888). 

Reginald  Walsh, 

O'Daly,  DoNOGH  Mor  (in  Irish  Donnchadh  M6r 
O  Dalaigh),  a  celebrated  Irish  poet,  d.  1244.  About 
thirty  of  his  poems  are  extant,  amounting  to  four  or  five 
thousand  lines,  nearly  all  rehgious.  O'Reilly  styles 
him  Abbot  of  Boyle  (Irish  Writers,  p.  LXXXVIII)  as 
does  O'Curry  (Manners  and  Customs,  III,  p.  301) ;  he 
was  certainly  buried  in  the  abbey  there,  but  it  cannot 
be  proved  that  he  was  an  ecclesiastic.  The  religious 
cast  of  his  poetry  would  naturally  account  for  his  hav- 
ing been  accepted  as  one.  According  to  O'Donovan 
(Four  Masters,  ad  an.  1244)  he  was  the  head  of  the 
O'Dalys  of  Finnyvara  of  Burren  in  Clare,  where  the 
ruins  of  his  house  are  still  pointed  out.  He  has  often 
been  called  the  Irish  Ovid,  for  the  smoothness  of  his 
verse.  He  was  the  second  of  six  brothers,  the  third  of 
whom,  Muireadhach  "Albanach"  or  "the  Scotch- 
man ",  was  also  a  poet.  The  present  writer  has  heard 
some  of  O'Daly's  verse  from  the  mouths  of  the  peas- 


antry. Only  two  or  three  of  his  pieces  have  been  pub- 
lished, but  Professor  Toniils  O  Miille  of  Galway  is 
now  preparing  them  for  the  press. 

O'Eeilly,  Catalogue  of  Irish  Writers  (Dublin,  1820),  p. 
LXXXVIII;  Hyde,  History  of  Irish  Literature,  p.  466-8;  Idem, 
Religious  Songs  of  Connaeht,  Vol.  I;  O'CnRRY,  Manners  and  CuS' 
toms  of  the  Ancient  /rt.sft.  III  (Dublin),  301.  For  an  account  of 
his  brother  see  The  Tribes  of  Ireland,  ed.  O'Donovan  (Dublin, 
1852),  p.  5. 

Douglas  Hyde. 

Oddfello'ws.    See  Societies,  Secret. 

O'Dea,  Edward  John.    See  Seattle,  Diocese  of. 

Odescalchi,  Benedetto,  See  Innocent  XI,  Pope. 

Odescalchi,  Carlo,  cardinal,  prince,  archbishop, 
and  Jesuit,  b.  at  Rome,  5  March,  1786;  d.  at  Modena, 
17  August,  1841.  His  father,  Duke  of  Sirmien,  Prince 
of  the  Roman  empire,  was  a  man  of  culture  and  at- 
tended persoiudly  to  Carlo's  education.  He  early 
manifested  a  religious  vocation.  Ordained  priest,  he 
said  his  hrst  Mass  1  Jan.,  1809.  He  won  the  confidence 
of  many  souls,  among  others,  a  young  cleric  after- 
wards Pius  IX,  and  later  he  ordained  priest  Gioac- 
chino  Pecci,  eventually  Leo  XIII.  Odescalchi  was  in 
the  suite  of  Pius  VII  during  the  perilous  times  that  pre- 
ceded the  pope's  captivity,  and  after  his  release,  he  was 
rapidly  promoted,  and  sent  twice  on  special  missions 
to  Vienna.  In  1823  he  was  created  cardinal  and  imme- 
diately afterwards  Archbishop  of  Ferrara,  but  he  re- 
mained with  the  pope  who  was  then  dying.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  his  see  with  apostolic  energy,  until  he 
resigned  (1826).  Returning  to  Rome  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Sabina,  prefect  of  several  congregations,  and 
became  protector  and  promoter  of  many  good  works. 
He  was  in  the  conclaves  for  the  elections  of  Leo  XII, 
Pius  VIII,  and  Gregory  XVI.  Cardinal  Wiseman  tes- 
tifies to  the  general  confidence  reposed  in  his  virtue 
and  high  principle  on  these  occasions.  When  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus  was  restored  by  Pius  VII  (1814),  Odescal- 
chi had  resolved  to  join  it,  and  a  cell  had  been  pre- 
pared for  him  at  Sant'  Andrea.  But  the  poi)e  would 
not  then  allow  him  to  enter,  nor  would  Gregory  permit 
it  (1837),  a  commission  of  four  cardinals,  appointed  to 
consider  the  question,  having  reported  in  the  negative. 
Finally,  permission  to  resign  the  cardinalitial  dignity 
having  been  given  in  full  consistory  (1839),  Odescalchi 
entered  the  novitiate  at  Verona,  and  after  a  short  pro- 
bation was  devoting  himself  to  various  ministries 
when  he  died.  As  a  youth  he  had  published  the  not 
unimportant  "Memorie  istorico-critiche  dell'  Acade- 
mia  de'  Lincei"  (Rome,  1806)  and  as  Bishop  of  Sa- 
bina his  "Massime  sacerdotali"  (Rome,  1834). 

Berlendis,    Memorie  edificanti  del   P.   C.   Odescalchi   (Rome, 

1842 ),  Eng.  tr.  ed.  Faber  (London,  1849);  Angeuni-Rota, 

Storia  del  R.  P.  C.  Odescalchi  (Rome,  1850). 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

O  DeuB  Ego  Amo  Te,  the  first  line  of  two  Latin 
lyrics  sometimes  attributed  to  St.  Francis  Xavier,  but 
of  uncertain  date  and  authorship.  The  one  whose  first 
stanza  runs: — 

O  Deus  ego  amo  te. 

Nam  prior  tu  amasti  me; 

En  libertate  privo  me 

Ut  sponte  vinctus  sequar  te, 
has  four  additional  stanzas  in  similar  rhythm,  the  last 
three  being  apparently  a  paraphrase  of  part  of  a 
prayer  in  the  "Contemplatio  ad  amorem  spiritualem 
in  nobis  excitandum  "  of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola's  Spiritual 
Exercises:  "Take,  O  Lord,  my  entire  liberty  .  .  what- 
ever I  have  or  possess  you  have  bestowed  on  me;  back 
to  thee  I  give  it  all,  and  to  the  rule  of  thy  will  deliver  it 
absolutely.  Give  me  only  thy  love  and  thy  grace  and 
I  am  rich  enough;  nor  do  I  ask  anything  more."  The 
hymn  (probably  first  printed  in  the  "Symphonia  Si- 
renum'  ,  Cologne,  1695)  received  in  Zabuesnig's 
"KatholischeKirchengesange"  (Augsburg,  1822),  the 
title  of  "The  Desire  of  St.  Ignatius".  Father  Cas- 
wall's  beautiful  version  appeared  in  his  "Masque  of 


O'DEVANT 


207 


ODILO 


Mary"  etc.  (1858),  and  in  his  "Hymns  and  Poems" 
(1873);  also  in  various  Catholic  hymnbooks  (e.  g. 
"Roman  Hymnal",  New  York,  1884;  Tozer's  " Cath- 
olic Church  Hymnal",  New  York,  1905;  and  in  Quid's 
"The  Book  of  Hymns",  Edinburgh,  1910).  The 
hvnin  was  translated  by  J.  Keble,  J.  W.  Hewett,  E.  C. 
Benedict,  H.  M.  Macgill,  S.  W.  Duffield. 
The  first  stanza  of  the  companion  hymn  is: — 

O  Deus  ego  amo  te. 

Nee  amo  te  ut  salves  me, 

Aut  quia  non  amantes  te 

iBterno  punis  igne. 
There  are  four  additional  stanzas  in  irregular  rhythm, 
while  a  variant  form  adds  as  a  final  line:  "Et  solum 
quia  Deuses"  (thus  given  in  Moorsom's  "A  Historical 
Companion  to  Hymns  Ancient  and  Modern  ",  2nd  ed., 
Cambridge,  1903,  p.  176).  The  hymn  has  been  appro- 
priately styled  the  "love-sigh"  of  St.  Francis  Xavier 
(Schlosser,  "Die  Kirche  in  ihren  Liedern",  2nd  ed., 
Freiburg,  1863,  I,  445,  who  devotes  sixteen  pages  to  a 
discussion  of  its  authorship,  translations  etc.),  who, 
it  is  fairly  certain,  composed  the  original  Spanish  son- 
net "No  me  mueve,  mi  Dios,  para  quererte" — on 
which  the  various  Latin  versions  are  based,  about  the 
year  1546.  There  is  not,  however,  sufficient  reason  for 
crediting  to  him  any  Latin  version.  The  form  given 
above  appeared  in  the  "Cceleste  Palraetum"  (Co- 
logne, 1696).  An  earlier  Latin  version  by  Joannes 
Nadasi  is  in  his  "Pretiosae  occupationes  morientium" 
(Rome,  1657),  beginning:  "Non  me  movet,  Domine, 
ad  amandum  te".  Nadasi  again  translated  it  in  1665. 
F.  X.  Drebitka  ("Hymnus  Francisci  Faludi",  Buda- 
pest, 1899)  gives  these  versions,  and  one  by  Petrus 
Possinus  in  1667.  In  1668  J.  Scheffler  gave,  in  his 
"Heilige  Seelenlust",  a  German  translation — "Ich 
liebe  Gott,  und  zwar  umsonst" — of  a  version  begin- 
ning "Amo  Deum,  sedlibere".  The  form  of  the  hymn 
indicated  above  has  been  translated  into  English  verse 
about  twenty-five  times,  is  found  in  Catholic  and  non- 
Catholic  hymn-books,  and  is  evidently  highly  prized 
by  non-Catholics.  Thus,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Duffield,  a 
Presbyterian,  speaks  of  both  hymns  in  glowing  terms, 
in  his  "  Latin  Hymn  Writers  and  Their  Hymns  "  (New 
York,  1889):  "From  the  higher  critical  standpoint, 
then,  these  hymns  are  not  unacceptable  as  Xavier's 
own  work.  They  feel  as  if  they  belonged  to  his  age 
and  to  his  life.  They  are  transfused  and  shot  through 
by  a  personal  sense  of  absorption  into  divine  love, 
which  has  fused  and  crystallized  them  in  its  fiercest 
heat"  (p.  300).  The  Scriptural  text  for  both  hymns 
might  well  be  II  Cor.,  v,  14,  15,  or  perhaps  better  still 
I  John,  iv,  19 — "Let  us  therefore  love  God,  because 
God  hath  first  loved  us".  The  text  of  both  hymns 
is  given  in  Daniel's  "Thesaurus  Hymnologicus",  II, 
335;  of  the  .second  hymn,  with  notes,  in  March's 
"Latin  Hymns",  190,  307  etc. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

O'Devany,  Cornelius  (Conchobhar  O'Duib- 
heannaigh),  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor,  Ireland,  b. 
about  1532;  d.  at  DubHn,  11  February,  1612  (N.  S.). 
He  was  a  Franciscan  of  Donegal  Convent,  and  while  in 
Rome  in  1582  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Down  and 
Connor,  and  consecrated  2  February,  1.583.  In  1588 
he  was  committed  to  Dublin  Castle.  Failing  to  con- 
vict him  of  any  crime  punishable  with  death.  Lord 
Deputy  Fitzwilliam  sought  authority  from  Burghley 
to  "be  rid  of  such  an  obstinate  enemy  to  God  and  so 
rank  a  traitor  to  her  Majesty  as  no  doubt  he  is".  He 
lay  in  prison  until  November,  1590,  being  then  re- 
leased ostensibly  on  his  own  petition  but  doubtless 
through  policy.  He  was  protected  by  O'Neill  until 
1607,  and  escaped  arrest  until  the  middle  of  1611, 
when,  almost  eighty  years  old,  he  was  taken  while 
administering  confirmation  and  again  committed  to 
Dublin  Castle.  On  28  January,  1612,  he  was  tried  for 
high  treason,  found  guilty  by  the  majority  of  a  packed 


jury,  and  sentenced  to  die  on  1  February  (O.  S.).  He 
was  drawB  on  a  cart  from  the  Castle  to  the  gallows  be- 
yond the  river;  the  whole  route  was  crowded  with 
Catholics  lamenting  and  begging  his  blessing.  Prot- 
estant clergymen  pestered  him  with  ministrations  and 
urged  him  to  confess  he  died  for  treason.  "Pray  let 
me  be",  he  answered,"  the  viceroy's  messenger  to  me, 
here  present,  could  tell  that  I  might  have  life  and 
revenue  for  going  once  to  that  temple",  pointing  to  a 
tower  opposite.  He  kissed  the  gallows  before  mount- 
ing, and  then  proceeding  to  exhort  the  Catholics  to 
constancy,  he  was  thrown  off,  cut  down  alive,  and 
quartered.  With  him  suffered  Patrick  O'Loughran, 
a  priest  arrested  at  Cork.  The  people,  despite  the 
guards,  carried  off  the  halter,  his  clothes,  and  even 
fragments  of  his  body  and  chips  of  the  gallows.  They 
prayed  all  night  by  the  remains,  an  infirm  man  was  re- 
ported cured  by  touching  them,  and  Mass  after  Mass 
was  said  there  from  midnight  until  day.  Such  was  the 
concourse  that  the  viceroy  ordered  the  members  to  be 
buried  on  the  spot,  but  next  night  the  Catholics  ex- 
humed them  and  interred  them  in  St.  James's  Church- 
yard. A  list  of  martyrs  compiled  by  Dr.  O'Devany 
was  used  by  Rothe  in  his  "Analecta". 

O'Laverty,  Diocese  of  Down  and  Connor,  V  (Dublin,  189.5); 
Rothe,  Analecta  Nova  et  Mira,  ed.  Mor.\n  (Dublin,  1SS4) ; 
O'Reilly,  Me-morials  of  those  who  suffered  for  the  Catholic  Faith 
(London,  1868) ;  Mdrpht,  Our  Martyrs  (Dublin,  1896). 


Odilia,  Saint,  patroness  of  Alsace,  b.  at  the  end  of 
the  seventh  century;  d.  about  720.  According  to  a 
trustworthy  statement,  apparently  taken  from  an  ear- 
lier life,  she  was  the  daughter  of  the  Prankish  lord 
Adalrich  (Aticus,  Etik)  and  his  wife  Bereswinda,  who 
had  large  estates  in  Alsace.  She  founded  the  convent 
of  Hohenburg  (Odilienberg)  in  Alsace,  to  which 
Charlemagne  granted  immunity,  confirmed  9  March, 
837,  by  Louis  the  Pious  who  endowed  the  foundation 
(Bohmer-Mlihlbacher,  "Regesta  Imperii",  I,  866, 
933).  A  tenth-century  "Vita"  has  been  preserved, 
written  at  the  close  of  the  century.  According  to  this 
narrative  she  was  born  blind,  miraculously  receiving 
her  sight  at  baptism.  A  shorter  text,  probably  inde- 
pendent of  this,  is  contained  in  a  manuscript  of  the 
early  eleventh  century.  Internal  evidences  point  to 
an  original  eighth-century  biography.  A  further 
"Vita",  that  J.  Vignier  claimed  to  have  discovered, 
has  been  proved  to  be  a  forgery  by  this  historian. 
Her  feast  is  celebrated  13  December;  her  grave  is  in 
a  chapel  near  the  convent  church  on  the  Odilienberg. 
She  is  represented  with  a  book  on  which  lie  two  eyes. 

PnsTER.  La  vie  de  Ste  Odile  in  Anal.  Boll..  XIII  (1394),  5-32; 
Sepet,  Observations  sur  la  legende  de  Ste  Odile  in  Bibliothigue  de 
VecoledesChartes,  LXIII  (190i:).  517-36;  Havet,  Vig/iier:  Vic  de  Ute 
Odile  in  CEuvres  de  Julien  Havet,  I  (Paris,  1896).  72-8;  Potthast, 
Bibliotheca  historica  medii  wvi,  II.  1497  sq.,  Bibliotheca  hagiogra- 
phica  latina,  ed.  Boll.,  II,  906  8q.;  Pfister,  Le  duche  mirovin' 
gien  d' Alsace  et  la  vie  de  Ste  Odile  (Paris  and  Nancy,  1892);  Win- 
terer, Hist,  de  Ste  Odile  ou  V Alsace  chretienne  au  VII'  et  VIII' 
siicles  (5th  ed.  Gebweiler,  1895);  Welschinger.  Sle  Odile  in  Les 
Saints  (Paris,  1901) ;  Wehrmeister,  Die  hi.  Odilia,  ihre  Legende  u. 
ihre  Verehrung  (Augsburg,  1902). 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Odilienberg.    See  Hohenburg. 

Odilo,  Saint,  fifth  Abbot  of  Cluny  (q.  v.),  b.  c. 
962;  d.  31  December,  1048.  He  was  descended  from 
the  nobility  of  Auvergne.  He  early  became  a  cleric 
in  the  seminary  of  St.  Julien  in  Brioude.  In  991  he 
entered  Cluny  and  before  the  end  of  his  year  of  pro- 
bation was  made  coadjutor  to  Abbot  Mayeul,  and 
shortly  before  the  latter  s  death  (994)  was  made  abbot 
and  received  Holy  orders.  The  rapid  development  of 
the  monastery  under  him  was  due  chiefly  to  his  gentle- 
ness and  charity,  his  activity  and  talent  for  organizing. 
He  was  a  man  of  prayer  and  penance,  zealous  for  the 
observance  of  the  Divine  Office,  and  the  monastic 
spirit.  He  encouraged  learning  in  his  monasteries,  and 
had  the  monk  Radolphus  Glaber  write  a  history  of  the 
time.     He  erected  a  magnificent  monastery  building^ 


ODIN 


208 


ODINGTON 


and  furthered  the  reform  of  the  Bonociictiiir  monas- 
teries. Under  Alplioiiso  VI  i(  sjirt-ad  iiilo  SjKiin. 
The  rule  of  St.  Benedict  was  sub.stitiilcil  in  Cluny  for 
the  domestic  rule  of  Lsidore.  By  brinsinf;  the  re- 
formed or  newly  founded  monasteries  of  Spain  into 
permanent  dependence  on  the  n\other-h(nise,  Odilo 
prepared  the  way  for  the  union  of  monasteries,  wliieh 
Hugo  established  for  maintaining  order  and  discipline. 
The  number  of  monasteries  increased  from  thirty- 
seven  to  sixty-five,  of  which  five  were  newly  established 
and  twenty-three  had  followed  the  reform  movement. 
Some  of  the  monasteries  reformed  bj'  Cluny,  reformed 
others;  thus  the  Abbey  of  St.  Vannes  in  Lorraine  re- 
formed many  on  the  Franco-German  borderland.  On 
account  of  his  services  in  the  reform  Odilo  was  called 
by  Fulbert  of  Chartres  the"  Archangel  of  the  Monks", 
and  through  his  relations  with  the  popes,  rulers,  and 
prominent  bishops  of  the  time  Cluny  monasticism  was 
promoted.  He  journeyed  nine  times  to  Italy,  and 
took  part  in  several  synods  there.  John  XIX  and 
Benedict  IX  both  offered  him  the  Archbishopric  of 
Lyons  but  he  declined.  From  998  he  gained  influence 
with  the  Emperor  Otto  III.  He  was  on  terms  of  in- 
timacy with  Henry  II  when  the  latter,  on  political 
grounds,  sought  to  impair  the  spiritual  independence 
of  the  German  monasteries.  For  Germany  the  Cluny 
policy  had  no  permanent  success,  as  the  monks  there 
were  more  inclined  to  individualism.  Between  1027 
and  1040  the  relations  between  the  Cluniac  monks  and 
the  emperor  remained  unchanged.  In  1046  Odilo  was 
present  at  the  coronation  of  Henry  III  in  Rome.  Rob- 
ert II  of  France  allied  himself  with  the  Reform  party. 

The  conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  God  (Treuga  Dei),  for 
which  Odilo  had  worked  from  1041,  was  of  great  eco- 
nomic importance.  During  the  great  famines  of  that 
time  (particularly  1028-33),  he  also  exercised  his 
active  charity  and  saved  thousands  from  death. 

He  established  All  Souls'  Day  (2  Nov.)  in  Cluny 
and  its  monasteries  (probably  not  in  998  but  after 
1030),  and  it  was  soon  adopted  in  the  whole  church. 
Of  his  writings  we  have  but  a  few  short  and  unim- 
portant ones:  a  life  of  the  holy  Empress  St.  Adelaide 
(q.  V.)  to  whom  he  was  closely  related;  a  short  biogra- 
phy of  his  predecessor  Mayeul;  sermons  on  feasts  of 
the  ecclesiastical  year;  some  hymns  and  prayers;  and 
a  few  letters  from  his  extensive  correspondence. 

Odilo  and  his  confreres  interested  themselves  in  the 
church  reform  which  began  about  that  time.  They 
followed  no  definite  ecclesiastico-political  programme, 
but  directed  their  attacks  principally  against  individ- 
ual offences  such  as  simony,  marriage  of  the  clergy, 
and  the  uncanonical  marriage  of  the  laity.  The  Holy 
See  could  depend  above  all  on  the  religious  of  Cluny 
when  it  sought  to  raise  itself  from  its  humiliating  posi- 
tion and  undertook  the  reform  of  the  Church. 

He  died  while  on  a  visitation  to  the  monastery  of 
Souvigny  where  he  was  buried  and  soon  venerated 
as  a  saint.  In  1063  Peter  Damien  undertook  the 
process  of  his  canonization,  and  wrote  a  short  life,  an 
abstract  from  the  work  of  Jotsald,  one  of  Odilo's 
monks  who  accompanied  him  on  his  travels.  In  1793 
the  relics  together  with  those  of  Mayeul  were  burned 
by  the  revolutionaries  "on  the  altar  of  the  fatherland". 
The  feast  of  St.  Odilo  was  formerly  2  January,  in 
Cluny,  now  it  is  celebrated  on  19  January,  and  in 
Switzerland  on  6  February. 

Ri.NGUOLz.  Der  hi.  Abt.  Odilo,  in  seinem  Leben  und  Wirken 
(Brunn,  1885);  Idem.  Kirchenlczikon  e.  v.;  Sackur.  Die  C'tunia- 
eenser  bis  Jur  MiUc  des  11  Jahrhunderts.  I,  II  (Halle,  1892-94); 
Jabdet,  Saint  Odilon,  Abbi  de  Cluny  (Lyons,  1898). 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Odin,  John  Mart,  Lazarist  missionary,  first  Bishop 
of  Galveston  and  second  Archbishop  of  New  Orleans, 
b.  2.5  P'eb.,  1801,  at  Hauteville,  Ambierle,  France;  d. 
there  2.5  May,  1S70.  Theseventhof  ten  children,  like 
most  count  ry  boys  he  worked  on  his  father's  farm.  His 
piety  and  love  for  the  poor  being  looked  on  as  a  sign 


of  priestly  vocation,  he  was  sent  when  nine  years  of  ago 
to  study  Latin  under  his  >mcle,  cur6  of  Nosilly,  whose 
death  soon  ended  this  des\dtory  teaching.  After  two 
years  at  home,  he  studied  the  classics  at  Roanne  and 
Verricre  and  was  a  brilliant  student  of  philosophy  at 
L'Argcntiere  and  Ahx.  He  was  prompt  to  answer 
Bishop  Dubourg's  appeal  for  volunteers  for  the 
Louisiana  mission.  Reaching  New  Orleans  in  June, 
1822,  he  was  sent  to  the  seminary  of  the  Lazarists, 
The  Barrens,  80  miles  from  St.  Loui.s,  Mo.,  to  complete 
his  theological  studies.  There  he  joined  the  Lazarists. 
(Clarke  in  his  lives  of  deceased  bishops  of  the  U.  S. 
erroneously  states  that  he  entered  at  an  early  age  in 
Paris.)  He  was  ordained  priest  4  May,  1824,  and 
to  parish  duties  were  added  those  of  teaching.  In 
vacation  he  preached  to  the  Indians  on  the  Arkansas 
River,  for  whose  conversion  he  was  most  eager.  In 
1825  he  was  at  times  in  charge  of  the  seminary,  college, 
and  parish.  He  also  gave  missions  to  non-Catholics 
and  to  the  Indians,  until,  his  health  failing,  it  was  de- 
cided to  send  him  abroad,  where  he  could  also  gather 
recruits  and  funds  for  the  missions.  Accompanying 
Bishop  Rosati  to  the  second  Council  of  Baltimore  as 
theologian,  he  was  commissioned  by  the  council  to 
bring  its  decrees  to  Rome  for  approval.  Two  years 
were  spent  abroad  in  the  interest  of  "his  poor  Amer- 
ica". Pastoral  work,  chiefly  at  Cape  Girardeau,  where 
he  opened  a  school  (1838),  and  missions  occupied  the 
next  five  years.  Sent  to  Texas  in  1840  as  vice-pre- 
fect by  his  provincial  visitor,  Father  Timon,  whom  the 
Holy  See  had  made  prefect  Apostolic  of  the  new  re- 
public, he  began  the  hardest  kind  of  labour  among 
Catholics,  many  of  whom  had  fallen  away  amid  the 
disorders  accompanying  the  change  of  government, 
and  among  non-catholics  and  the  fierce  Comanche 
Indians.  His  gentleness  and  self-sacrifice  wrought 
wonders.  His  great  work  was  early  recognized  and  he 
was  nominated  to  the  coadjutorship  of  Detroit  but 
dechned.  A  year  later  he  was  named  titular  Bishop 
of  Claudiopolis  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Texas.  He 
was  consecrated  G  March,  1842.  He  had  already  suc- 
ceeded with  Father  Timon's  help  in  having  the  Re- 
public recognize  the  Church's  right  to  the  possessions 
that  were  hers  under  the  Mexican  government.  In 
1845  he  went  to  Europe  and  secured  many  recruits 
for  his  mission.  In  1847  Texas  was  made  a  diocese 
and  Bishop  Odin's  see  was  fixed  at  Galveston.  On 
the  death  of  Archbishop  Blanc  of  New  Orleans,  he 
was  promoted  to  that  see  15  February,  1861.  Nei- 
ther his  age  nor  infirmities  kept  him  from  a  vigilant 
care  of  his  flock.  War  had  wrought  havoc  during  his 
time  in  Texas,  the  civil  war  scourged  his  archdio- 
cese now.  His  influence  was  extraordinary  among  the 
Catholic  soldiers.  Pius  IX  wrote  to  him  in  the  South, 
as  to  Archbishop  Hughes  in  the  North,  to  use  their 
influence  for  peace.  His  Apostolic  labours  were  in- 
terrupted only  by  journeys  to  Europe  in  the  interest 
of  his  archdiocese.  Despite  greatly  impaired  health 
he  went  to  the  Vatican  Council.  At  Rome  he  grew 
so  ill  that  he  was  granted  leave  to  return  to  Heaute- 
ville  where  he  died. 

Bony.  Vie  de  Mgr  Jean-Marie  Odin  (Paris,  1896),  translated 
in  part  in  Annals  Cong.  Miss.,  11,  III  (Emmitsburg,  1895-6); 
Clarke,  Lives  o/ deceased  Bishops  of  U.  S.,  II  (New  York,  1872), 
203-40;  Deutcher,  Life  and  Times  of  Rl.  Ret).  John  Timon,  I 
(Buffalo,  1870) ;  Shea,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United 
States,  IV,  1892.  B.  RANDOLPH. 

Odington,  Walter,  English  Benedictine,  also 
known  as  Walter  op  Evesham,  by  some  writers  con- 
founded with  \\'altek  of  Evnsham,  who  lived  about 
fifty  years  earlier,  d.  not  earlier  than  13.30.  During 
the  first  part  of  his  religious  life  he  was  stationed  at 
Evesham  and  later  removed  to  Oxford,  where  he  was 
engaged  in  astronomical  and  mathematical  work  as 
early  as  131<).  He  wrote  chiefly  on  scientific  subjects; 
his  most  valuable  work  "De  Speculatione  Musices" 
was  first  published  in  complete  form  in  Coussemaker's 


ODO 


209 


ODO 


"Scriptores";  other  works  are  in  manuscript  only. 
This  treatise,  written  at  Evesham  and  therefore  cer- 
tainly before  1316,  according  to  Riemann  before  1300, 
is  a  remarkable  work  in  which  the  author  gathered 
together  practically  all  the  knowledge  of  the  theory  of 
music  possessed  at  his  time  and  added  some  theoreti- 
cal considerations  of  his  own.  A  discussion  of  his 
work  is  given  by  Riemann,  who  claims  for  him  the 
distinction  of  having,  before  the  close  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  established  on  theoretical  grounds  the  con- 
sonance of  minor  and  major  thirds.  Davey  enumer- 
ates the  follo%\ang  works :  " De  Speculatione  Musices"; 
"Ycocedron",  a  treatise  on  alchemy;  "Declaratio 
motus  octavie  spherae  " ;  "  Tractatus  de  multiplicatione 
specierum  in  visu  secundum  omnem  moduni";  "Ars 
metrica  Walteri  de  Evesham";  "Liber  quintus  geo- 
metriae  per  numeros  loco  quantitatum";  "Calendar 
for  Evesham  Abbey". 

D.WEV,  History  of  English  Music  (London.  1895):  Idem  in 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v.  Walter  of  Evesham;  Coussemaker,  Scrip- 
torumde  Musica  Medii^vi  nom  series,  I  (Paris,  1864);  Riemann, 
Geschichte  der  Musiktheorie  (Leipzig,  1898). 

Edward  C.  Phillips. 

Odo,  Saint,  second  Abbot  of  Cluny,  b.  878  or  879, 
probably  near  Le  Mans;  d.  18  November,  942.  He 
spent  several  years  at  the  court  of  William,  Duke  of 
Aquitaine,  and  afterwards  entered  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Martin  at  Tours.  About  909,  he  became  a  monk, 
priest,  and  superior  of  the  abbey  school  in  Baume, 
whose  Abbot,  Bl.  Berno,  was  transferred  to  Cluny  in 
910.  He  became  Abbot  of  Baume  in  924,  and  Berno's 
successor  at  Cluny  in  927.  Authorized  by  a  privilege  of 
John  XI  in  931,  he  reformed  the  monasteries  in  Aqui- 
taine, northern  France,  and  Italy.  The  privilege  em- 
powered him  to  unite  several  abbeys  under  his  super- 
vision and  to  receive  at  Cluny  monks  from  abbeys  not 
yet  reformed;  the  greater  number  of  the  reformed 
monasteries,  however,  remained  independent,  and 
several  became  centres  of  reform.  Between  936  and 
942  he  visited  Italy  several  times,  founding  in  Rome 
the  monastery  of  Our  Lady  on  the  Aventine  and  re- 
forming several  convents,  e.  g.  Subiaco  and  Monte 
Cassino.  He  was  sometimes  entrusted  with  important 
pohtical  missions,  e.  g.,  when  peace  was  arranged  be- 
tween King  Hugo  of  Italy  and  Alberic  of  Rome. 
Among  his  writings  are:  a  biography  of  St.  Gerald  of 
Aurillac,  three  books  of  Collaliones  (moral  essays, 
severe  and  forceful),  a  few  sermons,  an  epic  poem  on 
the  Redemption  (Occupatio)  in  seven  books  (ed.  Swo- 
boda,  1900),  and  twelve  choral  antiphons  in  honour  of 
St.  Martin. 

Sackuh,  Die  Cluniacenser,  I  (Halle,  1892),  43-120;  Zeisiger, 
Leben  und  Wirken  des  Abtes  Odo  von  Cluni,  Programm  d.  Gym- 
nasiums Sorau  1892;  Du  Bourg.  Saint  Odon  (Paris,  1905). 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Odo  (Oda),  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  d.  2 
June,  9.59  (not  in  958,  recent  researches  showing  that 
he  was  living  on  17  May,  959).  According  to  the 
nearly  contemporary  account  of  him  in  the  anony- 
mous "Life  of  St.  Oswald"  (op.  cit.  inf.)  his  father,  a 
Dane,  did  not  strive  to  serve  God,  even  endeavouring 
to  hinder  his  son's  constant  presence  at  the  church. 
Later  writers  represent  Odo's  parents  as  pagans  and 
the  boy  himself  as  becoming  a  Christian  despite  his 
father's  anger.  Odo  was  adopted  by  iEthelhelm,  a 
nobleman,  who  regarded  him  with  paternal  affection 
and  educated  him  for  the  service  of  God.  After  his 
ordination  he  accompanied  iEthelhelm  to  Rome  and 
on  the  way  cured  him  when  he  fell  ill,  by  blessing  a  cup 
of  wine  and  causing  him  to  drink  therefrom.  On  his 
return,  according  to  the  same  writer,  he  was  made 
bishop  of  a  city  in  the  province  of  Wilton,  so  that  he 
has  been  described  as  Bishop  of  Wilton,  his  consecra- 
tion being  placed  in  920.  There  is  no  evidence  for  this 
date,  and  if  he  was  consecrated  by  Archbishop  Wulf- 
helm,  as  is  stated,  it  could  not  have  been  before  923. 
There  is  a  further  difficulty  as  to  his  diocese,  errone- 
XI.— 14 


ously  called  Wilton.  In  927  he  was  Bishop  of  Rams- 
bury,  which  being  in  Wiltshire  might,  loosely  speak- 
ing, be  described  as  the  Diocese  of  Wilton.  But  Ead- 
mer  states  that  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Sherborne, 
and  there  is  an  extant  document  (Cart™  Saxm  666) 
which  lends  some  support  to  this  statement.  If  it  be 
true,  he  must  have  filled  the  See  of  Sherborne  between 
iEthelbald  and  Sigehelm.  As  the  latter  was  bishop  in 
925  this  only  allows  two  years  for  a  possible  episcopate 
of  Odo.  At  the  court  of  Athelstan  (925-940)  he  was 
highly  esteemed,  and  the  king  chose  him  to  accompany 
abroad  his  nephew  Lewis,  whom  the  Prankish  nobles 
had  recently  elected  as  their  king.  In  937  he  accom- 
panied Athelstan  to  the  battle  of  Brunanburh,  where 
the  incident  occurred  of  his  miraculous  restoration,  at 
a  critical  moment,  of  the  king's  lost  sword.  The  story, 
given  by  Eadmer,  is  not  mentioned  by  the  earlier 
anonymous  writer.  When  Archbishop  Wulfhelm  died 
in  942,  King  Eadmund  wished  Odo  to  succeed,  but  he 
refused,  because  he  was  not  a  monk  as  previous  arch- 
bishops had  been.  Finally  he  accepted  the  election, 
but  only  after  he  had  obtained  the  Benedictine  habit 
from  the  Abbey  of  Fleury.  One  of  his  first  acts  as 
archbishop  was  to  repair  his  cathedral  at  Canterbury, 
and  it  is  recorded  that  during  the  three  years  that  the 
works  were  in  progress  no  storm  of  rain  or  wind  made 
itself  felt  within  the  precincts.  The  constitutions 
which  he  pubhshed  as  archbishop  (Mansi,  "Concil.", 
XVIII;  Migne,  P.  L.,  CXXXIII)  relate  to  the  im- 
munities of  the  Church  (cap.  i),  the  respective  duties 
of  secular  princes,  bishops,  priests,  clerics,  monks  (ii- 
vi),  the  prohibition  of  unlawful  marriages,  the  preser- 
vation of  concord,  the  practice  of  fasting  and  alms- 
deeds,  and  the  payment  of  tithes  (vii-x).  A  synodal 
letter  to  his  suffragan  bishops,  and  an  introduction  to 
the  life  of  St.  Wilfred,  written  by  him,  have  also  been 
preserved.  Throughout  the  reign  of  Eadred  (946-955) 
he  supported  St.  Dunstan,  whom  he  consecrated  as 
Bishop  of  Worcester,  prophetically  hailing  him  as  fu- 
ture Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  On  the  death  of  Ead- 
red he  crowned  Eadwig  as  king.  Shortly  after  the 
archbishop  insisted  on  Eadwig  dissolving  his  incestu- 
ous connexion  with  jElfgifu  and  obtained  her  banish- 
ment. In  959  during  the  reign  of  Eadgar,  whom  he 
had  consecrated  king,  realizing  the  approach  of  death, 
he  sent  for  his  nephew,  St.  Oswald,  afterwards  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  but  died  before  his  arrival.  He  was 
succeeded  by  the  simoniacal  ^Elfsige  who  insulted  his 
memory,  and  whose  speedy  death  was  regarded  by  the 
people  as  a  judgment  of  God.  The  next  archbishop, 
St.  Dunstan,  held  St.  Odo  in  .special  veneration,  would 
never  pass  his  tomb  without  stopping  to  pray  there, 
and  first  gave  him  the  title  of  "the  Good".  The  story 
which  represents  Odo  as  having  in  early  manhood  fol- 
lowed the  profession  of  arms  is  only  found  in  later 
writers,  such  as  William  of  Malmesbury.  Even  if  it  is 
true  that  Odo  served  Edward  the  Elder  under  arms, 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose,  with  the  writer  in  the 
"Dictionary  of  National  Biography",  that  he  did  so 
after  he  became  a  cleric.  God  bore  witness  to  his  sanc- 
tity by  miracles  during  his  life  and  after  his  death. 

Eadmer,  Vitn  Sancli  Odonis  (tile  earliest  extant  life)  in  Whar- 
ton, Anglia  Sacra,  II,  78-87,  also  in  Mabillon,  Acta  SS.  O.S.B., 
1685.  and  in  the  Acta  SS.  of  tiie  Bollandists  who  attribute  it  to 
Osbern  (July,  II).  tiut  this  is  corrected  in  their  Bibliotheca  Hagio- 
graphica  Latina  (Brussels,  1901),  where  the  ascription  to  Eadmer 
is  accepted.  Contemporary  notices  will  be  found  in  the  Vita  S. 
Oswaldi  in  Historians  of  the  Church  of  York  (Rolls  Series,  1879- 
94) ;  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  ann.  958,  961  (R.  S.,  1861) ;  Stubbs, 
Memorials  of  St.  Dunstan  (R.  S.,  1874);  Gervase  of  Canter- 
bury, Historical  Works  (R.  S.,  1879-80;  William  of  Malmes- 
BCRY,  De  Gestis  Pontificum  Anglorum  (R.  S.,  1870),  and  De 
Geslis  Regum  Anglorum  (R.  S.,  1887-89);  Wharton,  Anglia 
Sacra  (London,  1691);  Challoner,  Britannia  Sancta  (London, 
1745),  4  July;  Kemble,  Codex  Diplomaticus  wvi  Saxonici  (Lon- 
don, 1839-48);  Hardy,  Descriptive  Catalogue  (London.  1862-71), 
Hook,  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  (London,  1860-84); 
Stanton,  Menology  (London,  1892),  2  June;  Birch,  Cartularium 
Saxonicum  (London,  1885-93);  Searle,  Anglo-Saxon  Bishops, 
Kings  and  Nobles  (Cambridge,  1899) ;  Capgrave,  Nova  Legenda 
-  Anglim,  ed.  Horstuan  (Oxford,  1901). 

Edwin  Burton. 


ODO 


210 


O'DONOVAN 


Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux  and  Count  of  Kent,  b.  in 
Normandy  previous  to  1037;  d.  at  Palermo,  February, 
1097.  The  son  of  Herluin  dc  Conteville  and  Herlcva 
de  Falaise,  previously  by  Duke  Kobert  the  mother 
of  William  the  Bastard,  from  whom  Odo  about  7 
October,  1049,  received  the  Diocese  of  Bayeux.  He 
was  present  at  the  assembly  of  Lillebonne  in  1066  at 
which  William's  expedition  to  England  was  decided 
upon;  he  built,  at  his  expense  at  Port-en-Bassin,  fifty 
or  a  lumdred  vessels,  accompanied  the  soldiers,  ex- 
horted them  on  the  evo  of  the  battle  of  Hastings,  in 
which  he  himself  fought.  William  gave  him  the  castle 
of  Dover  and  the  Earldom  of  Kent,  and  three  months 
later  when  he  returned  to  Normandy  he  left  as  his 
viceroys  Odo  and  William  FitzOsbern.  Both  were 
merciless  in  stifling  the  insurrection  of  the  Saxons.  On 
his  return  to  England  in  December,  1067,  William 
made  Odo  a  sort  of  viceroy;  he  gave  him  domains  in 
the  county  of  Kent,  and  several  churches  and  abbeys. 
Lanfranc,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  protested  suc- 
cessfully at  the  sj-nod  of  1072  against  the  spoliation  of 
which  he  was  the  object;  but  Odo  retained  what  he 
had  taken  from  the  Abbeys  of  Ramsey  and  Evesham. 
In  1080  he  traversed  Northumberland  with  an  army, 
avenging  the  murder  of  Bishop  Walcher  of  Durham; 
he  multiplied  his  cruelties  and  was  called  the  Great 
Tamer  of  the  English. 

He  had  the  ambition  to  became  pope.  A  soothsayer 
had  foretold  that  the  successor  of  Gregory  VII  should 
be  called  Odo.  The  latter  first  tried  to  seduce  by  his 
munificence  the  notables  of  Rome,  where  he  built  a 
palace;  then  with  Hugh,  Count  of  Chester,  and  a  num- 
ber of  knights  he  set  out  for  Rome.  William  met  him 
at  Wight,  brought  him  before  his  barons,  and  re- 
proached him  with  his  exactions;  as  the  barons  re- 
fused to  arrest  the  bishop,  he  declared  that  as  count  he 
would  arrest  him  himself,  and  he  brought  him  prisoner 
to  Rouen.  He  refused  to  release  him,  despite  the  pro- 
tests of  Gregory  VII.  On  his  death-bed  he  granted 
this  request  reluctantly;  for  he  feared  that  after  his 
death  this  "wicked  man  would  make  trouble  every- 
where". Odo,  according  to  Ordericus  Vitalis,  imme- 
diately plotted  against  the  new  king,  William  Rufus, 
his  nephew;  but  in  1088,  being  besieged  in  Rochester, 
he  was  forced  to  accept  as  a  grace  the  right  to  leave 
the  town  and  depart  from  England.  He  established 
his  credit  in  Normandy  by  the  manner  in  which  he  as- 
sured to  his  nephew,  Robert  Courte  Heuse,  the  pos- 
session of  the  city  of  Le  Mans  and  defended  his  power 
against  the  house  of  Talvas.  According  to  Ordericus 
Vitalis,  in  1093  he  blessed  the  incestuous  union  of 
Philip  I  of  France,  with  Bertrada,  Countess  of  Anjou, 
and  obtained  as  a  reward  the  revenues  of  the  Church 
of  Mantes.  Urban  II,  at  Dijon,  absolved  Odo.  In 
1095  he  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Clermont  at 
which  the  first  Crusade  was  preached;  he  set  out  in 
September,  1096,  but  died  at  Palermo.  Gilbert, 
Bishop  of  Evereux,  and  Count  Roger  of  Sicily  erected 
a  tomb  to  him  in  the  cathedral. 

Despite  the  eulogies  of  William  of  Poitiers  it  may  be 
said,  without  approving  the  severe  judgmentof  Orderi- 
cus Vitalis,  that  the  life  of  this  prelate  was  scarcely 
that  of  a  churchman.  He  even  had  a  son,  called  John. 
Nevertheless  his  presence  at  the  synods  of  Rouen  of 
1055,  1061,  and  1063  is  proved;  on  14  July,  1077  he 
consecrated  the  cathedral  of  Bayeux;  on  13  Septem- 
ber, 1077,  he  as.sisted  at  the  dedication  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Stephen  in  Caen,  and  on  23  October,  at  that  of 
Notre  Dame  du  Bee.  He  was  zealous  in  obtaining 
relics.  He  educated,  at  his  expense,  a  number  of 
young  men  who  became  distinguished  prelates,  and 
was  liberal  in  his  gifts  to  the  Abbey  of  St.  Augustine  at 
Canterbury.  It  has  been  asserted  that  he  placed  in 
the  cathedral  the  famous  Bayeux  tapestry,  but  a  de- 
tailed study  of  this  tapestry  has  led  Marignan  to  con- 
clude that  it  was  composed  according  to  the  descrip- 
tion and  information  contained  in  the  "Roman  du 


Rou"  of  Robert  Wace,  and  that  it  was  executed  in  the 
last  thirty  years  of  the  twelfth  century. 

Wharton,  Anglia  Sarra,  I  (London,  16;)1),  334-39;  GoiKo 
Chrialiana  nova,  XI  (1759),  353-00;  Obdehiccb  Vitalis,  Hist. 
eccles.,  ed.  Lepr^vost  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1838-55);  Freeman,  Hia- 
tory  of  the  Norman  Conquest  (6  vols.,  Oxford.  1878-79);  Idem, 
Reign  of  William  Rufus  (2  vols.,  ().iford,  1882);  p-QWKE,  The 
Bayeux  Tapestry  (London,  1898);  Mariqnan,  La  Tapisserie  de 
Bayeux  (Paris,  1902);  Kinosford  in  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  e.  v.;  see 
also  Bibliography  of  William  the  Conqueror,  ibid. 

Georges  Goyau. 

O'Donaghue,  Denis.  See  Indianapolis,  Dio- 
cese OF. 

O'Donnell,  Edmund,  the  first  Jesuit  executed  by 
the  English  government;  b.  at  Limerick  in  1542,  ex- 
ecuted at  Cork,  16  March,  1575.  His  family  had  held 
the  highest  civic  offices  in  Limerick  since  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  he  was  closely  related  to  Father 
David  Woulfe,  Pope  Pius  IV's  legate  in  Ireland.  He 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Rome,  1 1  September, 
1561,  but,  developing  symptoms  of  phthisis,  was  re- 
moved to  Flanders.  In  1.5()4  he  returned  to  Limerick 
and  taught,  with  a  secular  priest  and  a  layman,  in  the 
school  which  Woulfe  established  with  connivance  of 
the  civic  authorities.  The  school  was  dispersed  in 
October,  1565,  by  soldiers  sent  by  Sir  Thomas  Cusack, 
and,  for  a  short  time,  they  taught  at  Kilmallock. 
In  a  few  months  they  returned  to  Limerick,  and  were 
not  molested  again  until  I'iGS,  when  Brady,  Protes- 
tant Bishop  of  Mcath,  visited  the  city  as  royal  commis- 
sioner and  made  diligent  search  for  them.  O'Donnell 
was  ordered  to  qviit  the  country  under  pain  of  death 
and  withdrew  to  Lisbon,  where  he  was  again  a  student 
in  1572.  Venturing  back  to  Limerick  in  1574  he  was 
apprehended  soon  after  landing,  and  thrown  into 
pri.son.  Rejecting  all  inducements  to  embrace  Prot- 
estantism he  was  removed  to  Cork,  tried  for  return- 
ing after  banishment,  denjing  the  roj'al  supremacy, 
and  carrying  letters  for  James  Fitzmaurice.  He  was 
found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged,  drawn  and 
quartered. 

He  has  been  called  McDonnell,  MacDonald, 
Donnelly,  and  MacDonough  and  Donagh.  Father 
Edmund  Hogan,  S.J.,  Historiographer  of  the  Irish 
province,  found  him  recorded  as  Edmundus  Daniell  in 
the  Society's  archives,  and  so  the  name  usually  ap- 
pears in  Limerick  records,  though  also  Dannel  and 
O'Dannel.  Copingcr  and  Bruodin  give  the  name  as 
O'Donell  (O'Donellus).  The  archives  and  a  con- 
temporary letter  from  Fitzmaurice  confirm  Bruodin's 
positive  assertion  that  he  suffered  in  1575,  not  in  1580 
as  generally  stated. 

Murphy.  Our  Martyrs  (Dublin,  1896) ;  Hooan,  Distinguished 
Irishmen  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  (London.  1895);  Rothe.  Ana- 
lecta  Nova  et  Mira,  ed.  Moran  (Dublin,  1884) ;  Houan,  Ibernia 
Ignatiana  (Dublin,  1880). 

O'Donnell,  Patrick.    See  Raphoe,  Diocese  of. 

O'Donovan,  John,  Irish  historian  and  antiquarian, 
b.  at  Atateemore,  County  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  1806; 
d.  at  DubHn,  9  Dec,  1861.  Coming  to  Dublin  in 
1823,  he  was  sent  to  a  "Latin  School"  to  prepare  for 
entrance  to  Maynooth,  but  later,  finding  he  had  no 
vocation  for  the  priesthood,  turned  his  attention  to  the 
study  of  Irish.  O' Donovan  himself  states  that,  at  the 
age  of  nine  years,  he  commenced  the  study  of  Irish 
and  Latin,  and  that  in  1819  he  could  "transcribe  Irish 
pretty  well".  In  Dublin  he  was  soon  employed  by 
James  Hardiman,  antiquarian  and  historian,  to  trans- 
cribe Irish  manuscripts,  and  through  him  he  was  intro- 
duced to  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  circle.  Here  he 
met  Petrie,  and  the  foundation  of  a  lasting  friendship 
was  laid.  Petrie's  accurate  antiquarian  sense  was 
supplemented  by  O'Donovan's  knowledge  of  the 
native  tongue  and  his  ever-growing  store  of  oral  and 
written  tradition.  Aided  by  Sir  Samuel  Ferguson, 
they  helped  to  destroy  the  influence  of  the  fanciful 
theories  which  then  held  the  field,  championed  by 


ODO 


211 


ODO 


Betham  and  Vallaneey.  An  early  example  of  O'Don- 
ovan's  historical  method  is  to  be  found  in  his  edition 
and  translation  of  the  Charter  of  Newry  (Dublin 
Penny  Journal,  22  Sept.,  1832).  From  this  on  he 
shared  with  his  brother-in-law,  Eugene  O'Curry,  an 
undisputed  position  as  supreme  authority  on  the  Irish 
language  and  Irish  antiquities.  He  may  be  said 
to  have  been  the  mainstay  of  the  archaeological  socie- 
ties and  journals  of  his  day — the  Kilkenny  Archaiolo- 
gioal  society,  the  Ulster  Journal  of  Archa!ology ,  and  the 
Celtic  Society.  The  foundation  by  the  Government  of 
the  Ordnance  Survey  Department  of  Ireland  gave 
O'Donovan  his  chance.  In  Petrie's  house,  21  Great 
Charles  Street,  the  antiquarian  section  had  its  offices, 
and  here  O'Donovan  had  as  colleagues,  among  others, 
Petrie,  O'Curry,  Mangan,  and  Wakeman.  From  the 
preparation  of  lists  of  names  of  townlands  and  places, 
O'Donovan  was  soon  sent  by  Larcom,  the  head  of  the 
Ordnance  Survey,  to  work  "in  the  field". 

From  the  various  places  throughout  Ireland  which 
he  visited,  he  despatched  in  the  form  of  letters  to  Lar- 
com accounts  of  antiquities  and  traditions  which, 
collected  in  103  volumes  and  at  present  deposited  in 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  Dublin,  are  popularly 
known  as  "O'Donovan's  Letters".  They  are  not 
heavy  with  mere  erudition,  but  are  enlivened  with 
flashes  of  humorous  anecdote  and  many  a  merry 
"quip  and  crank  and  jest".  He  was  engaged  on  the 
Survey  from  1S30  to  1842.  In  1836  he  commenced 
the  catalogue  of  Irish  MSS.  in  Trinity  College;  and  to 
aid  him  in  his  work  of  editing  and  translating  MSS., 
Todd  sought  a  grant  in  aid  from  Government.  It  was 
refused,  and  was  followed  up  by  the  suppression  in 
1842  of  the  archaeological  section  of  the  Ordnance  Sur- 
vey. Private  effort  had,  therefore,  to  be  relied  upon, 
and,  with  the  assistance  of  the  members  of  the  Archae- 
ological Society  and  the  Celtic  Society,  O'Donovan 
was  able  to  publish  his  well-known  editions  of  Irish 
texts  with  his  invaluable  introductions  and  notes. 
From  1842  till  his  death  in  1861  no  year  passed  with- 
out some  noteworthy  edition  of  an  Irish  text  appearing 
from  his  hands.  A  complete  bibliography  of  his 
works  was  pubhshed  by  Henry  Dixon  (Dublin).  We 
can  only  refer  to  two  of  liis  works  with  which  his  name 
is  popularly  connected — his  "Irish  Grammar"  and 
his  edition  and  translation  of  the  Annals  of  the  Four 
Masters.  His  grammar  was  published  in  1845,  and 
at  once  elicited  the  praise  of  Grimm,  on  whose  recom- 
mendation he  was  elected  in  1856  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Berlin,  an  honour 
which  he  shared  with  Zeuss  whose  epoch-making 
"Grammatica  Celtica"  appeared  in  that  year.  He 
was  then  appointed  Professor  of  Celtic  in  Queen's 
College,  Belfast.  In  1848  appeared  the  first  part  of 
his  edition  of  the  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters  (q.  v)., 
which  won  for  him  the  Cunningham  Gold  Medal  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy  and  the  LL.D.  degree  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  The  edition  was  completed 
in  1851,  and  the  Government  bestowed  on  him  a  pen- 
sion of  £50  a  year.  O'Donovan  had  decided  to  go  to 
America,  but  the  establishment  of  the  Brehon  Law 
Commission  helped  to  retain  his  services  for  Ireland. 
He  continued  his  work  on  the  Brehon  Law  Tracts  till 
his  death  in  Dublin  from  rheumatic  fever,  the  ten- 
dency to  which  was  due  to  exposure  on  the  outdoor 
work  of  the  Ordnance  Survey. 

Besides  his  worlis  (especially  his  edition  of  the  Four  Masters 
and  MS.  Letters  in  R.  I.  Academy)  consult:  Memoir  by  Sib  J. 
Gilbert  (London,  1862);  Lady  FERGtjsoN,  Life  of  Bishop  Reeves 
(London,  1893);  Lady  Gilbert,  Life  of  Sir  John  Gilbert  (London, 
1905) ;  Webb,  Compendium  of  Irish  Biog.  (Dublin,  1878) ;  Journal 
of  Librarians'  Association,  II.  n.  i.  (Dublin):  MacSweeney,  Cen- 
tenary Address;  Carrigan,  Hist,  and  Antiq.  of  the  Diocese  of 
Oesory  (Dublin,  1905). 

Patrick  M.  MacSweeney. 

Odo  of  Cambrai,  Blessed,  bishop  and  confessor, 
called  also  Odoardds,  b.  at  Orleans,  1050;  d.  at  Anchin, 
19  June,  1113.     In  1087  he  was  invited  by  the  canons 


of  Toumai  to  teach  in  that  city,  and  there  soon  won  a 
great  reputation.  He  became  a  Benedictine  monk 
(1095)  in  St.  Martin's,  Toumai,  of  which  he  became 
abbot  later.  In  1105  he  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Cam- 
brai, and  was  consecrated  during  a  synod  at  Reims. 
For  some  time  after  he  was  unable  to  obtain  possession 
of  his  see  owing  to  his  refusal  to  receive  investiture 
at  the  hands  of  the  Emperor  Henry  IV,  but  the  latter's 
son  Henry  restored  the  See  of  Cambrai  to  Odo  in  1 106. 
He  laboured  diligently  for  his  diocese,  but  in  1110  he 
was  exiled  on  the  ground  that  he  had  never  received 
the  cross  and  ring  from  the  emperor.  Odo  retired 
to  the  monastery  of  Anchin,  where  he  died  without 
regaining  possession  of  his  diocese.  Many  of  his 
works  are  lost;  those  extant  will  be  found  in  Migne, 
CLX  (P.  L.). 

Acta  SS..  Ill  June  (Venice,  1743),  910:  Mabillon,  Annates 
O.  S.  B.,  IV  (Paris,  1669),  col.  623;  Ziegelbauer,  Hisl.  rei  litera- 
ria  O.  S.  B..  Ill  (Augsburg,  1754),  126;  Le  Glay,  Hisl.  eecles.  du 
diocise  de  Cambrai  (Paris,  1849) ;  Baun.ard,  Le  b.  Odon  de  Tournai 
(Orleans,  1862);  Martene,  Thes.  nov.  anecdoL,  V  (Paris,  1717), 
853-8;  Labis,  Le  b.  Odon  evtque  de  Cambrai  in  Revue  oatholique,  II 
(Louvain,  1856),  445-60;  519-26;  574-85. 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Odo  of  Canterbury,  Abbot  of  Battle,  d.  1200, 
known  as  Odo  Cantianus  or  of  Kent.  A  monk  of 
Christ  Church,  he  became  subprior  in  1163  and  was 
sent  by  Thomas  k  Becket  to  Pope  Alexander  as  his 
representative  to  attend  an  appeal,  fixed  for  18  Oct., 
1163,  agsinst  the  Archbishop  of  York  who,  in  spite  of 
the  remonstrances  of  St.  Thomas  and  the  pope,  still 
continued  to  carry  the  cross  in  the  southern  province. 
Inl  166  Christ  Church  appealed  against  the  archbishop 
and  Odo  applied  to  Richard  of  Ilchester  for  help  (Fo- 
liot,Ep.  422,  in  Migne).  In  1167  he  became  prior  with 
William  as  subprior.  LIntil  the  murder  of  St.  Thomas 
he  seems  to  have  wavered  in  his  allegiance  between 
king  and  archbishop,  but  then  took  a  decided  stand 
in  favour  of  ecclesiastical  authority.  On  1  Sept.,  1 172, 
in  a  meeting  the  monks  of  Christ  Church  put  forward 
Odo  as  worthy  of  the  archbishopric.  The  king  how- 
ever procrastinated,  and  no  result  followed  a  second 
meeting  at  Windsor  (6 Oct.).  Odo  with  other  monks 
followed  Henry  to  Normandy  and  urged  that  a  monk 
should  be  chosen  as  archbishop  (Mat.  Becket.,  IV, 
181).  After  protracted  negotiations  the  choice  fell 
upon  Richard,  Prior  of  Dover,  formerly  a  monk  of 
Canterbury,  in  whose  behalf  Odo  wrote  to  Alexander 
III  (Migne,  CC,  1396).  In  1173  occurred  a  great 
fire  at  Christ  Church  and  Odo  went  to  the  Council  of 
Woodstock  on  1  July,  1175,  to  obtain  a  renewal  of  the 
charters  on  the  model  of  those  at  Battle  Abbey.  St. 
Martin  de  Bello  had  been  without  an  abbot  for  four 
years  and  the  monks  who  attended  the  council  caused 
Odo  to  be  chosen.  He  was  elected  on  10  July.  His 
blessing  took  place  on  28  Sept.,  at  the  hands  of 
Archbishop  Richard  at  Mailing.  On  the  death  of 
Richard  (1184)  the  monks  of  Christ  Church  again  put 
Odo  forward  for  the  archbishopric,  but  Henry  again  re- 
fused, fearing  no  doubt  that  he  would  be  too  inflexible 
for  his  purpose.  Baldwin  who  was  appointed  quar- 
relled with  the  monks,  a  dispute  which  lasted  till  1 188 
and  occasioned  a  correspondence  between  Odo  and 
Urban  III  (Epp.  Cantuar.,  no.  280).  Odo  died  on  20 
Jan.,  1200,  and  was  buried  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
church  at  Battle.  Leland  speaks  of  him  as  a  most 
erudite  man  and  a  great  friend  of  Thomas  k  Becket 
and  John  of  Salisbury  who  describes  him  as  an  ardent 
lover  of  books.  He  was  a  great  theologian  and 
preached  in  French,  English,  and  Latin,  and  was  noted 
for  his  humility  and  modesty.  There  is  some  uncer- 
tainty as  to  his  writings,  owing  to  a  confusion  with 
Odo  of  Cheriton  and  Odo  of  Murimund,  but  a  list  of 
thirteen  works,  chiefly  writings  on  the  Old  Testament 
and  sermons,  can  be  ascribed  to  him.  He  was  vener- 
ated at  Battle  as  a  saint  and  in  the  relic  list  at  Canter- 
bury Cathedral  is  mentioned  "a  tooth  of  the  Ven.  Odo 
Abb.  of  Battle"  (Dart.  Ap.  XLVII). 


ODO 


212 


O'DWYER 


Matmals  for  History  of  Thomas  Beclcct  (Rolls  Scries,  London, 
1875),  Index;  I,  542;  VI.  331;  Kinosford  in  flirt,  of  Nal.  Biog., 
B.  v..  for  li.-*!  of  his  writines;  Leland.  Collectanea,  ed.  Hearne. 
IV  (London.  1774).  fiS;  Idem.  Comment,  de  Script.  Brit.,  210-12; 
Wright.  /iio<;.  Brit.  .ini/lo-Xorman  (London.  1841)).  224-6; 
Hardy.  Dtacriptivc  Catalogue  (1865);  Chronicon  de  Bella  (London, 
1851). 

S.  Anselm  Parker. 

Odo  of  Cheriton,  preacher  and  fabulist,  d.  1247. 
He  visited  Paris,  and  it  was  probably  there  that  he 
gained  the  de};ree  of  Master.  Bale  mentions  a  tradi- 
tion that  lie  was  a  Cistercian  or  a  Prtenionstratcnsian; 
but  he  can  hardly  have  taken  vows  if,  as  seems  most 
likely,  he  was  the  Master  Odo  of  Cheriton  mentioned 
in  Kentish  and  London  records  from  1211  to  1247,  the 
sonof  William  of  Ciieriton,  lord  of  the  manor  of  Delce 
in  Rocliester.  In  1:21 1-12  William  was  debited  with  a 
fine  to  tlie  crown,  for  Odo  to  have  the  cuslodia  of  Cher- 
iton church,  near  Folkestone.  In  1233  Odo  inherited 
his  father's  estates  in  Delce,  Cheriton,  and  elsewhere. 
A  charter  of  1235-6  (Brit.  Mus.,  Harl.  Ch.  49  B  45), 
by  which  he  quitclaimed  the  rent  of  a  shop  in  London, 
has  his  seal  attached,  bearing  the  figure  of  a  monk 
seated  at  a  desk,  with  a  star  above  him  (St.  Odo  of 
Cluny?). 

Like  Jacques  de  Vitry,  he  introduced  exempla  freely 
into  his  sermons;  his  best  known  work,  a  collection  of 
moralized  fables  and  anecdotes,  sometimes  entitled 
"Parabola;"  from  the  opening  words  of  the  prologue 
{Aperiam  in  paraholis  os  ineum),  was  evidently  de- 
signed for  preachers.  Though  partly  composed  of 
commonly  known  adaptations  and  extracts,  it  shows 
originality,  and  the  moralizations  are  full  of  pungent 
denunciations  of  the  prevalent  vices  of  clergy  and 
laity.  The  "Parabolae"  exist  in  numerous  manu- 
scripts, and  have  been  printed  by  Hervieux  (Fabulistes 
Latins,  IV,  173-255) ;  a  thirteenth  century  P^rench  ver- 
sion is  extant,  also  an  early  Spanish  translation.  Some 
of  the  contents  reaiJjK'ar,  along  with  many  other  exem- 
pla, in  his  sermons  on  the  Sunday  Gospels,  completed 
in  1219,  extant  in  sc\eral  manuscripts;  an  abridgment 
of  which,  prepared  by  M.  Makerel,  was  printed  by  ,1. 
Badius  Ascensius  in  1520.  The  only  other  extant 
works,  certainly  authentic,  are  "Tractatus  de  Pceni- 
tentia",  "Tractatus  de  Passione",  and  "Sermones  de 
Sanctis";  but  the  "Speculum  Laicorum"  also  cites 
him  as  authority  for  many  other  exempla.  Haur^au's 
contention  (Journal  des  Savants,  1896,  111-123),  that 
the  fabulist  was  a  thstinct  person  from  the  author  of 
the  sermons  and  treatises,  is  not  supported. 

Hervieux,  Fabulistes  Latins,  IV,  Eudes  de  Cheriton  ei  ses 
Dtrivis  (Pariij,  1890);  Herbert,  CalaXogue  of  Romances,  III,  SI- 
TS, 371-405. 

J.  A.  Herbert. 

Odo  of  Glanfeuil  (Saint-Maur-sur-Loire),  abbot, 
ninth-c<:tilury  liagiographer.  He  entered  Glanfeuil 
not  later  than  S5tj  and  became  its  abbot  in  861.  In 
864  he  issued  a  "Life  of  St.  Maurus",  a  revision,  he 
claimed,  of  a  "Life"  originally  written  by  Faustus  of 
Montecassino,  which  makes  St.  Maurus  the  founder 
and  first  abbot  of  (Jlanfeuil,  and  is  the  chief  source  for 
the  legendary  sojourn  of  that  saint  in  France.  It  is  so 
anachronistic  that  it  is  generally  believed  to  have  been 
composed  by  Odo  himself,  though  Mabillon  and  a  few 
modern  writers  ascribe  it  to  Faustus  [Mabillon  in 
"Annates  O.S.B.",  I,  629-54,  and  in  "Acta  SS.  Ord. 
S.  Ben.",  I,  259  sq.;  Adlhoch  in  "Studien  und  Mittei- 
lungenausdemBenediktinerundCistercienserOrden", 
XXVI  and  XXVII  (Briinn,  1905  and  1906);  Plaine, 
ibid.,  XVI  (1905);  Huilher,  "Etude  critique  des  Actes 
de  S.  Maur  de  Glanfeuil"  (Paris,  1903);  Halphen  in 
"Revue  historiqiie"  LXXXVIII  (Paris,  1905),  287- 
95].  The  "Life"  is  printed  in  "Acta  SS.",  .January, 
II,  .321-332.  Another  work  of  Odo,  "Miracula  S. 
Mauri,  sive  restauratio  monasterii  Glannafoliensis", 
has  some  historical  value.  The  author  narrates  how 
he  fled  with  the  relics  of  St.  Maurus  from  the  Normans 
in  862  and  how  the  relics  were  finally  transferred  to 


the  monastery  of  St-Maur-des-Fossi^s  near  Paris  in 
8(iS.  It  is  printed  in  "Acta  SS,",  January,  II,  334-42. 
In  S(iS  Odo  [)ccame  :ilso  .Mihot.  of  St-Maur-des-Foss^'S. 
!l.,-iili-s  llu-  rrffiiiicos  nirnlHiiu-^i  above  sco  Landbeau,  Lea 
Vici.s.-i/u-A.i  dc  Vabbai/c  dc  Savd  Maur  aux  VIII'  el  IX'  aiiclea 
(AngiTs.  1'.I05).  44-5S;  Adlhocu  in  Studien  und  Mitleilungen  aus 
dem  Benedikliner  und  Cistercienaer  Orden,  XXVII  (BrUnn.  1906), 
675-91;  BlHLMEYER  in  Kirchliches  Handlex.,  II  (Munich,  1909), 
1192-3. 

Michael  Ott. 
Odoric  of  Pordenone.    See  Pordenone,  Odoric 

OF. 

O'Dugan,  John  (Se/Cghan  "mor"  O  DubhagXin), 
d.  in  Roscommon,  1372.  His  family  were  for  several 
centuries  hereditary  historians  to  the  O'Kellys  of 
lU  Mdine.  His  most  important  work  is  a  compila- 
tion of  verse,  giving  the  names  of  the  various  tribes 
and  territories  of  the  Irish,  and  the  various  chiefs  be- 
fore the  coming  of  the  Normans.  He  devotes  152 
lines  to  Meath,  3.54  to  Ulster,  328  to  Connacht,  and 
only  56  to  Leinster,  leaving  it  evidently  unfinished  at 
his  death.  His  contemporary,  Giolla-na-naomh  O 
Huidhrin  (Heerin),  completed  it.  This  work  throws 
more  light  upon  ancient  Irish  names  and  territories 
than  any  other  similar  work.  In  his  monumental 
"Cambrensis  Eversus",  Dr.  Lynch  (q.  v.)  says  that 
he  could  not  find  "any  better  source  than  this  re- 
markable poem"  concerning  the  chief  Irish  families 
before  the  coming  of  the  English.  His  prfcis  of  it 
occupies  ]iagi'S  235-79  of  the  first  volume  of  Father 
Matthew  Kelly's  edition.  O'Dugan  %vas  the  author 
of  several  otlier  extant  poems,  all  more  or  less  in  the 
nature  of  a  memoria  tecluiicn,  valuable  chiefly  for  their 
facts  about  the  kings  of  Ireland  and  of  tlie  provinces. 
He  also  composed  several  rules  for  determining  move- 
able feasts,  etc. 

Topographical  Poems  of  John  O'Dubhagain  and  Giolla  na 
Naomh  O'Huidhrin,  with  translations,  notes,  and  introductory 
dissertations  by  O'Do.novan  (Dublin,  1862) ;  O'Reilly,  Catalogue 
of  Irish  Writers  (Dublin,  1820);  Webb.  Compendium  of  Irish 
Biogr.  (Dublin,  1878) ;  Cai:lbrensis  Eversus,  tr.  Kelly.  I  (Dublin. 
1848). 

Douglas  Hyde. 


See  Four  Masters, 


O'Duignan,   Peregrine. 

Annals  of  the. 

O'Dwyer,  Edward  Thomas.  See  Limerick,  Dio- 
cese op. 

O'Dwyer,  Joseph,  physician,  inventor  of  intuba- 
tion; b.  at  Cleveland,  1841;  d.  in  New  York,  January 
7,  1898.  He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools  of 
London,  Ontario,  and  studied  medicine  in  the  office  of 
Dr.  Anderson.  After  two  years  of  apprenticeship  he 
entered  the  College  of  Physicians  (New  York)  from 
which  he  was  graduated  in  1865.  He  won  first  place  in 
the  competitive  examination  for  resident  physicians  of 
the  Charity,  now  the  City,  Hospital  of  New  York  City 
on  Blackwell's  Island.  'Twice  during  his  service  he 
contracted  cholera.  After  the  completion  of  his  ser- 
vice he  took  up  private  practice.  Four  years  later 
(1872)  he  was  appointed  to  the  staff  of  the  New  York 
Foundling  Asylum. 

The  deaths  of  many  children  by  suffocation  when 
diptheria  brought  about  closure  of  the  larynx  proved 
too  sad  a  sight  for  him,  so  he  tried  to  find  something  to 
keep  the  larynx  open.  He  used  a  wire  spring  and  ex- 
perimented with  a  small  bivalve  speculum  but  to  no 
purpose.  The  inflamed  mucous  membrane  and  false 
membrane  forced  themselves  into  the  interstices  and 
the  difficulty  of  breathing  returned.  Besides,  the 
pressure  produced  ulceration.  Finally  he  tried  a  tube. 
The  use  of  a  tube  for  intubation  had  often  been  at- 
tempted but  unsuccessfully.  O'Dwyer  succeeded  in 
devising  tlic  form  of  tube  that  would  remain  and  then 
ingeniously  fashioned  instruments  for  the  placing  and 
displacing  of  tlie  tube.  After  a  dozen  years  of  diligent 
study  this  method  of  relieving  difficulty  of  breathing 
proved  successful.  Most  of  his  medical  colleagues 
were  sure  that  O'Dwyer's  scheme  was  visionary.    Be- 


(ECOLAMPADinS 


213 


(ECOLAMPADinS 


fore  his  death  it  was  universally  acknowledged  that  he 
had  made  the  most  important  practical  discovery  of 
his  generation.  His  tubes  and  the  accompanying 
instruments  for  intubation  and  extubation,  with  his 
methods  for  the  care  of  these  patients,  have  since 
come  to  be  employed  everywhere  throughout  the 
medical  world.  The  tubes  are  also  of  great  value  in 
stenosis  of  the  larynx  due  to  various  other  diseases, 
such  as  syphilis,  and  to  strictures  of  the  larynx,  espe- 
cially consequent  on  burns  or  scalds. 

Afterwards  O'Dwyer  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  pneumonia,  but  late  in  December  1S97  he  developed 
symptoms  of  a  brain  lesion,  probably  of  infectious 
origin,  which  proved  fatal.  He  was  a  fervent  Catho- 
lic. His  work  at  the  Foundling  Hospital  helped 
greatly  to  make  that  institution  one  of  the  best  of  its 
kind. 

Northrop,  Joseph  O'Dwyer;  Medical  Record  (New  York,  1904) ; 
Walsh.  Makers  of  Modern  Medicine  (New  York.  1907). 

James  J.  Walsh. 

(Ecolampadiua,  Johann,  Protestant  theologian, 
organizer  of  Protestantism  at  Basle,  b.  at  Weinsberg, 
Swabia,  in  14S2;  d.  at  Basle,  24  November,  1531.  His 
family  name  was  Heussgen  or  Hussgen,  not  Husschyn 
(Hausschein),  as  the  hellenized  form  CEcolampadius 
was  later  rendered.  Having  received  a  preliminary 
classical  training  at  Weinsberg  and  Heilbronn,  he  be- 
gan the  study  of  law  at  Bologna,  but  left  for  Heidel- 
berg in  1499  to  take  up  theology  and  literature.  He 
was  specially  interested  in  the  works  of  the  mystics, 
without  obtaining,  however,  a  thorough  foundation  in 
Scholastic  theology.  After  his  ordination  he  held  a 
small  benefice  at  Weinsberg,  where  he  delivered  his 
sermons  on  the  Seven  Last  Words.  At  Stuttgart 
(1512)  he  extended  his  knowledge  of  Greek,  and  at 
Tlibingen  became  friendly  with  Melanchthon;  re- 
turning to  Heidelberg,  he  studied  Hebrew  under  a 
Jewish  convert,  and  became  acquainted  with  Brenz 
and  Capito.  A  little  later  he  was  appointed  preacher 
at  the  cathedral  of  Basle  (1515),  where  he  joined  the 
circle  of  Erasmus.  In  1515  he  was  made  a  bachelor,  in 
1516  licentiate,  and  on  9  September,  1518,  a  doctor  of 
theology.  He  had  already  resigned  as  preacher  at 
Basle  and  returned  to  Weinsberg.  In  December,  1518, 
he  became  cathedral  preacher  at  Augsburg,  where  he 
joined  the  Humanists  who  sympathized  with  Luther, 
He  corresponded  with  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  and 
directed  against  Eck  the  anonymous  pamphlet  "Ca- 
nonici  indocti  Lutherani"  (Augsburg,  1519).  CEco- 
lampadius, however,  far  from  having  taken  a  definite 
stand,  was  engaged  in  translating  the  ascetical  writ- 
ings of  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  from  Greek  into  La- 
tin. 

Suddenly  he  entered  the  Brigittine  monastery  at 
Altomiinster  (23  April,  1520).  He  first  thought  of  de- 
voting himself  to  study  in  this  retreat,  but  was  soon 
again  entangled  in  controversy,  when,  at  the  request  of 
Bernhard  Adelmann,  he  wrote  his  opinion  of  Luther, 
which  was  very  favourable,  and  sent  it  in  confidence  to 
Adelmann  at  Augsburg.  The  latter,  however,  for- 
warded it  to  Capito  at  Basle  and  he,  without  asking 
the  author's  permission,  published  it  ((Ecolampadii 
indicium  de  doctore  Martino  Luthero).  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  other  uncatholic  writings,  e.  g.  one  against 
the  doctrine  of  the  Church  on  confession  (Augsburg, 
1521)  and  a  sermon  on  the  Holy  Eucharist  (Augsburg, 
1521)  dealing  with  tran.substantiation  as  a  question  of 
no  importance  and  repudiating  the  sacrificial  character 
of  the  Eucharist;  these  publications  finally  rendered 
his  position  in  the  monastery  untenable.  He  left  in 
February,  1.522,  supplied  by  the  community  with 
money  for  his  journey.  Through  the  influence  of 
Franz  von  Sickingen  he  became  chaplain  in  the  castle 
on  the  Ebernburg.  In  November  of  the  same  year  he 
removed  to  Basle.  He  publicly  defended  Luther's 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  (.30  August, 
1523) .   The  following  February  he  advocated  the  mar- 


riage of  priests  and  used  his  pulpit  to  disseminate  the 
new  teachings.  The  progress  of  Protestantism  became 
much  more  marked  in  Basle  after  the  Council  had  ap- 
pointed him  pastor  of  St.  Martin's  (February,  1525), 
on  condition  that  he  should  introduce  no  innovations 
into  Divine  service  without  special  authorization  of 
the  council,  which  included  Catholics  as  well  as  Re- 
formers, and  was  still  cautious;  the  spread  of  the  new 
teachings  was  partially  counteracted  by  the  bishop 
and  the  university,  which,  for  the  greater  part,  was 
still  Catholic  in  its  tendency. 

After  Karlstadt's  writings  had  been  proscribed  by 
the  Basle  Council,  CEcolampadius,  in  August,  1525,  is- 
sued his  "De  genuina  verborum  Domini:  Hoc  est  cor- 
pus meum,  iuxta  vetustissimos  auetores  expositione 
liber",  in  which  he  declared  openly  for  Zwingli's  doc- 
trine of  the  Last  Supper,  construing  as  metaphorical 
the  words  of  institution.  The  distinction  between  his 
explanation  and  Zwingli's  was  merely  formal,  CI]co- 
lampadius,  instead  of  est  interpreted  the  word  corpus 
figuratively  (corpus — figura  corporis).  Accordingly 
the  Last  Supper  was  to  him  merely  an  external  sym- 
bol, which  the  faithful  should  receive,  less  for  their 
own  sakes  than  for  the  sake  of  their  neighbours,  as  a 
token  of  brotherhood  and  a  means  of  edification.  This 
monograph  was  confiscated  at  Basle,  and  attacked  by 
Brenz  on  behalf  of  the  Lutheran  theologians  of  S%vabia 
in  his  "Syngramma  Suevicum"  (1525),  which  CEco- 
lampadius Fnswered  with  his  "  Antisjoigramma  ad  ec- 
clesiastes  Suevos"  (1526).  Although  CEcolampadius 
had  continued  to  say  Mass  until  152.5,  in  November  of 
that  year  he  conducted  the  first  "reformed"  celebra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper  with  a  liturgy  compiled  by 
himself.  In  1526  he  arranged  an  order  of  Divine  ser- 
vice under  the  title  "Form  und  CJestalt,  wie  der  Kin- 
dertauf,  des  Herrn  Nachtmahl  und  der  Kranken 
Heimsuchung  jezt  zu  Basel  von  etlichen  Predikanten 
gehalten  werden".  In  May,  1526,  he  took  part  in  the 
disputation  at  Baden,  but  in  Zwingli's  absence  he  was 
unable  to  cope  successfully  with  Eck.  In  May,  1527, 
the  Council  of  Basle  requested  the  Catholic  and  Prot- 
estant preachers  of  the  city  to  give  in  writing  their 
views  concerning  the  Mass.  The  Catholic  belief  was 
presented  by  Augustin  Marius,  the  Protestant  by 
CEcolampadius.  The  Council  as  yet  placed  no  general 
proscription  on  the  Mass,  but  allowed  each  of  the 
clergy  to  retain  or  set  it  aside.  In  consequence  the 
Mass  was  abolished  in  the  churches  under  Protestant 
preachers  and  the  singing  of  psalms  in  German  intro- 
duced. Monasteries  were  suppressed  towards  the  end 
of  1527.  The  ancient  Faith  was,  however,  tolerated 
for  a  time  in  the  churches  under  Catholic  control. 

After  the  disputation  at  Bern  in  January,  1528,  in 
which  CEcolampadius  and  Zwingli  were  chief  speakers 
on  the  Protestant  side,  the  Protestants  of  Basle  threw 
caution  to  the  winds;  at  Easter,  1528,  and  later,  sev- 
eral churches  were  despoiled  of  their  statues  and  pic- 
tures. In  December,  1528,  at  the  instance  of  CEcolam- 
padius, the  Protestants  petitioned  the  Council  to 
suppress  Catholic  worship,  but,  as  the  Council  was  too 
slow  in  deciding,  the  Protestantizing  of  Basle  was  com- 
pleted by  means  of  an  insurrection.  The  Protestants 
expelled  the  Catholic  members  of  the  Council.  The 
churches  previously  in  the  hands  of  the  Catholics,  in- 
cluding the  cathedral,  were  seized  and  pillaged.  CEco- 
lampadius, who  had  married  in  1.52S,  became  pastor 
of  tlic  cathedral  and  antisles  over  all  the  Protestant 
clergy  of  Basle,  and  took  the  leading  part  in  compiling 
the  Reformation  ordinance  promulgated  by  the  Coun- 
cil (1  April,  1529).  Against  those  who  refu.sed  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  Protestant  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  compulsory  measures  were  enacted  which 
broke  down  the  last  remnant  of  opposition  from  the 
Catholics.  In  contrast  to  Zwingli,  CEcolampadius 
strove,  but  with  only  partial  success,  to  secure  for 
the  representatives  of  the  Church  a  greater  share  in 
^Ita  management.    In  October,  1529,  CEcolampadius 


(ECONOMUS 


214 


(ECUMENinS 


joined  in  the  vain  at  tonii)t  at  Marburg  to  close  the  sac- 
ramental dispute  between  the  Lutherans  and  the  He- 
formed.  In  1531,  with  Bucer  and  Blarer,  he  intro- 
duced Protestantism  by  force  into  U Im,  Biberach,  and 
Memmingen.  He  was  also  concerned  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Waldcnses,  and  was  largely  responsible  for  their 
having  joined  forces  with  the  Jiefornicd  at  this  time, 
fficolampadius  was  a  man  of  splendid,  though  mis- 
directed, natural  gifts.  Among  the  fathers  and  lead- 
ers of  Protestantism  he  had  not,  either  as  theologian 
or  man  of  action,  the  importance  or  forceful  personal- 
ity of  Luther,  Cah'in,  anil  Zwingli,  but  his  name  stands 
among  the  first  of  their  supporters.  As  a  theologian, 
after  the  full  tlevclo)]incnt  of  his  religious  opinions,  ho 
belonged  to  the  parly  of  Zwingli,  though  remaining  in- 
dependent on  some  imjiortant  points.  The  opinion 
that  he  was  more  tolerant  than  the  other  Protestant 
leaders  does  not  accord  with  facts,  though  true  on  the 
whole  as  regards  his  relations  to  Protestants  of  other 
beliefs.  The  profound  differences  which  had  already 
appeared  among  the  adherents  of  the  new  religion,  due 
particularly  to  variations  in  opinion  concerning  the 
Lord's  .Supper,  were  painful  to  CEcolampadius;  but  in 
contrast  to  Luther's  imcompromising  attitude,  he 
strove  without  surrendering  his  own  views  to  restore 
harmony  through  reciprocal  toleration.  Towards  the 
Catholic  religion,  however,  he  bore  the  same  hatred 
and  intolerance  as  the  other  Protestant  leaders.  Like- 
wise in  justifying  religious  war,  he  shares  Zwingli's 
standpoint.  If  his  first  movements  at  Basle  were  more 
cautious  than  those  of  others  elsewhere,  it  was  not 
through  greater  mildness,  but  rather  out  of  regard  for 
conditions  which  he  could  not  change  at  a  single 
stroke.  As  soon,  however,  as  he  had  won  over  the 
secular  authority,  he  did  not  rest  until  Catholic  wor- 
ship was  suppressed,  and  those  who  at  first  resisted 
were  either  banished  or  forced  to  apostatize. 

Capito.  Juhaiinis  (Ecolampadii  et  HuldricliiZwmgliiepi.il.  libri 
Quatuor  (Baaie,  1536),  with  a  biography  of  Oioolampadius:  Hess. 
Lebensgesch.  Dr.  Joh.  (Ecolampad's  (Zurich,  1793);  Herzog,  Das 
Leben  Joh.  CEcolampad^s  (Basle,  1843) ;  Hagenb.\ch,  (Ecolampad's 
Leben  und  ausgew&hlte  Schriften  (Elberfeld,  1859)  in  Leben  und 
ausgewdhUe  Schriften  der  Vdler  wid  Begriinder  der  re/ormierten 
Kirche,  II:  Fehleisen,  Joh.  QScolampadius.  Sein  Leben  und 
Wirken  (Weinsberg,  1882);  Bdrckhardt-Biedermann,  Ueber 
(Ecolampad's  Person  und  Wirksamkeit  in  Theologische  Zeitschr. 
aus  der  Schweiz.  X  (1893),  27-40,  81-92;  Herzog  in  Realencyk./Ur 
prot.  Theol.  und  Kirche,  2nd  ed.,  X,  708-24;  Waqenmann  in 
AUgem.  deutsche  Biog.,  a.  v.;  Mayer  in  Kirchenlex.,  a.  v.  For  the 
Augsburg  period  cf.  Thurnhofer,  Bem/tard  Adelmann  von  Adel- 
mannsfelden  (Jreiburg,  1900).  especially  pp.  62  sqq.  and  115-26; 
for  his  controversy  with  Ambrosius  Pelargus  and  Augustinus 
Marius  on  the  Mass  cf.  Paulus,  Ambrosius  Pelargus  in  Hist,  polit. 
Blot.,  CX  (1892).  2-12;  Idem  in  Paulus,  Die  deutschen  Domini- 
kaner  im  Kamp/e  gegen  Luther  (Freiburg.  1903),  191-98. 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 

(Economus,  Episcopal  (Gr.  oUoriiMn  from  of/tos 
a  house,  and  p^p.eii',  to  distribute,  to  administer), 
one  who  is  charged  with  the  care  of  a  house,  an  ad- 
ministrator. In  canon  law  this  term  designates  the 
individual  who  is  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  tem- 
poral goods  of  the  Church  in  a  diocese;  it  is  used  also 
of  the  person  in  cliarge  of  the  property  of  a  monastery. 
ThisotiSce  originated  in  the  Eastern  Church  and  dates 
back  to  the  fourth  century:  a  law  of  Honorius  and 
Arcadius  in  .398  speaks  of  it  iis  if  it  were  then  wide- 
roread  (Cod.  Theodos.,  IX,  tit.  45,  lex.  3).  The 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  ordered  an  CEConomus  to 
be  appointed  in  every  diocese,  to  take  charge  of 
ecclesiastical  property  under  episcopal  authority 
(canon  xxvi  in  Man'si,  VII,  367).  They  were  es- 
tablished in  the  Ea-stern  Church  and  have  continued 
down  to  the  present  day  in  the  schismatical  Greek 
Church  (Silbernagl,  "Verfa-ssung  und  gegenwartiger 
Bestand  siimtlicher  Kirchen  des  Orients",  2nd  ed., 
Ratisbon,  1904,  37).  The  increase  of  church  prop- 
erty after  the  Edict  of  Milan  (313)  and  the  multiplica- 
tion of  episcopal  duties  rendered  this  office  very  use- 
ful. In  the  West,  we  meet  with  the  oeconomus  in 
Spain  (Council  of  Seville,  619,  can.  ix),  in  Sardinia, 
and  perhaps  in  Sicily,  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 


(Jaff(5-Wattenbach,  "Hegesta  Pontificum  Roman- 
orum",  Leipzig,  ISSl,  1,  im.  1282,  1915).  But  as  a 
general  rule  the  \Vesti^rnl)i.shops  contented  themselves 
with  the  aid  of  a  confidential  assistant,  a  viccdominus, 
who  looked  after  the  tc mporidities  and  ranked  next 
to  the  bishop.  The  est:iblishnienl  of  a  domain  in  con- 
nexion with  each  churcli  iiuide  the  task  of  adminis- 
tering the  ecclesiastical  pmpcity  much  lighter.  The 
office  of  vicedominus  was  moditiid  by  the  influence  of 
the  feudal  system,  and  by  ll]<'  f:ict  that  the  bishops  be- 
came temporal  sovereigns.  The  Council  of  Trent 
ordered  the  chapters  of  cathedral  churches  to  establish, 
in  addition  to  a  capitulary  vicar,  one  or  more  ceconomi 
to  administer  the  temporal  property  of  the  diocese 
during  an  episcopal  vacancy  (Sess.  XXIV,  De  Ke- 
formatione,  c.  xvi).  At  the  present  time,  the  bishop 
is  not  obliged  to  appoint  an  a-conomus,  though  he  is 
not  hindered  from  so  doing.  The  Second  Plenary 
Council  of  Baltimore  (e.  Ixxv)  advises  bishops  to  select 
one  from  among  the  ecclesiastics  or  even  the  laity, 
who  is  skilled  in  the  civil  law  of  the  country. 

LoENiNG.  Gesch.  des  deutschen  Kirchenrechts  (Strasburg.  1878), 
I.  235;  II,  342;  Stutz.  Geach.  des  kircU.  Benefizialwesens.  I  (Berlin, 
1895).  9  sq.;  Senn.  L'institution  des  Vidamies  en  France  (Paris. 
1907) ;  Lesne.  Hist,  de  la  propriety  eccUs.  en  France,  I.  Epogue 
Romaine  et  Mirovingienne  (Paris,  1910). 

A.  Van  Hove. 

(Ecumenical  Council.    Sec  Councils,  General. 

(Ecumenius  [oUov/x^pios) ,  Bishop  of  Trikka  (now 
Trikkala)  in  Thessaly  about  990  (according  to  Cave, 
op.  cit.  infra,  p.  112).  He  is  the  reputed  author  of 
commentaries  on  books  of  the  New  Testament.  A 
manuscript  of  the  tenth  or  eleventh  century  containing 
a  commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  attributes  it  to  him. 
The  work  consists  of  a  prologue  and  then  a  slightly 
modified  version  of  the  commentary  of  Andrew  of 
Caesarea  (sixth  cent.).  Manuscripts  of  the  eleventh 
century  contain  commentaries  on  the  Acts  and  on  the 
Catholic  and  Pauline  epistles,  attributed  since  the 
sixteenth  century  to  (Ecumenius.  Those  on  the  Acts 
and  Catholic  Epistles  are  identical  with  the  commen- 
taries of  Theophylactus  of  Achrida  (eleventh  cent.); 
the  Pauline  commentaries  are  a  different  work,  though 
they  too  contain  many  parallel  passages  to  Theophy- 
lactus. The  first  manuscripts,  however,  are  older 
than  Theophylactus,  so  that  it  cannot  be  merely  a 
false  attribution  of  his  work.  It  would  seem  then 
that  fficumenius  copied  Andrew  of  Caesarea  and  was 
himself  copied  by  Theophylactus.  The  situation  is 
however,  further  complicated  by  the  fact  that  among 
the  authors  quoted  in  these  works  the  name  of  fficu- 
menius himself  occurs  repeatedly.  The  question  then 
of  fficumenius's  authorship  is  in  all  cases  very  difficult. 
Bardenhewer  (Kirchenlex.,  IX,  1905,  coll.  706-10)  is 
doubtful  about  it;  Ehrhard  (in  Krumbacher's  "By- 
zant.  Lift.",  132)  says:  "The  name  (Ecumenius  repre- 
sents in  the  present  state  of  investigation  a  riddle  that 
can  be  solved  only  by  thorough  critical  study  of  the 
manuscripts  in  connexion  with  the  whole  question  of 
the  CatenEB."  The  commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epis- 
tles is  a  compromise  between  the  usual  kind  of  com- 
mentary and  a  catena.  Most  explanations  are  given 
without  reference  and  are  therefore  presumably  those 
of  the  author;  but  there  are  also  long  excerpts  from 
earlier  writers,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Eusebius, 
Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Alexandria  etc.,  especially  from 
Photius.  It  is  among  these  that  Q'cumenius  himself 
is  quoted.  The  Commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  was 
first  edited  by  Cramer:  "CateniE  in  Nov.  Test.", 
VIII  (Oxford,  1840),  497-582;  the  other  three  (on 
Acts,  Cath.  Ep.,  and  St.  Paul)  by  Donatus  (Verona, 
1532).  Morellus  (Paris,  1631)  re-edited  these  with  a 
Latin  translation;  his  edition  is  reproduced  in  P.  G., 
CXVIII-CIX. 

Fabricius-Harles.  Bibl.  gra-ca,  VIII  (Hamburg,  1802),  692- 
5;  Cave.  Scriptorum  eccles.  hist,  titer.,  II  (Basle,  1745).  112; 
Kbumbacheh,  Byzantin.  Litteraturgesch.  (2nd  ed..  Munich,  1897), 
131-3. 

Adrian  Fobtesctje. 


OENGUS 


215 


OFFERINGS 


Oengus,  Saint.    See  Aengus,  Saint. 

Oertel,  John  James  Maximilian,  journalist,  b.  at 
Ansbaeh,  Bavaria,  27  April,  1811 ;  d.  at  Jamaica,  New 
York,  21  August,  1882.  Born  a  Lutheran,  he  was 
sent  to  the  Lutheran  University  of  Erlangen  where  he 
studied  theology  and  five  years  later  was  ordained  a 
minister.  After  his  ordination  he  accepted  a  call  to 
care  for  his  countrymen  in  the  LInited  States,  and 
arrived  in  New  York  in  October,  1837.  The  unortho- 
dox opinions  of  the  New  York  Lutherans  displeased 
him,  and  he  left  for  Missouri  early  in  1839.  Things 
were  no  better  there,  so  he  returned  to  New  York. 
Denominational  dissensions  weakened  his  faith,  and 
in  1840  he  became  a  Catholic.  An  account  of  his 
conversion  in  pamphlet  form  published  25  March, 

1850,  had  quite  a  vogue  in  the  controversial  literature 
of  the  day.  After  his  conversion  he  taught  German  at 
St.  John's  College,  Fordham;  later  he  edited  in  Cin- 
cinnati the  "Wahrheitsfreund",  a  German  Catholic 
weekly,  and  in  1846  he  left  for  Baltimore  where  he 
founded  the  weekly  "Ivirchenzeitung",  which,  under 
his  editorial  direction,  was  the  most  prominent  Ger- 
man Catholic  publication  in  the  United  States.     In 

1851,  he  moved  the  paper  to  New  York.  In  1869  he 
published  "  Altesund  Neues".  In  1875  Pius  IX  made 
him  a  Knight  of  St.  Gregory  in  recognition  of  his  ser- 
vice to  the  Church  and  Catholic  literature. 

U.  S.  Cath.  Hist.  Soc,  Hist,  Records  and  Studies,  IV.  parts 
I  and  II  (New  York,  Oct.,  1906) ;  Shea,  The  Cath.  Church  in  the 
U.  S.  (New  York,  1856);  Catholic  News  (New  York,  18  April, 
190S). 

Thomas  F.  Mbehan. 

Oettingen  (Altotting,  Oetinga),  during  the  Car- 
lovingian  period  a  royal  palace  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Isen  and  the  Inn  in  Upper  Bavaria,  near  which 
King  Karlmann  erected  a  Benedictine  monastery  in 
876,  with  Werinolf  as  first  abbot,  and  also  built  the 
abbey  church  in  honour  of  the  Apostle  St.  Philip.  In 
907  King  Louis  the  Child,  gave  the  abbey  in  commen- 
dam  to  Bishop  Burchard  of  Passau  (903-915),  proba- 
bly identical  with  Burchard,  second  and  last  abbot. 
In  910  the  Hungarians  ransacked  and  burnt  the 
church  and  abbey.  In  122S  Duke  Louis  I  of  Bavaria 
rebuilt  them  and  put  them  in  charge  of  twelve  Augus- 
tinian  Canons  and  a  provost.  The  Augustinians  re- 
mained until  the  secularization  of  the  Bavarian  mon- 
asteries in  1803.  LTnder  their  care  was  also  the  Lieb- 
frauen-Kapelle  with  its  miraculous  image  of  Our  Lady, 
dating  from  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  or  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  pilgrims  became  so 
numerous  that  to  aid  the  Augustinian  Canons  the 
Jesuits  erected  a  house  in  1591  and  remained  until  the 
suppression  of  their  order  in  1773.  Franciscans 
settled  there  from  1653  to  1803;  from  1803  to  1844  the 
Capuchins  and  some  secular  priests,  from  1844  to  1873 
the  Redemptorists  had  charge,  and  since  1872  the 
Capuchins.  About  300,000  pilgrims  come  annually. 
Since  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  hearts 
of  the  deceased  Bavarian  princes  are  preserved  in  the 
Liebfrauen-Kapelle. 

Maier,  Gedenkblatter  und  CuUurbilder  aus  der  Geschichte  von 
AU^ting  (Augsburg.  1885) ;  Krauthahn.  Geschichte  der  uraUen 
WaUfahrt  in  Allotting  (9th  ed.,  Altotting.  1893). 

Michael  Ott. 

Offa,  King  of  Mercia,  d.  29  July,  796.  He  was  one 
of  the  leading  figures  of  Saxon  history,  as  appears  from 
the  real  facts  stripped  of  all  legend.  He  obtained  the 
throne  of  Mercia  in  757,  after  the  murder  of  his  cousin. 
King  ^thelbald,  by  Beornraed.  After  spending  four- 
teen years  in  consolidating  and  ordering  his  territories 
he  engaged  in  conquests  which  made  him  the  most 
powerful  king  in  England.  After  a  successful  cam- 
paign against  the  Hestingi,  he  flefeated  the  men  of 
Kent  at  Otford  (775);  the  West  Saxons  at  Ben.sington 
in  Oxfordshire  (779);  and  finally  the  Welsh,  depriving 
the  last-named  of  a  large  part  of  Powys,  including  the 


town  of  Pengwem.  To  repress  the  raids  of  the  Welsh 
he  built  Offa's  dyke,  roughly  indicating  for  the  first 
time  what  has  remained  the  boundary  between  Eng- 
land and  Wales.  Offa  was  now  supreme  south  of  the 
Humber,  with  the  result  that  England  was  divided 
into  three  poUtical  divisions,  Noithumbria,  Mercia, 
and  Wessex.  His  next  step  was  to  complete  the  inde- 
pendence of  Mercia  by  inducing  the  pope  to  erect  a 
Mercian  archbishopric,  so  as  to  free  Mercia  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Had- 
rian I  sent  two  legates,  George  and  Theophylactus,  to 
England  to  arrange  for  the  transfer  of  five  suffragan 
sees  of  Canterbury  (viz.  Worcester,  Leicester,  Lindsay, 
Elmham,  and  Dunwich)  to  the  new  Archbishopric  of 
Lichfield,  of  which  Higbert  was  first  archbishop. 
This  was  effected  at  the  Synod  of  Celchyth  (787),  at 
which  Offa  granted  the  pope  a  yearly  sum  equal  to  one 
mancus  a  day  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  for  lights 
to  be  kept  burning  before  St.  Peter's  tomb.  At  the 
same  time  he  as.sociated  his  son  Ecgferth  with  him  in 
the  kingship.  He  preserved  friendly  relations  with 
Charlemagne,  who  undertook  to  protect  the  English 
pilgrims  and  merchants  who  passed  through  his  terri- 
tories. Many  charters  granting  lands  to  various  mon- 
asteries are  extant,  and,  though  some  are  forgeries, 
enough  are  genuine  documents  to  show  that  he  was  a 
liberal  benefactor  to  the  Church.  The  laws  of  Offa 
are  not  extant,  but  were  embodied  by  Alfred  in  his 
later  code  The  chief  stain  on  his  character  is  the 
execution  of  yEthelbert.,  King  of  the  East  Angles.  In 
all  other  respects  he  showed  himself  a  great  Christian 
king  and  an  able  and  enlightened  ruler. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  which  misdates  hia  death  by  two  years: 
most  of  the  chief  medieval  historians,  William  of  Malmesbury, 
Matthew  Paris  etc.,  and  later  standard  works,  Lingard  etc.; 
Mackenzie,  Essay  on  the  life  and  institutions  of  Offa  (London, 
1840):  Thorpe,  Ancient  Laws  and  Institutes  (London,  1840): 
Kemble,  Codex  Diplomaticus  (Evi  Saxonici  (London.  1839-48); 
Jaff6,  Bibl.  rerum  Germanarum,  IV:  Monumenta  Carolina  (Ber- 
lin, 1864-73) :  Haddan  and  Stubbs,  Councils  and  Ecclesiastical 
Documents.  Ill  and  V  (Oxford.  1869-1878):  Green,  Making  of 
England  (London,  1885);  BrRCH,  Car/u/ariwrn  Saxonicum  (Lon- 
don, 1885-93);  ,Searle,  Anglo-Saxon  Bishops,  Kings,  and  Nobles 
(Cambridge.  1899):  Hdghes,  On  Offa's  Dyke  in  Archceologia 
(1893),  III,  465  sqq.  EdWIN  BuRTON. 

Ofierings  (Oblations). — I.  The  word  oblation,  from 
the  supine  of  the  Latin  verb  offero  ( "  to  off  er  " ) ,  is  ety  mo- 
logically  akin  to  offering,  but  is,  unlike  the  latter,  al- 
most exclusively  restricted  to  matters  religious.  In 
the  Enghsh  Bibles  "oblation",  "offering",  "gift", 
"sacrifice"  are  used  indiscriminately  for  anything 
presented  to  God  in  worship,  or  for  the  service  of  the 
Temple  or  priest.  This  indiscriminate  rendering 
arises  from  the  fact  that  these  words  do  not  purport 
to  render  always  the  same  Hebrew  expressions.  The 
latter,  moreover,  are  not  distinct  h'  specific  in  their 
meaning.  In  this  article  oblations  will  be  considered 
in  the  narrow  sense  the  term  has  tended  to  assume 
of  vegetable  or  lifeless  things  offered  to  God,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  "bloody  sacrifices". 

Oblations  of  this  kind,  hke  sacrifices,  were  found 
in  all  ancient  Semitic  reUgions — in  fact  are  a  world- 
wide and  ever-existing  institution.  Various  theories 
have  been  proposed  to  explain  how  offerings  came  to 
be  a  part  of  worship.  Unfortunately  very  many 
modern  scholars  assume  that  mankind  began  in  the 
savage  state.  According  to  one  theory,  the  god  being 
considered  the  first  owner  of  the  land,  it  was  inferred 
he  had  a  claim  to  a  tribute  from  the  increase  of  the 
soil:  this  is  the  frifeute  theory.  It  relies  on  the  fact  that 
the  offering  of  first-fruits  is  one  of  the  earliest  forms 
of  oblations  found  among  ancient  peoples.  The 
assumption  that  primitive  men  conceived  deity  under 
low  anthropomorphic  forms  is  the  source  whence 
have  sprung  the  gift  theory,  the  table-bond  theory,  and 
the  communion  theory.  According  to  the  first  of 
these  systems,  the  god  is  approachefl  through  pres- 
ents which  the  worshipper  counts  on  to  insure  favour 
{AQpa  ffeovs  neMei,' Sup  alSolovs  ^atriX^as).      That  such 


OFFERINGS 


216 


OFFERINGS 


a  misconception  of  the  divinity  was  prevalent  at  cer- 
taii\  ejiochs  and  among  certain  peoples  cannot  he 
gainsaid  (Cic,  "De  Leg.",  ii,  16);  however,  in  view  of 
the  idea  of  the  sacredness  of  the  bond  created  hy  the 
sharing  in  a  common  meal — an  idea  that  still  holds 
sway  among  Semitic  nomads  (and  nomadic  life  \hi- 
<loubtedly  preceded  agricultural  life) — the  <///(  theory 
h;us  been  mostly  superseded  by  the  tabh--bou<l  theory. 
A  bond  is  entered  into  between  the  god  and  the  wor- 
shipper when  they,  as  it  were,  sit  at  the  same  table, 
man  furnishing  the  meal,  and  the  god  granting  in  re- 
turn the  assurance  of  his  protection.  The  niinniiniinn 
theory  (its  chief  advocate  is  W.  R.  Smith)  is  based  on 
the  totemistic  conception  of  the  origin  of  worshi]),  its 
essence  consisting  in  that  the  life  of  the  god,  infused 
into  the  totem,  is  assimilated  by  the  worshipper  in  the 
sacred  repast.  This  theory  would  account  for  animal 
sacrifices  and  oblations  of  such  vegetables  as  were  con- 
sidered totems;  but  it  fails  manifestly  to  explain  the 
many  and  various  oblations  custom  imposed  or  sanc- 
tioned. 

As  far  as  positive  information  is  concerned,  the  ori- 
gin of  oblations,  according  to  Genesis,  may  be  traced 
back  to  Cain's  offerings  of  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
Some  critics  would  brush  aside  the  statement  as  the 
fancy  of  a  Judean  writer  of  the  seventh  century  B.  c; 
yet  the  passage  expresses  the  writer's  belief  that  sacri- 
fices and  oblations  were  offered  by  the  very  first  men. 
It  emphasizes,  moreover,  the  idea  that  oblation  is  an 
act  of  worship  natural  to  an  agricultural  population, 
just  as  the  slaying  of  a  victim  is  to  be  expected  in  the 
worship  of  a  pastoral  people;  and  it  seems  to  set  forth 
the  belief  that  bloody  sacrifices  are  more  pleasing  to 
God  than  mere  oblations — a  belief  seemingly  inspired 
by  the  superiority  the  nomad  has  ever  claimed  in  the 
East  over  the  husbandman.  At  all  events  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  there  is  at  the  root  of  all  oblations  the 
idea  that  Ciod  has  a  claim  upon  man,  his  possessions, 
and  the  fruits  of  his  labours,  and  is  pleased  at  receiving 
an  acknowledgment  of  His  sovereignty. 

Whether  exterior  worship,  especially  sacrifice,  was 
in  the  beginning,  as  W.  R.  Smith  affirms,  an  affair,  not 
of  the  individual,  but  of  the^ribe  or  clan,  is  question- 
able. As  far  back  as  documents  go,  side  by  side  with 
public  oblations,  are  others  made  by  individuals  in 
their  own  name  and  out  of  private  devotion. 

The  things  thus  made  over  to  the  deity  were  among 
Semitic  peoples  most  varied  in  nature  and  value. 
Offering  the  first  yield  of  the  year's  crop  was  exten- 
sively practised,  local  usage  specifying  what  should  be 
offered.  The  premices  of  the  corn  crop  (wheat,  bar- 
ley, sometimes  lentils)  were  generally  reserved  to  the 
deity;  so  also  among  certain  tribes  the  first  milk  and 
butter  of  the  year.  Sometimes  fruits  (not  only  first- 
fruits,  but  other  fruit-oblations)  were  offered  in  their 
natural  state.  At  Carthage  the  fruit-offering  con- 
sisted of  a  choice  branch  bearing  fruit;  possibly  such 
was  the  form  of  certain  fruit-offerings  in  Israel. 
Oblations  might  also  consist  of  fruit  prepared  as  for 
ordinary  use,  in  compressed  cakes,  cooked  if  necessary, 
or  made  in  the  form  of  jelly  (debash;  the  latter  prepara- 
tion was  excluded  from  th^  altar  in  Israel).  All  cereal 
oblations,  whether  of  first-lruits  or  otherwise,  among 
the  Hebrews  and  apparently  among  the  Phcenicians, 
were  mingled  with  oil  and  salt  before  being  placed 
on  the  altar.  As  sacrifices  were  frequently  the  occa- 
•  sion  of  social  gatherings  and  of  religious  meals,  the 
custom  was  introduced  of  offering  with  the  victim 
whatever  concomitants  (bread,  wine,  etc.)  were  neces- 
sary. Yet  nowhere  do  we  find  water  offered  up  as  an 
oblation  or  used  for  libations;  only  the  ritual  of  late 
Judaism  for  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  commanded 
that  on  each  of  the  seven  days  of  the  celebration 
water  drawn  from  the  Fountain  of  Siloam  (D.  V., 
Sellum)  should  be  brought  into  the  Temple  amidst  the 
blare  of  trumpets  and  solemnly  poured  out  upon  the 
altar.     Other  articles  of  food  were  used  for  hbations, 


such,  for  instance,  as  milk  among  the  Phcenicians,  as 
among  nomadic  Arabs  it  is  to  this  very  day.  Liba- 
tions of  wine  were  frequent,  at  least  in  countries  where 
wine  was  not  too  expensive;  among  the  Hebrews,  as 
in  Greece  and  Rome,  wine  was  .added  to  holocausts  as 
well  as  to  victims  whose  flesh  the  worshippers  jiartook 
of,  and  was  then  poured  out  at  the  base  of  the  altar. 

Analogous  to  offering  liquid  food  to  be  poured  out 
as  a  libation  was  the  custom  of  anointing  sacred  ob- 
jects or  hallowed  places.  The  history  of  the  patri- 
archs bears  witness  to  its  primitive  usage,  and  the 
accounts  of  travellers  certify  to  its  existence  to-day 
among  many  Semitic  populations.  In  this  case,  oil  is 
generally  used;  occasionally  more  precious  ointments, 
but  as  these  largely  contain  oil,  the  difference  is  acci- 
dental. Among  nomads  where  oil  is  scarce,  butter  is 
used,  being  spread  on  sacred  stones,  tombs,  or  on  the 
door-posts  or  the  lintels  of  venerated  shrines.  In 
some  places  oil  is  offered  by  way  of  fuel  for  lamps 
to  be  kept  burning  before  the  tomb  of  some  renowned 
wely  or  in  some  sanctuary.  Also  it  has  always  been  a 
general  custom  in  the  East  to  offer,  cither  together 
with,  or  apart  from,  sacrifices  and  oblations,  spices  to 
be  burned  at  the  place  of  the  sacrifice  or  of  the  sacrifi- 
cial meal,  or  upon  a  revered  tomb,  or  at  any  place 
sacred  to  the  tribe  or  individual.  Among  the  Arabs 
it  is  hardly  justifiable  to  pay  religious  homage  at  the 
tomb  of  some  sainted  wely  or  at  certain  sanctuaries 
without  bringing  an  offering,  however  insignificant. 
If  nothing  better  is  at  hand,  the  worshipper  %vill  leave 
on  the  spot  a  strip  from  his  garment,  a  horse-shoe  nail, 
even  a  pebble  from  the  road. 

Tithes  (q.  v.)  appear  to  be  more  an  impost  than  an 
oblation  proper,  and  suppose  a  settled  population; 
hence  they  have  no  place  in  the  religion  of  nomads, 
ancient  or  modern. 

Besides  the  oblations  mentioned  above  (usually  arti- 
cles of  food) ,  the  votive  offerings  made  among  early  Se- 
mites on  very  special  occasions  deserve  mention.  One 
of  the  most  characteristic  is  the  offering  of  one's  hair, 
common  also  among  other  ancient  peoples.  This  of- 
fering was  apersonal  one,  and  aimed  to  create  or  empha- 
size the  relation  between  the  worshipper  and  his  god; 
it  was  usually  in  connexion  with  .special  vows.  From 
this  hair-offering  we  should  distinguish  the  shaving  of 
the  head  as  a  kind  of  purification  prescribed  in  certain 
cases  (Lev.,  xiv,  9).  Owing  undoubtedly  to  the  su- 
perstitious practice  of  ancient  peoples,  associating 
mourning  with  a  hair-offering,  the  Pentateuchal 
legislation  enacted  on  this  subject  prohibitions  (Lev., 
xix,  27;  xxi,  5;  Deut.,  xiv,  1),  which,  however,  were  not 
always  observed.  The  only  hair-offering  legally  rec- 
ognized among  the  Hebrews  was  that  connected  with 
the  vow  of  the  Nazarite  (Num.,  vi),  and  likely  the 
writer  of  the  Canticle  of  Debbora  had  some  such  vow 
in  view  when  he  speaks  (Judges,  v,  2),  according  to  the 
probable  sense  of  the  Hebrew,  of  men  offering  their 
hair  and  vowing  themselves  to  battle,  i.  e.  vowing  not 
to  cut  their  hair  until  they  should  come  back  in  tri- 
umph; this  vow  (still  frequent  in  the  East)  implied 
that  they  should  conquer  or  die.  Also  in  Num.,  xxxi, 
28,  we  read  of  a  share  of  the  spoils  of  battle  being  set 
aside  as  an  offering  to  the  sanctuary.  Although  the 
narrative  here  concerns  a  special  occurrence,  and  noth- 
ing intimates  that  this  spoil  offering  should  be  held  as 
a  precedent,  yet  it  is  very  likely  that  it  begat  at  least  a 
pious  custom.  We  see,  indeed,  in  Israel  and  neigh- 
bouring peoples,  choice  spoils  hung  up  in  sanctuaries. 
It  may  suffice  to  recall  the  trophies  heaped  up  by  the 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  rulers;  also  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant  set  up  as  an  offering  in  the  temple  of  Dagon 
by  the  Philistines;  and  in  Israel  itself,  the  arms  of 
Gohath  offered  by  David  to  the  temple  of  Nob. 

II.  Oblatio.vs  among  the  Jews. — Oblations  in 
the  Jewish  religion  were  the  object  of  minute  regula- 
tions in  the  Law.  Some  were  offered  with  bloody 
sacrifices  (cf.  Num.,  viii,  8;  xv,  4-10),  as  the  offering 


OFFERTORY 


217 


OFFERTORY 


of  meal,  oil,  and  incense  that  accompanied  the  daily 
holocaust.  A  handful  of  this  meal-offering  mingled 
with  oil  was  burned  on  the  altar  together  with  incense, 
and  the  remainder  was  allotted  to  the  priests,  to  be 
eaten  unleavened  within  the  Temple  precincts  (Lev., 
vi,  14-18;  Num.,  vi,  14-16).  In  peace-offerings, 
together  with  the  victim,  loaves,  wafers,  and  cakes 
of  flour  kneaded  with  oil,  and  loaves  of  leavened 
bread  were  presented  to  the  Temple  (the  loaves 
of  leavened  bread  were  not  to  be  put  or  burned  upon 
the  altar) ;  one  cake,  one  wafer,  and  one  loaf  of  each 
kind  was  the  share  of  the  officiating  priest  (Lev.,  vii, 
11-14;  ii,  11).  Among  the  regulations  for  the  sac- 
rifice of  thanksgiving  to  be  offered  by  lepers  on  their 
recovery  was  one  that  the  cleansed,  if  they  had  the 
means,  should  add  to  the  victims  three-tenths  of  an 
ephah  (the  ephah  of  the  second  Temple  contained 
about  three  pecks,  dry  measure,  the  old  measure  being 
possibly  twice  as  large)  of  meal  tempered  with  oil;  if 
they  were  poor,  one  tenth  of  an  ephah  was  sufficient 
(Lev.,  xiv,  10,  21).  Finally  the  sacrifice  of  the  Naza- 
rite  included  a  basketful  of  unleavened  bread  tem- 
pered with  oil  and  cakes  of  like  kind,  together  with  the 
ordinary  libations. 

For  public  oblations  separate  from  sacrifices  see 
First-Fruits;  Lo,\ves  of  Proposition;  Tithes. 
Moreover,  every  day  the  High  Priest  presented  at  the 
altar  in  his  own  name  and  that  of  the  other  priests  an 
oblation  of  one  tenth  of  an  ephah  (half  in  the  morning 
and  half  in  the  evening)  of  meal  kneaded  with  oil,  to 
be  burned  on  the  altar  (Lev.,  vi,  19-2.3;  of.  Jos., 
"Ant.  Jud.",  Ill,  X,  7).  A  certain  number  of  private 
oblations  were  prescribed  by  Law.  The  priest,  on 
entering  upon  his  ministry,  offered  an  oblation,  the 
same  in  kind  and  quantity  as  the  dailj'  oblation  of 
the  High  Prie.st  (Lev.,  vi,  20,21).  A  man  obliged 
to  a  sin-offering,  and  too  poor  to  provide  a  victim, 
was  allowed  to  present  an  oblation  of  one  tenth  of 
an  ephah  of  flour  without  the  accompaniments  of  oil 
and  incense  (Lev.,  v,  1-4,  11,  12).  A  woman  accused 
of  adultery  was  subjected  to  a  trial  during  which  an 
offering  of  one  tenth  of  an  ephah  of  barley-flour  with- 
out oil  or  incense  was  made,  a  part  being  burned  on  the 
altar.  Finally  oblations  might  be  made  in  fulfilment 
of  a  vow;  but  then  tlie  iiiattor  was  left  to  the  choice  of 
the  vower.  The  regulati<jns  of  the  Pentateuchal  Law 
concerning  oblations  were  scrutinized  and  commented 
upon  by  .Jewish  doctors  who  took  up  every  possible 
difficulty  likely  to  occur,  for  instance,  on  the  nature, 
origin,  preparation,  and  cooking  of  the  flour  to  be 
used,  its  buying  and  measuring,  i;he  mode  of  present- 
ing, receiving,  and  offering  the  oblation,  its  division 
and  the  attributing  of  each  of  the  parts  (see  the  forty- 
second  treatise  of  the  Mishna:  "Menahoth").  Of 
these  commentaries  we  will  single  out  only  those  con- 
cerned with  the  rite  to  be  observed  in  offering  the  ob- 
lations, because  they  are  the  only  somewhat  reliable 
explanation  of  difficult  expressions  occasionally  met 
with  in  Holy  Writ  (D.  V.:  "to  elevate",  "to  sepa- 
rate", Lev.,  vii,34;x,  15, etc.).  When  an  Israelite  pre- 
sented an  oblation,  the  priest  went  to  meet  him  at  the 
gate  of  the  priests'  court;  he  put  his  hands  under  the 
hands  of  the  offerer,  who  held  oblation,  and  drew  the 
offerer's  hands  and  the  oblation  first  backwards,  then 
forwards  (this  was  the  Ihenuphah,  improperly  ren- 
dered "the  separation"),  again  upwards  and  down- 
wards (Iherumah,  "  the  elevation  ").  These  rites  were 
not  observed  in  the  oblations  by  women  or  Gentiles. 
The  first-fruits  offered  at  the  Pasch  and  the  "oblation 
of  jealousy"  (on  the  occasion  of  an  accusation  of  adul- 
tery) were  moved  about  in  the  manner  described,  then 
brought  to  the  south-west  corner  of  the  altar;  the  first- 
fruits  offered  at  the  Pentecost  and  the  log  (2/.5  of  a 
pint)  of  oil  presented  by  the  leper  were  subject  to  the 
ihenuphah  and  the  Iherumah,  but  not  brought  to  the 
altar;  the  sin-offering,  the  oblations  of  the  priests, 
and  the  freewill  oblations  were  only  brought  directly  to 


the  altar;  lastly  the  loaves  of  proposition  were  neither 
"separated"  and  "elevated"  nor  brought  to  the  altar. 

III.  Oblations  among  Christian.s. — Like  many 
Jewish  customs,  that  of  offering  to  the  Temple  the 
matter  of  the  sacrifices  and  other  oblations  was 
adapted  by  the  early  Christian  communities  to  the 
new  order  of  things.  First  in  importance  among 
these  Christian  oblations  is  that  of  tlie  matter  of  the 
Eucharistic  sacrifice.  Not  only  the  laity,  but  the 
whole  clergy,  bishops,  and  pope  himself  included,  had 
to  make  this  offering.  These  oblations  were  collected 
by  the  officiating  bishop  assisted  by  priests  and  dea- 
cons at  the  beginning  of  the  "Missa  Fidelium",  after 
the  dismissal  of  the  non-communicants.  This  collec- 
tion, at  first  performed  in  silence,  was,  towards  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifth  century,  made  amidst  the  singing 
of  a  Psalm,  known  in  Rome  as  the  "Offertorium",  at 
Milan  as  the  "Offerenda",  and  in  Greek  churches  as 
the  "Cherubikon"  (our  Offertory  is  a  remnant  of  the 
old  "Offertorium",  curtailed  by  reason  of  the  actual 
gathering  of  the  oblations  falling  into  disuse).  Part 
of  the  oblations  was  destined  for  consecration  and 
communion  (cf .  the  French  word  oublie  applied  to  the 
matter  of  the  Eucharist).  The  subdeacon  in  charge 
of  this  part  is  called  in  certain  "Ordines  Romani"  the 
"oblationarius".  Another  part  was  destined  for  the 
poor,  and  the  remainder  for  the  clergy.  So  important 
was  this  offering  held,  that  the  word  ablatio  came  to 
designate  the  whole  liturgical  service.  Apart  from 
this  liturgical  oblation,  which  has  been  preserved,  at 
least  partly,  in  the  liturgy  of  Milan  and  in  some 
churches  of  France,  new  fruits  were  at  given  seasons 
presented  at  Mass  for  blessing,  a  custom  somewhat 
analogous  to  the  first-fruit  offerings  in  the  Old  Law; 
this  usage  is  still  in  vigour  in  paits  of  Germany  where, 
at  Easter,  eggs  are  solemnly  blessed ;  but,  contrary  to 
Hebrew  customs,  the  Christians  usually  retained  the 
full  disposition  of  these  articles  of  food.  Very  early 
offerings  were  made  over  to  the  Church  for  the  sup- 
port ol  the  poor  and  of  the  clergy.  St.  Paul  empha- 
sized the  right  of  ministers  of  the  Gospel  to  live  by  the 
Gospel  (I  Cor.,  ix,  13-14),  and  he  never  tired  of  re- 
mintling  the  churches  founded  by  him  of  their  duty 
to  supply  the  wants  of  poorer  communities.  How, 
within  the  limits  of  each  community,  the  poor  were 
cared  for  we  catch  a  glimpse  of  in  the  records  of  the 
early  Church  of  Jerusalem  (institution  of  the  deacons) ; 
that  in  certain  Churches,  as  the  Church  of  Rome,  the 
oblations  for  the  poor  reached  a  fair  amount,  we  know 
from  the  prominence  of  the  deacons,  an  illustration  of 
which  we  have  in  the  history  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  in 
the  fact  that  the  pope  was  usually  chosen  from  among 
their  order.  In  time  of  persecution,  manual  offerings 
were  sufficient  to  support  the  clergy  and  the  poor;  but 
when  peace  had  come.  Christians  felt  it  a  duty  to  in- 
sure this  .support  by  means  of  foundations.  Such  dona- 
tions multiplied,  and  the  word  "oblations "(usually  in 
the  iilural  number)  came  to  mean  in  Canon  Law  any 
property,  real  or  personal,  made  over  to  the  Church. 

Edersheim.  The  Temple  and  Us  services  (London,  1874);  Jab- 
trow,  The  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (Boston.  1898); 
Smith,  The  Religion  0/ the  Semites  (London,  1907);  Wellhausen, 
Prolegomena  to  the  History  0/  Israel,  Eng.  tr..  Black  and  Men- 
zies  (Edinburgh,  1885);  Idem,  Reste  arabischen  Heidenthums  (Ber- 
lin. 1897);  Iken,  Anliquitales  Hebraicee  (Bremen,  1741);  Reland, 
Antiquitates  Sacra  (Utrecht,  1741);  Spencer,  De  Legibus  Hebrx- 
OTum  rUualibus  (Cambridge,  1727);  Bergier  in  Diet,  de  Theologie 
(Lilie,  n.  d.).  s.  vv.  Oblations,  Offrandes;  Cabrol,  Le  Livre  de  la 
priire  antique  (Paris.  1903);  Dhorme,  Coutumes  des  Arabes  au 
pays  de  Moab  (Paris,  1908) ;  Idem.  La  religion  assyro-babylonienne 
(Paris,  1910):  Duchesne,  Les  origines  du  culte  chrHien  (Paris, 
1898);  Ermoni,  La  religion  de  t'Bgyple  ancienne  (Paris,  1909); 
Lagrange,  Etudes  sur  les  religions  scmitiques  (Paris,  1903) ;  Bahr, 
Symholik  des  mosaischen  CuUus  (Heidelberg,  1837);  Benziger, 
Hebr.  Archaologie  (Freiburg,  1895);  Nowack,  Lehrbuch  der  hebr. 
Archdologie,  II  (Freiburg.  1894).       ChARLES   L.   SoUVAY. 

Ofifertory  (offertorium),  the  rite  by  which  the 
bread  and  wine  are  presented  (offered)  to  God  before 
they  are  consecrated  and  the  prayers  and  chant  that 
accompany  it. 


OFFERTOR7 


218 


OFFERTORY 


I.  History.  —  The  idea  of  this  preparatory  hal- 
lowing of  the  matter  of  tlie  sacrifice  by  otTering  it  to 
God  is  very  old  and  forms  an  important  element  of 
every  Christian  liturgy.  In  tlie  earliest  period  we 
have  no  evidence  of  anything  but  the  bringing  up  of 
the  bread  and  wine  as  th(>-  ari>  wanted,  before  the 
Consecration  prayer.  Justin  Martyr  says:  "Then 
bread  and  a  cup  of  water  and  wine  are  brought  to  the 
president  of  the  brethren"  (I  Apol.,  Ixv,  cf.  l.\vii). 
But  soon  the  placing  of  the  otTering  on  the  altar  was 
accompanied  by  a  ])rayer  that  (lod  should  accept 
these  gifts,  sanctify  them,  change  them  into  the  Body 
and  Blood  of  his  Son,  anil  give  us  in  return  the  grace 
of  Communion.  The  Liturgy  of  "Apost.  Const.", 
Vm,  says:  "The  deacons  bring  the  gifts  to  the  bishop 
at  the  altar  .  .  .  the  bishop  having  prayed  silently 
with  the  priests"  .  .  .  (xii,  3-4).  This  silent  prayer 
is  undoubt.^dly  an  Offertory  prayer.  But  a  later 
modification  in  the  East  brought  about  one  of  the 
characteristic  differences  between  Eastern  and  Roman 
liturgies.  All  Eastern  (and  the  old  Galilean)  rites 
prepare  the  gift  before  the  Liturgy  begins.  This  cer- 
emony (TTpoaKofuS^)  is  especially  elaborate  in  the  By- 
zantine and  its  derived  rites.  It  takes  place  on  the 
credence  table.  The  bread  and  wine  are  arranged, 
dividod,  incensed;  and  many  prayers  are  said  over 
them  involving  the  idea  of  an  offertory.  The  gifts 
are  left  there  and  are  brought  to  the  altar  in  solemn 
procession  at  the  beginning  of  the  Liturgy  of  the 
F'aithful.  This  leaves  no  room  for  another  offertory 
then.  Howe\'er,  when  they  are  placed  on  the  altar 
prayers  are  said  by  the  celebrant  and  a  litany  by  the 
deacon  which  repeat  the  offertory  idea.  Rome  alone 
has  kept  the  older  custom  of  one  offertory  and  of  pre- 
paring the  gifts  when  they  are  wanted  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Mass  of  the  Faithful.  Originally  at  this 
moment  the  people  brought  up  bread  and  wine  which 
were  received  by  the  deacons  and  placed  by  them  on 
the  altar.  Traces  of  the  custom  remain  at  a  papal 
Mass  and  at  Milan.  The  office  of  the  vecchioni  in 
Milan  cathedral,  often  quoted  as  an  Ambrosian  pecu- 
liarity, is  really  a  Roman  addition  that  spoils  the 
order  of  the  old  Milanese  rite.  Originally  the  only 
Roman  Offertory  prayers  were  the  secrets.  The 
Gregorian  Sacramentary  contains  only  the  rubric: 
"deinde  offertorium,  et  dicitur  oratio  super  oblata" 
(P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  25).  The  Oratio  super  oblala  is 
the  Secret.  All  the  old  secrets  express  the  offertory 
idea  clearly.  They  were  said  silently  by  the  celebrant 
(hence  their  name)  and  so  are  not  introduced  by 
Oremus.  This  corresponds  to  the  oldest  custom  men- 
tioned in  the  "  Apost.  Const." ;  its  reason  is  that  mean- 
while the  people  sang  a  psalm  (tlie  Offertory  chant). 
In  the  Middle  Ages,  as  the  public  presentation  of  the 
gifts  by  the  people  had  disappeared,  there  seemed  to 
be  a  void  at  this  moment  which  was  filled  by  our  pres- 
ent Offertory  prayers  (Thalhofer,  op.  cit.  below,  II, 
161).  For  a  long  time  these  prayers  were  considered  a 
private  devotion  of  the  priest,  like  the  preparation  at 
the  foot  of  the  altar.  They  are  a  Northern  (late 
Galilean)  addition,  not  part  of  the  old  Roman  Rite, 
and  were  at  first  not  written  in  missals.  Micrologus 
says:  "The  Roman  order  appointed  no  prayer  after 
the  Offertorj-  before  the  Secret"  (cxi,  P.  L.,  CLI,  984). 
He  mentions  the  later  Offertory  prayers  as  a  "Galilean 
order"  and  says  that  they  occur  "not  from  any  law 
but  as  an  ecclesiastical  custom".  The  medieval  Of- 
fertory prayers  vary  considerably.  They  were  es- 
tablished at  Rome  by  the  fourteenth  century  (Ordo 
Rom.  XIV.,  5.3,  P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  1165).  The  present 
Rotnan  prayers  were  compiled  from  various  sources, 
Galilean  or  Mozarabic.  The  praj'er  "Suscipe  sancte 
pater"  occurs  in  Charles  the  Bald's  (875-877)  prayer 
book;  "Deus  qui  humana;  substantiEE"  is  modified 
from  a  Christmas  Collect  in  the  Gregorian  Sacrament- 
ary (P.  L.,  LXXVIII,  32);  "Offerimus  tibi  Domine" 
and  "Veni  sanctificator"  (fragment  of  an  old  Epikle- 


sis,  Iloppe,  "Die  Epiklesis",  Schaffhausen,  1864,  p. 
272)  are  Mozarabic  (P.  L.,  LXXXV,  112).  Before 
Pius  V's  Missal  these  prayers  were  often  preceded  by 
the  title  "Canon  minor"  or  "Secretella"  (as  amplifi- 
cations of  the  Secret).  The  Missal  of  Pius  V  (1570) 
printed  them  in  the  Ordinary.  Since  then  the  prayers 
that  we  know  form  part  of  the  Roman  Mass.  The 
ideas  expressed  in  them  are  obvious.  Only  it  may  be 
noted  that  two  expressions:  "banc  immaciilatam  hos- 
tiam"  and  "calicem  salutaris"  dramatically  antici- 
pate the  moment  of  consecration,  as  does  the  Byzan- 
tine Clieruhikon. 

While  the  Offertory  is  made  the  people  (choir)  sing 
a  verse  (the  Offerlorium  in  the  sense  of  a  text  to  be 
sung)  that  forms  part  of  the  Proper  of  the  Mass.  No 
such  chant  is  mentioned  in  "Apost.  Const.",  VIII, 
but  it  may  no  doubt  be  supposed  as  the  reason  why 
the  celebrant  there  too  prays  silently.  It  is  referred 
to  by  St.  Augustine  (Retract.,  II,  xi,  P.  L.,  XXXII, 
63).  The  Offertorium  was  once  a  whole  psalm  with 
an  antiphon.  By  the  time  of  the  Gregorian  Antiph- 
onary  the  psalm  has  been  reduced  to  a  few  verses 
only,  which  are  always  given  in  that  book  (e.g.,  P.  L., 
LXXVIII,  641).  So  also  the  Second  Roman  Ordo: 
"Canitur  offertorium  cum  versibus"  (ib.,  972).  Du- 
randus  notes  with  disapproval  that  in  his  time  the 
verses  of  the  psalm  are  left  out  (Rationale,  IV,  26). 
Now  only  the  antiphon  is  sung,  except  at  requiems. 
It  is  taken  from  the  psalter,  or  other  book  of  the  Bible, 
or  is  often  not  a  Biblical  text.  It  refers  in  some  way 
to  the  feast  or  occasion  of  the  Mass,  never  to  the  offer- 
ing of  bread  and  wine.  Only  the  requiem  has  pre- 
served a  longer  offertory  with  one  verse  and  the  repe- 
tition of  the  last  part  of  the  antiphon  (the  text  is  not 
Biblical). 

II.  Present  Use. — At  high  Mass,  as  soon  as  the 
celebrant  has  chanted  the  Oremus  followed  by  no 
prayer,  the  choir  sings  the  Offertory.  When  they  have 
finished  there  remains  an  interval  till  the  Preface 
which  may  (when  the  organ  is  permitted)  be  filled  by 
music  of  the  organ  or  at  any  time  by  singing  some  ap- 
proved hymn  or  chant.  Meanwhile  the  celebrant 
first  says  the  Offertory  chant.  The  corporal  has  been 
spread  on  the  altar  during  the  creed.  The  subdeaoon 
brings  the  empty  chalice  and  the  paten  with  the  bread 
from  the  credence  table  to  the  altar.  The  deacon 
hands  the  paten  and  bread  to  the  celebrant.  He 
takes  it  and  holding  it  up  says  the  prayer:  "suscipe 
sancte  Pater".  At  the  end  he  makes  a  sign  of  the 
cross  with  the  paten  over  the  altar  and  slips  the  bread 
from  it  on  to  the  corporal.  Soon  after  the  paten  is 
given  to  the  subdeacon's  charge  till  it  is  wanted  again 
for  the  fraction.  The  deacon  pours  wine  into  the 
chalice,  the  subdeacon  water,  which  is  first  blessed  by 
the  celebrant  with  the  form:  "Deus  qui  humanx  sub- 
stantia;". The  deacon  hands  the  chalice  to  the  cele- 
brant, who,  holding  it  up,  says  the  prayer:  "Offerimus 
tibi  Domine".  The  deacon  also  lays  his  right  hand 
on  the  foot  of  the  chalice  and  says  this  prayer  with 
the  celebrant — a  relic  of  the  old  idea  that  the  chalice 
is  in  his  care.  The  celebrant  makes  the  sign  of  the 
cross  with  the  chalice  and  stands  it  behind  the  bread 
on  the  corporal.  The  deacon  covers  it  with  the  pall. 
The  celebrant,  bowing  down,  his  hands  joined  and 
resting  on  the  altar,  says  the  prayer:  "In  spiritu 
humilitatis";  rising  he  says  the  "Veni  sanctificator" 
making  the  sign  of  the  cross  over  all  the  oblata  at  the 
word  betiedic.  Then  follows  the  incensing  of  the 
altar  and  the  Lavabo  (q.  v.).  The  use  of  incense  at 
this  point  is  medieval  and  not  originally  Roman  (rem- 
nant of  the  incense  at  the  Galilean  procession  of  the 
oblata  ?).  Micrologus  notes  that  the  Roman  order  uses 
incense  at  the  Gospel,  not  at  the  Offertory;  but  he  ad- 
mits that  in  his  time  (eleventh  century)  the  oblata  are 
incensed  by  nearly  everyone  (De  Eccl.  Observ.,  IX). 
Finally,  after  the  Lavabo  the  celebrant  at  the  middle 
of  the  altar,  looking  up  and  then  bowing  down,  says 


OFFERTORY 


219 


OFFICE 


the  prayer  "Suscipc  sancta  Trinitas"  which  sums  up 
the  Offertory  idea.  The  Orale  fratres  and  secrets 
follow. 

At  low  Mass,  the  parts  of  the  deacon  and  subdeacon 
are  taken  partly  by  the  server  and  partly  by  the  cele- 
brant himself.  There  is  no  incense.  At  requiems 
the  water  is  not  blessed,  and  the  subdeacon  does  not 
hold  the  paten.  The  Dominicans  still  prepare  the 
offering  before  Mass  begins.  This  is  one  of  their 
Galilean  peculiarities  and  so  goes  back  to  the  Eastern 
Proskomide.  The  Milanese  and  Mozarabic  Missals 
have  adopted  the  Roman  Offertory.  The  accompany- 
ing chant  is  called  Sacrificium  at  Toledo. 

DURANDUS.  Rationale  dimnorum  officiorum,  IV,  26-32;  Dn- 
CHESNE,  Origines  du  culle  Chretien  (Paris.  2nd  ed.,  1898),  165- 
167;  194-199;  Thalhofer,  Handbuch  der  katholischen  Liturgifct 
II  (Freiburg,  1S90);  GlHR,  Das  heilige  Messopfer  (Freiburg, 
1897),  458-508;  Eng.  tr.  (St.  Louis,  1908),  494-551;  Rietschel, 
Lehrbuch  der  Liturgik,  I  (Berlin,  1900),  376-378. 

Adrian  Fortescde^ 
Offertory,  Collections  at.    See  Offerings. 

Office,  Divine.  —  I.  The  Expression  "Divine 
Office",  signifying  etymologically  a  duty  accom- 
plished for  God,  or  in  virtue  of  a  Divine  precept, 
means,  in  ecclesiastical  language,  certain  prayers  to  be 
recited  at  fixed  hours  of  the  day  or  night  by  priests,  re- 
ligious, or  clerics,  and,  in  general,  by  all  those  obliged 
by  their  vocation  to  fulfil  this  duty.  The  Divine 
Office  comprises  only  the  recitation  of  certain  prayers 
in  the  Breviary,  and  does  not  include  the  Mass  and 
other  hturgical  ceremonies.  "Canonical  Hours", 
"Breviary",  "Diurnal  and  Nocturnal  Office",  "Eccle- 
siastical Office",  "Cursus  ecclesiasticus",  or  simply 
"cursus"  are  synonyms  of  "Divine  Office".  "Cursus" 
is  the  form  used  by  Gregory  writing : '  'exsurgente  abbate 
cum  monachis  ad  celebrandum  cursum  "  ( De  glor.  mar- 
tyr., xv).  "Agenda",  "agenda  mortuorum",  "agenda 
missarum",  "solemnitas",  "missa"  were  also  used.  The 
Greeks  employ  "synaxis"  and  "canon"  in  this  sense. 
The  expression  "officiuin  divinum"  is  used  in  the 
same  sense  by  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (800), 
the  IV  Lateran  (121.5),  and  Vienne  (1311);  but  it  is 
also  used  to  signify  any  office  of  the  Church.  Thus 
Walafrid  Strabo,  Pseudo-Alcuin,  Rupert  de  Tuy  en- 
title their  works  on  liturgical  ceremonies  "De  officiis 
divinis".  Hittorp,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  entitled 
his  collection  of  medieval  liturgical  works  "De  Cath- 
olics Ecclesise  divinis  officiis  ac  ministeriis"  (Cologne, 
1568).  The  usage  in  France  of  the  expression  "saint- 
office"  as  synonymous  with  "office  divin"  is  not  cor- 
rect. "Saint-office"  signifies  a  Roman  congregation, 
the  functions  of  which  are  well  known,  and  the  words 
should  not  be  used  to  replace  the  name  "Divine  Of- 
fice", which  is  much  more  suitable  and  has  been  used 
from  ancient  times.  In  the  articles  Breviary  ;  Hours, 
Canonical;  Matins;  Prime;  Terce;  Sext;  None; 
Vespers,  the  reader  will  find  treated  the  special  ques- 
tions concerning  the  meaning  and  history  of  each  of 
the  hours,  the  obligation  of  reciting  these  prayers,  the 
history  of  the  formation  of  the  Breviary  etc.  We  deal 
here  only  with  the  general  questions  that  have  not 
been  dwelt  on  in  those  articles. 

II.  Primitive  Form  of  the  Office.  —  The  cus- 
tom of  reciting  prayers  at  certain  hours  of  the  day  or 
night  goes  back  to  the  Jews,  from  whom  Christians 
have  borrowed  it.  In  the  Psalms  we  find  expressions 
like:  "I  will  meditate  on  thee  in  the  morning";  "I 
rose  at  midnight  to  give  praise  to  thee";  "Evening 
and  morning,  and  at  noon  I  will  speak  and  declare: 
and  he  shall  hear  my  voice";  "Seven  times  a  day 
I  have  given  praise  to  thee";  etc.  (Cf.  "Jewish 
Encyclopedia",  X,  164-171,  s.  v.  "Prayer").  The 
Apostles  observed  the  Jewish  custom  of  praying  at 
midnight,  terce,  sext,  none  (Acts,  x,  .3,  9;  xvi,  25;  etc.). 
The  Christian  prayer  of  that  time  consisted  of  almost 
the  same  elements  as  the  Jewish :  recital  or  chanting  of 
psalms,  reading  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  which  was 


soon  added  reading  of  the  Gospels,  Acts,  and  Epistles, 
and  at  times  canticles  composed  or  improvised  by  the 
assistants.  "Gloria  in  excelsis"  and  the  "Te  decet 
laus"  are  apparently  vestiges  of  these  primitive  in- 
spirations. At  present  the  elements  composing  the 
Divine  Office  .seem  more  numerous,  but  they  are  de- 
rived, by  gradual  changes,  from  the  primitive  ele- 
ments. As  appears  from  the  texts  of  Acts  cited  above, 
the  first  Christians  preserved  the  custom  of  going  to 
the  Temple  at  the  hour  of  prayer.  But  they  had 
also  their  reunions  or  synaxes  in  private  houses  for 
the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  and  for  sermons  and 
exhortations.  But  the  Eucharistic  synaxis  soon  en- 
tailed other  prayers;  the  custom  of  going  to  the  Tem- 
ple disappeared;  and  the  abuses  of  the  Judaizing  party 
forced  the  Christians  to  separate  more  distinctly  from 
the  Jews  and  their  practices  and  worship.  Thence- 
forth the  Christian  liturgy  rarely  borrowed  from 
Judaism. 

III.  The  Development  of  the  Divine  Office 
was  probably  in  the  following  manner:  The  cele- 
bration of  the  Eucharist  was  preceded  by  the  recital 
of  the  psalms  and  the  reading  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  This  was  called  the  Mass  of  the  Cate- 
chumens, which  has  been  preserved  almost  in  its  orig- 
inal form.  Probably  this  part  of  the  Mass  was  the 
first  form  of  the  Divine  Office,  and,  in  the  beginning, 
the  vigils  and  the  Eucharistic  Synaxis  were  one. 
When  the  Eucharistic  service  was  not  celebrated,  the 
prayer  was  limited  to  the  recital  or  chanting  of  the 
psalms  and  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  The  vigils 
thus  separated  from  the  Mass  became  an  independ- 
ent office.  During  the  first  period  the  only  office  cel- 
ebrated in  public  was  the  Eucharistic  Synaxis  with 
vigils  preceding  it,  but  forming  with  it  one  whole. 
In  this  hypothesis  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens  would 
be  the  original  kernel  of  the  whole  Divine  Office.  The 
Eucharistic  Synaxis  beginning  at  eventide  did  not  ter- 
minate till  dawn.  The  vigils,  independently  of  the 
Eucharistic  service,  were  divided  naturally  into  three 
parts;  the  beginning  of  the  vigils, ortheeveningOffice; 
the  vigils  i)r(i])(>rly  so  called,  and  the  end  of  the  vigils 
or  the  nuitutinal  ( )llice.  For  when  the  vigils  were  as 
yet  the  only  OHice  and  were  celebrated  but  rarely, 
they  were  continued  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
night.  Thus  the  Office  which  we  have  called  the 
Office  of  evening  or  Vespers,  that  of  midnight,  and 
that  of  the  morning,  called  Matins  first  and  then 
Lauds,  were  originally  but  one  Office.  If  this  hypoth- 
esis be  rejected,  it  must  be  admitted  that  at  first  there 
was  only  one  public  office,  Vigils.  The  service  of 
eventide.  Vespers,  and  that  of  the  morning.  Matins 
or  Lauds,  were  gradually  separated  from  it.  During 
the  day,  Terce,  Sext,  and  None,  customary  hours  of 
private  prayers  both  with  the  Jews  and  the  early 
Christians,  became  later  ecclesiastical  Hours,  just  like 
Vespers  or  Lauds.  Complin  appears  as  a  repetition 
of  Vespers,  first  in  the  fourth  century  (see  Complin). 
Prime  is  the  only  hour  the  precise  origin  and  date  of 
which  are  known — at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century 
(see  Prime). 

At  all  events,  during  the  course  of  the  fifth  century, 
the  Office  was  composed,  as  to-day,  of  a  nocturnal 
Office,  viz.  Vigils — afterwards  Matins — and  the  seven 
Offices  of  the  day,  Lauds,  Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  None, 
Vespers,  and  Complin.  In  the  "Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions" we  read:  "Precationes  facite  mane,  hora  tertia, 
sexta,  nona,  et  vespere  atque  galli  cantu"  (VIII,  iv). 
Such  were  the  hours  as  they  then  existed.  There  are 
omitted  only  Prime  and  Complin,  w  liirh  originated  not 
earlier  than  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  and  the 
use  of  which  spread  only  gradually.  The  elements  of 
which  these  hours  are  composed  were  at  first  few  in 
number,  identical  with  those  of  the  Mass  of  the  Cate- 
chumens, psalms  recited  or  chanted  uninterruptedly 
(tract)  or  by  two  choirs  (antiphons)  or  by  a  cantor  al- 
ternating with  the  choir  (responses  and  versicles) ;  les- 


OFFICE 


220 


OFFICE 


sons  (roadinus  from  llic  Old  and  New  Testaments,  the 
origin  of  tlu'  capitulaK  and  prayers  (see  Uueviary). 

Thisilevclopinent  of  tlie  Dixiiu' Office,  asfar  as  con- 
cerns tlie  Roman  litiirfjy,  was  completed  at  the  close  of 
the  sixth  century.  Later  changes  are  not  in  essential 
points  but  rather  concern  additions,  as  the  antiplions 
to  Our  Lady  at  the  end  of  certain  ofhces,  matters  of 
the  calendar,  anil  optional  offices,  like  those  of  .Satm- 
day  (see  Little  Office  of  Ouu  Lady),  or  of  the  dead 
(see  Office  of  the  Dead),  and  the  celebration  of  new 
feasts  etc.  The  influence  of  St.  Gregory  the  Tireat 
on  the  formation  and  fixation  of  the  Roman  Antiphon- 
ary,  an  influence  that  has  been  questioned,  now  ap- 
pears certain  (see  "Diet,  d'archcol.  et  de  liturgie", 
8.  V.  "Antiphonaire''). 

While  allowing  a  certain  liberty  as  to  the  exterior 
form  of  the  office  (e.  g.  the  liberty  enjoyed  by  the  monks 
of  Egypt  and  later  by  St.  Benedict  in  the  constitution 
of  the  Benedictine  Office),  the  Church  insisted  from 
ancient  times  on  its  right  to  supervise  the  orthodoxy 
of  the  liturgical  formulie.  The  Council  of  Milevis 
(416)  forbade  any  liturgical  formula  not  approved  by 
a  council  or  by  a  competent  authority  (of.  Labbe,  II, 
1.540).  The  Councils  of  Vannes  (461),  Agde  (506), 
Epaon  (517),  Braga  (56.3),  Toledo  (especially  the 
fourth  council)  promulgated  similar  decrees  for  Gaul 
and  Spain.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  several 
facts  (sec  Canon  of  the  Mass)  made  known  to  us  the 
rights  claimed  by  the  popes  in  liturgical  matters.  The 
same  fact  is  established  by  the  correspondence  of  St. 
Gregory  I.  Under  his  successors  the  Roman  liturgy 
tends  gradually  to  replace  the  others,  and  this  is  ad- 
ditional proof  of  the  right  of  the  Church  to  control  the 
liturgy  (a  thesis  well  established  by  Dom  Gueranger  in 
his  "Institutions  Liturgiques",  Paris,  1883,  and  in  his 
letter  to  the  Archbishop  of  Reims  on  liturgical  law, 
op.  cit..  Ill,  453  sq.).  From  the  eleventh  century, 
under  St.  Gregory  VII  and  his  successors,  this  influ- 
ence gradually  increases  (Baumer-Biron,  "Hist,  du 
Brcviaire",  especially  II,  8,  22  sqq.).  From  the 
Council  of  Trent  the  reformation  of  the  liturgical 
books  enters  a  new  phase.  Rome  becomes,  under 
Popes  Pius  IV,  St.  Pius  V,  Gregory  XIII,  Sixtus  V, 
Gregory  XIV,  Urban  VIII  and  his  successors,  Ben- 
edict XIV,  the  scene  of  a  laborious  undertaking — the 
reformation  and  correction  of  the  Divine  Office,  re- 
sulting in  the  modern  custom,  with  all  the  rubrics  and 
rules  for  the  recitation  of  the  Divine  Office  and  its 
obhgation,  and  with  the  reformation  of  the  liturgical 
books,  corrected  in  accordance  with  the  decisions  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  and  solemnly  approved  by  the 
popes  (Baumer-Biron,  "Hist,  du  Brcviaire"). 

Bona.  De  diiina  Psatmodia,  ii,  par.  1 ;  Thomassin,  De  vet.  ccd. 
due.  Part  I,  II.  Ixii-lixviji;  Gr.ancola8,  Traite  de  la  messe  et  de 
Voffice  divin  (Paris,  1713);  Machietta,  Commentarius  historico- 
theologicM  de  divino  officio  (Venice,  1739) ;  Pianacci,  Del  offizio 
divino,  tratlato  historico-critico-morale  (Rome,  1770);  De  divini 
officii  nominibus  et  definitione,  antiquitate  et  excellentia  in  Zac- 
CARIA.  Disciplina  populi  Dei  in  N.  T..  1782,  I,  116  sq.;  Moroni. 
Ditionarin  di  erudizione  storico  ecclesimtica,  LXXXII,  279  sqq.; 
Bacmer-Biron,  Histoire  du  brSxriaire  (Paris,  1905),  passim; 
Cabhol,  Did.  d'arMol.  et  de  liturgie,  s.  w.  ATitiphonaire.  Breci- 
aire;  Gavanti.  Compendio  delle  cerimonie  ecclesiastiche,  the  part 
devoted  to  the  rubrics  of  the  Breviary,  sections  on  the  obligation, 
omission,  and  in  general  all  the  questions  concerning  tiie  recita- 
tion of  the  Office;  RobkovAnv.  De  calibofu  et  Bremario  (Buda- 
pest. 1861);  Batiffol.  Origine  de  Vobligation  pergonnelle  des  clercs 
d  la  recitation  de  Voffice  canonique  in  I^e  canonisU  contemporain, 
XVII  (1S94).  9-15;  Idem,  Hintoire  du  brniaire  romain  (Paris, 
1893). 

Fernand  Cabrol. 

Office  of  the  Dead. — I.  Composition  of  the  Of- 
fice.—This  office,  as  it  now  exists  in  the  Roman  Lit- 
urgy, is  composed  of  First  Vespers,  Mass,  Matins,  and 
Lauds.  The  Vespers  comprise  psalms,  cxiv,  cxix,  cxx, 
cxxix,  cxxx\'ii,  with  the  Magnificat  and  the  preces. 
The  Matins,  composed  like  those  of  feast  days,  have 
three  nocturns,  each  consisting  of  three  psalms  and 
three  les.sons;  the  Lauds,  as  usual,  have  three  psalms 
(Ps.  Ixii  and  Ixvi  united  are  counted  as  one)  and  a  can- 
ticle (that  of  Ezechias),  the  three  psalms  Laudate,  and 


the  Benedictus.  We  shall  speak  presently  of  the 
M;iss.  The  office  ilitTcrs  in  important  points  from  the 
other  ofliccs  of  the  Uoiiuin  Liturgy.  It  has  not  the 
Little  Hours,  the  Sccdiid  N'cspers,  or  the  Complin.  In 
this  respect  it  ri'seiiibles  the  ancient  vigils,  which  be- 
gan at  eventide  (First  \Cs])ers),  (■(jiitinucd  during  the 
night  (Matins),  and  ended  ;it  the  d:iwn  (L;iuds);  Mass 
followed  and  terniiiKited  the  vigil  of  the  feast.  The 
ab.senceof  the  introduction,  "  Deus  in  adjutorium",  of 
the  hymns,  absolution,  blessings,  and  of  the  do.xology 
in  the  ps:dms  also  recall  ancient  times,  when  the.se  ad- 
ditions luid  not  yet  lieen  made.  The  psalms  are  chosen 
not  in  their  seri;d  order,  as  in  the  Sunday  Office  or  the 
Roman  ferial  Office,  but  because  certain  verses,  which 
serve  as  antiphons,  seem  to  allude  to  the  state  of  the 
dead.  The  use  of  some  of  these  psalms  in  the  funeral 
service  is  of  high  antiquity,  as  appears  from  passages 
in  St.  Augustine  and  other  writers  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries.  The  lessons  from  Job,  so  suitable  for 
the  Office  of  the  Dead,  were  also  read  in  very  early 
days  at  funeral  services.  The  responses,  too,  deserve 
notice,  especially  the  response  "Libera  me,  Domine, 
de  viis  inferni  qui  portas  areas  confregisti  et  visitasti 
inferuni  et  dedisti  eis  lumen  .  .  .  qui  erant  in  pcrnis 
.  .  .  advenisti  redemptor  noster"  etc.  This  is  one 
of  the  few  texts  in  the  Roman  Liturgy  alluding  to 
Christ's  descent  into  hell.  It  is  also  a  very  ancient 
composition  (see  Cabrol,  "La  descente  du  Christ  aux 
enfers"  in  "Rassegna  Gregor.",  May  and  June,  1909). 

The  "Libera  me  de  morte  a-terna",  which  is  found 
more  complete  in  the  ancient  MSS.,  dates  also  from  an 
early  period  (see  Cabrol  in  "Diet,  d'archeol.  et  de 
liturgie",  s.  v.  Absoute).  Mgr  Batiffol  remarks  that 
it  is  not  of  Roman  origin,  but  it  is  very  ancient  (Hist, 
du  brev.,  148).  The  distinctive  character  of  the  Mass, 
its  various  epistles,  its  tract,  its  ofTertory  in  the  form 
of  a  prayer,  the  communion  (like  the  offertory)  with 
versicles,  according  to  the  ancient  custom,  and  the 
sequence,  "Dies  Ira;"  (q.  v.;  concerning  its  author  see 
also  Burial),  it  is  impossible  to  dwell  upon  here.  The 
omission  of  the  Alleluia,  and  the  kiss  of  peace  is  also 
characteristic  of  this  mass.  There  was  a  time  when 
the  Alleluia  was  one  of  the  chants  customary  at  fu- 
neral services  (see  Diet,  d'archcol.  et  de  liturgie,  s.  v. 
Alleluia,  I,  1235).  Later  it  was  looked  upon  exclu- 
sively as  a  song  of  joy,  and  was  omitted  on  days  of  pen- 
ance (e.g.  Lent  ard  ember  week),  sometimes  in  Advent, 
and  at  all  funeral  ceremonies.  It  is  replaced  to-day 
by  a  tract.  A  treatise  of  the  eighth-ninth  century 
pubhshed  by  Muratori  (Liturg.  Rom.  vet.,  II,  391) 
shows  that  the  Alleluia  was  then  suppressed.  The 
omission  of  the  kiss  of  peace  at  the  Mass  is  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  that  ceremony  preceded  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  Eucharist  to  the  faithful  and  was  a 
preparation  for  it,  so,  as  communion  is  not  given  at  the 
Mass  for  the  Dead,  the  kiss  of  peace  was  suppressed. 

Not  to  speak  of  the  variety  of  ceremonies  of  the  Moza- 
rabic,  Ambrosian,  or  Oriental  liturgies,  even  in  countries 
where  the  Roman  liturgy  prevailed,  there  were  many 
variations.  The  lessons,  the  responses,  and  other  for- 
mula; were  borrowed  from  various  sources;  certain 
Churches  included  in  this  office  the  Second  Vespers  and 
Complin ;  in  other  places,  instead  of  the  lessons  of  our 
Roman  Ritual,  they  read  St.  Augustine,  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  Ecclesia,sticus,  Osee,  Isaiah,  Daniel  etc. 
The  responses  varied  likewise;  many  examples  may  be 
found  in  Mart^ne  and  the  writers  cited  below  in  the 
bibliography.  It  is  fortunate  that  the  Roman  Church 
preserved  carefully  and  without  notable  change  this 
office,  which,  like  that  of  Holy  Week,  has  retained  for 
us  in  its  archaic  forms  the  memory  and  the  atmos- 
phere of  a  very  ancient  liturgy.  The  Mozarabic  Lit- 
urgy possesses  a  very  rich  funeral  ritual.  Dom  F^ro- 
tin  in  his  "Liber  Ordinum"  (pp.  107  sqq.)  has  pub- 
lished a  ritual  (probably  the  oldest  extant),  dating 
back  possibly  to  the  seventh  century.  He  has  also 
published  a  large  number  of  votive  masses  of  the  dead. 


OFFICIAL 


221 


O  FILII 


For  the  Ambrosian  Liturgy  see  Magistretti,  "Man- 
uale  Ambrosianum",  I  (Milan,  1905),  67;  for  the  Greek 
Kitual,  see  Burial,  pp.  77-S. 

II.  History. — The  Office  of  the  Dead  has  been  at- 
tributed at  times  to  St.  Isidore,  to  St.  Augustine,  to  St. 
Ambrose,  and  even  to  Origen.  There  is  no  founda- 
tion for  these  assertions.  In  its  present  form,  while  it 
has  some  very  ancient  characteristics,  it  cannot  be 
older  than  the  seventh  or  even  eighth  century.  Its 
authorship  is  discussed  at  length  in  the  dissertation  of 
Horatius  de  Turre,  mentioned  in  the  bibliography. 
Some  writers  attribute  it  to  Amalarius,  others  to  Al- 
cuin  (see  Batiffol,  "Hist,  du  Brev.",  181-92;  and  for 
the  opposing  view,  Baumer-Biron,  "Hist,  de  Br^v.", 
II,  37).  These  opinions  are  more  probable,  but  are  not 
as  yet  very  solidly  established.  Amalarius  speaks  of 
the  Office  of  the  Dead,  but  seems  to  imply  that  it  ex- 
isted before  his  time  ("De  Eccles.  officiis",  IV,  xlii,  in 
P.  L.,  CV,  1238).  He  alludes  to  the  "Agenda  Mortu- 
orum"  contained  in  a  sacramentary,  but  nothing  leads 
us  to  believe  that  he  was  its  author.  Alcuin  is  also 
known  for  his  activity  in  liturgical  matters,  and  we 
owe  certain  liturgical  compositions  to  him;  but  there 
is  no  reason  for  considering  him  the  author  of  this 
office  (see  Cabrol  in  "Diet.  d'arch(5ol.  et  de  liturgie", 
s.  V.  Alcuin).  In  the  Gregorian  Antiphonary  we  do 
find  a  mass  and  an  office  in  agenda  moriuorum,  but  it  is 
admitted  that  this  part  is  an  addition;  a  fortiori  this 
applies  to  the  Gelasian.  The  Maurist  editors  of  St. 
Gregory  are  inclined  to  attribute  their  composition  to 
Albinus  and  Etienne  of  Liege  (Microl.,  Ix).  But  if  it 
is  impossible  to  trace  the  office  and  the  mass  in  their 
actual  form  beyond  the  ninth  or  eighth  century,  it  is 
notwithstanding  certain  that  the  prayers  and  a  ser- 
vice for  the  dead  existed  long  before  that  time.  We 
find  them  in  the  fifth,  fourth,  and  even  in  the  third  and 
second  century.  Pseudo-Dionysius,  Sts.  Gregory  of 
Nyssa,  Jerome,  and  Augustine,  TertuUian,  and  the  in- 
scriptions in  the  catacombs  afford  a  proof  of  this  (see 
Burial,  III,  76;  Pr.wers  for  the  Dead;  Cabrol,  "La 
priere  pour  les  morts"  in  "Rev.  d'apologetique",  1.5 
Sept.,  1909,  pp.  881-93). 

III.  Practice  and  Obligation. — The  Office  of  the 
Dead  was  composed  originally  to  sati.sfy  private  devo- 
tion to  the  dead,  and  at  first  had  no  official  character. 
Even  in  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centu- 
ries, it  was  recited  chiefly  by  the  religious  orders  (the 
Cluniacs,  Cistercians,  Carthusians),  like  the  Office  of 
Our  Lady  (see  Guyet,  loc.  cit.,  465).  Later  it  was  pre- 
scribed for  all  clerics  and  became  obligatory  when- 
ever a  ferial  office  was  celebrated.  It  has  even  been 
said  that  it  was  to  remove  the  obhgation  of  reciting  it 
that  the  feasts  of  double  and  semi-double  rite  were 
multiplied,  for  it  could  be  omitted  on  such  days 
(Baumer-Biron,  op.  cit.,  II,  198).  The  reformed 
Breviary  of  St.  Pius  V  assigned  the  recitation  of  the 
Office  of  the  Dead  to  the  first  free  day  in  the  month, 
the  Mondays  of  Advent  and  Lent,  to  some  vigils,  and 
ember  days.  Even  then  it  was  not  obligatory,  for  the 
Bull  "Quod  a  nobis"  of  the  same  pope  merely  recom- 
mends it  earnestly,  like  the  Office  of  Our  Lady  and  the 
Penitential  Psalms,  without  imposing  it  as  a  duty 
(Van  der  Stappen,  "Sacra  Liturgia",  I,  Malines,  1898, 
p.  115).  At  the  present  time,  it  is  obligatory  on  the 
clergy  only  on  the  feast  of  All  Souls  and  in  certain 
mortuary  services.  Some  religious  orders  (Carthu- 
sians, Cistercians  etc.)  have  preserved  the  custom  of 
reciting  it  in  choir  on  the  days  assigned  by  the  Bull 
"Quod  a  nobis". 

Apostolic  ConsliltUions.  VI,  xxx;  VIII,  xl;  Ps.-Dionts.,  De 
hierarch.  eccL,  vii,  n.  2;  Amalahius  in  P.  L.,  CV,  1239  (£)c  eccles. 
officiis.  III,  xlix;  IV,  xlii);  Durandus,  Rationale,  VII,  xxxv;  Be- 
LETH,  Rationale  in  P.  L.,  CII,  156.  161;  Raoul  de  Tongues,  De 
ohscTVantia  canonum,  prop,  xx;  PirroNue,  Tractatus  de  octavis 
festorum  (1739).  I  (towards  end),  Brevis  tract,  de  commem.  omnium 
fidel.  defunct.:  Horatics  a  Turre.  De  mortuorum  officio  dissertatio 
postuma  in  Collectio  C'alogiera,  Raccolta  d'opuscoli,  XXVII  (Ven- 
ice, 1742),  409-429;  Gavanti.  Thesaur.  Htuum,  II,  175  aqq.; 
MartIine,  De  antiq.  ecdesiaritibus,  II  (1788),  366-411;  Thomas- 


sin,  De  disciplxna  eccles.,  I-II,  Ixxxvi,  9;  ZACCAni.\,  Bibt.  ritualis, 
II,  417-8;  Idem,  Onomasticon,  1,  110,  s.  v.  Defuncti;  Bona,  Rerum 
liturg.,  I,  xvii,  §§6-7;  Hittorp,  De  div.  cathol.  eccles.  officiis,  1329; 
Guyet,  HeoTtotogia,  462-73  (on  tfcie  rubrics  to  be  observed  in  the 
office  of  the  dead);  Catalanus,  Rituale  Romanum,  I  (1757),  408, 
416 etc.;  Cerianai,  Circa  obligatiotiem officii defunctorum;  Baumer- 
Biron,  Hist,  du  Brev.,  II,  30,  37,  131  etc.;  Batiffol,  Hist,  du 
BrSv.,  181-92;  Plaine,  La  piete  envers  les  morts  in  Rev.  du  clergi 
frantais,  IV  (1895),  365  sqq.;  La  fete  des  morts,  ibid.,  VIII  (1896), 
432  sqq.;  La  messe  des  morts,  ibid.,  XVI  (1898),  196;  Ebneh,  Quet- 
len  u.  Forschungen  zur  Gesch.  des  Missale  Romanum.  44,  53  etc.; 
Thalhofer,  Handbuch  der  kathol.  Liturgik,  II  (Freiburg,  1893), 
502-08;  Keferlohbr,  Das  Todtenofficium  der  rdm.  Kirche  (Mu- 
nich, 1873);  HoEVNEK,  Officium  defunctorum  (Kempten,  1892); 
Idem,  Zur  Gesch  des  Officium  defunctorum  in  KatholUc.  II  (1893), 
329.  See  also  the  literature  of  the  article  Burial  and  other 
articles  cited  above.  Cemetery,  Cremation  etc. 

Fernand  Cabrol. 
Official.     See  Vicar-General. 

O'Fihely,  Macrice,  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  b.  about 
lltid;  (1.  ;it.  ( ialway,  1513.  He  was,  according  to  Dr. 
Lynch,  ;i  native  of  Clonfert  in  Galway,  but,  according 
to  Ware  and  Anthony  a  Wood,  a  native  of  Baltimore 
in  Cork.  He  is  sometimes  called  Maurice  a  Portu, 
Baltimore  being  situated  on  the  sea  coast.  Part  of 
his  education  was  received  at  the  University  of  Oxford, 
where  he  joined  the  Franciscans.  Later  he  studied  at 
Padua,  where  he  obtained  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Eivinity.  After  his  ordination  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Padua. 
He  was  a  student  of  the  works  of  Duns  Scotus,  and 
wrote  a  commentary  on  them  (published  at  Venice 
about  1514).  O'Fihelyactedforsometimeascorrector 
of  proofs  to  two  well-known  publishers  at  Venice, 
Scott  and  Locatelli — in  the  early  days  a  task  usually 
entrusted  to  very  learned  men.  O'Fihely  was  ac- 
knowledged one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time, 
so  learni'il  that  his  contemporaries  called  him  Flos 
.Miiiiili  ( I'lower  of  the  World).  In  addition,  his  piety 
and  administrative  capacity  were  recognized  at  Rome, 
and  in  1506  he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Tuam. 
He  was  consecrated  at  Rome  by  Julius  II.  He  did  not 
return  to  Ireland  till  1513,  meantime  attending  aa 
Archbishop  of  Tuam  the  first  two  sessions  of  the  Lat- 
eran  Council  (1512).  On  leaving  for  Ireland  to  take 
formal  possession  of  his  see,  he  procured  from  the  pope 
an  indulgence  for  all  those  who  would  be  present  at 
his  first  Mass  in  Tupm.  He  was  destined  not  to 
reach  Tuam,  for  he  fell  ill  in  Galway,  and  died  there 
in  the  Franciscan  convent. 

Harris's  Ware  (Dublin,  1764);  Wood,  Athena:  Oxonieiises  (Lon- 
don, 1691) ;  Burke,  Archbishops  of  Tuam  (Dublin,  1882). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

O  Filii  et  Filiae,  the  first  line  of  a  hymn  celebrat- 
ing the  mystery  of  Easter.  As  commonly  found  in 
hymnals  to-day,  it  comprises  twelve  stanzas  of  the 
form: 

O  filii  et  filia;. 
Rex  CEelestis,  Rex  gloria;, 
Morte  surrexit  hodie. 
Alleluia. 
It  was  written  by  Jean  Tisserand,  O.F.M.  (d.  1494), 
an  eloquent  preacher,  and  originally  comprised  but 
nine  stanzas  (those  commencing  with  "  Discipulis  ad- 
stantibus",  "Postquam  audivit  Didymus",  "Beati 
qui  non  viderunt"  being  early  additions  to  the  hymn). 
"L'aleluya  du  jour  de  Pasques"  is  a  trope  on  the  ver- 
sicle  and  respon.se  (closing  Lauds  and  Vespers)  which 
it  prettily  enshrines  in  the  last  two  stanzas: 

In  hoc  festo  sanctissimo 

Sit  laus  et  jubilatio: 

BENE  Die  A  M  US  DOMINO.— Alleluia.. 

De  quibus  nos  humilfimas, 

Devotas  atque  debitas 

DEO  dicamus  GRATIAS.— Alleluia.. 
The  hymn  is  still  very  popular  in  France,  whence  it 
has  spread  to  other  countries.    Gu(5ranger's  Liturgical 
Year  (Paschal  Time,  Part  I,  tr.,  Dublin,  1871,  pp.  190- 
192)  entitles  it  "The  Joyful  Canticle"  and  gives  Latin 


OGDENSBURO 


222 


OGDENSBURa 


text  with  English  prose  translation,  with  a  triple  Alle- 
luia preceding  and  following  the  hymn.  As  given  in 
hymniils,  however,  this  triple  Alleluia  is  sung  also  be- 
tween the  stanzas  (see  "The  Roman  Hymnal",  New 
York,  1S84,  p.  200).  In  Lalanne,  "Recueil  d'anciena 
et  de  nouveaux  cantiques  not(5s"  (Paris,  1886,  p.  223) 
greater  particularity  is  indicated  in  the  distribution  of 
the  stanzas  and  of  the  Alleluias.  The  triple  Alleluia  is 
sung  by  one  voice,  is  repeated  by  the  choir,  and  the 
solo  takes  up  the  first  stanza  with  its  Alleluia.  The 
choir  than  sings  the  trijile  Alleluia,  the  second  stanza 
with  its  Alleluia,  and  repeats  the  triple  Alleluia.  The 
alternation  of  solo  and  chorus  thus  continues,  until  the 
last  stanza  with  its  ,\lleluia,  followed  by  the  triple 
Alleluia,  is  sung  by  one  voice.  "  It  is  scarcely  possible 
for  any  one,  not  acquainted  with  the  melody,  to  imag- 
ine the  jubilant  effect  of  the  triumphant  Alleluia  at- 
tached to  apparently  less  important  circumstances  of 
the  Resurrection:  e.  g.,  St.  Peter's  being  outstripped 
by  St.  John.  It  seems  to  speak  of  the  majesty  of  that 
event,  the  smallest  portions  of  which  are  worthy  to  be 
so  chronicled"  (Neale,  "Medieval  Hymns  and  Se- 
quences", 3rd  ed.,  p.  163).  The  rhythm  of  the  hymn 
is  that  of  number  and  not  of  accent  or  of  classical 
quantity.  The  melody  to  which  it  is  sung  can  scarcely 
be  divorced  from  the  modern  lilt  of  triple  time.  As  a 
result,  there  is  to  English  ears  a  very  frequent  conflict 
between  the  accent  of  the  Latin  words  and  the  real, 
however  unintentional,  stress  of  the  melody;  e.  g.:  Et 
Milrid  Magdalend,  Sed  J6anne^  Apostolus,  Ad  s6pul- 
chriim  venlt  priiis,  etc.  A  number  of  hymnals  give  the 
melody  in  plain-song  notation,  and  (theoretically,  at 
least)  this  would  permit  the  accented  syllables  of  the 
Latin  text  to  receive  an  appropriate  stress  of  the  voice. 
Commonly,  however,  the  hymnals  adopt  the  modern 
triple  time  (e.  g.,  the  "Nord-Sterns  Ftihrers  zur  See- 
ligkeit",  1671;  the  "Roman  Hymnal",  1884;"Hymns 
Ancient  and  Modern",  rev.  ed.).  Perhaps  it  was  this 
conflict  of  stress  and  word-accent  that  led  Neale  to 
speak  of  the  "rude  simplicity"  of  the  poem  and  to  as- 
cribe the  hymn  to  the  twelfth  century  in  the  Contents- 
page  of  his  volume  (although  the  note  prefixed  to  his 
own  translation  assigns  the  hymn  to  the  thirteenth 
century)-  Migne,  "Diet,  de  Liturgie"  (s.  v.  Pdques, 
959)  also  declares  it  to  be  very  ancient.  It  is  only  very 
recently  that  its  authorship  has  been  discovered,  the 
"Diet,  of  Hymnology  "  (2nd  ed.,  1907)  tracing  it  back 
only  to  the  year  ICTO,  although  Shipley  ("Annus 
Sanctus",  London,  1884,  p.  xxiii)  found  it  in  a  Roman 
Processional  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  hymn  is  assigned  in  the  various  French  Parois- 
siens  to  the  Benediction  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  on 
Easter  Sunday.  There  are  several  translations  into 
English  verse  by  non-Catholics.  The  Catholic  trans- 
lations comprise  one  by  an  anonymous  author  in  the 
"Evening  Office",  1748  ("Young  men  and  maids,  re- 
joice and  sing").  Father  Caswall's  "Ye  sons  and 
daughters  of  the  Lord"  and  Charles  Kent's  "O  maids 
and  striphngs,  hear  love's  story  ",  all  three  being  given 
in  Shipley,  "Annus  Sanctus".  The  Latin  texts  vary 
both  in  the  arrangement  and  the  wording  of  the  stan- 
zas; and  the  plain-song  and  modernized  settings  also 
vary  not  a  httle. 

Gastou^,  L'Ofilii,  ten  ariointt,  son  auleur  in  Tribune  de  Sainl- 
O'cttom,  April,  1907,  pp.  82-90,  discusses  the  origin,  autlior.iliip, 
text,  melody;  Hymns  Ancient  and  Modern,  historical  edition  (Lon- 
don. 1909.)  No.  146,  Latin  and  English  cento,  comment.;  March 
Latin  tlymni,  with  English  Notes  (New  York.  1875)  gives  (p.  206) 
the  Latm  text  with  the  same  arrangement  of  stanzas  as  found  in 
OcLD.  The  Book  of  Hymns  (Edinburgh,  1910),  33,  and  in  the 
Liber  Vsualis  (No.  700,  Tournai.  1908),  67;  a  different  arrange- 
ment IS  followed  by  The  Roman  Hymnal  (p.  201) ;  Gu^ranoeb, 
LUuroical  Year,  Paschal  Time,  part  I  (Dublin,  1871),  190-  Offices 
de  I'Eatiae  (Retms-Camhrai  ed.,  Paris,  1887),  202;  Lalanne,  Re- 
cuetl  (Pans,  1886),  223;  Les  principaux  chants  lHurgiques  con- 
formaauchant  puhlie  par  Pierre  Valfray  en  iee9in  modern  nota- 
tion (Pans,  187.5),  114;  the  Paroissien  Noli  (Quebec,  1903),  128, 
contains  another  arrangement.  Where  the  same  arrangement  of 
Btanzas  is  found,  the  texts  have  different  readings;  the  works  cited 
exniDit  many  variations  in  melody. 

H.  T.  Henbt. 


Ogdenaburg  (Ogdensbuiigdensis),  Diocese  op, 
comprises  the  northern  towns  of  Herkimer  and  Hamil- 
ton counties,  with  the  counties  of  Lewis,  Jefferson, St. 
Lawrence,  Franklin,  Clinton,  and  I'^ssex  in  New  York. 
On  the  north  and  east  it  is  bounded  by  Canada  and 
Vermont  and  by  Lake  Ont;irio  on  the  west.  It  covers 
12,036  scj.  miles,  to  a  great  extent  occupied  by  the 
wooded  wilderness  of  the  Adirondack  Mountains 
which,  however,  of  late  is  rapidly  opening  up  for 
summer  resorts  and  tuberculosis  sanatoria.  The  soil 
is  mostly  rocky  and  sandy  and  it  supports  but  a  rela- 
tively small  population  which  is  decreasing  in  the  rural 
districts,  but  slowly  increasing  in  industrial  and  iron 
mining  centres. 

The  territory  was  formerly  the  scene  of  frequent 
bloody  conflicts  between  the  Iroquois  and  the  Hurons 
and  Algonquins,  and  also  between  the  French  and  the 
British.  In  1749  the  Sulpician,  Francis  Picquet,  es- 
tablished on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  where 
Ogdensburg  now  is  located,  the  Fort  of  the  Presenta- 
tion, to  protect  the  Christian  Mohawks,  who  were, 
however,  scattered  by  the  English  ten  years  later. 
There  is  still  a  reservation  called  St.  Regis,  partly  in 
Canada  (with about  2000  Indians),  partly  in  the  State 
of  New  Y'ork  (with  about  1200),  where  the  descendants 
of  the  former  savage  tribes  of  the  country.  Christian- 
ized in  the  seventeenth  century  and  still  nearly  all 
Catholics,  worship  together  and  sing  the  choral  part 
of  the  Divine  services  in  Iroquois.  The  first  white 
settlers  were  Protestants  from  New  England.  It  was 
only  towards  1790  that  Acadian  Catholic  immigrants 
occupied  lands  around  Corbeau,  now  Cooperville,  near 
Lake  Champlain,  where  they  were  occasionally  vis- 
ited by  missionaries  from  Fort  La  Prairie,  Canada. 
In  1818,  a  colony  of  French  and  German  Catholics 
was  brought  to  Jefferson  County  by  Count  Leray  de 
Chaumont,  who  built  for  them,  and  also  for  an  Irish 
settlement,  several  Catholic  churches.  At  the  same 
time  Irish  and  French  Canadian  immigrants  began  to 
arrive  and  soon  there  arose  Catholic  missions  in 
various  parts  of  the  future  diocese  which  still  belonged 
to  New  York. 

The  first  congregations  were  formed  at  Ogdensburg 
in  1827  by  Father  Salmon,  at  Carthage  by  Father 
Patrick  Kelly,  at  Cooperville  in  1818  by  F'ather 
Mignault,  at  Plattsburg  in  1828  by  Father  Patrick 
McGilligan,  at  Hogansburg  in  1836  by  Rev.  John 
McNulty.  Bishops  Dubois,  Hughes,  and  McCloskey 
visited  these  parishes  and  others  that  were  arising  in 
the  lumbering  and  mining  districts  of  the  region. 
After  the  Papmeau  rebellion  in  Canada  (1838)  many 
Canadian  Catholics  settled  on  American  soil,  and 
soon  after  the  famine  brought  thousands  of  Irish  emi- 
grants into  the  territory.  Bishop  Hughes  erected  in 
1838  a  theological  seminary  at  Lafargeville  near 
Clayton;  but  it  was  transferred  in  1840  to  Fordham 
near  New  York.  The  Catholic  Summer  School  of 
America,  commenced  at  New  London  in  1892,  was  in 
1893  definitely  located  at  Plattsburg  and  has  met 
with  great  success.  It  is  a  place  of  learning  and  rec- 
reation for  thousands  of  Catholics  of  the  surround- 
ing country.  Attendance  at  its  courses  procures 
teaching  diplomas  in  the  State  of  New  York. 

The  diocese  was  separated  from  the  Diocese  of  Albany 
on  15  February,  1872.  The  first  bishop  was  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Edgar  P.  Wadhams,  b.  1817  at  Lewis,  Essex  County. 
He  was  a  convert  from  the  Episcopalian  Church,  in 
which  he  had  been  a  deacon.  He  was  rector  of  the 
cathedral  and  Vicar-General  of  Albany,  when  called 
to  organize  Northern  New  York  into  a  new  diocese. 
He  was  consecrated  at  Albany  on  5  May,  1872, 
by  Archbishop,  later  Cardinal,  McCloskey.  Bishop 
Wadhams  increased  the  number  of  parishes  and  priests 
and  introduced  several  religious  communities;  he 
founded  Catholic  schools  and  erected  an  orphan  asy- 
lum, a  hospital,  and  an  aged  people's  home.  At  his 
death,  5  December,  1891,  the  churches  and  chapels 


OGGIONB 


223 


O'GORMAN 


had  increased  from  65  to  125;  prieBts  from  42  to  81; 
nuns  from  23  to  129  and  Catholic  schools  from  7  to  20; 
the  Catholic  population  had  risen  from  50,000  to 
65,000. 

iiishop  Wadhams  attended  the  New  York  Provin- 
cial Council  of  1883  and  the  Plenary  Council  of  Balti- 
more of  1884,  and  held  three  diocesan  synods.  His 
remains  are  buried  in  the  crypt  of  St.  Mary's  Cathe- 
dral which  he  had  enlarged  and  embellished. 

Henry  Gabriels,  born  at  Wannegem-Lede,  Belgium, 
on  6  October,  1838,  graduated  at  Louvain  as  a  priest 
of  the  Diocese  of  Ghent  and  was  invited  with  three 
other  Belgian  priests  to  teach  in  the  newly-founded 
provincial  seminary  of  Troy,  New  York.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  dogma  and  afterwards  was 
professor  of  church  history  until  1891.  He  was  conse- 
crated at  Albany  on  5  May,  1892  by  Archbishop  Cor- 
rigan.  The  new  bishop  developed  the  work  begun  by 
his  predecessor.  He  strengthened  the  Catholic  schools 
although  some  of  the  smaller  ones  had  to  be  closed ;  he 
introduced  four  new  religious  communities.  Bishop 
Gabriels  has  made  two  visits  ad  Limina,  besides  other 
trips  to  Rome.  The  former  elements  of  the  Catholic 
population,  Irish,  French  and  German,  must  for  per- 
manency rely  on  their  own  fecundity.  There  are  a 
reasonable  number  of  conversions  annually,  but  a  new 
immigration  of  Poles,  Italians,  Hungarians,  Greeks, 
Maronites,  and  others,  largely  threatens  to  modify  the 
Catholic  body.  Yet  till  now  none  are  numerous 
enough  to  form  separate  congregations  except  the 
Poles  who  are  building  a  church  in  Mineville. 

Statistics: — Religious  Communities:  Men:  Oblates 
of  Mary  Immaculate,  5  priests,  2  brothers;  Friars 
Minor,  3  priests,  2  brothers;  Fathers  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Issoudun,  6  priests;  Augustinians,  2  priests; 
Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction  (Lamennais),  12 
brothers.  Women :  Gray  Nuns  of  the  Cross,  6  houses; 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  7;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  4;  Sisters  of 
St.  Francis,  1 ;  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  2 ;  Ursuhnes,  1 ; 
Daughters  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  1 ;  Daughters  of  Charity 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  1.  Priests,  secular,  119; 
regular,  16;  churches,  150;  parishes,  8;  stations,  79; 
chapels,  21;  brothers,  19;  nuns,  240;  ecclesiastical 
students,  20;  academies,  13;  parochial  schools,  15; 
orphanages,  2;  hospitals,  6;  home  for  aged  poor,  1; 
baptisms  in  1909:  infants,  3617;  adults,  302;  mar- 
riages, 862;  Catholic  population  over  92,000. 

She.v,  History  of  Cath.   Church  in    United  States  (New  York, 

1894 );   Walworth,  Reminiscences  of  Bishop  Wadhams  (New 

York,  1893) ;  Smith,  Hist,  of  Dioc.  of  Ogdensburg  (New  York. 
1885) ;  Illus.  Hist,  of  Cath.  Church  in  America,  ed.  Beqni  (New 
York,  1910) ;  Cdrtis,  5/.  Lawrence  County  (Syracuse,  1894.) 
H.  Gabriels. 

Ogi^one  (Oggione),  Marco  D',  Milanese  painter, 
b.  at  Oggionno  near  Milan  about  1470;  d.  probably 
in  Milan,  1549.  This  painter  was  one  of  the  chief 
pupils  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  whose  works  he  repeat- 
edly copied.  He  was  a  hard-working  artist,  but  his 
paintings  are  wanting  in  vivacity  of  feeling  and  purity 
of  drawing,  while,  in  his  composition,  it  has  been  well 
said  "intensity  of  colour  does  duty  for  intensity  of 
sentiment."  He  copied  the  "Last  Supper"  repeat- 
edly, and  one  of  his  best  copies  is  in  the  possession  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  in  England.  Of  the  de- 
tails of  his  life  we  know  nothing — not  even  the  date 
of  his  important  scries  of  frescoes  painted  for  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Pace.  His  two  most 
notable  pictures — one  in  the  Brera  (representing  St. 
Michael),  and  the  other  in  the  private  gallery  of  the 
Bonorai  family  (representing  the  Madonna) — are 
signed  Marcus.  Others  of  his  works  are  to  be  seen 
at  Berlin,  Paris,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Turin,  the  one  in 
Russia  being  a  clever  copy  of  the  "Last  Supper"  by 
Leonardo.  Lanzi  gives  1530  as  the  date  of  his  death, 
but  various  writers  in  Milan  say  it  took  place  in  1540, 
and  the  latest  accepted  date  is  the  one  which  we  give 
as  1549.     He  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  important  ar- 


JOHN   OGILVIE 


tist,  or  even  as  a  very  great  copyist,  but  in  his  pictures 
the  sky  and  mountains  and  the  distant  landscapes  are 
always  worthy  of  consideration,  and  in  these  we  prob- 
ably get  the  painter's  best  original  work. 

Lanzi,  Storia  Piltorica  (Bassano,  1509) ;  Agostino  Santa  Gos- 
TiNi,  Descrizione  dette  Pitture  di  Milano  (Milan,  1671). 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Oc^vie,  John,  Venerable,  eldest  son  of  Walter 
Ogilvie,  of  Drum,  near  Keith,  Scotland,  b.  1580;  d. 
10  March,  1615.  Educated  as  a  Calvinist,  he  was 
received  into  the  Church  at  Louvain  by  Father  Cor- 
nelius a  Lapide.  Becoming  a  Jesuit  .at  the  age  of  sev- 
enteen he  was  or- 
dained priest  in 
1613,  and  at  his 
own  request  was 
sent  on  the  peril- 
ous Scottish  mis- 
sion. He  landed 
in  Scotland  in  No- 
vember, 1613,  and 
during  nine 
months  reconciled 
many  with  the 
Church  in  Edin- 
burgh and  Glas- 
gow. He  was 
betrayed  in  the 
latter  city,  but, 
during  a  long  im- 
prisonment, no 
tortures  could 
force  him  to  name 
any  Catholics. 
Though  his  legs 
were  cruelly 
crushed,  and  he  was  kept  awake  for  nine  nights  by 
being  continually  pricked  with  needles,  scarcely  a 
sigh  escaped  him.  Under  searching  examinations, 
his  patience,  courage,  and  gaiety  won  the  admira- 
tion of  his  very  judges — especially  of  the  Protestant 
Archbishop  Spottiswood — but  he  was  condemned 
as  a  traitor  and  hanged  at  Glasgow.  The  custom- 
ary beheading  and  quartering  were  omitted  owing 
to  undisguised  popular  sympathy,  and  his  body  was 
hurriedly  buried  in  the  churchyard  of  Glasgow 
cathedral.  He  was  declared  venerable  in  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

Authentic  account  of  Imprisonment  and  Martyrdom  of  Ft.  John 
Ogilvie,  S.J.,  translated  from  a  Latin  pamphlet  (DouaL  1615; 
London,  1877);  Forbes-Leith,  Narratives  of  Scottish  Catholics 
(Edinburgh,  1885);  a  Lapide,  Comment,  in  Isaiam,  c.  1,  v.  7. 

Michael  Barrett. 

Ogliastra  (Oleastrensis),  Dioce.se  of,  in  the 
Province  of  Cagliari,  Sardinia.  It  was  formerly  un- 
der the  Archbishop  of  Cagliari,  but  Leo  XII,  at  the 
petition  of  King  Charles  Fehx,  by  a  bull  of  11  Novem- 
ber, 1824,  erected  Ogliastra  into  a  diocese,  suffragan 
of  Cagliari,  with  the  Capuchin  Serafino  Carchero  for 
its  first  prelate.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Saracens  (1050),  Ogliastra  was  one  of  the 
five  native  giudicalure,  or  independent  districts,  and 
had  for  its  first  lords  the  Sismondi.  Tortoli  the  epis- 
copal seat  is  a  small  city  of  about  2000  inhabitants, 
which  belongs  to  the  district  of  Lanusei.  The  diocese 
has  29  parishes,  54,500  inhabitants,  53  churches, 
chapels,  and  oratories,  46  secular  priests,  two  schools 
one  of  which  is  directed  by  the  S.alesians;  the  present 
bishop  Mgr  Emanuele  Virgilio,  who  succeeded  Mgr 
Guiseppe  Paderi  on  15  April,  1910,  was  previously 
Vicar-General  of  the  Diocese  of  Vano.sa. 

Cappelletti.  Le  chiese  d'ltaiia,  XIV.  U.    BeNIGNI. 

O  Gloriosa  Virginum.    See  Quem  Terra,  Pon- 

TUS,  SiDERA. 

O' Gorman,  Thomas.    See  Sioox  Falls,  Diocese 

OP. 


O'GROWNEY 


224 


O'HARA 


O'Growney,  Eugene,  priest,  patriot,  and  scholar, 
b.  25  AuKiist.  lS(i3,  .at  Ball^-fallon,  County  Meath;  d. 
at  Los  AiiRclcs,  IS  Oct..  1890.  Neither  parent  spoke 
Irisli  and  it  was  little  used  where  he  was  born;  in  fact, 
he  was  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  a  language  of  Ire- 
laiul  until  a  student  at  .St.  Finian's seminary  at  Navan. 
His  interest  in  tlie  language  begun  there  continued  at 
MaynoDth.  wliere  from  his  entrance  in  1S82  he  de- 
voted hini.self  to  the  study  of  the  Iri.sh  language,  an- 
tiquities, and  history.  His  holid.ays  he  spent  in  the 
Irish-sjieaking  parts  of  the  eoiuitry  where  ho  acquired 
his  knowledge  of  the  sjioken  language.  Ordaineil  in 
18S.S.  in  IS'.H  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Irish  at 
Maynoolh,  and  at  about  the  same  time  became  editor 
of  the  "(iaelic  .lournal ".  At  the  instance  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin  lie  beg.an  his  series  of  "Simple  Les- 
sons in  Irish",  tirst  published  in  the  "Weekly  Free- 
man", whidi  have  done  more  than  any  other  book  in 
the  last  two  centuries  to  f.amiliarize  thousands  of  Irish 
with  the  language  of  their  ancestors.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Gaelic  League,  organized  in  Dub- 
lin in  1893  "for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  Irish  lan- 
guage spoken  in  Ireland",  and  later  became  its  vice- 
president,  which  po.sition  he  held  until  his  death.  In 
1894,  failing  health  .sent  him  to  Arizona  and  California, 
where  he  died.  Some  years  after,  with  the  aid  of  the 
Irish  in  the  Ignited  States,  his  body  was  brought  back 
to  Ireland  and  buried  at  Maynooth.  An  earnest  and 
tireless  worker,  his  services  to  the  Gaelic  League  out- 
weigh those  of  all  his  fellow- workers  to  the  present 
day,  not  that  his  scholarship  was  above  criticism,  but 
because  he  came  at  the  moment  when  a  man  of  his 
kind  was  needed. 

The  memorials  of  Father  O'Growney  have  been  coUected  by 
O'F.vRRELLT,  Leabhar  an  Athar  Eoghan  (The  O^Growney  Memorial 
Volume),  (Dubhn,  190-1). 

Joseph  Ddnn. 

O'Hagan,  John,  lawj'er  and  man  of  letters,  b.  at 
Newry,  County  Down,  Ireland,  19  March,  l.S22;d.ncar 
Dubhn,  10  November,  1.S90.  He  was  educated  in  the 
daj'-school  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  Dublin,  and  in  Trin- 
ity College,  graduating  in  1842.  Though  he  made 
man}'  friendships  in  Trinity,  he  was  always  an  earnest 
advocate  of  Catholic  university  education.  In  this 
spirit  he  contributed  to  the  "Dublin  Review"  (1847)  an 
article  which  the  Catholic  Truth  Society  of  Ireland 
has  reprinted  under  the  title  "Trinity  College  No 
Place  for  Catholics".  Later  he  contributed  to  the 
same  Re\'iew  a  criticism  of  Thomas  Carlyle's  system 
of  thought,  which  Carlj'le  tells  in  his  Diary  "gave  him 
food  for  reflection  for  several  days".  In  1842  he  was 
called  to  the  Bar  and  joined  the  Munster  Circuit.  In 
1861  he  was  appointed  a  Commissioner  of  National 
Education,  and  in  1865  he  became  Q.C.  The  same 
year  he  married  Frances,  daughter  of  the  first  Lord 
O'Hagan.  After  Gladstone  had  passed  his  Irish  Land 
Act,  he  chose  Mr.  O'Hagan  as  the  first  judicial  head  of 
the  Irish  Land  Commission,  making  him  for  this  pur- 
pose a  judge  of  Her  Majesty's  High  Court  of  Justice. 
This  elevation  was  a  tribute  not  only  to  his  legal  at- 
tainments and  judicial  standing  but  to  the  place  he 
held  in  the  esteem  of  his  countrymen.  He  was  an 
earnest  Catholic,  as  is  shown  in  many  of  his  writings, 
such  as  "The  Children's  Ballad  Rosary".  In  his  earli- 
est manhood  his  poems,  "Dear  Land",  "Our.selves 
Alone",  etc.,  were  among  the  most  effective  features 
of  "  The  Nation  "  in  its  brilliant  youth ;  in  his  last  years 
he  published  the  first  English  translation  of  "  La  Chan- 
son de  Roland",  recognized  as  a  success  by  the  "Edin- 
burg  Review"  and  all  the  critical  journals.  Longfellow 
WTOte  to  him:  "The  work  seems  to  me  admirably  well 
done. " 

The  IrUh  Monthly.  XVIII;  DcFFT.  Four  Years  o{  Irish  History. 

Matthew  Russell. 

O'Hagan,  Thomas,  first  Baron  of  Tullyhogue,  b.  at 
Belfast,  29  May,  1812;  d.  1  February,  1885.    CaUed  to 


the  Irish  Bar  in  1836,  he  resided  at  Newry,  and  mar- 
ried Miss  Teeling  in  1836.  Inchned  to  journahsm,  he 
proved  a  brilliant  editor  of  the  "Newry  Examiner" 
friini  1S3S  1o  1841.  At  the  Bar  he  achieved  distinc- 
tion for  his  defence  of  Charles  Gavan  DufTy,  in  1842. 
Admitted  to  the  inner  Bar  in  1849,  and  made  a 
bencher  of  King's  Inn  in  1859,  in  1860  he  was  ap- 
pointed Solicitor  General  for  Ireland,  and,  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  Attorney  General,  being  also  called  to  the 
Irish  Privy  Council.  He  sat  as  M.P.  for  Tralee  from 
1863  to  1865,  when  he  became  Justice  of  the  Common 
Pleas.  In  1868  he  was  made  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ire- 
land, the  first  Catholic  in  t  he  office  since  Chancellor  Fit- 
ton  under  James  II.  Created  Baron  of  Tullyhogue 
in  1870,  two  years  later  he  married  Miss  Alice  Mary 
Townley.  His  chancellorship  expired  with  the  Glad- 
stone Ministry  in  1874.  In  1880  he  was  re-appointed 
Lord  Chancellor  by  Gladstone,  but  resigned  in  No- 
vember, 1881.  A  year  later  he  was  made  a  Knight  of 
St.  Patrick.  He  published:  "Selected  Essays  and 
Speeches". 

Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.  (new  cd.,  London,  1908-9);  files  of  contem- 
porary newspapers. 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

O'Hanlon,  John,  b.  at  Stradbally,  Queen's  Co., 
Ireland,  1821;  d.  at  Sandymount,  Dublin,  1905.  He 
entered  Carlow  College  to  study  for  the  priesthood, 
but  accompanied  his  parents  to  the  United  States 
where,  completing  his  studies,  he  was  ordained  in 
1847,  obtaining  a  mission  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Louis. 
In  18.53  he  returned  to  Ireland,  was  affiliated  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Dublin  and  appointed  curate  in  the 
parish  of  Sts.  Michael  and  John  in  the  city,  one  of  his 
fellow  curates  being  the  well-known  historical  scholar. 
Father  Meehan.  In  1880  he  took  charge  of  the  parish 
of  Sandymount  and  a  few  years  later  was  made  a 
member  of  the  metropolitan  chapter.  Always  inter- 
ested in  Irish  history,  especially  in  Irish  ecclesiastical 
history,  while  in  America  he  wrote  an  "Abridgment 
of  the  History  of  Ireland"  and  an  "Irish  Emigrant's 
Guide  to  the  United  States",  besides  publishing  in  the 
"Boston  Pilot "  a  series  of  learned  papers  on  St.  Mala- 
chy.  Archbishop  of  Armagh.  After  his  return  to  Dub- 
lin, he  published  biographies  of  St.  Laurence  O'Toole, 
St.  Dympna,  and  St.  Aengus  the  Culdee,  a  "Cate- 
chism of  Irish  History",  "Devotions  for  Confession 
and  Holy  Communion",  and  "Irish  American  History 
of  the  LTnited  States",  edited  Monk  Mason's  "History 
of  the  Irish  ParUament  ",  and  collected  materials  for  a 
history  of  Queen's  Co.  His  greatest  work  was  his 
"Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints"  (Dublin,  1875 — ),  begun 
in  1846  and  finished  shortly  before  his  death.  Dr. 
Walsh,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  described  him  as  a  man 
who  worked  so  hard  at  his  pastoral  duties  that  men 
wondered  how  he  could  have  found  time  to  write  any- 
thing, and  who  wrote  so  much  that  men  wondered 
how  he  could  have  done  any  missionary  work.  He 
never  spared  himself  and  was  never  dismayed  by  any 
difficulty;  when,  in  1898,  the  MS.  of  his  Irish  American 
History  was  destroyed,  he  cheerfully  rewrote  the  vol- 
ume, an  example  of  courage  for  a  man  nearing  four 
score. 

Freeman's  Journal  (16  May,  1905) ;  O'Leary  in  Journal  of 
County  Kildare  Archceol.  Soc.  (July,  190-5). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

O'Hara,  Theodore,  b.  in  Danville,  Kentucky,  U.  S. 
A.,  11  February,  1822;  d.  in  Guerryton,  Alabama,  6 
June,  1867.  The  son  of  Kane  O'Hara,  an  Irish  politi- 
cal exile,  who  became  a  prominent  educator  in  Ken- 
tucky, O'Hara  graduated  from  St.  Joseph's  College, 
Bardstown,  Kentucky,  studied  law,  and  in  the  Mexi- 
can War  attained  the  brevet  r.ank  of  major,  after 
which  he  made  several  filibustering  expeditions  to 
Cuba  and  Central  America.  He  edited  various  news- 
papers and  was  successfidly  entrusted  by  the  Govern- 
ment with  some  diplomatic  missions.     During  the 


O'HELY 


225 


OHIO 


Civil  War  he  served  as  a  staff-officer  with  Generals 
Johnson  and  Breckenridge.  He  wrote  little  of  special 
merit  besides  the  two  poems,  "The  Bivouac  of  the 
Dead"  and  "A  Dirge  for  the  Brave  Old  Pioneer". 
The  former  was  written  when  the  State  of  Kentucky 
brought  back  the  remains  of  her  sons  who  had  fallen 
in  the  Mexican  War  to  the  cemetery  at  Frankfort. 
The  last  four  lines  of  the  opening  stanza  are  inscribed 
over  the  entrance  to  the  National  Cemetery  at  Arling- 
ton, Virginia. 

Connolly,  Household  Library  of  Ireland's  Poets  (New  York, 
1887);  Irish  American  Almanac  (New  York,  1879);  Webb,  The 
Centenary  of  Catholicity  in  Kentucky  (Louisville,  1884). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

O'Hely,  Patrick,  Bishop  of  Mayo,  Ireland;  d.  at 
Kilmallock,  September,  1579.  He  was  a  native  of 
Connaught,  and  joined  the  Franciscans  at  an  early 
age.  Four  years  after  his  profession  he  was  sent  to  the 
University  of  Alcald,  where  he  surpassed  his  contem- 
poraries in  sacred  studies.  Summoned  to  Rome,  he 
was  promoted  in  1576  to  the  See  of  Mayo,  now  merged 
in  that  of  Tuam.  Gregory  XI 11  empowered  him  to 
officiate  in  adjoining  dioceses,  if  no  Catholic  bishop 
were  at  hand,  and  supplied  him  generously  with 
money.  At  Paris  he  took  part  in  public  disputations 
at  the  university,  amazing  his  hearers  by  his  mastery 
of  patristic  and  controversial  theology,  as  well  as  of 
Scotist  philosophy.  In  autumn,  1579,  he  sailed  from 
Brittany  and  arrived  off  the  coast  of  Kerry  after 
James  Fitzmaurice  had  landed  at  Smerwick  from  Por- 
tugal with  the  remnant  of  Stukeley's  expedition.  All 
Munster  was  then  in  arms.  The  House  of  Desmond 
was  divided,  and  the  politic  earl  had  withdrawn  from 
the  scene  of  action.  The  bishop  and  his  companion, 
Conn  O'Rourke,  a  Franciscan  priest,  son  of  Brian,  Lord 
of  Breifne,  came  ashore  near  Askeaton,  and  sought 
hospitality  at  the  castle  where,  in  the  earl's  absence,  his 
countess  entertained  them.  Next  day  they  departed 
for  Limerick ;  but  the  countess,  probably  so  instructed, 
for  the  earl  claimed  the  merit  afterwards,  gave  infor- 
mation to  the  Mayor  of  Limerick,  who  three  days  later 
seized  the  two  ecclesiastics  and  sent  them  to  Kilmal- 
lock where  Lord  Justice  Drury  then  was  with  an  army. 
As  president  of  Munster,  Drury  had  recently  per- 
petrated infamous  barbarities.  In  one  year  he  exe- 
cuted four  hundred  persons  "by  justice  and  martial 
law".  Some  he  sentenced  "by  natural  law,  for  that 
he  found  no  law  to  try  them  by  in  the  realm  ".  At  first 
he  offered  to  secure  O'Hely  his  see  if  he  would  ac- 
knowledge the  royal  supremacy  and  disclose  his  busi- 
ness. The  bishop  replied  that  he  could  not  barter 
his  faith  for  life  or  honours;  his  business  was  to  do  a 
bishop's  part  in  advancing  religion  and  saving  souls. 
To  questions  about  the  plans  of  the  pope  and  the  King 
of  Spain  for  invading  Ireland  he  made  no  answer,  and 
thereupon  was  delivered  to  torture.  As  he  still  re- 
mained silent,  he  and  O'Rourke  were  sent  to  instant 
execution  by  martial  law.  The  execution  took  place 
outside  one  of  the  gates  of  Kilmallock. 

BouRCHlBR.  De  Martyrio  Fratrum  Ord.  Mill.  (Ingolstadt,  1583) ; 
GoNZAGi,  De  Oriijine  Seraphicae  Religionis  (Rome.  1587); 
O'Reilly,  Memorials  of  those  who  suffered  for  the  Catholic  Faith 
(LondoD,  1868) ;  Br,\dy,  Episcopal  Succession  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  II  (Rome.  1876);  Murphy,  Our  Martyrs  (Dublin, 
1896);  MORAN,  Spinlegium  Ossor.  (Dublin,  1874). 

O'Herlahy  (O'  hIarlaithe),  Thomas,  Bishop  of 
Ross,  Ireland,  d.  1579.  Consecrated  about  1560,  he 
was  one  of  three  Irish  bishops  attending  the  Council  of 
Trent.  He  incurred  such  persecution  through  en- 
forcing its  decrees  that  he  fled  with  his  chaplain  to  a 
little  island,  but  was  betrayed  to  Perrot,  President  of 
Munster,  who  sent  him  in  chains  to  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don. Simultaneously  with  Primate  Creagh,  he  was  con- 
fined until  released  after  about  three  years  and  seven 
months  on  the  security  of  Cormac  MacCarthy,  Lord 
of  Muskery.  Intending  to  retire  to  Belgium,  ill- 
health  contracted  in  prison  induced  him  to  return  to 
XI.— 15 


Ireland.  He  was  apprehended  at  Dublin,  but  re- 
leased on  exhibiting  his  discharge,  and  proceeded  to 
Muskery  under  MacCarthy's  protection.  Disliking 
the  lavishness  of  that  nobleman's  house,  he  withdrew 
to  a  small  farm  and  lived  in  great  austerity.  Reliev- 
ing distress  to  the  utmost  of  his  power  he  made  a  vis- 
itation of  his  diocese  yearly,  and  on  great  festivals 
officiated  and  preached  in  a  neighbouring  church. 
Thus,  though  afflicted  with  dropsy,  he  lived  until  his 
sixtieth  (or  seventieth)  year,  dying  exhausted  by 
labours  and  sufferings.  He  was  buried  in  Kilcrea 
Friary,  Co.  Cork. 

RoTHE,  Anatecta  Nova  et  Mira,  ed.  Moran  (Dublin,  1884); 
MoRAN,  5pia7effium  Ossor,,  I  (Dublin,  1874);  O'Reilly,  il/cmo- 
rials  of  those  who  suffered  for  the  Catholic  Faith  (London,  1868). 

O'Higgins,  Ambrose  Bernard,  b.  in  County 
Meath,  Ireland,  in  1720;  d.  at  Lima,  18  March,  1810. 
An  uncle,  a  priest  in  Spain,  placed  him  at  school  in 
Cadiz.  From  there  he  went  to  South  America  landing 
at  Buenos  Aires,  and  thence  to  Lima,  where  for  a  time 
he  was  a  pedlar.  Later  he  became  a  contractor  for 
opening  new  roads,  and  finally  joined  the  Spanish 
army  in  the  engineer  corps.  His  talent  and  energy 
was  soon  recognized,  and  secured  for  him  a  series  of 
rapid  promotions  with  a  patent  of  nobility  as  Count 
of  Ballenar,  and  later,  26  May,  1788,  as  Marquis  of 
Orsorno,  with  the  Governor-Generalship  of  Chile. 
The  following  eight  years  he  spent  in  developing  the 
resources  of  the  country,  his  enlightened  policy  accom- 
plishing much  for  Spanish  interest.  In  1796  he  was 
appointed  Viceroy  of  Peru,  the  highest  rank  in  the 
Spanish  colonial  service,  reaching  Lima  with  that  com- 
mission on  June  sixth  of  that  year.  His  \'ice-royalty 
ended  with  his  death.  Bernard  O'Higgins,  his  only 
son,  b.  at  Chilian,  20  August,  1776;  d.  at  Lima,  24  Oc- 
tober, 1842.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  his  father  sent  him 
to  a  Catholic  school  in  England.  At  his  father's  death 
he  returned  to  Chile  where  he  joined  the  revolution- 
ists as  a  colonel  of  militia  against  the  domination  of 
Spain.  His  bravery  brought  him  higher  rank,  and  the 
battle  of  Chacabuco,  12  February,  1817,  which  broke 
the  power  of  Spain  in  Chile,  was  mainly  won  by  his 
gallant  impetuosity.  Tliis  victory  led  to  the  capture 
of  the  capitol  and  he  was  proclaimed  by  its  citizens 
Dictator  of  Chile.  He  gave  ample  evidence  of  e.\ecu- 
tive  ability  during  an  administration  of  six  years,  but 
a  fickle  populace  deposed  him  from  office  in  February, 
1823,  and  drove  him  into  exile  in  Peru.  His  ashes  were 
brought  back  by  the  ChiUan  Government  and  interred 
with  great  pomp  in  1869,  and  in  1872  his  equestrian 
statue  was  inaugurated  at  Santiago  amid  national  re- 
joicing. His  son  Demetrio,  a  wealthy  and  patriotic 
Chihan  ranchero,  died  in  1869. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

OIlio,  the  seventeenth  state  of  the  American  Union, 
admitted  on  19  Feb.,  1803.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Michigan  and  Lake  Erie,  on  the  east  by 
Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia,  on  the  south  by  West 
Virginia  and  Kentucky,  and  on  the  west  by  Indiana. 
Its  greatest  breadth  is  215  miles,  and  its  greatest 
length  (north  to  south)  210  miles;  its  area  is  41,060 
square  miles.  The  surface  is  an  undulating  plain  450- 
1550  feet  above  sea-level.  The  population  (1910)  is 
4,767, 12 1 .  The  agricultural  output  in  1908  was  valued 
at  $198,.502,260;  the  mineral  output  at  $134,499,335; 
the  value  of  dairy  products  was  $15,484,849;  and  the 
total  value  of  industries  $960,811,857.  The  railroad 
mileage  is  9274  miles,  besides  44.50  miles  of  electric 
railway.  Ohio  profits  commercially  by  the  Ohio  River 
in  the  south,  connecting  with  the  Mississippi,  and  by 
Lake  Erie  on  the  north.  There  are  also  four  canals, 
the  Miami  and  Erie,  the  Ohio,  the  Hocking,  and  the 
Walhonding. 

Civil  Hi.story. — Ohio  was  discovered  by  La  Salle 
about  1670  ami  formal  possession  of  the  territory  in- 
cluding the  state  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1671.     A 


OHIO 


526 


OHIO 


controversy  between  Franoe  and  Enpland  was  settled 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763),  by  which  Great  Britain 
obtained  all  the  Frencli  dominion  in  the  north,  and 
west  as  far  as  the  Mississippi  River.  In  17S7  an  or- 
ganization known  as  the  Ohio  Company  of  Associates 
was  formed  in  New  Knghind  by  a  number  of  those  who 
had  served  in  the  American  Kevolutionary  War  and 
un(h^r  their  nepotiations  a  purchase  of  a  large  tract  of 
land  in  the  tcrrilnry  northwest  of  thi>  Oliio  Hivcr  was 
made  from  t lie  ( lovcrnmeut .  This  was  the  lirst  public 
sale  of  land  by  the  I'nited  States.  Marietta,  the  first 
settlement,  was  founded  on  7  April,  1787. 

In  connexion  with  this  sale  was  passed  the  famous 
ordinance  of  178S  guaranteeing  forever  civil  and  re- 
ligious liberty,  the  system  of  common  schools,  trial  by 
jury,  and  the  right  of  inheritance. 

In  17S8  Cincinnati  was  founded,  and  thenceforth 
settlements  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  state  multi- 
plied rapidly.  In  1791  the  settlers  were  harassed  by 
various  Indian 
tribes,  who  were  ef- 
fectually checked 
by  the  victory  of 
General  Anthony 
\\ayne  at  Fallen 
Timbers  on  the 
Maumee  River 
(1794).  In  the  suc- 
ceeding year  the 
treaty  of  peace  was 
concluded  by  which 
the  Indians  ceded  a 
great  portion  of  the 
territory  now  em- 
braced in  the  state. 
.StAL  OF  uhio  About    this   time 

Chillicothe  was  made  the  capital  of  the  territory  and 
a  capitol  building  erected.  In  1802  a  constitution 
was  adopted  by  the  eastern  division  of  the  territory 
north-west  of  the  Ohio  River,  designated  by  the  name 
"Ohio"  and  next  year  the  territory  was  admitted  to 
statehood.  From  the  date  of  the  first  settlement 
down  to  the  year  1842  the  nationality  of  the  principal 
immigration  was  German.  Between  1842  and  1860 
the  population  of  Ohio  increased  very  rapidly  owing 
to  the  great  influx  of  immigrants  from  both  Ireland 
and  Germany.  Since  1870  the  Slavonic  race  has  been 
the  predominating  factor  in  immigration.  In  the 
Civil  War,  seventy  regiments  responded  to  the  first 
call  for  troops  although  the  state  quota  was  only  thir- 
teen. Troops  from  Ohio  were  largely  responsible  for 
the  saving  of  West  Virginia  to  the  Union.  A  number 
of  the  most  celebrated  officers  of  the  Union  Army,  as 
Grant,  Sherman,  McDowell,  Roseerans,  Sheridan, 
Garfield,  were  natives  of  the  state.  In  national  elec- 
tions Ohio  was  carried  by  the  Democratic  Party  from 
1803  down  to  1836.  In  that  year  and  ever  since,  with 
the  exception  of  the  years  1848  and  1852  when  it  cast 
its  electoral  vote  for  Cass  and  Pierce,  it  has  been  Re- 
publican. 

Catholic  History. — The  first  Catholic  settlement 
in  Ohio  was  founded  among  Huron  Indian  tribes  near 
Sandusky  by  Father  De  la  Richardic  in  1751.  The 
principal  periods  of  Catholic  immigration  are  from 
1822  to  1842,  from  1842  to  1865,  and  from  1865  to  the 
present  day.  In  the  first  period  the  German  race 
predominated;  in  the  second,  the  Irish  and  German 
races,  with  a  majority  of  Irish  immigrants;  and  in  the 
third,  members  of  the  Slavonic  race.  Ohio  has  one 
archdiocese  and  two  dioceses.  The  Archdiocese  of 
Cincinnati  (diocese,  19  June,  1821;  archdiocese,  19 
June,  1850)  includes  the  counties  south  of  the  northern 
line  of  Mercer,  Auglaize,  Hardin  Counties  and  west 
of  the  eastern  line  of  Marion,  Union,  Madison 
Counties  and  the  Scioto  River  to  the  Ohio  River. 
The  Diocese  of  Cleveland  (erected  23  April,  1847)  in- 
cludes that  part  of  the  state  north  of  the  southern  lim- 


its of  Columbiana,  Stark,  Wa3Tie,  Ashland,  Richland, 
Crawford,  Wyandot,  Hancock,  Allen,  and  Van  Wert 
Counties.  The  Diocese  of  Columbus  (erected  3 
March,  1868)  comprises  that  portion  of  the  state  south 
of  40'  41 "  and  between  the  Ohio  River  on  the  east  and 
the  Scioto  River  on  the  west,  with  Franklin,  Delaware, 
aiul  Morrow  Counties.  The  Catholic  population  is 
557, (LW,  including  298  negroes.  Among  the  promi- 
nent CuMiolics  may  be  mentioned  (Sciicral  I'hilip  H. 
Slicri(l:in,  ( Icnrral  \V.  S.  Roseerans,  (Jcncral  Don  Car- 
los Hui'll,  Generals  Hugh  and  Charles  lowing,  Honor- 
able Bellamy  Storer,  Rubin  R.  Springer,  Colonel  Mack 
Groarty,  Doctor  Bonner,  Frank  Herd,  and  J.  A. 
McGahan,  the  liberator  of  Bulgaria. 

Besides  the  Catholics  the  principal  religious  denom- 
inations are  the  Methodists  numbering  355,444;  the 
Presbyterians,  138,768;  and  the  Lutherans,  132,439. 

Edocation  and  Charity. — Besides  the  Ohio  State 
University,  founded  in  1870,  and  attended  in  1909  by 
3012  students  under  a  faculty  of  224  members,  Ohio 
has  numerous  colleges  and  universities,  as  Antioch 
College,  Baldwin  College,  Buchtel  College,  Case 
School  of  Science,  Cedarville  College,  Defiance  Col- 
lege, Dennison  University,  Franklin  tjniversity,  Miami 
University,  Ohio  University,  Marietta  College.  The 
total  number  is  thirty-six.  According  to  the  last  re- 
port of  the  state  commissioner  of  common  schools,  the 
number  of  public  school  buildings  in  Ohio  is  10,723, 
with  24,188  teachers,  656,783  pupils.  The  expendi- 
ture for  education  during  the  year  1908-1909  was 
$25,011,361.  By  constitutional  provision  the  princi- 
pal of  funds,  entrusted  to  the  State  for  educational  and 
religious  purposes,  is  not  to  be  diminished,  and  the  in- 
come is  to  be  applied  solely  to  the  objects  of  the  origi- 
nal grant.  The  General  Assembly  is  empowered  to 
create  and  maintain  an  efficient  system  of  common 
schools  in  the  state.  All  children  between  the  ages  of 
eight  and  fourteen  years  shall  attend  either  a  public, 
private,  or  parochial  school  for  the  full  session,  of  not 
less  than  twenty-four  weeks  each  year,  unless  pro- 
hibited by  some  disability.  The  course  of  instruction 
must  extend  to  reading,  spelling,  writing,  English 
grammar,  geography,  and  arithmetic.  The  employ- 
ment of  any  child  under  sixteen  years  of  age  during 
the  school  session  shall  be  a  misdemeanor,  punishable 
by  fine,  unless  the  employer  shall  have  first  exacted 
from  the  child  an  age  and  schooling  certificate  from 
the  proper  authorities,  showing  that  the  child  has 
successfully  completed  the  studies  above  enumerated, 
and  if  the  child  is  between  fourteen  and  sixteen,  that 
he  is  able  to  read  and  write  legibly  the  English  lan- 
guage. If  a  child  be  absolutely  compelled  to  work, 
such  relief  shall  be  granted  out  of  the  contingent  funds 
of  the  school  district  in  which  he  resides  as  will  en- 
able child  to  attend  school  in  accordance  with  the  re- 
quirements of  the  statute. 

The  general  supervision  of  all  public  charitable  in- 
stitutions of  the  state  is  vested  in  a  state  board  of 
charities.  Direct  control  of  each  separate  state  benev- 
olent association  is  vested  in  an  individual  board  of 
trustees.  The  following  charitable  institutions  are 
provided  for  by  statute  in  Ohio:  Institution  for  Deaf 
and  Dumb;  Ohio  State  School  for  the  Blind;  Institu- 
tion for  Feeble  Minded;  Ohio  Soldiers  and  Sailors 
Home;  Ohio  Soldiers  and  Sailors  Orphans  Home; 
asylums  for  the  insane  at  Cleveland,  Columbus,  Day- 
ton, Athens,  Toledo,  Massillon,  Cincinnati,  Lima; 
Ohio  Ho.spital  for  Epileptics;  Boys'  Industrial  School; 
Girls'  Industrial  Home;  homes  for  the  friendless  in  the 
various  counties;  Ohio  State  Sanitarium  for  Consump- 
tives; Ohio  Institution  for  Deformed  and  Crippled 
Children;  hos[)itals  in  the  various  cities;  county  and 
city  infirmaries  and  children's  homes.  All  private  and 
public  benevolent  or  charitable  institutions  shall  be 
open  at  all  times  to  the  inspection  of  the  county  com- 
missioners of  the  various  counties  or  the  board  of 
health  of  the  township  or  municipality. 


OHIO 


227 


OHIO 


Legislation  on  Religious  Matters. — It  is  pro- 
vided in  the  Bill  of  Rights,  in  the  Constitution  of  Ohio, 
that  no  person  shall  be  compelled  to  support  any 
religion  or  form  of  worship  against  his  consent ;  no  pre- 
ference shall  be  given  to  any  rehgion  by  law;  no 
interference  with  the  rights  of  conscience  shall  be  per- 
mitted; no  religious  qualifications  shall  be  required 
for  the  holding  of  office,  and  suitable  laws  shall  be  en- 
acted to  protect  every  religious  denomination  in  the 
peaceable  enjoyment  of  its  own  mode  of  worship.  The 
arrest  of  any  person  for  civil  purposes  on  Sunday  is 
prohibited  by  statute,  also  hunting,  fishing,  shooting, 
theatrical,  dramatic,  or  athletic  performances;  com- 
mon labour  or  keeping  open  one's  place  of  business,  or 
requiring  any  employee  to  labour  on  Sunday;  the  sale 
of  intoxicating  liquors  is  prohibited  on  that  day. 

The  prohibition  of  common  labour  does  not  apply 
to  those  who  conscientiously  observe  and  abstain  from 
labour  on  Saturday.  The  basis  of  the  observance  of 
Sunday  is  not  religious;  it  is  a  municipal  or  police 
regulation.  As  to  oaths,  a  person  may  be  sworn  in  any 
form  deemed  by  him  binding  on  his  conscience.  Be- 
lief in  the  existence  of  God  seems  to  be  a  prerequisite, 
but  not  a  belief  in  a  future  state  of  reward  or  punish- 
ment. 

Oath  includes  affirmation,  which  may  be  substi- 
tuted. An  oath  is  not  regarded  as  having  its  founda- 
tion in  Christianity.  Profane  cursing  or  swearing 
by  the  name  of  God,  Jesus  Christ,  or  the  Holy  Ghost 
is  a  misdemeanor.  No  use  of  prayer  is  provided  for  in 
the  legislative  sessions.  There  is  no  recognition  of 
reUgious  holidays  as  such.  New  Year's  Day  and 
Christmas  Day  are  secular  holidays  and  holidays  for 
business  purposes.  Under  the  head  of  privileged 
communication  a  confession  made  to  a  clergyman  or 
priest  in  his  professional  character,  in  the  course  of  dis- 
cipline enjoined  by  his  Church,  shall  be  held  sacred. 

Corporations  not  for  profit,  which  include  churches, 
may  be  formed  by  five  persons,  a  majority  of  whom 
are  citizens  of  Ohio,  who  acknowledge  in  due  form  the 
articles  of  incorporation  containing  name  of  corpo- 
ration, place  where  same  is  to  be  located,  and  purpose 
for  which  formed.  Any  person  subscribing  to  the  ar- 
ticles of  incorporation  as  set  forth  in  the  records  of  the 
corporation  may  become  a  member  thereby.  Under 
the  constitution  of  Ohio  houses  used  exclusively  for 
public  worship  and  institutions  for  purely  charitable 
purposes  are  exempt  from  taxation.  'The  term  house 
includes  also  the  grounds  attached  thereto  and  all  such 
buildings  necessary  for  the  proper  use  and  enjoyment 
of  such  houses.  Thus  grounds  contiguous  to  churches, 
schools  and  priests'  houses  used  in  connexion  there- 
with or  for  ornamental  or  recreation  purposes,  fall 
within  this  classification.  Buildings  belonging  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  and  occupied  by  the  bishops, 
priests,  etc.,  are  considered  to  come  within  the  consti- 
tutional phrase  "institutions  of  purely  public  char- 
ity". It  has  been  held  that  the  residence  of  a  minister, 
or  parsonage,  is  not  exempt,  because  in  addition  to  be- 
ing used  for  purposes  of  public  worship,  it  is  also  a  place 
of  private  residence.  Public  schools  are  especially 
exempt  from  taxation,  and  private  schools  established 
by  private  donations  for  public  or  semi-public  pur- 
poses are  exempt  as  coming  within  the  purview  of  the 
constitutional  provision.  With  reference  to  institu- 
tions of  purely  public  charity,  while  church  and  school 
property  are  exempt  from  all  ordinary  state,  county, 
and  city  taxes,  such  property  is  subject  to  special  as- 
sessments for  improvements.  Priests  and  clergymen 
are  exempt  from  jury  duty,  but,  apparently,  not  from 
military  duty.  Members  of  religious  denominations 
prohibited  by  articles  of  faith  from  serving  are  abso- 
lutely exemjit  from  military  duty. 

A  male  of  eighteen  years  and  a  female  of  sixteen 
years  may  contract  marriage,  but  consent  of  the  par- 
ents or  guardian  must  be  obtained  if  the  male  is  under 
twenty-one  or  female  under  eighteen. 


Marriage  of  first  cousins  is  prohibited.  Marriage 
may  be  solemnized  by  a  lawfully  ordained  minister  of 
any  religious  society,  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  his 
county,  or  a  mayor  of  an  incorporated  village  in  the 
county  where  the  village  hes.  A  clergyman  wishing 
to  perform  the  ceremony  must  obtain  a  licence  from 
the  probate  court  of  one  of  the  counties  of  the  state. 

The  bans  of  marriage  must  be  published  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  congregation  in  a  place  of  public  worship  in 
the  county  where  the  female  resides,  on  two  different 
daj's  previous  to  the  ceremony.  The  first  publica- 
tion to  be  at  least  ten  days  prior  thereto,  or  the  publi- 
cation of  bans  may  be  dispensed  with  upon  the  secur- 
ing of  a  licence  from  the  probate  court  of  the  county 
where  the  female  resides.  Persons  applying  for  a  li- 
cence are  compelled  to  answer  under  oath  questions 
touching  the  age,  name,  residence,  place  of  birth,  etc., 
of  the  two  parties  concerned.  Solemnizing  marriage 
without  a  licence  or  without  the  publication  of  bans 
is  penalized,  and  any  person  attempting  to  perform 
the  ceremony  without  a  certificate  from  the  probate 
court  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor.  The  marriage  of 
persons  under  the  statutory  age  is  voidable,  but  be- 
comes irrevocable  by  cohabitation  or  other  acts  of  rati- 
fication after  the  age  limit  is  reached.  Common-law 
marriage,  by  the  weight  of  authority,  is  not  recog- 
nized in  Ohio.  Grounds  for  divorce  are:  previous 
existing  marriage ;  wilful  absence  for  three  years ;  adul- 
tery; impotency;  extreme  cruelty;  fraudulent  con- 
tract; gross  neglect;  habitual  drunkenness  for  three 
years;  imprisonment  in  penitentiary  (but  suit  must 
be  filed  while  party  is  in  prison) ;  foreign  divorce  not 
releasing  party  in  Ohio.  The  person  applying  must 
be  a  bona  fide  resident  of  the  county  where  suit  is  filed 
and  must  have  been  a  resident  of  the  state  for  a  year 
previous  to  the  commencing  of  the  suit.  Service  on 
the  defendant  may  be  either  personal  or  by  publica- 
tion. A  divorce  does  not  affect  the  legitimacy  of  the 
children. 

A  yearly  tax  of  -SIOOO  is  assessed  against  every  per- 
son engaged  in  the  trafficking  in  spirituous,  vinous, 
malt,  or  other  intoxicating  liquors.  Local  option  laws 
provide  for  the  suppressing  of  the  sale  of  liquor  in 
townships  or  municipalities  where  a  majority  of  the 
electors  of  the  district  vote  in  favour  of  closing  the  sa- 
loons. The  statutes  provide  for  a  jail  in  each  county; 
for  a  house  of  refuge  for  incorrigible  or  vicious  infants; 
for  workhouses  for  persons  convicted  of  minor  of- 
fences; for  an  Ohio  State  Reformatory  for  criminals 
between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and  thirty;  and  the  Ohio 
State  Penitentiary  for  persons  convicted  of  a  felony. 
Every  will,  except  nuncupative  wills,  shall  be  in  writ- 
ing, either  handwritten  or  typewritten,  and  signed  by 
the  testator  or  by  some  other  person  in  his  presence 
and  by  his  expressed  direction,  and  shall  be  attested 
and  subscribed  in  the  presence  of  the  testator  by  at 
least  two  competent  witnesses  who  saw  him  sign  or 
heard  him  acknowledge  it.  Generally  speaking,  any 
mark  made  at  the  end  of  the  will  by  the  testator  with 
testamentary  intent  constitutes  a  good  signing.  A 
spoliated  or  destroyed  will  may  be  proven,  and  its  di- 
rections carried  out,  where  it  was  destroyed  or  lost 
subsequent  to  the  death  of  the  testator  or  to  his  be- 
coming incapable  of  making  a  will  by  reason  of  in- 
sanity. A  verbal  will  made  in  the  last  sickness  is 
valid  in  respect  to  personal  property  if  reduced  to 
writing  and  subscribed  by  proper  number  of  witnesses 
within  ten  days  after  the  speaking  of  the  testamentary 
words.  A  devisee  under  a  will  may  be  a  witness 
thereto,  but  a  devise  to  him  fails  unless  the  will  can  be 
proven  without  his  testimony.  Any  bequest  for 
charitable  purposes  made  within  one  year  of  the  tes- 
tator's death  is  void  if  any  issue  of  the  testator  is 
living.  The  word  issue  here  used  means  of  the  blood 
of  the  deceased.  The  Ohio  courts  have  held,  however, 
that  a  bequest  to  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  "for  the 
saying  of  Masses  for  the  repose  of  my  soul  and  the  soul 


OHLER 


228 


OIL 


of  my  Inisband  "  is  not  within  the  statute  and  is  pood 
although  made  within  less  than  a  year  of  the  testator's 
death.  Municipal  corporations  are  organized  by 
statute  to  maintain  public  cemeteries  and  burial- 
grounds,  and  are  empowered  to  appropriate  property 
for  cemetery  purposes.  The  cost  of  lots  in  such  cem- 
eteries is  limited  to  such  an  amount  as  will  reimburse 
the  corporation  for  its  outlay.  Private  jissociations 
incorporated  for  cemetery  purposes  may  by  statute 
purchiitie,  appropriate,  or  otherwise  become  holders  of 
title  of  land  for  oometery  purposes.  Burial-lots  are 
exempt  from  taxation,  execution,  attachment,  or  any 
other  claim,  lien,  or  process  if  used  exclusively  for 
burial-purposes,  but  cemeteries  owned  by  associations 
are  not  exempt  from  assessments  for  local  improve- 
ments. Land  appropriated  for  private  or  individual 
burying-grounds  is  not  exempt  from  taxation,  execu- 
tion, etc.,  if  it  exceeds  $50  in  value. 

ConslitiUion.  State  of  Ohio;  Bates.  A'lnotaled  Ohio  Statute  with 
Supplement:  Ohio  State  Reports;  Ohio  Circuit  Court  Reports;  100, 
101  Ohio  Laws;  Biographical  Annals  of  Ohio  (1908);  Reports  of 
state  executive  departmental  Statesman's  Year-Book,  (1910); 
Ryan,  History  of  Ohio  (1888);  HoucK,  History  of  Catholicity  in 
Northern  Ohio  (Cleveland,  1902) ;  Catholic  Directory  (1910). 

John  A.  Deasy. 

Ohler,  Alots  Karl,  educationist,  b.  at  Mainz, 
2  January,  1817;  d.  there,  24  August,  1889.  He  at- 
tended the  gymnasium  at  Mainz,  studied  theology  at 
Giessen,  and  was  ordained  at  Mainz  on  14  August, 
1839.  His  first  charge  was  that  of  chaplain  at  Seligen- 
stadt.  Like  his  colleague,  Moufang,  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  and  teachers  of  the  Progymnasium  of  that 
city.  He  became  spiritual  director  of  St.  Rochus 
Hospital  at  Mainz  in  1845,  and  pastor  at  Abenheim 
near  Worms  in  1847.  On  21  June,  1852,  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  Hessian  Catholic  teachers' 
training  college  at  Bensheim.  During  the  fifteen 
years  of  his  administration,  encouraged  by  Bishop 
von  Ketteler,  Ohler  laboured  to  infuse  a  better  spirit 
into  the  CathoUc  teaching  body  of  Hesse.  On  8  April, 
1867,  he  was  made  a  canon  of  the  cathedral  chapter  of 
Mainz,  given  charge  of  educational  matters,  and  ap- 
pointed lecturer  in  pedagogy  and  catechetics  at  the 
episcopal  seminary — a  position  he  held  until  the  semi- 
nary was  closed  during  the  Kulturka/npf  in  1878. 
Ohler's  chief  work  is  "Lehrbuch  der  Erziehung  und 
des  Unterrichtcs"  (Mainz,  1861 ;  10th  ed.,  1884).  The 
fundamental  idea  of  the  work  is  that  the  education 
of  Catholic  youth  should  be  conducted  on  Catholic 
principles.  Church  and  school  co-operating  harmo- 
niously to  this  end.  The  work  was  intended  for  the 
use  of  the  clergy  as  well  as  for  teachers.  Ohler  adapted 
from  the  Italian:  "Cajetanus  Maria  von  Bergamo, 
Ermahnungen  im  Beichtstuhle"  (5th  ed.,  Mainz, 
1886),  "Johannes  Baptista  Lambruschini,  Der  geist- 
liche  Fiihrer"  (Mainz,  1848;  12th  ed.,  1872),  and  an 
abridged  edition  of  the  latter,  "Der  kleine  geistliche 
Fuhrer"  (1851;  6th  ed.,  1861). 

Selbst,  Aloys  Karl  Ohler,  Bin  Lebensbild  in  Kathol.  Schulkunde, 
I  (Heiligenstadt,  1892),  nn.  x.  xi.  pp.  126-7,  135-8,  with  portrait; 
PfClf.  Bischof  von  Ketteler  (Mauu,  1899),!,  341-3;  II,  121  sq.; 
326. 

Friedrich  Lauchert. 

O'Hurley,  Dermod,  Archbishop  of  Cashel,  Ire- 
land, d.  19-29  June,  1584.  His  father,  William 
O'Hurley  of  Lickadoon,  near  Limerick,  a  man  of  sub- 
stance and  standing,  holding  land  under  the  Earl 
of  Desmond,  secureil  him  a  liberal  education  on  the 
continent.  He  took  his  doctorate  in  ulroque  jure, 
taught  first  at  Louvain  and  then  at  Reims,  and  after- 
wards went  to  Rome.  Appointed  Archbishop  of  Cashel 
by  (Jregory  XIII,  he  was  consecrated  on  11  Septem- 
ber, 1581,  per  saltum,  not  havnng  previously  taken 
priesthood.  Two  years  later  he  landed  at  Drogheda, 
stayed  a  short  time  with  the  Baron  of  Slane,  and  pro- 
ceeded for  his  diocese,  expecting  protection  from  the 
Earl  of  Ormonde.  Loftus,  Protestant  Archbishop  of 
Dublin,  and  Sir  Henry  Wallop,  then  lords  justices, 


having  secret  information,  so  intimidated  Lord  Slane 
that  he  hastened  to  Munster  and  brought  back  his 
guest.  The  archbishop  was  (•oiiiiiiitt<Ml  to  Dublin 
C.astle  in  October,  1583,  while  the  justices,  dreading 
Ormonde's  resentment  and  his  influence  with  Queen 
Klizabeth,  obtained  authority  to  use  torture,  hoping 
that  he  would  inform  against  the  Earl  of  Kildare 
and  Lord  Delvin.  Still  apprehensi\  e,  they  suggested 
as  Dublin  was  unprovided  with  a  rack,  that  their 
prisoner  could  be  better  .sihocilcd  in  the  Tower  of 
London.  Walsingham  re])li('d  by  l)idding  them  toast 
his  feet  in  hot  boots  over  a  fire.  The  barliurous  sug- 
gestion was  adopted,  and  early  in  March,  15S4,  the 
archbishop's  legs  were  thrust  into  boots  hlled  with  oil 
and  salt,  beneath  which  a  fire  was  kindled.  Some 
groans  of  agony  were  wrung  from  the  victim,  and  he 
cried  aloud,  ' '  Jesus,  son  of  David,  have  mercy  on  me ! " , 
but  rejected  every  proposal  to  abandon  his  religion. 
Ultimately  he  swooned  away,  and  fearing  his  death, 
the  torturers  removed  him;  as  the  boots  were  pulled 
off,  the  flesh  was  stripped  from  his  bones.  In  this 
condition  he  was  returned  to  prison,  and  the  Justices 
again  sought  instructions  from  England,  reporting 
what  had  been  done,  and  intimating  the  lawyer's 
opinion  that  no  charge  of  treason  could  be  sustained 
in  Irish  law  against  Dr.  O'Hurley.  Walsingham,  hav- 
ing consulted  the  queen,  wrote  back  her  approval  of 
the  torture,  and  her  authority  to  dispatch  the  arch- 
bishop by  martial  law.  He  was  secretly  taken  out  at 
dawn,  and  hanged  with  a  withe  on  the  gibbet  near 
St.  Stephen's  Green,  19-29  June,  1584.  His  body 
was  buried  by  some  friends  in  St.  Kevin's  churchyard. 
Roth,  Analecta  Nova  et  Mira,  ed.  Mohan  (Dublin,  1884); 
Mohan,  Spicilegium  Ossor.,  I  (Dublin,  1874);  O'Reilly,  Me- 
morials of  Sufferers  for  the  Catholic  Faith  (London,  1868);  MnBPHY, 
Our  Martyrs  (Dublin,  1896). 

Charles  McNeill. 

O'Hussey,  Maelbrighte  (Irish,  Maol  Brighde 
UA  Heodhu.sa;  Latin,  Brigidus  Hoss^us),  known 
also  as  Giolla-Brigid  and  as  Bonaventura  Hussey, 
a  Franciscan  Friar,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Clogher,  Ulster. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life.  The  first  definite  informa- 
tion about  him  dates  from  1  November,  1607,  on 
which  day  he  became  one  of  the  original  members  of 
the  Irish  Franciscans  at  their  college  of  St.  Anthony 
at  Louvain.  It  seems,  however,  that  he  had  pre- 
viously been  at  Douai.  At  Louvain,  he  lectured  first 
in  philosophy  and  afterwards  in  theology.  His  fame 
rests  upon  his  profound  knowledge  of  the  history  and 
language  of  Ireland,  for  which,  according  to  the  chron- 
icles of  his  order,  he  was  even  in  his  own  time  held  in 
high  esteem.  As  far  as  we  know,  his  works  were  all 
written  in  Irish,  and  one  of  his  writings,  "A  Chri-stian 
Catechism"  (Louvain,  1608),  was  the  first  book 
printed  on  the  Continent  in  the  Irish  character.  The 
book  must  have  met  with  considerable  success,  for 
we  find  that  it  was  several  times  reprinted  and  revised. 
Among  his  other  works  are  to  be  mentioned :  a  metrical 
abridgment  in  240  verses  of  the  Christian  Catechism, 
a  poem  for  a  friend  who  had  fallen  info  heresy,  a 
poem  on  the  author  entering  the  Order  of  St.  Francis, 
and  three  or  four  poems  preserved  in  manuscript  in 
the  British  Museum  and  the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 
A  letter  in  Irish  from  him  to  Father  Nugent,  the 
superior  of  the  Irish  Jesuits,  is  printed  in  Rev.  E. 
Hogan's  "Hibernia  Ignatiana"  (p.  167).  O'Hussey 
remained  as  guardian  of  the  college  at  Louvain  until 
his  death  in  1614. 

Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record,  VII  (1870),  41;  Mohan,  Spicilegium 
Ossoriense,  III,  52;  Wadding,  Scriptores  ordinis  minorum,  56; 
Ware-Ha«ri8,  Writers  of  Ireland,  102;  O'Reilly,  Irish  Writers, 
168. 

Joseph  Ddnn. 

Oil  of  Saints  (Manna  Oil  of  Saints),  an  oily  sub- 
stance, which  is  said  to  have  flowed,  or  still  flows, 
from  the  relics  or  burial  places  of  certain  saints;  some- 
times the  oil  in  the  lamps  that  burn  before  their 


OILS 


229 


OINTMENT 


shrines;  also  the  water  that  flows  from  the  wells  near 
their  burial  places;  or  the  oil  and  the  water  which  have 
in  some  way  come  in  contact  with  their  relics.  These 
oils  are  or  have  been  used  by  the  faithful,  with  the  be- 
lief that  they  will  cure  bodily  and  spiritual  ailments, 
not  through  any  intrinsic  power  of  their  own,  but 
through  the  intercession  of  the  saints  with  whom  the 
oils  have  some  connexion.  In  the  days  of  St.  Pau- 
linus  of  Nola  (d.  431)  the  custom  prevailed  of  pouring 
oil  over  the  relics  or  reliquaries  of  martyrs  and  then 
gathering  it  in  vases,  sponges,  or  pieces  of  cloth. 
This  oil,  oleum  martyris,  was  distributed  among  the 
faithful  as  a  remedy  against  sickness  ["  Paulini  Nolani 
Carmen",  XVIII,  lines  38-40  and  "Carmen",  XXI, 
lines  590-600,  in  "Corpus  Script.  Ecel.  Latinorum" 
(Vienna,  1866  sq.),  XXX,  98,  177).  According  to  the 
testimony  of  Paulinus  of  Perigueux  (wrote  about  470) 
in  Gaul  this  custom  was  extended  also  to  the  relics  of 
saints  that  did  not  die  as  martyrs,  especially  to  the 
relics  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours  ("Paulini  Petricordiae 
Carmen  de  vita  S.  Martini",  V,  101  sq.  in  "Corpus 
Script.  Eccl.  Lat.",  XVI,  111).  In  their  accounts  of 
miracles,  wrought  through  the  application  of  oils  of 
saints,  the  early  ecclesiastical  writers  do  not  always 
state  just  what  kind  of  oils  of  saints  is  meant.  Thus 
St.  Augustine  ("De  Civitate  Dei",  XXII)  mentions 
that  a  dead  man  was  brought  to  life  by  the  agency  of 
the  oil  of  St.  Stephen. 

At  present  the  most  famous  of  the  oils  of  saints  is 
The  Oil  of  St.  Walburga  {Walburgis  oleum).  It  flows 
from  the  stone  slab  and  the  surrounding  metal  plate 
on  which  rest  the  relics  of  St.  Walburga  in  her  church 
in  Eichstadt  in  Bavaria.  The  fluid  is  caught  in  a  sil- 
ver cup,  placed  beneath  the  slab  for  that  purpose,  and 
is  distributed  among  the  faithful  in  small  phials  by 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  to  whom  the  church  be- 
longs. A  chemical  analysis  has  shown  that  the  fluid 
contains  nothing  but  the  ingredients  of  water. 
Though  the  origin  of  the  fluid  is  probably  due  to 
natural  causes,  the  fact  that  it  came  in  contact  with 
the  relics  of  the  saint  justifies  the  practice  of  using  it 
as  a  remedy  against  diseases  of  the  body  and  the  soul. 
Mention  of  the  oil  of  St.  Walburga  is  made  as  early 
as  the  ninth  century  by  her  biographer  Wolfhard  of 
Herriedcn  ("Acta  SS.",  Feb.,  Ill,  562-3  and  "Mon. 
Germ.  Script.",  XV,  535  sq.). 

The  Oil  of  St.  Menas.  Thousands  of  little  flasks 
with  the  inscription:  ETAOriA  TOT  AnOT  MHNA 
(Remembrance  of  St.  Menas),  or  the  like  have  recently 
(1905-8)  been  excavated  by  C.  M.  Kaufmann  at 
Baumma  (Karm  Abum)  in  the  desert  of  Marcotis,  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  Libyan  desert.  The  present 
Bumma  is  the  burial  place  of  the  Libyan  martyr 
Menas,  which  during  the  fifth  and  perhaps  the  sixth 
century  was  one  of  the  most  famous  pilgrimage  places 
in  the  Christian  world.  The  flasks  of  St.  Menas  were 
well  known  for  a  long  time  to  archaeologists,  and  had 
been  found  not  only  in  Africa,  but  also  in  Spain,  Italy, 
Dalmatia,  France,  and  Russia,  whither  they  had  been 
brought  by  pilgrims  from  the  shrine  of  Menas.  Until 
the  discoveries  of  Kaufmann,  however,  the  flasks  were 
supposed  to  have  contained  oil  from  the  lamps  that 
burned  at  the  sepulchre  of  Menas.  From  various  in- 
scriptions on  the  flasks  that  were  excavated  by  Kauf- 
mann, it  is  certain  that  at  least  some,  if  not  all,  of 
them  contained  water  from  a  holy  well  near  the  shrine 
of  St.  Menas,  and  were  given  as  remembrances  to  the 
pilgrims.  The  so-called  oil  of  St.  Menas  was  there- 
fore in  reality,  water  from  his  holy  well,  which  was 
used  as  a  remedy  against  bodily  and  spiritual  ail- 
ments. 

The  Oil  of  St.  Nicholas  of  Myra  is  the  fluid  which 
emanates  from  his  relics  at  Bari  in  Italy,  whither  they 
were  brought  in  1087.  It  is  said  to  have  also  flowed 
from  his  relics  when  they  were  still  in  Myra.  (See 
Nicholas  of  Myha,  Saint.) 

St.  Gregory  of  Toiirs,  "De  Gloqa  martyrutn",  xxx, 


P.  L.,  LXXI,  730)  testifies  that  a  certain  substance 
like  flour  emanated  from  the  sepulchre  of  John  the 
Evangelist.  The  same  Gregory  writes  (ibid.,  xxxi) 
that  from  the  sepulchre  of  the  Apostle  St.  Andrew  at 
Patra;  emanated  manna  in  the  form  of  flour  and  fra- 
grant oil. 

Following  is  a  list  of  other  saints  from  whose  relics 
or  sepulchres  oil  is  said  to  have  flowed  at  certain  times: 
St.  Antipas,  Bishop  of  Pergamum,  martyred  under 
Emperor  Domitian  ("Acta  SS.",  April,  II,  4);  St. 
Babolenus,  Abbot  of  St-Maur-des-Foss^s  near  Paris, 
d.  in  the  seventh  century  ("Acta  SS.",  June,  VII, 
160);  St.  Candida  the  Younger,  of  Naples,  d.  586 
("Acta  SS.",  Sept.,  II,  230) ;  St.  Demetrius  of  Thessa- 
lonica,  martyred  in  306  or  290  ("Acta  SS.",  Oct.,  IV, 
73-8);  St.  Eligius,  Bishop  of  Noyon,  d.  660  or  soon 
after  (Surius,  "De  probatis  sanctorum  historiis",  VI, 
678) ;  St.  Euthvmius  the  Great,  abbot  in  Palestine,  d. 
473  ("Acta  SS".",  Jan.,  II,  687);  St.  Fantinus,  confes- 
sor, at  Tauriano  in  Calabria,  d.  under  Constantino  the 
Great  ("Acta  SS.",  Julv,  V,  556);  St.  Felix  of  Nola, 
priest,  died  about  260  ("Acta  SS.",  Jan.,  II,  223);  St. 
Franca,  Cistercian  abbess,  d.  1218  ("Acta  SS.",  April, 
III,  393-4);  St.  Glvceria,  martyred  during  the  reign  of 
Antoninus  Pius  ("ActaSS.",  May,  III,  191);  Bl.  Gun- 
decar.  Bishop  of  Eichstadt,  d.  1075  ("Acta  SS.", 
August,  I,  184);  St.  Humilitas,  first  abbess  of  the  Val- 
lombrosiaa  Nuns,  d.  1310  ("Acta  SS.",  May,  V,  211); 
St.  John  the  Almsgiver.  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  d.  620 
or  616  ("Acta  SS.",  Jan.,  Ill,  130-1);  St.  John  of 
Beverley,  Bishop  of  York,  d.  721  ("Acta  SS.",  May, 
II,  192);  St.  Luke  the  Younger,  surnamed  Thauma- 
turgos,  a  hermit  in  Greece,  d.  945-6  ("ActaSS.",  Feb., 
II,  99);  St.  Paphnutius,  bishop  and  martyr  in  Greece, 
d.  probably  in  the  fourth  centurv  ("Acta  SS.",  April, 
II,  620);  St.  Paul,  Bishop  of  Verdun,  d.  648  ("Acta 
SS.",  Feb.,  II,  174) ;  St.  Perpetuus,  Bishop  of  Tongres- 
Utrecht,  d.  630  (Acta  SS.,  Nov.,  II,  295);  St.  Peter 
Gonzdlez,  Dominican,  d.  1246  ("Acta  SS.",  April,  II, 
3931;  St.  Peter  Thaumaturgus,  Bishop  of  Argos,  d. 
about  890  ("Acta  SS.",  May,  I,  432);  St.  Rolendis, 
virgin,  at  Gerpinnes  in  Belgium,  d.  in  the  seventh  or 
eighth  century  ("Acta  SS.",  May,  III,  243);  St.  Re- 
verianus.  Bishop  of  Autun,  and  Companions,  mar- 
tyred about  273  ("Acta  SS.",  June,  I,  40-1);  St.  Sa- 
binus.  Bishop  of  Canosa,  d.  about  566  ("Acta  SS.", 
Feb  II  329) ;  St.  Sigolena,  Abbess  of  Troclar,  d.  about 
700  ("Acta  SS.",  July,  V,  6.36);  St.  Tillo  Paulus,  a 
Benedictine  monk  at  Solignac  in  Gaul,  d.  703  ("Acta 
SS.",  Jan.,  I,  380);  St.  Venerius,  hermit  on  the  Island 
of  Palamaria  in  the  gulf  of  Genoa,  d.  in  the  seventh 
century  ("Acta  SS.",  Sept.,  IV,  118);  St.  William, 
Archbishop  of  York,  d.  1154  ("Acta  SS.",  June,  II, 
140) ;  and  a  few  others. 

Beside.s  the  references  above,  see  the  articles:  Walborqa; 
Menas.  etc. 

Michael  Ott. 

Oils,  Holy.    See  Holy  Oils. 

Ointment  in  Scripture. — That  the  use  of  oily, 
fragrant  iiiatrrials  ti  i  am  lint  the  body  is  a  custom  going 
back  to  rciiiiite  aiiti(iuity  is  evidenced  by  the  Old 
Testament  as  well  as  other  early  literatures.  Likewise 
the  ceremonial  and  sacred  use  of  oil  and  ointment  was 
of  early  origin  among  the  Hebrews,  and,  of  course, 
was  much  elaborated  in  the  prescriptions  of  the  later 
ritual.  The  particularly  rich  unguent  known  as  the 
"holy  oil  of  unction"  is  frequently  referred  to  in  the 
"priestly"  sections  of  the  Pentateuch  and  in  Parali- 
pomenon.  Its  composition  is  minutely  prescribed  in 
Exodus,  XXX,  23, 24.  Besides  the  regular  basis  of  olive 
oil,  the  other  ingredients  mentioned  are  chosen  myrrh, 
cinnamon,  calamus,  and  cassia,  all  of  which  are  to 
be  used  in  stated  quantities.  The  making  or  the  use 
of  this  holy  oil  by  unauthorized  persons  was  prohibited 
under  pain  of  sacrilege.  In  many  of  the  references  to 
ointment  in  Scripture  perfumed  oil  is  meant,  and  it 


OJEDA 


230 


OKLAHOMA 


may  have  in  some  cases  consisted  of  oil  only.  Oil  and 
ointment  however,  are  distinguished  in  Luke,  vii,  4t'): 
"  My  head  with  oil  thou  didst  not  anoint;  but  she  with 
ointment  hath  anointed  my  feet."  Identical  or  sim- 
ilar preparations,  in  which  myrrh  was  an  important 
ingredient,  were  used  in  anointing  the  dead  body  as 
well  as  the  living  subject  (Luke,  xxiii,  56).  Ointment 
of  spikenard,  a  very  costly  unguent,  is  mentioned  in 
Mark,  xiv,  3,  "  an  alabaster  box  of  ointment  of  precious 
spikenard"  (cf.  John,  xii,  3).  So  prized  were  these 
unguents  that  they  were  kept  in  pots  of  alabaster,  and 
among  the  Egyptians  they  were  said  to  retain  their 
fragrance  even  for  centuries.  For  the  oil  spoken  of  by 
St.  James,  v,  14,  see  Extreme  Unction. 

Wilkinson,  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,  I 
(Boston.  1883),  426;  LEsfcTRE  in  Vioouhoux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible. 
8.  V.  Onclion.  JamES  F.    DriSCOLL. 

Ojeda,  Alonso  de,  explorer;  b.  at  Cuenca,  Spain, 
about  1466;  d.  on  the  island  of  Santo  Domingo,  about 
150S.  He  came  of  an  impoverished  noble  family,  but 
had  the  good  fortune  to  start  his  career  in  the  house- 
hold of  the  Dukes  of  Medina  Sidonia.  He  early 
gained  the  patronage  of  Juan  Rodriguez  de  Fon.seca, 
Bishop  of  Burgos  and  later  Patriarch  of  the  Indies, 
who  made  it  possible  for  Ojeda  to  accompany  Colum- 
bus in  his  second  voyage  to  the  New  World.  Ojeda 
distinguished  himself  there  by  his  daring  in  battle  with 
the  natives,  towards  whom,  however,  he  was  unduly 
harsh  and  vindictive.  He  returned  to  Spain  in  1496. 
After  three  years  he  again  journeyed  to  the  New 
World  with  three  vessels  on  his  own  account,  accom- 
panied by  the  cosmographer  Juan  de  La  Cosa  and 
Amerigo  Vespucci.  In  a  little  over  three  weeks  he 
sighted  the  mainland  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco, 
and  after  landing  on  Trinidad  and  at  other  places,  dis- 
covered a  harbour  which  he  called  Venezuela  (little 
Venice),  from  its  resemblance  to  the  bay  of  Venice. 
After  some  further  exploration,  he  made  his  way  to 
the  island  of  Hispaniola,  where  he  was  not  received 
cordially,  because  it  w:us  thought  that  he  was  infring- 
ing upon  the  exploring  privileges  of  Columbus.  On 
his  return  to  Spain  in  1.500,  he  took  with  him  many 
captives  whom  he  sold  as  slaves.  Having  still  influen- 
tial friends  at  home,  he  was  able  to  fit  out  a  new  expe- 
dition, which  left  Cadiz  in  1502  and  made  a  landing  on 
the  American  continent  at  a  place  which  he  named 
Santa  Cruz.  There  he  established  a  colony  which  did 
not  last  long  because  of  the  improvidence  of  his  com- 
panions and  their  extreme  cruelty  toward  the  Indians. 
Chafing  under  his  leadership,  these  companions 
turned  against  him  and  sent  him  back  a  prisoner  to 
Spain,  accusing  him  of  having  appropriated  the  royal 
revenues.  He  was  tried  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  heavy 
fine.  Upon  his  appeal,  however,  he  was  acquitted  of 
all  culpability,  but  was  now  reduced  to  poverty. 

In  some  way  or  other  he  made  his  way  back  to  His- 
paniola, where  his  former  associate  Cosa  also  was. 
There  he  conceived  the  idea  of  establishing  colonies  on 
the  mainland  between  Cabo  de  Vela  and  the  Golfo  de 
Uraba,  and  after  some  time  spent  in  petitioning  the 
Government,  finally  the  two  comrades  obtained  the 
necessarj-  permission.  He  went  back  to  Spain  and  or- 
ganized his  third  and  last  expedition,  only  after  great 
effort.  Among  the  persons  who  embarked  in  his  four 
vessels  was  Plzarro,  the  future  conqueror  of  Peru. 
Cortes,  who  was  later  to  dominate  Mexico,  would  have 
been  among  the  soldiers  of  fortune  engaged  in  this 
adventure,  had  not  a  sudden  illness  prevented  him 
from  sailing.  When  he  reached  his  destination,  Ojeda 
found  the  natives  very  hostile;  they  attacked  his  force 
and  slew  every  man  except  Ojeda  and  one  other.  The 
two  escaped  to  the  shore,  where  they  were  succoured 
by  those  whom  he  had  left  in  charge  of  the  ships.^  Not 
yet  despairing,  he  founded  a  new  colony  at  San  Sebas- 
tian. It  soon  became  necessarv'  for  him  to  proceed  to 
Hispaniola  to  obtain  supplies  for  the  settlement,  in 


charge  of  which  he  left  Pizarro.  He  was  shipwrecked 
on  the  way,  and  only  after  suffering  great  privations 
did  he  finally  reach  Santo  Domingo,  where  he  died. 

PiZABRO  r  Obellana,  Var.  ilust.  d.  Nueto-Mundo  (1639). 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Okeghem,  Jean  d',  also  called  Okekem,  Oken- 
ghem,  Okegnan,  Ockenheim,  contrapuntist,  founder 
and  head  of  the  second  Netherland  school  (1450- 
1550),  b.  about  1430,  presumably  at  Termonde,  in 
East  Flanders;  d.  1495.  After  serving  as  a  choir  boy 
at  the  cathedral  of  Antwerp  (1443-4),  he  is  said  to 
have  become  the  pupil  of  (jilles  Binchois  and  Guil- 
laume  Dufay.  He  entered  Holy  orders,  and  in  1453 
assumed  the  post  of  chief  chanter  at  the  Court  of 
Charles  VII  of  France,  where  he  became  choir-master. 
At  the  expense  of  the  king,  he  visited  Flanders  and 
Spain,  but  most  of  his  time  was  spent  in  Tours  where 
he  acted,  by  royal  appointment,  as  treasurer  of  the 
church  of  St.  Martin  until  his  death.  At  first  he  fol- 
lowed his  predecessors  and  teachers  in  his  manner 
writing,  but  eventually  introduced  the  principle  of 
free  imitation  in  the  various  voices  of  his  composi- 
tions. Previously  the  strict  canon  was  the  ideal  con- 
trapuntal form,  but  he  introduced  the  practice  of  al- 
lowing every  new  voice  to  enter  freely  on  any  interval 
and  at  any  distance  from  the  initial  note  of  the  original 
theme.  The  innovation  was  epoch  making  and  of  the 
greatest  consequence  in  the  development  of  the  a  cap- 
pella  style.  The  new  principle  inaugurated  an  unpre- 
cedented era  of  activity  with  ( )keghem's  disciples, 
chief  among  whom  were  Josquin  Desprez,  Pierre  de  la 
Rue,  Antoine  Brumel,  Jean  Ghiselin,  Antoine  and 
Robert  de  Fevin,  Jean  Mouton,  Jacob  Obrecht,  etc. 

Numerous  fragments  of  his  works  are  contained  in 
the  histories  of  music  by  Forkel,  Burney,  Kiesewetter, 
and  Ambrose,  while  in  the  Proske  Library  of  the  Ratis- 
bon  cathedral  are  preserved  his  "  Missa  cujusvis  toni" 
for  four  voices  and  a  collection  of  ''Cantiones  sacrse" 
for  four  voices.  His  contemporary,  Guillaume  Cr6tin, 
wrote  a  poem  on  the  death  of  Okeghem,  in  which  he 
mentions  that  Okeghem  produced  the  greatest  master- 
piece of  his  time — a  motet  in  canon  form  for  thirty-six 
real  voices.  While  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  such  a 
monster  production  was  kept  alive  by  tradition,  it  was 
feared  that  ithad  been  lost.  In  his  "Quellenlexikon", 
Robert  Eitner  expresses  the  opinion,  shared  by  Michel 
Brenet,  that  the  supposedly  lost  work  is  contained  in  a 
volume  "Tomus  III  psalmorum",  printed  in  Nurem- 
berg in  the  sixteenth  century  by  Johannes  Petreius. 
Hugo  Riemann  reproduces  the  work  in  his  "  Handbuch 
der  Musikgeschichte",  I,  ii.  While  the  composition  re- 
quires thirty-six  voices,  more  than  eighteen  are  never 
active  simultaneously.  The  only  words  used  are  "  Deo 
gratias"  and  there  are  no  modulations  from  one  key 
into  another — probably  to  maintain  as  much  clearness 
as  is  pos.sible  under  the  circumstances.  Riemann 
doubts  whether  the  composition  was  intended  to  be 
performed  by  vocalists;  he  thinks  that  it  was  to  be 
played  on  instruments  or  perhaps  to  serve  as  an  exhi- 
bition of  the  master's  surpassing  skill. 

Barbure,  Jan  ran  Okeghem  (Antwerp,  1868);  Thoman,  Dl- 
ploration  de  G.  Crilin  sut  le  tripas  de  Jean  Okeghem.  musicien 
(Paris.  1864);  Brenet,  Jean  de  Okeghem  (Paris,  1893);  De 
Marcv,  Jean  Okeghem  (Paris,  1895). 

Joseph  Otten. 

Oklahoma.  ^  I.  Geography.  —  Oklahoma,  the 
forty-sixth  state  to  be  admitted  to  the  Union,  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Colorado  and  Kansas,  on  the  east  by 
Arkansas  and  Missouri,  on  the  south  by  the  Red  River 
separating  it  from  Texas,  and  on  the  west  by  Texas  and 
New  Mexico.  It  includes  what  was  formerly  Okla- 
homa Territory  and  Indian  Territory,  lying  in  the 
south  central  division  of  the  United  States  between 
33°  and  37°  North  lat.  and  between  94°  and  103°  West 
long.  Its  extreme  length  from  north  to  south  is  about 
210  miles,  and  from  east  to  west  about  450  miles.    Its 


OKLAHOMA 


231 


OKLAHOMA 


has  an  area  of  73,910  square  miles.  Oklahoma  is  boun- 
tifully blessed  with  streams,  although,  exactly  speak- 
ing, there  is  not  a  navigable  stream  in  the  state.  The 
rivers  flow  from  the  north-west  to  the  south-cast. 
With  the  exception  of  the  mountain  districts  the  en- 
tire surface  of  the  state  is  just  rolling  enough  to  render 
its  scenery  beautiful.  The  climate  is  delightful.  Es- 
caping as  it  does  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  it  is 
fitted  for  agricultural  purposes  even  during  the  winter 
season.  An  irregular  chain  of  knobs  or  buttes,  enter- 
ing Oklahoma  from  Missouri  and  Arkansas  on  the 
east,  extends  through  the  southern  part  of  the  state  to 
the  western  boundary,  in  a  manner  connecting  the 
Ozark  range  with  the  eastern  plateau  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  groups,  as  they  range  westward 
across  the  state,  are  the  Kiamichi,  Arbuckle,  and 
Wichita  Mountains  and  the  Antelope  Hills.  The 
highest  mountain,  2600  feet  above  sea-level,  is  the 
Sugar  Loaf  peak.  II.  Population. — The  report  of  the 
government  census  bureau  relative  to  the  special  cen- 
sus of  Oklahoma,  taken  in  1907,  shows  that  the  State 
had  in  that  year  a  total  population  of  1,414,177,  of 
whom  733,002  lived  in  what  was  prior  to  statehood 
called  the  Indian  Territory.  There  were  1,226,930 
whites;  112,160  negroes;  75,012  Indians.  Since  1907 
the  influx  of  people  has  been  enormous.  The  white 
people  in  Oklahoma  represent  every  nationality,  hav- 
ing come  from  every  state  in  the  union  and  from  every 
country  since  the  opening  in  1889. 

III.  Industries. — The  value  of  the  agricultural 
output  for  1907  was  $231,.512,903.  The  principal 
crops  are  cotton,  corn,  and  wheat,  the  production  in 
1908  being  as  follows:  cotton  492,272  bales;  corn  95,- 
230,442  bushels;  wheat  17,017,887  bushels.  In  that 
year  Oklahoma  ranked  sixth  in  cotton  production, 
eighth  in  corn,  thirteenth  in  wheat,  and  first  in  petro- 
leum products.  The  oil  fields  of  Oklahoma  are  now 
the  largest  and  most  productive  in  the  world,  there 
being  produced  in  1908,  50,455,628  barrels.  In  1909 
the  production  of  natural  gas  amounted  to  54,000,- 
000,000  cubic  feet.  Coal  has  been  mined  extensively 
for  a  number  of  years;  the  production  in  1909  was  3,- 
092,240  tons,  the  number  of  men  employed  in  this  one 
industry  being  14,580.  Gold,  lead,  zinc,  asphalt,  gyp- 
sum, and  other  minerals  are  mined  in  paying  quanti- 
ties. Oklahoma  h.os  deposits  of  Portland  cement-stone 
that  are  said  to  be  inexhaustible.  There  are  two  large 
cement  mills  in  the  state,  each  operating  with  a  ca- 
pacity of  5000  barrels  per  day.  In  1908  there  were 
5,695.36  miles  of  railway  in  the  state,  exclusive  of  yard 
tracks  and  sidings;  the  total  taxable  valuation  of  same 
amounted  to  .$174,649,682.  During  the  year  begin- 
ning 1  July,  1907,  and  ending  30  June,  1908,  there  were 
built  in  Oklahoma  107.89  miles  of  railroad.  There  are 
thirteen  railroad  companies  operating  in  the  state. 

IV.  Education. — The  State  University,  located  at 
Norman,  was  founded  in  1892  by  an  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture of  the  Territory  of  Oklahoma.  The  value  of  the 
university  lands  is  estimated  at  $3,670,000.  For 
1908-9  the  number  of  teachers  in  the  institution  was 
84;  enrollment  was  790.  Other  state  institutions  are 
three  normal  schools,  located  at  Edmond,  Alva,  and 
Weatherford;  the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Col- 
lege at  Stillwater;  the  imiversity  preparatory  school 
at  Tonkawa;  a  school  for  the  deaf  at  Sulpher;  an  in- 
stitute for  the  blind  at  Wagoner;  the  Whi taker  Or- 
phans' Home  in  Pryor  Creek;  five  district  agricultural 
schools,  one  in  each  judicial  district  of  the  state. 
There  were  about  10,000  teachers  employed  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  state,  1908-9,  the  enrolment  of 
students  being  about  400,000;  the  total  appropriation 
for  educational  purposes  during  this  time  was  about 
$.500,000. 

V.  History. — In  1.540  Francisco  Vasque  de  Coro- 
nado,  commanding  300  Spaniards,  crossed  with  Indian 
guides  the  Great  Plains  region  to  the  eastward  and 
northward  from  Mexico.     In  the  course  of  their  jour- 


Se.\l  of  Oklahoma 


ney  these  Spaniards  were  the  first  white  men  to  set 
foot  on  the  soil  of  Oklahoma.  Coronado  traversed  the 
western  part  of  what  is  now  Oklahoma,  while  at  the 
same  time  de  Soto  discovered  and  partially  explored 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  state.  In  1611  a  Spanish  ex- 
pedition was  sent  east  to  the  Wichita  Alountains. 
From  that  time  on  until  1629,  Padre  Juan  de  Sales  and 
other  Spanish  missionaries  laboured  among  the  tribes 
of  that  region.  La  Salle  in  1682  took  possession  of  the 
territory,  of  which  the  State  of  Oklahoma  is  now  a 
part,  in  the  name  of  Louis  XIV,  and  in  honour  of  that 
monarch  named  it  Louisiana.  Prior  to  the  Louisiana 
Purchase,  Bienville,  accompanied  by  Washington 
Irving,  had  visited  and  related  the  wonderful  beauty 
of  the  region  now  known  as  Oklahoma.  In  1816  the 
Government  conceived  the  project  of  dividing  the 
region  now  embraced  in  the  state  into  Indian  reserva- 
tions. This  plan 
was  carried  out,  but 
at  the  close  of  the 
Civil  War  the  Semi- 
noles.  Creeks,  Chick- 
asaws,  and  Choc- 
taws  were  induced 
to  transfer  back  to  I 
the  Government 
14,000,000  acres  of ' 
this  land  at  15  to  30 
cents  per  acre.  Of 
these  lands  the  Okla- 
homa that  was 
opened  to  settlement 
in  1889,  by  procla- 
mation of  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  embraced  1,392,611  acres 
ceded  by  the  Creeks,  and  495,094  acres  ceded  by  the 
Seminoles  in  1866.  The  lands  so  ceded  were  the  west- 
ern portions  of  their  reservations,  including  Oklahoma 
("the  home  of  the  red  man").  The  Government's  ob- 
ject in  obtaining  the  lands  was  to  "colonize  friendly 
Indians  and  freedom  thereon".  Captain  David  L. 
Payne  and  his  "boomers"  declared  the  territory  was 
thus  public  land  and  open  to  the  squatter-settlement. 
Payne  and  his  followers  made  several  attempts  to  set- 
tle on  Oklahoma  soil,  but  the  United  States  troops 
drove  out  the  colonists.  Much  credit  is  due  Payne  and 
his  followers  for  their  many  attempts  at  colonization; 
for  they  caused  the  lands  of  Oklahoma  to  be  opened 
for  white  settlement.  Finally  in  1888  the  Springer 
Bill,  which  provided  for  the  opening  of  Oklahoma  to 
settlement,  although  defeated  in  the  senate,  opened 
the  way  to  partial  success,  and  in  Congress  it  was  at- 
tached as  a  rider  to  the  Indian  Appropriation  Bill,  and 
was  thus  carried.  On  2  March,  1889,  the  Bill  opening 
Oklahoma  was  signed  by  President  Cleveland ;  and  on 
22  March,  President  Harrison  issued  the  proclamation 
that  the  land  would  be  opened  to  settlement  at  12 
o'clock  noon,  22  April,  1889.  The  day  previous  to  the 
opening  it  was  estimated  that  ten  thousand  people 
were  at  Arkansas  City  awaiting  the  signal.  Large 
numbers  were  also  at  Hunnewell,  Caldwell,  and  other 
points  along  the  south  line  of  Kansas.  Fifteen  trains 
carried  people  into  the  territory  from  Arkansas  City 
that  morning.  On  foot,  horseback,  in  wagons,  and 
carriages  people  entered  the  promised  land  all  along  the 
Kansas  border.  Other  thousands  entered  Oklahoma 
from  the  south,  crossing  the  South  Canadian  at  Pur- 
cell.  The  town  of  Lexington  was  perhaps  the  first  vil- 
lage established.  Two  milhon  acres  of  land  were 
thrown  open  to  settlement  and  on  that  eventful  day 
cities  and  towns  and  a  new  commonwealth  were  cre- 
ated in  a  wilderness  within  twenty-four  hours.  On  6 
June,  1890,  Congress  created  the  Territory  of  Okla- 
homa with  six  original  counties.  Nineteen  other  coun- 
ties were  from  time  to  time  created  prior  to  statehood 
by  the  various  acts  of  Congress  which  provided  for  the 
opening  of  different  Indian  reservations  within  the 


OKLAHOMA 


232 


OKLAHOMA 


territory.  On  16  September,  1893,  the  Cherokee 
Strip  Wiis  opened  for  settlement.  This  was  a  strip  of 
land  extending  from  the  Cherokee  Nation  west  to  "No 
Man's  Land"  and  Texas,  being  about  5S  miles  wide 
and  eontainiiig  an  area  of  6,014,293  acres.  This  had 
once  been  guaranteed  to  the  Cherokee  Indians  as  a 
perpetual  hunting  outlet  to  the  western  border  of  the 
United  States.  The  last  great  opening  in  Oklahoma 
occurred  in  December,  1906,  when  .5().'),()()0  acres  of 
land,  which  had  been  reserved  from  the  Comanche  and 
Apache  lands  for  pasturage,  were  sold  in  tracts  of  IGO 
acres  to  the  higlicst  l)id<lers  by  tlie  Government.  In 
this  wise  2500  farms  were  opened  to  white  settlement. 

Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territories  became  a  .state  on 
16  November,  1907.  On  20  November,  1906,  pursu- 
ant to  the  enabling  act  passed  by  Congress,  the  consti- 
tutional convention  assembled  at  Guthrie  and  closed 
its  labours  on  6  July,  1907.  The  constitution  was 
adopted  by  a  vote  of  the  people  on  17  September, 
1907,  and  at  the  same  election  the  officers  of  the  new 
state  were  elected.  The  inauguration  was  held  in 
Guthrie  on  16  November,  1907. 

VI.  CoxsTiTDTioN,  L.\ws  ETC. — When  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States  passed  what  is  known  as  the  en- 
abling act,  enaiiling  the  people  of  Oklahoma  and  of  In- 
dian Territory  to  form  a  constitution  and  be  admitted 
to  the  Union,  it  was  provided  in  said  act:  "That  per- 
fect toleration  of  religious  sentiment  shall  be  secured 
and  that  no  inhabitant  of  the  Slate  shall  ever  be  mo- 
lested in  person  or  property  on  account  of  his  or  her 
mode  of  religious  worship  and  that  polygamous  or 
plural  marriages  are  forever  prohibited".  The  Con- 
stitution of  the  State  provides  for  the  freedom  of  wor- 
ship in  the  same  language  as  quoted  above  but  pro- 
vides further:  "No  rehgious  test  shall  be  required  for 
the  exercise  of  civil  or  political  rights".  Under  the 
statute  law  of  Oklahoma  it  is  a  misdemeanour  for  any 
one  to  attempt,  by  means  of  threats  or  violence,  to 
compel  any  person  to  adopt,  practise,  or  profess  any 
particular  form  of  religious  belief.  It  is  also  a  crime 
under  the  law  for  any  person  to  wilfully  prevent,  by 
threats  or  violence,  another  person  from  performing 
any  lawful  act  enjoined  upon  or  recommended  to  such 
person  by  the  religion  which  he  professes.  Every  per- 
son who  wilfully  disturbs,  interrupts,  or  disquiets  any 
assemblage  of  people  met  for  religious  worship,  by 
uttering  profane  discourse,  or  making  unnece-ssary 
noise  within  or  near  the  place  of  meeting,  or  obstruct- 
ing the  free  passage  to  such  place  of  religious  meeting, 
is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour.  The  laws  of  Oklahoma 
provide  that:  "The  first  day  of  the  week  being  by  very 
general  consent  set  apart  for  rest  and  religious  uses, 
the  law  makes  a  crime  to  be  done  on  that  day  certain 
acts  deemed  useless  and  serious  interruptions  of  the 
repose  and  religious  liberty  of  the  community";  and 
the  following  arc  the  acts  forbidden  on  Sunday:  ser- 
vile labour;  public  sports;  trades,  manufacturing  and 
mechanical  employments;  public  traffic;  serving  pro- 
cess, unless  authorized  by  law  so  to  do. 

Oaths  can  be  administered  only  by  certain  judicial 
officers  and  their  clerks  authorized  by  law,  and  persons 
conscientiously  opposed  to  swearing  are  allowed 
merely  to  affirm  but  are  amen.able  to  the  penalties  of 

Cerjury.  Oaths  can  be  taken  only  when  authorized 
y  law.  Under  the  state  law  blasphemy  consists  in 
wantonly  uttering  or  publishing  words,  casting  con- 
tumelious reproach  or  profane  ridicule  upon  God, 
Jesus  Christ,  the  Holy  Gliost,  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
or  the  Christian  or  any  other  religion.  Blasphemy  is 
a  misdemeanour.  Profane  swearing  as  defined  by  the 
state  law  is:  "Any  use  of  the  name  of  God,  or  Jesus 
Christ,  or  the  Holy  Ghost  either  in  imprecating  divine 
vengeance  upon  the  utterer  or  any  other  person,  or  in 
light,  trifling  or  irreverent  speech."  It  is  punishable 
by  fine,  for  each  offence.  It  is  customary  to  convene 
the  Legislature  of  the  State  with  prayer,  but  the  law 
makes  no  provision  for  it.     Every  Sunday  and  Christ- 


mas are  legal  holidays.  There  is  no  statute  law  re- 
garding the  seal  of  confession,  nor  has  there  ever  been 
adi'ci.sionof  the  Supreme  Court  regarding  it.  Churches 
may  lie  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  Oklaliouia  and 
I  lie  greatest  latitude  is  given  sueli  corporations.  They 
may  own  or  huld  as  much  real  properly  as  is  necessary 
for  I  lie  (ibje<'ls  of  the  association,  may  sell  or  mortgage 
liroperty,  and  the  title  to  any  property  held  by  any 
bisliop  in  trust  for  the  use  and  benefit  of  such  con- 
gregation shall  be  vested  in  his  successor  or  successors 
in  ollice.  The  law  provides  for  a  fee  of  $2.00  to  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  incorporating  any  religious  cor- 
poration. All  the  property  and  mortgages  on  prop- 
erty used  exclusively  for  religious  or  charitable 
purposes  are  exempt  from  ta.xation.  The  clergy  are 
exempt  from  jury  and  military  service  under  the  laws 
of  the  state. 

Any  unmarried  male  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  or 
upwards  and  any  unmarried  female  of  the  age  of  eigh- 
teen or  upwards,  if  not  related  by  blood  nearer  than 
second  cousins,  are  capable  of  contracting  and  con- 
senting to  marriage.  The  contracting  parties  are  re- 
quired to  secure  a  licence  after  filing  an  application 
sworn  to  before  the  county  judge  by  a  person  legally 
competent  to  make  and  take  oath.  The  marriage 
ceremony  may  be  solemnized  by  any  judge,  justice 
of  the  peace,  or  any  priest  or  clergyman.  The  minis- 
ter is  required  to  make  the  proper  indorsement  on  the 
licence  and  transmit  same  to  the  county  judge.  All 
Indian  marriages,  under  Indian  customs,  prior  to  1897 
have  been  declared  legal  and  all  Indian  divorces 
among  Indians,  according  to  their  customs,  prior  to 
that  year  have  been  declared  legal.  Since  1897  In- 
dians have  had  to  comply  with  the  laws  of  the  state 
regarding  marriage  and  divorce.  Prior  to  1893  the 
law  required  a  residence  of  only  ninety  days  in  order 
to  file  petition  for  a  divorce.  The  state  laws  now  re- 
quire a  residence  of  one  year  prior  to  filing  petition 
and  there  are  ten  grounds  or  causes  upon  which  a 
divorce  may  be  granted,  such  as  abandonment,  ex- 
treme cruelty,  drunkenness,  adultery,  impotency, 
gross  neglect  of  duty  etc.  A  judgment  of  divorce 
is  final  and  conclusive  and  operates  as  a  dissolution  of 
the  marriage  contract  as  to  both  husband  and  wife. 
Neither  party  to  the  divorce  can  marry  within  six 
months  from  the  date  of  the  decree. 

Prior  to  statehood  the  sale  of  liquor  in  the  Indian 
Territory  was  prohibited  by  United  States  law. 
Oklahoma  Territory  was  not  governed  by  that  law 
and  liquor  was  sold  in  all  parts  of  Oklahoma.  The 
enabling  act  that  Congress  passed  provided  for  state- 
wide prohibition  and  the  constitutional  convention 
made  provision  for  a  prohibitory  clause  which  was 
voted  upon  by  the  people  of  the  state,  but  voted 
upon  separately  from  the  constitution.  The  prohibi- 
tion clause  carried,  and  since  statehood  Oklahoma 
has  been  a  prohibition  state.  The  new  state  has  begun 
to  construct  modern  buildings  for  its  prisons  and  re- 
formatories, and  has  passed  many  laws  for  regulation 
of  same.  A  law  that  was  enacted  and  included  in  the 
constitution  provided  for  the  office  of  commissioner  of 
charities  and  corrections,  and  since  statehood  the  of- 
fice has  been  filled  by  a  Catholic  woman. 

The  laws  regarding  wills  and  testaments  in  this 
state  differ  very  little  from  the  general  statutory 
provisions  of  other  states.  Property  can  be  devised 
practically  any  way  that  the  testator  desires;  there 
IS  no  bar  to  charitable  bequests  and  the  law  requires 
that  the  property  be  distributed  according  to  the 
intention  of  the  party  making  the  bequest.  Ceme- 
tery corporations  may  hold  real  property,  not  exceed- 
ing eight  acres,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  a  burial  ground 
and  are  given  all  the  powers  necessary  to  carry  out  the 
purposes  of  the  corporation,  and  any  cemetery  or- 
ganized or  controlled  by  any  fraternal  organization  or 
congregation  shall  be  controlled  and  managed  as  pro- 
vided by  their  rules  and  by-laws.     All  the  property  so 


OKLAHOMA 


233 


OKLAHOMA 


held  is  wholly  exempt  from  taxation,  assessments,  lien, 
attachiiifiit,  and  sale  upon  execution. 

VII.  niocEsi;  OF  Oklahoma. — What  is  now  the  Dio- 
cese i  if  Oklaliiinia  was  formerly  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Iiiili;iii  'Pcriitory.  The  diocese  comprises  the  entire 
Stall- 1  if  ( )khihoma.  Prior  to  the  opening  of  Oklahoma 
in  INSO  there  were  only  a  few  missions  and  scarcely 
any  churches.  At  the  present  time  (1910)  there  are 
within  the  state  53  churches  with  resident  priests  and 
71  missions  with  churches,  300  stations  attended 
occasionally  and  12  chapels,  60  secular  priests  and  34 
Benedictines,  14  of  whom  are  in  the  missions.  The 
Benedictine  Fathers  were  the  first  missionaries  and 
they  established  themselves  at  Sacred  Heart  Abbey 
in  Pottawatomie  County  in  1880.  The  first  prefect- 
Apostolic  was  the  Rt.  Rev.  Isidore  Robot,  O.S.B.,  his 
appointment  dating  from  1877.  Catholicism  in  Okla- 
homa owes  much  to  his  persevering  efforts.  A  native 
of  France,  he  introduced  the  Benedictine  order  in  the 
Indian  country,  choosing  the  home  of  the  Pottawa- 
tomie Indians  as  the  centre  of  his  missionary  labours. 
M  this  time  a  few  Catholics  other  than  the  Potta- 
watomie and  Osage  Indians  were  scattered  over  this 
vast  country.  Soon  after  Robot's  appointment  as 
prefect  Apostolic  he  had  the  foundations  of  Sacred 
Heart  College  and  St.  Mary's  Academy  well  estab- 
lished, the  latter  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy. 
These  institutions  have  grown  and  prospered.  Father 
M.  Bernard  Murphy  was  the  first  American  to  join 
the  Benedictine  order  and  from  1S77  was  the  constant 
companion  and  co-worker  of  Father  Robot  until  the 
latter's  death.  Father  Robot  fulfilled  his  charge  well 
and  laid  a  solid  foundation  upon  which  others  were 
to  build  as  the  great  state  developed.  He  died  15 
February,  1887,  and  his  humble  grave  is  in  the  little 
Campo  Santo  at  Sacred  Heart  Abbey.  Well  did  he 
say:  "Going,  I  went  forth  weeping,  sowing  the  word 
of  God;  coming,  they  will  come  rejoicing,  bearing  the 
sheaves." 

The  second  prefect  Apostolic  was  Rt.  Rev.  Ignatius 
Jean,  O.S.B.,  whose  appointment  followed  immedi- 
ately after  the  death  of  Father  Robot.  Father  Jean 
resigned  in  April,  1890.  From  the  coming  of  Father 
Robot,  Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territories  had  been  a 
prefecture  Apostohc,  but  by  the  Bull  of  29  May,  1891, 
it  was  erected  into  a  vicariate  Apostolic.  The  Right 
Rev.  Bishop  Meerschaert  was  the  first  vicar  Apostolic 
of  Indian  Territory,  being  consecrated  in  Natchez, 
Miss.  On  23  August,  1905,  by  a  brief  of  Pius  X  the 
vicariate  was  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Oklahoma 
with  the  see  in  Oklahoma  City.  Prior  to  this  time 
the  see  had  been  in  Guthrie.  The  Right  Reverend 
Bishop  Theophile  Meerschaert,  the  first  Bishop  of 
Oklahoma,  was  born  at  Roussignies,  Belgium.  He 
studied  at  the  American  College,  Louvain,  Belgium, 
finishing  his  course  there.  Coming  to  America  in 
1872  he  laboured  in  the  Diocese  of  Natchez,  Mis.s., 
until  1891.  By  his  example  and  his  labours  he  has 
endeared  himself  to  his  own  flock,  and  also  to  fair- 
minded  non-Catholics.  When  his  administration  be- 
gan, his  labours  were  difficult  and  perplexing;  he  was 
compelled  to  travel  long  distances  and  weary  miles  on 
horseback,  railroad  facilities  being  very  meagre  and 
accommodations  poor.  In  those  days  Alass  was  cele- 
brated many  times  in  dugouts,  no  house  being  avail- 
able, and  churches  were  very  few  and  only  in  the  larger 
towns.  Development  has  come  with  the  multitudes 
of  people  who  have  come  to  this  new  country  to  make 
homes,  bringing  with  them  the  best  ideas  of  the  old 
states  from  which  they  came.  The  labours  of  the 
laishop  have  been  manifold  on  account  of  the  great 
influx  of  people,  but  the  Church  has  kept  pace  with  all 
the  other  developments  under  his  guidance  and  per- 
severance, until  at  the  present  time  (1910)  there  are 
within  the  diocese  about  32,000  Catholics  and  86 
priests  (22  from  Belgium,  12  from  Holland,  15  from 
France,  12  from  Germany,  3  from  Ireland,  1  from 


Canada,  1  Indian,  and  20  American  priests).  The 
majority  of  these  priests  were  educated  at  Louvain, 
Strasburg,  or  Rome.  There  are  two  parishes  for 
non-English  speaking  Catholics  in  the  diocese,  one 
Polish  at  Harrah  and  one  German  at  Okarche.  The 
parochial  schools  are  conducted  by  both  Brothers  and 
Sisters,  some  few  by  lay-teachers.  The  Brothers  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  and  the  Christian  Brothers  have 
schools  within  the  diocese.  The  sisterhoods  within 
the  diocese  are:  Sisters  of  Mercy  (mother-house  in 
Oklahoma  City),  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence 
(mother-house  in  San  Antonio,  Texas),  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis,  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  and  Sisters  of  the 
Precious  Blood.  There  are  thirty-six  schools  for 
white  children,  fifteen  for  Indians,  two  for  coloured 
children;  thirty-six  parishes  with  schools;  one  indus- 
trial school;  two  colleges  for  boys:  St.  Joseph's  College 
at  Muskogee,  under  the  direction  of  Brothers  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  and  the  College  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
under  the  direction  of  the  Benedictine  Fathers. 
There  are  eight  academies  for  young  ladies,  the  princi- 
pal ones  being  Mt.  St.  Mary's  Academy  at  Oklahoma 
City  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  and  the  acad- 
emy at  Guthrie  conducted  by  the  Benedictine  Sisters. 
There  is  one  seminary  for  students  of  the  Benedictine 
order.  There  are  in  the  diocese  14  Benedictine 
Brothers,  5  Christian  Brothers,  8  Brothers  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  and  234  Sisters  in  the  various  congrega- 
tions. The  novitiates  are:  Sisters  of  Mercy  at  Okla- 
homa City,  Benedictine  Sisters  at  Guthrie,  and  Bene- 
dictine Fathers  at  Sacred  Heart.  St.  Anthony's 
Hospital  at  Oklahoma  City  is  conducted  by  the  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Francis. 

Oklahoma  City,  the  metropolis,  with  a  population 
of  about  65,000  (1910)  has  one  church,  St.  Joseph's 
Cathedral,  the  pastor  of  which.  Rev.  B.  Mutsaers, 
D.D.,  has  two  assistants:  Rev.  John  Gruenewald  and 
Rev.  Victor  Van  Durrae.  Muskogee  has  a  popula- 
tion of  25,000  and  one  church.  Rev.  Jos.  Van  Hulse 
pastor;  Enid  has  a  population  of  20,000  and  one  church. 
Very  Rev.  Gustave  Dupreitere,  vicar-general,  pastor. 
Other  cities  having  one  church  and  a  resident  priest 
are  Shawnee,  Tulsa,  El  Reno,  Guthrie,  Chickasha,  and 
McAlester.  There  are  three  churches  and  two  schools 
for  negroes,  the  latter  attended  by  120  children. 

Most  of  the  Indians  within  the  diocese  are  Baptists 
and  Methodists.  Some  of  the  Pottawatomies  are 
Catholics,  among  the  Choctaws  there  are  a  great 
many,  and  the  Osage  tribe  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
state  is  entirely  Cathohc.  The  spiritual  interests  of 
the  Osage  Indians  are  attended  to  by  Rev.  Edward 
Van  Waesberghe  at  Pawhuska.  There  are  Indian 
Mission  Schools  at  Purcell,  Anadarko,  Chickasha, 
Antlers,  Pawhuska,  Gray  Horse,  Quawpaw,  Ard- 
more,  Muskogee,  and  Vinita.  1590  Indian  pupils  at- 
tend these  mission  schools.  These  schools  are  sup- 
ported by  money  coming  from  Re\'.  Mother  Katherine 
Drexel,  the  Indian  Bureau  at  Washington,  D.  C,  and 
from  Catholic  residents  of  the  state.  Much  credit  is 
due  Rev.  Isidore  Ricklin,  O  S.B.,  of  Anadarko,  Rev. 
Edw.  Van  Waesberghe  of  Pawhuska,  Rev.  Hubert 
Van  Rechem,  and  Rev.  F.  S.  Teyssier  of  Antlers,  all  of 
whom  have  laboured  many  years  in  the  Indian  Mis- 
sions. 

In  regard  to  the  immigrants  the  Italians,  Bohe- 
mians, Germans,  Syrians,  Mexicans,  and  French  form 
settlements;  but  the  people  of  other  nationalities  as- 
similate because  they  are  not  numerous  enough  to 
form  settlements  and  for  the  further  reason  that  by 
assimilation  they  can  learn  the  English  language  more 
rapidly.  From  the  time  of  the  opening  of  Oklahoma 
in  1889  many  Catholics  have  moved  into  this  diocese. 
At  the  present  time  (1910)  there  is  a  good  class  of 
Catholics  in  the  diocese  and  many  practical  Cath- 
olics are  constantly  coming  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
There  are  retreats  for  clergy  every  two  years  and  eccle- 
siastical conferences  are  called  every  four  months.    In 


OLAF 


234 


OLAH 


1908  thoro  wore  baptisms,  whito  children  1248,  adults 
327,  Indians  172,  ncKrocs  9;  marriages  290;  confirma- 
tions 1185.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese 
on  31  Dec,  190S,  nuinhereU  about  3:5,472,  of  which 
29,613  were  whites,  3463  Indians,  396  negroes. 

Hll  L,  1  IIMory  of  the  Stale  of  Oklahoma  (ChicaRO,  190S) ;  Rock. 
Hi>lonj  of  Oklahoma  (Widiitn.  1890):  Tindall.  MakerR  of  Okla- 
homa (Guthrie.  1905);  Thobuhx  and  Holcomb.  A  History  of 
Oklahoma  (San  Francisco.  190.S);  The  Oklahoman  Annual  Al- 
manac, and  Industrial  Record  (Oklahoma  City.  1909). 

Mont  F.  Highley. 

Olaf  Haraldson,  S.\int,  martyr  and  King  of  Nor- 
way (ll)l.'i-:;i)).  1).  99.5;  d.  29  July,  1030.  He  was  a 
son  of  King  llaruld  C.renskeof  Norway.  According 
to  Snorre.  he  was  l)iii)tizcd  in  998  in  Norway,  but  more 
probably  about  1011)  in  Koucn.  I^'rance,  by  Archbishop 
Robert."  In  his  early  youth  he  went  as  a  viking  to 
England,  where  he  partook  in  many  battles  and  be- 
came earnestly  interested  in  Christianity.  After 
many  difficulties  he  was  electeil  King  of  Norway,  and 
made  i  t  his  object  to  extiriiat  e  heathenism  and  make  the 
Christian  religion  the  basis  of  his  kingdom.  He  is  the 
great  Norwegian  legislator  for  the  Church,  and,  like 
his  ancestor  (Olaf  Trygvesson),  made  frequent  severe 
attacks  on  the  old  faith  and  customs,  demolishing 
the  temples  and  building  Christian  churches  in  their 
place.  He  brought  many  bishops  and  priests  from 
England,  as  King  Saint  Cnut  later  did  to  Denmark. 
Some  few  are  known  by  name  (Grimkel,  Sigfrid,  Ru- 
dolf, Bernliard) .  He  seems  on  the  whole  to  have  taken 
the  Anglo-Saxon  conditions  as  a  model  for  the  ecclesi- 
astical organization  of  his  kingdom.  But  at  last 
the  exasperation  against  him  got  so  strong  that  the 
mighty  clans  rose  in  rebellion  against  him  and  applied 
to  Kiiig  Cnut  of  Denmark  and  England  for  help. 
This  was  willingly  given,  whereupon  Olaf  was  expelled 
and  Cnut  elected"  King  of  Norway.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  resentment  against  Olaf  was  due 
not  alone  to  his  Christianity,  but  also  in  a  high  degree 
to  his  unflinching  struggle  against  the  old  constitution 
of  shires  and  for  the  unity  of  Norway.  He  is  thus 
regariied  by  the  Norwegians  of  our  days  as  the  great 
champion  of  national  independence,  and  CathoUc  and 
Protestant  alike  may  find  in  Saint  Olaf  their  great 
ideal. 

After  two  years'  exile  he  returned  to  Norw-ay  with 
an  army  and  met  his  rebellious  subjects  at  Stiklestad, 
where  the  celebrated  battle  took  place  29  July, 
1030.  Neither  King  Cnut  nor  the  Danes  took  part 
at  that  battle.  King  Olaf  fought  with  great  cour- 
age, but  was  mortally  wounded  and  fell  on  the 
battlefield,  praying  "God  help  me".  ^Iany  miracu- 
lous occurrences  are  related  in  connexion  with  his 
death  and  his  disinterment  a  year  later,  after  belief 
in  ids  sanctity  had  spread  widely.  His  friends. 
Bishop  Grimkel  and  Earl  Einar  Tambeskjelver,  laid 
the  corpse  in  a  coffin  and  set  it  on  the  high-altar  in  the 
church  of  St.  Clement  in  Nidaros  (now  Trondhjem). 
Olaf  has  since  been  held  as  a  saint,  not  only  by  the 
people  of  Norway,  but  also  by  Rome.  His  cult  spread 
widely  in  the  Middle  Ages,  not  only  in  Norway,  but 
also  in  Denmark  and  Sweden;  even  in  London,  there 
is  in  Hart  Street  a  St.  Olave's  Church,  long  dedicated 
to  the  canonized  King  of  Norway.  In  1856  a  fine  St. 
Olave's  Church  was  erected  in  Christiania,  the  capital 
of  Norway,  where  a  large  relic  of  St.  Olaf  (a  donation 
from  the  Danish  Royal  Museum)  is  preserved  and 
venerated.  The  arms  of  Norway  are  a  lion  with  the 
battle-axe  of  St.  Olaf  in  the  forepaws. 

Storu.  Snorre  Slurlason's  Olav  den  Helliges  Saga ;  Munch,  Det 
norske  Polks  Historic;  Sars,  Udsigt  oner  den  norske  Historic; 
Daae,  Norges  Helgener;  Oeverland,  Illustreret  Norges  Historic 
(not  rehable);  Vicabv,  Oiac  the  King  and  Olav  King  and  Martyr 
(London,  1887). 

Niels  Hansen. 

Olah  ("OLAFifs),  NicoLAi'S,  Archbishop  of  Gran 
and  Primate  of  Hungarj%  a  distinguished  prelate,  b.  10 
January,  1493,  at  Nagyszeben  (Hermanstadt) ;  d.  at 


Nagyszombat,  15  Jan.,  1.568.  His  father,  Stephen,  a 
brother-in-law  of  John  Hunyadi,  W!us  of  Wallachian 
descent;  his  mother  w.'is  Rarb.ara  lluszar  (also  known 
iis  Csaszar).  His  autobiographical  notes  and  corre- 
spondcnre  throw  light  on  his  life.  After  having  studied 
at  the  Chaiiter  School  of  V^rad  from  1505  to  1512,  he 
became  a  page  at  the  courtof  Wladislaw  II,  butshortly 
afterwartls  chose  an  ecclesiastical  career,  and  was  or- 
dained a  priest  in  1516  or  1518.  While  acting  as  secre- 
tary to  Georg  Szatmdry,  Bishop  of  Funfkirchen,  he 
was  appointed  a  canon  of  that  chapter,  later  of  Gran, 
and  1522  became  Archdi'acon  of  Koniorn.  In  1526  he 
was  made  secretary  to  King  L<iuis  II;  but  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  service  of  (^icen  Maria.  After  the  battle 
of  Mohdcs,  Oldh  attached  himself  to  the  party  of  King 
Ferdinand  I,  but  retained  his  position  with  the  queen- 
dowager.  In  1527  he  w;us  appointed  "custos"  or  head 
of  the  Chapter  of  Stuhlweissenburg,  and  accompanied 
the  queen-dowager  in  1530  to  the  imperial  diet  at 
Augsburg.  When  in  1531  she  became  Stadtholder  of 
the  Netherlands,  he  went  with  her  to  Belgium,  where 
he  remained  (with  a  brief  interruption  in  1539)  until 
his  return  to  Hungary  in  1542.  In  the  following  year 
he  was  made  by  r"erdinand  I  royal  chancellor  and 
Bishop  of  Agram.  In  1548  he  became  Bishop  of  Er- 
lau,  and  in  1553  Archbishop  of  Gran.  As  such  he 
crowned  Maximilian  King  of  Hungary,  and  performed 
the  solemn  obsequies  (1563)  over  Ferdinand  I.  As 
Archbishop  of  Gran,  Oldh's  first  care  was  to  put  order 
into  the  finances  and  property  of  the  archdiocese.  He 
had  the  "Jus  Piseti"  again  enforced,  i.  e.  the  right  of 
supervision  over  the  mint  at  Kormoczbdnya,  for 
which  surveillance  the  archdiocese  enjoyed  a  large 
revenue.  At  his  own  expense,  he  redeemed  the  hypoth- 
ecated provostship  of  Tur6cz,  also  the  encumbered 
possessions  of  the  Diocese  of  Neutra.  Oldh  likewise, 
as  Archbishop  of  Gran,  exercised  a  supervision  over 
the  Diocese  of  Erlau,  and  (with  the  consent  of  the 
Holy  See)  administered  the  Archdiocese  of  Kalocsa, 
vacant  for  20  years.  After  the  capture  of  Gran  by  the 
Turks,  the  archiepiscopal  residence  was  at  Nagyszom- 
bat or  Pozsony. 

Oldh  was  particularly  active  in  the  Counter-Refor- 
mation (q.  v.);  even  before  his  elevation  to  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  Gran,  he  had  been  a  very  zealous  oppo- 
nent of  the  new  Protestant  teachings.  As  Primate  of 
Hungary  he  threw  himself  with  renewed  energy  into 
the  great  conflict,  aiming  especially  at  the  purity  of 
Catholic  Faith,  the  restoration  of  ecclesiastical  disci- 
pline, the  reformation  of  the  clergy,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  new  schools.  The  mountain  cities  of  Upper 
Hungary,  in  which  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation 
had  made  considerable  progress,  attracted  his  partic- 
ular attention.  He  organized  a  visitation  of  the  arch- 
diocese, which  he  in  great  part  conducted  in  person, 
besides  convoking,  with  a  similar  intention,  a  number 
of  diocesan  synods.  The  first  of  these  synods  was  held 
in  1560  at  Nagyszombat;  at  its  close  he  promulgated 
a  code  of  dogmatic  and  moral  instructions,  intended 
for  the  clergy,  pubhshed  during  that  and  the  following 
year.  In  1561  a  provincial  synod  was  held,  likewise  at 
Nagyszombat,  to  discuss  the  participation  of  the  bish- 
ops of  Hungary  in  the  Council  of  Trent,  short ly  before 
re-convened.  While  it  is  not  certain  that  Oldh  took 
part  in  that  council,  or  that  he  promulgated  in  Hun- 
gary its  decrees  of  1562  and  1564,  it  is  known  that  he 
folfowed  its  dehberations  with  close  attention  and 
practically  adopted  in  Hungary  some  of  its  decisions. 
In  1563  Oldh  submitted  to  the  council  a  lengthy  mem- 
orial, in  which  he  urged  the  importance  of  dealing  with 
the  critical  situation  of  the  Hungarian  Church  and  de- 
scribing in  strong  language  the  cfTorts  he  had  made  to 
overcome  the  demorahzation  that  had  seized  on  the 
clergy.  It  was  particularly  through  school-reform  and 
the  proper  instruction  of  youth  that  he  hoped  to  offset 
the  progress  of  the  Reformation.  He  restored  the  ca- 
thedral school  at  Gran,which  had  fallen  into  decay  when 


OLBA 


235 


OLD 


that  city  was  captured  by  the  Turks;  he  transferred  it, 
however,  to  his  archiepiscopal  city  of  Nagyszombat 
and  confided  it  to  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  invited  to 
Hungary  in  1561.  and  who,  by  their  preaching  and 
spiritual  ministrations,  profoundly  influenced  the  re- 
ligious life  of  the  nation.  Among  the  publications  in- 
itiated by  him  were  the  "Brcviarium  Ecclesia;  Strigo- 
niensis"  (15.5S),  and  the  "Ordo  et  Ritus  EcclesiiE 
Strigoniensis"  (1.560).  The  revival  of  the  custom  of 
ringing  the  Angelus  was  due  to  him.  As  chancellor 
and  confidant  of  Ferdinand  I,  Oldh  possessed  much 
political  influence,  which  he  exercised  in  the  special  in- 
terest of  the  Catholic  religion.  In  1562  he  acted  as 
royal  Stadtholder.  He  was  a  diligent  writer;  his  works 
("Hungaria  et  Attila";  "Genesis  filiorum  Regis  Fer- 
dinandi";  "Ephemerides".  and  "Brevis  descriptio 
vitre  Benedict!  Zerchsky  ")  were  edited  by  Kovachich, 
in  Vol.  I  of  the  "Scriptores  minores". 

Hergenrother,  Histoire  de  Veglise,  V,  394  {tr.  Belet);  For- 
Gach.  De  statu  reipublicw  hungaTica  Ferdinando,  Johanne,  Maxi- 
miliano  Tegibus  Commentarii  in  Mon,  Hung,  Htstorica:  Scriptores, 
XVI  (Pesth,  1866):  B^L.  Adparatus  ad  Historiam  Hungaria: 
(Posen,  1735) ;  Dank(5  in  Kirchenlei.,  s.  v. 

A.  Aldasy. 

Olba,  a  titular  see  in  Isauria,  suffragan  of  Seleucia. 
It  was  a  city  of  Cetis  in  Cilicia  Aspera,  later  forming 
part  of  Isauria;  it  had  a  temple  of  Zeus,  whose  priests 
were  once  kings  of  the  country,  and  became  a  Roman 
colony.  Strabo  (XIV,  5,  10)  and  Ptolemy  (V,  8,  6) 
call  it  Olbasa;  a  coin  of  Dioca^sarea,  Olbos;  Hierocles 
(Synecdemus,  709),  Olbe;  Basil  of  Seleucia  (Mirac.  S. 
Theclae,  2, 8)  and  the  Greek  "  Notitiae  episcopatuum  ", 
Olba.  The  primitive  name  must  have  been  Ourba  or 
Orba,  found  in  Theophanes  the  Chronographer,  hence 
Ourbanopohs  in  "Acta  S.  Bartholomei".  Its  ruins, 
north  of  Selefkeh  in  the  vilayet  of  Adana,  are  called 
Oura.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christ.,  II,  1031)  gives  four 
bishops  between  the  fourth  and  seventh  centuries; 
but  the  "Notitia;  episcopat."  mentions  the  see  until 
the  thirteenth  century. 

S.MITH,  Did.  Greek  and  Roman  Geog,  a.  v.  Obasa:  Ramsat.  Asia 
Minor,  22.  336,  364-75.  See  MOllek'8  notes  to  Ptolemy,  ed. 
DiDOT,  II.  898. 

S.  PilTRIDfes. 

Oldcastle,  Sir  John.    See  Lollards. 

Old  Catholics,  the  sect  organized  in  German- 
speaking  countries  to  combat  the  dogma  of  Papal  In- 
fallibility. Filled  with  ideas  of  ecclesiastical  Liberal- 
ism and  rejecting  the  Christian  spirit  of  submission  to 
the  teachings  of  the  Church,  nearly  1400  Germans  is- 
sued, in  September,  1870,  a  declaration  in  which  they 
repudiated  the  dogma  of  Infallibility  "as  an  innova- 
tion contrary  to  the  traditional  faith  of  the  Church". 
They  were  encouraged  by  large  nuiubers  of  scholars, 
politicians,  and  statesmen,  and  were  acclaimed  by  the 
Liberal  press  of  the  whole  world.  The  break  with  the 
Church  began  with  this  declaration,  which  was  put 
forth  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  the 
German  bishops  issued,  at  Fulda  on  30  August,  a  com- 
mon pastoral  letter  in  support  of  the  dogma.  It  was 
not  until  10  April,  1871,  that  Bishop  Hefele  of  Rotten- 
burg  issued  a  letter  concerning  the  dogma  to  his  clergy. 
By  the  end  of  1870  all  the  Austrian  and  Swiss  bishops 
had  done  the  same. 

The  movement  against  the  dogma  was  carried  on 
with  such  energy  that  the  first  Old  Catholic  Congress 
was  able  to  meet  at  Munich,  22-24  September,  1871. 
Before  this,  however,  tlie  Archbishop  of  Munich  had 
excommunicated  DoUinger  on  17  April,  1871,  and 
later  also  Friedrich.  The  congress  was  attended  by 
over  300  delegates  from  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switz- 
erland, besides  friends  from  Holland,  France,  Spain, 
Brazil,  Ireland,  and  representatives  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  with  German  and  American  Protestants. 
The  moving  spirit  in  this  and  all  later  assemblies  for 
organization  was  Johann  Friedrich  von  Schulte,  the 
professor  of  dogma  at  Prague.    Von  Schulte  summed 


up  the  results  of  the  congress  as  follows :  Adherence  to 
the  ancient  Catholic  faith ;  maintenance  of  the  rights 
of  Catholics  as  such;  rejection  of  the  new  dogmas;  ad- 
herence to  the  constitution  of  the  ancient  Church  with 
repudiation  of  every  dogma  of  faith  not  in  harmony 
with  the  actual  consciousness  of  the  Church ;  reform  of 
the  Church  with  constitutional  participation  of  the 
laity;  preparation  of  the  way  for  the  reunion  of  the 
Christian  confessions ;  reform  of  the  training  and  posi- 
tion of  the  clergy;  adherence  to  the  State  against  the 
attacks  of  Ultramontanism;  rejection  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus;  solemn  assertion  of  the  claims  of  Catholics  as 
such  to  the  real  property  of  the  Church  and  to  the  title 
to  it.  A  resolution  was  also  passed  on  the  forming  of 
parish  communities,  which  DoUinger  vehemently  op- 
posed and  voted  against.  The  second  congress,  held 
at  Cologne,  20-22  September,  1872,  was  attended  by 
350  Old  Catholic  delegates,  besides  one  Jansenist 
and  three  Anglican  bishops,  Russian  clergy,  and  Eng- 
lish and  other  Protestant  ministers.  The  election 
of  a  bishop  was  decided  on,  and  among  the  most  im- 
portant resolutions  passed  were  those  pertaining  to  the 
organization  of  the  pastorate  and  parishes.  This  was 
followed  by  steps  to  obtain  recognition  of  the  Old 
Catholics  by  various  governments;  the  general  feeling 
of  that  time  made  it  easy  to  obtain  this  recognition 
from  Prussia,  Baden,  and  Hesse.  Professor  Reinkens 
of  Bonn  was  elected  bishop,  4  June,  1873,  and  was  con- 
secrated at  Rotterdam  by  the  Jansenist  Bishop  of  De- 
venter,  Heydekamp,  11  August,  1873.  Having  been 
officially  recognized  as  "Cathohc  Bishop"  by  Prussia, 
19  September,  and  having  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance, 
7  October,  1873,  he  selected  Bonn  as  his  place  of  resi- 
dence. The  bishop  and  his  diocese  were  granted  by 
Prussia  an  annual  sum  of  4800  Marks  ($1200).  Pius 
IX  excommunicated  Reinkens  by  name,  9  November, 
1873;  previous  to  which,  in  the  spring  of  1872,  the 
Archbishop  of  Cologne  had  been  obliged  to  excom- 
municate Hilgers,  Langen,  Reusch,  and  Knoodt,  pro- 
fessors of  theology  at  Bonn.  The  same  fate  had  also 
overtaken  several  professors  at  Braunsberg  and  Bres- 
lau.  The  fiction  brought  forward  by  Friedrich  von 
Schulte  that  the  Old  Catholics  are  the  true  Catholics 
was  accepted  by  several  governments  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  and  many  Catholic  churches  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  sect.  This  was  done  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  a  decree  of  the  Inquisition,  dated  17  Sep- 
tember, 1871,  and  a  Brief  of  12  March,  1873,  had  again 
shown  that  the  Old  Catholics  had  no  connexion  with 
the  Catholic  Church;  represented,  therefore,  a  reli- 
gious society  entirely  separate  from  the  Church;  and 
consequently  could  assert  no  legal  claims  whatever  to 
the  funds  or  buildings  for  worship  of  the  Catholic 
Church. 

The  development  of  the  internal  organization  of  the 
sect  occupied  the  congresses  held  at  Freiburg  in  the 
Breisgau,  1874;  at  Breslau,  1876;  Baden-Baden,  1880; 
and  Krefeld,  1884;  as  well  as  the  ordinary  synods. 
The  synodal  constitution,  adopted  at  the  urgency  of 
von  Schulte,  seems  likely  to  lead  to  the  ruin  of  the 
sect.  It  has  resulted  in  unlimited  arbitrariness  and  a 
radical  break  with  all  the  disciplinary  ordinances  of 
Catholicism.  Especially  far-reaching  was  the  aboU- 
tion  of  celibacy,  called  forth  by  the  lack  of  priests. 
After  the  repeal  of  this  law  a  number  of  priests  who 
were  tired  of  celibacy,  none  of  whom  were  of  much  in- 
tellectual importance,  took  refuge  among  the  Old 
Catholics.  The  statute  of  14  June,  1878,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  discipline  among  the  Old  Catholic  clergy 
has  merely  theoretical  value.  A  bishop's  fund,  a  pen- 
sion fund,  and  a  supplementary  fund  for  the  incomes 
of  parish  priests  have  been  formed,  thanks  to  the  aid 
given  by  governments  and  private  persons.  In  the 
autumn  of  1877  Bishop  Reinkens  founded  a  residen- 
tial seminary  for  theological  students,  which,  on  17 
January,  1894,  was  recognized  by  royal  cabinet  order 
as  a  juridical  person  with  an  endowment  of  110,000 


OLD 


236 


OLD 


Marks  ($27,500).  A  house  of  studies  for  gymnasial 
students  call(Ml  the  PauHnum  was  founded  20  April, 
1898,  and  a  rcsiilcnre  for  tlic  hishup  was  bought.  Be- 
sides other  p('rioili<'al  puUlii'aticnis  there  is  an  official 
church  paper.  Tlie.-<e  statcinciits,  which  refer  mainly 
to  Germany,  may  also  be  applied  in  part  to  the  few 
communities  founded  in  .Austria,  which,  however,  have 
never  reached  any  importance.  In  .Switzerland  the 
clergy,  notwithstanding  the  very  pernicious  agitation, 
acqultt<Ml  theniselves  well,  so  that  only  three  priests 
apostatized.  The  Protestant  cantons,  above  all 
liernc,  Basle,  and  Geneva,  did  everything  possible  to 
promote  the  movement.  .\n  OKI  Catholic  tlieological 
faculty,  in  which  two  radical  Protestants  lectured,  was 
foiuided  at  the  University  of  Berne.  At  the  same  time 
all  the  Swiss  Old  Catholic  communities  organized 
themsel\-es  into  a  "Christian  Catholic  National 
Church"  in  1875;  in  the  next  year  Dr.  Herzog  was 
elected  bishop  and  consecrated  by  Dr.  Reinkens. 
Berne  was  chosen  as  his  place  of  residence.  As  in  Ger- 
man}' so  in  Switzerland  confession  was  done  away  with, 
celibacy  abolished,  and  the  use  of  the  vernacular  pre- 
scribed for  the  ser\'ice  of  the  altar.  Attempts  to  extend 
Old  Catholicism  to  other  countries  failed  completely. 
That  lately  an  apostate  English  priest  named  Arnold 
Mathew,  who  for  a  time  was  a  Unitarian,  married, 
then  united  w'ith  another  suspended  London  priest 
named  O'Halloran,  and  was  consecrated  by  the  Jan- 
senist  Archbishop  of  Utrecht,  is  not  a  matter  of  any 
importance.  Mathew  calls  himself  an  Old  Catholic 
bishop,  but  has  practically  no  following.  Some  of  the 
few  persons  who  attend  his  church  in  London  do  so 
ignorantly  in  the  belief  that  the  church  is  genuinely 
Catholic. 

The  very  radical  liturgical,  disciplinary,  and  con- 
stitutional ordinances  adopted  in  the  first  fifteen  years 
gradually  convinced  even  the  most  friendly  govern- 
ment officials  that  the  fiction  of  the  Catholicism  of  the 
Old  Catholics  was  no  longer  tenable.  The  damage, 
however,  had  been  done,  the  legal  recognition  re- 
mained unchanged,  and  the  grant  from  the  budget 
could  not  easily  be  dropped.  In  Germany,  although 
there  was  no  essential  change  in  this  particular,  yet  the 
political  necessity  which  led  to  a  modus  vivendi  in  the 
Kidturkampf  chilled  the  interest  of  statesmen  in  Old 
Catholics,  particularly  as  the  latter  had  not  been  able 
to  fulfil  their  promise  of  nationalizing  the  Church  in 
Germany.  The  utter  failure  of  this  attempt  was  due 
to  the  solidarity  of  the  violently  persecuted  Catholics. 
In  many  cases  entire  families  returned  to  the  Church 
after  the  first  excitement  had  passed,  and  the  winning 
power  of  the  Old  Catholic  movement  declined  through- 
out Germany  in  the  same  degree  as  that  in  which  the 
KuUurkampf  poweHulW  stinuilated  genuine  Catholic 
feeling.  The  number  of  Old  Catholics  sank  rapidly  and 
steadily;  to  conceal  this  the  leaders  of  the  movement 
made  use  of  a  singular  device.  Up  to  then  Old  Catho- 
lics had  called  themselves  such,  both  for  the  police 
registr>'  and  for  the  census.  They  were  now  directed 
by  their  leaders  to  cease  this  and  to  call  themselves 
simply  Catholics.  The  rapid  decline  of  the  sect  has 
thus  been  successfully  concealed,  so  that  it  is  not  pos- 
sible at  the  present  day  to  give  fairly  exact  statistics. 
The  designation  of  themselves  as  Catholics  by  the  Old 
CathoUcs  is  all  the  stranger  as  in  essential  doctrines 
and  worship  they  hardly  differ  from  a  liberal  form  of 
Protestantism.  However,  the  prescribed  concealment 
of  membership  in  the  Old  Catholic  body  had  this  much 
good  in  it,  that  many  who  had  long  been  secretly  es- 
tranged from  the  sect  were  able  to  return  to  the 
Church  without  attracting  attention.  On  account  of 
these  circumstances  only  Old  Catholic  statistics  of 
some  years  back  can  be  given.  In  1878  there  were  in 
the  German  empire:  122  congregations,  including  44 
in  Baden,  36  in  Prussia,  34  in  Bavaria,  and  about  .52,- 
000  members;  in  1890  there  were  only  about  30,000 
Old  Catholics,  on  account  of  a  decided  decline  in  Ba- 


varia. In  1S77  there  were  in  Switzerland  about  73,- 
000;  in  1.890  only  about  25,000.  In  Austria  at  the 
most  flourishing  perioil  there  were  perhaps  at  the  most 
10,000  adlicrciits,  to-day  there  are  prob.uhly  not  more 
than  tOIK).  It  may  be  said  that  the  total  number  of 
Old  Catholics  in  the  whole  of  Europe  is  not  much 
above  ID.OOO. 

It  seems  strange  that  a  movement  carried  on  with  so 
much  intellectual  vigour  and  one  receiving  such  large 
support  from  tlie  State  should  from  bad  management 
have  gone  to  pieces  thus  rapidly  and  completely,  es- 
j)ecially  as  it  w;i.s  aided  to  large  degree  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland  by  a  violent  attack  ii])(in  Catholics.  The 
rea.son  is  mainly  the  predominant  influence  of  the  laity 
under  whose  control  the  ecclesiastics  were  placed 
by  the  synodal  constitution.  The  abrogation  of  com- 
pulsory celibacy  showed  the  utter  instability  and  lack 
of  moral  foundation  of  the  sect.  Dollinger  repeatedly 
but  vainly  uttered  warnings  against  all  these  destruc- 
tive measures.  In  general  he  held  back  from  any 
active  participation  in  the  congresses  and  synods. 
This  reserve  frequently  irritated  the  leaders  of  the 
movement,  but  Dollinger  never  let  himself  be  per- 
suaded to  screen  with  his  name  things  which  he  con- 
sidered in  the  highest  degree  pernicious.  He  never, 
however,  became  reconciled  to  the  Church,  notwith- 
standing the  many  efforts  made  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Munich.  All  things  considered.  Old  Catholicism  has 
practically  ceased  to  exist.  It  is  no  longer  of  any 
public  importance. 

For  accounts  of  the  movements  and  tendencies  that 
led  up  to  Old  Catholicism  see  Dollingek;  GUnther; 
Hermes;  Infallibility;  Lamennais;  Syllabus; 
Vatican  Council. 

Friedberg,  Aktensliicke  die  altkathoHsche  Bewegung  hetreffend 
(TiibinEen,  IS76J ;  von  Schulte,  Der  AUkatholizismus,  Geschichte 
seiner  Eittuicklung,  innere  (letilaltung  und  rechtlichen  Stellung  in 
Deutschtand  (Ciessen.  ISS7):  Idem.  Lebenerinnerungen.  Mein 
Wirken  ah  Kechtslehrer,  mein  Anted  an  der  Politik  in  Kirche  und 
Staal  (Gicssen,  190S) ;  Verino,  Kirehenrecht  (3rd  ed.,  1893),  gives 
a  good  summary  based  on  the  original  authorities.  Besides  the 
statements  in  the  statistical  year-books  there  is  a  good  account  of 
Old  Catholicism  in  MacCapfbey,  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century.  1789-1909,  I  (Dublin  and  Waterford, 
1909):  Marshall,  Dollinger  and  the  Old  Catholics  in  Amer.  Cath. 
Quart.  Review  (Philadelphia,  1890),  267  sqq.;  cl.  also  files  of  the 
London  Tablet  and  Dublin  Revieio  (1870-71);  Bruck-Kissung, 
Geschichte  der  katholischen  Kirche  ivi  neumehnten  Jahrhundert 
(Miinster,  1908);  Majunke,  Geschichte  des  KuUurkampfes  in 
Preussen-Deutschland  (Paderborn,  1882) ;  Ghanderath-Kibch, 
Geschichte  des  Vatikanischen  Komils  (Freiburg,  1903-06);  cf.  also 
Friedrich,  Geschichte  des  Vatikanischen  Komils  (Bonn,  1877-87) : 
in  addition,  the  very  full  polemical  literature  of  1868-72  concern- 
ing the  council  and  the  question  of  Infallibility  should  be  exam- 
ined. The  most  important  writings  are  briefly  mentioned  in  the 
works  just  mentioned.  The  two  biographies,  from  opposing 
points  of  view,  of  Dollinger  by  Friedrich  (Munich,  1891-1901) 
and  Michael  (Innsbruck,  1892)  contain  much  valuable  material. 

Paul  Maria  Baumgarten. 

Old  Chapter,  The. — The  origin  of  the  body,  for- 
merly known  as  the  Old  Chapter,  dates  from  1623, 
when  after  a  period  of  more  than  half  a  century  during 
which  there  was  no  episcopal  government  in  England, 
Dr.  William  Bishop  was  at  length  created  vicar  Apos- 
tolic. He  survived  less  than  a  year;  but  during  that 
period  he  organized  a  regular  form  of  ecclesiastical 
government,  by  means  of  archdeacons  and  rural  deans, 
throughout  the  country  which  continued  in  force  with 
little  change  down  to  the  re-establishment  of  the  hier- 
archy in  1850.  An  integral  part  of  his  scheme  was 
the  creation  of  a  chapter  consisting  of  twenty-four 
canons  with  Rev.  John  Colleton  as  dean.  The  ecclesi- 
astical status  of  the  chapter  has  always  been  a  matter 
of  dispute.  A  chapter  without  a  diocese  is  an  anornaly , 
unknown  in  canon  law,  and  Rome  always  refrained 
from  any  positive  act  of  recognition.  On  the  other 
hand,  she  equally  refrained  from  any  censure,  al- 
though it  was  known  that  the  chapter  was  claiming 
and  exercising  large  functions.  They  therefore  argued 
that  the  chapter  existed  "sciente  et  tacente  sede  apos- 
tolica"  (with  the  knowledge  and  silent  consent  of  the 
pope)  and  that  this  was  sufficient  to  give  it  a  canonical 


OLDCORNE 


237 


OLDENBURG 


status.  When  Dr.  Bishop  died  they  sent  a  list  of 
names  from  which  his  successor  might  be  chosen,  and 
the  Holy  See  accepted  their  action  choosing  the  first 
name — Dr.  Richard  Smith .  Three  years  later  he  had  to 
leave  the  country,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  Paris. 
After  his  death  the  chapter  assumed  the  right  to  rule 
the  country  in  the  vacancy  of  the  episcopal  office,  and 
for  thirty  years  all  faculties  were  issued  by  the  dean 
who  claimed  the  verbal  approval  of  Alexander  VII. 

When  James  II  ascended  the  throne,  and  England 
was  divided  into  four  districts  or  vicariates,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  chapter  became  still  more  anomalous.  Dr. 
Leyburn,  the  first  vicar  Apostolic  of  that  reign,  was 
required  to  take  an  oath  not  to  recognize  the  chapter, 
and  a  decree  was  issued  in  general  terms  suspending  all 
jurisdiction  of  chapters  of  regulars  and  seculars  so 
long  as  there  were  vicars  Apostolic  in  England;  but 
doubt  was  felt  whether  this  was  meant  to  apply  to  the 
Old  Chapter,  for  the  very  reason  that  its  position  was 
anomalous.  In  practice,  however,  they  submitted, 
and  ceased  to  exercise  any  acts  of  jurisdiction;  but 
they  continued  their  existence.  The  vicars  Apostolic 
themselves  were  usually  members. 

When  the  hierarchy  was  re-established  in  1850,  a 
chapter  was  erected  in  each  diocese,  and  whatever 
claims  to  jurisdiction  the  Old  Chapter  had,  from  that 
time,  ceased.  Not  wishing  to  dissolve,  however,  they 
reconstituted  themselves  as  the  "Old  Brotherhood  of 
the  Secular  Clergy",  the  dean  of  the  chapter  becoming 
president  of  the  brotherhood.  Under  this  title  they 
have  continued  to  the  present  day.  They  meet  twice 
a  year  and  distribute  their  funds  to  various  charities. 

Sehqeant,  Transaclinns  of  English  Secular  Clergy  (1706), 
reprinted  bv  Wiluam  Turnbull,  aa  An  Account  of  the  Chapter 
(1853);  Kirk.  History  of  the  Chapter  (MS.);  Dodd,  Church  His- 
tory of  England,  ed.  Tierney;  Ward,  Catholic  London  a  Century 
ago  (1905);  Burton.  Life  of  Challoner  (1910);  Ward,  Dawn  of  the 
Catholic  Remal  (1909).  See  also  Kirk's  Biographies,  edited  by 
Pollen  and  Burton  (1909).  eontaining  a  list  of  capitulars  (p. 
273) :  most  of  the  proceedings  of  the  chapter  during  the  eigh- 
teenth century  can  be  found  scattered  among  the  biographies. 

Bernard  VVard. 

Oldcorne,  Edward,  Venerable,  martyr,  b.  1561; 
d.  1606.  His  father  was  a  Protestant,  and  his  mother 
a  Catholic.  He  was  educated  as  a  doctor,  but  later 
decided  to  enter 
the  priesthood, 
went  to  the  Eng- 
lish College  at 
Reims,  then  to 
Rome,  where, after 
ordination,  in 
1587,  he  became  a 
Jesuit.  Next  year 
he  returned  to 
England  in  com- 
pany with  Father 
John  Gerard  (q. 
v.),  and  worked, 
chiefly  in  Worces- 
ter, until  he  was 
arrested  with  Fa- 
ther Henry  Garnet 
(q.  V.)  and  taken 
to  the  Tower.  No 
evidence  connect- 
ing him  with  the 
Gunpowder  Plot 
(q.  V.)  could  be  ob- 
tained, and  he  was  executed  for  his  priesthood  only. 
Two  letters  of  his  areatStonyhurst  (Ang.,  Ill,  1;VII, 
60);  the  second,  written  from  prison,  overflows  with 
zeal  and  charity.  His  last  combat  took  place  on  7  April, 
at  Red  Hill,  Worcester.  With  him  suffered  his  faithful 
servant,  the  Ven.  Ralph  Ashby,  who  is  traditionally 
believed  to  have  been  a  Jesuit  lay-brother.  Oldcorne's 
picture,  painted  after  his  death  for  the  Gesil,  is  extant, 
and  a  number  of  his  relics. 


FoLET.  Records  S.J.,  IV,  202;  M0RR13,  John  Gerard,  x;  Gillow, 
BiU.  Did.  Eng.  Cath.,  a.  v. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Oldenburg,  a  grand  duchy,  one  of  the  twenty-six 
federated  states  of  the  German  Empire.  It  consists  of 
three  widely  separated  parts:  the  duchy  of  Oldenburg; 
the  principality  of  Liibeck,  situated  between  Hol- 
stein  and  Mecklenburg;  and  the  principality  of  Birk- 
enfeld,  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  The  duchy  is  bounded  by 
the  North  Sea,  and  by  Hanover.  It  has  an  area  of 
2571  sq.  miles  and  (1  Dec,  1905)  438,8,56  inhabitants. 
Oldenburg  has  2134  sq.  miles  and  353,789  inhabitants; 
Liibeck,  217  sq.  miles  and  38, .583  inhabitants;  and 
Birkenfeld,  202  sq.  miles  and  46,484  inhabitants. 

There  were  in  1905,  in  Oldenburg:  Catholics,  86,- 
865;  Protestants,  264,805;  other  Christians,  1163; 
Jews,  956;  in  Liibeck:  Catholics,  485;  Protestants,  38,- 
064;  other  Christians,  11;  Jews,  23;  in  Birkenfeld: 
Catholics,  8717;  Protestants,  37,047;  other  Christians, 
177;  Jews,  543.  In  the  entire  grand  duchy:  96,067 
Catholics,  399,916  Protestants,  1351  other  Christians, 
1522  Jews.  The  percentage  of  Catholics  among  the 
total  population  is  now  21.9;  in  1871  it  was  22.4. 
The  cause  of  this  lies  in  the  emigration  of  a  part  of 
the  agricultural  population  to  the  industrial  districts 
of  the  neighbouring  provinces. 

The  capital  is  Oldenburg.  In  that  part  of  the  coun- 
try facing  the  North  Sea,  the  population  is  of  Frisian 
descent;  further  inland  it  is  Low  Saxon.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Weser  and  the  Hunte.  Of  great  impor- 
tance to  the  country  are  the  numerous  canals.  The 
chief  industries  are  agriculture,  cattle  raising,  horse- 
breeding,  peat-cutting,  and  fishing.  The  country's 
industrial  establishments  include  brick  factories,  bri- 
quette manufacture,  shipbuilding,  metal  and  iron 
works,  distilleries  of  alcohol  from  rye  and  potatoes. 
The  most  important  articles  of  commerce  are  cattle, 
grain,  lumber,  etc. 

The  country  takes  its  name  from  the  castle  of  Old- 
enburg, erected  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. The  founder  of  the  reigning  house  was  Egilmar, 
who  is  first  mentioned  in  a  document  dated  1088.  His 
territory,  of  which  the  Duke  of  Saxony  was  the  liege 
lord,  was  situated  between  the  country  of  the  Saxons 
and  the  Frisians.  The  wars  with  the  latter  lasted  for 
several  centuries,  and  it  was  not  until  1234  that  one  of 
their  tribes  (the  Stedingians)  succumbed  to  the  Olden- 
burg attacks  in  the  battle  of  Altenesch.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Bremen  was  in  these  wars  an  ally  of  the 
counts  of  Oldenburg.  When  the  famous  Saxon  duke, 
Henry  the  Lion,  was  forced  to  flee  and  the  old  Duke- 
dom of  Saxony  was  partitioned  by  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa  in  1181,  the  oounts  of  Oldenburg  obtained  the 
rights  of  princes  of  the  Empire,  but  took  little  part  in 
its  development  and  progress.  Of  great  importance 
later  on  was  the  marriage  which  Count  Dietrich  the 
Fortunate  (d.  1440),  concluded  with  Heilwigof  S(  hau- 
cnburg  (Schaumburg).  Two  sons  issued  from  this 
marriage.  Christian  and  Gerhard  the  \aliant. 
Through  the  influence  of  his  uncle,  Duke  Adolf  VIII 
of  Schleswig,  Heilwig's  eldest  son.  Christian,  became 
King  of  Denmark  in  1448,  King  of  Norway  in  1450, 
and  King  of  Sweden  in  1457.  This  last  royal  crown 
Christian  lost  again  in  1471.  He  became,  after  the 
death  of  Duke  Adolf,  Duke  of  Schleswig  and  Count  of 
Holstcin.  Christian  became  the  ancestor  of  the 
House  of  Holstein-Oldenburg,  branches  of  which  are 
reigning  to-day  in  Denmark,  Greece,  Norway,  Russia, 
and  Oldenburg. 

The  ancestral  lands  of  Oldenburg  wore  turned  over 
by  Christian  in  1458  to  his  brother  Gerhard  the  Val- 
iant. The  Emperor  Charles  V  gave  Oldenburg  as  a 
fief  to  Count  Anton  I  in  1531.  The  main  lino  became 
extinct  with  the  death  of  Count  Anton  GUnther  (160.3- 
67) .  After  lengthy  quarrels  over  the  succession.  Chris- 
tian V  of  Denmark  became  ruler  of  Oldenburg  in  1676. 
In  1773,  however,  the  Danish  King  Christian  VII  sur- 


OLDENBURG 


238 


OLDENBURG 


rendered  Oldenburg  to  the  Grand  Duke  Paul  of  Rus- 
sia, in  oonsidoration  of  tho  latter's  ronunoiation  of  the 
sovercifinty  of  Soliliswis-Holstein.  Grand  Duke  Paul 
transferred  the  country,  wliich  was  raised  to  a  duke- 
dom in  1777,  to  liis  cousin  Frederick  Augustus.  Tlie 
latter,  who  althouKli  a  I'rotest.mt,  was  I'rince-Iiishop 
of  Liibeck  sine*"  17.')l).  add<'d  the  territory  of  tliefornier 
Catholic  Bishopric  of  L\iheck  to  Oldenburg.  Hecause 
William,  the  son  of  Frederick  Augustus,  was  insane, 
Peter,  first  cousin  of  Frederick  Augustus,  succeeded 
the  latter  in  the  administration  of  the  dukedom.  The 
Bucceoding  rulers  of  the  country  are  descended  from 
this  I'eter.  When  Najxjleon  in  1810  united  the  entire 
German  North  Sea  districts  with  his  empire,  he  de- 
cided to  indemnify  tlie  Duke  of  Oldenburg  for  his  loss 
by  giving  him  other  ilistricts  in  Thuringia.  But  be- 
cause the  duke  refused  those  districts,  Napoleon  pun- 
ished him  by  taking  possession  of  all  Oldenburg  in 
1811  and  by  embodying  it  in  the  Departments  of 
Wesermimdung  and  Oberems.  The  battle  of  Leipzig 
in  1813  brought  liberty  to  Oldenburg.  Peter  again 
grasped  the  reins  of  government.  The  resolutions  of 
the  Vienna  Congress  raised  Oldenburg  to  the  dignity 
of  a  grand  duchy  and  enlarged  it  by  adding  to  it  a  part 
of  the  French  Department  of  the  Saar,  the  old  Wittels- 
bach  Principality  of  Birkenfeld.  After  the  establish- 
ment of  the  German  Federation  in  1815,  Oldenburg 
became  a  member  of  it.  In  the  war  between  Prussia 
and  Austria  in  1866  Oldenburg  added  its  troops  to  the 
Prussian  army  of  the  Main;  later  on  it  joined  the 
North  German  Federation  and  in  1871  the  German 
Empire  as  an  independent  state.  The  reigning  grand 
duke  since  1900  is  Frederick  Augustus  (b.  16  Nov., 
1852). 

The  larger  part  of  the  country  was  Christianized  by 
the  Bishop  of  Bremen,  and  especially  through  the  ef- 
forts of  St.  Willebaldus,  who  was  consecrated  first 
Bishop  of  Bremen  in  787.  Until  the  introduction  of 
the  Lutheran  confession  in  1529  by  Count  Anton  I, 
this  district  was  united  with  the  Archbishopric  of 
Bremen.  The  reformation  here  destroyed  almost  all 
Catholic  life.  The  southern  parts  of  the  duchy,  which 
consist  to-day  of  the  administrative  districts  of 
Cloppenburg  and  Vechta,  were  outlying  missions  of 
the  Osnabriick  Diocese,  attended  from  the  monasteries 
of  the  Benedictines  at  Visbeck  and  Meppen,  which  had 
been  established  by  Charlemagne.  These  parts,  the 
pastoral  care  of  which  chiefly  devolved  on  the  Bene- 
dictine Abbey  of  Corvey,  were  subject  to  the  Prince- 
Bishop  of  Miinster  from  1252  until  1803  under  the 
name  of  "  Niederstift"  and,  therefore,  remained  Cath- 
oUc  during  the  Reformation  period.     The  spiritual 

i'urisdiction  over  the  Niederstift  was  exercised  by  the 
Jishop  of  Osnabriick  and  not  by  the  Bishop  of  Miin- 
ster. In  1688  the  jurisdiction  of  Osnabriick  was  trans- 
ferred to  Miinster.  These  districts  were  ceded  to  Old- 
enburg in  the  conference  of  the  federal  deputies  in 
1803.  In  the  papal  Bull  "Dc  salute  animarum",  16 
July,  1821,  in  regard  to  the  establishment  and  limita- 
tion of  the  Prussian  bishoprics,  all  Oldenburg  was 
transferred  to  the  Prussian  bishopric  of  Miinster;  how- 
ever, there  were  very  few  Catholics  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  country. 

The  principality  of  Liibeck  is  a  part  of  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  the  Northern  Mi.ssions.  The  Princi- 
pality of  Birkenfeld  belongs  to  the  Bishopric  of  Trier. 
The  plan  of  Gran<l  Duke  Paul  to  have  a  separate 
bishopric  for  Oldenburg  failed  on  account  of  finan- 
cial difficulties.  The  relations  between  Church  and 
State  were  adjusted  by  the  convention  of  5  Jan.,  1830. 
The  Apostolic  delegate  to  these  deliberations  was  the 
Prince-Bishop  of  lirmland,  Joseph  of  Hohenzollern. 
The  supreme  guidance  of  the  Catholics  of  Oldenburg 
was  entrusted  to  the  substitute  iOffxzial)  of  the  Bishop 
of  Miinster,  who  resided  in  Vechta.  The  resolutions 
of  the  convention  became  laws  by  order  of  the  grand 
ducal  cabinet  of  5  April,  1831,  under  the  title  "  Funda- 


mentalstatut  der  katholischen  Kirche  in  Oldenburg". 
Simultaneously  there  was  published  "Normativ  zur 
Wahrung  der  landesherrlichen  Majestiitsrechte  circa 
sacra"  (Hcgulations  for  the  maintenance  of  the  ducal 
rights  ciTca  sacra),  of  which  no  notice  had  been  given 
to  the  ecclesiastical  authorities. 

These  regulations  created  "a  commission  for  the  de- 
fence of  State  rights  against  the  Catholic  Church", 
which  exists  to  this  day,  and  which  is  composed  of  two 
higher  State  officials,  one  of  whom  usually  is  a  Catholic 
and  the  other  a  Protestant.  The  work  of  the  commis- 
sion includes  all  negotiations  between  the  government 
and  the  Bisliop  of  Miinster,  jiartieularly  those  relating 
to  the  appointment  of  the  Uilizml,  his  assessors  and 
his  secretary  as  well  as  the  two  deacons;  furthermore 
all  negotiations  between  the  government  and  the  Of- 
fizial,  such  as  those  relating  to  the  appointment  of 
priests,  the  establishment  of  parishes  and  of  ecclesias- 
tical benefices.  The  commission  furthermore  must  ap- 
prove every  sale  or  mortgage  of  church  property.  The 
regulations  further  decreed  that  all  papal  and  episco- 
pal edicts  must  be  approved  by  the  grand  duke  before 
their  publication  in  Oldenburg,  and  that  they  shall  not 
be  valid  without  such  an  approval.  On  account  of 
this  one-sided  unjust  measure  a  long  controversj'  arose 
between  the  government  and  the  Bishop  of  Miinster. 
The  position  of  Offizial  at  Vechta  was  vacant  from  1846 
to  1853.  In  1852  Oldenburg  received  a  constitution. 
This  led  to  an  amelioration  in  the  relations  between 
Church  and  State,  the  ducal  placet  was  abolished  and 
every  religious  community  or  sect  was  permitted  to 
conduct  its  affairs  independently  and  without  interfer- 
ence; church  property  was  distinctly  guaranteed.  But 
as  the  approval  of  the  government  was  required  for  the 
appointment  of  the  clergy  and  clerical  officials,  the 
conflict  continued. 

The  negotiations,  begun  in  Dec,  1852,  between  the 
Bishop  of  Miinster  and  the  government,  dragged 
along  almost  twenty  years.  During  this  conflict  the 
bishop  and  the  Offizial  did  not  appoint  any  parish 
priests;  only  temporary  pastors  were  placed  in  charge 
of  the  parishes  in  which  vacancies  occurred.  In  1868 
an  agreement  was  reached  according  to  which  the 
bishops  filled  clerical  vacancies  after  an  understanding 
in  each  case  with  the  Government,  and  they  further 
agreed  that  the  decrees  of  the  Church  should  be  com- 
municated to  the  Government  simultaneously  with 
their  publication.  Several  minor  points  in  dispute 
were  settled  in  1872.  The  Catholics  of  Oldenburg 
were  not  affected  by  the  severe  trials  of  the  KuUur- 
kampf.  Grand  Duke  Peter  openly  disapproved  of  the 
persecutions  and  of  the  severity  with  which  the  Church 
was  treated  in  Prussia. 

The  Oldenburg  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Miinster  con- 
sists to-day  of  two  deaconries,  Cloppenburg  and 
Vechta.  The  Deaconry  of  Cloppenburg  numbers  38,- 
678  Catholics,  6952  Protestants  and  28  Hebrews;  the 
18  parishes  of  the  Aemter  Cloppenburg  and  Friesoythe 
also  belong  to  it.  The  Deaconry  of  Vechta  numbers 
53,308  Catholics,  264,169  Protestants,  987  Jews;  it 
includes  the  other  18  parishes  of  the  country.  The 
necessary  funds  for  the  payment  of  clerical  expenses 
were  partly  taken  from  the  income  of  several  so-called 
commanderies  in  the  Ami  Friesoythe  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  Order  of  Malta.  The  State  seques- 
trated these  and  other  clerical  possessions  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  agreed  to  turn 
over  the  annual  income  to  the  Catholic  Church,  which 
it  has  done  to  this  day.  Inclufling  these  revenues  the 
State  pays  annually  about  22,000  Marks  for  the  use  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  In  1910  the  Church  obtained 
the  right  of  levying  church-taxes.  The  State  does  not 
forbid  the  foundation  of  religious  houses. 

The  Dominicans  have  a  boarding  college  at  Vechta, 
and  the  Franci.scans  a  house  in  Muhlen,  near  Stcin- 
feld.  Of  female  congregations  there  are  7  houses 
belonging  to  the  sisters  of  the  third  order  of  St.  Fran- 


OLD  HALL 


239 


OLDOINI 


cis;  4  houses  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity;  7  houses  of  the 
Sisters  of  Our  Lady;  1  house  of  the  Poor  Franciscan 
nuns  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary;  1  house 
of  the  Grey  Nuns  of  St.  Ehzabeth;  in  all  there  are  20 
houses  of  female  congregations.  The  sisters  nurse  the 
sicli,  or  teach  in  their  own  schools.  Until  1855  the 
Catholic  schools  were  under  church  control. 

The  law  of  1855  secularized  the  entire  educational 
system  including  the  secondary  schools.  The  Catho- 
lic educational  system  and  the  Protestant  system  are 
each  under  a  separate  school  board.  The  episcopal 
"Offizial"  is  president  of  the  Catholic  Church  board 
which  controls  the  Catholic  "  Gymnasium  "  at  Vechta, 
the  high  school  at  Cloppenburg,  the  seminary  for  pub- 
lic school  teachers  at  Vechta,  and  all  Catholic  public 
schools.  On  4  Feb.,  1910,  a  new  educational  law  went 
into  effect.  It  does  away  with  the  hitherto  existing 
clerical  superintendence  of  public  schools.  Only  the 
religious  instruction  is  supervised  by  the  clergyman, 
who  is  a  member  of  the  school  board.  If  there  are  more 
than  twenty-five  Catholic  children  in  a  community 
which  has  only  a  Lutheran  school,  a  separate  Catlio- 
lic  school  must  be  established  by  the  parish,  should  the 
parents  request  it. 

The  ancient  Diocese  of  Oldenburg  has  no  connex- 
ion with  the  country  of  Oldenburg,  or  with  its  princi- 
pal city.  The  country  of  Oldenburg  was  never  sub- 
ject to  the  ecclesiastical  jursidiction  of  the  Diocese  of 
Oldenburg.  The  Bishopric  of  Oldenburg  was  founded 
by  the  German  Emperor  Otto  I  about  950,  and  com- 
prised the  present  territory  of  Holstein.  The  small 
town  of  Oldenburg  (also  called  Aldenburg  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages),  near  the  coast  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  which  is  still 
in  existence,  was  the  ancient  seat  of  the  bishop.  The 
Diocese  of  Oldenburg  was  suffragan  to  the  Archdio- 
cese of  Bremen;  during  the  great  revolt  of  the  Slavic 
peoples  in  1066,  it  ceased  to  exist,  but  was  re-estab- 
lished in  1149  as  the  See  of  St.  Vicelin,  a  missionary 
among  the  Slavs.  As  early  as  1163,  the  seat  of  the 
bishopric  was  transferred  to  Liibeck,  the  famous 
Hanse  city,  by  the  Saxon  Dulce  Henry  the  Lion. 

Von  Halem,  Geschichte  von  Oldenburg  (3  vols.,  Oldenburg, 
1794-96);  Runde.  Otdenburger  Chronik.  (3rd  ed.,  Oldenburg, 
1863) ;  Niemann,  Das  otdenburgische  MUnsterland  in  seiner  ge- 
schichtlichen  Enlwicklung  (2  vols.,  Oldenburg,  1889-91) ;  Schaue.n- 
BURG.  Hundert  Jahre  oldenburgischer  Kirchengeschichte  1573-1667 
(3  vols.,  Oldenburg,  1895-1900),  Protestant;  Willoh,  Geschichte 
der  Kath.  Pfarreien  im  Herzogtum  Oldenburg  (5  vols.,  Cologne, 
1898-99) ;  Pleitner,  Oldenburg  im  19.  Jahrhundert  (2  vols.,  Olden- 
burg, 1899-1900) ;  Idem,  Oldenburgisches  Quellenbuch  (Oldenburg, 
1903);  Sello,  Alt-Oldenburg  (Oldenburg,  1903). 

Herman  Sacher. 

Old  Hall  (St.  Edmund's  College),  near  Ware, 
Hertfordshire,  England,  founded  in  1793  after  the  fall 
of  the  English  College,  Douai,  during  the  French  revo- 
lution, to  carry  on  for  the  south  of  England  the  same 
work  of  training  priests  for  the  English  mission,  and  of 
affording  a  Catholic  education  to  lay  students.  It 
was  the  seminary  for  the  "London  District"  until 
1850,  when  it  became  the  joint  property  of  the  Sees  of 
Westminster  and  Southwark.  For  many  years  past  it 
has  belonged  exclusively  to  the  Archbishops  of  West- 
minster. The  foundation  took  place  on  16  November, 
1793,  the  feast  of  St.  Edmund,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, when  Bishop  Douglass  reassembled  at  Old  Hall 
four  of  the  Douai  students,  and  as  he  states  in  his 
diary  "commenced  studies  or  established  the  new  col- 
lege there,  a  substitute  for  Douai."  He  chose  Old 
Hall  for  this  purpose  because  there  was  already  exist- 
ing there  a  Catholic  school  belonging  to  the  vicars 
Apostolic,  founded  in  1749  at  Standon  Lordship  in  the 
same  county  and  removed  in  1769  to  Old  Hall,  pur- 
chased by  Bishop  Talbot.  A  timely  legacy  of  ten 
thousand  pounds  from  John  Sone,  a  Catholic,  enabled 
Bishop  Douglass  to  build  a  college,  blessed  by  him  on 
29  September,  1799.  A  chapel  and  refectory  were 
added  in  1805  by  his  successor,  Bishop  Poynter,  who 
succeeded  Dr.  Stapleton  as  president  in  1801.    The 


college  prospered,  particularly  under  the  rule  of 
Thomas  Griffiths  (1818-34),  afterwards  Vicar  Aposto- 
lic of  London.  He  built  a  larger  chapel,  designed  in 
the  Gothic  style  by  Augustus  Welby  Pugin  and  re- 
markable for  the  beautiful  rood-screen,  but  he  did  not 
live  to  see  the  opening  of  it  in  1853  when  it  was  conse- 
crated by  Cardinal  Wiseman,  whose  attempts  to  place 
the  college  under  the  direction  of  the  Oblates  of  St. 
Charles  led  to  serious  troubles.  Connected  with  these 
was  the  appointment  of  Dr.  Herbert  Vaughan  (Car- 
dinal Archbishop  of  Westminster)  as  vice-president  of 
the  college  (1855-61).  After  the  death  of  Cardinal 
Wiseman,  Archbishop  Manning  decided  to  remove 
the  theological  students  to  London,  and  from  1869  the 
college  was  conducted  simply  as  a  school  for  boys;  but 
in  1905  Archbishop  Bourne  decided  to  send  back  the 
theological  students.  There  is  now  accommodation 
for  250  students;  the  college  grounds  cover  400  acres. 
The  chapel  contains  a  relic  of  St.  Edmund,  and  the 
museum  many  interesting  relics  of  the  English  Col- 
lege, Douai,  and  of  the  penal  days.  Two  ecclesiastical 
councils  have  been  held  at  the  college,  the  synod  of  the 
vicars  Apostolic  in  1803  and  the  Fourth  Provincial 
Council  of  Westminster  in  1873. 

B.  Ward,  Ilist.  of  St.  Edmund's  College,  Old  Hall  (London, 
1893);  Idem,  Historical  Account  of  St.  Edmund's  College  Chapel 
(London,  1903);  Dotle,  A  Brief  Outline  of  the  Hist,  of  Old  Hall 
(London,  1891):  Sermons  preached  in  St.  Edmund's  College  Chapel 
on  various  occasions  (London,  1904);  Burton,  Catalogue  of  Early- 
printed  Books  in  the  Libraries  at  Old  Hall  (Ware,  1902) ;  B.  Ward, 
Menology  of  St.  Edmund's  College,  Old  Hall  (London,  1909) ;  W. 
Ward,  Life  and  Times  of  Cardinal  Wiseman  (London,  1897) ; 
PuRCELL,  Life  of  Cardinal  Manning  (London,  1896);  Cox,  Life  of 
Cardinal  Vaughan  (London,  1910);  B.  Ward,  The  Dawn  of  the 
Catholic  Revival  (London,  1909);  The  Edmundian  (1893 — ). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Oldham,  Hugh,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  b.  in  Lancashire, 
either  at  Crumpsell  or  Oldham;  d.  25  June,  1519. 
Having  spent  a  short  time  at  Oxford,  he  entered 
Queen's  College,  Cambridge.  After  his  ordination  he 
became  chaplain  to  the  Countess  of  Richmond  and 
soon  obtained  many  benefices,  being  appointed  Dean 
of  Wimborne  and  Archdeacon  of  Exeter.  He  also 
held  prebends  in  the  cathedrals  of  London,  Lincoln, 
and  York,  and  was  rector  of  St.  Mildred's,  Bread 
Street,  London.  Henry  VII  honoured  him  by  ap- 
pointing him  as  one  of  those  who  laid  the  foundation 
stone  of  his  chapel  in  1503.  In  the  following  year  he 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Exeter  by  a  Bull  of  27  Nov., 
1 504.  Though  not  a  learned  man,  he  encouraged  learn- 
ing and  in  1515  founded  and  endowed  Manchester 
Grammar  School.  Through  his  influence  over  his 
friend  Bishop  Foxe  of  Winchester,  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  was  founded  for  the  secular  clergy, 
instead  of  for  the  Winchester  monks.  He  added  six 
thousand  marks  to  Foxe's  foundation,  where  his  por- 
trait is  still  honoured  as  that  of  a  benefactor.  From 
1510  to  1513  he  with  other  bishops  was  engaged  in 
resisting  what  they  considered  the  undue  claims  of 
Archbishop  Warham  with  regard  to  the  probate 
courts,  and  in  the  end  won  a  considerable  measure  of 
success.  Less  fortunate  was  his  litigation  with  the 
Abbot  of  Tavistock  concerning  their  respective  juris- 
dictions, during  which  he  is  said  to  have  incurred  ex- 
communication. Before  the  dispute  was  ended,  he 
died,  so  that  his  burial  had  to  be  postponed  until 
absolution  was  procured  from  Rome. 

Fowler,  Hist,  of  Corpus  Christi  College  (Oxford,  1893);  Cooper, 
AthencE  Cantabrigienses  (Cambridge,  1858-61);  Godwin,  Cata- 
logue of  the  Bishops  of  EngUind  with  their  lives  (London,  1601); 
Fowler  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  s.  v. 

Edwin  Burton. 

Oldoini,  Augustino,  historian  and  bibliographer, 
b.  6  Jan.,  1612;  d.  at  Perugia,  23  March,  1683.  He 
came  from  La  Spezzia,  and  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  4  February,  1628.  At  the  end  of  his  novitiate 
he  made  the  usual  study  of  the  humanities,  philosophy 
and  theology.  For  some  time  he  taught  classics  at 
Perugia,  and  was  then  professor  of  moral  philosophy 


OLD  TESTAMENT 


240 


OLIER 


In  the  thpolopical  school.  His  first  work,  "Alcune 
difficoltA  principali  dolla  Krammatica"  (Ancona,  1G37), 
dealing  with  Latin  niaiiwiiar,  was  written  while  he 
was  engaged  in  teaching  the  Iniinanities.  He  devnted 
his  later  years  to  the  study  of  liistory  and  hililiograpliy- 
He  prepared  a  new  anii(itat<'d  edition  of  the  "History 
of  the  Popes"  by  Alplidnsus  Ciaoconius,  up  to  Clement 
IX  (1667-9),  "\'ita>  et  res  gesta'  Pontifieuni  Roniano- 
rum  ct  S.R.E.  Cardinalium  Alphonsi  Ciacconi,  O.  P." 
(4  vols.,  Rome,  1070-77).  In  connexion  with  this 
he  also  published  the  following:  "Necrologium  Ponti- 
ficum  ac  Pseudo-Pontiticum  Romanorum"  (Rome, 
1671);  "  Clement es  titulo  sanctitatis  vel  niorum 
sanctimonia  illustres"  (Perugia,  1675);  "Athenccum 
Roinanum,  in  quo  .Summorum  Pontificum  ac  Pseudo- 
Pontificum  necnon  S.R.E.  Cardinalium  et  Pseudo- 
Cardinalium  scripta  publice  exponuntur"  (Perugia, 
1670).  J.  Meuschcn  published  an  excerpt  from 
Oldoini's  "Catalogus  eorum  qui  de  Romanis  Pontifi- 
cibus  scripserunt",  in  his  work,  "  Ceremonialia  elec- 
tionis  Pontificum  Romanorum"  (Frankfort,  1731). 
Oldoini  also  pubhshed  "Athenajum  Augustum,  in  quo 
Perusinorum  scripta  publice  exponuntur"  (Perugia, 
16S0),  and  "Athena-um  Ligusticum  seu  Syllabus 
Scriptorum  Ligurum  necnon  Sarzanensium  ac  Cyr- 
nensium  rcipubhca;  Genuensis  subditorum"  (Perugia, 
1680). 

SoMMERVOGEL,  BibUothkque  de  la  C.  de  J.,  V  (Brussels  and 
Paris,  1894),  1880-81. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Old  Testament.    See  Testament,  The  Old. 

O'Leary,  Arthur,  Franciscan,  preacher,  polemical 
writer,  b.  at  Faniobbus,  Iveleary,  Co.  Cork,  Ireland, 
1729;  d.  in  London,  8  Jan.,  1802.  Educated  with  the 
Franciscans  of  St.  Malo,  where  he  was  ordained  and 
acted  as  prison  chaplain  till  1771,  he  returned  to  Cork 
to  engage  in  missionary  work.  Soon  famous  as  a 
preacher,  writer,  and  controversialist  he  published 
tracts  characterized  by  learning,  religious  feeling,  tol- 
eration, and  steadfast  allegiance  to  the  Crown;  but  his 
zeal  against  religious  bigotry  led  him  to  make  rash 
admissions,  and  to  expose  himself  unconsciously  to  the 
danger  of  heterodoxy.  Among  his  writings  are:  "A 
Defence  of  the  Di\inity  of  Christ  and  the  Immortality 
of  the  Soul";  "Loj-alty  asserted,  or  the  Test  Oath 
Vindicated";  "An  Address  to  the  Roman  Catholics 
concerning  the  apprehended  invasion  of  the  French"; 
"Essay  on  toleration":  "A  reply  to  John  Wesley". 
A  brilliant  wit,  an  honorary  member  of  the  famous 
"Monks  of  the  screw",  he  was  commonly  called  the 
Catholic  Swift  of  Ireland.  He  is  charged  by  Froude 
with  having  received  secret-service  money  from  the 
Government,  but  more  impartial  historians  consider 
the  charge  unproven.  From  1789  till  his  death  he 
was  chaplain  to  the  Spanish  embassy  in  London,  and 
his  society  was  courted  by  Burke,  Sheridan,  Fox, 
Fitzwilliam,  and  other  leading  men  of  Liberal  views. 

England.  Li/e  of  Rev.  Arthur  O'Learu  (Cork.  1822);  Buckley, 
Li/e  of  Ret.  Arthur  O'Leary  (Dublin,  1868);  Froude,  The  English 
in  Ireland  in  the  eighteenth  century;  Life  and  times  of  Henry  Grattan 
(London,  1832-46) ;  Dictionary  of  British  and  American  Authors 
(Philadelphia,  1859-71);  Historical  and  Archeological  Journal 
(Cork,  Sept.,  1892). 

E.  O'Leary. 

Olenus,  a  titular  see  and  suffragan  of  Patras,  in 
Achaia  Quarta,  one  of  the  twelve  primitive  cities  of 
Achaia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Peirus  near  Dyme.  It 
is  mentioned  as  early  as  280  b.  c.  Shortly  after,  its 
inhabitants  retired  to  the  villages  of  Peirai,  Euryteiai, 
and  Dyme.  At  the  time  of  Strabo  (VIII,  vii,  4),  who 
locates  it  forty  stadia  from  Dyme  and  eighty  from  Pa- 
tras, it  was  in  ruins.  It  must  have  regained  its  popu- 
lation, for  Honorius  III  in  1217  appointed  its  first 
bishop  there.  From  the  occupation  of  the  Morea  by 
the  Franks,  the  Church  of  Olenus  had  been  governed 
by  the  Archdeacon  John,  chaplain  of  Villehardouin. 
The  Latin  Diocese  of  Olenus  was  substituted  for  the 


ancient  Greek  Sec  of  Elos,  and  covered  the  same  terri- 
tory. In  the  beginning  the  Latins  formed  two  dio- 
ceses, that  of  Olenus  and  that  of  Andravilla,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  princes  of  Morea  (Fabre,  "Le  Lilser 
censuum  de  I'Eglise  romaiiie",  Paris,  1905,  II,  8); 
moreover  it  had  only  one  bishop,  that  of  Olenus,  who 
usually  lived  at  Andravilla  or  Andravida  (Hopf,  "Ge- 
schiehte  Griechenlands"  in  Allg.  Enryelop.,  LXXXV, 
235;  Buchon,  Recherches  historiques,  1,  xxxix).  Eu- 
bel  thinks  the  same  in  giving  the  long  list  of  the  Bish- 
ops of  Olenus  and  Andravilla  in  "Hierarchia  cathoHca 
medii  a;vi",  I,  89,  393;  II,  99;  III,  280.  The  Greek  See 
of  Olenus  was  established  (Gerland,  "Neue  Quellen 
zur  Geschichte  des  lateinischen  Erzbistums  Patras", 
Leipzig,  1903,  104)  shortly  after  1340  with  that  of 
Kernitza,  at  the  same  time  Patras  had  lost  all  its  suf- 
fragans. This  diocese  is  first  found  in  a  "Notitia 
Episcopatuuni "  of  Constantinople  after  1453  (Gel- 
zer,  "Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der  Notitia;  episcopa- 
tuum",  634).  To-day  Olenus  occupies  the  site  of  Tsu- 
kaleika  on  the  sea,  about  seven  miles  from  Patras  on 
the  way  from  Olympia.  Andravilla,  the  ancient  resi- 
dence of  the  bishops  of  Olenus,  about  38  miles  from 
Patras  in  the  same  direction,  has  2700  inhabitants. 
The  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  the  ancient  cathedral  of  the 
Latins,  may  be  seen  still,  also  the  church  of  St.  James, 
belonging  to  the  Templars,  in  which  were  interred 
Geoffroy  I,  GeofTroy  II,  and  Guillaume  of  Villehar- 
douin, whose  tombs  have  been  restored. 
LeQuien,  Oriens  ehristianus,  III. 

S.  Vailh6. 

Olesnicki,  Zbigniew  (Sbigneus),  a  Polish  cardinal 
and  statesman,  b.  in  Poland,  1389;  d.  at  Sandomir, 
1  April,  1455.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  was  secretary 
to  King  Jagello,  and  fought  with  him  in  the  battle  of 
Griinwald  on  14  July,  1410.  A  favourite  with  the 
king,  he  took  part  in  the  management  of  the  coun- 
try's most  important  affairs.  His  influence  with 
the  king  greatly  aided  him  in  opposing  the  Hussites, 
who  had  gained  royal  favour.  On  9  July,  1423,  he 
was  appointed  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Cracow,  and 
in  1433  was  sent  by  the  king  as  legate  to  the  council 
of  Basle,  where  he  endeavoured  to  be  on  friendly  terms 
with  both  parties.  On  18  December,  1439,  he  was 
created  cardinal  priest  with  the  titular  church  of  St. 
Prisca,  by  Eugene  IV.  The  opinion  that  he  accepted 
the  same  dignity  from  the  antipope  Felix  V  and  ad- 
hered to  him  for  some  time  has  recently  been  at- 
tacked by  P.  M.  Baumgarten:  "Die  beiden  ersten 
Kardinals  Konsistorien  des  Gegenpapstes  Felix  V  "  in 
"RomischeQuartalschrift",  XXII  (Rome,  1908),  153. 
As  cardinal,  his  influence  in  Poland  was  second  only 
to  that  of  the  king,  and,  during  the  frequent  absence  of 
Casimir  IV  in  Lithuania,  he  transacted  the  affairs  of 
the  State.  Being  a  man  of  great  learning,  he  advanced 
the  study  of  arts  and  letters  in  every  possible  way,  and 
the  flourishing  condition  of  the  University  of  Cracow 
during  his  episcopacy  is  due  chiefly  to  his  efforts.  To 
repress  the  spread  of  Hussitism  he  called  John  Capis- 
tran  and  the  Minorites  to  Cracow. 

C.\RDELLA,  Memorie  storiche  de'  cardinali  della  s.  romana  chiesa, 
III  (Rome,  1792,  81-4;  Dziedubzycki,  Zbigniew  Olesnicki  (2  vols., 
Cracow,  1853-4),  in  Polish;  Zeoarski,  Polen  u.  das  Basler  Konzil 
(Poaen,  1910). 

Michael  Ott. 

Olier,  Jean-Jacques,  founder  of  the  seminary  and 
Society  of  St-Sulpice,  b.  at  Paris,  20  Sept.,  1608;  d. 
there,  2  April,  1657.  At  Lyons,  where  his  father  had 
become  administrator  of  justice,  he  made  a  thorough 
classical  course  under  the  Jesuits  (1617-25);  he  was 
encouraged  to  become  a  priest  by  St.  Francis  de  Sales, 
who  predicted  his  sanctity  and  great  services  to  the 
Church.  He  studied  philosophy  at  the  college  of 
Harcourt,  scholastic  theology  and  patristics  at  the 
Sorbonne.  He  preached  during  this  period,  in  virtue 
of  a  benefice  with  which  his  father  had  provided  him, 


OLIER 


241 


OLIER 


adopting  the  ambitious  style  of  the  day;  he  also  fre- 
quented fashionable  society,  causing  anxiety  to  those 
interested  in  his  spiritual  welfare.  His  success  in  de- 
fending theses  in  Latin  and  Greek  led  him  to  go  to 
Rome  for  the  purpose  of  learning  Hebrew  so  as  to  gain 
^clat  by  defending  theses  in  that  language  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  His  eyesight  failing,  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Loreto,  where  he  not  only  obtained  a  cure,  but  also  a 
complete  conversion  to  God.  For  a  time  he  meditated 
the  Carthusian  life,  visiting  monasteries  in  Southern 
Italy;  the  news  of  his  father's  death  (16.31)  recalled 
him  to  Paris.  Refusing  a  court  chaplaincy,  with  the 
prospect  of  high  honours,  he  began  to  gat  her  the  beggars 
and  the  poor  and  catechize  them  in  his  home;  at  Paris 
he  collected  the  poor  and  the  outcast  on  the  streets  for 
instruction,  a  practice  at  first  derided  but  soon  widely 
imitated  and  productive  of  much  good.  Under  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul's  guidance,  he  assisted  his  mission- 
aries in  Paris  and  the  provinces,  prepared  for  the 
priesthood,  and  was  ordained  21  May,  1633.  He 
became  a  leader  in  the  revival  of  religion  in  France,  as- 
sociating himself  with  the  followers  first  of  St.  Vincent 
and  then  of  Pere  de  Condren,  Superior  of  the  Oratory, 
under  whose  direction  he  passed,  though  he  continued 
to  retain  St.  Vincent  as  his  friend  and  ad\'isor.  To  de 
Condren,  more  even,  it  appears,  than  to  St.  Vincent, 
Olier  owed  the  deepest  spiritual  influence  and  many 
of  his  leading  ideas.  The  work  de  Condren  had  most 
at  heart  was  the  foundation  of  seminaries  after  the 
model  laid  down  at  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  hope 
of  reUgion  lay  in  the  formation  of  a  new  clergy  through 
the  seminaries.  The  attempts  in  France  to  carry  out 
the  designs  of  the  council  having  failed,  de  Condren, 
unable  to  succeed  through  the  medium  of  the  Oratory, 
gathered  a  few  young  ecclesiastics  around  him  for  that 
purpose,  Olier  among  them.  The  missions  in  which  he 
employed  them  were  meant  to  impress  on  their  minds 
the  religious  needs  of  the  country;  his  ulterior  purpose 
was  not  disclosed  till  shortly  before  his  death  in  1640. 
A  first  attempt  to  found  a  seminary  at  Chartres 
failed.  On  29  Dec,  1641,  Olier  and  two  others,  de 
Foix  and  du  Ferrier,  entered  upon  a  community  life  at 
Vaugirard,  a  suburb  of  Paris.  Others  soon  joined 
them,  and  before  long  there  were  eight  seminarians, 
who  followed  with  the  priests  the  same  rule  of  life  and 
were  instructed  in  ecclesiastical  sciences,  M.  Olier 
teaching  Holy  Scripture.  The  pastor  of  Vaugirard 
profited  by  the  presence  of  the  priests  to  take  an  ex- 
tended vacation,  during  which  time  they  reformed  his 
parish.  Impressed  by  the  fame  of  this  reform,  the 
cure  of  St-Sulpice,  disheartened  by  the  deplorable 
state  of  his  parish,  offered  it  in  exchange  for  some  of 
M.  Oiler's  benefices.  In  August,  1641,  M.  Olier  took 
charge  of  St-Sulpice.  His  aims  were  to  reform  the 
parish,  establish  a  seminary,  and  Christianize  the  Sor- 
bonne,  then  very  worldly,  through  the  piety  and  holi- 
ness of  the  seminarians  who  should  attend  its  courses. 
The  parish  embraced  the  whole  Faubourg-St-Germain, 
with  a  population  as  numerous  and  varied  as  a  large 
city.  It  was  commonly  reputed  the  largest  and  most 
vicious  parish,  not  only  in  the  French  capital,  but  in 
all  Christendom.  The  enormity  of  the  evils  had 
killed  all  hope  of  reformation.  Father  Olier  organ- 
ized his  priests  in  community  life.  Those  who  found 
the  life  too  strict  separated  from  the  work.  The  par- 
ish was  divided  into  eight  districts,  each  under  the 
charge  of  a  head  priest  and  associates,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  know  individually  all  the  souls  under  their  care, 
with  their  spiritual  and  corporal  needs,  especially  the 
poor,  the  uninstructed,  the  vicious,  and  those  bound 
in  irregular  unions.  Thirteen  catechetical  centres 
were  established,  for  the  instruction  not  only  of  chil- 
dren but  of  many  adults  who  were  almost  equally  ig- 
norant of  religion.  Special  instructions  were  provided 
for  every  class  of  persons,  for  the  beggars,  the  poor, 
domestic  servants,  lackeys,  midwives,  workingmen, 
the  aged  etc.  Instructions  and  debates  on  Catholic 
XI.— 16 


doctrine  were  organized  for  the  benefit  of  Calvinists, 
hundreds  of  whom  were  converted.  A  vigorous  cam- 
paign was  waged  against  immoral  and  heretical  hter- 
ature  and  obscene  pictures;  leaflets,  holy  pictures,  and 
prayer  books  were  distributed  to  those  who  could  not 
or  would  not  come  to  church,  and  a  bookstore  was 
opened  at  the  church  to  supply  good  literature.  The 
poor  were  cared  for  according  to  methods  of  relief  in- 
spired by  the  practical  genius  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul. 
During  the  five  or  six  years  of  the  Fronde,  the  terrible 
civil  war  that  reduced  Paris  to  widespread  misery, 
and  often  to  the  verge  of  famine,  M.  Olier  supported 
hundreds  of  families  and  prov-ided  many  with  clothing 
and  shelter.  None  were  refused.  His  rules  of  relief, 
adopted  in  other  parishes,  became  the  accepted  meth- 
ods and  are  still  followed  at  St-Sulpice.  Orphans, 
verj-  numerous  during  the  war,  were  placed  in  good 
parishes,  and  a  house  of  refuge  established  for  orphan 
girls.  A  home  was  open  to  shelter  and  reform  the 
many  women  rescued  from  evil  lives,  and  another  for 
young  girls  exposed  to  danger.  Many  free  schools 
for  poor  girls  were  founded  by  Father  Olier,  and  he 
laboured  also  at  the  reform  of  the  teachers  in  boys' 
schools,  not  however,  with  great  success.  He  per- 
ceived that  the  reform  of  boys'  schools  could  be  ac- 
complished only  through  a  new  congregation;  which 
in  fact  came  about  after  his  death  through  Saint  John 
Baptist  de  la  Salle,  a  pupil  of  St-Sulpice,  who  founded 
his  first  school  in  Father  Olier's  parish.  Free  legal  aid 
was  provided  for  the  poor.  He  gathered  under  one 
roof  the  sisters  of  many  communities,  who  had  been 
driven  out  of  their  convents  in  the  country  and  fled  to 
Paris  for  refuge,  and  cared  for  them  till  the  close  of  the 
war.  In  fine,  there  was  no  misery  among  the  people, 
spiritual  or  corporal,  for  which  the  pastor  did  not  seek 
a  remedy. 

His  work  for  the  rich  and  high-placed  was  no  less 
thorough  and  remarkable.  He  led  the  movement 
against  duelling,  formed  a  society  for  its  suppression, 
and  enlisted  the  active  aid  of  military  men  of  renown, 
including  the  marshals  of  France  and  some  famous  duel- 
lists. He  converted  many  of  noble  and  royal  blood, 
both  men  and  women.  He  combated  the  idea  that 
Christian  perfection  was  only  for  priests  and  religious, 
and  inspired  many  to  the  practices  of  a  devout  life,  in- 
cluding daily  meditation,  spiritual  reading  and  other 
exercises  of  piety,  and  to  a  more  exact  fulfilment  of  their 
duties  at  court  and  at  home.  His  influence  was  power- 
ful with  the  Queen  Regent,  Anne  of  Austria,  to  whom 
he  spoke  with  great  plainness,  yet  with  great  respect, 
denouncing  her  prime  minister.  Cardinal  Mazarin, 
as  responsible  for  simoniacal  and  sacrilegious  nomina- 
tions to  the  episcopate.  He  persuaded  the  rich — • 
royalty,  nobles,  and  others — to  a  great  generosity, 
without  which  his  unbounded  charities  would  have 
been  impossible.  The  foundation  of  the  present 
church  of  St-Sulpice  was  laid  by  him.  At  times  as 
many  as  sixty  or  even  eighty  priests  were  ministering 
together  in  the  parish,  of  whom  the  most  illustrious, 
a  little  after  Olier's  time,  was  Fenelon,  later  Arch- 
bishop of  Cambrai.  This  was  one  of  the  best  effects 
of  OUer's  work,  for  it  sent  trained,  enlightened  zealous 
priests  into  all  parts  of  France.  From  being  the  most 
vicious  in  France,  the  parish  became  one  of  the  most 
devout,  and  it  has  remained  such  to  this  day.  Olier 
was  always  the  missionary.  His  outlook  was  world- 
wide; his  zeal  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  Sulpician 
missions  at  Montreal  and  enabled  him  to  effect  the 
conversion  of  the  Enghsh  King,  Charles  II,  to  the 
Catholic  faith,  though  not  to  perseverance  in  a  Chris- 
tian life. 

The  second  great  work  of  Olier  was  the  estabUsh- 
ment  of  the  seminary  of  St-Sulpice.  By  his  parish, 
which  he  intended  to  serve  as  a  model  to  the  parochial 
clergy,  as  well  as  by  his  seminary,  he  hoped  to  help 
give  France  a  worthy  secular  priesthood,  through 
which  alone,  he  felt,  the  revival  of  religion  could  come. 


OLINDA 


242 


OLIVA 


The  seminary  was  at  first  installed  in  thn  presbytery, 
but  very  soon  (1  Oct.,  1G42)  removed  to  a  little  house 
in  the  vicinity,  M.  de  Foix  being  placed  in  charge  by 
Father  Olier.  The  beginnings  were  in  great  poverty, 
which  lasted  many  years,  for  Olier  would  never  allow 
any  revenues  from  the  parish  to  be  expended  except  on 
parish  needs.  From  the  start  he  designed  to  make 
it  a  national  seminary  and  regarded  as  providential 
the  fact  that  the  parish  of  St-Sulpice  and  its  seminary 
depended  directly  on  the  Holy  See.  In  the  course  of 
two  years  students  came  to  it  from  about  twenty  dio- 
ceses of  France.  Some  attended  the  courses  at  the 
Sorbonne,  others  followed  t  hose  given  in  the  seminary. 
His  seminarians  were  initiated  into  parochial  work, 
being  employed  very  fruitfully  in  teaching  catechism. 
At  the  Sorbonne  their  piety,  it  appears,  had  a  very 
marked  influence.  The  seminary,  fulfilling  the  hopes 
of  Father  Olier,  not  only  sent  apostolic  priests  into  all 
parts  of  France,  but  became  the  model  according  to 
which  seminaries  were  founded  throughout  the  king- 
dom. Its  rules,  approved  by  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  Clergy  in  1651,  were  adopted  in  many  new  es- 
tablishments. Within  a  few  years.  Father  Olier,  at 
the  earnest  solicitation  of  the  bishops,  sent  priests 
to  found  seminaries  in  a  few  dioceses,  the  first  at 
Nantes  in  1648.  It  was  not  his  intention  to  establish 
a  congregation  to  conduct  a  number  of  seminaries  in 
France,  but  merely  to  lend  priests  for  the  foundation 
of  a  seminary  to  any  bishop  and  to  recall  them  after 
their  work  was  well  established.  The  repeated  re- 
quests of  bishops,  considered  by  him  as  indications 
of  God's  will,  caused  him  to  modify  his  plan,  and 
to  accept  a  few  seminaries  permanently.  The  so- 
ciety which  formed  around  him  at  St-Sulpice  was  not 
erected  into  a  religious  congregation;  it  continued 
as  a  community  of  secular  priests,  following  a  com- 
mon life  but  bound  by  no  special  vows,  whose  aim 
it  should  be  to  live  perfectly  the  life  of  secular  priests. 
He  wished  it  to  remain  a  small  company,  decreeing 
that  it  should  never  consist  of  more  than  seventy-two 
members,  besides  the  superior  and  his  twelve  assistants. 
This  regulation  remained  in  force  till  circumstances 
induced  Father  Emery  to  abolish  the  limitation. 

Father  Oher's  arduous  labours  brought  on  a  stroke 
of  apoplexy  in  February,  1652.  He  resigned  his  cure 
into  the  hands  of  M.  de  Bretonvilliers  and  on  regaining 
sufficient  strength  visited  watering-places  in  search  of 
health,  by  command  of  his  physicians,  and  made  many 
pilgrimages.  On  his  return  to  Paris,  his  old  energy 
and  enthusiasm  reasserted  themselves,  especially  in 
his  warfare  against  Jansenism.  A  second  stroke,  at 
Peray  in  September,  1653,  rendered  him  thenceforth 
a  paralytic.  His  last  years  were  full  of  intense  suffer- 
ing, both  bodily  and  mental,  which  he  bore  with  the 
utmost  sweetness  and  resignation.  They  were  years 
of  prayer,  but  indeed  the  whole  life  of  this  servant  of 
God,  despite  his  immense  external  activity,  was  a 
prayer;  and  his  principal  devotion  was  to  the  inner  life 
of  Christ.  His  visions  and  his  mysticism  caused  the 
Jansenists  to  ridicule  him  as  a  visionary;  but  they,  as 
well  as  all  others,  acknowledged  his  sanctity  and  the 
singular  purity  of  his  intentions.  His  numerous  as- 
cetical  writings  show  him  a  profound  master  of  spirit- 
ual doctrine,  and  well  deserve  a  close  study.  His 
great  friend,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  who  was  with  him  at 
his  death,  considered  him  a  saint;  and  Father  Faber, 
in  his  "Growth  in  Holiness"  (Baltimore  ed.,  p.  376) 
says  of  him:  "Of  all  the  uncanonized  servants  of  God 
whose  lives  I  have  read,  he  most  resembles  a  canon- 
ized Saint."     (See  Saint-Sulpice,  Society  of.) 

Faillon,  Viede  M.  OKct- (3  vols.,  4th  ed.,  Paris,  1873).  the  chiaf 
printed  source  of  later  works;  Letourneatj,  Le  Ministers  pastoral 
de  J.  J.  Olier  (Paris,  1905):  Idem,  La  Mission  de  J.  J.  Olier  (Paris. 
1906);  De  FRnoES,  J.  J.  Olier  (Paris,  1904);  Thompson,  Life  of 
JeanJacquet  Olier  (London);  Leah,  The  Revival  of  Priestly  Life 
in  France  (London.  1894);  Bertrand.  Bibliothique  Sulpicienne 
(Paris.  1900).  contains  a  complete  list  of  Olier's  published  and  un- 
published writings.  MiONE  has  edited  his  writings  in  one  volume 
(Paris,  — ).    A  few  chapters  of  a  new  life  of  Olier,  by  Monnier, 


were  published  in  the  Bulletin  Trimestriel  des  anciens  iUves  de  S 
Stilpice  (Paris,  1910).  Thoy  suffice  to  show  that  this  new  biog- 
raphy, by  its  critical  acumen,  complete  knowledge  and  literary 
qualities,  will  supplant  all  hitherto  published, 

John  F,  Fenlon. 

Olinda,  Diocese  of,  in  the  north-east  of  Brazil, 
suffragan  of  San  Salvador  de  Bahia.  Erected  into  a 
vicariate  Apostolic  by  Paul  V  (15  July,  1614),  who 
annexed  to  it  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Sao  Luiz  do 
Maranhao,  Olinda  was  created  a  bishopric  by  Inno- 
cent XI  on  22  November,  1676  (Constitution  "Ad 
Sacram").  Its  most  distinguished  prelate  was 
Thomas  of  the  Incarnation  (1774-85),  author  of 
"Historia  ecclesia;  Lusitania;"  (Coimbra,  1759). 
From  its  original  territory  Leo  XIII  erected  the  Sees 
of  Parahyba  (1S92)  and  Alagoas  (1900).  It  is  now 
coextensive  with  the  State  of  Pemambuco,  Iving  be- 
tween 7°  and  10°  40'  S.  latitude,  and  34°  35'  and  42°  10' 
\y.  longitude,  having  an  area  of  49,575  square  miles. 
The  maritime  regions  are  low,  fertile,  and  well  settled: 
the  hinterland  forms  a  plateau  500  to  700  feet  high, 
is  arid,  and  sparsely  populated.  The  episcopal  city 
was  originally  Olinda,  founded  by  Duarte  Coelho 
Pereira  in  1534.  It  was  held  by  the  Dutch  from  1630 
till  1654,  who  established,  a  few  miles  south,  a  new 
capital,  Moritzstadt,  now  known  as  Recife,  or  Pemam- 
buco, an  important  seaport  having  a  population  of 
190,000.  The  episcopal  residence  has  been  trans- 
ferred thither,  to  the  section  called  Boa  Vista.  Per- 
nambuco  has  a  university,  five  hospitals  (one  in  charge 
of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy),  a  college,  and  many  churches, 
the  first  being  dedicated  to  Nossa  Senhora  da  Con- 
ceicao.  Outside  the  city  are  the  pilgrimages  of  Nossa 
Senhora  dos  Prazeres  and  Nossa  Senhora  de  Monte. 
A  Benedictine  abbey  founded  at  Olinda  in  1.595,  was 
re-established  on  1.5  August,  1885,  from  Beuron  in 
Hohenzollern,  and  is  in  personal  union  with  the  abbey 
founded  at  Parahyba  in  1903.  The  present  Bishop 
of  Olinda,  Mgr  Luiz  Raymundo  da  Silva  Brit  to  (b. 
at  Sao  Bento  do  Peri, 24  Aug.,  1840;  ordained,  19  July, 
1864;  elected,  18  Feb.,  1901),  succeeded  Mgr  Manuel 
dos  Santos  Pereira  (b.  1827;  consecrated,  1893).  The 
diocese  contains  81  parishes,  365  filial  churches  and 
chapels,  88  secular  and  22  regular  priests;  the  popu- 
lation is  1,178,000,  all  Catholics,  except  about  4000 
Protestants. 

Galanti,  Historia  do  Brazil  (Sao  Paulo,  1896) ;  Tollenare, 
Notas  Dominicaes  (Recife,  1906);  DiAS,  O  Brazil  Actual  (Rio  de 
Janeiro,  1905), 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Oliva,  a  suppressed  Cistercian  abbey  near  Danzig 
in  Pomerania,  founded  with  the  assistance  of  the  dukes 
of  Pomerania  some  time  between  1 170-78.  After  the 
extinction  of  the  dukes  of  Pomerania  in  1295,  Oliva 
became  part  of  Poland.  From  1309-1466  it  was  un- 
der the  sovereignty  of  the  Teutonic  Order;  from  1466- 
1772  it  .again  formed  part  of  Poland;  from  1772-1807 
it  belonged  to  Prussia;  from  1807-14  to  the  free  city 
Danzig.  In  1831  it  was  suppressed ;  the  abbey  church, 
a  three-naved  brick  structure  in  the  Romanesque  and 
Gothic  style,  became  the  Catholic  parish  church  of 
the  town  of  Oliva;  and  nearly  all  the  other  buildings 
were  torn  down. 

In  1224  and  in  1234  the  abbey  was  burnt  down  and 
its  monks  killed  by  the  heathen  Prussians;  in  1350  it 
was  destroyed  by  fire;  in  1433  it  was  pillaged  and 
partly  torn  down  by  the  Hussites;  in  1577  it  was  pil- 
laged and  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  the  Protestant 
soldiers  of  Danzig,  in  1626  and  in  1656  it  was  pillaged 
by  the  Swedes.  The  monks  of  Oliva  have  been  power- 
ful factors  in  the  Christianization  of  north-eastern 
Germany.  The  dukes  of  Pomerania  and  the  Teu- 
tonic Order  liberally  rewarded  them  with  large  tracts 
of  land. 

When  Oliva  came  under  the  sovereignty  of  Poland 
in  1466,  it  refused  to  join  the  Polish  province  of  Cis- 
tercians, because  most  of  its  monks  were  Germans. 


OLIVA 


243 


OLIVAINT 


When  about  1500  it  asserted  its  exemptness  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  Leslau,  the  Holy  See  de- 
cided in  its  favour.  Its  discipline  suffered  severely 
from  1538-1736,  because  by  a  degree  of  the  Diet  of 
Petricow  only  noblemen  could  be  elected  abbots,  and 
especially  because  from  1557-1736  these  abbots  were 
appointed  by  the  Polish  kings.  An  impetus  to  re- 
form was  given  by  Abbot  Edmund  of  Castiglione,  who 
was  sent  as  vi.sitor.  He  joined  Ohva  to  the  Polish 
Province,  and  in  1580  drew  up  new  statutes  for  the 
two  provinces.  But  under  the  Prussian  rule  the  king 
assumed  the  right  of  appointing  the  abbots  and  a  new 
period  of  decline  began  which  continued  until  the  sup- 
pression. 

Pontes  Otivenses,  ed.  HiRSCH  in  Script,  rerum  Prussicarum,  I 
(Leipzig,  1861)  and  V  (1S74),  and  by  Ketrzynski  in  Mon,  Pol. 
hist.,  VI  (Krakow,  1983) ;  HlRSCH,  Das  Kloster  Oliva  (Danzig, 
1850):  Kketschmer,  Geschichte  und  Beschreibung  der  Kldster  in 
Pomerellen:  Part  I:  Die  Cistercienser  Ablei  Olim  (Danzig,  1847); 
Kemper,  Die  Inschriften  dea  Klosters  Oliva  (Neuatadt  in  Weat- 
preussen,  1893). 

Michael  Ott. 

Oliva,  GiAN  Paolo,  b.  at  Genoa,  4  October,  1600; 
d.  at  Rome,  at  Sant'  Andrea  Quirinale,  26  Novem- 
ber, 1681.  In  1616,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
in  which  he  excelled  by  rare  intellectual  powers,  learn- 
ing, and  sanctity.  A  famous  pulpit  orator,  he  was 
Apostolic  Preacher  of  the  Palace  under  Innocent  X, 
Alexander  VII,  Clement  IX,  and  Clement  X.  In 
1661,  during  the  critical  period  of  the  Provost  General 
Father  Goswin  Nickel,  the  general  congregation 
elected  him  vicar-general  with  the  right  of  succes- 
sion. His  chief  aim  was  to  remove  all  causes  of  dis- 
sension and  of  personal  friction  between  his  institute 
and  other  religious  orders,  towards  which  he  showed 
himself  most  reverent  and  yielding.  He  extended 
and  increased  the  missions,  creating  new  ones  out- 
side of  Europe,  especially  in  Japan.  His  book  of 
forty-odd  sermons  for  Lent,  and  his  work  of  six  folio 
volumes,"  In  Selecta  Scripturae  Loca  Ethicae  Commen- 
tationes",  printed  at  Lyons,  evince  his  scholarship 
and  piety.  He  took  a  keen  interest  in  the  events  of 
his  time.  Remembering  what  had  happened  to  Car- 
dinal Palavicino,  Oliva  printed  one  thousand  of  his 
letters,  in  order  that  they  might  not  be  printed  by 
others  and  be  misconstrued. 

Oltva,  Lettera  ai  pp.  delta  Compagnia-Leitere,  II  (Rome,  1666, 
1681);  Patrignani,  Menologio  di  pie  memorie  ecc,  IV  (Venice, 
1730),  189-91;  Journal  des  Sanans,  X  (Amsterdam,  1683),  57; 
Cr6tineau-Jolt,  Hist,  religieuse,  politique  etc.  de  la  C.  de  Msus, 
IV  (Paris,  1845),  94-7. 

LuiGi  Tacchi  Venturi. 

Olivaint,  Pierre,  was  b.  in  Paris,  22  Feb.,  1816. 
His  father,  a  man  of  repute,  but  an  unbeliever  and  im- 
bittered  by  reverses  of  fortune  and  career,  died  in  1835 
without  having  returned  to  the  faith.  He  was  sur- 
vived by  his  wife,  also  without  religion,  and  three 
children.  At  twenty  Pierre  left  home,  and  the  College 
of  Charlemagne,  where  he  had  made  a  brilliant  course 
of  studies,  imbued  him  with  the  doctrines  of  Voltaire. 
His  lioart,  however,  had  remained  remarkably  pure, 
and  he  writes  at  this  time :  "  I  desire,  if  by  any  possibil- 
ity I  should  become  a  priest,  to  be  a  missionary,  and  if 
I  am  a  missionary  to  be  a  martyr."  In  1836  Pierre  en- 
tered the  Normal  School,  and,  where  so  many  lose 
their  faith,  conversion  awaited  him.  Led  away  at 
first  by  Buchez's  neo-Catholicism,  then  won  by  the 
sermons  of  Lacordaire,  he  made  his  profession  of  faith 
to  Father  de  Ravignan  (1837),  and  from  that  time  be- 
came an  apostle.  At  the  Normal  School  he  formed  a 
Catholic  group  which  by  its  piety  and  charity  soon 
attracted  attention  and  respect.  The  Conferences 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  attracted  at  that  time  the  61ite 
of  the  schools,  and  Olivaint  with  twelve  of  his  com- 
panions established  them  in  the  parish  of  Saint  M6- 
dard.  By  the  ardour  of  their  charity  and  faith  these 
heroic  youths  symbolized  the  religious  renais.sance  in 
France.     In   1836,   Olivaint  heard   that  Lacordaire 


was  going  to  restore  the  Dominican  Order  in  France. 
Several  of  his  friends  had  already  decided  to  follow 
the  great  orator.  He  wished  to  follow  him  also,  but 
was  detained  by  the  duty  of  supporting  his  mother. 
After  a  year  of  professorship  at  Grenoble,  he  returned 
to  Paris,  and  occupied  the  chair  of  history  at  Bourbon 
College;  in  1841  he  accepted  a  position  as  tutor  to  the 
young  George  de  la  Rochefoucaud. 

In  1842  Olivaint  won  the  junior  fellowship  in  a 
history  competition.  His  lecture  was  on  Gregory 
VII,  and  M.  Saint-Marc  Girardin  closed  the  Assembly 
with  these  words:  "We  have  just  heard  virtue, 
pleading  the  cause  of  virtue".  At  this  time  war  was 
declared  against  the  Jesuits.  Quinet  and  Michelet 
changed  their  lectures  into  impassioned  declara- 
tions against  the  society.  On  2  May,  1845,  M. 
Thiers  was  to  conduct  before  the  Assembly  an  inter- 
pellation against  these  religious.  Olivaint  saw  that  it 
was  his  duty  to  be  present.  "I  hesitated",  he  said 
to  Louis  Veuillot,  "I  hesitate  no  longer.  M.  Thiers 
shows  me  my  duty.  I  must  follow  it.  I  enter  to- 
day." And  the  day  of  the  proposed  interpellation  he 
entered  the  novitiate  of  Laval.  This  sacrifice  was 
hard  for  Madame  Olivaint  who  as  yet  had  not  been 
converted  by  the  virtues  of  her  son.  After  a  year's 
fervent  novitiate  he  was  made  professor  of  history  at 
the  College  of  Brugelette,  in  Belgium.  On  3  May, 
1847,  he  made  his  first  vows,  and  on  the  completion 
of  theological  studies  received  Holy  orders.  In  the 
meanwhile  the  Law  of  1850  had  established,  in  France, 
the  right  of  controlling  education.  Pierre  Olivaint 
was  summoned  to  Paris,  where  he  remained.  On  3 
April,  1852,  Pierre  arrived  at  the  College  of  Vaugirard 
of  which  the  Jesuits  had  accepted  charge.  He  was  to 
spend  thirteen  years  here,  first  as  professor  and  pre- 
fect of  studies,  then  as  rector.  A  model  teacher,  he 
trained  the  heart  as  well  as  the  mind,  and  by  his  ex- 
haustless  energy,  added  to  the  direction  of  his  college, 
many  works  of  zeal,  among  others  "L'CEuvre  de  I'En- 
fant  J^sus  pour  la  premiere  communion  des  jeunes 
filles  pauvres",  and  "L'CEuvre  de  Saint  Fran^ois- 
Xavier",  for  the  workmen  of  the  parish  of  Vaugirard. 

After  twenty-five  years  devoted  to  teaching.  Father 
OUvaint  was  named  Superior  of  the  House  in  Paris 
(1865).  He  accepted  this  burden  with  courage,  and 
displayed  an  unbounded  zeal.  An  indefatigable 
preacher  and  director,  he  exercised  by  his  sanctity  an 
irresistible  influence  over  all.  His  mother  yielded  to 
him  and  under  his  direction,  Madame  Ohvaint  pre- 
pared by  a  life  of  prayer  for  a  very  holy  death.  In 
the  meantime  the  spirit  of  revolt  agitated  Paris,  and 
spread  throughout  France.  The  religious  renaissance 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  in  which  Pierre  Olivaint  had 
been  an  example,  called  forth  a  retaliation  of  evil.  In 
January,  1870,  Father  Olivaint  wrote  "Persecution  is 
upon  us;  it  will  be  terrible:  we  will  pass  through 
torrents  of  blood."  On  the  desertion  of  Rome  by  the 
emperor  had  followed  the  disaster  of  the  French 
troops.  The  investment  of  Paris  was  planned,  and  to 
those  who  urged  him  to  fly  Father  Olivaint  replied  that 
his  was  the  post  of  danger.  The  most  formidable 
danger  impending  was  the  commune,  now  mistress 
of  Paris.  "Let  us  be  generous  and  ready  for  sacri- 
fice", said  Father  Olivaint.  "France  must  have  the 
blood  of  the  pure  to  raise  her  again ;  which  one  of  us, 
indeed,  is  worthy  to  offer  his  life,  and  what  a  joy 
should  we  be  chosen."  He  was  chosen.  On  4  April, 
1871,  the  federes  arrested  Mgr  Darboy  and  several 
others.  On  the  fifth,  they  took  possession  of  the 
house  on  the  Rue  de  Sevres  and  Father  Olivaint  quietly 
gave  himself  up.  On  24  May,  Mgr  Darboy  and  five 
other  prisoners  were  executed;  on  the  twenty-sixth, 
fifty-two  victims.  Father  Olivaint  marching  at  their 
head,  were  dragged  through  Paris  and  massacred  in  the 
Rue  Haxo.  The  day  after  this  expiation  the  commune 
was  overthrown.  The  remains  of  PVther  Olivaint 
and   the  four  priests  who  fell   with  him    (Fathers 


OLIVER 


244 


OUVETANS 


Ducoudray,  Caubert,  Clorc,  et  de  Bpn(j>)  were  placed 
in  a  chapel  in  the  Rue  de  Sevres,  where  the  pious  faith- 
ful still  continue  to  invoke  them,  and  numberless 
graces  have  been  attributed  to  their  intercession. 

Clair.  Pierre  Olirnint  prfire  de  la  C.  de  J.  (Paris.  1878);  DE 
PoNLEVoY.  Acies  de  la  captivili  et  de  la  mart  des  PP.  Olivaint,  Du- 
coudray etc.  (Paris,  187.S):  Olivaint,  Journal  de  «es  retraites  an' 
nuelles  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1872). 

Pierre  Suau. 

Oliver,  George,  b.  at  Newington  in  Surrey  in 
1781 ;  d.  at  Exeter  in  1801.  After  studying  for  some 
years  at  the  Sedgley  Park  School,  he  entered  Stony- 
hurst  in  1796,  went  through  the  full  training,  and 
taught  "humanities"  for  five  years.  Having  been 
ordained  priest  in  1806,  he  was  sent  the  following  year 
to  the  mission  formerly  belonging  to  the  Jesuits  at 
Exeter,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
was  not,however,  himself  a  Jesuit ;  for  during  his  Stony- 
hurst  days  the  Society  had  no  canonical  existence  in 
England,  and  although  the  members  of  the  community 
kept  the  rule  of  St.  Ignatius  so  far  as  was  compatible 
with  their  circumstances,  in  the  hope  of  a  future  re- 
storation of  the  Society,  they  continued  to  rank  as 
secular  priests.  When  the  restoration  of  the  Society 
took  place,  Oliver  did  not  join  it,  but  lived  and  died 
a  secular  priest.  As  a  student  of  archa;ology  he  ac- 
quired considerable  fame,  and  although  some  of  his 
conclusions  are  not  accepted  at  the  present  day,  yet 
considering  the  limited  sources  of  knowledge  which 
were  a\'ailable  when  he  lived,  his  researches  show  both 
industry  and  judgment.  Most  of  his  work  had  a  local 
bearing.  He  became  a  well-known  authority  on  the 
history  and  antiquities  of  Devonshire,  about  which  he 
wrote  several  standard  works. 

The  one  which  is  best  known  to  Catholics  in  general 
is  his  Collections  containing  numerous  biographicaljio- 
tices  of  CathoUcs,  both  clergy  and  laity,  in  the  West  of 
England.  On  the  re-establishment  of  the  hierarchy, 
when  the  Plymouth  Chapter  was  erected  (1852),  Oli- 
ver was  nominated  as  provost.  He  had  already  re- 
tired from  active  work,  but  continued  to  reside  in  his 
old  house  until  his  death.  Among  his  works  are: 
"The  Monasteries  of  Devon"  (1820);  "History  of 
E.xeter"  (1821);  "Ecclesiastical'Aiitiquities  of  Devon" 
(1828,  2nd  edition,  much  changed,  1839);  "Collec- 
tions S.J."  (1838);  "A  View  of  Devonshire  in  1630" 
(1845);  "Monasticon  Dicecesis  Exoniensis"  (1846); 
"Collections  illustrating  the  history  of  the  Catho- 
lic Religion"  etc.  (1857);  "Lives  of  the  Bishops  of 
Exeter"  (1861);  numerous  pamphlets  and  smaller 
works.  See  Brushfield's  Bibliography  of  his  works,  of 
which  the  frontispiece  is  a  portrait  of  George  Oliver. 

Foley,  Records  S.  J.;  Husenbeth,  Hist,  of  Sedgley  Park 
(London.  1856);  Idem,  Life  of  Milner  (Winchester,  1839);  obitu- 
ary notices  in  The  Tablet^  Gentleman's  Magazine,  etc. 

Bernard  Ward. 

Olivet,  Mount  (Lat.  Monsolivertus),  occurring  also 
in  the  English  Bibles  as  the  Mount  of  Olives  {Mons 
Olivarum),  is  the  name  applied  to  "the  hill  that  is 
over  against  Jerusalem"  (III  Kings,  xi,  7),  that  is,  "on 
the  e;ist  side  of  the  city"  (Ezech..  xi,  23),  beyond  the 
torrent  Cedron  (II  Kings,  xv,  23,  30),  "a  sabbath 
day's  journey"  from  the  city  (Acts,  i,  12).  The  pas- 
sages of  the  books  of  the  Kings  show  the  high  an- 
tiquity of  the  name,  undoubterlly  suggested  by  the 
groves  of  olive  trees  which  flourished  there,  traces 
of  which  still  remain.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was 
called  by  Arabic  writers:  Tur  ez-Zeitun,  Tur  ZeitA,  or 
Jebol  Tur  Zeitun,  of  which  the  modern  name,  Jebel 
et-Tur.  appears  to  be  an  abbreviation.  Mt.  Olivet 
is  not  so  much  a  hill  as  a  range  of  hills  separated  by 
low  depressions.  The  range  includes,  from  N.  to  S., 
the  Ras  el-Musharlf  (Scoptis;  2686  ft.  above  the  sea- 
level),  Ras  el-Madbase  (2690  ft.)  and  Ra,s  et-Telacah 
(266.3  ft.);  south  of  the  latter,  between  the  old  and  the 
new  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Jericho,  is  the  Jebel  et- 
fur,  or  Mt.  Olivet  proper,  rising  in  three  summits 


called  by  Christians,  respectively:  the  Men  of  Galilee 
(Karem  e§-Sdyyail,  "the  vineyard  of  the  hunter", 
2732  ft.),  the  Ascension  (on  which  the  village  Kafr  et- 
Tur  is  built),  and  the  Prophets,  a  spur  of  the  preceding 
(Iwing  its  name  to  the  old  rock-tombs  known  as  the 
'I'ombs  of  the  Prophets;  south-west  of  the  new  road  to 
Jericho,  the  range  tenninates  in  the  Jebol  Batn  el- 
Hawa,  callc'd  by  Christians  the  Mount  of  Offence, 
tradition  locating  there  Solomon's  idolatrous  shrines 
(IV  Kings,  xxiii,  13). 

Mt.  (jlivct  has  been  the  scene  of  many  famous 
events  of  Biblical  history.  In  David's  time  there  was 
there  a  holy  place  dedicated  to  Vahweh;  its  exact  lo- 
cation is  not  known;  but  it  was  near  the  road  to  the 
Jordan,  possibly  on  the  summit  of  the  Karem  e^-^ay- 
yad  (II  Kings,  xv,  32).  The  site  of  the  village  of 
Bahurim  (II  Kings,  iii,  16)  lay  no  doubt  on  the  same 
road.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  tradition 
pointing  to  the  Jebel  Batn  el-Hawa  as  the  place  where 
Solomon  erected  his  idolatrous  shrines  destroyed  by 
Josias  (III  Kings,  xi,  7;  IV  Kings,  xxiii,  13);  this  iden- 
tification is  supported  by  the  Targum  which  suggests 
in  IV  Kings,  xxiii,  13,  the  reading  nn'i'?;"  IH,  "Mount 
of  Oil",  a  good  synonym  of  Mt.  Olivet,  instead  of  the 
traditional  P'n'i'Tin  ^n,  "Mount  of  Offence",  found 
nowhere  else.  Accordingly  the  idolatrous  sanctuaries 
were  on  the  south  side  of  Mt.  Olivet  proper.  Finally 
we  learn  from  the  Jewish  rabbis  that  the  Mount  of 
Oil  was  the  traditional  place  for  sacrificing  the  red 
heifer  (Num.,  xix.;  cf.  Maimon.,  "Treat,  of  the  red 
heifer",  iii,  1).  But  to  Christians  especially  is  Mt. 
Olivet  a  most  hallowed  place,  because  it  was,  during 
the  last  days  of  Our  Lord's  public  hfe,  the  preferred 
resort  of  the  Saviour.  In  connexion  therewith  several 
spots  are  singled  out  in  the  Gospels:  Bethania,  the 
home  of  Lazarus  and  of  Simon  the  Leper  (Mark,  xiv, 
3;  Matt.,  xxvi,  6);  Bethphage,  whence  started  the 
triumphal  procession  to  Jerusalem  (Matt.,  xxi,  1), 
identified  with  some  probability  by  Federlin  with  the 
ruins  called  Habalat  el-Amira  or  Kehf  Abu  Layan;  the 
site  of  the  Franciscan  Chapel  of  Bethphage,  about  1 
mile  west  of  El-Azariyeh,  is  not  well  chosen ;  the  place 
where  the  fig-tree  cursed  by  our  Lord  stood  (Matt., 
xxi,  18-22;  Mark,  xi,  12-14;  20-21);  the  spot  where 
Jesus  wept  over  Jerusalem  (Luke,  xix,  41);  the  site 
where  He  prophesied  the  destruction  of  the  Temple, 
the  ruin  of  the  city  and  the  end  of  the  world  (Matt., 
xxiv,  1  sqq.);  the  Garden  of  Gethsemani;  lastly  the 
place  where  the  Lord  imparted  His  farewell  blessing 
to  the  Apostles  and  ascended  into  heaven  (Luke, 
xxiv,  50-51).  All  these  spots  the  piety  of  Christian 
ages  has,  with  more  or  less  success,  endeavoured  to 
locate  and  to  consecrate  by  erecting  sanctuaries 
thereon. 

Thomson,  The  Land  and  the  Book,  I  (London.  1881),  415  sqq.; 
Warren,  Mount  of  Olives  in  Hastings,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  s.  v. ; 
Federlin,  Quelques  localiUs  anciennes  situies  sur  la  Montagne  des 
Oliviers  in  La  Terre  Sainte,  15  Jan.,  1901,  pp.  21  sqq.;  Heidet  in 
ViGOUROCX,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  8.  v.  Oliviers  (Mont  des);  Lievin  db 
Hamme,  Guide-indicateur  de  la  Terre  Sainte  (Jerusalem,  1887); 
Nectbader,  La  geographic  du  Talmud  (Paris,  1868). 

Charles  L.  Sodvay. 

Olivetans,  a  branch  of  the  white  monks  of  the 
Benedictine  Order,  founded  in  1319.  It  owed  its 
origin  to  the  ascetic  fervour  of  Giovanni  Tolomei  (St. 
Bernard  Ptolomei),  a  gentleman  of  Siena  and  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy.  He  is  said  to  have  vowed  him- 
self to  religion  in  gratitude  for  the  recovery  of  his  eye- 
sight through  the  intercession  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
In  fulfilment  of  this  vow  he  left  his  home  (1313)  and 
went  into  the  wilderness,  to  forsake  the  world  and 
give  him.self  to  God.  Two  companions  of  his,  Am- 
brogio  Piccolomini  and  Patricio  Patrici,  Sienese 
senators,  accompanied  him.  They  settled  on  a  bit 
of  land  belonging  to  Tolomei.  It  was  a  mountain  top, 
exactly  suited  to  the  eremitical  life.  Here  they  de- 
voted themselves  to  austerities.  Apparently  they 
were  somewhat  aggressive  in  their  asceticism ;  for,  six 


OLIVI 


245 


OLIVI 


years  later,  they  were  accused  of  heresy  and  sum- 
moned to  give  an  explanation  of  their  innovations  be- 
fore John  XXII  at  Avignon.  The  two  disciples — 
Tolomei  remained  behind — obeyed  the  mandate  and 
succeeded  in  gaining  the  good-will  of  the  Holy  Father, 
who,  however,  in  order  to  bring  them  into  line  with 
other  monks,  bade  them  go  to  Guido  di  Pietromala, 
Bishop  of  Arezzo,  and  ask  him  to  give  them  a  Rule 
which  had  the  approbation  of  the  Church.  The 
bishop  remembered  that  once,  in  a  vision  or  dream, 
Our  Lady  had  put  into  his  hands  the  Rule  of  St.  Ben- 
edict and  bade  him  give  white  habits  to  some  persons 
who  knelt  before  her.  He  did  not  doubt  that  these 
monks  were  the  Sienese  hermits  commended  to  his 
care  by  the  pope.  Wherefore,  he  clothed  the  three  of 
them  with  white  habits  and  gave  them  the  Benedictine 
Rule  and  placed  them  under  the  protection  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  Tolomei  took  the  name  of  Bernard 
and  their  olive-clothed  mountain  hermitage  was  re- 
named "Monte  Oliveto",  in  memory  of  Christ's  agony 
and  as  a  perpetual  reminder  to  themselves  of  the  life  of 
sacrifice  and  expiatory  penance  they  had  undertaken. 

Evidently,  in  what  he  did,  the  good  bishop  had 
before  his  mind  the  history  of  St.  Romuald — there 
is  even  a  repetition  of  the  well-knov^Ti  "Vision  of  St. 
Romuald"  in  the  story — and  hoped,  through  the  en- 
thusiasm of  Bernard  and  his  monks,  to  witness  an- 
other wide-spread  monastic  revival,  like  that  which 
spread  from  the  Hermitage  of  Camaldoli.  He  was 
not  disappointed.  Through  the  generosity  of  a  mer- 
chant a  monastery  was  erected  at  Siena;  he  himself 
built  another  at  Arezzo;  a  third  sprang  up  at  Florence; 
and  within  a  very  few  years  there  were  establishments 
at  Camprena,  Volterra,  San  Geminiano,  Eugubio, 
Foligno,  and  Rome.  Before  St.  Bernard's  death  from 
the  plague  in  1348 — he  had  quitted  his  monastery 
to  devote  himself  to  the  care  of  those  stricken  with  the 
disease  and  died  a  martyr  of  charity — the  new  con- 
gregation was  already  in  great  repute,  as  well  for  the 
number  of  its  houses  and  monks  as  for  the  saintliness 
of  its  members  and  the  rigour  of  its  observance.  Yet 
it  never  succeeded  in  planting  itself  successfully  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Alps. 

St.  Bernard  Ptolomei's  idea  of  monastic  reform  was 
that  which  had  inspired  every  founder  of  an  order  or 
congregation  since  the  days  of  St.  Benedict — a  return 
to  the  primitive  life  of  soUtude  and  austerity.  Severe 
corporal  mortifications  were  ordained  by  rule  and  in- 
flicted in  public.  The  usual  ecclesisatical  and  con- 
ventual fasts  were  largely  increased  and  the  daily 
food  was  bread  and  water.  The  monks  slept  on  a 
straw  mattress  without  bed-coverings,  and  did  not 
he  down  after  the  midnight  Office,  but  continued  in 
prayer  until  Prime.  They  wore  wooden  sandals  and 
habits  of  the  coarsest  stuff.  They  were  also  fanatical 
total  abstainers;  not  only  was  St.  Benedict's  kindly 
concession  of  a  hemina  of  wine  rejected,  but  the  vine- 
yards were  rooted  up  and  the  wine-presses  and  vessels 
destroyed.  Attention  has  been  called  to  this  last  par- 
ticular, chiefly  to  contrast  with  it  a  provision  of  the 
later  constitutions,  in  which  the  monks  are  told  to 
keep  the  best  wine  for  themselves  and  sell  the  inferior 
product  ("Meliora  \-ina  pro  monachorum  usu  serven- 
tur,  pejora  vendantur")  and,  should  they  have  to  buy 
wine,  to  purchase  only  the  better  quality  ("si  vinum 
emendum  erit,  emetur  illud  quod  mehus  erit"). 
Truly,  relaxation  was  inevitable.  It  was  never  rea- 
sonable that  the  heroic  austerities  of  St.  Bernard  and 
his  companions  sliould  be  made  the  rule,  then  and 
always,  for  every  monk  of  the  order.  But  the  man- 
date concerning  the  quality  of  the  wine  chiefly  aimed 
to  remove  any  excuse  for  differential  treatment  of  the 
monks  in  meat  and  drink.  Where  everything  on  the 
table  was  of  exceptional  quality,  there  could  be  no 
reason  why  anyone  should  be  especially  provided  for. 
It  was  always  the  custom  for  each  one  to  dilute  the 
wine  given  him. 


Though  the  foundation  of  the  Olivetans  was  not 
professedly  an  introduction  of  constitutional  reform 
among  the  Benedictines,  it  had  that  result.  They 
were  a  new  creation  and  hence,  as  we  may  say,  up- 
to-date.  They  had  a  superior  general,  like  the  friars, 
and  officials  of  the  order  distinct  from  those  of  the 
abbey.  They  set  an  example  of  adaptation  to  present 
needs  by  the  frequent  modification  of  their  constitu- 
tions at  the  general  chapters,  and  by  the  short  terra 
of  office  enjoyed  by  the  superiors.  In  1408  Gregory 
XII  gave  them  the  extinct  monastery  of  St.  Justina 
at  Padua,  which  they  occupied  until  the  institution 
there  of  the  famous  lienedictine  reform.  This  great 
movement,  out  of  which  the  present  Cassinese  Con- 
gregation resulted,  may,  therefore,  in  a  very  literal 
sense,  be  described  as  having  followed  in  the  footsteps 
of  the  Olivetans.  At  the  present  date,  the  Order  of 
Our  Lady  of  Mount  Olivet  numbers  only  10  monaster- 
ies and  122  brethren. 

H^LYOT,  Hist,  des  ordres  monast.;  MiGNE,  Did,  des  ordres  relig.; 
Lan'celotto.  Hist.  Olivetanm;  Bonanni,  Catalog,  ord.  relig.;  Cum- 
mins, The  Olivetan  Constitutiotis  in  Amplejorth  Journal  (Dec, 
1896). 

J.  C.  Almond. 

Olivi,  Pierre  Jean  (Petrus  Johannis),  Spiritual 
Franciscan  and  theological  author,  b.  at  Serignan, 
Diocese  of  Bcziers,  1248-9;  d.  at  Narbonne,  14  March, 
1298.  At  twelve  he  entered  the  Friars  Minor  at 
Bcziers,  and  later  took  the  baccalaureate  at  Paris. 
Returning  to  his  native  province,  he  soon  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  strict  observance  of  the  rule 
and  his  theological  knowledge.  When  Nicholas  III 
prepared  his  Decretal  "Exiit"  (1279),  Oh\n,  then  at 
Rome,  was  asked  to  express  his  opinion  with  regard 
to  Franciscan  poverty  {usus  pauper).  Unfortunately 
there  was  then  in  the  convents  of  Provence  a  con- 
troversy about  the  stricter  or  laxer  observance  of  the 
rule.  Olivi  soon  became  the  principal  spokesman 
of  the  rigorists,  and  met  with  strong  opposition  on  the 
part  of  the  community.  At  the  General  Chapter  of 
Strasburg  (1282)  he  was  accu.sed  of  heresy,  and  hence- 
forward almost  every  general  chapter  concerned  itself 
with  him.  His  doctrine  was  examined  by  seven  friars, 
graduates  of  the  University  of  Paris  (see  Anal.  Franc., 
Ill,  374-7.5),  and  censured  in  thirty-four  propositions, 
whereupon  his  writings  were  confiscated  (1283). 
Olivi  cleverly  defended  himself  in  several  responses 
(1283-85),  and  finally  the  General  Chapter  of  Mont- 
pellier  (1287)  decided  in  his  favour.  The  new  general, 
Matthew  of  Aquasparta,  sent  him  as  lector  in  theology 
to  the  convent  of  Sta.  Croce,  Florence,  whence  Mat- 
thew's successor,  Raymond  Gaufredi,  sent  him  as 
lector  to  Montpellier.  At  the  General  Chapter  of 
Paris  (1292)  Olivi  again  gave  explanations,  which  were 
apparently  satisfactory.  He  spent  his  last  years  in 
the  convent  of  Narbonne,  and  died,  surrounded  by  his 
friends,  after  an  earnest  profession  of  his  Catholic 
Faith  (published  by  Wadding  ad  a.  1297,  n.  33). 

Peace,  however,  was  not  obtained  by  his  death. 
His  friends,  friars  and  seculars,  showed  an  exaggerated 
veneration  for  their  leader,  and  honoured  his  tomb 
as  that  of  a  saint;  on  the  other  hand  the  General  Chap- 
ter of  Lyons  (1299)  ordered  his  writings  to  be  col- 
lected and  burnt  as  heretical.  The  General  Council  of 
Vienne  (1312),  in  the  Decretal  "Fidei  catholica;  fun- 
damento"  (Bull.  Franc,  V,  86),  establi.shed  the  Cath- 
olic doctrine  against  three  points  of  Olivi's  teaching, 
without  mentioning  the  author;  these  points  referred 
to:  (1)  the  moment  Our  Lord's  body  was  transfixed 
by  the  lance,  (2)  the  manner  in  which  the  soul  is  united 
to  the  body,  (3)  the  baptism  of  infants.  In  1318  the 
friars  went  so  far  as  to  destroy  Olivi's  tomb,  and  in  the 
next  year  two  further  steps  were  taken  against  him: 
his  writings  were  absolutely  forbidden  by  the  Gen- 
eral Chapter  of  Marseilles,  and  a  special  commission 
of  theologians  examined  Olivi's  "Postilla  in  Apoca- 
lypsim"  and  marked  out  sixty  sentences,  chiefly  joar 


OLIVIEK 


-246 


oll£-laprune 


chimistical  extravagances  (see  Joachim  of  Flora. 
For  text  sec  Baluzius-Mansi,"  Miscellanea",  1 1,  Lucca, 
1 761 ,  25S-70 ;  cf .  also  Denifle, ' '  Chartularium  Uni versi- 
tatisParisiensis",  II,  i,  Paris,  IS!)  1, 2158-9) .  It  was  only 
in  1320)  that  those  sentoncos  were  really  oondeniiicd  by 
John  XXII,  when  the  fact  that  I.ouls  the  Bavarian 
used  Olivi's  writings  in  his  famous  Ai>peal  of  Saehscn- 
hauseu  (1324)  had  again  drawn  attention  to  the  au- 
thor. Olivi's  fate  was  a  hard  one,  but  was  partly 
deserved  through  his  theological  incorrectness.  Still 
Father  Ehrle,  the  most  competent  judge  on  this  point, 
considers  (.\rchiv,  III,  440)  that  Olivi  was  not  the  im- 
pious heretic  he  is  painted  in  some  writings  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  and  states  (ibid.,  448)  that  the  denunciation 
of  his  theological  doctrine  was  rather  a  tactical  meas- 
ure of  the  adversaries  of  the  severe  principles  of  pov- 
erty and  reform  professed  by  Olivi.  For  the  rest, 
Olivi  follows  in  many  points  the  doctrine  of  St.  Bona- 
venture.  The  numerous  but  for  the  most  part  unedited 
works  of  01i\-i  are  appropriately  divided  by  Ehrle  into 
three  classes :  (1 )  Speculative  Works,  of  which  the  chief 
is  his  " Qua-stiones "  (philosophical  and  theological), 
printed  partly  in  an  extremely  rare  edition  (Venice, 
1509),  which  contains  also  his  defences  against  the 
Paris  theologians  of  1283-85  which  were  reprinted  by 
Du  Plessis  d'Argentr^,  "Collectio  judiciorum",  I 
(Paris,  1724),  226-34;  Commentary  on  the  Book  of 
Sentences;  "De  Sacramentis "  etc.  (2)  Exegetical 
Works:  Five  small  treatises  on  principles  of  introduc- 
tion, printed  under  St.  Bona  venture's  name  by  Bonelli, 
"Suppl.  ad.  op.  S.  BonaventuriE "  (Trent,  1772-3),  I, 
23-49,  282-347,  348-74;  II,  1038-52,  1053-1113.  In 
the  same  work  (I,  52-281)  is  printed  Olivi's  "Postilla 
in  Cant.  Canticorum".  (See  S.  Bonav.  opera.,  VI, 
Quaracchi,  1893,  Prolegomena,  vi-ix.)  The  other 
■poslilloE  are:  Super  Genesini,  Job,  Psalterium,  Prover- 
bia,  Ecclesiasten,  Lamentationes  Jeremiad,  Ezechielem, 
Prophetas  minores,  on  the  Four  Gospels,  Ep.  ad  Ro- 
manes [see  Denifle,  "Die  Abendl.  Schriftausleger  bis 
Luther  ....  (Rom.,  i,  17)  und  justificatio"  (Mainz, 
1905),  156  sq.],  ad  Corinthios,  in  epistolas  Canonicas, 
in  Apocalypsim;  (3)  Works  on  observance  of  Fran- 
ciscan Rule  (see  Francis,  Rule  of  Saint). 

Ehrle,  Petrus  Johannis  Olivi,  sein  Lebtm  u.  seine  Schriften  in 
Archinfar  LiU.  u  Kirchmgeech.  d.  Mitlelallers.  Ill  (Berlin.  1887), 
409-552;  Idem,  Die  Vorgesch.  d.  ConciU  von  Vienne,  ibid.,  II,  353- 
416;  Danou,  Hist.  liu.  de  la  France,  XXI  (Paris.  1847),  41-55; 
F^RET,  La  JacuUl  de  thiol,  de  Paris.  Moyen  Age,  II  (Paris,  1895), 
99-105;  III,  117-25;  Ren*  de  Nantes,  Hist,  des  SpirUuels  (Paris, 
1909),  267-342;  Ouger,  Descriptio  Codicis  Capistranensis  aliquot 
opuscula  Fr.  Petri  Johannis  Olivi  contineniis  in  Archivum  Franci^c. 
Histor.,  I  (Quaracchi,  1908),  617-22;  Ziqliara,  De  mente  Concilii 
Viennensis  in  definiendo  dogmate  unionis  animte  humantr  cum  cor- 
pore  (Rome,  1878);  Wadding,  Scriptores  (Rome,  1806),  193; 
Sbarale.\,  Suppl.  ad  Script.,  595-7. 

LiVARIDS  OlIGER. 

Olivier  de  la  Marcbe,  chronicler  and  poet,  b. 
1426,  at  the  Chateau  de  la  Marche,  in  Franche- 
Comte;  d.  at  Brussels,  1501.  He  was  knighted  by 
Count  de  Charolais,  later  Charies  the  Bold  (1465). 
Two  years  later  Count  de  Charolais  became  ruler  of 
Burgundy  and  Flanders,  and  made  Olivier  bailiff  of 
Amont  (now  a  department  of  the  Haute-Saone)  and 
captain  of  his  guards.  Taken  prisoner  at  the  battle 
of  Nancy,  where  the  duke  lo.st  his  life  (1477),  he  re- 
gained his  liberty  by  paying  a  ransom,  and  rejoined 
Marie,  daughter  of  Duke  Charles  and  heiress  of  Bur- 
gundy, who  made  him  her  mattre  d'holel. 

As  a  writer  he  is  best  known  by  his  "Memoirs",  which 
cover  the  years  from  143.5-02,  first  printed  at  Lyons 
in  1.562.  Another  edition,  by  Beaune  and  d'Arbau- 
mont,  was  made  for  the  .Soci(^t6  de  I'Histoire  de  France 
(188.3-88).  The  work  is  singular  and  important  for  a 
knowledge  of  the  period.  The  author  is  sincere,  but 
his  style  contains  many  Wnltmine  expressions  and,  as 
in  his  other  writings,  he  introduces  too  many  descrip- 
tions of  fetes  and  tournaments.  Most  of  his  works  are 
in  verse.  Among  these  are:  "  Lc  Chevalier  D^libfre  ", 
a  poem  wliich  some  tliink  is  his  own  biography,  others 


that  it  is  an  allegorical  life  of  Charles  the  Bold;  "Le 
Parement  et  le  Triomphe  des  Dames  d'Hoimeur",  a 
work  in  prose  and  verse,  of  which  each  of  the  twenty- 
six  chapters  is  named  from  some  articles  of  ladies' at- 
tire; and  "La  Source  d'Honneur  pour  niaintenir  la 
corporelle  dli^gance  des  Dames".  Among  his  prose 
works  are:  "Traits  et  Avis  de  quelques  gentilhommes 
sur  les  duels  et  gages  de  bataille",  and  "  Traits  de  la 
Maniere  de  c^l6brer  la  noble  fete  de  la  Toison  d'or". 
Stein,  Olivier  de  la  Marche  (Brussels,  1888). 

Georges  Bertrin.    ■ 

OlIS-Laprune,  L£on,  French  Catholic  philoso- 
pher, b.in  1839;  d.  at  Paris,  19  Feb.,  1  SOS.  Under  the 
influence  of  the  philosopher  Caro  and  of  Pcre  Gratry's 
book  ' '  Les  Sources  ",  011<?-Laprune,  after  exceptionally 
brilliant  studies  at  the  Ecole  Normale  Supi^rieure 
(1858  to  1861),  devoted  himself  to  philosophy.  His 
life  was  spent  in  teaching  a  philosophy  illuminated  by 
the  light  of  Catholic  faith,  first  in  the  lycces  and  then 
in  the  Ecole  Normale  Sup6rieure  from  1875.  As  Oza- 
nam  had  been  a  Catholic  professor  of  history  and 
foreign  literature  in  the  university,  011(5-Laprune's  aim 
was  to  be  a  Catholic  professor  of  philosophy  there. 
Pere  de  Regnon,  the  Jesuit  theologian,  wrote  to  him: 
"I  am  glad  to  think  that  God  wills  in  our  time  to  re- 
vive the  lay  apostolate,  as  in  the  times  of  Justin  and 
Athenagoras;  it  is  you  especially  who  give  me  these 
thoughts."  The  Government  of  the  Third  Republic 
was  now  and  then  urged  by  a  certain  section  of  the 
press  to  punish  the  "clericahsm"  of  0116-Laprune,  but 
the  repute  of  his  philosophical  teaching  protected  him. 
For  one  year  only  (1881-82),  after  organizing  a  mani- 
festation in  favour  of  the  expelled  congregations,  he 
was  suspended  from  his  chair  by  Jules  P'erry,  and  the 
first  to  sign  the  protest  addressed  by  his  students  to 
the  minister  on  behalf  of  their  professor  was  the  fu- 
ture socialist  deputy  Jean  Jaures,  then  a  student  at 
the  Ecole  Normale  Superieure. 

011(5-Laprune's  first  important  work  was  "La  phi- 
losophic deMalebranche"  (1870).  Ten  years  later  to 
obtain  the  doctorate  he  defended  before  the  Sorbonne 
a  thesis  on  moral  certitude.  As  against  the  exaggera- 
tions of  Cartesian  rationalism  and  Positivistic  deter- 
minism he  investigated  the  part  of  the  will  and  the  heart 
in  the  phenomenon  of  belief.  This  work  resembles  in 
many  respects  Newman's  "Grammar  of  Assent";  but 
0116-Laprune  must  not,  any  more  than  the  English 
cardinal,  be  held  responsible  for  subsequent  tenden- 
cies which  have  sought  to  diminish  the  share  of  the  in- 
teUigence  in  the  act  of  faith  and  to  separate  completely 
the  domain  of  belief  from  that  of  knowledge.  In  his 
"Essai  sur  la  morale  d'Aristote"  (ISSl)  OUe-Laprune 
defended  the  "Euda?monism"  of  the  Greek  philoso- 
pher against  the  Kantian  theories;  and  in  "  La  philoso- 
phic et  le  temps  pr&ent "  (1890)  he  vindicated,  against 
Deistic  spiritualism,  the  right  of  the  Christian  thinker 
to  go  beyond  the  data  of  "natural  religion"  and  illu- 
minate philosophy  by  the  data  of  revealed  religion. 
One  of  his  most  influential  works  was  the  "Prix  de  la 
vie"  (1894),  wherein  he  shows  why  life  is  worth  living. 
The  advice  given  by  Leo  XIII  to  the  Catholics  of 
France  found  in  Olle-Laprune  an  active  champion. 
His  brochure  "Ce  qu'on  va  ehercher  k  Rome"  (1895) 
was  one  of  the  best  commentaries  on  the  papal  policy. 
The  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences  elected 
him  a  member  of  the  philosophical  section  in  1897 
to  succeed  Vacherot.  His  articles  and  conferences  at- 
test his  growing  influence  in  Catholic  circles.  He  be- 
came a  leader  of  Christian  activity,  consulted  and 
heard  by  all  until  his  premature  death  when  he  was 
about  to  finish  a  book  on  JoufTroy  (Paris,  1899). 
Many  of  his  articles  have  been  collected  by  Goyau 
under  the  title  "La  Vitality  chrctienne"  (1901).  Here 
will  also  be  found  a  series  of  his  unedited  meditations, 
which  by  a  noteworthy  coincidence  bore  the  future 
motto  of  Pius  X,  "  Omnia  instaurare  in  Christo".  Pro- 


OLMUTZ 


247 


OLMUTZ 


fessor  Delbos  of  the  University  of  Paris  published  in 
1907  the  course  which  0116-Laprune  had  given  on  rea- 
son and  rationaUsm  (La  raison  et  le  rationalisme). 
Some  months  after  his  death  Mr.  William  P.  Coyne 
called  him  with  justice  "the  greatest  Catholic  layman 
who  has  appeared  in  France  since  Ozanam"  ("New 
Ireland  Review",  June,  1899,  p.  195). 

Bazaillas,  La  crise  de  la  croyance  (Parig,  1901) ;  Blondel, 
Leon  Olle-Laprune  (Paris,  1900);  GoYAn,  Preface  to  La  VitalitS 
ckritienne;  Delbos,  Preface  to  La  raison  et  le  rationalisme; 
RouBB  in  Etudes  religieuses  (20  October,  1898) ;  Boutroux, 
Notice  sur  M,  OlU-Laprune,  read  before  the  Acad^mie  des 
Sciences  morales  (Paris,  1900). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Olmiitz,  Archdiocese  of  (Olomdcensis),  in  Mo- 
ravia. It  is  probable  that  Christianity  penetrated 
into  Moravia  as  early  as  the  fourth  century,  but  the 
invasions  of  the  Huns  and  Avars  destroyed  these  be- 
ginnings. Towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the 
Northern  Slavs  immigrated  into  this  region.  Their 
leader,  Rastislav,  asked  for  Christian  missionaries,  not 
from  the  Franks,  but  from  the  Greek  emperor,  Michael 
III,  who  sent  the  brothers  Cyril  and  Methodius,  born 
in  Thessalonica  but  speaking  the  Slavic  tongue  and 
educated  in  Constantinople.  Cyril,  known  as  "the 
Philosopher",  had  been  a  missionary  among  the  Cha- 
zars,  and  had  discovered  near  the  Inkermann  the  body 
of  Clement  I,  whose  transfer  to  Rome  through  Bul- 
garia and  Pannonia  is  marked  to  this  day  by  three 
Moravian  and  eighteen  Bohemian  churches  dedicated 
to  St.  Clement.  The  preaching  of  the  missionary 
brothers  was  successful.  Cyril  invented  the  Glago- 
litic  alphabet  and  translated  the  Bible  into  Slavic. 
What  is  to-day  called  "Cyrillic"  (Glagohtic)  script 
owes  its  origin  to  his  pupil  Clement,  Bishop  of  Wehea. 
German  ecclesiastics  became  jealous  of  the  success  of 
the  two  Slavic  apostles  and  accused  them  at  Rome, 
but  Adrian  II  gave  them  permission  to  use  the  Slavic 
language  for  religious  services.  Cyril  died  in  a  Ro- 
man monastery,  while  Methodius  became  Archbishop 
of  Pannonia  and  Moravia.  Despite  his  high  ecclesia.s- 
tical  dignity  he  was  insulted  at  a  Synod  of  Salzburg 
and  kept  a  prisoner  for  two  and  a  half  years.  He  la- 
boured faithfully  and  successfully  in  Moravia  under 
the  reign  of  Swatopluk,  justified  himself  repeatedly 
when  accused  before  John  VIII,  and  died  6  April,  885, 
at  Velehrad  on  the  March. 

The  Moravian  kingdom  soon  (906)  fell  before  the  on- 
slaught of  the  Hungarians,  and  the  name  Moravia  for 
a  long  lime  ili.sappears  from  history.  In  the  report 
sent  by  Pilgrim  of  Passau  to  Benedict  VIII,  it  is  men- 
tioned as  jiart  of  the  Diocese  of  Passau.  When  in  973 
the  See  of  Prague  was  established,  it  included  Mora- 
via, Silesia  (with  Cracow),  and  the  Lausitz.  In  1048 
Duke  Bretislav  Achilles  founded  the  first  Moravian 
monastery,  Raigern.  The  medieval  concept  of  a 
kingdom  called  for  several  episcopal  sees  under  a 
metropolitan.  Therefore,  when  BretLslav's  suc- 
cessor, Vratislav  II,  coveted  the  royal  crown,  he  cre- 
ated the  nece.ssary  conditions,  and  in  1063  Olmiitz 
became  a  bishopric.  The  emperor  gained  a  new 
vassal,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz  another  suf- 
fragan. The  Bishop  of  Prague,  as  an  indemnity 
for  the  loss  of  tithes  in  Moravia,  received  twelve 
fiefs  in  Bohemia,  and  annually  the  sum  of  one  hun- 
dred marks  silver  from  the  ducal  treasury.  The  first 
Moravian  bishop  was  John  I  (1063-85),  a  monk  of 
Brevnow.  At  the  same  time  the  Cathedral  of  Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul  received  a  chapter  with  a  dean  at  its 
head.  John  had  to  suffer  a  great  deal  from  Bishop 
Jaromir  (Gebhard)  of  Prague,  the  unpriestly  brother 
of  Duke  Vratislav.  Jaromir  personally  attacked  and 
maltreated  Bishop  John  in  the  latter's  episcopal  pal- 
ace. Alexander  II  thereupon  sent  a  legate  Rudol- 
phus,  who  convoked  a  synod  at  Prague  which  Jaromir 
ignored.  For  this  insubordination  he  was  depo.sed. 
Gregory  VII  summoned  both  bishops  to  Rome.  At 
the  Easter  Synod  of  1074  Jaromir  expressed  his  regret 


for  maltreating  John,  but  declined  to  give  up  the  fief 
of  Bodovin,  whereupon  the  pope  asked  Vratislav  to 
expel  Jaromir,  by  force  if  necessary. 

Among  the  bishops  of  Olmiitz,  during  the  later  Mid- 
dle Ages  the  following  are  prominent:  Heinrich 
(called  Zdik  after  his  birthplace)  transferred  his  see  to 
the  church  of  St.  Wenceslaus,  which  had  been  twenty- 
four  years  in  construction,  and  at  Easter,  1138,  took 
the  Premonstratensian  habit  in  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  Bishop  Kaiim,  in  1 193, 
while  ordaining  priests  and  deacons  at  Prague,  forgot 
the  imposition  of  hands.  His  successor,  Engelbert, 
corrected  this  omission  two  years  later;  but  the  Cardi- 
nal-Deacon Petrus  declared  the  ordination  null  and 
void,  and  caused  it  to  be  repeated  in  its  entirety  in 


1197.  When  the  legate  attempted  to  enforce  a  strict 
observance  of  the  laws  relating  to  celibacy,  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  country;  the  laws  of  the  Church,  how- 
ever, were  henceforth  more  strictly  observed.  Dur- 
ing the  time  that  Moravia  was  joined  to  Bohemia,  the 
Duke  of  Bohemia  appointed  the  Bishop  of  Olmiitz.  In 
1 182  Moravia  became  independent,  and  thereafter  the 
margraves  of  Moravia  exercised  the  right  of  appoint- 
ment. Premysl  Ottokar  I,  in  1207,  granted  to  the 
Church  of  Olmiitz  freedom  from  taxes  and  to  the  chap- 
ter the  right  of  electing  the  bishop.  Innocent  III  con- 
firmed this  grant.  After  the  death  of  Ottokar  II, 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  appointed  Bishop  Bruno  regent 
in  Moravia.  Charles  IV,  in  1.343,  made  Prague  the 
metropolitan  see  for  Leitomischl  and  Olmiitz.  The 
bishopric,  as  a  vassal  principality  of  the  Bohemian 
crown,  was  the  peer  of  the  margravate  of  Moravia, 
and  from  1365  its  prince-bishop  was  Count  of  the  Bo- 
hemian Chapel,  i.  e.  first  court  chaplain  who  was  to  ac- 
company the  monarch  on  his  frequent  travels.  In 
1380  the  cathedral  and  the  residence  of  the  prince- 
bishop  were  both  destroyed  by  fire.  During  this  pe- 
riod the  following  orders  were  established :  the  Premon- 


O'LOGHLEN 


248 


OLTMPIAS 


stratcnsians  (Hradisch,  Klosterbruck) ;  Cistercians 
(Vclehrail);  the  Franciscans  and  the  Dominicans  dur- 
ing tlic  lives  of  llieir  founders;  theTeutonic  Kniylits. 
On  tlie  other  hand  there  arose  the  sects  of  tlie  Allii- 
Renses,  I'"hit;ellants,  Waldensians  (Apostohc  Brethren, 
Brethren  of  the  Holy  (iliost),  Hussites  (Bohemian 
Brethren,  Clnilx'idieinier,  Picardians).  Thus  it  hap- 
pened that  Protestantism  foimd  a  well-prepared  field. 
Lutheranisiii  was  preached  by  Sijeratus  at  IkUui;  H>ih- 
maier  and  Hutcr  were  Baptists.  Exiled  from  Swilz- 
erhvnd  anil  Ciermany,  the  Anabaptists  came  in  droves 
into  Moravia;  I.nlius  Socinus,  on  his  liomeward  jour- 
ney from  Polanil  to  Turin,  successfully  sowed  the 
seed  of  Sociniaiiism.  Bishop  Dubravsky  (Dubravius), 
famous  as  an  author  and  historian,  encouraged  the 
dislieartened  Catholics  (1553).  The  thirty-three  vol- 
umes of  his  history  of  Bohemia,  his  five  books  on  fish- 
raising  (piscatology),  and  the  work  entitled  "Ueber 
das  heilige  Messopfer"  justify  his  reputation. 

The  Reform  movement  was  finally  arrested  by  the 
Jesuits.  Three  of  them  reached  Olmiitz  in  1560  and 
rapidly  acquired  influence  and  power.  Bishop  Prusi- 
novsky  granted  them  a  convent  and  turned  over  to 
them  the  schools  as  well  as  the  projected  university. 
At  a  synod  strict  orders  and  regulations  were  adopted. 
His  fourth  successor,  Pavlovsky,  accomplished  won- 
ders in  carrying  out  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  Rudolph  II  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of 
duke  and  prince  and  made  him  a  member  of  the  royal 
chapel.  The  canons  whom  he  gathered  at  Olmtitz 
were  distinguished  for  learning  and  virtue.  The  most 
important  bishop  of  this  see  during  the  Reformation 
period  was  Cardinal  Franz  Dietrichstein  (d.  1636), 
son  of  Adam,  major-domo  of  the  imperial  household. 
He  governed  the  see  for  thirty-seven  years,  and  ac- 
complished extraordinary  things  both  as  statesman 
and  ecclesiastic.  His  work,  of  course,  met  with  con- 
siderable opposition.  He  was  imprisoned  at  Briinn, 
and  the  See  of  Olmiitz  was  abolished.  Johannes  Sar- 
kander,  parish  priest  of  HoUeschau,  became  a  martyr 
for  the  secrecy  of  the  confessional  at  Olmiitz,  17  March, 
1620,  and  in  1860  he  was  canonized.  Better  days 
Boon  appeared.  The  title  of  prince  was  conferred  on 
both  the  cardinal  and  his  brother,  whose  descendants 
were  to  inherit  the  title.  Amos  Comenius  (Kom- 
enzky),  the  last  ".senior"  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren, 
fled  to  Poland.  Pre-eminent  as  a  pedagogue  his  in- 
fluence was  felt  later  on  in  the  intellectual  life  of  his 
country.  Dietrichstein  was  succeeded  by  Archduke 
Leopold  Wilhelm,  son  of  F^erdinand  II,  and  by  Charles 
Joseph,  son  of  Ferdinand  III.  In  1663  Charles  Joseph 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Breslau  and  Olmiitz,  with  a  dis- 
pensation from  Alexander  VII,  as  he  was  scarcely 
fourteen  years  of  age;  but  died  the  following  year.  In 
1693  Charles,  son  of  Duke  Charles  of  Lorraine,  at  the 
age  of  twenty-three,  became  sub-deacon  and  exercised 
the  administrative  power  in  temporal  affairs;  four 
years  later  he  obtained  the  spiritual  administration. 
The  dissolution  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1773  affected 
three  hundred  and  sixty-eight  professors  in  nine  col- 
leges of  Moravia.  In  the  same  year  Clement  XIV 
withdrew  from  the  chapter  the  right  of  electing  its 
bishop;  it  was  restored,  however,  by  Pius  VI. 

Maria  Theresa,  in  1777,  raised  Olmiitz  to  the  dig- 
nity of  an  archbishopric,  and  subordinated  to  it  the 
newly-founded  See  of  Briinn.  The  archdiocese  was 
divided  into  eight  archpresbyterates  and  fifty-two 
deaneries.  When  the  toleration  edict  of  Joseph  II  ap- 
peared in  1781,  whole  districts  forsook  the  Church. 
The  inhabitants  since  the  Counter-Reformation  had 
been  Protestants  in  secret.  The  emperor  therefore 
ordered  those  desirous  of  renouncing  the  Catholic  be- 
lief to  make  known  in  person  their  intention  to  the 
Commi.ssiori  on  Religion.  When  Emperor  Joseph 
began  the  dissolut  ion  of  the  monasteries,  there  were  in 
Moravia  and  Silesia  two  thousand  monks  in  eighty- 
three  houses.     From  the  sale  of  this  ecclesiastical 


property,  the  so-called  "Religion  Fund",  many  par- 
ishes were  established,  tlirec  in  Olmulz  alone.  In  the 
rural  [larts  the  parishes  wer(>  not  to  be  more  than  four 
miles  a])art.  The  parish  priests  received  a  stipend  of 
four  hundred  florins,  a  local  chaplain  three  hundred 
florins,  and  an  assistant  two  hundred  florins.  The 
third  Archbishop  of  Olmiitz  was  .Archduke  Rudolph, 
brother  of  Emperor  Francis.  Cardinal  Maximilian 
Jo.seiih,  Freiherr  von  Somerau-Beckh,  had,  in  1S48,  as 
adviser  an<l  assistant,  the  brilliant  chancellor  Kut.sch- 
ker.  On  2  December  of  the  same  year,  in  the  throne 
room  of  the  prince-archbishop's  residence,  Francis 
Joseph  assumed  the  imperial  sceptre.  While  the  Aus- 
trian Parliament  sat  at  Kremsier,  Olmiitz  was  the  polit- 
ical capital  of  Austria.  Eighty  years  old,  Somerau- 
Beckh  attended  the  great  assembly  of  bishops  in 
Vienna  in  1849.  Here  he  proposed  by  legal  enact- 
ment to  abolish  the  rule  requiring  every  member  of 
the  Olmtitz  chapter  to  be  of  noble  birth,  because  this 
rule  was  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity  and  the 
laws  of  the  Church,  and  an  injustice  to  the  untitled 
clergy  of  the  diocese.  The  Olmiitz  chapter  for  a  long 
time  opposed  this  proposition  both  at  Rome  and  at 
the  imperial  court,  but  without  success.  The  two 
last  prince-bishops  have  also  been  commoners.  Car- 
dinal Fiirstenberg  rebuilt  in  splendid  Gothic  style  the 
cathcilral  with  its  three  towers,  carefully  preserving 
the  individuality  of  the  old  church.  The  Concordat 
of  Vienna  (1448)  provided  that  if  any  high  dignitary  of 
the  Church  resigned  or  died  while  in  Rome,  the  pope 
should  have  the  right  to  fill  the  vacancy  thus  caused. 
This  he  did,  when  Archbishop  Theodor  Kohn  resigned 
his  office  in  Rome  on  account  of  his  great  age,  and  the 
Bishop  of  Briinn,  Francis  Sal.  Bauer  was  appointed 
archbishop. 

At  the  present  (1910)  Moravia  has  two  and  one 
half  million  inhabitants  of  whom  over  ninety-five  per- 
cent are  Catholics,  less  than  three  per  cent  Protest- 
ants, and  nearly  two  per  cent  Hebrews.  In  the 
Archdiocese  of  Olmiitz  there  are  1,785,000  Catholics; 
1,507  priests;  220  male  and  1,547  female  inmates  of 
religious  houses.  The  episcopal  city  has  a  population 
of  22,000. 

WoLNY,  Topographic  Mdhrens  (2  vola.,  Brunn.  1836-42); 
Kirchl.  Topographic  Mshrens  (9  vols.,  Briinn,  1855-63).  index, 
1866;  DuDiK,  Gcschichle  Mahrens  (until  1358)  in  12  vols.  (Brunn, 
1860-88) ;  Muller.  Ceschichte  dcr  kOn.  Hauptstadt  Olmiitz  (Vienna, 
1882);  TiTTEL,  Historia  archidiwccsis  Olomuccnsis  ejusque  PrcB- 
sulum  (OlmUtz,  1889),  MSS.;  d'Elvert.  Zur  Geschichte  des  Erz- 
bistums  Olmiitz  (Brunn,  1895),  bibliography,  pp.  305-12. 

C.    WOLFSGRCBBB. 

O'Loghlen,  Michael,  b.  at  Ennis,  Co.  Clare,  Ire- 
land, in  1789;  d.  1846.  Educated  at  Ennis  Academy, 
and  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  he  was  called  to  the  Irish 
Bar  in  1811.  By  force  of  abihty  he  won  a  position  as 
a  brilliant  pleader.  His  first  real  success  was  as  a 
substitute  for  O'Connell  on  the  day  of  the  memorable 
duel  between  O'Connell  and  D'Esterre  (1815);  from 
1820  to  1830  many  cases  came  from  O'Connell  through 
who.se  influence  O'Loghlen  was  appointed  solicitor 
general  for  Ireland  in  1834,  the  first  Catholic  since 
James  II.  He  was  also  elected  M.P.  for  Dungarvan, 
and  when  Perrin  was  elevated  to  the  Bench  in  1835, 
he  was  made  attorney  general.  A  year  later  he  suc- 
ceeded Sir  William  Cusack  Smith  as  baron  of  the  ex- 
chequer— the  first  Catholic  judge  for  almost  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years.  Finally,  in  1837,  on  the 
death  of  Sir  William  MacMahon  he  was  given  the 
Irish  mastership  of  the  rolls,  which  he  held  till  his 
death.  As  master  of  the  rolls  he  effected  many  legal 
reforms. 

O'Flanaoan,  Recollections  0/ the  Irish  Bar  (Dublin.  1870). 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Olympias,  Saint,  b.  360-5;  d.  25  July,  408,  prob- 
ably at  Nicomedia.  This  pious,  charitable,  and 
wealthy  disciple  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  came  from 
an  illustrous  family  in  Constantinople.    Her  father 


OLYMPUS 


249 


OMAHA 


(called  by  the  sources  Secundus  or  Selencus)  was  a 
' '  Count ' '  of  the  empire ;  one  of  her  ancestors,  Ablabius, 
filled  in  331  the  consular  office,  and  was  also  prajtorian 
prefect  of  the  East.  As  Olympias  was  not  thirty 
years  of  age  in  390,  she  cannot  have  been  born  before 
361.  Her  parents  died  when  she  was  quite  young, 
and  left  her  an  immense  fortune.  In  384  or  385  she 
married  Nebridius,  Prefect  of  Constantinople.  St. 
Gregory  Nazianzus,  who  had  left  Constantinople  in 
381,  was  invited  to  the  wedding,  but  wrote  a  letter  ex- 
cusing his  absence  (Ep.  cxciii,  in  P.  G.,  XXXVII,  313), 
and  sent  the  bride  a  poem  (P.  G.,  loc.  cit.,  1542  sqq.). 
Within  a  short  time  Nebridius  died,  and  Olympias 
was  left  a  childless  widow.  She  steadfastly  rejected 
all  new  proposals  of  marriage,  determining  to  devote 
herself  to  the  service  of  God  and  to  works  of  charity. 
Nectarius,  Bishop  of  Constantinople  (381-97),  con- 
secrated her  deaconess.  On  the  death  of  her  husband 
the  emperor  had  appointed  the  urban  prefect  adminis- 
trator of  her  property,  but  in  391  (after  the  war 
against  Maximus)  restored  her  the  administration  of 
her  large  fortune.  She  built  beside  the  principal 
church  of  Constantinople  a  convent,  into  which  three 
relatives  and  a  large  number  of  maidens  withdrew 
with  her  to  consecrate  themselves  to  the  service  of 
God.  When  St.  John  Chrysostom  became  Bishop  of 
Constantinople  (398),  he  acted  as  spiritual  guide  of 
Olympias  and  her  companions,  and,  as  many  unde- 
serving approached  the  kind-hearted  deaconess  for 
support,  he  advised  her  as  to  the  proper  manner  of 
utilizing  her  vast  fortune  in  the  service  of  the  poor 
(Sozomen,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VIII,  ix;  P.  G.,  LXVII, 
1540).  Olympias  resigned  herself  wholly  toChrysos- 
tom's  direction,  and  placed  at  his  disposal  ample  sums 
for  religious  and  charitable  objects.  Even  to  the 
most  distant  regions  of  the  empire  extended  her  bene- 
factions to  churches  and  the  poor. 

When  Chrysostom  was  e.xiled,  Olympias  supported 
him  in  every  possible  way,  and  remained  a  faithful 
disciple,  refusing  to  enter  into  communion  with  his 
unlawfully  appointed  successor.  Chrysostom  encour- 
aged and  guided  her  through  his  letters,  of  which  sev- 
enteen are  e.xtant  (P.  G.,  LII,  549  sqq.):  these  are 
a  beautiful  memorial  of  the  noble-hearted,  spiritual 
daughter  of  the  great  bishop.  Olympias  was  also 
exiled,  and  died  a  few  months  after  Chrj'sostom. 
After  her  death  she  was  venerated  as  a  saint.  A  biog- 
raphy dating  from  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, which  gives  particulars  concerning  her  from  the 
"Historia  Lausiaca"  of  Palladius  and  from  the  "Dia- 
logus  de  vita  Joh.  Chrysostomi",  proves  the  great 
veneration  she  enjoycl.  During  the  riot  of  Constan- 
tinople in  532  the  convent  of  St.  Olympias  and  the 
adjacent  church  were  destroyed.  Emperor  Justinian 
had  it  rebuilt,  and  the  prioress,  Sergia,  transferred 
thither  the  remains  of  the  foundress  from  the  ruined 
church  of  St.  Thomas  in  Brokhthes,  where  she  had 
been  buried.  We  possess  an  account  of  this  transla- 
tion by  Sergia  herself.  The  feast  of  St.  Olympias  is 
celebrated  in  the  Greek  Church  on  24  July,  and  in  the 
Roman  Church  on  17  December. 

Vita  S.  Olympiadis  et  narralio  Sergite  de  eiusdem  translatione  in 
Anal.  Boiland.  (1896),  400  sqq.,  (1897),  44  sqq.;  Bousquet,  Vie 
d'Olympias  la  diaconesse  in  Revue  de  I'Orient  chret.  (1900),  225 
sqq.;  Idem,  Recit  de  Sergia  sut  Olympias,  ibid.  (1907),  255  sqq.; 
Palladius,  Hist.  Lausiaca,  LVI,  cd.  Butler  (Cambridge,  1904) ; 
Synaxarium  Constantinopol.,  ed.  Delahaye,  PTOpyloewm  ad  Acta 
SS.,  November  (Brussels.  1902),  841-2;  Meuhisse,  Hist.  d'Olym- 
pias, diaconesse  de  Constantinople  (Metz,  1670) ;  Venables  in  Did. 
Christ.  Biog.,  a.  v.  See  also  the  bibliography  of  John  Chrysos- 
tom, Saint. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Olympus,  a  titular  see  of  Lycia  in  Asia  Minor.  It 
was  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  "Corpus  Lyciacum", 
and  was  captured  from  the  pirate,  Zenicetas,  by  Ser- 
vilius  Isauricus  who  transported  to  Rome  the  statues 
and  treasure  he  had  stolen.  Its  ruins  (a  theatre,  tem- 
ples, and  porticoes)  are  located  south  of  the  vilayet  of 
Koniah,  at  Dehk-Tash  (Pierced  Stone),  so-called  be- 


cause of  a  large  rock  forming  a  natural  arch.  The  town 
was  built  near  Mount  Olympus  or  Phcenicus,  which 
gave  forth  constant  fiery  eruptions  throughout  an- 
tiquity; the  ancients  called  it  Chimoera  and  depicted 
it  as  a  monster  which  had  been  vanquished  by 
Bellerophon.  Several  ancient  authors  knew  that  this 
was  only  a  natural  phenomenon.  (The  Turks  call  it 
Yanar  Tash — Burning  Stone.)  Several  "Notitise 
Episcopatuum"  mention  Olympus  among  the  suf- 
fragan sees  of  Myra  until  the  thirteenth  century. 
Only  four  bishops  are  known,  one  of  whom  was  St. 
Methodius  (q.  v.). 

Leake,  Asia  Minor  (London,  1S24),  189;  Fellows,  Lycia 
(London,  1847),  212  sq.;  Spratt  and  Forbes,  Travels  in  Lycia, 
I  (London,  1846),  192;  Smith,  Diet.  Greek  and  Rom.  Geoff.,  a.  v.; 
Le  Quien,  Oriens  Christ.,  I,  975. 

S.    PflTRIDfcs. 

Omaha,  Diocese  of  (Omahensi.s),  embraces  all 
that  part  of  the  State  of  Nebraska  north  of  the 
southern  shore  of  the  South  Platte  River.  Area, 
52,996  sq.  miles. 

Early  Missionaries. — The  first  missionaries  in  Ne- 
braska were  priests  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  who, 
from  about  1838,  occasionally  visited  the  native  In- 
dians, many  of  whom  received  baptism.  In  1851 
the  Holy  See  cut  off  from  the  Diocese  of  St.  Louis  all 
the  country  north  from  the  south  line  of  Kansas  to 
Canada,  and  west  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  erected  it  into  the  Vicariate 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  Rt.  Rev.  John  B. 
Miege,  S.J.,  as  first  vicar  Apostohc  (see  Leaven- 
worth). On  6  January,  1857,  this  vicariate  was  again 
divided,  and  a  new  vicariate  called  the  Vicariate  of 
Nebraska  was  erected.  Bishop  Miege  being  authorized 
to  govern  it  until  the  appointment  of  a  resident  vicar 
Apostolic  of  Nebraska. 

The  first  residentvicar  Apostolicwas  the  Right  Rev. 
James  Miles  0'Gorman,D.D.,b.  near  Nenagh.  Co.  Tip- 
perary,  Ireland,  1804,  took  the  Trappist  habit  at 
Mount  Melleray,  Co.  Waterford,  1  Nov.,  1839,  and 
was  ordained  priest,  1843.  He  was  one  of  the  band 
who  came  to  Dubuque,  Iowa,  in  1849  to  establish  New 
Melleray  (see  Cistercians).  In  1859  he  was  ap- 
pointed Vicar  Apostolic  of  Nebraska,  and  on  8  May  of 
the  same  year  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of 
Raphanea  by  Archbishop  Kenrick  of  St.  Louis.  The 
vicariate  at  this  time  embraced  the  present  State  of 
Nebraska,  the  Dakotas  west  of  the  Missouri  River, 
Wyoming,  and  Montana  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
On  his  arrival  at  Omaha,  Bishop  O'Gorman  found  in 
his  vast  jurisdiction  a  Catholic  population  of  some 
three  hundred  families  of  white  settlers  living  along 
the  river  counties,  and  a  few  thousand  Indians,  chiefly 
in  Montana.  There  were  in  the  entire  territory,  two 
seculars,  and  one  Jesuit  priest  in  Montana  in  charge 
of  the  native  tribes. 

During  the  fifteen  years  of  his  episcopate  Bishop 
O'Gorman  laboured  to  provide  for  the  needs  of  his 
scattered  flock.  He  placed  priests  in  the  more  im- 
portant centres  of  poiiulation,  and  in  the  sixties, 
priests  of  the  vicariate  njinistcri'd  Id  tlie  Catlmlics  of 
Western  Iowa.  During  his  achninistration  tli<^  Sis- 
ters of  Mercy  were  establisliiil  at  Omaha,  the  Bene- 
dictines in  Nebraska  City,  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
in  Helena,  Montana.  At  his  death  (4  July,  1874)  his 
jurisdiction  contained  19  priests,  20  churches,  and  a 
Catholic  population  of  11,722. 

The  second  vicar  Apostolic  was  the  Right  Rev. 
James  O'Connor,  D.D.,  b.  at  Queenstown,  Ireland, 
10  Sept.,  1823.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  came  to 
America.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Charles's  Semi- 
nary, Philadelphia,  and  in  the  Propaganda  College, 
Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1848.  The 
following  year  he  was  appointed  rector  of  St.  Michael's 
Seminary,  Pittsburgh,  and  in  1862  rector  of  St. 
Charles's  Seminary,  Overbrook,  Pennsylvania.  In 
1872  he  was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Dominic's  Church, 


OMBUS 


250 


O'MEARA 


Ilolinoshurg,  Pennsylvania.  In  1S76  he  was  ap- 
jxiinted  Vioar  ApostDlio  of  Nebraska,  and  on  20  Au- 
gust of  tlic  sanio  year  he  was  consecrated  titular 
Bishop  of  Diliona  by  Bishop  Ryan  of  St.  Louis.  Dur- 
ing his  episfo])ale  the  vicariate  developed  with  won- 
derful rapidity.  The  construction  of  the  Union 
Pacific  Railway  in  1S67,  and  more  especially  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Burlington  Railway  in  the  seventies 
ami  eighties,  "ixMiccl  up  Nebraska  to  colonists,  and 
white  settlers  began  to  pour  in  from  the  Eastern 
states.  It  became  the  duty  of  the  new  vicar  to  pro- 
vide for  the  growing  needs  of  the  faithful,  and  the 
yearly  statistics  of  the  vicariate  show  how  successful 
were  his  labours.  In  1880  the  Dakotas  were  erected 
into  a  vicariate,  and  on  7  April,  1887,  Montana  was 
cut  off. 

Diocese  of  Omaha. — On  2  October,  1885,  the  vica- 
riate was  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Omaha,  and 
Bishop  O'Connor  was  appointed  its  first  bishop.  The 
new  diocese  embraced  the  present  States  of  Nebraska 
and  Wyoming.  On  2  August,  1887,  the  Dioceses  of 
Cheyenne  and  Lincoln  were  erected,  leaving  Omaha 
its  present  boundaries.  Through  the  generosity  of  the 
Creighton  family,  BishopO'Connorwas enabled  to  erect 
a  Catholic  free  day  college  in  the  city  of  Omaha.  On  its 
completion  in  1879,  the  bishop,  who  held  the  property 
in  trust,  deeded  over  the  institution  to  the  Jesuit  Fa- 
thers, who  are  since  in  charge  and  hold  the  property  as 
trustees  (see  Creighton  University).  Bishop  O'Con- 
nor also  introduced  into  his  jurisdiction  the  Franciscan 
Fathers,  the  Poor  Clares,  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  the  Benedictines,  and  the  Sisters  of  Providence. 
A  most  important  work  in  the  bishop's  life  was  the 
foundation,  in  conjunction  with  Miss  Catherine 
Drexel,  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  in 
1889  (see  Ble.ssed  Sacrament,  Sisters  of  the;  also 
"Indian  Sentinel",  1907).  Bishop  O'Connor  also 
helped  to  establish  a  Catholic  colony  in  Greeley  Co., 
and  (1889)  the  Cath.  Mutual  Relief  Soc.  of  America. 

The  present  bishop  is  the  Right  Rev.  Richard 
Scannell,  D.D.,  b.  in  the  parish  of  Clojoie,  Co.  Cork, 
Ireland,  12  May,  1845.  Having  completed  his 
classical  studies  in  a  private  school  at  Midleton,  in 
1866  he  entered  All  Hallows  College,  Dublin,  where  he 
was  ordained  priest  26  Feb.,  1871.  In  the  same  year 
he  came  to  the  Diocese  of  Nashville  and  was  appointed 
assistant  at  the  cathedral.  In  1878  he  became  rector 
of  St.  Columba's  Church,  East  Nashville,  and  in 
1879  rector  of  the  cathedral.  From  1880  to  1883 
he  was  administrator  of  the  diocese,  sede  vacanle.  In 
1885  he  organized  St.  Joseph's  parish  in  West  Nash- 
ville and  built  its  church.  The  following  year  he  was 
appointed  vicar-general,  and  on  30  Nov.,  1887,  was 
consecrated  first  Bishop  of  Concordia  by  Archbishop 
Feehan. 

On  30  January,  1891,  he  was  transferred  to  Omaha. 
During  his  administration  the  diocese  shows  the  same 
wonderful  growth  that  characterized  this  territory  in 
the  time  of  his  predecessors.  Parishes,  parochial 
schools,  and  academies  have  more  than  doubled  in 
number.  The  diocesan  priests  have  increased  from 
58  to  144,  and  the  religious  from  23  to  37.  The  old 
frame  churches  are  fast  being  replaced  by  structures 
of  brick  and  stone,  and  a  fine  cathedral  of  the  Spanish 
style  of  architecture  is  in  process  of  erection.  The 
Creighton  Memorial  St.  Joseph's  Hospital,  costing 
over  half  a  million  dollars,  has  been  erected,  and  a 
Dew  hospital — St.  Catherine's — has  just  been  opened, 
a  home  of  the  Good  Shepherd  has  been  established, 
and  Creighton  University  has  been  many  times  en- 
larged. Bishop  Scannell  introduced  the  following 
orders:  (men)  the  Third  Order  Regular  of  St.  Francis, 
who  conduct  a  flourishing  college;  (women)  the  Sis- 
ters of  St.  Joseph,  of  the  Presentation,  of  the  Resur- 
rection, of  St.  Benedict,  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  of 
the  Good  Shepherd,  the  Dominicans,  Feliciana,  Ursu- 
lines,  and  Franciscans. 


Pioneer  Priests. — Fathers  Kelly,  Daxacher,  Har- 
tig,  Ryan,  Cannon,  Powers,  f>lach,  Curtis,  Hayes, 
Byrne,  Groenebaum,  Uhing,  Lechlcitner.  The  fol- 
lowing filled  the  office  of  vicar -general  or  admin- 
istrator:— Very  Rev.  Fathers  Kelly,  Curtis,  Byrne, 
Choka,  and  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr  Colaneri,  the  present  vicar- 
general  and  chancellor. 

Statistics. — Priests,  secular  144,  regular  37;  parishes, 
117;  university,  1,  students  856;  college,  1,  students 
1.50;  academies  for  young  ladies,  10,  pupils  1127; 
parochial  schools,  77,  pupils  479;  orphan  asylum,  1, 
orphans  145;  Good  Shepherd  Home,  1,  inmates  210; 
religious  orders  of  men,  3,  members  77;  religious 
orders  of  women,  17,  members  427;  hospitals,  5; 
Catholic  population  (1910),  85,319.  (For  early  ex- 
plorations see  Cokonado.) 

Morton,  History  of  Nebraska  (Linco]n,  190()):  Savage  and 
Bell,  History  of  Omaha  (New  York  and  Chicago,  1894):  The 
Western  Historical  Co.  Hist,  of  Nebraska  (Chicago,  1882);  Shea, 
Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  Stales  (New  York); 
Palladino,  Indian  and  White  in  the  North-west  (Baltimore, 
1S94);  Perkins,  Hist,  of  the  Trappist  Abbey  of  New  Melleray 
(Iowa  City,  1892);  Dowling,  Creighton  University  Reminiscences 
(Omaha,  1903). 

James  Aherne. 

Ombus,  titular  see  and  suffragan  of  Ptolemais  in 
Thebais  Secunda.  The  city  is  located  by  Ptolemy 
(IV,  v,  32)  in  the  nomos  of  Thebes.  It  is  mentioned 
by  the  "Itinerarium  Antonini"  (165);  Juvenal  (XV, 
35);  the  "Notitia  dignitatum";  Hiorocles  (Syn- 
ecdemus)  etc.  As  late  as  the  Ptolemaic  e])(ich  it  was 
only  a  small  garrison  town  built  on  a  high  plateau  to 
protect  the  lower  course  of  the  Nile.  It  became  after- 
wards the  capital  of  the  nomos  Ombitos,  then  of  the 
southern  province  of  Egypt  instead  of  Elephantine 
(see  in  "Ptolemaei  Geographia",  ed.  Miillcr,  I,  725, 
note  4,  the  epigraphic  texts  relating  to  this  nome). 
Ombus  was  situated  30  miles  north  of  Syene.  Its  his- 
tory is  unknown.  Le  Quien  ("Oriens  christ.",  II, 
613)  mentions  two  of  its  bishops:  Silvanus  and  Verres, 
contemporaries  of  the  patriarch  Iheophilus.  An- 
other is  noted  in  an  inscription  of  the  seventh  century 
(Lefebvre,  "Recueil  des  inscriptions  grecques  chr6- 
tiennes  d'Egypte",  Cairo,  1907,  n.  561).  The  city 
was  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  Kom  Ombo.  A  temple 
of  the  Ptolemaic  epoch  could  be  seen  there  but  it  was 
destroyed  in  1893;  it  had  replaced  a  sanctuary  of  the 
epoch  of  Thothmes  III. 

Smith,  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography,  II,  491; 
Hamilton,  /Egypliaca,  34;  Champollion.  L'Egyple  sous  les  Pha- 
raons.  II,  167-69;  Am^lineau,  La  geographic  de  I  Egypte  d  t'ipoque 
copte  (Paris,  1893),  287. 

S.  Vailh£. 

O'Meara,  Kathleen,  novelist  and  biographer,  b. 
in  Dublin,  1839;  d.  in  Paris,  10  Nov.,  ISS.S;  d;uightcrof 
Dennis  O'Meara  of  Tipperary,  and  gnind-daughter  of 
Barry  Edward  O'Meara,  surgeon  in  the  British  navy 
and  medical  attendant  to  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena. 
When  about  five  years  old,  she  accompanied  her 
parents  to  Paris,  which  she  made  her  home.  She 
visited  the  United  States  in  the  early  eighties.  In 
1867  she  published,  over  the  pen-name  of  Grace  Ram- 
sey, her  first  novel,  "A  Woman's  Trials"  (London, 
1867).  This  did  not  meet  with  success,  which  came 
toheronly  later  in  life,  after  hard  work.  Mindful  of  her 
early  struggles,  she  was  ever  ready  with  encourage- 
ment to  young  writers.  Of  her  six  novels,  "Narka,  a 
Story  of  Russian  Life"  is  probably  the  best.  Great 
social  problems,  such  as  poverty  and  suffering,  are 
handled  in  a  large-hearted  sympathetic  way.  The 
problem  is  stated  in  an  unobtrusive  manner  and  the 
solution  offered  in  the  old  yet  new  method  of  Chris- 
tian charity.  Throughout  them  all  there  runs  a 
wholesome  spirit,  remarkable  for  purity  of  tone  and 
delicacy  of  feeling. 

Her  best  work,  however,  is  in  biography,  for  which, 
it  has  been  said,  she  had  a  genius.  "The  Bells  of  the 
Sanctuary"  (1st,  2nd,  and  3rd  series)  contain  a  num- 


OMER 


251 


OMNIPOTENCE 


ber  of  delightful  sketches  of  noted  Catholic  men  and 
women.  "  Madame  Mohl,  her  Salon  and  her  Friends, 
a  Study  of  Social  Life  in  Paris"  (London,  1885;  an- 
other edition,  Boston,  1886)  presents  with  a  nice  sense 
of  discrimination  a  delightful  picture  of  that  unique  in- 
stitution, the  Parisian  Salon,  introducing  the  men  and 
women  who  were  leaders  in  the  social,  literary,  and 
political  world.  "Thomas  Grant,  First  Bishop  of 
Southwark"  (London,  1874)  besides  doing  justice 
to  a  noble  character  that  was  much  misunderstood, 
gives  within  a  brief  compass  a  clear  straightforward 
account  of  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  hierarchy 
in  England.  "Frederick  Ozanam,  Professor  at  the 
Sorbonne,  His  Life  and  Works"  (Edinburgh,  1876) 
is  a  deeply  interesting  narrative  and  is  proof  of  the 
author's  genius  for  biography.  Had  she  written 
nothing  else,  this  would  entitle  her  to  distinction.  No 
better  book  can  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  young  man 
to  quicken  his  sympathies  and  bring  out  the  good  that 
is  in  him.  Her  last  work  "The  Venerable  Jean  Bap- 
tiste  Vianney,  Cur6  d'Ars"  (London,  1891)  was  not 
published  fill  after  her  death.  She  was  Paris  corre- 
spondent of  "The  Tablet ",  and  a  frequent  contributor 
to  American  magazines,  such  as  the  "Atlantic 
Monthly"  and  the  "Ave  Maria". 

Ave  Maria  (March,  1889);  Irish  Monthly  (October,  1889);  Tab- 
let (London.  17  Nov.,  18S8);  Times  (London,  13  and  14  Nov., 
1888). 

Matthew  J.  Flaherty. 

Omer,  Saint,  b.  of  a  distinguished  family  towards 
the  close  of  the  sixth  or  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
century,  at  Guldendal,  Switzerland;  d.  c.  670.  After 
the  death  of  his  mother,  he,  with  his  father,  entered 
the  monastery  of  Luxeuil  in  the  Diocese  of  Besangon, 
probably  about  615.  Under  the  direction  of  Saint 
Eustachius,  Omer  studied  the  Scriptures,  in  which  he 
acquired  remarkable  proficiency.  When  King  Dago- 
bert  requested  the  appointment  of  a  bishop  for  the 
important  city  of  Terouenne,  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
territory  of  the  Morini  in  Belgic  Gaul,  he  was  ap- 
pointed and  consecrated  in  637. 

Though  the  Morini  had  received  the  Faith  from 
Saints  Fuscian  and  Victoricus,  and  later  Antimund 
and  Adelbert,  nearly  every  vestige  of  Christianity  had 
disappeared.  When  Saint  Omer  entered  upon  his 
episcopal  duties  the  .Abbot  of  Luxeuil  sent  to  his  assist- 
ance several  monks,  among  whom  are  mentioned  Saints 
Bertin,  Mommolin,  and  Ebertran,  and  Saint  Omer  had 
the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  true  religion  firmly  estab- 
lished in  a  short  time.  About  654  he  founded  the 
Abbey  of  Saint  Peter  (now  Saint  Berlin's)  in  Sithiu, 
soon  to  equal  if  not  surpass  the  old  monastery  of  Lux- 
euil for  the  number  of  learned  and  zealous  men  edu- 
cated there.  Several  years  later  he  erected  the  church 
of  Our  Lady  of  Sithiu,  with  a  small  monastery  adjoin- 
ing, which  he  turned  over  to  the  monks  of  Saint  Ber- 
tin. The  exact  date  of  his  death  is  unknown,  but  he 
is  believed  to  have  died  about  the  year  670.  The 
place  of  his  burial  is  uncertain;  most  probably  he  was 
laid  to  rest  in  the  church  of  Our  Lady  which  is  now 
the  cathedral  of  Saint  Omer's.  His  feast  is  celebrated 
on  9  September — when  and  by  whom  he  was  raised 
to  the  altar  cannot  be  ascertained. 

BoLLANDisTe,  Acta  S.  S„  September,  III;  Bdtler,  Lives  of  the 
Saitits,  III  (Baltimore),  437-9. 

Francis  J.  O'Boyle. 

Omer,  College  of  Saint.  See  Saint  Omer's' 
College. 

Omission  (Lat.  omittere,  to  lay  aside,  to  pass  over) 
is  here  taken  to  be  the  failure  to  do  something  which 
one  can  and  ought  to  do.  If  this  happens  advertently 
and  freely  a  sin  is  committed.  Moralists  took  pains 
formerly  to  show  that  the  inaction  implied  in  an  omis- 
sion was  quite  compatible  with  a  breach  of  the  moral 
law,  for  it  is  not  merely  because  a  person  here  and 
now  does  nothing  that  he  offends,  but  because  he  neg- 


lects to  act  under  circumstances  in  which  he  can 
and  ought  to  act.  The  degree  of  guilt  incurred  by  an 
omission  is  measured  like  that  attaching  to  sins  of 
commission,  by  the  dignity  of  the  virtue  and  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  precept  to  which  the  omission  is  opposed 
as  well  as  the  amount  of  deliberation.  In  general,  ac- 
cording to  St.  Thomas,  the  sin  of  omission  consisting 
as  it  does  in  a  leaving  out  of  good  is  less  grievous  than 
a  sin  of  commission  which  involves  a  positive  taking  up 
with  evil.  There  are,  of  course,  cases  in  which  on 
account  of  the  special  subject  matter  and  circum- 
stances it  may  happen  that  an  omission  is  more  hei- 
nous. It  may  be  asked  at  what  time  one  incurs  the 
guilt  of  a  sin  of  omission  in  case  he  fails  to  do  some- 
thing which  he  is  unable  to  do  by  reason  of  a  cause  for 
which  he  is  entirely  responsible.  For  instance,  if  a 
person  fails  to  perform  a  duty  in  the  morning  as  a  re- 
sult of  becoming  inebriated  the  previous  night.  The 
guilt  is  not  incurred  at  the  time  the  duty  should  be 
performed  because  while  intoxicated  he  is  incapable  of 
moral  guilt.  The  answer  seems  to  be  that  he  becomes 
responsible  for  the  omission  when  having  sufficiently 
foreseen  that  his  neglect  will  follow  upon  his  intoxica- 
tion he  does  nevertheless  surrender  himself  to  his 
craving  for  liquor. 

RicKABY.  Aquinas  Ethicus  (London,  1896);  Bouquillon,  The- 
ologia  moralis  fundamentalis  (Brugea,  1903);  St.  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas, Summa  Theologica  (Turin,  1885). 

Joseph  F.  Delany. 

Omnipotence  (Latin  omnipotentia,  from  omnia  and 
poliiix,  :ibli'  to  do  all  things)  is  the  power  of  God  to 
effect  whatevi>r  is  not  intrinsically  impossible.  These 
last  words  of  the  definition  do  not  imply  any  imper- 
fection, since  a  power  that  extends  to  every  possi- 
bility must  be  perfect.  The  universaUty  of  the  object 
of  the  Divine  power  is  not  merely  relative  but  abso- 
lute, so  that  the  true  nature  of  omnipotence  is  not 
clearly  expressed  by  saying  that  God  can  do  all  things 
that  are  possible  to  Him;  it  requires  the  further  state- 
ment that  all  things  are  possible  to  God.  The  in- 
trinsically impossible  is  the  self-contradictory,  and 
its  mutually  exclusive  elements  could  result  only  in 
nothingness.  "Hence",  says  St.  Thomas  (Summa  I, 
Q.  XXV,  a.  3),  "it  is  more  exact  to  say  that  the  intrinsi- 
cally impossible  is  incapable  of  production,  than  to  say 
that  God  cannot  produce  it."  To  include  the  con- 
tradictory within  the  range  of  omnipotence,  as  does 
the  Calvinist  Vorstius,  is  to  acknowledge  the  absurd 
as  an  object  of  the  Divine  intellect,  and  nothingness 
as  an  object  of  the  Divine  will  and  power.  "God  can 
do  all  things  the  accomplishment  of  which  is  a  mani- 
festation of  power",  says  Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  "and  He 
is  almighty  because  He  cannot  be  powerless"  (De 
sacram.,  I,  ii,  22). 

As  intrinsically  impossible  must  be  classed:  (1)  Any 
action  on  the  part  of  God  which  would  be  out  of  har- 
mony with  His  nature  and  attributes,  (a)  It  is  im- 
possible for  God  to  sin. — Man's  power  of  preferring 
evil  to  good  is  a  sign  not  of  strength,  but  of  infirmity, 
since  it  involves  the  liability  to  be  overcome  by  un- 
worthy motives;  not  the  exercise  but  the  restraint  of 
that  power  adds  to  the  freedom  and  vigour  of  the  will. 
"To  sin",  says  St.  Thomas,  "is  to  be  cai)able  of  fail- 
ure in  one's  actions,  which  is  incompatible  with  omnip- 
otence" (Summa,  I,  Q.  xxv,  a.  3).  (b)  The  decrees 
of  God  cannot  be  reversed. — From  eternity  the  pro- 
duction of  creatures,  their  successive  changes,  and  the 
manner  in  which  these  would  occur  were  determined 
by  God's  free  will.  If  these  decrees  were  not  irrevo- 
cable, it  would  follow  either  that  God's  wisdom  was 
variable  or  that  His  decisions  sprang  from  caprice. 
Hence  theologians  distinguish  between  the  absolute 
and  the  ordinary,  or  regulated,  power  of  God  (polcntia 
ahsoluta;  potentia  ordinaria).  The  absolute  power  of 
God  extends  to  all  that  is  not  intrinsically  impossible, 
while  the  ordinary  power  is  regulated  by  the  Divine 
decrees.     Thus  by  His  absolute  power  God  could 


OMODEO 


252 


O'NEILL 


preserve  man  from  death;  but  in  the  present  order 
this  is  impossible,  since  He  has  decreed  otherwise, 
(c)  The  creation  of  an  absolutely  best  creature  or  of 
an  absolutely  greatest   number  of  creatures  is  im- 

fossiblo,  because  the  Divine  power  is  inexhaustible. — 
t  is  sometimes  objected  that  this  aspect  of  omnipo- 
tence involves  the  contradiction  that  God  cannot  do 
all  that  He  can  do;  but  the  argument  is  sophistical;  it 
is  no  contradiction  to  a.ssort  that  God  can  realize 
whatever  is  possible,  but  that  no  number  of  actualized 
possibilities  exhausts  His  power.  (2)  Another  class 
of  intrinsic  impossibihties  includes  all  that  would 
simultaneously  connote  mutually  repellent  elements, 
e.  g.  a  square  circle,  an  infinite  creature,  etc.  God 
cannot  eflect  the  non-existence  of  actual  events  of  the 
past,  for  it  is  contradictory  that  the  same  thing  that 
has  happened  should  also  not  have  happened. 

Omnipotence  is  perfect  power,  free  from  all  mere 
potentiality.  Hence,  although  God  does  not  bring 
into  external  being  all  that  He  is  able  to  accomplish, 
His  power  must  not  be  undertsood  as  passing  through 
successive  stages  before  its  effect  is  accomplished. 
The  actiWty  of  God  is  simple  and  eternal,  without 
evolution  or  change.  The  transition  from  possibility 
to  actuality  or  from  act  to  potentiality,  occurs  only  in 
creatures.  When  it  is  said  that  God  can  or  could  do  a 
thing,  the  terms  are  not  to  be  understood  in  the  sense 
in  which  they  are  applied  to  created  causes,  but  as 
conveying  the  idea  of  a  Being  possessed  of  infinite 
unchangeable  power,  the  range  of  Whose  activity  is 
limited  only  by  His  sovereign  Will.  "Power",  says 
St.  Thomas,  "is  not  attributed  to  God  as  a  thing  really 
different  from  His  Knowledge  and  Will,  but  as  some- 
thing expressed  by  a  different  concept,  since  power 
means  that  which  executes  the  command  of  the  will 
and  the  advice  of  the  intellect.  The.se  three  (viz., 
intellect,  will,  power),  coincide  with  one  another  in 
God"  (Summa,  I,  Q.  x.xv,  a.  1,  ad  4).  Omnipotence 
is  all-sufficient  power.  The  adaptation  of  means  to 
ends  in  the  universe  does  not  argue,  as  J.  S.  Mill  would 
have  it,  that  the  power  of  the  designer  is  limited,  but 
only  that  God  has  willed  to  manifest  His  glory  by  a 
world  so  constituted  rather  than  by  another.  Indeed 
the  production  of  secondary  causes,  capable  of  accom- 
plishing certain  effects,  requires  greater  power  than  the 
direct  accomplishment  of  these  same  effects.  On  the 
other  hand  even  though  no  creature  existed,  God's 
power  would  not  be  barren,  for  creatures  are  not  an 
end  to  God. 

The  omnipotence  of  God  is  a  dogma  of  Catholic 
faith,  contained  in  all  the  creeds  and  defined  by  var- 
ious councils  (cf.  Denziger-Bannwart,  "Enchiridion", 
428, 1790).  In  the  Old  Testament  there  are  more  than 
seventy  passages  in  which  God  is  called  Shaddai,  i. 
e.,  omnipotent.  The  Scriptures  represent  this  attribute 
as  infinite  power  (Job,  xlii,  2;  Mark,  x,  27;  Luke,  i,  37; 
Matt.,  xix,  26,  etc.)  which  God  alone  possesses  (Tob., 
xiii,  4;  Ecclus.,  i,  8;  etc.).  The  Greek  and  Latin 
Fathers  unanimously  teach  the  doctrine  of  Divine 
omnipotence.  Origen  testifies  to  this  behef  when  he 
infers  the  amplitude  of  Divine  providence  from  God's 
omnipotence:  "Just  as  we  hold  that  God  is  incorporeal 
and  omnipotent  and  invisible,  so  likewise  do  we  confess 
as  a  certain  and  immovable  dogma  that  His  provi- 
dence extends  to  all  things"  (Genesis,  Hom.  3).  St. 
Augustine  defends  omnipotence  against  the  Mani- 
chseans,  who  taught  that  God  is  unable  to  overcome 
evil  (Haires,  xlvi  and  Enchir.,  c.  100);  and  he  speaks 
of  this  dogma  as  a  truth  recognized  even  by  pagans, 
and  which  no  reasonable  person  can  question  (Serm. 
240,  de  temp.,  c.  ii).  Reason  itself  proves  the  omnip- 
otence of  God.  "  Since  every  agent  produces  an  effect 
similar  to  itself",  says  St.  Thomas  (Summa,  I,  Q.  xxv, 
a.  3),  "to  every  active  power  there  must  correspond 
as  proper  object,  a  category  of  possibilities  propor- 
tioned to  the  cau.se  possessing  that  power,  e.  g.  the 
power  of  heating  has  for  its  proper  object  that  which 


can  be  heated.  Now  Divine  Being,  which  is  the  basis 
of  Divine  power,  is  infinite,  not  being  limited  to  any 
category  of  being  but  containing  within  itself  the  per- 
fection of  all  being.  Consequently  all  that  can  be 
considered  as  being  is  contained  among  the  absolute 
possibilities  with  respect  to  which  God  is  omnipotent." 
(See  Creation;  God;  Infinite;  Miracles.) 

The  question  of  omnipotence  is  discussed  by  philosophers  in 
works  on  natural  theology  and  by  theologians  in  the  treatise  on 
One  God  (De  Deo  Uno).  See  especially  St.  Thomas,  Summa,  I, 
Q.  xxv;  Idem,  Contra  Genles,  II,  vii  sq.;  Suarez,  Dc  Deo,  III, 
ix;  HuRTER,  Compendium  theologian  dogmntica,  II  (Innsbruck, 
1SS5),  79  sq.;  Pohle,  Lehrbucti  der  Dogmatik,  I  (Paderborn, 
190S),  143  sq. 

J.  A.  McHuGH. 

Omodeo,  Giovanni  Antonio.    See  Amadeo. 

O'Molloy,  Francis.    See  Molloy,  Francis. 

O'Mulconry,  Farfassa.  See  Four  Masters, 
Annals  of  the. 

Oneida  Cominunity.     See  Communism. 

O'Neill,  Henry.    See  Dromore,  Diocese  of. 

O'Neill,  Hugh,  Earl  of  Tyrone,  b.  1540;  d.  at 
Rome,  1616;  was  the  youngest  son  of  Mathew,  of  ques- 
tionable parentage,  but  recognized  as  heir  by  Conn, 
first  Earl  of  Tyrone.  As  such  he  was  ennobled  with  the 
title  of  Baron  of  Dungannon.  Shane  O'Neill  contested 
this  arrangement  and  in  the  petty  wars  which  fol- 
lowed both  Mathew  and  his  eldest  son  lost  their  lives. 
In  1562  Hugh,  the  youngest  son,  became  Baron  of 
Dungannon.  His  early  years  were  spent  partly  in  Ire- 
land and  partly  at  the  English  court,  where  he  learned 
English  ways  and  became  more  like  an  English  noble 
than  an  Irish  chief.  He  did  not  object  even  to  go  to 
the  Protestant  church  though  he  was  bred  as  a  Catho- 
lic and  died  one.  Camden  describes  him  as  a  man 
"whose  industry  was  great,  his  mind  large  and  fit  for 
the  weightiest  businesses  ...  he  had  much  knowledge 
in  military  affairs  and  a  profound,  dissembling  heart, 
so  as  many  deemed  him  born  either  for  the  great  good 
or  ill  of  his  country  ".  In  his  early  years  he  interfered 
but  little  in  the  quarrels  and  contests  of  the  Irish  chiefs, 
and  had  no  share  in  the  final  overthrow  of  Shane 
O'Neill,  but  in  1574,  he  aided  the  Earl  of  Essex  to  lay 
waste  the  territory  of  O'Neill  of  Clanaboy,  and  in  1580 
helped  the  Earl  of  Ormonde  to  crush  the  Geraldines.  In 
1585  he  sat  as  a  peer  in  Perrot's  Parliament,  assenting 
to  the  attainting  of  the  Earl  of  Desmond  and  the  con- 
fiscation of  his  lands;  in  the  following  year  he  accom- 
panied Perrot  to  Ulster  to  put  down  the  Antrim  Scots. 
His  loyalty  to  England  was  gratefully  recognized  both 
by  viceroy  and  queen  who  confirmed  him  in  the  title  of 
Earl  of  Tyrone  and  in  possession  of  all  the  lands  held 
by  his  grandfather.  On  his  side,  O'Neill  undertook  to 
providefor  the  sons  of  Shane  O'Neill,  to  lay  no  "cess" 
(tax)  on  the  Ulster  chiefs,  and  to  build  an  English  fort 
in  Tyrone.  His  position  soon  became  difficult,  and  he 
went  to  London  where  he  justified  himself,  undertak- 
ing at  the  same  time  to  renounce  forever  the  name  of 
O'Neill,  to  make  Tyrone  shireground,  with  English 
law  and  English  officials,  and  to  have  in  it  neither  nuns 
nor  priests. 

At  the  Irish  Council  his  enemies  were  the  viceroy 
and  Marshal  Bagnal,  whose  sister  he  had  married; 
but  the  queen  censured  Bagnal  and  recalled  Fitzwil- 
liam,  appointing  in  his  jilace  Sir  William  Russell.  This 
was  in  1594,  when  O'Donnell,  Maguire,  and  Mac- 
Mahon  were  already  in  open  rebellion.  The  same  year 
O'Neill's  brother  joined  the  rebels,  which  caused 
O'Neill  himself  to  be  suspected,  and  when  he  appeared 
in  Dublin  he  was  charged  by  Bagnal  with  favouring 
the  rebels,  with  being  in  league  with  the  pope  and  the 
King  of  Spain,  and  with  having  assumed  the  title  of 
The  O'Neill.  Though  these  charges  could  not  be 
proved,  the  queen  ordered  him  detained;  but  secretly 
warned,  he  hurriedly  left  Dublin  and  the  next  year 
broke  out  into  rebellion,  proving  the  most  formidiabl? 


O'NEILL 


253 


ONIAS 


Irish  rebel  with  whom  England  had  ever  been  called 
upon  to  deal,  cool,  wary,  far-seeing,  laying  his  plans 
with  care,  never  moved  by  passion,  never  boasting, 
and  as  skilful  in  the  council  chamber  as  on  the  battle- 
field. He  had  been  allowed  to  have  a  certain  number 
of  soldiers  in  the  queen's  pay  and  these  he  changed 
frequently,  thus  training  to  arms  a  large  number  of  his 
clansmen  at  the  queen's  expense.  Pretending  he  re- 
quired it  for  roofing,  he  had  purchased  large  quantities 
of  lead,  which  he  cast  into  bullets.  He  continued  to  be 
friendly  with  the  Ulster  chiefs.  Thus  he  took  the  field 
not  altogether  unprepared,  and  had  no  difficulty  in  cap- 
turing Portmore  on  the  Blackwater,  and  defeating  the 
English  at  Clontibret,  thus  preventing  the  relief  of 
Monaghan.  He  protested,  however,  his  loyalty  to  Eng- 
land and  entered  into  negotiations  demanding  for  the 
Catholics  of  Ulster  freedom  to  practise  their  religion, 
and  security  in  their  lands.  These  conditions  being 
refused,  the  war  was  successfully  renewed  in  1.597.  In 
the  next  year  Bagnal,  sent  with  five  thousand  men  to 
relieve  Portmore,  was  defeated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Yellow  Ford  by  O'Neill,  O'Donnell,  and  Maguire. 
The  Earl  of  Essex  was  no  more  successful. 

The  next  viceroy  was  Lord  Mountjoy,  with  Sir 
George  Carew  as  President  of  Munster.  Both  were 
able  and  unscrupulous  men,  and  so  well  did  Carew  suc- 
ceed that  in  six  months  the  power  of  the  Munster  reb- 
els was  broken.  Mountjoy  overran  Leinster,  and  his 
lieutenant,  Dowcra,  established  himself  at  Derry, 
while  O'Neill,  kept  busy  by  repeated  attacks  from  the 
south,  was  only  able  to  hold  his  own  in  Tyrone.  In 
1601  came  the  long-expected  Spaniards,  under 
D'Aguilla;  they  were  besieged  inKinsale  by  Carew  and 
Mountjoy,  in  turn  besieged  by  O'Neill  and  O'Donnell. 
Between  the  Irish  and  the  Spanish  the  English  fared 
ill,  and  O'Neill's  advice  was  to  be  patient;  but  O'Don- 
nell would  not  be  restrained  and  insisted  on  attacking 
the  English.  The  result  was  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Kinsale.  Still  with  wonderful  skill  and  resource 
O'Neill  held  out,  and  when  he  surrendered  in  1603  it 
was  on  condition  of  being  pardoned  and  secured  in  all 
his  honours  and  estates.  James  I,  confirming  this  ar- 
rangement, received  both  O'Neill  and  O'Donnell  with 
great  favour.  But  O'Neill's  enemies  so  dogged  his  foot- 
steps with  spies,  and  persecuted  his  religion  that  he 
was  at  last  driven,  with  O'Donnell  and  IVIaguire,  to 
leave  Ireland  (1607).  Arriving  at  Havre  they  pro- 
ceeded to  Flanders  and  thence  to  Rome,  where  they 
were  received  by  the  pope.  Attainted  by  the  Irish 
Parliament,  his  lands  confiscated  and  planted,  O'Neill 
died  at  Rome,  and  was  buried  in  the  Franciscan  church 
of  San  Pietro  on  the  Janiculum. 

Carew  Papers;  Hamilton,  Athinson^s,  RusseWs,  and  Prender- 
gasCs  Calendars  of  State  Papers;  Fynes  Moryson,  Itinerary  (Dub- 
lin, 1735);  Pacata  Hibernia  (London,  1896);  Annals  of  the  Four 
Masters  (Dublin,  1851) ;  Meehan,  Earls  of  Tyrone  and  Tyrconnell 
(Dublin,  1886);  Mitchel,  Life  of  Hugh  O'Neill  (Dublin,  1846); 
Bagwell,  Ireland  under  the  Tiidors  (London,  1885) ;  Gardiner, 
History  of  England  (London,  1883) ;  D'Alton,  History  of  Ireland 
(London.  1910). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

O'Neill,  Owen  Roe,  b.  1.582;  d.  near  Cavan,  6  Nov., 
1649,  the  son  of  Art  O'Neill  and  nephew  of  Hugh,  the 
great  Earl  of  Tyrone.  He  was  too  young  to  fake  part  in 
the  long  war  in  which  his  uncle  was  engaged,  and  when 
peace  came  in  1603  Owen  went  abroad  and  took  .ser- 
vice with  the  archdukes  in  Flanders.  By  1606  he  had 
reached  the  rank  of  captain  and  was  then  residing  at 
Brussels.  When  Richelieu  determined  to  interfere  in 
the  Thirty  Years  War,  O'Neill  was  already  colonel,  and 
for  skill,  and  courage,  and  resource  stood  deservedly 
high  among  Spanish  commanders.  He  was,  therefore, 
selected  to  defend  Arras  against  the  French  in  1640; 
and  though  he  had  but  1.5(30  men  and  was  assailed  by 
a  force  which  from  30,000  was  subsequently  increased 
to  three  times  that  number,  he  stubbornly  held  his 
ground  for  nearly  two  months.  His  conduct  extorted 
the  admiration  of  the  French  commander  who  cap- 


tured the  place  and  who  told  O'Neill  that  he  had  sur- 
passed the  French  in  everything  but  fortune.  Mean- 
time important  events  had  taken  place  in  Ireland. 
The  flight  of  the  earls,  the  plantation  of  Ulster,  the 
persecution  of  the  Catholics,  and  the  tyranny  of 
Strafford  proved  that  Irish  Catholics  had  no  security 
either  in  their  religion  or  their  lands.  O'Neill  was  in- 
formed of  all  these  events  by  the  Irish  leaders  at  home, 
and  was  equally  determined  as  they  that,  as  peaceful 
measures  were  unavailing,  there  should  be  a  recourse 
to  arms.  He  was  not,  however,  able  to  be  in  Ireland 
when  the  rebellion  broke  out  in  1641,  nor  did  he  come 
till  the  summer  of  1642,  when  he  landed  on  the  coast 
of  Donegal  bringing  with  him  a  good  supply  of  arms 
and  ammunition  and  200  Irish  officers,  who  like  him- 
self had  acquired  experience  in  foreign  wars.  O'Neill 
was  at  once  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  rebel 
forces  in  Ulster.  At  that  date  the  prospects  were  not 
bright.  Dublin  Castle  had  not  been  taken,  nor  Drog- 
heda,  Dund.alk  had  not  been  held,  and  Sir  Phelim 
O'Neill  had  but  1500  untrained  men,  while  there  were 
12,000  English  and  Scotch  soldiers  in  Ulster.  While 
waiting  to  get  a  trained  army  together  Owen  Roe 
wanted  to  avoid  meeting  the  enemy,  nor  did  he  fight 
except  at  Clones,  where  he  wasbeaten,  and  at  Portlester 
in  Meath,  where  he  defeated  Lord  Moore.  Then,  in 
1643,  came  the  cessation  with  Ormonde.  The  Puri- 
tans ignored  both  Ormonde  and  the  cessation,  and 
continued  active  in  the  several  provinces.  This  com- 
pelled O'Neill  to  be  vigilant  and  prepared,  and  in  1646 
he  fought  the  battle  of  Benburb  with  General  Monroe. 
The  latter  was  superior  in  numbers,  and  he  had  artil- 
lery which  O'Neill  lacked;  but  the  Irishmen  had  the 
advantage  of  position,  and  won  a  great  victory.  Mon- 
roe fled  to  Lisburn  without  hat  or  cloak  leaving  more 
than  3000  of  his  men  dead  on  the  field,  and  arms, 
stores,  colours,  and  provisions  fell  into  O'Neill's  hands. 
The  fruits  of  this  splendid  victory  were  frittered  away 
by  futile  negotiations  with  Ormonde  and  by  divisions 
among  the  Catholics.  O'Neill,  backed  by  the  nuncio, 
Rinuccini,  wanted  to  cease  negotiating,  and  to  fight 
both  the  Puritans  and  the  Royalists;  but  the  Pale 
Catholics  were  more  in  agreement  with  Ormonde  than 
with  O'Neill,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  was  the 
only  Catholic  general  who  had  been  almost  uniformly 
successful,  they  went  so  far  as  to  declare  him  a  rebel. 
Nor  would  Ormonde,even  in  1649,  make  any  terms  with 
him  until  Cromwell  had  captured  Drogheda.  Then 
Ormonde  made  terms  on  the  basis  of  freedom  of  religion 
and  restoration  of  lands.  At  the  critical  moment  when 
O'Neill's  services  would  have  been  invaluable  against 
Cromwell  he  took  suddenly  ill  and  died.  The  story 
that  he  was  poisoned  may  be  dismissed,  for  there 
is  no  evidence  to  sustain  it. 

Gilbert,  History  of  Irish  Affairs  (Dublin,  1882);  Rinuccini, 
Letters  (Dublin.  1873);  Murphv,  Cromwell  in  Ireland  (Dublin, 
1897);  Mahaffy,  Calendars;  Carte,  Ormond  (London,  1735); 
Taylor,  Owen  Roe  O'Neill  (Dublin,  1896);  D'Alton,  History  of 
Ireland  (London,  1910).  E.   A.   D'AltON. 

Onias  ('Ovlas),  name  of  several  Jewish  pontiffs  of 
the  third  and  second  centuries  before  Christ.  I. — 
Onia.s  I,  son  and  successor  of  the  high-priest  Jaddua, 
who,  according  to  Josephus  (Antiq.,  XI,  viii,  7)  re- 
ceived Alexander  the  Great  in  Jerusalem.  Succeeding 
his  father  soon  after  the  death  of  Alexander  (Josephus, 
ibid.),  he  held  office  for  twenty-three  years  (323-30() 
B.  c).  In  I  Mach.,  xii,  7,  he  is  said  to  have  received 
a  friendly  letter  from  Arius,  ruler  of  the  Spartans. 
The  letter  is  mentioned  by  Josephus  (Antiq.,  XII,  iv, 
10),  who  gives  its  contents  with  certain  modifications 
of  the  form  in  Machabees  (xii,  20-23).  During  Onias's 
pontificate  Palestine  was  the  scene  of  continual  con- 
flicts between  the  forces  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  who 
several  times  alternated- as  masters  of  the  country. 
During  this  period  also,  and  because  of  unsettled 
conditions  at  home,  many  Jews  left  Palestine  for 
the  newly  founded  city  of  Alexandria. 


ONTARIO 


254 


ONTARIO 


II. — OjfiAS  II,  son  of  Simon  the  Just.  He  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  but  Josephus  says  (Antiq., 
XII,  iv,  1-6)  that,  tliouph  a  high-priest,  he  was  a  man 
"of  httle  soul  and  a  great  lover  of  money."  He  re- 
fused to  pay  the  customary  tribute  of  twenty  talents 
of  silver  to  Ptolemy  Euergetes,  who  then  threatened 
to  occupy  the  Jewish  territory,  a  calamity  which  was 
averted  by  the  tactful  activity  of  Joseph,  a  nephew  of 
Onias,  who  went  to  Ptolemy  and  purchased  immunity 
from  invasion. 

in. — Oni.\s  III,  .son  and  successor  (198  b.  c.)  of 
Simon  II,  and  grandson  of  Onias  II.  Josephus  erro- 
neously at  t  ribut  es  to  him  the  correspondence  with  Arius 
of  Sparta  (see  above,  On'i.\s  I).  He  is  mentioned  in 
II  ^Iach.,  XV,  12,  as  a  good  and  virtuous  man,  modest 
and  gentle  in  his  manner.  During  his  pontificate 
Seleucus  Philopator,  King  of  Syria,  sent  his  minister, 
Heliodorus,  to  Jerusalem  with  a  view  to  obtain  pos- 
session of  the  alleged  treasures  of  the  Temple  (II 
Mach.,  iii). 

IV. — Onias,  also  called  Menelaus.  Mention  is 
made  in  II  Mach.,  iv,  of  Menelaus,  brother  of  Simon, 
who  became  the  unjust  accuser  of  Onias  III,  and  later 
a  venal  usurper  of  the  priesthood.  According  to 
Josephus,  on  the  other  hand,  he  originally  bore  the 
name  Onias,  changed  for  political  reasons  into  one 
more  characteristically  Greek  (Antiq.,  XII,  v,  1). 

V. — Onias  IV,  .son  of  Onias  III,  too  young  to  suc- 
ceed his  father  in  the  priesthood,  which  was  usurped 
successively  by  Jason  and  Menelaus  (see  above)  and 
later  by  Alcimus.  In  the  meantime  Onias  withdrew 
into  Egypt,  where  he  obtained  from  Ptolemy  Philo- 
metor  a  tract  of  land  near  Heliopolis,  on  which  (about 
160  B.  c.)  he  erected  a  sort  of  temple.  Here  a  regular 
Temple  worship  was  inaugurated  in  defiance  of  the 
Law,  but  the  innovation  was  doubtless  justified  in  the 
mind  of  Onias  by  the  scandalous  conditions  at  the 
home  sanctuary,  and  by  the  great  number  of  Jews  res- 
ident in  Egj'pt.  The  project  was  censured  by  the 
authorities  in  Jerusalem  (Mishna,  Menachoth  xiii,  10) 
and  it  was  blamed  by  Josephus  (Bell.  Jud.,  VII,  x,  3). 
Nevertheless,  the  worship  was  maintained  until  after 
A.  D.  70,  when  it  was  abolished  by  Lupus,  prefect  of 
Alexandria  (Josephus,  "Bell.  Jud.",  VII,  x,  4). 

VI. — Onias,  a  pious  Jew  of  Jerusalem  in  the  days 
of  the  high-priest  Hyrcanus,  i.  e.  about  the  middle  of 
the  first  century  b.  c.  (see  Mishna,  Thaanith  iii,  8, 
and  Josephus  Aiitiq.,  XIV,  ii,  1). 

James  F.  Deiscoll. 

Ontario,  the  most  populous  and  wealthy  province 
of  Canada,  has  an  area  of  140,000,000  acres,  exclu.sive 
of  the  Great  Lakes,  of  which  approximately  24,700,000 
acres  have  been  sold,  115,300,000  remaining  vested  in 
the  Crown.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  and  south- 
west by  Lakes  Ontario,  Erie,  Huron,  and  Superior, 
with  their  connecting  waters,  and  Minnesota:  on  the 
north-east  by  Quebec,  and  the  Ottawa  River;  on  the 
north  by  James  Bay ;  on  the  north-west  by  Keewatin ; 
and  on  the  west  by  Manitoba.  It  is  probable  that  a 
large  part  of  Keewatin  will  soon  be  added  to  the 
province.  Old  Ontario  (lying  between  the  Ottawa 
River,  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  Lakes  Ontario, 
Erie,  and  Huron)  is  well  settled  and  cultivated:  New 
Ontario,  lying  north  and  west,  is  sparsely  inhabited. 

Climate. — Moderate  near  the  Great  Lakes,  sub- 
ject to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  the  north  and 
north-west,  the  climate  is  everywhere  healthful,  the 
extremes  being  of  short  duration  and  easily  endured 
owing  to  the  dryne.ss  of  the  atmosphere  inland. 

Historical  Incidents. — Held  by  France  up  to 
1763,  Quebec,  including  Ontario,  was  then  ceded  to 
Great  Britain.     Visited  by  Champlain  in  1615,  ex- 

Elorwi  by  French  missionaries  and  voyageurs,  it  had 
een  the  scene  of  frightful  Indian  wars,  and  massacres, 
and  of  the  martyrdom  in  1649  of  the  Jesuits,  Br^beuf 
and  Lalemant.     Except  for  missionaries  and  their 


entourage,  trappers,  soldiers  in  some  isolated  posts 
and  a  few  settlers  on  the  Detroit  and  Ottawa  Rivers, 
and  near  the  Georgian  Bay,  Ontario  in  1763  was  an 
iminhabited  wilderness  roamed  over  by  Ojibways  and 
remnants  of  the  Hurons  and  Algonquins.  After  the 
American  War  of  Independence  many  colonial  ad- 
herents of  the  British  Crown  crossed  to  Upper  Canada. 
In  1786  some  4487  of  them  were  settled  on  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  Lake  Ontario.  For  twenty  years  im- 
migration from  the  United  States  was  extensive. 
With  accessions  from  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  England, 
it  brought  the  population  in  180G  up  to  70,000.  This 
was  the  nucleus  of  the  Province  of  Ontario.  In  1791 
Upper  Canada  (Ontario)  was  separated  from  Quebec 
and  given  its  own  governor  and  legislature,  which  first 
met  in  1792  at  Newark,  now  Niagara-on-the-Lake. 
The  laws  of  England  were  then  introduced.  In  1797 
the  capital  was  moved  to  York  (Toronto).  In  1812 
Upper  Canada  sustained  the  brunt  of  the  war  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  and  was  the  scene 
of  several  noted  battles,  Queenston  Heights,  Lundy's 
Lane,  etc.  In  1837  abuses  by  the  dominant  party  and 
irresponsible  executives  provokefl  a  rebellion  in  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada,  which  resulted  in  their  union  and 
the  establishment  of  responsible  guvcrnnient  in  1841. 
In  1866  Fenian  raids  from  the  United  States  were  suc- 
cessfully repelled.  Difficulties  of  administration  due 
largely  to  racial  differences  led  to  confederation  in 
1867,  Upper  Canada  becoming  a  distinct  province 
under  the  name  of  Ontario.  Subsciiucnt  growth  has 
been  rapid;  population  has  nearly  doubled;  known 
wealth  has  increased  many  fold;  and  development  of 
industries  and  resources  has  been  enormous. 

Population. — The  last  census  (1901)  gives  the 
population  as  2,182,947.  Municipal  assessment  re- 
turns for  1909  place  it  at  2,289,438,  of  which  1,049,240 
was  rural,  515,078  dwelt  in  towns  and  villages,  and 
725,120  in  cities.  The  Ontario  Department  of  Agri- 
culture considers  that  the  actual  population  exceeds 
these  figures  by  10  per  cent.  On  this  basis  the  popula- 
tion in  1909  is  estimated  at  2,518,362. 

Cities. — The  principal  cities,  with  their  estimated 
populations  are:  Toronto,  the  provincial  capital,  360,- 
000;  Ottawa,  the  capital  of  Canada,  90,000;  Hamilton, 
77,2,50;  London,  55,000;  Brantford,  22,750;  Kingston, 
21,000;  Fort  William,  20,000. 

Agriculture. — In  1909  the  value  of  farms,  imple- 
ments and  live  stock  was  $1,241,019,109;  field  crops 
were  worth  .$167,966,577,  hay  and  clover,  oats,  wheat, 
barleyj  corn,  potatoes,  peas,  and  mixed  grains  being 
the  principal  items;  dairy  produce  was  officially  esti- 
mated at  $31,000,000;  live  stock  on  hand  was  valued  at 
$184,747,900,  sold  or  slaughtered  at  $64,464,923. 
Peaches  and  grapes,  grown  chiefly  in  the  south-west, 
are  a  large  industry.  The  average  yearly  value  of  the 
apple  crop  for  the  years  1901-05  was  $8,671,275.  In 
1910  the  Government  Agricultural  College  at  Guelph 
had  975  students;  the  Macdonald  Institute  for  far- 
mers' daughters,  411.  The  Government  maintains 
experimental  farms  and  liberally  aids  agricultural 
institutes.  24,000,000  acres  are  now  under  cultiva- 
tion. 

Mining. — The  province  is  rich  in  minerals  of  va- 
rious kinds.  The  figures  given  are  for  1908,  when 
mining  products  realized  $39,232,814.  The  most  im- 
portant nickel  deposits  in  America  are  in  the  Sudbury 
district,  producing  18,636  tons,  about  80  per  ccSit  of  the 
worid's  output.  Iron  occurs  in  various  places  (prin- 
cipally ha\matite  at  Michipicoten  on  Lake  Superior) 
yielding  231,453  tons.  The  output  of  gold  bullion 
Is  3246  oz.  Important  gold  fields  are  being  opened 
up  at  Porcupine.  The  fame  of  the  silver  mines  of  the 
Cobalt  district  is  world-wide.  Average  ores  carry 
from  2000  to  4000  oz.  to  the  ton;  955  tons  of  silver 
yielded  $15,436,994.  Petroleum  and  natural  gas  are 
important  products  of  the  southwest.  Portland  ce- 
ment brings  $3,144,000.     Arsenic,  cobalt,  copper,  cor- 


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255 


ONTABIO 


undum,  graphite,  gypsum,  marble,  mica,  salt,  and 
silver  are  also  found. 

Forests. — The  forest  area  is  estimated  at  102,000 
sq.  miles.  The  Department  of  Forests  and  Mines 
estimates  that  there  is  still  standing  on  unlicensed 
Crown  lands  13,500,000,000  feet  of  red  and  white  pine, 
and  300,000,000  cords  of  spruce,  jack-pine,  and  poplar, 
suitable  for  pulp-wood;  and  on  licensed  lands,  7,000,- 
000  feet  of  timber.  The  output  for  1910  was  605,- 
000,000  feet  b.  m.  of  pine:  of  other  woods  95,000,000 
feet;  of  square  timber  308,000  cubic  feet ;  of  pulp-wood, 
138,000  cords;  of  cord-wood,  40,000  cords;  and  of  rail- 
way ties,  3,800,000  pes.  The  province  has  an  en- 
lightened system  of  reforestation. 

Forest  Reserves  cover  17,860  sq.  miles,  containing  it 
is  estimated,  7,000,000,000  feet  of  pine.  There  are 
two  large  provincial  parks,  Rondeau  in  the  south-west, 
and  Algon(|uin  in  the  north-west  of  old  Ontario. 

I\Ianuf.\ctdres. — The  manufacturing  output  of 
Ontario  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  Canadian 
province.  For  1905  (the  last  return  available)  its 
value  was  $361,372,741.  It  is  now  considerably 
greater. 

Fisheries. — The  value  of  the  commercial  fisheries 
in  1908  was  $2,100,079.  The  opportunities  for  sport 
are  excellent,  the  trout-fishing  in  the  Nepigon  being 
exceptionally  fine.  Northern  Ontario  is  much  re- 
sorted to  by  sportsmen  in  the  hunting  season. 

Waters. — In  addition  to  the  Great  Lakes  there  are 
countless  inland  lakes  of  much  beauty  and  utihty,  the 
largest.  Lakes  Nepigon,  Nipissing,  Simcoe,  and  the 
Lake  of  the  Wootls.  Innumerable  rivers  and  water- 
courses furnish  abundant  natural  power,  little  of  it 
developed.  A  hydro-electric  government  commission 
with  municipal  co-operation,  supplies  electric  power 
from  Niagara  Falls  throughout  the  south-west.  This 
commission  is  charged  with  the  development  and 
supplying  of  power  in  other  parts  of  the  province. 

Tourist  Resorts. — Niagara  Falls,  the  Thousand 
Islands  in  the  St.  LawTence,  the  Thirty  Thousand 
Islands  in  the  Georgian  Bay,  the  Muskoka  Lakes,  and 
the  Lake  of  the  Woods  are  famous. 

Railways  and  Canals. — Ontario  is  covered  by  a 
network  of  railways,  principally  operated  by  the 
Grand  Trunk,  the  Canadian  Pacific,  and  the  Canadian 
Northern.  Now  traversed  by  one  transcontinental 
railway,  it  will  shortly  be  crossed  by  two  others.  The 
mileage  in  1909  was  8229.  The  St.  Lawrence  Canals, 
the  Welland  Canal,  overcoming  the  fall  of  326  feet 
in  the  Niagara  River,  and  the  great  lock  at  Sault 
Sainte  Marie  permit  of  navigation  from  Montreal  to 
the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  about  1400  miles.  The 
Rideau  and  the  Trent  Valley  canals  are  also  works  of 
importance.     All  canals  are  free. 

Constitution  and  Government. — The  constitu- 
tion of  the  province  is  found  in  the  British  North 
America  .■Vet,  1867  (Imperial).  Although  its  legisla- 
tive powers  are  confined  to  enumerated  subjects,  the 
constitution  being  "similar  in  principle  to  that  of  the 
United  Kingdom",  legislative  jurisdiction  over  the 
matter  assigned  to  it,  except  education,  is  restricted 
only  by  the  limitation,  that  provincial  enactments 
must  not  clash  with  Imperial  statutes  made  applicable 
to  the  province,  or  with  legislation  of  the  Parliament 
of  Canada  within  the  field  assigned  to  it. 

Legislature. — The  legislature  consists  of  a  lieuten- 
ant-governor, appointed  and  paid  by  the  Government 
of  Canada,  and  a  single  chamber  of  106  members 
elected  for  four  years.  The  party  system  prevails. 
The  franchise  is  on  a  manhood  suffrage  basis.  Ontario 
has  86  members  in  the  Dominion  House  of  Commons, 
consisting  of  221  members,  and  24  in  the  Senate,  of 
which  the  membership  is  87. 

Executive. — The  executive  is  directly  responsible 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly,  in  which  it  must  always 
command  a  majority.  It  consists  at  present  of  a 
prime  minister  and  ten  colleagues.     The  ministers 


holding  portfolios  are :  the  president  of  the  council  (at 
present  the  prime  minister),  the  attorney-general,  the 
secretary  and  registrar,  the  treasurer,  the  minister  of 
lands,  forests,  and  mines,  the  minister  of  agriculture, 
the  minister  of  pubhc  works,  and  the  minister  of  edu- 
cation. 

Judiciary. — The  Constitutional  Act  assigns  to  the 
province  "the  constitution,  maintenance,  and  organ- 
ization of  the  provincial  courts",  civil  and  criminal, 
and  to  the  Dominion  the  appointment  and  remunera- 
tion of  judges.  Judges  of  the  superior  courts  are  ap- 
pointed for  hfe.  Those  of  the  county  and  district 
courts  must  retire  at  the  age  of  eighty.  The  province 
appoints  surrogate  court  judges,  police  magistrates, 
and  justices  of  the  peace.  The  Supreme  Court  of 
Judicature  comprises  the  Court  of  Appeal,  with  five 
judges,  and  the  High  Court,  with  twelve  judges.  The 
county  and  district  judges  have  limited  powers  as  local 
judges  of  the  High  Court.  In  the  Division  Courts 
(small  debt)  they  try  claims,  ascertained  by  signature 
up  to  $200,  upon  contract  up  to  $100,  and  other  per- 
sonal claims  up  to  $60.  In  the  County  and  District 
courts  they  have  jurisdiction,  speaking  generally,  in 
actions  upon  contract  up  to  $800,  in  other  personal 
actions  up  to  $500,  and  in  actions  respecting  rights  of 
property,  where  the  value  of  the  property  affected 
does  not  exceed  $500.  Unless  the  defendant  disputes 
jurisdiction,  these  courts  may  deal  with  any  civil  case 
whatever  the  amount  involved.  The  jurisdiction  of 
the  High  Court  is  unlimited.  In  important  cases  an 
appeal  lies  from  the  provincial  court  of  appeal  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Canada,  or  to  the  Judicial  Commit- 
tee of  the  Imperial  Privy  Council. 

Officials. — Sheriffs,  court  officers.  Division  Court 
bailiffs,  etc.,  are  appointed  by  the  provincial  govern- 
ment. 

Municipal  System. — The  municipal  system  is  based 
on  American  models.  Municipal  government  is  car- 
ried on  by  councils  and  presiding  officers  elected  by  pop- 
ular vote.  In  large  urban  centres.  Boards  of  Control 
elected  by  the  municipalities  at  large  have  extensive 
powers.  The  councils  appoint  the  administrative 
officers. 

Religion. — There  is  no  State  church.  Legally  all 
religions  are  on  a  footing  of  equality.  Legislation, 
however,  is  based  on  the  fundamental  principles  of 
Cliristian  morahty.  Sessions  of  the  House  of  As- 
sembly open  with  prayers  read  by  the  Speaker.  Blas- 
phemous libels,  the  obstruction  of,  or  offering  violence 
to,  officiating  clergymen,  and  disturbance  of  meetings 
for  religious  worship  are  criminal  offences.  Sunday 
is  strictly  observed. 

Exemptions. — places  of  worship  and  lands  used 
in  connexion  therewith,  churchyards  and  burying- 
grounds,  and  buildings  and  grounds  of  educational  and 
charitable  institutions  are  exempt  from  taxation. 
Clergymen  are  exempt  from  jury  iuty  and  military 
service. 

Incorporation. — ReUgious  organizations  can  readily 
obtain  incorporation,  with  liberal  powers  of  acquiring 
and  holding  real  estate.  Land  may  be  given  for  "  char- 
itable uses",  by  deed  made  more  than  six  months  be- 
fore the  grantor's  death,  or  by  will,  but  must  be  sold 
within  two  years,  unless  the  High  Court,  being  satis- 
fied that  it  is  required  for  actual  occupation  for  the 
purpose  of  the  charity,  sanctions  its  retention.  All 
Catholic  church  property  is  vested  in  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese  who  is  a  statutory  corporation  sole. 

Catholicism. — In  1763  the  few  French  settlers  were 
Cathohcs.  Immigration  from  the  United  States  after 
1783  was  almost  exclusively  Protestant.  Some  Scotch 
Cathohcs  settled  in  Glengarry,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  Irish  Catholics,  principally  after  the  War  of 
1812  and  particularly  from  1847  to  1851,  in  various 
parts  of  Ontario.  The  See  of  Kingston,  established  in 
1826,  included  the  entire  province.  Rt.  Rev.  Alex. 
Macdonell  was  the  first  bishop.    Kingston  became  an 


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.256 


ONTARIO 


archdiocese  in  1SS9.  The  Diocese  of  Toronto^erected  in 
1S41,  became  an  archdiocese  in  1870.  The  Diocese  of 
Ottawa,  erected  in  1847,  became  an  archdiocese  in 
1886.  The  Province  liiis  now  seven  suffragan  sees, 
Hamilton,  London,  Pembroke,  TemiskaminK  (Vicari- 
ate), Pet<}rborough,  Alexandria,  and  Sault  Saintc 
Marie.  Portions  of  Ottawa,  Pembroke,  and  Temis- 
kaming  arc  in  Quebec;  the  other  dioceses  are  wholly  in 
Ontario.  Diocesan  priests  number  383;  priests  of 
religious  orders,  244  (1910). 

The  Catholic  population  in  1871  was  274,162; 
in  1881,  321,162;  in  1891,  358,300;  in  1901,  390,304; 
and  in  1910  (est.),  450,000.  Of  these,  190,000  (est.), 
resiiling  chiefly  in  Eastern  Ontario,  Essex,  Nipissing, 
and  -Vlgoma,  are  French  Canadians:  the  remainder 
principally  of  Irish  descent.  The  Apostolic  Delegate 
to  Canada  resides  at  Ottawa.  The  headquarters  of 
the  Catholic  Church  Extension  Society  of  Canada 
(canonically  established)  are  at  Toronto.  Catholic 
charitable  institutions  are  numerous,  and  receive  a  fair 
share  of  government  and  municipal  aid.  As  a  mi- 
nority, Catholics  have  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  their 
status  and  recent  treatment. 

Education. — .\t  Confederation  the  British  North 
America  Act  conferred  on  the  pro\-ince  power  to  deal 
with  education,  saving  rights  and  privileges,  with  re- 
spect to  denominational  schools  then  enjoyed.  Dur- 
ing the  union  of  Protestant  Upper  Canada  (Ontario) 
and  Catholic  Lower  Canada  (Quebec),  from  1841  to 
1867,  provision  was  made  for  denominational  schools 
for  the  religious  minority  in  each  province.  The  On- 
tario Separate  Schools  law,  fundamentally  as  it  stands 
to-day,  was  enacted  in  1863.  The  rights  then  con- 
ferred on  the  Catholic  minority  are  therefore  constitu- 
tional. 

Eipcnditure. — The  educational  system  is  adminis- 
tered by  the  Department  of  Education.  Out  of  $8,- 
891,004.68  revenue,  the  Government  in  1910  expended 
on  education,  exclusive  of  money  spent  through  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  $2,220,796.75.  In  1909 
(1910  returns  incomplete)  $8,782,302.51  was  raised 
by  local  taxation  for  primary  and  secondary  educa- 
tion. 

System. — The  system  embraces  free  primary  educa- 
tion in  public  and  separate  schools;  intermediate  edu- 
cation in  high  schools,  partly  free;  and  university 
training  at  shght  cost  to  the  student.  Every  person 
between  the  ages  of  five  and  twenty-one  years  may, 
every  child  between  eight  and  fourteen,  unless  law- 
fully excused,  must,  attend  a  public  or  separate  school. 
The  courses  of  study  and  textbooks  are  controlled  by 
the  Department,  which  sanctions  for  separate  schools 
only  books  approved  by  the  CathoUc  authorities. 
Subject  to  departmental  regulations,  primary  schools 
are  managed  by  trustees  locally  elected,  there  being 
distinct  boards  for  public  and  separate  schools.  Every 
teacher  must  hold  a  certificate  of  qualification  from  a 
provincial  normal  school.  With  its  own  taxes  the 
municipahty  collects  for  each  board  the  amount  it  re- 
quires for  its  purposes.  For  public  schools,  attended 
in  1910  by  401,268  pupils,  government  aid  was  $731,- 
160.99  and  local  taxation  (1909)  $6,565,987.90.  For 
separate  schools,  attended  in  1910  by  55,034  pupils, 
government  aid  was  $53,033.63  and  local  taxation 
(1909)  $764,779.56.  Where  CathoUcs  are  the  majority 
they  sometimes  use  and  control  pubhc  schools;  in  some 
localities  they  are  too  few  to  support  a  separate  school. 
The  separate  school  attendance  is  therefore  substan- 
tially less  than  the  number  of  Catholic  school  children. 

High  Schooh.~FoT  High  Schools  attended  in  1910, 
by  .33,101  pupils,  government  aid  was  $1.57,.383.03, 
and  local  taxation  (1909)  $1,451,535.05.  There  is  no 
legal  provision  for  separate  high  schools.  On  its 
Normal  College  (Hamilton)  and  two  normal  schools  at 
Toronto  and  Ottawa  the  Government  spent  in  1910, 
$208,524.11,  training  1198  students. 

Separate  Schools  Law. — Catholic  separate  schools 


are  easily  established.  Their  supporters  are  legally 
exempt  from  public  school  taxation.  They  elect  their 
own  trustees,  who  determine  their  rate  of  school  taxa- 
tion. Catholic  teachers  are  employed  and  Catholic  re- 
ligious training  is  given.  Separate  school  inspectors 
are  speciallly  appointed  by  the  Government.  Many 
of  the  teachers  are  Christian  Brothers  and  Sisters  of 
teaching  orders,  all  holding  government  certificates. 
At  the  government  examinations  (1910)  for  entrance 
to  liigli  scluKils,  in  Toronto  the  percentage  of  pubhc 
school  candidates  who  passed  was  54.69;  that  of  sepa- 
rate school  candidates  was  57.81. 

Universities. — The  University  of  Toronto  is  sup- 
ported by  the  Government.  In  1910  it  had  4000  stu- 
dents. The  revenue  from  succession  duties,  in  1910, 
$519,999.27,  is  devoted  to  it;  it  also  received  $15,000 
for  the  faculty  of  education.  With  it  is  affihated  St. 
Michael's  College,  Toronto,  conducted  by  the  Basilian 
Fathers,  the  students  of  which  in  1910  numbered  over 
250.  The  university  is  unsectarian.  Catholic  stu- 
dents take  lectures  in  philosophy  and  history  at  St. 
Michael's.  There  are  also:  the  Western  University, 
London;  Queen's  (Presbyterian),  Kingston;  and  Mc- 
Master  (Baptist),  Toronto.  Victoria  College  (Meth- 
odist), Wycliffe  (Anglican),  Knox  (Presbyterian),  Trin- 
ity (.\nglican),  all  at  Toronto,  are  affiliated  with  the 
University  of  Toronto.  Queen's  University  receives 
$42,000  from  the  Government  for  a  school  of  mining, 
and  $10,.500  for  its  faculty  of  education. 

The  Catholic  University  of  Ottawa,  conducted  by 
the  Oblate  Fathers,  with  complete  French  and  English 
courses  and,  in  1910,  547  students,  receives  no  govern- 
ment aid.  It  holds  a  charter  from  the  Papal  Court  as 
well  as  from  the  province. 

There  are  other  Cathohc  colleges:  Regiopolis  at 
Kingston,  conducted  by  secular  priests;  St.  Jerome's, 
at  BerUn,  by  Fathers  of  the  Resurrection,  and  Assump- 
tion, at  Sandwich,  by  Basilians.  In  nearly  every  city 
and  town  there  is  a  good  convent  school.  In  Toronto  a 
Catholic  Seminary  for  ecclesiastical  education,  capable 
of  accommodating,  at  first  1 10,  and  later  310  students, 
the  gift  of  Mr.  Eugene  O'Keefe,  Private  Chamberlain 
to  His  Holiness,  is  in  course  of  construction.  Ottawa 
has  a  diocesan  seminary. 

Marriage  and  Divorce. — By  the  British  North 
America  Act,  marriage  and  divorce  is  assigned  to  the 
Dominion  Parliament,  while  the  solemnization  of  mar- 
riage is  made  a  subject  of  provincial  jurisdiction. 
Marriage. — Under  the  Ontario  Marriage  Act,  mar- 
riage may  be  solemnized  by  "the  ministers  and  clergy- 
men of  every  church  and  rehgious  denomination,  duly 
ordained  or  appointed".  Special  provisions  are  made 
for  the  Congregations  of  God  or  of  Christ,  the  Salva- 
tion Army,  the  Farringdon  Independent  Church,  the 
Brethren,  and  the  Society  of  Friends.  There  is  no  pro- 
vision for  purely  civil  marriage.  The  person  solemniz- 
ing marriage  must  be  "a  resident  of  Canada".  The 
marriage  must  be  preceded  by  pubUcation  of  banns,  or 
authorized  by  a  licence,  or  certificate  of  the  Provin- 
cial Secretary,  issued  by  a  local  issuer  appointed  by 
the  Government.  Unless  necessary  to  prevent  ille- 
gitimacy, the  marriage  of  any  person  under  fourteen  is 
prohibited.  To  obtain  a  licence  for  the  marriage  of  a 
person  under  eighteen,  not  a  widower  or  widow,  con- 
sent of  the  father  if  resident  in  Ontario,  and  if  not,  of 
the  mother  if  so  resident,  or  of  the  guardian  (if  any),  is 
required.  Marriage  within  any  degree  of  consangum- 
ity  closer  than  that  of  first  cousins  is  prohibited.  But 
by  statute  of  Canada,  marriage  with  a  sister  of  a  de- 
ceased wife  or  with  a  daughter  of  a  deceased  wife's  sister 
is  legalized;  yet  marriage  with  a  daughter  of  a  de- 
ceased wife's  brother,  with  a  brother  of  a  deceased  hus- 
band, and  with  a  deceased  husband's  nephew  remains 
illegal.  The  validity  of  marriage  depends  on  the  lex 
loci  contractus. 

Divorce. — There  is  no  Divorce  Court.  Divorce  can 
be  obtained  only  by  Act  of  the  Dominion  Parliament, 


ONTOLOGISM 


257 


ONTOLOGISM 


and  adultery  is  the  sole  ground  on  which  it  is  granted. 
In  1907  Parliament  granted  3  divorces  for  Ontario;  in 
1908,  8;  in  1909,  8;  and  in  1910,  14.  Ontario  courts 
recognize  a  foreign  divorce  only  where  it  is  valid  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  the  state  in  which  it  is  obtained, 
and  the  husband  had  at  the  time  a  bona  fide  domicile, 
as  understood  in  English  law,  in  such  state.  Subject 
to  a  saving  jirovision  in  favour  of  a  person  who,  in  good 
faith  and  on  rcasDn.ihle  grounds,  believes  his  or  her 
spouse  to  be  dead,  ami  of  a  person  whose  spouse  has 
been  continually  absent  for  seven  years  and  who  has 
not  known  such  spouse  to  be  alive  at  any  time  during 
that  period,  any  married  person,  not  validly  divorced, 
who  goes  through  a  second  form  of  marriage  in  Canada 
commits  bigamy:  any  such  person  who,  being  a  British 
subject  resident  in  Canada,  goes  through  such  cere- 
mony elsewhere,  if  he  left  Canada  with  intent  to  do  so, 
also  commits  bigamy  under  Canadian  law. 

Nullitj/. — The  Ontario  High  Court  has  jurisdiction 
to  adjudge  marriage  void,  and  it  has  special  statutory 
power  to  declare  a  marriage  null,  if  the  plaintiff  was 
under  the  age  of  eighteen  when  married,  and  the  cere- 
mony was  without  the  consent  required  by  law,  and 
was  not  necessary  to  prevent  illegitimacy.  The  action 
must  be  brought  before  the  plaintiff  attains  the  age 
of  nineteen,  and  it  must  be  proved  in  open  court  and 
after  notice  to  the  attorney-general  (who  is  authorized 
to  intervene)  that  there  has  not  been  cohabitation 
after  the  ceremony. 

Fraser,  History  of  Ontario  (Toronto,  1907);  Kingsford,  His- 
tory of  Canada  (Toronto  and  London,  1SS7 — ) ;  Dawson.  North 
America  (London.  1S97);  Canada  Year  Book  (Ottawa,  1909);  On- 
tario Gorcrntnint  Ripnrts  en  Agriculture,  Industries,  Mining,  For- 
ests, M i/nn  ,,>.:' s;.!i I  !,,  I  I 'i();(-i9io) ; //faion's  ^nnuaZ  (Toronto, 
19U1I,  ■  '  I >'"ctory  (Toronto,  \910);  The  Official 

Cathni      //  ,      \i  '     ii;l and  New  York.  1910);  Anolin. 

Calhi'li  /,  '  V  '  '•(  /!j  r.n^.i.ln  in  its  Relation  to  the  Civil  Authority 
(Columbua,  Uhio,  I'JKI);  Statutes  of  Canada;  Statutes  of  Ontario. 

Frank  A.  Anglin. 

Ontologism  (from  fii-,  Sr,  SvTot,  being,  and  X67os, 
sciencTi,  an  idculogical  system  which  maintains  that 
God  and  Divine  ideas  are  the  first  object  of  our  intel- 
ligence anil  the  intuition  of  God  the  first  act  of  our 
intellectual  knowledge.  Exposition. — Malebranche 
(q.  V.)  developed  his  theory  of  "la  vision  en  Dieu"  in 
different  works,  particularly  "  Recherche  de  la  verite", 
III,  under  the  influence  of  Platonic  and  Cartesian  phi- 
losophies, and  of  a  misunderstanding  of  St.  Augustine's 
and  St.  Thomas's  principles  on  the  origin  and  source 
of  our  ideas.  It  is  also  in  large  part  the  consequence 
of  his  theory  of  occasional  causes  (see  Occasional- 
ism). Our  true  knowledge  of  things,  he  says,  is  the 
knowledge  we  have  of  them  in  their  ideas.  The  ideas 
of  things  are  present  to  our  mind,  endowed  with  the 
essential  characteristics  of  universality,  necessity,  and 
eternity,  and  are  not  the  result  of  intellectual  elabora- 
tion or  representations  of  things  as  they  are,  but  the 
archetypes  which  concrete  and  temporal  things  real- 
ize. Ideas  have  their  source  and  real  existence  in 
God;  they  are  the  Divine  essence  itself,  considered  as 
the  infinite  model  of  all  things.  "God  is  the  locus  of 
our  ideas,  as  space  is  the  locus  of  bodies."  God 
is  then  always  really  present  to  our  mind;  we  see  all 
things,  even  material  and  concrete  things,  in  Him, 
Who  contains  and  manifests  to  our  intelligence  their 
nature  and  existence.  Vincenzo  Gioberti  (1801-52) 
developed  his  Ontologism  in  "Introduzione  alio  studio 
della  filosofia"  (1840),  I,  iii;  II,  i.  Our  first  act  of 
intellectual  knowledge  is  the  intuitive  judgment  "ens 
creat  existentias"  (Being  creates  existences).  By 
that  act,  he  says,  our  mind  apprehends  directly  and 
immediately  in  an  intuitive  synthesis  (a)  being,  not 
simply  in  general  nor  merely  as  ideal,  but  as  necessary 
and  real,  viz.,  God ;  (b)  existences  or  contingent  beings; 
(c)  the  relation  which  unites  being  and  existences, 
viz.,  the  creative  act.  In  this  judgment  being  is  the 
subject,  existences  the  predicate,  the  creative  act  the 
copula.  Our  first  intellectual  perception  is,  therefore, 
XL— 17 


an  intuition  of  God,  the  first  intelligible,  as  creating 
existences.  This  intuition  is  finite  and  is  obtained  by 
means  of  expressions  or  words  {la  parola).  Thus  the 
prinmm  philosophicum  includes  both  the  primum  on- 
totogicum  and  the  primum  jusiirholnqirum.  and  the  ordo 
sciendi  is  identified  with  \\v  iir,l,>  rmiiii.  This  for- 
mula was  accepted  and  dflrndrd  li\(  )rcstcs  A.  Brown- 
son.  (Cf.  Brownson's  Works,  Detruit,  1.SS2;  I,  "The 
Existence  of  God",  267  sq.;  "Schools  of  Philosophy, 
296  sq.;  "Primitive  Elements  of  Thought",  418  sq. 
etc.) 

Ontologism  was  advocated,  under  a  more  moderate 
form,  by  some  Catholic  philosophers  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Maintaining  against  Malebranche  that  con- 
crete material  things  are  perceived  by  our  senses, 
they  asserted  that  our  universal  ideas  endowed  with 
the  characteristics  of  necessity  and  eternity,  and  our 
notion  of  the  infinite  cannot  exist  except  in  God;  and 
they  cannot  therefore  be  known  except  by  an  intuition 
of  God  present  to  our  mind  and  perceived  by  our  in- 
telligence not  in  His  essence  as  such,  but  in  His  essence 
as  the  archetype  of  all  things.  Such  is  the  Ontologism 
taught  by  C.  Ubaghs,  professor  at  Louvain,  in  "  Essai 
d'ideologie  ontologique"  (Louvain,  1860);  by  Abb6 
L.  Branchereau  in  " Praelectiones  Philosophic^";  by 
Abbe  F.  Hugonin  in  "Ontologie  ou  etudes  des  lois  de 
la  pens^e"  (Paris,  1856-7) ;  by  Abbe  J.  Fabre  in  "De- 
fense de  I'ontologisme  " ;  by  Carlo  Vercellone,  etc.  We 
find  also  the  fundamental  principles  of  Ontologism  in 
Rosmmi's  philosophy,  although  there  have  been  many 
attempts  to  defend  him  against  this  accusation  (cf. 
G.  Morando,  "Esame  critico  delle  XL  proposizione 
rosminiane  condannate  dalla  S.R.U.  inquisizione", 
Milan,  1905).  According  to  Rosmini,  the  form  of  all 
our  thoughts  is  being  in  its  ideality  (I'essere  ideale, 
I'essere  iniziale).  The  idea  of  being  is  innate  in  us 
and  we  perceive  it  by  intuition.  Altogether  indeter- 
mined,  it  is  neither  God  nor  creature;  it  is  an  appurte- 
nance of  God,  it  is  something  of  the  Word  ("Teo- 
sophia",  I,  n.  490;  II,  n.  848;  cf.  "  Rosminianarum 
propositionum  trutina  theologica",  Rome,  1892).  At 
the  origin  and  basis  of  every  system  of  Ontologism, 
there  are  two  principal  reasons:  (1)  we  have  an  idea 
of  the  infinite  and  this  cannot  be  obtained  through 
abstraction  from  finite  beings,  since  it  is  not  contained 
in  them;  it  must,  therefore,  be  innate  in  our  mind  and 
perceived  through  intuition;  (2)  our  concepts  and 
fundamental  judgments  are  endowed  with  the  charac- 
teristics of  universality,  eternity,  and  necessity,  e.  g., 
our  concept  of  man  is  applicable  to  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  individual  men ;  our  principle  of  identity  "what- 
ever is,  is",  is  true  in  itself,  necessarily  and  always. 
Now  such  concepts  and  judgments  cannot  be  obtained 
from  any  consideration  of  finite  things  which  are  par- 
ticular, contingent,  and  temporal.  Gioberti  insists 
also  on  the  fact  that  God  being  alone  intelligible  by 
Himself,  we  cannot  have  any  intellectual  knowledge  of 
finite  things  independently  of  the  knowledge  of  God; 
that  our  kniiwlcdg<'  to  be  truly  scientific  must  follow 
theontologiial,  or  real,  order  and  therefore  must  begin 
with  the  knowledge  of  God,  the  first  being  and  source 
of  all  existing  beings.  Ontologists  appeal  to  the  au- 
thority of  the  Fathers,  especially  St.  Augustine  and  St. 
Thomas. 

Ref  Illation. — From  the  philosophical  point  of  view, 
the  immediate  intuition  of  God  and  of  His  Divine  ideas, 
as  held  by  Ontologists,  is  above  the  natural  power  of 
man's  intelligence.  We  are  not  conscious,  even  by 
reflection,  of  the  presence  of  God  in  our  mind;  and, 
if  we  did  have  such  an  intuition  we  would  flnd  in  it 
(as  St.  Thomas  rightly  remarks)  the  full  satisfaction 
of  all  our  aspirations,  since  we  would  know  God  in  His 
essence  (for  the  distinction  between  God  in  His  essence 
and  God  as  containing  the  ideas  of  things,  as  advanced 
by  Ontologists,  is  arbitrary  and  cannot  be  more  than 
logical) ;  error  or  doubt  concerning  God  would  be  im- 
possible.    (Cf.  St.  Thom.  in  Lib.  Boetii  de  Trinitate, 


ONTOLOGY 


23B 


ONTOLOGY 


Q.  I,  a.  3;  de  Veritate,  Q.  XVIII,  a.  1.)  Again,  all  our 
intollcctual  thoughts,  oven  thoso  roncorniiiK  (iod,  arc 
acconipanicil  by  s<'iisuous  imapcs;  tlicy  arc  ma(l<'  of 
elciiu'uls  winch  may  he  apphcil  to  creatures  as  well  as 
to  God  Himself;  only  in  our  idea  of  C!od  and  of  His 
attributes,  these  elemenls  arc  div<'sted  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  imperfection  and  limit  which  they  have  in 
creatures,  and  assume  the  highest  possible  degree  of 
perfection.  In  a  word,  our  idea  of  God  is  not  direct 
and  proper;  it  is  analogical  (cf.  God;  Analogy). 
This  .shows  that  God  is  not  known  by  intuition. 

The  reasons  advanced  by  Ontologists  rest  on  con- 
fu.sion  and  false  assumptions.  The  human  mind  has 
an  idea  of  the  infinite;  but  this  idea  may  be  and  in  fact 
is,  obtained  from  the  notion  of  the  finite,  by  the  suc- 
cessive processes  of  abstraction,  elimination,  and 
transcendence.  The  notion  of  the  finite  is  the  notion 
of  being  having  a  certain  perfection  in  a  limited  de- 
gree. By  eliminating  the  element  of  limitation  and 
conceiving  the  jjositive  perfection  as  realized  in  its 
highest  possible  degree,  we  arrive  at  the  notion  of  the 
infinite.  We  form  in  this  way,  a  negativo-positive 
concept,  as  the  Schoolmen  say,  of  the  infinite.  It  is 
true  also  tliat  our  ideas  ha\e  the  characteristics  of  ne- 
cessity, universality,  and  eternity;  l)ut  these  are  essen- 
tially ditTcrent  from  the  attributes  of  God.  God  ex- 
ists necessarily,  viz.,  He  is  absolutely,  and  cannot  not 
exist;  our  ideas  are  necessary  in  the  sense  that,  when 
an  object  is  conceived  in  its  essence,  independently 
of  the  concrete  beings  in  which  it  is  realized,  it  is  a 
subject  of  necessary  relations:  man,  if  he  exists,  is 
necessarily  a  rational  being.  God  is  absolutely  uni- 
versal in  the  sense  that  He  eminently  possesses  the 
actual  fulness  of  all  perfections ;  our  ideas  are  universal 
in  the  sense  that  they  are  applicable  to  an  indefinite 
number  of  concrete  beings.  God  is  eternal  in  the 
sense  that  He  exists  by  Himself  and  always  identical 
with  Himself;  our  ideas  are  eternal  in  the  sense  that 
in  their  state  of  abstraction  they  are  not  determined 
by  any  special  place  in  space  or  moment  in  time. 

It  is  true  that  God  alone  is  perfectly  intelligible  in 
Himself,  since  He  alone  has  in  Himself  the  reason  of 
His  existence;  finite  beings  are  intelligible  in  the  very 
measure  in  which  they  exist.  Having  an  existence 
distinct  from  that  of  God,  they  have  also  an  intelligi- 
bility distinct  from  Him.  And  it  is  precisely  because 
they  are  dependent  in  their  existence  that  we  conclude 
to  the  existence  of  God,  the  first  intelligible.  The  as- 
sumption that  the  order  of  knowledge  must  follow  the 
order  of  things,  holds  of  absolute  and  perfect  knowl- 
edge, not  of  all  knowledge.  It  is  sufficient  for  true 
knowledge  that  it  affirm  as  real  that  which  is  truly 
real;  the  order  of  knowledge  may  be  different  from  the 
order  of  reality.  The  confusion  of  certain  Ontologists 
regarding  the  notion  of  being  opens  the  way  to  Pan- 
theism (q.  v.).  Neither  St.  Augustine  nor  St.  Thomas 
favours  Ontologism.  It  is  through  a  misunderstanding 
of  their  theories  and  of  their  expression  that  the  Ontol- 
ogist  appeals  to  them.  (Cf.  St.  August.,  "De  civi- 
tate  Dei",  lib.  X,  XI;  "De  utilitate  credendi",  lib.  83, 
cap.  XVI,  Q.  xlv,  etc.;  St.  Thomas,  "Summa  Theol.", 
I,  Q.  ii,  a.  11;  Q.  lxx.xiv-lxx.xviii;  "Qq.  disp.,  de 
Veritate",  Q.  xvi,  a.  1;Q.  xi,  "De  magistro",  a.  3, etc.) 

The  Condemnation  of  Ontologism  by  the  Church. — 
The  Council  of  Vienna  (1311-12)  had  already  con- 
demned the  doctrine  of  the  Begards  who  maintained 
that  we  can  .see  God  by  our  natural  intelligence.  On 
18  September,  1861,  seven  propositions  of  the  Ontolo- 
gists, concerning  the  immediate  and  the  innate  knowl- 
edge of  God,  being,  and  t  he  relation  of  finite  things  to 
God,  were  declared  by  the  Holy  Office  liUo  tradi  non 
posse  (cf.  Denzinger-Bannwart,  nn.  l(j59-65).  The 
same  congregation,  in  1802,  pronounced  the  same  cen- 
sure against  fifteen  propositions  by  Abb6  Branche- 
reau,  subjected  to  its  examination,  two  of  which  (xii 
and  xiii)  a.sserted  the  existence  of  an  innate  and  direct 
perception  of  ideas,  and  the  intuition  of  God  by  the 


human  mind.  In  the  \'atican  Council,  Cardinals 
I'l-cci  and  Sl'orza  presented  a/)o.s7»/((/»»(  foran  explicit 
condemnation  oft  )n1()l(igism.  (  hi  I  1  DecenilxT,  1887, 
the  Holy  OHice  reprov<Ml,  condemned,  and  jjro.scribed 
forty  propositions  extractefl  from  the  works  of  Kos- 
mini,  in  which  the  principles  of  Ontologism  are  con- 
tained (cf.  Denzinger-Bannwarl ,  nn.  1S91-1930). 

LiBERATORE,      Trnllali}     ilrjhi      rn„,isrii,:,i      iiilrll,  llii:ilr      (Home 

185o);ZioUARA.  D.-;;.;  /,«.-,  i„l,ll.  lt„al,  r.l.ll'  (inlnl,,,,!-.,,,.,  (Home' 
1874);  Lepidi,  iVim.vi  i,hil. ,:.,,, ,1,, , -..-lln  ul,„,,,-i,m  ,1,  linl,,l„iiismo'; 
KleuTGEN.  Die  Philusiiphu  il,r  \'„r:iil  (Iiii]..linnk,  1S7S);  Mer- 
CIER,  La  Psi/chologie,  111  (LouvaiD,  1S'J9)  ,  i,  2-3;  Boedder, 
Natural  Theology,  I  (London,  1902),  L 

George  M.  Sauvage. 

Ontology  ((Si/,  6vtos,  being,  and  \6yos,  science,  the 
science  or  philo.sophy  of  being). — I.  Definition. — 
ThouKh  the  term  is  used  in  this  literal  meaning  bj'  Clau- 
berK  ( lti'J.")-l(;(i.''))  (( )|ip.,  p.  2S1 ),  its  special  application 
to  the  first  deiiartnieni  of  incta|ilivsics  was  made  by 
Christian  von  Wolff  (1079-1754)  (Philos.  nat.,  sec.  73). 
Prior  to  this  time  "the  science  of  being"  had  retained 
the  titles  given  it  by  its  founder  Aristot  le :"  first  philoso- 
phy", "theology",  "wisdom".  The  term  "metaphys- 
ics" (q.  V.)  was  given  a  wider  extension  by  Wolff,  who 
divided  "real  philosophy"  into  general  metaphysics, 
which  he  called  ontology,  and  special,  under  which  he 
included  cosmology,  psychology,  and  theodicy.  This 
programme  has  been  adopted  with  little  variation  by 
most  Catholic  philosophers.  The  subject-matter  of 
ontology  is  usually  arranged  thus:  (1)  The  objective 
concept  of  being  in  its  widest  range,  as  embracing  the 
actual  and  potential,  is  first  analyzed,  the  problems 
concerned  with  essence  (nature)  and  existence,  "act" 
and  "  potency ' '  are  discussed,  and  the  primary  prin- 
ciples— contradiction,  identity,  etc.  —  are  shown  to 
emerge  from  the  concept  of  entity.  (2)  The  proper- 
ties coextensive  with  being — unity,  truth,  and  good- 
ness, and  their  immediately  associated  concepts,  order 
and  beauty — are  next  explained.  (3)  The  fundamental 
divisions  of  being  into  the  finite  and  the  infinite,  the 
contingent  and  the  necessary,  etc.,  and  the  subdivis- 
ions of  the  finite  into  the  categories  (q.  v.)  substance 
and  its  accidents  (quantity,  quality,  etc.)  follow  in 
turn — the  objective — reality  of  substance,  the  mean- 
ing of  personality,  the  relation  of  accidents  (q.  v.)  to 
substance  being  the  most  prominent  topics.  (4)  The 
concluding  portion  of  ontology  is  usually  devoted  to 
the  concept  of  cause  and  its  primary  divisions — effi- 
cient and  final,  material  and  formal — the  objectivity 
and  analytical  character  of  the  principle  of  causality 
receiving  most  attention. 

Ontology  is  not  a  subjective  science  as  Kant  de- 
scribes it  (Ub.  d.  Fortschr.  d.  Met.,  98)  nor  "  an  inferen- 
tial Psychology",  as  Hamilton  regards  it  (Metaphys- 
ics, Lect.  VII);  nor  yet  a  knowledge  of  the  absolute 
(theology);  nor  of  some  ultimate  reality,  whether 
conceived  as  matter  or  as  spirit,  which  Monists  sup- 
pose to  underlie  and  produce  individual  real  beings 
and  their  manifestations.  Ontology  is  a  fundamental 
interpretation  of  the  ultimate  constituents  of  the 
world  of  experience.  AH  these  constituents — individ- 
uals with  their  attributes — have  factors  or  aspects  in 
common.  The  atom  and  the  molecule  of  matter,  the 
plant,  the  animal,  man,  and  God  agree  in  this  that 
each  is  a  being,  has  a  characteristic  essence,  an  indi- 
vidual unity,  truth,  goodness,  is  a  substance  and  (God 
excepted)  has  accidents,  and  is  or  may  be  a  cause.  All 
these  common  attributes  demand  definition  and  ex- 
planation— definition  not  of  their  mere  names,  but 
analysis  of  the  real  object  which  the  mind  abstracts 
and  reflectively  considers.  Ontology  is  therefore  the 
fundamental  science  since  it  studies  the  basal  constit- 
uents and  the  principles  presupposed  by  the  special 
sciences.  All  the  other  parts  of  philosophy,  cosmol- 
ogy, psychology,  theodicy,  ethics,  even  logic,  rest  on 
the  foundation  laid  by  ontology.  The  physical 
sciences — physics,   chemistry,   biology,  mathematics 


OOSTACKER 


259 


OPHIR 


likewise,  presuppose  the  same  foundations.  Never- 
theless ontology  is  dependent  in  the  order  of  analysis, 
though  not  in  the  order  of  synthesis,  on  these  depart- 
ments of  knowledge;  it  starts  from  their  data  and  uses 
their  information  in  clarifying  their  presuppositions 
and  principles.  Ontology  is  accused  of  dealing  with 
the  merely  abstract.  But  all  science  is  of  the  abstract, 
the  universal,  not  of  the  concrete  and  individual.  The 
physical  sciences  abstract  the  various  phenomena 
from  their  individual  subjects;  the  mathematical 
sciences  abstract  the  quantity — number  and  dimen- 
sions— from  its  setting.  Ontology  finally  abstracts 
what  is  left — the  essence,  existence,  substance,  causalty , 
etc.  It  is  idle  to  say  that  of  these  ultimate  abstrac- 
tions we  can  have  no  distinct  knowledge.  The  very 
negation  of  their  knowableness  shows  that  the  mind 
has  some  knowledge  of  that  which  it  attempts  to  deny. 
Ontology  simply  endeavours  to  make  that  rudimen- 
tary knowledge  more  distinct  and  complete.  There  is 
a  thoroughly  developed  ontology  in  every  course  of 
Catholic  philosophy;  and  to  its  ontology  that  philoso- 
phy owes  its  definiteness  and  stability,  while  the  lack 
of  an  ontology  in  other  systems  explains  their  vague- 
ness and  instability. 

II.  History. — It  was  Aristotle  who  first  constructed 
a  well-defined  and  developed  ontology.  In  his  "  Meta- 
physics" he  analyses  the  simplest  elements  to  which 
the  mind  reduces  the  world  of  reaUty.  The  medieval 
philosophers  make  his  writings  the  groundwork  of 
their  commentaries  in  which  they  not  only  expand  and 
illustrate  the  thought,  but  often  correct  and  enrich  it 
in  the  light  of  Revelation.  Notable  instances  are  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  and  Suarez  (1548-1617).  The  "  Dis- 
putationes  Metaphysica;"  of  the  latter  is  the  most 
thorough  work  on  ontology  in  any  language.  The 
Aristotelean  writings  and  the  Scholastic  commenta- 
ries are  its  groundwork  and  largely  its  substance;  but 
it  amplifies,  and  enriches  both.  The  work  of  Father 
Harper  mentioned  below  attempts  to  render  it  avail- 
able for  EngUsh  readers.  The  author's  untimely 
death,  however,  left  the  attempt  far  from  its  pros- 
pected ending.  The  movement  of  the  mind  towards 
the  physical  sciences — which  was  largely  stimulated 
and  accelerated  by  Bacon — carried  philosophy  away 
from  the  more  abstract  truth.  Locke,  Hume,  and 
their  followers  denied  the  reality  of  the  object  of 
ontology.  We  can  know  nothing,  they  held,  of  the 
essence  of  things;  substance  is  a  mental  figment,  acci- 
dents are  subjective  aspects  of  an  unknowable  nou- 
menon;  cause  is  a  name  for  a  sequence  of  phenomena. 
These  negations  have  been  emphasized  by  Comte, 
Huxley,  and  Spencer. 

On  the  other  hand  the  subjective  and  psychological 
tendencies  of  Descartes  and  his  followers  dimmed  yet 
more  the  vision  for  metaphysical  truth.  Primary  no- 
tions and  principles  were  held  to  be  either  forms  innate 
in  the  mind  or  results  of  its  development,  but  which  do 
not  ex-press  objective  reahty.  Kant,  analysing  the 
structure  of  the  cognitive  faculties — perception,  judg- 
ment, reasoning — discovers  in  them  innate  forms  that 
present  to  reflection  aspects  of  phenomena  which  ap- 
pear to  be  the  objective  realities,  being,  substance, 
cause,  etc.,  but  which  in  truth  arc  only  subjective 
views  evoked  by  sensory  stimuli.  The  subject  matter 
of  ontology  is  thus  reduced  to  the  types  which  the 
mind,  until  checked  by  criticism,  projects  into  the 
external  world.  Between  these  two  extremes  of  Em- 
piricism and  Idealism  the  traditional  philosophy  re- 
tains the  convictions  of  common  sense  and  the  subtle 
analysis  of  the  Scholastics.  Being,  essence,  truth,  sub- 
stance, accident,  cause,  and  the  rest,  are  words  ex- 
pressing ideas  but  standing  for  realities.  These  reali- 
ties are  objective  aspects  of  the  individuals  that  strike 
the  senses  and  the  intellect.  They  exist  concretely  out- 
side of  the  mind,  not,  of  course,  abstractly  as  they  are 
within.  They  are  the  ultimate  elementary  notes  or 
forms  which  the  mind  intuitively  discerns,  abstracts, 


and  reflectively  analyses  in  its  endeavour  to  compre- 
hend fundamentally  any  object.  In  this  reflective 
analysis  it  must  employ  whatever  information  it  can 
obtain  from  empirical  psychology,  llntil  recently  this 
latter  auxiliary  has  been  insufficiently  recognized  by 
the  philosophers.  The  works,  however,  of  Maher  and 
Walker  mentioned  below  manifest  a  just  appreciation 
of  the  importance  of  psychology's  co-operation  in  the 
study  of  ontology. 

Catholic;  Harper,  The  Metaphysics  of  the  School  (London, 
1879-84);  De  Wulf,  Scholasticism  Old  and  New.  tr.  CoFPET 
(Dublin,  1907);  Perkier,  The  revival  of  Scholastic  Philosophy  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century  (New  York.  1909)  (full  bibliography); 
RiCKABY,  General  Metaphysics  (London.  1898);  Walker.  Theo- 
ries of  Knowledge  (London,  1910) ;  Maher.  Psychology  (London. 
1903);  Balmes,  FuridamCTifa;  Philosophy  (tr.,  New  York.  1864); 
Turner,  History  of  Philosophy  (Boston,  1903)  ;  Mekcier, 
Ontologie  (Louvain,  1905) ;  DoMET  de  Vorges,  Abrege  de  meta- 
physique    (Paris,    1906);   De    Regnov,     M.i,ir:h,,^„,,ie   des  causes 

(Paris,    1906);    Gutberlet,    AUgrtt 1/  •      '  /  it   (Munster, 

1897);    Urraburh,  77is(t(u(t07ies  j^/m/.  ■      \  Ul:idoUd,  1891) ; 

TiLjtSC.  Dictionnaire  de  philosophii  {[■: .  ,  ;    " 

Non-Catholic:  McCosh,  First  u/i.;  /  i.,.  j, .,..,, .'.i;  Truths  (New 
York,  1894);  Idem,  The  Intuitions  of  the  Mind  (New  York,  1880); 
Ladd,  Knowledge,  Life  and  Reality  (New  York,  1909) ;  Taylor, 
Elements  of  Metaphysics  (London,  1903) ;  Windelband,  History 
of  Philosophy  (tr.,  New  Y'ork,  1901);  Baldwin,  Didionor!/  of  Phi- 
losophy and  Psychology  (New  Y'ork,  1902) ;  Eisler,  Worterbuch  der 
philos.  Begriffe  (Berlin,  1904).  F.   P.  SlEGPRIED. 

Oostacker,  Shrine  of,  a  miraculous  shrine  of  the 
Bles.sed  Virgin,  and  place  of  pilgrimage  from  Belgium, 
Holland,  and  Northern  France.  It  takes  its  name 
from  a  little  hamlet  two  miles  from  Ghent  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  East  Flanders,  Belgium.  Its  origin  as  a  cen- 
tre of  pilgrimage  is  comparatively  recent,  dating  from 
1873.  In  1871  the  Marquise  de  Calonne  de  Courte- 
bourne  had  built  in  the  park  of  her  estate  at  Oostacker 
an  aquarium  in  the  form  of  an  artificial  cave  or  grotto. 
One  day,  while  on  a  visit  to  the  park,  M.  I'abbd 
RIoreels,  the  parish  priest,  suggested  that  a  statue 
of  Our  Lady  of  Lourdes  be  placed  among  the  rocks. 
For  two  years  the  grotto  remained  simply  an  aqua- 
rium, but  gradually  the  members  of  the  family  formed 
the  habit  of  stopping  there  to  recite  a  Hail  Mary. 
Soon  it  was  decided  to  bless  the  statue  publicly.  The 
ceremony  took  place  on  23  June,  1873,  and  was  at- 
tended by  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  village. 
The  pious  Flemish  peasants  asked  permission  of  the 
owner  to  come  frequently  to  the  park  to  give  vent 
to  their  devotion.  Accordingly,  access  was  allowed 
them  on  Sunday  afternoon.  At  that  time  the  world 
was  ringing  with  the  fame  of  Lourdes,  and  the  shrine 
at  Oostacker  soon  became  popular;  marvellous  graces 
and  wonderful  cures  were  reported.  Before  long  Sun- 
day afternoon  no  longer  sufficerl  to  receive  the  throngs 
of  pilgrims,  and  the  park  was  thrown  open  to  the  pub- 
lic by  the  generous  owner.  Then  a  large  Gothic  church 
was  built,  the  comer-stone  being  laid  on  22  May,  1875, 
by  Mgr  Bracq.  A  priest's  house  followed,  and  the 
marchioness  in  memory  of  her  son,  a  deceased  Jesuit, 
confided  shrine,  church,  and  house  to  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  The  fathers  took  possession  on  8  April,  1877, 
and  on  11  September  of  the  same  year  the  Apostolic 
nuncio,  SeraphLno  VannutelU,  consecrated  the  church. 
That  part  of  the  estate,  in  which  the  grotto  was,  was 
now  definitively  given  over  to  the  service  of  Our  Lady, 
a  long  avenue  being  built  from  the  road  to  the  shrine 
and  a  Way  of  the  Cross  erected.  Fully  60,000  pilgrims 
come  annually  from  Belgium,  Holland,  and  Northern 
J'rance,  in  about  450  organized  pilgrimages. 

PoNCELET,  La  Compagnie  de  Jesus  en  Belgique  (Brussels,  1907) ; 
PHerinages  ceUbres  aux  sanctuaires  de  Notre  Dame  (Paris,  1901); 
Schiehlinck,  Lourdes  en  Ftandre  (Ghent,  1874). 

J.  Wilfrid  Parsons. 

Ophir,  in  the  Bible,  designates  a  people  and  a 

country. 

The  people,  for  whom  a  Semitic  descent  is  claimed, 
is  mentioned  in  Gen.,  x,  29,  with  the  other  "sons  of 
Jectan  ",  whose  dwelling  "  was  from  Messa  as  we  go  on 
as  far  as  Sehar,  a  mountain  in  the  east"  (Gen.,  x,  30). 

The  place  Ophir  was  that  from  which  the  Bible 


OPHITES 


260 


OPORTO 


represents  Solomon's  fleet  bringing  gold,  silver,  thyine 
(proliabh-  suntal)  wood,  precious  stones,  ivory,  apes, 
and  pcacoiks  (111  Kings,  ix,  26-28;  x,  11,  22;  II  Par., 
viii,  17-lS;  ix,  10).  Its  location  has  been  sought  where 
the  articles  mentioned  are  native  productions;  still, 
while  Ophir  is  repeatedly  .sjioken  of  as  a  gold-produc- 
ing region  (Job,  xxii.  21;  xxviii,  10;  I's.  xliv,  10;  Is., 
xiii,  12),  it  does  not  follow  that  the  other  articles  came 
from  there;  whether  they  were  natural  products,  or 
only  bought  and  sold  there,  or  even  purchased  by  the 
merchantmen  at  inter\-eiiing  ports,  cannot  be  gathered 
from  the  text,  as  it  states  merely  that  they  were 
fetched  to  Asiongaber.  The  Bible  does  not  give  the 
geographical  position  of  Ophir;  it  only  says  that  the 
voyage  out  from  Asiongaber  and  back  lasted  three 
years  (III  Kings,  x,  22).  Scholars  have  been  guided 
in  their  several  identifications  of  the  site  by  the 
importance  they  attach  to  this  or  that  particular  indi- 
cation in  the  sacred  text — especially  the  products 
brought  to  Solomon — also  by  resemblances,  real  or 
fanciful,  between  the  Hebrew  names  of  Ophir  and  of 
the  articles  mentioned  in  connexion  therewith  and 
names  used  in  various  countries  and  languages.  The 
Greek  translators  of  the  Bible,  by  rendering  the  He- 
brew Ophir  into  Sophir,  the  Coptic  name  for  India, 
would  locate  the  Biblical  El  Dorado  in  India,  accord- 
ing to  some  in  the  land  of  the  Abhira,  east  of  the  delta 
of  the  Indus,  according  to  others,  on  the  coast  of  Mal- 
abar or  at  Ceylon,  and  accorditig  to  others  still  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula.  The  opinion  that  it  was  situated  on 
the  southern  or  south-eastern  coast  of  Arabia  has 
many  advocates,  who  contend  from  the  text  of  Gen., 
X,  29,  30,  that  Ophir  must  be  located  between  Saba 
and  Hevilath.  Another  opinion  says  it  was  not  in 
Asia,  but  either  on  the  south-eastern  coast  of  Africa 
(Sofala)  or  inland  in  Mashonaland. 

H.vLL  AND  Neal,  The  Ancient  Ruins  of  Rhodesia  (London, 
1902);  Cory,  The  Rise  of  South  Africa  (London,  UIOI) ;  Low. 
Maritime  Discovery,  I  (London,  1881);  Peyron,  Leximn  l.imiU'j 
CopticcE  (Turin,  1835);  Huet,  Commentaires  sur  les  nanu'^hnr  ■  ,/, 
Salomon  in  Bruzen  de  la  Martiniere,  Traites  geogniphuint  s  ,/ 
historiques  pour  faciliter  V intelligence  de  VEcrUure  Sainte.  II  (Tlie 
Hague,  1730);  Quatremere,  Memoire  sur  le  pays  d'Ophir  in 
Memoires  de  V Academic  des  Inscriptions,  XV  (Paris,  1842);  Vl- 
GOCROUX,  La  Bible  et  Irs  dcrouvertcs  modernes.  III  (6th  ed.,  Paris, 
1896);  ViviF':  T-.i-  ^M-.-T-M  \kti-:,  Nistoire  de  la  geographic  et  des 
decouvertes ij' I  '  I     ■:   ,  I  ^7 '0  ;  Gesenids,  Op/ii'r  in  Ersch 

AND  Grubu:,  II       'nschaften  (1833);  Glaser, 

Skiize  der  H.    <  ' /  (,,,.,„,,,,/,,,  Arabiens,  II  (1890);  Guthe, 

Kurzes  Bibelu:,/,  ,imi,  I,  1 1  uIjii.kiu,  1903);  Herzfeld,  Hartdels- 
geschichte  der  Juden  der  AUti-lhums  (1879);  Lassen,  Indische  Al~ 
terthumskunde,  I  (1860) ;  Lieblein,  Handel  und  Sehifffahrt  auf  dem 
TOlhen  Meer  in  alien  Zeiten  (Leipzig,  1886) ;  Mauch,  Reisende 
in  Ost'Afrika  (1871);  Merensky,  Beilrdge  zur  Kenntniss  Sud- 
Afrikas  (1875):  Mi^ller.  Asien  und  Europa  nach  altagyptischen 
Denkmalem  (1.S93);  Peters,  Das  goldene  Ophir  Salomons  (Mu- 
nich, 1895);  Soetbeer,  Das  Goldland  Ophir  (1880). 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

Ophites.    See  Gnosticism. 

Opinions,  Theological.    See  Theology. 

Oporto,  Diocese  op  (Portccalensis),  in  Portu- 
gal; comprising  26  civil  concelhos  of  the  districts  of 
Oporto  and  Aveiro;  probably  founded  in  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century.  At  the  third  Council  of  Toledo 
(589)  the  Arian  usurper  Argiovito  was  deposed  in 
favour  of  Constancio  the  rightful  bishop.  In  610 
Bishop  Argeberto  assisted  at  a  council  at  Toledo, 
summoned  by  King  Gundemar  to  sanction  the  metro- 
politan claims  of  Toledo.  Bishop  Ansiulfo  was  present 
at  the  Sixth  Council  of  Toledo  (638)  and  Bishop  Flavio 
at  the  Tenth  (6.56).  Bi.shop  Froarico- attended  the 
Third  Council  of  Braga  (67.5)  and  the  Twelfth,  Thir- 
teenth, and  Fifteenth  Councils  of  Toledo  (681, 683,  and 
688),  and  his  successor  Felix  appeared  at  the  Sixteenth 
Council  (693).  No  other  bishop  is  recorded  under  the 
Visigothio  monarchy.  After  tlie  Arab  invasion  Ju.s- 
tus  seems  to  have  been  the  first  bishop.  Gomado 
was  probably  elected  in  872,  when  King  Affonso  III 
won  back  the  city.  The  names  of  only  four  other 
prelates  have  been  pre8er\'ed:  Froarengo  (906),  Her- 
mogio  (912),  Ordonho,  and  Diogo.     Oporto  fell  again 


into  Moorish  hands,  and  on  its  recovery,  Hugo  became 
bishop  (111-1-1134-6).  He  secured  exemption  from 
the  Archbishop  of  Hraga.  He  grc:illy  enl;ii-ged  his 
diocese  and  the  cathedral  patrimony  increaseil  by  the 
donations  he  secured;  thus,  in  1120,  hi;  received  from 
D.  Theresa  jurisdiction  over  the  City  of  Oporto  with 
all  the  rents  and  dues  thereof.  John  Peculiar  was 
promoted  to  Braga  (1138),  his  nephew,  Pedro  Rabal- 
dis,  succeeding  at  Oporto.  Next  came  D.  Pedro 
Pitoes  (114.5  to  1152  or  1155),  D.  Pedro  Senior  (d. 
1172),  and  D.  Fenifio  M;irtins  (d.  11,S,5).  Martinho 
Pires  instituted  a  (■li;ii)tcr,  was  promoted  to  Braga, 
1189  or  1190.  Martinho  Kodrigues  ruled  from  1191 
to  1235.     He  quarrelled  with  the  chapter  over  their 


Way  of  the  Cross,  Cathedral,  Oporto 

The  building,  in  Gothic  style,  dates  from  1385 — the  mural 

decorations  date  from  the  XVIII  century 

share  of  the  rents  of  the  see.  Later  on,  fresh  dis- 
agreements arose  in  which  King  Sancho  intervened 
against  the  bishop,  who  was  deprived  of  his  goods 
and  had  to  flee,  but  was  restored  by  the  king  when 
Innocent  III  espoused  the  bishop's  cause.  Another 
quarrel  soon  arose  between  prelate  and  king,  and  the 
bishop  was  imprisoned;  but  he  escaped  and  fled  to 
Rome,  and  in  1209  the  king,  feeling  the  approach  of 
death,  made  peace  with  him.  His  successor,  Pedro 
Salvadores,  figured  prominently  in  the  questions  be- 
tween the  clergy  and  King  Sancho  II,  who  refused  to 
ecclesiastics  the  right  of  purchasing  or  inheriting  land. 
Portugal  fell  into  anarchy,  in  which  the  clergy's  rights 
were  violated  and  their  persons  outraged,  though  they 
themselves  were  not  guiltless.  Finally,  Pope  Inno- 
cent IV  committed  the  reform  of  abuses  to  Affonso, 
brother  of  Sancho,  who  lost  his  crown. 

Under  Bisho])  Julian  (1247-fiO)  the  jurisdiction 
difficulty  became  aggravated.  A  settlement  was 
effected  at  the  Cortes  of  Leiria  (1254),  which  the 
bishop  refused  to  ratify,  but  he  had  to  give  way.  When 
King  Affonso  III  determined  (1265)  that  all  rights 
and  properties  usurped  during  the  disorders  of  San- 
cho's  reign  should  revert  to  the  Crown,  nearly  all  the 
bishops,  including  the   Bishop  of  Oporto,  then  D. 


OPPENORDT 


261 


OPPENORDT 


Vicente,  protested;  and  seven  went  to  Rome  for  re- 
lief, leaving  Portugal  under  an  interdict.  When  the 
king  was  dying,  in  127S,  he  promised  restitution. 
Vicente  (d.  1290)  was  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the 
Concordat  of  1289  and  the  supplementary  Accord  of 
Eleven  Articles.  He  was  succeeded  by  Sancho  Pires, 
who  ruled  until  1300.  Geraldo  Domingues  resigned 
in  1308  to  act  as  counsellor  of  the  King's  daughter 
Constanga,  future  Queen  of  Castile.  Tredulo  was 
bishop  for  two  and  a  half  years.  The  Minorite  Frei 
Estevan  was  succeeded  in  1313  by  his  nephew  Fer- 
nando Ramires.  Both  uncle  and  nephew  quarrelled 
with  King  Denis  and  left  the  realm.  Owing  to  the 
hostility  of  the  citizens,  Bishop  Glomes  lived  mostly 
outside  his  diocese.  When  Pedro  Affonso  became 
bishop  in  1343,  he  had  a  quarrel  over  jurisdiction  and, 
like  his  predecessor,  departed,  leaving  the  diocese 
under  interdict.  Six  years  later  he  returned,  but 
again  the  monarch  began  to  encroach,  and  it  was  not 
until  1354  that  the  bishop  secured  recognition  of  his 
rights.  His  successor  was  Affonso  Pires.  Egidio  is 
probably  the  bishop  represented  in  the  old  Chronicles 
as  being  threatened  with  scourging  by  King  Pedro  for 
having  lived  in  sin  with  a  citizen's  wife.  The  accusa- 
tion was  probably  groundless,  but  Egidio  left  the  city, 
which  for  twelve  years  had  no  bishop.  In  1373  or 
1375  John  succeeded  and  supported  the  lawful  popes 
in  the  Great  Schism,  and  the  Master  of  Aviz  against 
Spanish  claims. 

Other  bishops  were:  John  de  Zambuja,  or  Estevans; 
and  Gil,  who  in  1406  sold  the  episcopal  rights  over 
Oporto  to  the  Crown  for  an  annual  money  payment, 
reduced  in  the  reign  of  D.  Manuel  to  120  silver  marks; 
Fernando  da  Guerra,  who  in  1425  was  created  Arch- 
bishop of  Braga;  Vasco. — Antao  Martins  de  Chavis, 
who  succeeded  Vasco  in  1430,  was  sent  by  the  pope 
to  Constantinople  to  induce  the  CJreek  emperor  to 
attend  the  Council  of  Basle.  He  succeeded,  and  as  a 
reward  was  made  cardinal.  He  cUed  in  1447.  Suc- 
ceeding incumbents  were:  Durando;  Gongalves  de 
Obidos;  Luis  Pires  (14.54-64),  a  negotiator  of  the 
Concordat  of  1455  and  a  reforming  prelate;  John  de 
Azevedo  (1465-1494),  a  benefactor  of  the  cathedral 
and  chapter,  as  was  his  successor  Diego  de  Sousa, 
afterwards  Archbishop  of  Braga  and  executor  of 
King  Manuel.  The  see  was  then  held  by  two 
brothers  in  succession,  Diego  da  Costa  (1505-7) 
and  D.  Pedro  da  Costa  (1511-39),  who  restored  the 
bishop's  palace  and  enriched  the  capitular  revenues 
from  his  own  purse ;  Belchior  Beliago ;  and  the  Car- 
melite Frei  Balthazar  Limpo  (153S-52),  the  fiftieth 
bishop.     He  held  a  diocesan  sjTiod  in  1540. 

In  the  time  of  Rodrigo  Pinheiro,  a  learned  humanist, 
Oporto  was  visited  by  St.  Francis  Borgia  and  the 
Jesuits  established  themselves  in  the  city.  Ayres  da 
Sylva,  ex-rector  of  Coimbra  University,  after  ruling 
four  years,  fell  in  the  battle  of  Alcacer  in  1578  with 
King  Sebastian.  Simao  Pereyra  was  followed  by  the 
Franciscan  Frei  Marcos  de  Lisboa,  chronicler  of  his 
order.  He  added  to  the  cathedral  and  convoked  a 
diocesan  synod  in  1585.  In  1591  another  ex-rector 
of  Coimbra,  Heironymo  de  Menezes,  became  bishop; 
he  was  succeeded  by  the  Benedictine  Frei  Gongalo  de 
Moraes,  a  zealous  defender  of  the  rights  of  the  Cfhurch. 
He  built  a  new  sacristy  and  chancel  in  the  cathedral. 
In  1618  Bishop  Rodrigo  da  Cunha,  author  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  Bishops  of  Oporto,  was  appointed.  His 
"Catalogo"  describes  the  state  of  the  cathedral  and 
enumerates  the  parishes  of  the  diocese  with  their  popu- 
lation and  income  in  1623  and  is  the  earliest  account 
we  possess.  His  successor  was  Frei  John  de  Valla- 
dares,  transferred  from  the  See  of  Miranda.  Caspar 
do  Rego  da  Fonseca,  who  held  the  see  four  years 
(1635-39).  King  Philip  III  named  Francisco  Pereira 
Pinto,  but  the  revolution  in  1640  prevented  his  taking 
possession,  so  that  tho  see  was  considered  vacant  until 
1671,  being  ruled  by  administrators  appointed  by  the 


chapter.  In  1641  John  IV  chose  D.  Sebastiao  Cesar 
de  Menezes  as  bishop,  but  the  pope,  influenced 
by  Spain,  would  neither  recognize  the  new  King 
of  Portugal  nor  confirm  his  nominations.  Next  came 
Frei  Pedro  de  Menezes;  Nicolau  Monteiro  took 
possession  in  1671,  Fernando  Correia  de  Lacerda, 
in  1673,  who  was  succeeded  by  Joao  de  Sousa.  Frei 
Jos6  Saldanha  (1697-1708),  famed  for  his  austerity, 
never  relinquished  his  Franciscan  habit,  a  contrast  to 
his  successor  Thomas  de  Almeida,  who  in  1716  became 
the  first  Patriarch  of  Lisbon.  The  see  remained  va- 
cant until  1739,  and,  though  Frei  John  Maria  was 
then  elected,  he  never  obtained  confirmation.  In  the 
same  year  Frei  Jose  Maria  da  Fonseca,  formerly  Com- 
missary General  of  the  Franciscans,  became  bishop. 
Several  European  States  selected  him  as  arbiter  of 
their  differences.  He  contributed  to  the  canonization 
of  a  number  of  saints.  He  founded  and  restored 
many  convents  and  hospitals. 

Next  in  order  were:  Frei  Antonio  de  Tavora  (d. 
1766),  Frei  Aleixo  de  Miranda  Henriques,  Frei  John 
Raphael  de  Mendonga  (1771-3),  and  Louren^o 
Correia  de  Sd  Benevides  (1796-8).  Frei  Antonio 
de  Castro  became  Patriarch  of  Lisbon  in  1814,  being 
followed  at  Oporto  by  John  Avellar.  Frei  Manuel  de 
Santa  Ignez,  though  elected,  never  obtained  con- 
firmation, but  some  years  after  his  death,  relations  be- 
tween Port  jgal  and  the  Holy  See  were  re-established 
by  a  concordat  and  Jeronymo  da  Costa  Rebello  be- 
came bishop  in  1843.  From  1854  to  1S59  the  see  was 
held  by  Antonio  da  Fonseca  Moniz;  on  his  death  it 
remained  vacant  until  1862,  when  John  Castro  e 
Moura,  who  had  been  a  mi-ssionary  in  China,  was  ap- 
pointed (d.  1868).  The  see  was  again  vacant  until 
the  confirmation  of  Americo  Ferreira  dos  Santos  Silva 
in  1871.  This  prelate  was  obliged  to  combat  the 
growing  Liberalism  of  his  flock  and  the  Protestant 
propaganda  in  Oporto.  A  popular  lawyer  named 
Mesquita  started  a  campaign  against  him,  becau.se 
the  bishop  refused  to  dismiss  some  priests,  reputed 
reactionary,  who  served  the  Aguardcnte  Chapel;  get- 
ting himself  elected  judge  of  the  Brotherhooil  of  the 
Temple,  he  provoked  a  great  platform  agitation  with 
the  result  that  the  chapel  was  secularized  and  became 
a  school  under  the  patronage  of  the  Marquis  of  Pom- 
bal  Association.  In  1879  Americo  was  created  cardi- 
nal and  on  his  death  the  present  (1911)  Bishop,  Anto- 
nio Barroso,  an  ex-missionary,  was  transferred  from 
the  See  of  Mylapore  to  that  of  Oporto. 

The  Diocese  of  Oporto  is  suffragan  to  Braga.  It 
has  479  parishes,  1120  priests,  a  Catholic  population 
of  650,000,  and  500  Protestants. 

Cerqueira  Pinto,  Cataloga  dos  Bispos  do  Porto  composto  pelo 
III"'  D.  Rodrigo  da  Cunha  (Oporto.  1742);  Fortun.ito  de  AI/- 
MEID.\,  Historia  da  Igreja  em  Portugal,  I  (Coimbra,  1910);  Bruno, 
Portuenses  illustres,  III  (Oporto,  1908). 

Edgar  Prestage. 

Oppenordt  (Oppenord),  Gilles-Marie,  b.  in  Paris, 
1672;  il.  there,  1742;  a  celebrated  rococo  artist,  known 
as  "  the  French  Borromini ".  As  a  boy  he  was  sent  to 
Rome  as  a  royal  pensioner,  where,  for  eight  years  he 
studied,  principally  under  Bernini  and  Borromini. 
The  way  had  been  paved  in  France  for  this  style,  for 
in  the  latter  days  of  Louis  XIV  a  change  had  a]>peared 
in  the  architectural  productions  of  the  Baroque  style. 
The  endowment  of  the  Renaissance  was  adapted  to  the 
taste  of  Louis  XV's  time.  It  was  called  the  Style  of 
the  Regency,  the  salon  el  boudoir  style.  Oppenordt, 
in  connexion  with  Robert  de  Cotte,  developed  the 
voluptuous  rdriiillc  border  and  shell  ornamentation 
founded  on  the  Italian  Grotesque.  The  high  altar  of 
St.  Germain  des  Pr&  and  that  of  i^aint-Sulpice  (1704) 
gained  for  him  the  favour jjf  the  regent.  He  was  en- 
trustefl  with  the  restoration  anfl  decoration  of  the 
Chateau  Villrrs  ('ottcn-ts,  for  tlir  reception  of  the 
king  after  Ills  anointing  at  Reims.  In  the  Palais  Royal 
and  the  Hotel  du  Grand  Prieur  de  France  he  proved 


OPPIDO 


262 


OPTATUS 


hims(-lf  an  oloRant  dororator.  In  1721  the  oontiniia- 
tion  of  tlu'  work  on  Saint-Svilpicc  was  transforred  to 
him.  llrliadalivaily  (\n  1710)  built  the  cliapol  of  St. 
John  the  Baptisl  in  thofathcdral  of  Amiens  and  earlier 
the  Dominican  novitiate  iluirch  in  Paris.  He  |)os- 
sessed  unusual  talentasadrauf;htsmau.  In  liis  "  Des- 
sins,  couronnements  et  anK)rtissements  eonvenables 
pour  de.ssu8  de  porte"  etc.,  Huquieres  gives  many  of 
Oppenordt's  designs. 

Oppenobd,  L'Arl  lUcoralif  du  18'  siicle  (Paris,  1SS8);  Gnii^ 
M.\RD.  Les  maitres  omeTnanistes  (Paris,  1881);  Destailleur, 
Recueil  d'estampes  (Paris,  1863 — );  Idem,  Notices  sur  (pielques 
artistes  fran^ais  (Paris,  1S(>3) ;  Lance,  Didionnaire  des  architedes 
fran^ais  (Paris,  1873). 

G.  GlBTMANN. 

Oppido  Mamertina,  Diocese  of  (Oppidensis), 
sulTragan  of  Reggio  Calabria,  Italy,  famous  for  its  pro- 
longed resistance  to  Roger  (eleventh  century) .  Bishop 
Stefano  (1295)  is  the  first  prelate  of  whom  there  is 
mention.  In  1472  the  see  was  united  to  that  of  Ge- 
race,  under  Bishop  Athanasius  Calceofilo,  by  whom  the 
Greek  Rite  was  abolished,  although  it  remained  in  use 
in  a  few  towns.  In  1536  Oppido  became  again  an  inde- 
pendent see,  under  Bishop  Pietro  Andrea  Ripanti; 
among  other  bishops  were  Antonio  Cesconi  (1609)  and 
Giovanni  Battista  Montani  (1632),  who  restored  the 
cathedral  and  the  episcopal  palace;  Bisanzio  Fili 
(1696),  who  founded  the  seminary;  Michele  Caputo 
(1852),  who  was  transferred  to  the  See  of  Ariano, 
where  it  is  suspected  that  he  poisoned  King  Ferdinand 
II;  eventually,  he  apostatized.  Oppido  has  19  par- 
ishes, with  28,000  inhabitants. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  vol.  XXI. 

U.  Benigni. 

Optatus,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Milevis,  in  Numidia,  in 
the  fourtli  century.  He  was  a  convert,  as  we  gather 
from  St.  Avigustino:  "Do  we  not  see  with  how  great  a 
booty  of  gold  and  silver  and  garments  Cyprian,  doctor 
suainsaimus,  came  forth  out  of  Egypt,  and  likewise 
Lactantius,  Victorinus,  Optatus,  Hilary?"  (De  Doc- 
trina  Christ.,  xl).  Optatus  probably  had  been  apagan 
rhetorician.  His  work  against  the  Donatists  is  an  an- 
swer to  Parmenian,  the  successor  of  Donatus  in  the 
See  of  Carthage.  St.  Jerome  (De  viris  ill.,  ex)  tells  us 
it  was  in  six  books  and  was  written  under  Valens  and 
Valentinian  (364-75).  We  now  possess  seven  books, 
and  the  Ust  of  popes  is  carried  as  far  as  Siricius 
(384-98).  Similarly  the  Donatist  succession  of  anti- 
popes  is  given  (II,  iv),  as  Victor,  Bonifatius,  Encol- 
pius,  Macrobius,  Lucianus,  Claudianus  (the  date  of 
the  last  is  about  380),  though  a  few  sentences  earlier 
Macrobius  is  mentioned  as  the  actual  bishop.  The 
plan  of  the  work  is  laid  down  in  Book  I,  and  is  com- 
pleted in  six  books.  It  seems,  then,  that  the  seventh 
book,  w'hich  St.  Jerome  did  not  know  in  392,  was  an 
appendix  to  a  new  edition  in  which  St.  Optatus  made 
additions  to  the  two  episcopal  lists.  The  date  of  the 
original  work  is  fixed  by  the  statement  in  I,  xiii,  that 
sixty  years  and  more  had  passed  since  the  persecution 
of  Diocletian  (.303-5).  Photinus  (d.  376)  is  appar- 
ently regarded  as  still  alive;  Julian  is  dead  (363).  Thus 
the  first  books  were  published  about  366-70,  and  the 
second  edition  about  38.5-90. 

St.  Optatus  deals  with  the  entire  controversy  be- 
tween. Cat  holies  and  Donatists  (see  Donatists).  He 
di.stinguishes  between  schismatics  and  heretics.  The 
former  have  rejected  unity,  but  they  have  true  doc- 
trine and  true  sacraments,  hence  Parmenian  should 
not  have  threatened  them  (and  consequently  his  own 
party)  with  eternal  damnation.  This  mild  doctrine  is 
a  great  contrast  to  the  severity  of  many  of  the  Fathers 
again.^t  schism.  It  seems  to  be  motived  by  the  notion 
that  a!!  who  have  faith  will  be  saved,  though  after  long 
torments, — a  view  which  St.  Angn.stine  has  frequently 
to  comb.at.  Donatists  and  Catholics  were  agreed  as  to 
the  neces.sary  unity  of  the  Church.  The  question  was, 
where  is  this  One  Church?   Optatus  argues  that  it  can- 


not be  only  in  a  corner  of  Africa;  it  must  be  the  calho- 
iica  (the  word  is  used  as  a  substantive)  which  is 
throughout  the  world.  Parmenian  had  enumerated 
six  dotes,  or  properties,  of  the  Church,  of  which  Opta- 
tus accepts  five,  and  argues  that  the  lirst,  the  episco- 
pal chair,  cathedra,  belongs  to  the  Catliolics,  and  there- 
fore they  have  all  the  others.  Tlie  whole  schism  had 
arisen  through  the  quarrel  as  to  the  episcopal  succes- 
sion at  Carthage,  and  it  might  have  been  expected 
that  Optatus  would  claim  this  property  of  cathedra  by 
pointing  out  the  legitimacy  of  the  Catholic  succession 
at  Carthage.  But  he  does  not.  He  replies:  "We  must 
examine  who  sat  first  in  the  chair,  and  where.  .  .  . 
You  cannot  deny  that  you  know  that  in  the  city  of 
Rome  upon  Peter  first  the  chair  of  bishop  was  con- 
ferred, in  which  sat  the  head  of  all  the  Apostles,  Peter, 
whence  also  he  was  called  Cephas,  in  which  one  chair 
unity  should  be  preserved  by  all,  lest  the  other  Apos- 
tles should  each  stand  up  for  his  own  chair,  so  that  now 
he  should  be  a  schismatic  and  a  sinner  who  should 
against  this  one  chair  set  up  another.  Therefore  in  the 
one  chair,  which  is  the  first  of  the  dotes  Peter  first  sat, 
to  whom  succeeded  Linus. ' '  An  incorrect  list  of  popes 
follows,  ending  with,  "and  to  Damasus  Siricius,  who 
is  to-day  our  colleague,  with  whom  the  whole  world 
with  us  agrees  by  the  communication  of  commenda- 
tory letters  in  the  fellowship  of  one  communion.  Tell 
us  the  origin  of  your  chair,  you  who  wish  to  claim  the 
holy  Church  for  yourselves".  Optatus  then  mocks  at 
the  recent  succession  of  Donatist  antipopes  at  Rome. 

Optatus  argues,  especially  in  book  V,  against  the 
doctrine  which  the  Donatists  had  inherited  from  St. 
Cyprian  that  baptism  by  those  outside  the  Church 
cannot  be  valid,  and  he  anticipates  St.  Augustine's 
argument  that  the  faith  of  the  baptizer  docs  not  mat- 
ter, since  it  is  God  who  confers  the  grace.  His  state- 
ment of  the  objective  efficacy  of  the  sacraments  ex 
opere  opcrato  is  well  known:  "Sacramenta  per  se  esse 
sancta,  non  per  homines"  (V,  iv).  Thus  in  baptism 
there  must  be  the  Holy  Trinity,  the  beUever  and  the 
minister,  and  their  importance  is  in  this  order,  the 
third  being  the  least  important.  In  rebuking  the  sac- 
rileges of  the  Donatists,  he  says:  "What  is  so  profane 
as  to  break,  scrape,  remove  the  altars  of  God,  on  which 
you  yourselves  had  once  offered,  on  which  both  the 
prayers  of  the  people  and  the  members  of  Christ  have 
been  borne,  where  God  Almighty  has  been  invoked, 
where  the  Holy  Ghost  has  been  asked  for  and  has 
come  down,  from  which  by  many  has  been  received 
the  pledge  of  eternal  s.alvation  and  the  safeguard  of 
faith  and  the  hope  of  resurrection?  .  .  .  For  what  ia 
an  altar  but  the  seat  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ?  " 
In  book  VII  a  notable  argument  for  unity  is  added: 
St.  Peter  sinned  most  grievously  and  denied  his 
Master,  yet  he  retained  the  keys,  and  for  the  sake  of 
unity  and  charity  the  Apostles  did  not  separate  from 
his  fellowship.  Thus  Optatus  defends  the  willingness 
of  the  Catholics  to  receive  back  the  Donatists  to  unity 
without  difficulty,  for  there  must  be  always  sinners 
in  the  Church,  and  the  ccckle  is  mixed  with  the 
wheat;  but  charity  covers  a  multitude  of  sins. 

The  style  of  St.  Optatus  is  vigorous  and  animated. 
He  aims  at  terseness  and  effect,  rather  than  at  flowing 
periods,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  gentleness  and  charity 
which  is  so  admirable  in  his  polemics  against  his 
"brethren",  as  he  insists  on  calling  the  Donatist  bish- 
ops. He  uses  Cyprian  a  great  deal,  though  he  refutes 
that  saint's  mistaken  opinion  about  baptism,  and  does 
not  copy  his  easy  style.  His  descriptions  of  events  are 
admirable  and  viviil.  It  is  strange  that  Dupin  should 
hav(^  called  him  minus  nitidus  ac  polilus,  for  both  in 
the  words  he  employs  and  in  their  order  he  almost  in- 
curs the  blame  of  preciosity.  He  is  as  strict  as  Cyp- 
rian as  to  the  metrical  cadences  at  the  close  of  every 
sentence.  He  was  evidently  a  man  of  good  taste  as 
well  as  of  high  culture,  and  he  has  left  us  in  his  one 
work  a  monument  of  convincing  dialectic,  of  elegant 


OPTIMISM 


263 


OPTIMISM 


literary  t'orm,  and  of  Christian  charity.  But  the  gen- 
eral marshalling  of  his  arguments  is  not  so  good  as  is 
the  development  of  each  by  itself.  His  allegorical  in- 
terpretations are  far-fetched;  but  those  of  Parmenian 
were  evidently  yet  more  extravagant.  An  appendix 
contained  an  important  do.ssier  of  documents  which 
had  apparently  been  collected  by  some  Catholic  con- 
troversialist between  330  and  347  (see  Donatists). 
This  collection  was  already  mutilated  when  it  was 
copied  by  the  scribe  of  the  only  MS.  which  has  pre- 
served it,  and  that  MS.  is  incomplete,  so  that  we  have 
to  deplore  the  loss  of  a  great  part  of  this  first-rate  ma- 
terial for  the  early  history  of  Donatism.  We  can  tell 
what  has  been  lost  by  the  citations  made  by  Optatus 
himself  and  by  Augustine. 

St.  Optatus  has  apparently  never  received  any  ec- 
clesiastical cultus;  but  his  name  was  inserted  in  the 
Roman  Martyrology  on  the  fourth  of  June,  though  it 
is  quite  unknown  to  all  the  ancient  Martyrologies  and 
calendars.  The  eililio  princeps  was  by  Cochteus 
(Mainz,  1549).  More  MSS.  were  used  by  Balduinus 
(Paris,  1563  and  1569),  whose  text  was  frequently  re- 
printed in  the  seventeenth  century.  Dupin's  edition 
includes  a  history  of  the  Donatists  and  a  geography  of 
Africa  (Paris,  1700 — );  it  is  reprinted  in  Gallandi 
and  in  Migne  (P.  L.,  XI).  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
Ziwsa  (C.S.E.L.,  XXVI,  Vienna,  1S93),  with  descrip- 
tion of  the  MSS. 

TiLLEMON'T,  Memoires,  VI ;  Dupin's  preface;  Phillott  in  Did. 
Christ.  Bioo.,a.v.;BA.RDE-snEWEliiilKirchenlex.,  3.V.;  Harnack 
ID  Reali^ncijk.,  3  v.;  Paucker  and  Ronsch  on  the  Latin  of  Optatus 
in  Zeitschr.  fur  die  Oestcrr.  Gymnas.,  XXXV,  1S84;  on  the  ap- 
pended documents,  Volter,  Seeck,  Duchesne  (see  Donatists). 

John  Chapman. 

Optimism  (Latin  optitnus,  best)  may  be  understood 
as  a  metaphysical  theory,  or  as  an  emotional  disposi- 
tion. The  term  became  current  in  the  early  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century  to  designate  the  Leibnizian 
doctrine  that  this  is  the  best  of  all  possible  worlds. 
The  antithesis  of  optimism  is  pessimism  (q.  v).  Be- 
tween these  extremes  there  are  all  shades  of  opinion, 
so  that  it  is  at  times  hard  to  classify  philosophers. 
Those,  however,  are  to  be  classed  as  optimists  who 
maintain  that  the  world  is  on  the  whole  good  and 
beautiful,  and  that  man  can  attain  to  a  state  of  true 
happiness  and  perfection  either  in  this  world  or  in 
the  next,  and  those  who  do  not  are  pessimists.  The 
term  optimism  as  thus  extended  would  also  include 
"meUorism",  a  word  first  used  in  print  by  Sully  to 
designate  the  theory  of  those  who  hold  that  things 
are,  indeed,  bad,  but  that  they  can  be  better,  and  that 
it  is  in  our  power  to  increase  the  happiness  and  wel- 
fare of  mankind. 

As  an  emotional  disposition  optimism  is  the  ten- 
dency to  look  upon  the  bright  and  hopeful  side  of  life, 
whereas  pessimism  gives  a  dark  colouring  to  every 
event  and  closes  the  vistas  of  hope.  The  emotional 
disposition  is  one  that  depends  upon  internal  organic 
conditions  rather  than  external  good  fortune.  To  what 
extent  the  emotional  disposition  has  influenced  theopin- 
ion  of  philosophers  cannot  be  decided  off-hand.  It  has 
no  doubt  been  a  factor,  but  not  always  the  only  or  even 
the  decisive  factor.  A  list  of  optimists  will  show  that 
in  general  the  greater  minds  have  taken  the  hopeful 
view  of  life.  As  optimists  are  to  be  reckoned:  Plato, 
Aristotle,  the  Stoics,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Thomas 
and  the  Scholastics,  Leibniz,  Kant,  Fichte,  Hegel 
(sought  to  unite  optimism  and  pessimism), 
Lotze,  Wundt. 

It  has  been  held  by  some  that  the  Old  Testament 
is  optimistic,  and  the  New  Testament  pessimistic. 
The  evidence  brought  forward  for  this  theory  is  found 
mainly  in  the  passages  of  the  Old  Testament  which 
point  to  the  rewards  of  the  present  life,  and  those  in 
the  New  which  call  attention  to  the  transitoriness  of 
all  human  joys.  This  view  is  too  narrow,  and  is  not 
correct.    Optimism  as  a  philosophical  term  means  that 


the  universe  as  a  whole  is  good  and  that  man's  ulti- 
mate destiny  is  one  of  happiness.  The  Old  Testament 
is  optimistic  because  of  such  passages  as  the  following: 
"And  God  saw  all  things  that  he  had  made,  and  they 
were  very  good"  (Gen.,  i,  31).  Even  in  Eccl.  we 
read,  "He  hath  made  all  things  good  in  their  time" 
(iii,  11).  The  New  Testament  is  optimistic  because 
it  shows  that  the  sufferings  of  this  life  are  not  worthy 
to  be  compared  to  the  glory  that  is  to  come.  If 
optimism  and  pessimism  are  to  be  taken  as  emotional 
dispositions,  either  one  or  the  other  may  e.xist  in  the 
ascetic  or  the  profligate.  It  cannot  be  argued  that 
the  doctrine  of  Our  Lord  was  pessimistic  because 
He  taught  asceticism  and  celibacy.  For  as  a  rule 
ascetics  and  celibates  have  been  and  are,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  disposed  to  look  upon  the  bright  side  of  hfe. 
They  surely  believe  that  it  is  better  to  live  than  not 
to  live,  that  the  world  which  God  has  made  is  good 
and  beautiful,  and  that  man's  destiny  is  eternal 
bliss. 

As  typical  metaphysical  exponents  of  optimism  one 
may  mention  the  extreme  position  of  Leibniz,  and  the 
more  moderate  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 

Leibniz  looked  upon  the  series  of  possible  worlds  as 
actually  infinite.  This  entire  series  must  have  passed 
as  it  were,  through  the  mind  of  the  All-Good  and 
Omniscient  God.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  series 
is  infinite.  He  must  have  seen  that  one  of  its  members 
was  supremely  perfect.  Each  one  of  these  series  strives 
to  be  realized  in  proportion  to  its  perfection.  Under 
such  circumstances,  it  is  impossible  that  a  less  per- 
fect world  should  come  into  being.  Since,  further- 
more, the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  God  are  infinite,  it 
is  necessary  that  the  world  that  proceeds  from  His 
intellect  and  will  should  be  the  best  possible  one  that 
under  any  circumstances  can  exist.  Only  one  such 
world  is  possible,  and  therefore  God  chooses  the 
best.  The  very  fact  of  the  world's  existence  makes 
it  metaphysically  certain  that  it  is  the  very  best 
possible.  [See  Leibniz,  IX,  137,  subsection  (4)  Op- 
timism.] This  argument  might  seem  con\ancing,  if 
one  overlooks  the  fact  of  the  evil  in  the  world.  The 
world  as  it  is,  Leibniz  maintained,  with  all  its  evil, 
is  better  than  a  world  without  any  evil.  For 
the  physical  evil  of  the  universe  only  serves  to  set 
off  by  contrast  the  beauty  and  glory  of  the  good.  As 
to  moral  evil,  it  is  a  negation  and  therefore  cannot 
be  looked  upon  as  a  real  object  of  the  Divine  Will.  Its 
presence,  therefore,  does  not  conflict  with  the  holiness 
of  the  Divine  decrees  by  which  the  world  was  ordained. 
Furthermore,  since  a  morally  evil  being  is  only  a  less 
perfect  creature,  the  absolutely  perfect  series  of  beings 
in  order  to  contain  all  possible  perfection,  must,  by 
necessity,  contain  the  less  as  well  as  the  more  per- 
fect. For  if  the  series  contained  no  beings  lacking  in 
moral  perfection,  it  would  be  a  shortened  series, 
and  therefore  lacking  in  the  types  of  less  perfect 
beings. 

Against  the  extreme  optimism  of  Leibniz,  one  might 
say  that  God  is  not  necessitated  to  choose  the  best  of 
all  i)ossible  worlds,  because  this  is  in  itself  an  im- 
possibility. Whatever  exists  besides  God,  is  finite. 
Hcfwci'u  the  finite  and  the  infinite  there  is  always  a 
field  of  indi'linite  extent.  And  since  the  finite  cannot 
becuuK'  infinite,  simply  because  the  created  can  never 
be  uncreated,  it  therefore  follows  that  whatever  exists, 
besides  God,  is,  and  always  will  be,  limited.  If  so,  no 
matter  what  may  exist,  something  better  could  be 
conceived  and  brought  into  being  by  God.  An  abso- 
lutely best  possible  world  would,  therefore,  seem  to  be 
a  contradiction  in  terms  and  impossible  even  by  the 
Omnipotence  of  God,  who  can  bring  into  being  all  and 
only  that  which  is  intrinsically  possible.  If,  then,  one 
should  take  the  words  "doing  the  best  possible" 
as  meaning  creating  something  than  which  nothing 
better  is  possible,  no  world  coulrl  be  the  best  possible. 
But  there  is  another  sense  in  which  the  words  may  be 


OPTION 


264 


ORACLE 


takon.  'DioukIi  one  is  not  niukiiig  the  licst  thins  th:it 
can  bo  made,  lie  still  may  he  duiiin  what  he  docs  in  the 
best  i)ossil)le  manner.  In  this  sense,  aecordinp;  to  St. 
Thomas,  (io<l  has  made  this  world  nhitintii  the  b.'st 
possible.  "  Wlien  it  is  saiil  that  (lod  can  do  anything 
bettor  than  He  does  it,  this  is  true  if  the  words  'any- 
thing better'  stand  for  a  noun.  No  matter  what  you 
may  point,  out,  (iod  can  make  somethin<;  that  is  better. 
...  If,  however,  the  words  are  used  adverbially,  and 
designate  the  mode  of  operation,  God  cannot  do  better 
than  He  does,  for  Ho  cannot  work  with  greater  wisdom 
and  goodness"  (I,  Q.  xxv,  a.  5,  ad  1"°^).  It  is  just 
this  distinction  which  Leibniz  failed  to  make,  and  was 
thereby  led  to  his  extreme  position.  According  to  St. 
Thomas,  God  was  free  to  make  a  less  or  more  perfect 
world.  He  made  the  world  that  would  be.st  fit  the 
purposes  of  creation,  and  wrought  it  in  the  best 
possible  manner. 

Against  this  optimism  may  be  urged  the  same  ob- 
jections from  the  presence  of  physical  and  moral 
evil  which  troubled  Leibniz.  But  there  are  several 
considerations  that  reduce  their  force.  (1)  We  see 
only  in  part.  We  cannot  criticize  the  Divine  plan 
intelligently  until  we  see  its  full  development,  which 
indeed  will  only  be  in  eternity.  ('2J  The  physical 
evils  and  sufferings  of  this  life  are  not  worthy  to 
be  compared  with  the  glory  that  is  to  come. 
Should  one  object  that  it  would  be  better  to  have 
glory  both  in  this  world  and  the  next,  one  might 
answer  that  this  is  not  certainly  true.  Only  by 
the  endurance  of  suffering  and  sorrow  do  we  attain  to 
the  true  strength  and  glory  of  our  manhood.  That 
which  we  acquire  by  the  sweat  of  our  brow  is  earned 
and  truly  our  own.  That  which  comes  to  us  by  in- 
heritance is  but  loaned  and  possessed  by  us  for  a  time, 
till  we  can  hand  it  on  to  another.  What  is  true  of  the 
Individual  is  true  of  the  human  race  as  a  whole.  It 
seems  to  be  the  Divine  plan  that  it  should  work  its 
way  on,  from  little  beginnings,  with  great  toil  and 
suffering,  to  its  final  goal  of  perfection.  When  all 
things  are  fulfilled  in  eternity  man  can  then  look  back 
upon  something  as  his  own.  Perhaps  this  will  then 
seem  to  us  much  more  beautiful  and  glorious  than  if 
God  had  allowed  us  to  remain  forever  in  a  garden  of 
paradise,  happy  indeed,  but  hfting  nothing  with  the 
strength  He  gave  us.  (See  also  in  this  connexion  the 
the  article  Evil.) 

St.Thomas,  I.Q.xix.a.  9;  I,  Q. xxv, aa.  5  and  6;  ENGLEB.Dar- 
stellung  und  Kritik  des  leibnitzsischen  Optimismus  (Jena,  1883); 
Gdttmacher,  Optimism  and  Pessimism  in  the  O.  and  N.  Testa- 
menfs  (Baltimore,  1903);  Keller,  (Jpdmism  (New  York,  1903) ; 
KoppEHL,  Die  Verwandt  schaft  Leibnitzens  mit  Thomas  v.  Aquino 
in  der  Lehre  vom  Biisen  (Jena,  1892) ;  von  Prantl,  Veber  die 
BertchtliHu:!  '/.>  0/)^imismiiS  (Munich,  1879);  S^i.hY,  Pessimism 
(Neu  '>  '.  ■  •'      WiLL-vRETH,  Die  Lehre  vom  Uebel  bei  Leibniz, 

sein,  hland.undbei Kant.  Diss.  (.Suaahnre,lS9S). 

^^  r  iMiographv  see  Baldwin,  Z)ic^  o/P/ti/osop/iy 

and  r  III,   Part  ii,  903-907 

Thomas  V.  Moohe. 

Option,  Right  of. — In  canon  law  an  option  is  a 
way  of  obtaining  a  benefice  or  a  title,  by  the  choice  of 
the  new  titulary  himself.  Many  chapters  enjoyed 
this  right  formerly  and  it  is  still  the  privilege  of  some: 
the  canon,  who  has  held  his  office  for  the  longest  time, 
may,  in  conformity  with  the  statutory  regulation,  re- 
sign the  prebend  he  enjoys  to  accept  another  that  has 
become  vacant.  A  second  right  of  option  existed  in 
France  before  1789:  by  virtue  of  a  custom  a  preben- 
dary, who  was  appointed  to  and  had  entered  into  pos- 
session of  a  bfmefice  incompatible  with  one  he  already 
held,  was  entitled  to  8(^lect  whichever  of  the  two  he 
preferred,  when,  according  to  the  common  law,  he  had 
already  lost  the  incompatible  benefice  which  he  had 
previously  held.  The  right  of  option  still  exists  with 
regard  to  cardinalitial  titles  (see  Cardinal). 

Schneider,  Die  bischiiflichen  Domkapitct  (Mayence,  1885); 
Van  Espen,  Jus  ecclesiasticum  universum  (Cologne,  1778),  part 
U.S.  Ill,  tit.  3.  c.  4.  t.  I,  691;  HiNSCHins.  System  des  katholi- 
tchen  KxTchenrechU,  II  (Berlin,  1878),  615,  701. 

A.  Van  Hove. 


O'Queely,  Malaciiias  (Maolsheachlainn  O  Cadh- 
la).  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  Ireland,  b.  in  Thoniond, 
date  unknown;  d.  at  Ballipodare,  27  October,  1645 
(N.S.).  He  sl,udied  in  Paris  at  the  College  of  Navarre. 
Ilaving  administered  Killaloe  as  vicar  Apostolic,  he 
was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Tuam  at  Galway, 
11  October,  1031.  His  subjects,  who  received  him 
unwillingly,  soon  learned  to  admire  him.  He  held  a 
provincial  synod  at  Galway  in  11132  to  jiromulgate  the 
Trident  ine  decrees  and  correct  abu.ses,  and  his  unremit- 
ting labours  in  Tuam  provoked  a  complaint  from  the 
Protestant  archbishop  in  1041.  Dr.  0'(jueily  attended 
the  national  synod  of  1643,  by  which  the  Catholic 
Confederation  was  organized,  and  at  the  first  meeting 
of  the  General  Assembly  he  was  elected  to  the  Su- 
preme Council,  being  afterwards  appointed  President 
of  Connaught.  He  undertook  to  recover  Sligo  from  the 
Scottish  Covenanters  in  1645,  but  the  Scots  surprised 
his  camp  at  Ballysodare,  17-27  October,  1645. 
Everyone  abandoned  him  but  his  secretary.  Father 
Thaddeus  O'Connell,  and  another  priest.  The  arch- 
bishop was  cut  down  with  his  companions,  and  the 
victors  discovered  in  his  carriage  a  draft  of  the  secret 
treaty  between  Kiiiu,  Charlrs  and  the  Confederates, 
which  the  English  Parliam<-nt  )jublished  to  prejudice 
both  parties.  His  body  was  redeemed  for  £30  and 
buried  with  solemn  ceremonies  at  Tuam.  He  wrote 
an  account  of  the  Aran  Islands,  printed  in  Colgan's 
"Acta  Sanctorum". 

Meehan,  Irish  Hierarchy  in  the  17th  Century  (16th  edit.,  Dub- 
lin, about  1888);  Murphy,  Our  Martyrs  (Dublin,  1896). 

Oracle  {oraculum;  orare,  to  speak),  a  Divine  com- 
munication given  at  a  special  place  through  specially 
appointed  persons;  also  the  place  itself.  This  form 
of  divination  (q.  v.)  was  found  among  various  peoples 
of  the  ancient  world. 

I.  Babylon  and  Assyria.- — Extremely  ancient 
texts  present  the  oracle-priest  [b^rd,  'he  who  sees': 
bira  barH,  'to  see  a  sight';  hence,  to  give  an  oracle, 
divine  the  future.  Cf.  X"i,1  of  Samuel,  I  Sam.,  ix,  9; 
I  Chr.,  ix,  22  etc.;  of  Hanani,  II  Chr.,  xvi,  7,  10;  cf. 
Is.,  xxviii,  7;  xxx,  10]  alongside  of  the  dshipu  (whose 
role  is  incantation,  conjuration)  as  officer  of  one  of  the 
two  main  divisions  of  the  sacerdotal  caste.  He  is  the 
special  servant  of  Shamash  and  Adad;  his  office  is  he- 
reditary (cf.  the  "sons  of  Aaron",  "of  Zadok");  blem- 
ish of  person  or  pedigree  (cf.  Lev.,  xxi,  23)  disqualifies 
him;  he  forms  part  of  a  college.  Lengthy  initiation, 
elaborate  ritual,  prepare  him  for  the  reception,  or  ex- 
ercise, of  the  bdriXlu.  He  rises  before  dawn,  bathes, 
anoints  himself  with  perfumed  oil,  puts  on  sacred  vest- 
ments [cf.  Ex.,  xxx,  17,  23;  Lev.,  xvi.  4.  Lagrange, 
"fitudes  sur  les  religions  sfmitiques'  (Paris,  1905), 
236,  n.  1;  and  "Rev.  Bibl.",  VIII  (1899),  473;  also  An- 
cessi,  "L'figypte  et  Moise",  pt.  i  (1875);  Les  vlte- 
ments  du  Grand-Pretre,  c.  iii,  plate  3.  Is  the  blood- 
red,  jewelled  Babylonian  scapular  the  analogate  to  the 
Hebrew  ephod  and  pectoral?|.  After  a  preliminary 
sacrifice  (usually  of  a  lamb :  but  this,  as  those  of  expi- 
ation and  thanksgiving,  we  cannot,  in  our  limits,  de- 
tail), he  escorts  the  inquirer  to  the  presence  of  the 
gods,  and  sits  on  the  seat  of  judgment;  Shamash  and 
Adad,  the  great  gods  of  oracle,  lords  of  decision,  come 
to  him  and  give  him  an  unfailing  answer  [lerlu,  pres- 
age: Divine  teaching.  Probably  not  connected  with 
n-i1,n.  There  is  no  likely  borrowing  or  adaptation  of 
Babylonian  oracle-words  by  the  Hebrews  (Lagrange, 
op.cit.,234,n.8)].  All  the  customary  modes  of  divina- 
tion (interpretation  of  dreams,  of  stars,  monstrosities, 
of  signs  in  oil,  the  liver  etc.)  culminated  in  oracles; 
but  an  enormous  literature  of  precedents  and  princi- 
ples left  little  initiative  to  a  bdrH  whose  memory  was 
good.  We  may  add  a  characteristic  example  of  oracle 
style  (about  680  n.  c). 

O  Shamash,  grciit  lord,  to  my  demand  in  thy 
faithful  favour,  deign  to  answer!  Between  this  day, 
the  3rd  day  of  this  month,  the  month  of  Art,  until 


ORACLE 


265 


ORACLE 


the  11th  day  of  the  montli  of  Abti  of  this  year,  within 
tliese  hundred  days  and  these  hundred  nights  .  .  . 
within  this  fixed  space  of  time  will  Kashtariti  with 
his  troops,  or  the  troops  of  the  Cimmerians  ...  or 
all  other  enemy,  succeed  in  their  designs?  By  as- 
sault, by  force  ...  by  starvation,  by  the  names  of 
the  god  and  goddess,  by  parley  and  amicable  confer- 
ence, or  by  any  other  method  and  stratagem  of  siege, 
shall  they  take  the  town  of  Kishassu?  shall  they  enter 
the  walls  of  this  town  of  Kishassu?  .  .  .  shall  it  fall 
into  their  hands?  Thy  great  godhead  knoweth  it.  Is 
the  taking  of  this  town  of  Kishassu,  by  whatsoever 
enemy  it  be,  from  this  day  unto  the  [last]  day  ap- 
pointed, ordained  and  decreed  by  the  order  and  man- 
date of  thy  great  godhead,  O  Shamash,  great  Lord? 
Shall  we  see  it?  Shall  we  hear  it?  etc.  Observe  the 
preoccupation  of  leaving  the  god  no  avenue  of  elusion — 
every  possible  contingency  is  named. 

Among  the  nomad  Arabs  the  priest  is  primarily 
a  giver  of  oracles  (by  means  of  arrow-shafts,  cf .  Ezech., 
xxi,  21),  though  named  Kahin  the  Hebrew  'fC-  But 
since  in  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  Aramaic,  and  Ethiopian 
Kohen  means  priest,  and  cannot  be  etymologically  con- 
nected with  'divination",  we  must  conclude  (La- 
grange, op.  cit.,  218)  that  the  Arabian  oracle-monger 
is  a  degenerate  priest,  not  (Wellhausen)  that  all  Se- 
mitic priests  were  aboriginally  oracle-mongers. 

II.  The  Hebrews. — Oracles  were  vouchsafed  to  the 
Hebrews  by  means  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  which 
are  to  be  connected  with  the  Ephod.  The  "ilCX  (see 
Ephod)  was  (i)  a  linen  dress  worn  in  ritual  circum- 
stances (by  priests,  I  Sara.,  xxii,  18,  the  child  Samuel, 
ibid.,  ii,  18;  David,  II  Sam.,  vi,  14);  (ii)  'the'  ephod, 
described  in  Exod.,  xxviii,  peculiar  to  the  high-priest; 
over  it  was  worn  the  pectoral  containing  Urim  and 
Thummim;  (iii)  an  idolatrous,  oracular  image,  con- 
nected with  the  Teraphim  (also  oracular) ;  that  which 
Gideon  erected  weighed  1700  sikels  of  gold  (Judges, 
viii,  27;  xvii,  5;  xviii,  14,  20;  Osee,  iii,  4  etc.).  But  why 
was  this  image  called  an  ephod  (a  dress)?  In  Isaias, 
XXX,  22,  'icy  the  silver  overlaying  of  idols,  is  parallel 
to  ~~iN,  their  golden  sheath.  If  then  the  Israelites 
were  already  familiar  with  an  oracle  operating  in  close 
connexion  wit  h  a  j  ewelled  ephod,  it  will  have  been  easy 
to  transfer  this  name  to  a  richly  plated  oracular  image. 
See  van  Hoonacker,  "Sacerdooe  levitique"  (Louvain, 
1899),  .372. 

The  law  directs  (Num.,  xxvii,  18)  that  the  leader  of 
the  people  shall  stand  before  the  priest,  and  proffer  his 
request:  the  priest  shall  "inquire  for  him  by  the  judg- 
ment of  Urim  and  Thummim  before  Yahweh".  The 
priest  alone  [for  the  Ahi-jah  of  I  Sam.,  xiv,  3,  18,  is 
the  Ahi-melek  of  x-x-i,  1;  x.xii,  9,  with  the  Divine  name 
corrected]  carries  the  ephod  before  Israel,  and  inquires 
on  behalf  of  the  chief  alone  (for  Ahiraelek,  I  Sam., 
xxii,  1.3-1.5,  denies  having  inquired  for  David  while 
Saul  still  is  king:  see  van  Hoonacker,  op.  cit.,  376). 
Thus  history  would  agree  with  the  Law  as  to  the 
unity  of  the  oracle,  and  its  exclusive  use  by  priest  and 
prince. 

Josephus  thought  the  B"?:."!!  C^'X  were  stones  of 
changing  lustre.  The  meaning  of  the  names  is  un- 
known. Though  they  seem  to  have  been  used  for 
sacred  lots,  and  though  I  Sam.,  xiv,  37sqq.  (especially 
in  LXX)  makes  it  fairly  clear  that  they  gave  answer  by 
Yes  and  Xo  (in  I  Sam.,  x.xiii,  2,  4, 11,  12;  x.xx,  8,  the  long 
phrasing  is  priestly  commentary),  and  though  I  Sam., 
xiv,  42  (if  indeed  this  still  refers  to  the  oracle  and 
not  to  a  private  ordeal  offered  by  Saul  to,  and  rejected 
by,  the  people)  by  using  the  word  "^'CD  /SdXXtTf,  "throw 
(between  me  and  Jonathan) ",  suggests  a  casting  of 
lots,  yet  the  U  and  T  were  not  mere  pebbles  (e.  g., 
black  and  white),  for  besides  answering  Yes  and  No, 
they  could  refuse  answer  altogether.  This  happened 
when  the  inquirer  was  ritually  unclean  (so  Saul,  in  the 
person  of  his  son,  I  Sam.,  xiv,  37;  cf.  the  exclusion 
from  the  new-moon  meal,  ibid.,  xx,  26;  sexual  inter- 


course precludes  from  eating  sacred  bread,  ibid.,  xxi, 
4). — Observe  the  lack,  in  Yahweh's  oracle,  of  the 
magical  element,  and  extreme  complication,  which 
disfigure  those  quoted  in  I.  Notice,  too,  how  Hebrew 
priest  and  prince  alike  submit  unquestioningly  to  the 
Divine  communication.  The  prince  docs  not  dare 
to  seek  to  cajole  or  terrify  the  priest;  nor  the  priest  to 
distort  or  invent  the  answer.  Finally,  when  once  the 
era  of  the  great  prophets  opens,  it  is  through  them 
God  manifests  His  will;  the  use  of  the  ephod  ceases; 
the  Urim  and  Thummim  are  silent  and  ultimately 
lost. 

III.  Greece  and  Rome. — ["Oraculum:  quod  inest 
in  his  deorum  oratio",  Cic,  "Top.",  xx,  "Voluntas 
divina  hominis  ore  enuntiata",  Senec,  "Controv.",  I. 
prf.  'Mai/Teiof.  .j/MA  as  in  /ialvo/iai,  mens.  The  ixavm 
was  the  mouthpiece,  the  irpo(p^TTj!,  the  interpreter  of 
the  oracle  (so  already  Plato,  "Tim.",  l.xxii,  B). 
XpTi^Tiipiov:  xP<^w,  "furnish  what  is  needful";  hence 
(active),  to  give  (middle),  to  consult  an  oracle]. 

Oracles  in  the  familiar  sense  flourished  best  in 
Greek  or  hellenized  areas,  though  even  here  the  ec- 
static element  probably  came,  as  a  rule,  from  the  East. 
The  local  element,  however  (for  Hellenic  oracles  es- 
sentially localize  divination),  and  the  practice  of  in- 
terpreting divine  voices  as  heard  in  wind,  or  tree,  or 
water  (^W'?  Bidv;  Sa-ira,  <i/i07;  A165 — Zeus  was  Trapopixpaios 
cf.  the  Italian /a  ujit,  karmentes)  were  rooted  in  Greek 
or  pre-Greek  religion.  An  enormous  history  lies  be- 
hind the  oracles  oif  "classical"  times.  Thus  at  Delphi 
the  stratification  of  cults  shows  us,  undermost,  the 
prehistoric,  chthonian  worship  of  the  pre-Achseans : 
Gaia  (followed  by,  or  identical  with,  "Themis"?)  and 
the  impersonal  nymphs  are  the  earliest  tenants  of  the 
famous  chasm  and  the  spring  Kassotis.  Dionysos, 
from  orgiast  Thrace,  or,  as  was  then  held,  from  the 
mystic  East,  invaded  the  shrine,  importing,  or  at  least 
accentuating,  elements  of  enthusiasm  and  religious 
delirium;  for  the  immense  development  and  Orphic 
reformation  of  fiis  cult,  in  the  seventh  century,  can  but 
have  modified,  not  introduced,  his  worship.  Apollo, 
disembarking  with  the  Achjeans  on  the  Krisean 
shore,  strives  to  oust  him,  and,  though  but  sharing 
the  year's  worship  and  the  temple  with  his  predeces- 
sors, eclipses  what  he  cannot  destroy.  Echoes  of  this 
savage  fight,  this  stubborn  resistance  of  the  dim,  old- 
fashioned  worship  to  the  brilliant  new-comer,  reach 
us  in  hymn  and  drama,  are  glossed  by  the  devout 
^schylus  (Eumen.  prol.),  and  accentuated  by  the 
rationalist  Euripides  (Ion  etc.);  vase  paintings  picture 
the  ultimate  reconciliation-  For,  in  the  end,  a  com- 
promise is  effected:  the  priestess  still  sits  by  the  cleft, 
drinks  of  the  spring,  still  utters  the  frantic  inarticulate 
cries  of  ecsta.sy;  but  the  prophets  of  the  rhythmic 
Apollo  discipline  her  ravings  into  hexameters,  and 
thus  the  will  of  Zeus,  through  the  inspiration  of  Apollo, 
is  uttered  by  the  pythoness  to  all  Greece. 

Apollo  was  the  cause  at  once  of  the  glory  and  the 
downfall  of  Delphi.  Partly  in  reaction  against  him, 
partly  in  imitation  of  him,  other  oracles  were  restored 
or  created.  In  our  brief  limits  we  cannot  describe  or 
even  enumerate  these.  We  may  mention  the  ex- 
tremely ancient  oracle  of  Dodona,  where  the  spirit 
of  Zeus  (6  Toi>  AiJs  a-niiaivei — the  oracles  began)  spoke  to 
the  priestesses  in  the  oak,  the  echoing  bronze,  the 
waterfall ;  the  underground  Trophonius  oracle  in  Le- 
badsea,  with  its  violent  and  extraordinary  ritual 
(Paus.,  IX,  39,  11:  Plut.,  "Gen.  Soer.",  22);  and  the 
incubation  oracles  of  Asklepios,  where  the  sleeping 
sick  awaited  the  epiphany  of  the  hero,  and  miraculous 
cure.  Thousands  of  votive  models  of  healed  wounds 
and  straightened  limbs  are  unearthed  in  these  shrines; 
and  at  Dodona,  leaden  tablets  inquire  after  a  vanished 
blanket,  whether  it  be  lost  or  stolen;  or  by  prayer  to 
what  god  or  hero  faction-rent  Corcyra  may  find  peace. 
Other  especially  famous  oracles  were  those  of  Apollo 
at  Abse,  Delos,  Patara,  Clares;  of  Poseidon  at  Onches- 


ORAN 


266 


ORANGE 


tos;  of  Zeus  at  Olympia;  of  Amphiraos  at  Thebes  and 
Oropos;  about  a  hundred  of  Asklcpios  are  known. 
Most  were  estabhshed  by  a  source,  many  near  a  ine- 
phit  ic  chasm  or  srot  t  o.  Usually  the  clients  would  stand 
in  a  large  vestibule,  or  chresmographion,  from  which 
they  could  see  the  naos  or  shrine,  with  the  god's 
statue.  In  the  centre,  usually  at  a  lower  level,  was 
the  adyton,  where  the  spring,  chasm,  tripod,  and 
laurel  huslies  were  seen.  Here  the  prophetess  received 
the  divine  inspiration.  Nearly  all  the  oracles  were 
administered  by  a  group  of  officials,  originally,  no 
doubt,  members  of  some  privileged  family.  At  Del- 
phi, the  .saints  (So-ioi);  at  Miletus,  the  Branchidai  and 
Euangelidai,  etc.  These  usually  elected  the  staff  of 
resident  priests,  the  schools  of  prophets  (at  the  oracle 
of  Zeus  Ammon,  e.  g.,  under  an  arch-prophet),  and 
even,  at  times,  the  pythoness.  At  Delphi,  the  priests 
elected  her  from  the  neighbourhood :  she  was  to  be  over 
fifty  (so,  on  account  of  a  scandalous  incident),  and 
quite  ignorant.  Her  guidance  was  not  to  be  too 
positive! 

In  its  best  days,  the  Delphic  oracle  exercised  an 
enormous  influence:  its  staff  was  international  and 
highly  expert;  gold  flowed  in  unceasing  streams  into 
its  treasury,  free  access  to  it  was  guaranteed  to  pil- 
grims even  in  time  of  war.  In  constitutional  and 
colonial  history,  in  social  and  religious  crises,  in  things 
artistic  as  in  matters  of  finance,  its  intervention  was 
constant  and  final.  Had  it  realized  its  own  position, 
its  work  of  unification,  whether  as  regards  religion  or 
politics  in  Hellas,  might  have  been  unlimited.  Like 
all  human  things,  it  but  half-saw  its  ideal  (human  as 
that  ideal  could  at  best  have  been)  and  but  half-realized 
what  it  saw.  Easily  corrupted  by  the  gold  and  pray- 
ers of  kings,  the  centre  of  Asiatic  and  African,  no  less 
than  of  European  intrigues,  it  became  an  end  to  itself. 
At  the  time  of  the  Persian  War,  it  sacrificed  Athens 
and  imperilled  all  Western  civilization.  It  was  re- 
sponsible for  more  than  one  war.  It  drained  the 
colonies  of  their  revenues.  It  gradually  set  against 
itself  the  indignant  rivalries  of  the  local  cults  of  Greece. 
No  moral  or  religious  instruction  can  be  accredited 
to  it.  Thus,  while  formidable  enemies  were  ranged 
against  it  at  home,  the  conquests  of  Alexander 
dimmed  national  glories,  and  opened  the  gates  to  far 
more  fascinating  cults.  The  prophecies  based  upon 
the  rigid  data  of  astrology  supplanted  the  Pythian 
ravings;  Plutarch  relates  the  decay  and  silencing  of 
the  oracles  (De  defect,  orac).  In  Rome  diviners  and 
astrologers,  always  suspected,  had  long  found  legisla- 
tion active  against  them.  The  Sibylhne  books,  huge 
records  of  oracles  ceaselessly  interpolated  by  each  new 
philosophy,  by  Jewish  and  even  Christian  apocalyptic 
prophecy,  had  been  famous  by  the  side  of  indigenous 
oracles,  the  carmina  Marciana,  for  example:  yet  as 
early  as  213  B.  c.  the  Senate  began  its  confiscations; 
Augustus  made  an  auto-da-fe  of  over  2000  volumes; 
Tiberius,  more  scrupulous,  expurgated  the  rest.  Con- 
stant enactments  proved  vain  against  the  riot  of 
superstition  in  which  the  empire  was  collapsing;  the 
sanest  emperors  were  themselves  adepts;  Marcus 
Aurelius  consulted  the  miserable  charlatan  Alexander, 
with  his  snake-oracle  at  Abonoteichos.  Christianity 
alone  could  conquer  the  old  homes  of  revelation. 
Constantine  stripped  Delphi  and  Dodona,  and  closed 
Mgx  and  Aphaka;  Julian  tried  to  re-awake  the  stam- 
mering, failing  voices;  but  under  Theodosius  the  re- 
pression is  complete,  and  henceforward  the  oracles 
are  dumb.  (Sec  Divination.) 

Babylon  and  As.sybta:  Jastrow,  Die  Religion  Bahylonienn  u. 
Assj/rienfr.  (Giessen,  1906),  xix.  and  in  Hastings,  Diet,  of  the  Bihle, 
extra  vol.  (London,  1904),  556-63:  Knitdtzon.  Assyrische  Ge- 
bele  a.  d.  Sonnenf/ott  (Leiozif;,  1893) ;  Dhorme,  Choix  de  textes 
(Pari.s.  1907),  xxxvi,  382;  Relig.  axxyro.-habylonienne  (Paris,  1910), 
203.  291  etc. 

Tbe  Hebrews:  Dhorme.  Les  livrea  de  Samuel  (Paris,  1910): 
Lagrange.  Le  lirre  deg  Juges  (Paris.  1903)  ad  loec:  Hastings, 
Dui.  of  the  Bible,  extra  vol.  (London,  1904),  641a,  662b  etc. 

Greece  and  Rome;  cf.  especially  Bouch£-Leclercq,  Hist,  de 


la  divination  dans  tantiquiti  (Paris,  1879-82),  and  Darembehg 
AND  Saglio,  8.  V.  Ditination;  Monceatt,  I'tiV/.,  s.  v.  Oraculum: 
CouGNY,  Anthol.  grcec,  append.  (Paris.  IS'.Ml).  lOl-.iSS  for  relics 
of  verse  oracles:  Boissier,  Fin  du  jifmninsmf,  II.  On  Sibyliino 
literature:  Wolff,  De  novissima  oriiciilnrum  nl,ilr  (licrlin,  1854); 
Porphyrii  de  Philosophia  ex  oraculis  haarunda  librorumreliquim 
(Bcriin,  18.56):  Hencless,  Oracula  yraai  (Halle,  1877);  Rouse, 
Greek  Votite  Offerings  (Cambridge,  1902);  Farnell,  Cults  of  the 
Greek  Stales,  IV,  181  sqq.,  1907;  MvERS  in  Ilellenica  (London, 
ISSO),  426-92. 

C.  C.  Mautindale. 

Oran,  Diocese  of  (Oranensis),  in  Algiers,  sep- 
arated from  the  Archdiocese  of  Algiers,  2.')  July,  1866, 
to  which  it  is  suffragan.  In  the  early  centuries  there 
were  no  less  than  123  dioceses  in  Ca-sarcan  and  Tingi- 
tan  Mauretania.  Tlemcen  (in  the  present  diocese) 
was  an  important  see.  Victor,  Bishop  of  Tlemcen, 
assisted  at  the  Council  of  Carthage  (411);  Honoratus 
(484)  was  exiled  by  King  Huneric  for  denying  Arian- 
ism.  Though  the  Arabs  (708)  destroyed  many 
churches,  according  to  Abou-Obcd-el-Bekrii  in  his 
"Roads  and  Empires",  there  were  in  963,  churches  and 
Christians  at  Tlemcen.  Until  12.54  Christian  troops 
were  in  the  service  of  the  Moorish  kings  of  Tlemcen; 
from  a  Bull  of  Nicholas  IV  (1290)  it  is  evident  that 
a  bishop  of  Morocco,  legate  of  the  Holy  See,  had 
jurisdiction  over  this  region,  ravaged  by  a  violent 
persecution  in  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth 
century. 

Oran,  probably  of  Moorish  origin,  was  taken  by  the 
Spanish  in  1509.  The  expedition  which  Comte  d'Al- 
caudette,  captain  general  from  1534  to  1558,  led 
against  Tlemcen  (1.543)  was  in  fact  a  crusade.  The 
Spaniards  ruled  until  1708,  and  again  from  1732  to 
1792.  The  Bey  having  sought  the  protection  of 
France,  the  French  occupied  Oran  (10  December, 
1830). 

The  pilgrimage  of  Notre-Dame  du  Salut  at  Santa 
Cruz  near  Oran  was  founded  in  1849.  Before  the 
Associations  Law  of  1901  the  diocese  had  Jesuits; 
Lazarists;  and  several  orders  of  teaching  Brothers,  one 
native  to  the  diocese,  namely  the  Brothers  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Annunciation,  with  their  mother-house 
at  Slisserghin.  The  Trinitarian  Sisters,  with  their 
mother-house  at  Valence  (Drome)  are  numerous. 
The  diocese  in  1901  contained  273,527  Europeans, 
excluding  the  French  army;  in  1905  there  were  5 
canonical  parishes;  77  succursal  parishes,  13  curacies 
remunerated  by  the  State;  14  auxiliary  priests. 

MORCELLI,  Africa  Christiana  (Brescia,  1816);  BARoiis,  Tlem- 
cen, ancienne  capitate  du  royaume  de  ce  nam  (Paris,  1859) :  De 
Prats,  L  Eglise  Africaine  (Tours,  1894) ;  Ruff,  La  domination 
espagnole  d  Oran  sous  le  gouvernemetit  du  comte  d' Alcaudette,  1535- 
1558  (Paris,  1900). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Orange,  Councils  of. — Two  councils  were  held  at 
Orange  (Arausio),  a  town  in  the  present  department  of 
Vaucluse  in  southern  France.  The  first  met  on  8  No- 
vember, 441,  in  the  church  called  "  Ecclesia  Justinian- 
ensis"  or  "  Justianensis".  The  council  is  designated 
either  by  the  name  of  the  church,  "  synodus  Justinian- 
ensis  ",  or  by  that  of  the  episcopal  city ,  "  Arausicana  la  " 
(first  of  Orange) .  St.  Hilary  of  Aries  presided,  as  the  dio- 
cese formed  part  of  his  metropolitan  district.  Among 
the  ot  her  sixt  een  bi.shops  present  was  St.  Eucherius  who, 
as  Mctropolit:m  of  Lyons,  signed  the  acts  in  the  name 
of  all  his  suffragans.  The  council,  as  appears  from  its 
twenty-ninth  canon,  was  held  in  obedience  to  an  ordi- 
nance of  the  Synod  of  Riez  (4,39)  prescribing  .semi- 
annual provincial  .sj;nods.  The  thirty  canons  which  it 
is.sued  have  occa.sioned  considenil)Ie  controversy. 
Their  subject-matter  was:  the  administnition  of  the 
sacraments  (canons  i-iv,  xii-xvii),  the  right  of  sanctu- 
ary (v-vi),  mutual  episcopal  relations  (viii-xi),  cate- 
chumens (xviii-xx),  bishops  (xxi,  xxx),  the  marriage  of 
clerics  (xxii-xx\').  deaconesses  (xxvi),  widowhood  and 
virginity  (xxvii-xxviii),  the  holding  of  councils  (xxix). 
To  these  genuine  canons  Gratian  and  others  added  un- 
authentic ordinances  printed  in  the  "Corpus  Juris 


ORANGE 


267 


ORANGE 


canonici "  and  reproduced  by  Mansi  in  his  collection  of 
councils  (VI,  441-3). 

Much  more  important  was  the  second  council  (held 
on  3  July,  529),  the  first  in  Gaul  to  publish  a  decision 
in  matters  of  faith.  The  occasion  was  the  dedication 
of  a  church  built  at  Orange  by  Liberius,  the  pretorian 
prefect  of  Narbonensian  Gaul.  It  was  attended  by  four- 
teen bishops  with  St.  Cassarius  of  Aries  as  president,  and 
its  deliberations  bore  on  the  current  errors  concerning 
the  doctrine  of  grace  and  free  will,  i.  e.  Semipelagian- 
ism.  Cajsarius  had  informed  Felix  IV  (III)  of  the  per- 
nicious activity  of  the  Semipelagians  in  Gaul  and  had 
applied  to  him  for  support.  The  pope,  in  response, 
sent  him  a  series  of  "Capitula",  i.  e.  propositions  or 
decrees  drawn  almost  in  their  entirety  from  the  works 
of  St.  Augustine  and  the  "Sententiae"  of  St.  Prosper 
of  Aquitaine.  These  "Capitula"  became  the  basis  of 
the  twenty-five  Lssued  by  the  Synod  of  Orange,  and 
these  in  turn  were  freely  used  by  the  Council  of  Trent 
in  its  condemnation  of  Luther.  The  acts  of  the  Synod 
of  Orange  contain,  after  a  preamble:  (a)  eight  canons 
or  anathematisms;  (b)  seventeen  merely  declaratory 
propositions  (both  of  these  classes  are  known  as 
"Capitula");  (c)  a  sort  of  demonstration  of  the  de- 
fined doctrine  against  the  objections  of  the  Semipela- 
gians. The  subjects  of  the  "Capitula"  are  thus  logi- 
cally grouped  by  Portalie  in  "Diet.  Thcol.  Cath."  (I, 
2526).  (1)  Causes  of  the  necessity  of  grace.  They 
are:  (a)  original  sin  which  cannot  be  wiped  out  with- 
out it  (can.  ii);  (b)  the  weakness  of  the  will  resulting 
from  the  fall  of  man  (i) ;  (c)  the  very  condition  of  crea- 
ture (xi.x).  (2)  Operation  of  grace  before  justifica- 
tion. It  precedes  every  effort  conducive  to  salvation. 
From  it  proceed:  (a)  prayer  (can.  iii);  (b)  the  desire  of 
justification  (iv);  (c)  the  inception  of  faith  (v);  (d) 
every  effort  towards  faith  (vi) ;  (e)  every  salutary  act 
(vii);  (f)  every  preparation  to  justification  (viii,  xii); 
(g)  all  merit  (xviii).  (3)  Operation  of  grace  in  initial 
justification  or  baptism.  It  restores  (xiii),  justifies 
(xiv),  improves  (xv),  confers  the  justice  of  Christ 
(.x.xviii).  (4)  Work  of  grace  after  justification  in  the 
just.  It  is  necessary  for  good  actions  (ix);  persever- 
ance (x);  the  taking  of  vows  (xi);  Christian  fortitude 
(xvii) ;  the  Ufe  of  Christ  within  us  (xxiv) ;  the  love  of 
God  (xxv).  (5)  Universal  necessity  of  grace.  This 
need  of  grace  to  do  good  and  avoid  evil  is  expressed  in 
propositions  ix,  xx,  and  the  variously  interpreted  prop- 
osition xxii.  In  the  demonstration  which  follows  the 
"Capitula"  the  fathers  also  reject  the  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination to  evil  and  declare  salvation  within  the 
reach  of  all  baptized.  The  acts  of  the  council,  which 
were  signed  by  the  bishops,  the  pretorian  prefect  Li- 
berius and  seven  other  distinguished  laymen,  were  for- 
warded to  Rome  and  approved  by  Boniface  II  on  25 
January,  531  (see  Boniface  II).  They  consequently 
enjoy  oecumenical  authority  and  are  printed  in  Dcn- 
zinger's  "Enchiridion  Symbolorum"  (10th  ed.,  nos. 
174-200). 

Mansi,  Concilia,  VI.  433-52;  VIII,  711-34;  Maassen,  Concilia 
CEvi  merovingici  (Hanover,  1S93),  44-54;  Hefele-Leclercq,  Hi.^- 
loire  des  C07icites,  II,  i,  430-54;  II,  ii.  1085-1108  (Paris,  1908). 
The  acts  of  both  councils  and  abundant  bibliographical  details 
will  be  found  in  the  latter  work.  Hefele,  tr..  Ill,  159-64; 
IV,  152  sq.;  Woods,  Canons  of  the  Second  Council  of  Orange,  ,4.  D. 
6i9  (London,  18S2).  N.   A.   WebER. 

Orange  Free  State,  one  of  the  four  provinces  of 
the  Union  of  South  Africa,  lies  between  29°  30'  and  30° 
40'  S.  !at.,  and  between  24°  20'  and  30°  E.  long.  The 
Orange  and  Vaal  rivers  which  separate  it  from  the 
Cape  Province  and  the  Transvaal  form  respectively 
its  southern  and  northern  boundaries;  Natal  and  Ba- 
sutoland  bound  it  on  the  east,  and  the  northern  por- 
tions of  the  Cape  Province  on  the  west.  Its  name  is 
derived  from  the  Orange  River  which  flows  along  its 
southern  frontier  for  over  200  miles.  It  has  an  area  of 
50,392  square  miles  and  a  population,  according  to  the 
census  of  1904,  of  387,315;  of  these  only  142,679  are 


whites,  the  remainder  belonging  to  the  coloured  races 
— mostly  Kafirs  and  Hottentots.  The  climate  is  excel- 
lent. With  a  mean  altitude  of  from  four  to  five  thou- 
sand feet  above  sea  level  and  an  average  yearly  rain- 
fall of  only  twenty-two  inches,  it  is  a  country  well 
suited  to  persons  suffering  from  pulmonary  troubles, 
the  air  being  dry  and  invigorating  and  the  nights  al- 
ways cool.  Being  an  immense  grassy  plateau  and 
almost  treeless,  its  scenery  is  uninteresting  (even  de- 
pressing) except  on  the  eastern  border  where  the  vast 
Drakensburg  mountain  range  comes  into  view.  It  is 
mainly  a  pastoral  country,  though  a  portion  of  it 
alongside  Basutoland  contains  some  of  the  finest  corn 
lands  in  Africa.  The  exports,  valued  in  1908-09  at 
17,800,000  dollars,  are  principally  diamonds,  wool,  os- 
trich feathers,  and  maize;  its  imports  in  the  same 
period  amounted  to  15,000,000  dollars. 

The  white  inh;ibitants  are  mostly  the  descendants 
of  the  Voortrekkers  (or  emigrant  Dutch  farmers)  from 
the  old  Cape  Colony,  who  in  1836  and  subsequent 
years  crossed  the  Orange  River  in  thousands  and  set- 
tled on  territories  peopled  by  various  Bantu  tribes  im- 
til  their  virtual  extermination  by  Moselekatze  and  his 
hordes  of  Matabile  warriors — a  short  time  previously. 
The  "Great  Trek",  as  the  migration  of  these  farmers 
came  to  be  called,  brought  about  an  anomalous  politi- 
cal situation.  Rather  than  live  under  British  rule  in 
the  Colony,  they  had  abandoned  their  homes  and 
sought  independence  in  "the  wilderness".  But  the 
British  Government,  whilst  always  claiming  them  as 
its  subjects  and  forbidding  them  to  molest  the  neigh- 
bouring native  tribes,  refused  to  annex  the  territory  to 
which  they  had  fled.  Such  a  state  of  things  mani- 
festly could  not  long  endure,  and  so  in  1848  the  coun- 
try between  the  Orange  and  Vaal  Rivers  was  offici- 
ally proclaimed  British  territory  under  the  title  of  the 
"Orange  River  Sovereignty".  The  emigrant  Boers, 
headed  by  a  farmer  named  Andreas  Pretorius,  strug- 
gled to  retain  their  independence  but  were  defeated  at 
the  battle  of  Boomplaats  b}'  the  English  general.  Sir 
Harry  Smith,  in  August,  1848.  The  British  Govern- 
ment, finding  the  newly  annexed  territory  of  little 
value  and  desiring  in  view  of  European  complications 
and  the  enormous  cost  of  Kafir  wars  to  limit  its 
responsibilities  in  South  Africa,  soon  determined  to  re- 
trocede  their  country  to  the  Boers;  thus,  at  a  conven- 
tion held  in  Bloemfontein  on  23  February,  1854,  Sir 
George  Clark  in  the  name  of  Queen  Victoria  renounced 
British  dominion  over  the  Orange  River  Sovereignty. 
The  Boers  thereupon  set  up  a  Republic,  which,  under 
the  name  of  the  Orange  Free  State,  enjoyed  a  period 
of  peace  and  prosperity  that  lasted  up  to  the  Anglo- 
Boer  War  of  1899-1902.  In  that  struggle  the  Free 
Staters,  having  joined  the  Transvaallers,  shared  in 
their  defeat,  and  their  country  was  annexed  to  the 
Briti.sh  Empire  under  the  title  of  the  Orange  River 
Colony.  For  some  years  the  new  colony  was  adminis- 
tered by  a  governor  and  a  lieutenant-governor  assisted 
by  an  executive  and  a  legislative  council,  but  in  June, 
1907,  responsible  government  was  conferred  on  it  with 
a  legislative  council  of  eleven,  and  a  legislative  assem- 
bly of  thirtv-eight  members. 

Since  31  May,  1910,  under  the  title  of  "The  Orange 
Free  State  Province  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa",  it 
forms  part  (together  with  the  Transvaal,  Natal,  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope)  of  a  self-governing  dominion 
of  the  British  Empire,  the  first  parliament  of  which 
was  opened  at  Cape  Town  on  4  November,  1910.  In 
that  parliament  the  Orange  Free  State  Province  is 
represented  by  sixteen  senators — one-fourth  of  the  en- 
tire number — and  by  seventeen  members  of  the  House 
of  Assembly  (out  of  a  total  of  121).  Enghsh  and 
Dutch  are  the  official  languages.  The  former  is 
spoken  mostly  in  the  tovnis  and  the  latter — or  rather  a 
dialect  of  it  known  as  the  Afrikansche  Taal — in  the 
country  districts.  The  religion  of  the  great  majority 
of  the  white  inhabitants  is  Calvinism   (Dutch  Re- 


ORANGE 


268 


ORANGE 


formed).  Those  of  English  origin  belong  to  the  difTer- 
ent  dominations  usually  found  in  the  British  colonies 
and  in  the  United  Slates  of  America.  The  Oraiifje 
Free  State  contains  a  good  number  of  neat  little  towns 
with  pojjulations  varyinf;  from  one  to  eight  thousand. 
Woemfontein,  capital  ni  the  province,  so  called  from  a 
spring  (fontein)  on  the  farm  of  Jan  Bloem,  an  early 
German  settler,  is  a  spacious,  clean,  and  well-built  city 
of  33,000  inhabitants,  and  the  seat  of  the  provincial 
council  a.s  well  as  the  legal  and  judicial  centre  of  the 
entire  Union.  It  is  distant  400  miles  from  East  Lon- 
don, the  nearest  seaport,  and  290  miles  from  Pretoria, 
the  executive  capital.  Other  important  towns  are 
Kroonstad,  Harrismith,  Jagersfontein,  and  Smith- 
field,  in  each  of  which  there  is  a  Catholic  church.  The 
total  number  of  Catholics  in  the  Orange  Free  State  is 
about  2000,  mostly  of  European  origin  or  descent. 
The  province  forms  part  of  the  Vicariate  of  Kimber- 
ley  (q.  v.),  which  is  in  the  Cape  Province,  and  in  which 
the  vicar  Apostolic  resides.  The  present  (1910)  vicar 
Apostolic  is  the  Right  Reverend  Alatthew  Gaughren, 
O.M.I.,  titular  Bi.shop  of  Tentyra.  Cathohes  enjoy 
absolute  freedom  of  worship,  but  receive  no  govern- 
ment aid  for  their  clergy  or  schools.  The  Roman 
Dutch  Law,  which  is  administered  in  the  courts,  is 
favourable  to  Catholics  on  such  points  as  tenure  of  ec- 
clesiastical propert}',  marriage,  wills,  and  charitable 
bequests.  The  clergy  are  not  liable  to  serve  on  juries 
or  as  burghers  "on  command ' ' ,  nor  are  churches  taxed . 
Flourishing  convent  schools  and  academies  are  di- 
rected by  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  at  Bloemfon- 
tein  and  Jagersfontein,  and  by  the  Sisters  of  Notre 
Dame  (of  Namur)  at  Kroonstad. 

WiLMOT,  Hist,  of  our  own  times  in  South  Africa  (London.  1897- 
9);  Tbeal,  Hist,  of  S.  A.  since  ITfjr,  (London,  1908);  Deher.\in, 
L'expansion  des  Boers  au  XIX'  siecle  (Paris,  1905) ;  Hist,  of  S.  A. 
to  the  Jameson  Raid  (Oxford,  1899);  Can.\,  S.  A.  from  the  Great 
Trek  to  the  Union  (London.  1909);  Bryce,  Impressions  of  S.  A. 
(London,  1899) ;  Cappon,  Britain's  Title  to  S.  A.  (London,  1901); 
Browk,  Guide  to  S.  .4.  (London,  1909-10);  Catholic  Directory  of 
S.  A.  (Cape  Town,  1910). 

H.  MacSherrv. 

Orange  River,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  and  the 
Prefecturs  Apostolic  of  Great  Namaqdaland,  in 
South  Africa.  The  vicariate  was  erected  in  1897  after 
having  been  a  prefecture  Apostolic  since  July,  1885.  It 
comprises  the  whole  of  Little  Namaqualand  (beginning 
on  the  northern  line  of  Clan  William  County  in  Cape 
Colony,  i.  c.  30°  35'  S.  lat.);  extends  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  on  the  west,  and  to  the  Orange  River  on  the  north. 
It  further  includes  Bushmanland,  the  districts  of  Ken- 
hardt.  Van  Rhyns,  Dorp,  and  Frazerburg  on  the  east, 
and  beyond  the  Orange  River,  the  district  of  Gordonia 
in  Bechuanaland.  The  prefecture,  detached  from 
the  vicariate  in  July,  1909,  is  bounded  on  the  west  by 
the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  extends  from  the  Orange 
River  as  far  as  Damaraland  (23°  20'  S.  lat.),  and  com- 
prises the  city  of  Rehboth  and  its  district.  The  east- 
ern boundary  line  is  20°  E.  long. 

Great  Namaqualand. — For  thirty  or  forty,  or  in 
certain  districts  even  a  hundred  miles  inland,  this  dis- 
trict is  only  a  sandy  d&sert,  which  extends  on  the  east- 
ern side  to  the  great  Kalahari  desert .  The  central  por- 
tion depends  for  its  fertility  almost  exclusively  on 
thunder-storms,  without  which  it  would  be  nearly  des- 
titute of  water.  The  vicariate  is  but  little  better  in 
this  respect.  When,  however,  a  sufficiently  long  rain 
waters  these  forlorn  regions,  the  richest  pastures 
spring  up  in  an  incredibly  short  time.  The  very  air 
then  becomes  saturated  to  such  a  degree  with  the 
odour  of  vegetation  that  many  suffer  from  headache. 
Swarms  of  locusts  devour  the  exuberant,  produce,  un- 
less some  powerful  east  wind  c;irries  them  into  the  sea. 
The  "aristocracy"  in  Great  Namaqualand  consists  of 
German  immigrants,  and,  in  the  other  parts  of  the  mis- 
sion, of  Enghsh,  Irish,  and  Boer  settlers,  while  the 
Hottentots  form  the  bulk  of  the  scanty  population  in 
the  two  Namaqualands.    They  are  not  negroes.  Their 


skin  is  like  that  of  whites  much  browned  by  jaundice, 
and  their  build  more  like  th:it  of  the  Egyptians  as  seen 
on  ancient  monuments;  o?-  n^^Min,  resembling  that  of 
the  Chinese,  oidy  exereiJiiiL^  llierji  oi-  any  cjiher  nice  on 
earth  in  their  ugliness,  espi cinlly  when  burdened  with 
years.  Unselfish  lu:spit;dii.\'  ;Lppears  to  be  their  only 
natural  virtue.  They  lo\c  music.  Their  habit  of  imi- 
tating is  such  as  to  rouse  either  a  smile  or  exaspera- 
tion; a  crowd  of  Hottentots  at  Holy  Mass,  when  re- 
ceiving the  priest's  blessing,  all  repe:ite(l  the  sign  of 
the  Cross  over  him!  The  late  Miix  Miiller,  neverthe- 
less, vouched  for  their  ancestors  having  been  a  cul- 
tured race.  Although  they  have  in  their  language  a 
word  signifying  Deity,  it  took  a  long  time  to  make 
them  understand  spiritual  doctrines  other  than  that  of 
the  existence  of  the  devil.  They  are  extremely  disin- 
clined to  any  form  of  labour  or  exertion.  To  induce 
them,  for  example,  to  navigate,  the  missionaries  built  a 
boat  by  which  to  cross  the  Orange  River.  For  weeks, 
neither  encouraging  worfls  nor  exhibitions  of  safe  sail- 
ing appeared  to  make  any  impression  on  theln.  One 
missionary  relates  that,  among  his  Hottentot  catechu- 
mens, there  was  one  who  never  could  learn  how  to 
make  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  nor  the  answers  of  the  cate- 
chism, nor  any  prayer  except  these  words  of  the  Pater 
Noster:  "Our  Father,  give  us  this  day  our  daily 
bread."  The  missionaries  have  shown  here  what  an 
uplifting  influence  the  Catholic  Church  exercises  over 
the  most  forlorn  nations,  since  the  younger  generation, 
trained  by  the  missionaries  as  far  as  circumstances 
allowed,  are  considerably  more  intelligent  and  suscep- 
tible of  culture  than  their  elders. 

BusHMANL.\ND. — In  this  territory  are  found  the 
Bushmen  (or  Bojesmen),  a  tribe  kindred  to  the  Hot- 
tentots. They  are  short  in  stature,  and  generally  ma- 
licious and  intractable.  Intellectually  and  morally 
they  are  not  on  a  higher  level  than  the  Hottentots, 
but,  as  far  as  they  have  been  accessible  to  the  mission- 
aries, they  have  improved  in  both  respects. 

Bechuanaland. — The  Bechuanas  belong  to  the 
Kafir  race.  Many  of  them  show  some  skill  in  iron  and 
copper  working  and  in  mining,  also  in  tanning  hides. 
Very  difTerent  from  the  Hottentots,  many  of  them 
present  a  pleasing  appearance,  and  some  are  hand- 
some. 

Missions. — When  the  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de 
Sales  arrived  in  Little  Namaqualand,  to  which  the 
mission  w.as  then  confined,  they  found  not  one  hun- 
dred Catholics.  In  1903,  v\'ithout  any  change  of  popu- 
lation, they  counted  2735.  There  were  six  stations 
with  churches  and  resident  priests,  five  other  stations 
regularly  attended,  125  conversions  during  the  year, 
and  98  children  were  baptized;  122  confirmations, 
25  marriages;  3  hospitals  and  homes  for  the  aged,  8 
schools,  3  orphanages,  82  orphans,  8  missionary  priests, 
3  catechists;  15  missionary  sisters  aided  the  mission. 
Some  fifty  places  are  now  visited  by  the  priests  to 
attend  to  the  spiritual  and  temporal  wants  of  the 
people.  In  several  places,  all  Catholic  adults  receive 
Holy  Communion  on  the  first  Friday  of  every  month 
and  the  great  feasts  of  the  year.  Sella  is  the  residence 
of  the  vicar  Apostolic,  and  Hierachalis  that  of  the 
prefect  Apostohc.  These  results  are  most  encourag- 
ing, when  the  great  difficulties  confronting  the  mis- 
sionaries are  considered.  In  1909  the  approximate 
statistics  for  the  two  missions  were:  1  bishop;  14 
priests;  3  catechists;  22  mis.sionary  sisters;  480  chil- 
dren in  Catholic  schools;  175  baptisms  of  children,  315 
of  adults.  In  Little  Namaqualand  the  natives  under- 
stand Dutch  or  English;  but  in  Great  Namaqualand, 
besides  German,  the  extremely  difficult  language  of 
the  Hottentots  has  to  be  mastered. 

For  reports  and  statistics  of  the  missions,  consult  the  following 
periodicals:  Annates  saUsiennes  (Paris),  an  illustrated  monthly; 
Lichi  (Vienna);  Echo  of  the  Oblates  of  Saint  Francis  de  Sales 
(Childs.  Maryland).  Cf.  also  Missimes  CathoUca  (Rome,  1007); 
Statesman's  Year  Book  (London). 

J.    J.    ISENRINO. 


ORANS 


269 


ORATE 


Orans  (Orante). — Among  the  subjects  depicted 
in  the  art  of  the  Roman  catacombs  one  of  those  most 
numerously  represented  is  that  of  a  female  figure 
with  extended  arms  known  as  the  Orans,  or  one  who 
prays.  The  custom  of  praying  in  antiquity  with  out- 
stretched, raised  arms  was  common  to  both  Jews  and 
Gentiles;  indeed  the  iconographic  type  of  the  Orans 
was  itself  strongly  influenced  by  classic  representa- 
tions (see  Leclercq,  "Manuel  d'arch.  chret.",  I,  155). 
But  the  meaning  of  the  Orans  of  Christian  art  is  quite 
different  from  that  of  its  prototypes.  Numerous  Bib- 
lical figures,  for  instance,  depicted  in  the  catacombs — 
Noah,  Abraham,  Isaac,  the  Three  Children  in  the 
Fiery  Furnace,  Daniel  in  the  lions'  den — are  pictured 
asking  the  Lord  to  deliver  the  soul  of  the  person  on 
whose  tombs  they  are  depicted  as  He  once  delivered 
the  particular  personage  represented.  But  besides 
these  Bibhcal  Orans  figures  there  exist  in  the  cata- 


dating  from  the  early  fourth  century,  is  interpreted  by 
Wilpert  as  the  Blessed  Virgin  interceding  for  the 
friends  of  the  deceased.  Directly  in  front  of  Mary  is  a 
boy,  not  in  the  Orans  attitude  and  supposed  to  be  the 
Divine  Child,  while  to  the  right  and  left  are  mono- 
grams of  Christ. 

LowRiE,  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church  (New  York,  1901); 
KRAtTs.  Gcschichte  der  christl.  Kunst.  (Freiburg,  1895);  Wilpert, 
Ein  Cyklus  christologischer  Gem&lde  (Freiburg.  1891);  North- 
cote  AND  Brownlow,  Roma  Sotterranea  (London,  1S79). 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Orate  Fratres,  the  exhortation  ("Pray  brethren 
that  my  sacrifirc  and  yours  be  acceptable  to  God  the 
Father  alniiglity  ")  addressed  by  the  celebrant  to  the 
people  before  the  .Secrets  in  the  Roman  Mass.  It  is 
answered:  "May  the  Lord  receive  the  sacrifice  from 
thy  hands  to  the  praise  and  glory  of  his  name,  and  for 
our  benefit  also  and  for  that  of  all  his  holy  Church." 


The  Blessed  Virgin  as  an  Orante 
Fourth  Century  fresco  in  tho  Ccemeterium  Ostrianum 


combs  many  ideal  figures  (153  in  all)  in  the  ancient  at- 
titude of  prayer,  which,  according  to  Wilpert,  are  to  be 
regarded  as  symbols  of  the  deceased's  soul  in  heaven, 
praying  for  its  friends  on  earth.  This  symbolic  mean- 
ing accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  the 
figures  of  this  order  are  female,  even  when  depicted  on 
the  tombs  of  men.  One  of  the  most  convincing  proofs 
that  the  Orans  was  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  the  soul  is 
an  ancient  lead  medal  in  the  Vatican  Mu.seum  show- 
ing the  martyr,  St.  Lawrence,  under  torture,  while  his 
soul,  in  the  form  of  a  female  Orans,  is  just  leaving  the 
body  (see  Kraus,  "Gesch.  der  christl.  Kunst",  I,  126, 
fig.  56).  An  arcosolium  in  the  Ostrianum  cemetery 
represents  an  Orans  with  a  petition  for  her  interces- 
sion:  FidoritE  FiVgini  .  .  .  Pete.  .  .  .  The  Acts  of  St. 
Cecilia  speaks  of  souls  leaving  the  body  in  the  form  of 
virgins:  "Vidit  egredientes  animas  eorum  de  corpori- 
bus,  quasi  virgines  de  thalamo",  and  so  also  the  Acts 
of  Sts.  Peter  and  Marcellinus. 

Very  probably  the  medieval  representations  of 
a  diminutive  body,  figure  of  the  soul,  issuing  from 
the  mouths  of  the  dying,  to  be  received  by  angels 
or  demons,  were  reminiscences  of  the  Orans  as  a 
symbol  of  the  soul.  The  earlier  Orantes  were  de- 
picted in  the  simplest  garb,  and  without  any  strik- 
ing individual  traits,  but  in  the  fourth  century  the 
figures  become  richly  adorned,  and  of  marked  individ- 
uality— an  indication  of  the  approach  of  historic  art. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  figures  of  the  Orans  cycle, 


The  celebrant  adds : ' '  Amen ' ' .  The  form  is  merely  an 
expansion  of  the  usual  Oremus  before  any  prayer.  It 
is  a  medieval  amplification.  The  Jacobite  rite  has 
an  almost  identical  form  before  the  Anaphora  (Bright- 
man,  "Eastern  Liturgies",  Oxford,  1896,  83);  the 
Nestorian  celebrant  says :  "  My  brethren,  pray  for  me  " 
(ib.,  274).  Such  invitations,  often  made  by  the  dea- 
con, are  common  in  the  Eastern  rites.  The  Galilean 
rite  had  a  similar  one  (Duchesne,  "  Christian  Worship", 
London,  1904,  109).  The  Mozarabic  invitation  at  this 
place  is :  "  Help  me  brethren  by  your  prayers  and  pray 
to  God  forme"  (P.  L.,  LXXXV,  537).  The  medieval 
derived  rites  had  similar  formute  (e.  g.  "Missale 
Sarum",  Burntisland,  1861-3,  596).  Many  of  the 
old  Roman  Secrets  (really  Offertory  prayers)  contain 
the  same  ideas.  Durandus  knows  the  Orate  Fratres 
in  a  slightly  different  form  ("Rationale",  IV,  32).  A 
proof  that  it  is  not  an  integral  part  of  the  old  Roman 
Mass  is  that  it  is  always  said,  not  sung,  aloud  (as  also 
are  the  prayers  at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  the  last  Gospel 
etc.).  The  celebrant  after  the  "Suscipe  Sancta  Tri- 
nitas"  kisses  the  altar,  turns  to  the  people  and  says: 
Orate  fratres,  extending  and  joining  his  hands.  Turn- 
ing back  he  finishes  the  sentence  inaudibly.  At  high 
Mass  the  deacon  or  subdeacon,  at  low  Mass  the  server, 
answers.  The  rubric  of  the  Missal  is:  "The  server  or 
people  around  answer,~if  not  the  priest  himself."  In 
this  last  case  he  naturally  changes  the  word  luis  to 
meis. 


ORATORIANS 


270 


ORATORIO 


GlHB.  The  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  (3rd  cd.,  St.  Louis.  1908). 
547-50. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 
Oratorians.    Soo  Oratory  of  Saint  Philip  Neri. 

Oratorio,  a.'*  at  prosont.  unflorstood,  is  a  musical 
composition  for  solo  voices,  chorus,  orchestra,  and 
organ,  to  a  rolif;ious  text  generally  taken  from  Holy 
Scripture.  The  dramatic  element  contained  in  the 
text  depends  for  its  expression  on  the  music  alone. 

The  tradition  that  the  oratorio  originated  in  St. 
Philip  Neri's  oratory  has  recently  been  attacked, 
notably  by  the  historian  and  critic  E.  Schelle,  in 
"Neue  Zeitschrift  fiir  Musik"  (Leipzig,  1864).  The 
chief  point  he  makes  is  that  the  oratories  of  San  Gir- 
olamo  and  Santa  Maria  in  Vallicella,  at  Rome,  were 
unsuitable  for  the  performance  of  sacred  dramas.  In 
refutation,  it  suffices  to  recall  the  established  fact 
that  Emiglio  del  Cavaglieri's  rapprasentazione  sacra, 
"Anima  e  corpo",  had  its  first  performance  in  the 
Vallicella  (Chiesa  Nuova)  in  IGOO,  five  years  after  the 
death  of  St.  Philip.  Although  the  name  oratorio  was 
not  apjilied  to  the  new  form  until  sixty  years  later 
(.\ndrea  Bontempi,  1624-1705),  there  is  an  unbroken 
tradition  connecting  the  exerci-ses  established  by  St. 
Philip  with  the  period  when  the  new  art-form  received 
its  definite  character.  While  in  the  sixteenth  century 
liturgical  polyphonic  music  reached  its  highest  devel- 
opment, secular  music  boasted  only  one  ensemble  or 
choral  form,  the  madrigal.  The  spirit  of  the  Renais- 
sance, that  is  the  revolt  against  the  domination  of  the 
arts  by  the  spirit  of  the  Church,  led  to  the  restoration 
of  Greek  monody,  and  gradually  perfected  composi- 
tions for  one  or  more  voices  and  instruments  which 
ultimately  culminated  in  the  opera. 

St.  Philip,  realizing  the  great  power  of  music,  pro- 
vided in  the  rule  for  his  congregation,  "that  his  fathers 
together  with  the  faithful,  should  rouse  themselves  to 
the  contemplation  of  heavenly  things  by  means  of 
musical  harmony".  He  seized  upon  the  good  in  the 
new  trend  and  made  it  the  foundation  of  a  new  form 
upon  which  he,  perhaps  unconsciously,  put  a  stamp  re- 
tained ever  since.  He  practically  created  a  style  mid- 
way between  liturgical  and  secular  music.  His  love 
of  simplicity  caused  him  to  oppose  and  counteract  the 
prevailing  artificial  semi-pagan,  literary,  and  oratori- 
cal style  which  had  its  musical  counterpart  in  the 
display  of  contrapuntal  skill  for  its  own  sake  prac- 
tised to  so  great  an  extent  at  that  time.  He  drew  to 
himself  masters  like  Giovanni  Annimuccia  and  Pier 
Luigi  da  Palestrina,  formed  them  spiritually,  and  bade 
them  set  to  music,  in  simple  and  clear  style,  for  three 
or  four  voices,  short  poems  in  the  vernacular,  gen- 
erally written  by  himself,  and  called  "Laudi  spirit- 
ual!". Many  of  these  were  preserved  by  F.  Soto  di 
Langa,  a  musician  and  a  disciple  of  the  saint.  Their 
performance  alternated  with  spiritual  reading,  prayer, 
and  a  sermon  by  one  of  the  fathers,  by  a  layman,  or 
even  by  a  boy.  From  these  exercises,  which  attracted 
enormous  crowds,  and  obtained  great  renown  through- 
out Italy,  it  was  but  a  step  to  the  Commedia  harmonica 
"Amfiparnas.so",  by  Orazio  Vecchi  (1.550-1605),  a  dia- 
logue in  madrigal  form  between  two  choirs  (first  per- 
formed at  Modena  in  1594),  and  the  rapprasentazione 
sacra  "  Anima  e  corpo",  by  Cavaglieri.  The  latter  con- 
sisted of  short  phrases  for  a  single  voice,  more  varied 
in  form  than  the  recitativo  secco,  but  not  yet  sufficiently 
developed  to  have  a  distinct  melodic  physiognomy, 
accompanied  by  instruments,  and  choral  numbers,  or 
madrigals.  Similar  productions  multiplied  rapidly. 
Wherever  the  Oratorians  established  themselves  they 
cultivated  this  form  to  attract  the  young  people.  The 
municip.-il  library  of  Hamburg  contains  a  collection, 
gathered  by  Chrysander,  of  twenty-two  different  texts 
which  originated  with  the  disciples  of  St.  Philip  during 
the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Even 
more  active  in  the  creation  and  propagation  of  these 


musico-dramatic  productions  throughout  this  period 
were  the  Jesuits,  who,  especially  in  Germany,  used 
these  musical  plays  in  their  schools  and  (•(lUcgcs  every- 
where. Up  to  the  latter  part  of  the  .scveMtccnIli  cen- 
tury the  burden  of  the  texts  for  the.-sc  cdinposilions 
was  either  a  legend,  the  history  of  a  conversion,  the 
life  of  a  .saint,  or  the  passii>ii  of  a  martyr. 

Among  those  who  cultivated,  or  helped  in  develop- 
ing, the  oratorio  in  Italy  were  Benedetto  Ferrari 
(1.597-1681),  "Samsone";  Agostino  Agazzari  (1578- 
1640),  dramma  pastorale,  "Eumeho";  Loreto  Vitorii 
(1.588-1670)  "La  pellegrina  costante",  "Sanf  Ig- 
nazio  Loyola".  Giacomo  Carissimi  (1604-74), 
through  whom  the  oratorio  made  a  notable  advance, 
was  the  first  master  to  turn  to  Holy  Scripture  for 
his  texts.  His  works,  with  Latin  or  Italian  texts, 
many  of  which  have  been  preserved  (see  Carissimi) 
together  with  those  of  his  contemporaries,  show  prac- 
tically the  same  construction  as  is  followed  in  the 
present  time:  recitatives,  arias,  duets,  and  terzettos, 
alternating  with  single  and  double  choruses  and  in- 
strumental numbers.  The  historicus  or  narrator  (in 
some  scores  designated  by  the  word  iesto,  "text")  has 
replaced  scenic  display  and  dramatic  action.  Caris- 
simi's  orchestration  exhibits  a  resourcefulness  and 
charm  before  unknown.  His  oratorio  "Jephtha"  (in 
an  arrangement  by  Dr.  Immanuel  Faisst)  was  per- 
formed successfully  at  Leipzig  as  recently  as  1873. 
After  him,  the  greatest  Italian  master  was  Alessandro 
Scarlatti  (16.59-1725)  a  pupil  of  Francesco  Provenz.ale 
and  Carissimi.  Chief  among  his  works  are  "I  dolori 
di  Maria"  and  "II  Sacrificio  d'Abramo". 

About  this  time  the  leadership  passed  to  Germany, 
where  Heinrich  Schiitz  (1585-1672)  had  previously 
prepared  the  soil  by  his  compositions  known  as 
"Passion  music"  and  other  works  resembling  the 
Italian  oratorio.  Others  who  had  received  their  for- 
mation in  Italy,  but  whose  activity  was  chiefly  con- 
fined to  Germany,  and  who  transplanted  the  oratorio 
thither,  were  Ignatius  Jacob  Holzbauer  (1711-83), 
"Bethulia  liberata";  Johann  Adolphe  Hasse  (1699- 
1783),  "La  Conversione  di  S.  Agostino"  etc.;  Antonio 
Caldara  (1670-1736);  Nicolo  Jomelli  (1714-1774); 
Marc-Antoine  Charpentier  (1634-1704),  a  pupil  of 
Carissimi  and  a  gifted  composer,  wrote,  besides  a 
large  number  of  works  for  the  church,  eighteen  ora- 
torios in  the  style  of  his  master  which  had  great  vogue 
in  France.  His  "Reniement  de  St.  Pierre"  has  re- 
cently been  revived  with  great  success  in  Paris,  and 
has  since  been  published.  In  the  hands  of  Johann 
Mattheson  (1681-1764),  the  oratorio  becomes  identi- 
fied with  Protestant  worship  in  Germany.  Contem- 
porary with  George  Frederick  Handel  (1685-1759) 
he  wrote  twenty-four  oratorios,  intended  to  be  divided 
into  two  parts  by  a  sermon,  the  whole  constituting  a 
religious  service.  His  texts  were  mostly  taken  from 
Scripture.  Biblical  events  are  brought  into  conjunction 
and  contrasted  with  contemporary  happenings,  and 
a  moral  is  drawn.  Others  who  cultivated  the  oratorio 
form,  particularly  in  Protestant  Germany,  were  George 
Philip  Telemann  (1681-1767),  Constantine  Beller- 
mann  (1696-1758),  and  Dietrich  Buxtehude  (1637- 
1707). 

Through  Handel  the  oratorio  attained  a  position 
in  musical  art  more  important  than  at  any  previous 
period  in  its  history  and  never  surpassed  since.  In 
his  hands  it  became  the  expression  of  the  sturdy  Saxon 
faith  unaffected  by  the  spirit  of  doubt  latent  in  the 
religious  revolt  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Formed  in 
Germany  and  Italy,  he  united  in  a  pre-eminent  degree 
the  highest  creative  gifts.  The  most  productive 
period  of  his  life  was  spent  in  England,  and,  after 
having  cultivated  the  opera  for  a  number  of  years, 
he  finally  turned  to  the  oratorio,  producing  a  series 
of  works  ("The  Messiah",  "Israel  in  Egypt",  "Saul". 
"Jephtha",  "Belshazar",  "Samson"  etc.)  unrivalled 
for  heroic  grandeur  and  brilliancy.     It  may  be  said 


ORATORY 


271 


ORATORY 


that  they  express  the  national  religious  ideal  of  a 
Protestant  Christian  people  more  adequately  than 
does  their  form  of  worship.  This  undoubtedly  ac- 
counts for  the  interest  taken  in  oratorio  performances 
by  the  people  in  England  and  in  Protestant  Germany. 
Joseph  Haj'dn  (1732-1809)  produced  two  of  the 
greatest  oratorios  which  we  possess:  "The  Creation" 
and  "The  Seasons".  While  composed  to  secular 
texts,  they  breathe  the  most  tender  piety  and  joy 
through  an  inexhaustible  wealth  of  lyric  and  lofty 
music.  A  third  oratorio,  "Ritorno  di  Tobia",  on  a 
Biblical  text,  has  not  the  same  importance,  nor  does 
Mozart  (1756-91),  in  his  only  oratorio,  "Davidde 
penitente",  attain  the  artistic  level  of  most  of  his  pro- 
ductions. Ludwig  van  Beethoven  (1770-1827)  wrote 
one  oratorio,  "The  Mount  of  Olives",  which  shows 
him  at  his  best. 

Fehx  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy  (1809-47),  in  "Eli- 
jah" and  "St.  Paul",  returns  to  the  early  Protestant 
feature  of  letting  the  supposed  congregation  or  audi- 
ence participate  in  the  performance  by  singing  the 
chorales  or  church  hymns,  the  texts  of  which  consist 
of  reflections  and  meditations  on  what  has  preceded. 
From  this  period  the  oratorio  begins  to  be  cultivated 
almost  exclusively  by  Catholics.  Franz  Liszt  (1811- 
86),  with  his  "Christus"  and  "Legende  der  Heiligen 
Elizabeth",  opens  up  a  new  and  distinctly  Catholic 
era.  France,  which,  since  the  days  of  Charpentier, 
had  practically  neglected  the  oratorio,  probably  on 
account  of  the  opera  appealing  more  strongly  to 
French  taste  and  temperament,  and  because  of  the 
lack  of  amateur  singers  has,  within  the  last  thirty 
years,  furnished  a  number  of  remarkable  works. 
Charles-Frangois  Gounod  (1818-93)  with  his  "Re- 
demption", and  "Mors  et  Vita",  gave  a  renewed  im- 
petus to  the  cultivation  of  the  oratorio.  The  "Sam- 
son and  Delilah"  of  Camille  Saint-Saens  (1835 — ) 
may  be  performed  either  as  an  oratorio  or  as  an  opera; 
as  opera  it  has  attained  the  greater  favour.  Jules 
Massenet  (1842 — )  has  essayed  the  form  with  his 
"Eve"  and  "Mary  Magdalen",  but  his  style  is  en- 
tirely too  sensational  and  melodramatic  to  carry  the 
text.  Gabriel  PiernS's  (186.3 — )  "Children's  Crusade" 
and  the  smaller  work,  "The  Children  at  Bethlehem", 
have  both  obtained  great  popularity  in  Europe  and 
America. 

Italy 's  sole  representative  of  any  note  in  more  than 
two  hundred  years  is  Don  Lorenzo  Pero.si  (1872 — ), 
with  his  trilogy  "The  Passion  of  Our  Lord  according 
to  St.  Mark",  "The  Transfiguration  of  Christ",  and 
"The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus",  a  "Christmas  Ora- 
torio", "Leo  the  Great",  and  "The  Last-  Judgment". 
Belgium  and  England  have  produced  the  three  most 
remarkable  exponents  of  the  oratorio  within  the  last 
fifty  years.  Cesar  Auguste  Franck's  (1822-90)  ora- 
torios, "Ruth",  "Rebecca",  "Redemption",  and, 
above  all,  his  "Beatitudes",  rank  among  the  greatest 
of  modern  works  of  the  kind.  Edward  William  Elgar 
(1857 — )  has  become  famous  by  his  "Dream  of  Ger- 
ontius"  and  his  "Apostles".  But  Edgar  Tinel 
(1854 — )  is  probably  the  most  gifted  among  the  mod- 
ern Catholics  who  have  reclaimed  the  oratorio  from 
non-Catholic  supremacy.  His  world-famous  "St. 
'  Francis  of  Assisi"  is  perhaps  more  remarkable  for  the 
spiritual  heights  it  reveals  than  for  its  dramatic  power. 
Other  works  of  his  which  have  attracted  attention  are 
"Godoleva"  and  "St.  Catherine".  It  is  a  happy 
omen  that  all  these  authors,  in  the  fore-front  of  pres- 
ent-day composers,  command  the  highest  creative 
and  constructive  skill  which  enables  them  to  turn  into 
Catholic  channels  all  the  modern  conquests  in  means 
of  expression.  The  Catholic  Oratorio  Society  of  New 
York  was  founded  in  1904  to  promote  the  knowledge 
and  reproduction  of  oratorios  that  best  exemplify  the 
religious  ideal. 

Capecelatro,  tr.  Pope,  The  Life  of  St.  Philip  Neri  (London, 
1894);  Kretzschmar,  FUhrer  durch  den  Concertsaat,  II  (Leipzig* 


1899):  Reimann,  Geschichte  der  Musiklheorie  (Leipzig,  1898); 
Spitta,  Die  Passionsmitsiken  von  Sebastian  Bach  und  Heinrich 
Schiltz  (Hamburg.  189.3) ;  Jahrbuch  der  Musikbibliothek  Peters  filr 
1903  (Leipzig,  1904). 

Joseph  Otten. 

Oratory  (Lat.  oralorium,  from  orare,  to  pray),  as 
a  general  term,  signifies  a  place  of  prayer,  but  tech- 
nically it  means  a  structure  other  than  a  parish  church, 
set  aside  by  ecclesiastical  authority  for  prayer  and  the 
celebration  of  Mass.  Oratories  seem  to  have  origi- 
nated from  the  chapels  erected  over  the  tombs  of  the 
early  martyrs  where  the  faithful  resorted  to  pray,  and 
also  from  the  necessity  of  having  a  place  of  worship 
for  the  people  in  country  districts  when  churches 
proper  were  restricted  to  cathedral  cities.  We  also 
find  early  mention  of  private  oratories  for  the  celebra- 
tion of  Mass  by  bishops,  and  later  of  oratories  at- 
tached to  convents  and  to  the  residences  of  nobles.  In 
the  Eastern  Church,  where  the  parochial  organization 
is  neither  so  complete  nor  so  rigid  as  in  the  West,  pri- 
vate oratories  were  so  numerous  as  to  constitute  an 
abuse.  In  the  Latin  Church  oratories  are  classed  as 
(1)  public,  (2)  semipubHc,  and  (3)  private. 

(1)  Public  Oratories  are  canonically  erected  by 
the  bishop  and  are  perpetually  dedicated  to  the  Divine 
service.  They  must  have  an  entrance  and  exit  from 
the  public  road.  Priests  who  celebrate  Mass  in  public 
oratories  must  conform  to  the  office  proper  to  those 
oratories,  whether  secular  or  regular.  If,  however, 
the  calendar  of  an  oratory  permits  a  votive  Mass  to  be 
said,  the  visiting  priest  may  celebrate  in  conformity 
with  his  own  diocesan  or  regular  calendar. 

(2)  Semipublic  OR.-iTORiES  are  those  which,  though 
erected  in  a  private  building,  are  destined  for  the  use 
of  a  community.  Such  are  tlie  oratories  of  seminaries, 
pious  congregations,  colleges,  hospitals,  prisons,  and 
such  institutions.  If,  however,  there  be  several  ora- 
tories in  one  house,  it  is  only  the  one  in  which  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  preserved  that  has  the  privileges 
of  a  semipublic  oratory.  All  semipublic  oratories 
(which  class  technically  includes  the  private  chapel  of 
a  bishop)  are  on  the  same  footing  as  public  oratories  in 
regard  to  the  celebration  of  Mass.  The  calendar  of 
feasts  to  be  observed  in  them  (unless  they  belong  to 
a  regular  order  having  its  proper  calendar)  is  that  of 
the  diocese.  In  oratories  belonging  to  nuns,  the  feasts 
of  their  community  are  to  be  celebrated  in  accordance 
with  the  decrees  or  indults  they  have  received  from 
the  Holy  See.  Regulars  visiting  a  semipublic  oratory 
cannot  celebrate  the  feasts  of  saints  of  their  own  order 
unless  the  calendar  proper  to  the  oratory  prescribes 
the  same  or  permits  of  a  votive  Mass.  Public  and 
semipubhc  oratories  are  ordinarily  under  the  control 
of  the  bishop.  The  Congregation  of  Rites  declared  (23 
Jan.,  1899) :  "  In  these  (oratories),  as,  by  the  authority 
of  the  ordinary,  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  can  be 
offered,  so  also  all  those  present  thereat  can  satisfy 
thereby  the  precept  which  obliges  the  faithful  to  hear 
Mass  on  prescribed  days."  The  same  decree  also  gives 
an  authoritative  definition  of  the  three  species  of  ora- 
tories. 

(3)  Private  Oratories  are  those  erected  in  private 
houses  for  the  convenience  of  some  person  or  family  by 
an  indult  of  the  Holy  See.  They  can  be  erected  only 
by  permission  of  the  pope.  Oratories  in  private  houses 
date  from  Apostolic  times  when  the  Sacred  Mysteries 
could  not  be  publicly  celebrated  owing  to  the  persecu- 
tions. Even  after  the  peace  of  Constantine.  the  cus- 
tom continued  to  prevail.  Kings  and  nobles  espe- 
cially had  such  oratories  erected  in  their  palaces.  As 
early  as  the  reign  of  Emperor  Justinian,  we  find  regu- 
lations concerning  private  oratories  as  distinguished 
from  public  churches,  and  prohibitions  against  saying 
Mass  in  private  houses  (Novel.,  Iviii  and  cxxxi).  Per- 
missions to  celebrate  were  granted,  however,  freely  in 
the  West  by  popes  and  councils.  The  latest  decree 
regulating  private  oratories  is  that  of  the  Sacred  Con- 


ORATORY 


272 


ORATORY 


gregation  of  the  Discipline  of  the  Sacraments  of  7 
Feb.,  1909.  According  to  this,  private  oratorios  are 
conceded  by  tlir  I  Inly  Sor-  only  on  account  of  bodily 
infirmity,  or  dillicuUy  of  access  to  a  jmblic  dmrch  or  as 
a  reward  for  services  done  to  the  Holy  See  or  to  the 
Catholic  cause.  Tlie  grant  of  a  private  oratory  may 
be  temporary  or  for  the  life  of  the  grantee,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  cause  that  is  atlduced.  In  either 
case,  the  simple  concession  of  an  oratory  implies  that 
only  one  M;u5s  a  day  may  be  celebrated,  that  the  pre- 
cept of  the  Church  concerning  the  hearing  of  Mass  on 
prescribed  days  (certain  special  festivals  generally 
specified  in  the  indult  excluded)  may  be  there  satisfied 
only  by  the  grantees,  and  that  the  determination  of 
the  place,  city,  and  diocese  where  the  oratory  is  to  be 
erected  is  approved.  The  rescript  will  be  forwarded  to 
the  ordinary.  The  decree  then  recites  the  various  ex- 
tensions of  the  before-mentioned  privileges  that  may 
be  conceded  to  grantees : 

(a)  -1.5  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  precept  of  hearing 
Mass:  This  is  usually  conceded  by  the  indult  only  to 
the  following:  relatives  of  the  grantee  living  under  the 
same  roof,  dependants  of  the  family,  and  guests  or 
those  who  share  his  table.  The  others  living  in  the 
house  may  not  satisfy  the  precept  except  it  be  a  fu- 
neral Mass  or  on  account  of  the  distance  of  the  public 
church.  If  the  oratory  be  a  rural  one,  those  employed 
on  the  estate  may  there  hear  Mass,  but  in  that  case 
the  grantee  must  provide  for  a  catechetical  instruc- 
tion and  an  explanation  of  the  Gospel.  The  same  holds 
for  a  private  oratory  in  a  camp  or  castle  or  a  wide- 
spread domain.  In  very  peculiar  circumstances  (to  be 
judged  by  the  ordinary)  all  others  may  also  hear  Mass 
in  a  private  oratory  while  the  conditions  prevail. 

(b)  As  to  hearing  Mass  in  the  absence  of  the  grantees: 
This  is  allowed  in  the  presence  of  one  of  the  relatives 
living  under  the  same  roof,  but  the  concession  is  to  be 
understood  of  a  temporary  absence  of  the  grantees  and 
that  the  relative  be  expressly  determined.  The  same 
is  extended  to  the  principal  one  among  the  familiars, 
rural  seri'ants,  or  dependants. 

(c)  .4s  to  the  number  of  Masses:  If  the  grantees  are 
two  priests  who  are  brothers,  both  may  celebrate 
Mass.  A  thank.sgiving  Mass  is  also  allowed  if  the  or- 
dinary recommends  it.  Priests  who  are  guests  may 
Bay  Mass  in  the  oratory  of  the  house  where  they  are 
staying  if  they  have  commendatory  letters  from  the 
ordinary,  provided  they  are  infirm  or  the  church  is 
distant.  Several  Masses  may  also  be  said  during 
the  last  agony  or  at  the  death  or  anniversary  of  one  of 
the  grantees  and  likewise  on  the  feast  of  his  patron 
saint. 

(d)  As  to  greater  festivals:  By  an  extension  of  privi- 
leges, Mass  may  be  allowed  in  private  oratories  on  all 
days  except  on  the  feast  of  the  local  patron,  the  As- 
sumption, Christ  mas,  and  Easter.  Sometimes  the  con- 
cession may  extend  to  the  first  three  feasts,  but  very 
rarely  to  Easter,  and  then  only  on  the  urgent  recom- 
mendation of  the  ordinary,  exception  being  made  for 
grantees  who  are  infirm  priests. 

(e)  As  to  concessions:  Sometimes  a  grantee  may  have 
the  rights  of  a  private  oratory  in  two  dioceses,  but  then 
both  ordinaries  must  give  testimonial  letters.  In  case 
the  oratory  is  situated  in  a  place  where  the  parish 
priest  has  to  say  two  Masses  on  the  same  day,  a  priest 
from  some  other  place  may  say  Mass  in  the  oratory 
but  he  may  not  say  another  Mass  in  addition.  An 
oratory  near  a  sick-room  is  also  allowed  occasionally 
during  sickness.  This  decree  likewise  allows  ordina- 
ries (for  ten  cases  only)  to  grant  a  private  oratory  to 
poor  priests  who  are  aged  and  infirm.  It  will  be  noted 
that  this  legislation  is  a  very  liberal  extension  of  the 
provisions  formerly  governing  private  oratories. 

Tackto.v.  Law  of  the  Chmch  (London,  1906),  8.  v.  Oratory; 
Febbabib,  BMiotheca  canonica  (Rome,  1889),  s.  v  Oratorium; 
Analtcta  EccUt.  (Rome,  April,  1910). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 


Oratory  of  Saint  Philip  Neri,  The. — Under  this 
head  are  included  the  Italian,  Sp;inish,  English,  and 
other  communities,  whi(^h  follow  tlir  rule  nf  St.  Philip 
Neri.  The  revolt  of  thesixtccnih  century,  1h<iugli  ap- 
parently threatening  in  its  spread  and  .-.^Ircugtli  the 
very  hfe  of  the  Church,  evoked  a  marvellous  dis])lay  of 
its  Divine  fecundity.  That  century  saw  the  origin  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  founded  bv  St.  Igruitius  I.ovola; 
the  Theatines,  by  St.  Cajetaii;  'the  Harn:d.itcs,  bV  St, 
A.  M.  Zaccaria;  the  Brothers  Ihispilallcrs,  by  St.  .John 
of  God;  the  Oratory  of  St.  I'liilip.  'Die  foundation  of 
the  last  was  laid  at  S.  Girolanio,  Hoiuc,  wlicrc  his  dis- 
ciples gathered  for  spiritual  instruction.  Gradually 
these  conferences  took  definite  shape,  and  St.  Philip, 
now  a  priest,  constructed  an  oratory  over  the  aisle  of 
S.  Girolamo,  where  they  might  be  held;  from  this 
probably  the  congregation  was  named.  In  1,564  he 
took  charge  of  the  church  of  the  Florentines,  where  his 
disciples  who  were  priests  said  Mass  and  preached  four 
sermons  daily,  interspersed  by  hymns  and  popidar  fle- 
votions.  Eleven  years'  work  at  St.  John's  proved  to 
the  growing  community  the  necessity  of  having  a 
church  of  their  own  and  of  living  imder  a  definite  rule. 
They  obtained  from  the  pope  the  church  of  S.  Maria  in 
Vallicella,  rebuilt  and  now  known  as  the  Chiesa 
Nuova,  where  the  congregation  was  erected  by  Greg- 
ory XIII,  15  July,  1575.  The  new  community  was  to 
be  a  congregation  of  secular  priests  living  under  obedi- 
ence, but  bound  by  no  vows.  So  particular  was  St. 
Philip  on  this  point  that  he  ruled,  that  even  if  the  ma- 
jority \vished  to  bind  them.selves  by  vows,  the  minor- 
ity who  did  not  were  to  possess  the  property  of  the 
community.  "Habeant  possidcant  ".  wni'  St.  Philip's 
words.  Another  charact eristic  of  thi'  in.'ililutc  was  the 
fact  that  each  house  was  indeiieiKhnt ,  and  when  it  was 
represented  to  him,  that  while  one  house  might  have 
but  a  handful  of  members  and  another  a  surplus,  both 
would  benefit  by  a  transference  of  subjects  from  the 
more  numerous  community,  he  replied,  "Let  each 
house  live  by  its  own  natality,  or  perish  of  its  own  de- 
crepitude." His  motive  probably  was  to  exclude  the 
possibility  of  any  community  lingering  in  a  state  of 
decay. 

The  rule,  an  embodiment  of  St.  Philip's  mode  of 
governing,  was  not  drawn  up  till  seventeen  years  after 
his  death,  and  was  finally  approved  by  Paul  V  in  1612. 
The  provost  is  elected  for  three  j'cars  by  a  majority  of 
all  the  decennial  Fathers,  i.  e.,  those  who  have  been  ten 
years  in  the  congregation.  To  assist  him  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  congregation  four  deputies  are  elected. 
All  matters  of  grave  importance  are  decided  by  the 
general  congregation,  only  the  decennial  Fathers  vot- 
ing. .\dmission  to  the  congregation  is  also  by  election, 
and  the  candidate  must  be  "natus  ad  institutum", 
between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty,  and  possessed 
of  sufficient  income  to  maintain  himself.  The  noviti- 
ate lasts  three  years,  and  was  probably  thus  <'xtended 
to  test  thoroughly  the  vocation  to  an  institute  not 
bound  by  vows.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  three  years, 
the  novice  if  approved  becomes  a  triennial  Father  and 
a  member  of  the  congregation,  but  he  has  no  elective 
vote  till  his  ten  years  are  completed,  when  by  election 
he  becomes  a  decennial.  Expulsion  is  effected  by  a 
majority  of  two-thirds  of  the  voters.  No  member  is 
allowed  to  take  any  ecclesiastical  dignity.  Regula- 
tions for  the  clothing,  mode  of  life  in  the  community, 
and  for  the  refectory  are  al.so  laid  down.  Tlie  object 
of  the  institute  is  threefold:  prayer,  j)reaching,  and  the 
sacraments.  "Prayer"  includes  special  care  in  carry- 
ing out  the  liturgical  Offices,  the  Fathers  being  pres- 
ent in  choir  at  the  principal  feasts,  as  well  as  assisting 
at  the  daily  popular  devotions.  The  "Sacraments" 
imply  their  frequent  reception,  which  had  fallen  into 
disuse  at  the  foundation  of  the  Orator}^  For  this  pur- 
pose one  of  the  Fathers  is  to  sit  daily  in  the  confes- 
sional, and  all  are  to  be  present  in  their  confessionals 
on  the  eve  of  feasts.    The  mode  of  direction  as  taught 


ORATORY 


273 


ORATORY 


by  St.  Philip  is  to  be  gentle  rather  than  severe,  and 
abuses  are  to  be  attacked  indirectly.  "  Once  let  a  little 
love  find  entrance  to  their  hearts,"  said  St.  Philip, 
"and  the  rest  will  follow." 

"Preaching"  included,  as  has  been  said,  four  ser- 
mons in  succession  daily,  an  almost  impossible  strain 
upon  the  hearers  as  it  would  now  appear,  but  the  dis- 
courses at  the  Oratory  had  an  attraction  of  their  own. 
Savonarola  had  already  compared  the  inability  of  the 
preachers  of  his  day  to  awaken  dead  souls  with  their 
subtle  arguments  and  rhetorical  periods,  to  the  impo- 
tent efforts  of  the  flute-players  to  revivify  by  their 
mournful  music  the  corpse  of  Jairus's  daughter,  and 
Bembo  in  St.  Philip's  day  reiterated  this  reproach. 
"What  can  I  hear  in  sermons",  he  says,  "but  Doctor 
SubtiUs  striving  with  Doctor  Angelicus,  and  Aristotle 
coming  in  as  a  third  to  decide  the  quarrel."  The  ser- 
mons at  the  Oratory  were  free  from  these  defects. 
They  were  simple  and  familiar  discourses;  the  first  an 
exposition  on  some  point  of  the  spiritual  reading  which 
preceded  them  and  therefore  impromptu;  the  next 
would  be  on  some  text  of  Holy  Scripture;  the  third  on 
ecclesiastical  history,  and  the  fourth  on  the  lives  of 
the  saints.  Each  sermon  lasted  half  an  hour,  when  a 
bell  was  rung  and  the  preacher  at  once  ceased  speak- 
ing. The  music,  though  popular,  was  of  a  high  order. 
Palestrina,  a  penitent  of  the  saint,  composed  many  of 
the  Laudi  which  were  sung.  Their  excellence  excited 
the  admiration  of  foreigners.  John  Evelyn  in  his 
diary,  8  November,  1644,  speaks  of  himself  as  ravished 
with  the  entertainment  of  the  sermon  by  a  boy  and  the 
musical  services  at  the  Roman  Oratory.  Animuccia, 
choir  master  at  St.  Peter's,  attended  constantly  to  lead 
the  singing.  In  close  connexion  with  the  Oratory  is 
the  Brotherhood  of  the  Little  Oratory,  a  confraternity 
of  clerics  and  laymen,  first  formed  from  the  disciples  of 
St.  Philip  who  assembled  in  his  room  for  mental  prayer 
and  Mass  on  Sundays,  visited  in  turn  a  hospital  daily, 
and  took  the  discipline  at  the  exercises  of  the  Passion 
on  Friday.  They  made  together  the  pilgrimage  of 
the  seven  churches,  especially  at  carnival  time,  and 
their  devout  and  recollected  demeanour  converted 
many. 

The  ' '  exercises  " ,  as  the  Oratory  services  were  called , 
aroused  bitter  opposition.  The  preachers  were  de- 
nounced as  teaching  extravagant  and  unsound  doc- 
trine, the  processions  were  forbidden,  and  St.  Philip 
himself  was  suspended  from  preaching.  He  submittetl 
at  once  and  forbade  any  action  being  taken  in  his  fa- 
vour. At  length  Paul  IV,  having  made  due  investiga- 
tion, sent  for  him  and  bade  him  go  on  with  his  good 
work.  Baronius  says  of  these  exercises  that  they 
seemed  to  recall  the  simplicity  of  the  Apostolic  times; 
Bacci  testifies  to  the  holiness  of  many  under  St. 
Philip's  care.  Among  the  most  celebrated  members 
were  Baronius,  author  of  the  "Ecclesiastical  Annals", 
and  the  "MartjTology",  to  prepare  him  for  which 
work  St.  Philip  obliged  him  to  preach  the  history  of 
the  Church  for  thirty  years  in  the  Oratory ;  Bozio  Tom- 
maso,  author  of  many  learned  works;  B.  Giovenale 
Ancina,  Superior  of  the  Oratory  at  Naples,  and  later 
Bishop  of  Saluzzo,  a  close  friend  of  St.  Francis  de 
Sales;  B.  Antonio  Grassi  of  the  Oratory  of  Fermo;  B. 
Sebastian  Valfrd,  the  "Apostle  of  Turin ",  and  founder 
of  the  Oratory  there.  The  Oratory  Library  of  S. 
Maria  in  Vallicella  is  celebrated  for  the  number  and 
quality  of  its  contents,  among  them  the  well-known 
Codex  Vallicensis.  Up  to  1800  the  Oratory  continued 
to  spread  through  Italy,  Sicily,  Spain,  Portugal,  Po- 
land, and  other  European  countries;  in  South  America, 
Brazil,  India,  Ceylon,  the  founder  of  which  was  the 
celebrated  missioner  Giuseppe  de  Vaz.  Under  Napo- 
leon I  the  Oratory  was  in  various  places  despoiled  and 
suppressed,  but  the  congregation  recovered  and,  after 
a  second  suppression  in  1869,  again  revived;  many  of 
its  houses  still  exist. 

Oratorians,  English. — The  Oratory  was  founded 
XL— 18 


in  England  by  Cardinal  Newman  in  1847.  Converted 
in  1845,  he  went  to  Rome  in  1846  and  with  the  advice 
of  Pius  IX  selected  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri  as 
best  adapted  for  his  future  work.  After  a  short  noviti- 
ate at  Santa  Croce  he  returned  in  1847  with  a  Brief 
from  Pius  IX  for  founding  the  Oratory.  He  estab- 
lished himself  at  Maryvale,  Old  Oscott,  where  in  1848 
he  was  joined  by  Father  Faber  and  his  Wilfridian  com- 
munity. After  a  temporary  sojourn  at  St.  Wilfrid's, 
Staffordshire,  and  Alcester  St.,  Birmingham,  the  com- 
munity found  a  permanent  home  at  Edgbaston,  a  sub- 
urb of  "that  town,  in  1854.  The  institute  of  the  English 
congregation  is  substantially  that  of  the  Roman.  The 
Fathers  five  under  St.  Philip's  Rule  and  carry  out  his 
work.  In  compliance  with  a  widely  expressed  wish  of 
English  Catholics,  Cardinal  Newman  founded  at  Edg- 
baston a  still  flourishing  higher  class  school  for  boys. 
A  Brotherhood  of  the  Little  Oratory  is  also  attached  to 
the  community  and  the  exercises  are  a  focus  of  spirit- 
ual life.  Among  the  best  known  WTiters  of  the  English 
Oratory  are,  besides  its  illustrious  head.  Father  Cas- 
well, a  poet.  Father  Ignatius  Ryder,  a  controversialist 
and  essayist,  and  Father  Pope.  A  Newman  memorial 
church  in  the  classical  style  was  opened  in  1910.  The 
library  contains  among  many  valuable  works  Cardi- 
nal Newman's  series  of  the  Fathers. 

The  London  Oratory. — In  1849  Cardinal  Newman 
sent  a  detachment  of  his  community  to  found  a  house 
in  London.  Premises  were  secured  at  24  and  25  King 
William  St.,  Strand,  a  chapel  was  speedily  arranged, 
and  on  31  May,  Cardinal  Wiseman  assisted  pontifically 
and  preached  at  the  high  Mass;  Father  Newman  de- 
livered at  Vespers  the  sermon  on  the  "  Prospects  of  the 
Catholic  Missioner",  now  pubUshed  in  his  "Dis- 
courses to  Mixed  Congregations".  The  Catholic 
Directory  of  1849  shows  that  the  Oratory  at  King  Wil- 
liam St.  was  the  first  public  church  served  by  a  relig- 
ious community  to  be  opened  in  the  diocese.  The  ex- 
ercises of  the  Oratory,  accompanied  as  they  were  with 
hymns  composed  by  Father  Fabcr  and  the  Roman  de- 
votions and  processions,  then  strange  to  England, 
seemed  to  many  a  hazardous  innovation.  Time 
proved  the  popularity  of  the  exercises,  and  Father 
Faber's  preaching  attracted  large  crowds.  His  spirit- 
ual works  published  year  by  year  increased  the  inter- 
est in  his  Oratory,  while  the  lives  of  the  saints  edited 
by  him,  forty-two  in  number,  in  spite  of  their 
literary  defects,  did  a  great  work  in  setting  forth  the 
highest  examples  of  Christian  hoUness.  The  com- 
munity removed  to  their  present  site  in  South  Kensing- 
ton in  1S54,  and  in  1884  their  new  church  was  opened 
in  the  presence  of  the  bishops  of  England.  Among  the 
writers  of  the  London  Oratory  may  be  named,  after 
Father  Faber,  Father  Dalgairns  (q.  v.);  Father 
Stanton,  "Menology  of  England  and  Wales"  (Lon- 
don, 1887) ;  Father  Hutchison,  "  Loreto  and  Naza- 
reth" (London,  1863);  Father  Knox,  "The  Douai 
Diary"  (London,  1878),  and  "Life  of  Cardinal  Al- 
len" (London,  1882) ;  Father  Philpin  de  Riviere,  "The 
Holy  Places",  and  other  works;  Father  John  Bowden, 
"Life  of  Fr.  Faber"  (London,  1869);  Father  Morris, 
"Life  of  St.  Patrick";  and  Father  Antrobus,  transla- 
tor of  Pastor's  "Popes"  (vols.  I-VI,  St.  Louis,  1902) 
and  the  "Pregi  dell'  Oratorio". 

WoODHEAD,  The  Institulions  of  the  Oratory  (Oxford.  1687); 
G.-iLLONlo,  Vita  Beati  Philippi  Nerii  (Rome,  1600,  tr.  into  Italian, 
Rome,  1601);  Bacci,  Vita  del  B.  Filippo  Neri  (Rome,  1622,  fre- 
quently reprinted:  tr.  into  English,  2  vols.,  1847;  new  ed.,  witli 
illustrations,  notes,  etc.,  by  Antrobus,  2  vols.,  London,  1902) ; 
Idem,  Vita  con  I'aggiunta  d'urui  notitia  d'alcuni  suoi  compagni  per 
G.  Ricci  W.P.).  tr.  into  English,  The  Companions  of  Si.  Philip 
(London,  1848);  Sonzonio,  Vita  del  Santo  Patr.,  Filippo  Neri 
(Venice,  1727;  2nd  ed.,  Padua,  17.33) ;  Capecelatro,  La  Vita  di  S. 
Filippo  Neri  (2  vols.,  Naples,  1879;  tr.  into  English  by  Pope,  2 
vols.,  London,  1882);  Idem,  Card.  Newman  e  la  religione  Caitolica 
in  InghiUerra  (2  vols.,  Naples,  1859);  Faber,  The  Spirit  and 
Genius  of  St.  Philip  (London.  1850);  Idem.  The  School  of  St. 
Philip,  tr.  from  Italian  (London.  1850) ;  Pregi  della  Congr.  dell' 
Oratorio  (Venice,  1825;  tr.  into  English  by  Antrobus,  London, 
1881);  Marciano,  Memorie  Historiche  della  Congr.  deW  Oratorio 
(5  vols,  fol.,  Naples,  1693-1702);  Centenario  di  S.  Filippo  Neri  ia 


ORATORY 


274 


ORATORY 


Periodica  Mensuale  (Uomc,  lsy4-5);  aee  aUo  works  cited  in  pref- 
aces to  translation  of  Hacci,  ed.,  Antrobus  (London,  1902). 

H.    BOWDEN. 

Oratory,  French  Congregation  of  the,  fountlofl 
at  Paris  at  the  boginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 
by  Cardinal  Pierre  de  B<5rulle  (q.  v.),  who,  in  I5o.ssuet's 
words,  "made  glisten  in  the  Church  of  France  the 
purest  and  most  subhnie  Hghts  of  the  Christian  priesl- 
hood  and  the  ecclesiastical  lil'e".  It  was  precisely  to 
work  more  effectively  towards  the  rehat)ilitation  of  the 
ecclesiastical  life  that  Cardinal  de  Herulle  founded  (in 
1611)  the  new  congregation,  which  he  named  after 
that  of  St.  Philip  Neri,  adopting  also  in  part  the  rules 
and  constitutions  of  the  latter.  To  meet  the  special 
needs  of  the  Church  in  France  at  the  period,  however, 
and  because  of  the  tendency  toward  centralization 
which  "especially  from  this  period  forms  one  of  the 
dominant  characteristics  of  the  French  national  spirit" 
(Perraud),  he  made  one  very  important  modification; 
whereas  in  the  Italian  congregation  the  houses  were 
independent  of  one  another,  de  Bfirulle  placed  the 
government  of  all  the  houses  in  the  hands  of  the  supe- 
rior-general. On  10  May,  1613,  Paul  III  issued  a  Bull 
approV'ing  the  new  institute,  which  now  made  great 
progress.  During  the  lifetime  of  its  founder,  more  than 
fifty  houses  were  either  established  or  united  to  the 
Oratory;  subsequently  there  were  more  than  twice  this 
number,  divided  into  four  pro\'inces.  As  St.  Philip 
had  wished,  so  also  the  French  Oratory  was  solely  for 
priests;  the  members  were  bound  by  no  vows  except 
those  of  the  priesthood,  and  had  for  sole  aim  the  per- 
fect fufilment  of  their  priestly  functions.  The  Con- 
gregation of  the  Oratory  is  not  a  teaching  order;  Ora- 
torians  have  directed  many  colleges,  notably  de  Juilly ; 
but  neither  this  nor  instruction  in  seminaries  was  ever 
the  sole  object  of  the  congregation,  though  it  was  the 
first  to  organize  seminaries  in  France  according  to  the 
ordinances  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  congrega- 
tions of  I\I.  Bourdoise,  St.  Nicolas  du  Chardonnet, 
Saint-Sulpice,  and  Saint-Lazare  were  all  inspired  by 
the  ideas  of  Cardinal  de  Berulle.  The  definite  aim  and 
characteristic  of  the  French  Oratory  is  in  the  words  of 
Cardinal  Perraud  "the  pursuit  of  sacerdotal  perfec- 
tion". 

The  supreme  authority  of  the  congregation  is 
vested  in  the  superior-general  (elected  for  life)  and  in 
the  general  assemblies  convoked  regularly  every 
three  years — or  extraordinarily  immediately  on  the 
resignation  or  death  of  a  general.  These  assemblies 
are  composed  of  members  who  have  been  seven  years 
in  the  congregation  and  three  in  the  priesthood;  the 
number  of  members  is  one  out  of  every  twelve  Orato- 
rians  thus  qualified,  and  they  are  elected  by  all  Orato- 
rian  priests  three  years  in  the  congregation.  The  gen- 
eral assemblies  appoint  all  the  officers  —  a  superior 
general  (if  necessary),  his  three  assistants,  the  visitors, 
the  procurator  general,  and  the  secretary  general. 
They  also  examine  and  decide  upon  all  questions  of 
any  importance  concerning  the  congregation  in  gen- 
eral; the  general  and  his  assistants,  in  the  interval  be- 
tween the  assemblies,  exercise  only  ordinary  adminis- 
tration. The  founder,  who  died  at  the  altar  in  1629, 
was  succeeded  by  Father  Charles  de  Condren,  who, 
like  J'ather  de  Berulle,  w-as  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
the  Oratorians  from  his  youth.  Even  during  his  life, 
Saint  Jeanne  de  Chantal  wrote  of  him  that  "it  would 
seem  that  Father  de  Condren  was  capable  of  teaching 
the  angels";  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  was  wont  to  say  that 
"there  had  never  been  a  m.an  like  him".  Father  de 
Condren  governed  the  Oratory  most  wisely,  complet- 
ing its  organization  according  to  the  intentions  of  its 
founder.  Among  his  works  must  be  specially  remem- 
bered the  part  he  played  in  the  institution  of  Saint- 
Sulpice,  whose  founder,  the  saintly  and  celebrated 
Olier  (q.  v.),  was  under  his  direction.  He  died  in  1641; 
his  remains,  recovered  by  the  present  writer  in  1884, 
are  now  preserved  in  the  choir  of  the  chapel  of  the  col- 


lege of  .Juilly.  The  succeeding  generals  were:  Fran- 
cois Bourgoing  (q.  v.;  1041-62);  Francois  Scnault 
(1602-72),  a  celebrated  preacher;  Abel-Louis  de 
SainttvMarthe,  who  resigned  in  1696,  only  to  die  the 
foUoW'ing  year.  During  his  generalship  the  congrega- 
tion was  greatly  disturbed  by  the  tmublcs  of  Jansen- 
ism (see  A.  M.  P.  Ingold,  "Le  pretcndu  jansenismedu 
P.  de  Ste-Marthe",  Paris,  1882).  There  was  the  same 
disturliance  inider  his  successor.  Father  Pierre  d'Ard- 
ri'z  de  la  Tour  (1096-1733),  who  began  by  appealing 
against  the  Bull  "Unigenitus",  with  the  Archbishop 
of  Paris  and  a  large  part  of  the  French  clergy.  Later, 
however,  having  a  better  knowledge  of  the  facts,  he 
revoked  his  appeal,  and  also  obtained  the  submission  of 
Cardinal  de  Noailles — which  shows  that  his  difficulty 
was  not  a  doctrinal  one,  but  arose  rather  from  consid- 
erations of  discipline  and  ojiport  oneness.  Many  Ora- 
torians have  been  caluminated  on  tliis  point  by  preju- 
diced or  ignorant  historians,  as  the  present  writer  has 
endeavoured  to  prove  in  several  publications.  Father 
d'Ar6rez  de  la  Tour  was  one  of  the  most  esteemed 
spiritual  directors  of  his  time.  The  seventh  general 
was  Father  Thomas  de  la  Valette  (1733-72);  the 
eighth.  Father  Louis  de  Mulv  (1773-9);  the  ninth, 
Father  Sauve  Moisset  (1779-90). 

On  the  death  of  this  last,  at  the  height  of  the  French 
Revolution,  the  congregation  was  unable  to  meet  in  a 
general  assembly  to  elect  a  successor,  and  was  soon 
engulfed  in  the  revolutionary  storm,  which  over- 
whelmed the  Church  in  France;  but,  in  dying,  the 
Oratory  again  attested  to  its  faithful  attachment  to 
the  Chair  of  Peter.  If  some  of  the  Oratorians  at  this 
time  supported  Constitutionalism,  the  great  majority 
remained  faithful  to  the  Catholic  Faith,  and  a  certain 
number  among  them  paifl  for  their  fidelity  by  their  lives 
(cf .  Ingold, ' '  L'Oratoire  et  la  Revolution  ",  Paris,  1885) . 

It  was  only  in  1852  that  the  French  Congregation 
of  the  Oratory  was  restored  by  Father  Gratry  (q.  v.) 
and  Father  Petetot,  the  latter,  who  was  earlier  pastor 
of  Saint-Roch  de  Paris,  becoming  first  superior-gen- 
eral of  the  revived  institute.  In  1884  he  resigned 
and  was  replaced  by  Father  (later  Cardinal)  Perraud. 
Father  Pet^'tot  died  in  1887.  Father  Perraud's  succes- 
sor, Father  Marius  Nouvelle,  still  governs  the  congre- 
gation, which,  greatly  weakened  by  the  persecution 
which  reigns  in  France,  numbers  only  a  few  members, 
residing  for  the  most  part  in  Paris. 

The  French  Oratory  at  various  stages  in  its  history 
has  given  a  large  number  of  distinguished  subjects  to 
the  Church;  preachers  like  Lejeune  (q.  v.),  Massillon 
(q.  v.),  and  Mascaron;  philosophers  like  Malebranche, 
(q.  v.);  theologians  like  Thomassin  (q.  v.),  Morin  (q. 
v.);  exegetes  like  Houbigant  (q.  v.),  Richard  Simon, 
Duguet.  One  must  note,  however,  that  the  last  two 
were  forced  to  leave  the  congregation  where  they  had 
been  trained — the  former  on  account  of  the  rashness 
of  his  exegesis,  the  latter  in  consequence  of  his  Jansen- 
istic  tendencies. 

Naturally,  the  Oratory  of  France  exercised  little  di- 
rect influence  in  foreign  countries,  except  through  its 
houses,  St.  Louis-des-Frangais  in  Rome,  Madrid,  and 
Lisbon.  In  connexion  with  England,  Father  de 
BcruUe's  mission  with  twelve  of  his  confreres  at  the 
court  of  Henrietta  of  France  (1625),  wife  of  the  unfor- 
tunate Charles  I,  must  be  remembered.  Among  the 
Oratorians  were  Father  Harlay  de  Sancy,  Father  de 
Balfour,  the  latter  of  an  old  English  family,  and  Fa- 
ther Robert  Philips,  a  Scotchman  and  theologian  of 
great  merit,  who  entered  the  Oratory  in  1617  after 
having  been  tortured  for  the  Faith  in  his  own  country. 
When"  Protestant  intoleranc<'  forced  the  other  Orato- 
rians to  leave  England,  Father  Philips  remained  as  con- 
fessor to  the  queen,  and  in  1644  returned  with  her  to 
France,  where  he  died  in  1647.  Later  other  English 
ecclesiastics  joined  the  Oratory.  Among  the  best 
known  are:  Father  William  Chalmers  of  Aberdeen  (d. 
about  1660),  who  entered  the  Oratory  in  1627,  author 


ORBELLIS 


275 


ORCAGNA 


of  "  Disputationes  philosophicse "  (1630)  and  an  edi- 
tion of  various  patristic  works  (1634).  After  leaving 
the  Oratory  in  1637,  he  pubhshed  several  other  works, 
including  "A  Brief  History  of  the  Church  in  Scotland" 
(1643).  Father  John  VVhyte,  of  Loughill  in  Ireland,  en- 
tered the  Oratory  in  1647  and  died  a  member  in  1678. 
He  was  also  a  noted  theologian  and  published  "Theo- 
remata  ex  universa  theologia"  (1670).  A  still  more 
distinguished  member  about  this  period  was  Father 
Stephen  Gough  of  Sussex.  At  first  chaplain  to  the 
Anglican  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  doctor  at  Ox- 
ford, he  was  converted  to  Catholicism  by  the  Orato- 
rians  of  the  court  of  Henrietta  of  France,  whom  we 
mentioned  above,  and  in  1652  entered  the  Oratory  of 
Paris,  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven.    The  general  of  the 


in  France.  He  appears  to  have  been  professor  of 
theology  and  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Angers, 
where  he  enjoyed  great  reputation  as  an  expounder  of 
the  teaching  of  John  Duns  Scotus.  After  146.5  he 
wrote  his  chief  work,  a  commentary  on  the  Four 
Books  of  Sentences.  He  was  interred  in  the  church 
of  the  Ara  Cceli  on  the  Capitoline.  His  chief  works 
are:  "Expositio  in  IV  Sententiarum  Libros",  a  com- 
pilation based  on  the  teachings  of  John  Duns  Scotus, 
published  first  at  Rouen  without  date  or  place  (s.  1. 
et  a.) and  then  at  Rouen  without  the  year  (s.  a.);  at 
Paris,  twice  in  14S8,  again  in  1499,  1511,  and  1517;  at 
Lyons,  1503;  at  Hagenau,  1.503;  Venice,  1507;  "Ex- 
positio in  XII  Libros  Metaphysicae  Aristotelis  secun- 
dum viam  Scoti"  (Bologna,  1485;  Paris,  1505) ;  "Ex- 


The  Last  Jttdqment 
Andrea  Orcagna,  Campo  Santo,  Pisa 


Oratory,  Father  Bourgoing,  stationed  him  at  Xotre- 
Dame-des-Vertus,  near  Paris,  at  the  head  of  a  semi- 
nar}'for  English  Catholic  priestswhich  hehad  founded, 
and  for  which  the  English  clergy  thanked  the  Oratory 
in  a  beautiful  letter  of  congratulation.  From  1661 
Father  Gough  lived  in  Paris  as  almoner  of  the  Queen 


positio  Logicse  secundum  Doctrinam  Doctoris  Sub- 
tilis  Scoti"  (Parma,  1482;  Basle,  1494;  Venice,  1507); 
"Logic^e  Summula",  with  passages  from  Francis 
of  Mayron,  Antonio  Andrea,  Bonetus,  and  Scotus 
(Venice,  1489  and  1500).  "Compendium  Mathema- 
ticum"  appeared  without  place  or  date  (about  1485) 


of  England.     He  died  of  apople.xy  in  1682,  without     (Bologna,  1485);    "De   Scientia  Mathematica,  Phy- 


publishing  the  commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
with  immediate  reference  to  the  Protestant  contro- 
versy, which  he  had  been  preparing  for  many  years. 
In  contrast  to  this  illustrious  convert  is  Father  Levas- 
Bor  of  Orleans,  who  entered  the  Oratory  in  1667.  A 
man  of  ability,  but,  according  to  Batterel,  "too  fond 
of  sport  and  good  cheer",  he  ended  by  leaving  the  Ora- 
tory and  apostatizing,  and  died  in  England  in  1718,  a 
canon  in  the  Established  Church. 

Perraud,  VOratoire  de  France  (1865);  Batterel.   Mimoirea 
domestiques;  Ingold,  Bibtiographie  aratorientie. 

A.  M.  P.  Incold. 
Orbellis,  Nicolas  d',  Franciscan  theologian  and 
philosopher,   Scotist;   b.  about    1400;   d.  at  Rome, 


sica"  etc.  (Basle,  1494  and  1.503). 

Wadding,  Annates  O.  Min.,  XIII  (Rome.  1735),  166;  XIV, 
125;  XV,  319;  Wadding,  Scriptares  0.  Min.  (Rome,  1650),  268; 
ibid.  (1806),  182  aq.;  ibid.  (1906),  179  sq.;  Sbaralea,  Supple- 
ment, ad  Script.  O.  Min.  (Rome,  1806).  561-2;  Glassberger, 
Chronica  Observ.  in  Analecta  Franciseana,  II  (Quaracchi.  1887), 
460;  OnDiNCs,  Scriptares  ecclesia.il..  Ill  (Leipzig,  1722),  2546-7; 
Port,  Diet,  de  Maine-et-Loire.  Ill  (Paris,  1878),  35;  Hain,  Reper- 
tor.  bibliogr.,  120419a.;  Coppinoer,  Supplem.,  1204333. 

Michael  Bihl. 

Orcagna  (the  conventional  name  in  art  history  of 
Andrea  di  Cione,  also  called  ARCAONnoLo  or  Arcan- 
Gio) ;  b.  at  Florence,  early  in  the  fourteenth  century ;  d. 
there,  1368.  The  son  of  a^oldsmith,  he  became  archi- 
tect, sculptor,  mosaist,  painter,  and  poet.    His  broth- 


1475.     He  seems  to  have  entered  the  monastery  of     ers,  Nardo,  Jacopo,  and  Matteo,  were  also  architects, 
the  Observantines,  founded  in  1407,  one  of  the  first     sculptors,  and  painters:  Nardo,  the  eldest,  painted  the 


ORCISTUS 


27.6 


ORDEALS 


famou8  fresco  of  "Tho  Last . I mlgment",  still  to  be  soon 
in  the  Strozzi  eliapel  in  S.  Maria  Novella,  a  eoiiiposi- 
tion  inspired  by  the  "  Divina  Comniedia  ,  and  eoin- 
prisinj;  the  JudVinent,  I'aradise,  and  Hell  as  its  three 
parts.  Tliis  fresi-o  h:is  been  erroneously  attributed 
to  Andrea,  who  became  the  most  fani<ius<if  the  t'ioni, 
iDUt  Ix)renzo  ( ihiberti  testifies  to  its  beinf;  the  work  of 
Nardo.  In  the  same  way,  the  "Triumph  of  Death" 
and  "The  Last  .ludgment"  in  the  Canipo  Santo  of 
Pisa,  owing  to  their  similarity  to  the  S.  iSLiria  Novella 
freseo,  used  to  be  attributed  to  Nardo  and  Andrea  di 
Clone.  Both  these  brothers  were  registered  in  the 
Florentine  Guild  of  Painters  in  1357.  In  that  year 
Andrea  (Oreagna)  collaborated  with  Francesco  di 
Talento  on  plans  for  the  enlargement  of  S.  Maria  del 
Fiore.  In  1358  he  executed  mosaics  for  the  fagade  of 
the  cathedral  of  Orvieto.  ^'asari  makes  Andrea  Pi- 
sano  his  master  in  the  art  of  sculpture,  but  this  honour 
is  more  probably  ilue  to  Neri  di  Fieravante,  his  spon- 
sor when  he  matriculated  in  the  Guild  of  "masters  of 
stone  and  wood",  in  1352. 

According  to  Vasari,  the  Brotherhood  of  Orsam- 
michele  took  the  offerings  made  to  the  Blessed  Virgin 
during  the  plague  of  1348  and  used  them  to  build 
around  her  image  an  elaborately  ornamented  marble 
tabernacle.  Oreagna  was  entrusted  with  this  work, 
which  he  completed  in  1359.  For  brilliancy  and  rich- 
ness of  architecture  as  well  as  of  decoration,  Burck- 
hardt  regards  this  tabernacle  as  the  most  perfect  work 
of  its  kind  in  Italian  Gothic.  The  mysteries  of  the 
life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  are  represented  in  bas-relief 
with  a  series  of  allegorical  figures  of  the  Virtues.  The 
Announcement  of  Mary's  Death  and  the  Assump- 
tion are  especially  worthy  of  note.  This  tabernacle 
of  Orsammichele  is  Orcagna's  only  authentic  sculp- 
tural work,  but  his  manner  is  discernible  in  the  "An- 
nunciation" of  Santa  Croce  and  in  the  bas-reliefs  of 
the  Campanile  of  S.  Maria  del  Fiore  which  repre- 
sent the  Virtues  and  Liberal  Arts. 

The  chief  paintings  of  Oreagna  which  have  survived 
are:  a  St.  Matthew,  painted,  in  collaboration  with  his 
brother  Jacopo,  for  S.  Maria  Novella,  now  in  the 
Uffizi;  a  "Virgin  with  Angels",  in  the  Somzee  collec- 
tion at  Brussels;  a  "Vision  of  St.  Bernard",  in  the 
Academy  of  Florence;  a  "Coronation  of  the  Virgin", 
executed  for  San  Pier  Maggiore,  Florence,  now  in  the 
National  Gallery,  London.  In  1357  Tommaso  di 
Rossello  Strozzi  commissioned  Oreagna  to  paint  an 
altar-piece  for  the  same  chapel  in  which  Nardo  had 
painted  the  frescoes.  This  re-table  is  divided  into  five 
parts:  in  the  centre  Christ  is  enthroned,  a  pyramidal 
crown  on  his  brow,  two  little  angels  at  his  feet,  playing 
music;  at  Christ's  right  hand  is  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
presenting  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  to  Him;  at  His  left 
hand  is  the  Precursor  who  indicates  Christ  to  a  kneel- 
ing St.  Peter.  In  the  last  two  compartments  are  seen, 
on  one  side  St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Paul,  on  the  other 
St.  Michael  and  St.  Catherine.  Oreagna  was  commis- 
sioned in  the  following  year  to  paint  the  life  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  on  the  walls  of  the  choir  of  S.  Maria 
Novella.  These  paintings  were  ruined  by  damp,  ow- 
ing to  a  leakiiiL'  ro<if ,  hut  were  restored  by  Ghirlandajo 
who  drew  lii-  iii-|iir  it  iciri  from  the  happy  "inventions 
of  Oreagna '      \  :.  .m   . 

Vasari,  Z,e  i,.'.  J.'  ij,u  ■tclli-mi  pWori,  eti.  MiLANEsi.  I  (Flor- 
ence, 1878),  593,  with  ttie  cililor's  Cummenlario  alia  vila  di  A. 
Oreagna,  ibid.,  615;  Baldint'  <  i,  V\!'i  il>W  Oreagna  in  Notizie  dei 
professori  del  diseffno,  II  (Flor.nr,-,  ]  7t;si ;  Crowe  and  Cavalca- 
8ELLE,  A  New  Hulory  of  Pninluoj  in  Italy,  II  (London,  1865); 
BuRCKHARDT  AND  BoDE,  Le  Cieerone,  II,  328;  Fr.  tr.  GERARD 
(Paris.  1892);  Bryan.  Diet,  Painters  and  Engraters,  I  (London, 
1903);  Suida,  Florenlinische  Maler  um  die  WiUe  des  XIV  Jahr- 
hunderts  (.Strasburg,  1905):  Ventcri,  Storia  delV  arte  italiana, 
IV,  037;  V,  707  (Milan,  1906-07). 

Gaston  Sortais. 

Orcistus,  titular  see  in  Galatia  Secunda.  It  is  only 
mentioned  in  Peutinger's  "Table".  An  inscription  of 
331  fixes  the  site  at  Alikol  Yaila,  also  called  Alekian, 
in  the  vilayet  of  Angora.    It  was  then  a  station  at  the 


intersection  of  four  roads  ami  formed  part  of  the  "Dio- 
cese of  Asia";  consequently  it  must  luive  belonged  to 
Phrj'gia.  In  451  it  was  in  Galatia  Sicurula  or  Salu- 
taris,  probably  from  the  formation  of  that  province 
about  386-95.  The  name  comes  from  .a  tribe  called 
Orel,  which  dwelt  in  the  phiins  on  the  eastern  fron- 
tier of  Phrvgia.  Only  three  bishops  arc  known:  Dom- 
nus,  at  Ephc.sus  (451);  Longinus,  ;it  Chalcedon  (451); 
ami  Segermas,  :it  Const:intin(.pl<'  (HIIL'l.  Bui,  the  .see 
is  mentioned  by  the  "Nolitia'  episcop:ituum"  until 
the  thirteenth  century  among  the  suffragans  of  Pes- 
sinus. 

Leake,  Asia  Minor,  71 ;  Hamilton,  Researches  in  Asia  Minor, 
I,  44(J;  Ramsay,  Asia  Minor,  228;  Le  Quien,  Oriens  Christ.,  I, 
493. 

S.  P^TRIDilS. 

Ordeals  {Judicium  Dei:  Anglo-Saxon,  ord&l;  Ger. 
Urleil)  were  a  means  of  obtaining  evidence  by  trials, 
through  which,  by  the  direct  interposition  of  God,  the 
guilt  or  innocence  of  an  accuised  person  was  firmly 
established,  in  the  event  that  the  truth  could  not  be 
proved  by  ordinary  means.  These  trials  owed  their 
existence  to  the  firm  belief  that  an  omniscient  and  just 
God  would  not  permit  an  innocent  person  to  be  re- 
garded as  guilty  and  punished  in  consequence,  but 
that  He  would  intervene,  by  a  miracle  if  necessary,  to 
proclaim  the  truth.  The  ordeals  were  either  imposed 
by  the  presiding  judge,  or  chosen  by  the  contesting 
parties  themselves.  It  was  expected  that  God,  ap- 
proving the  act  imposed  or  permitted  by  an  authorized 
judge,  would  give  a  distinct  manifestation  of  the  truth 
to  reveal  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  accused.  It 
was  believed  from  these  premises  that  an  equitable 
judgment  must  surely  result.  Ordeals  are  of  two 
kinds:  those  undergone  only  by  the  accused,  and  those 
taken  part  in  by  both  parties  to  the  action.  It  was 
the  common  opinion  that  the  decision  of  God  was 
made  known  in  the  result  of  the  test,  either  immediately 
or  after  a  short  time.  Ordeals  were  resorted  to  when 
the  contesting  parties  were  unable  to  bring  forward 
further  evidence,  for  according  to  the  ancient  Cierman 
law,  the  production  of  evidence  was  not  arranged  for 
by  the  court  itself,  but  was  left  to  the  contestants. 

Ordeals  were  known  and  practised  by  various  peo- 
ples of  antiquity,  and  are  still  to  be  met  with  to-day 
among  uncivilized  tribes.  The  Code  of  Hammurabi 
prescribes  their  use  for  the  ancient  Babylonians.  The 
person  accused  of  a  certain  crime  was  subjected  to  the 
test  of  cold  water,  which  consisted  in  the  person's 
plunging  into  a  river;  if  the  river  bore  him  away  his 
guilt  was  established;  if  he  remained  quiet  and  unin- 
jured in  the  water,  his  innocence  was  believed  to  have 
been  proved  (Winkler,  "Die  Gesetze  Hammurabis", 
Leipzig,  1902,  10).  Among  the  Jews  existed  the  test 
of  the  Water  of  Jealousy,  conducted  by  the  priests, 
in  which  the  woman  accused  of  adultery  must 
consume  the  draught  in  their  presence,  after  liaving' 
offered  certain  sacrifices,  and  the  effects  of  which  estab- 
lished the  woman's  guilt  or  innocence  (Num.,  v,  12- 
31).  Among  the  Indians  are  to  be  found  likewise 
various  kinds  of  ordeals,  particularly  that  of  the  red- 
hot  iron.  This  test  of  holding  a  red-hot  iron  was  also 
known  among  the  Greeks.  The  Romans,  however, 
with  their  highly-developed  system  of  dispensing 
justice,  did  not  employ  this  means  of  obtaining  proof. 
Ordeals  found  their  chief  development  among  the 
Germanic  peoples,  in  Germany  itself  as  well  as  in  those 
kingdoms  which  came  into  existence,  after  the  migra- 
tion of  the  nations,  in  the  old  Roman  Provinces  of 
Gaul,  Italy,  and  Britain.  They  were  an  essential  part 
of  the  judicial  system  of  the  Germanic  races  in  pagan 
times,  were  preserved  and  developed  after  the  con- 
version of  these  peoples  to  Christianity,  became  wide- 
spread and  were  in  constant  use. 

The  Christian  missionaries  did  not  in  general  com- 
bat this  practice.  They  opposed  only  the  duel,  and 
endeavoured  to  minimize  the  barbarity  attendant 


ORDEALS 


277 


ORDEALS 


upon  the  practice  of  ordeals.  By  prayer  and  religious 
ceremonies,  by  the  hearing  of  holy  Mass  and  the  recep- 
tion of  holy  communion  before  the  ordeal,  the  mission- 
aries sought  to  give  to  it  a  distinctly  religious  charac- 
ter. The  liturgical  prayers  and  ceremonies  are  to  be 
found  in  Franz,  "Die  kirchlichen  Benediktionen  im 
Mittelalter"  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1909),  II,  364  sqq,; 
the  celebration  of  Mass  on  the  occasion  of  the  ordeal, 
in  Franz,  "Die  Messe  in  deutschen  Mittelalter"  (Frei- 
burg im  Br.,  1902),  213  sqq.  This  attitude  of  the 
clergy  in  regard  to  ordeals  may  be  explained  if  one 
takes  into  consideration  the  religious  ideas  of  the  times, 
as  well  as  the  close  connexion  which  existed  between 
ordeals  and  the  Germanic  judicial  system. 

The  principal  means  of  testing  the  accuser  as  well 
as  the  accused  in  the  Germanic  judicial  practice  was 
the  Oath  of  the  Co-jurors.  It  being  often  difficult  to 
find  jurors  who  were  projjerly  qualified,  perjury  fre- 
quently resulted,  and  the  oath  could  be  rejected  by 
the  opposing  party.  In  such  cases,  the  ordeal  was 
brought  forward  as  a  substitute  in  determining  the 
truth,  the  guilt,  or  the  innocence.  This  mode  of  pro- 
cedure was  tolerated  by  the  Church  in  Germanic  coun- 
tries in  the  early  Middle  Ages.  A  thoroughgoing  op- 
position to  ordeals  would  have  had  little  prospect 
of  success.  The  only  bishop  to  take  measures  against 
the  practice  of  ordeals  during  the  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity of  the  Germanic  races  was  St.  Avitus  of  Vienne 
(d.  about  .518).  Later,  Agobard  of  Lyons  (d.  840) 
attacked  the  judicial  duel  and  other  ordeals  in  two 
writings  ("  Liber  adversus  legem  Grundobadi  and  Liber 
contra  indicium  Dei",  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  CIV,  125  sqq., 
254  sqq.).  On  the  other  hand,  shortly  afterwards. 
Archbishop  Hincmar  of  Reims,  at  the  time  of  the 
matrimonial  disagreement  between  King  Lothair  and 
Theutberga,  declared  himself  to  be  of  the  opinion  that 
ordeals  were  permissible,  I'l  support  of  which  he  must 
assuredly  have  brought  forward  noteworthy  argu- 
ments ("De  divortio  Lotharii  regis  et  TetbergEe", 
in  Migne,  P.  L.,  CXXV,  659-80;  cf.  also  Hincmar's 
"EpistolaadHildegariuraepiscopum",ibid.,  161  sqq.). 
The  universal  opinion  among  the  peoples  of  the  Prank- 
ish kingdom  favoured  the  authorization  of  ordeals, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Britain.  In  809  in  the 
Capitulary  of  Aachen,  Charlemagne  declared:  "that 
all  should  believe  in  the  ordeal  without  the  shadow  of 
a  doubt"  (Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  Capitularia,  1, 150).  In 
the  Byzantine  Empire  also,  we  encounter  in  the  later 
Middle  Ages  the  practice  of  ordeals,  introduced  from 
the  countries  of  the  West. 

The  ordeals,  strictly  speaking,  of  the  Germanic  coun- 
tries are  the  following: 

(1)  The  duel,  called  judicium  Dei  in  the  Book  of 
Laws  of  the  Burgundian  King  Gundobad  (c.  500). 
(Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  Leges,  III,  .537.)  The  outcome  of 
the  judicial  duel  was  looked  upon  as  the  judgment 
of  God.  Only  freemen  were  qualified  to  take  part,  and 
women  and  ecclesiastics  were  permitted  to  appoint 
substitutes.  The  duel  originated  in  the  pagan  times 
of  the  Germanic  peoples.  In  certain  individual  na- 
tions were  to  be  found  various  usages  and  regulations 
regarding  the  manner  in  which  the  duel  was  to  be 
conducted.  The  Church  combatted  the  judicial  duel; 
Nicholas  I  declared  it  to  be  an  infringement  of  the  law 
of  God  and  of  the  laws  of  the  Church  ("Epist.  ad 
Carolum  Calvum",  in  Migne,  P.  L.,  CXIX,  1144), 
and  several  later  popes  spoke  against  it.  Ecclesiastics 
were  forbidden  to  take  part  in  a  duel  either  personally, 
or  through  a  substitute.  Only  English  books  of 
ritual  of  the  later  Middle  Ages  contain  a  formula 
for  the  blessing  of  the  shield  and  the  sword  for  use  in 
the  judicial  duel;  otherwise,  no  medieval  Ritual  con- 
tains prayers  for  these  ordeals,  a  proof  that  they  were 
not  looked  upon  favourably  by  the  Church. 

(2)  The  cross,  in  which  both  parties,  the  accuser  and 
the  accused,  stood  before  a  cross  with  arms  out- 
stretched in  the  form  of  a  cross.     Whoever  first  let 


fall  his  arms  was  defeated.  The  earliest  information 
we  possess  regarding  this  form  of  ordeal  dates  from  the 
eighth  century.  It  was  destined  to  replace  the  duel, 
and  was  prescribed  by  various  capitularies  of  the 
ninth  century,  especially  for  disputes  with  ecclesiastics. 

(3)  The  hot  iron,  employed  in  various  ways,  not  only 
in  courts  of  law,  where  the  accused  in  ancient  times 
to  prove  his  innocence  must  pass  through  fire  or  place 
his  hand  in  tin-  flames,  but  also  to  prove  the  authen- 
ticity iif  relics,  and  to  reveal  the  truth  in  other  ways. 
The  judicial  test  by  fire,  as  an  ordeal,  was  ordinarily 
conducted  in  the  following  manner:  the  accused  must 
walk  a  certain  distance  (nine  feet,  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons)  bearing  a  bar  of  red-hot  iron  in  his  hands,  or 
he  must  pass  barefooted  over  red-hot  ploughshares 
(usually  nine).  If  he  remained  uninjured,  his  inno- 
cence was  considered  established.  Medieval  ecclesias- 
tical Rituals  of  various  dioceses  contain  prayers  ami 
ceremonies  for  use  before  the  undergoing  of  tlic  lest. 
The  accused  was  also  obliged  to  prepare  himsi'lf  be- 
forehand by  confession  and  fasting. 

(4)  Hot  water,  or  the  cauldron.  The  accused  must 
draw  a  stone  with  his  naked  arm  from  the  bottom  of 
a  vessel  filled  with  hot  water,  after  which  the  arm 
was  bound  up  and  the  bandage  sealed ;  three  days  later 
it  was  removed,  and,  according  to  the  condition  of  his 
arm,  the  accused  was  considered  innocent  or  guilty. 
The  religious  ceremonies  for  this  ordeal  were  similar 
to  those  used  for  the  ordeal  of  the  hot  iron. 

(5)  Cold  water,  in  use  at  an  early  date  among  the 
Germanic  races,  and  which  continued  to  be  practised 
notwithstanding  the  prohibition  of  the  Emperor  Louis 
the  Pious  in  829.  The  accused,  with  hands  and  feet 
bound,  was  cast  into  the  water;  if  he  sank,  he  was 
considered  guilty;  if  however  he  floated  upon  the 
water,  his  innocence  was  believed  to  be  established. 
For  tills  test  also,  the  accused  prepared  himself  by 
fasting,  confession,  and  communion,  and  by  assisting 
at  Mass. 

(6)  The  blessed  morsel  {iudicium  offce,  Anglo-Saxon 
corsnaed,  nedbread),  which  consisted  in  the  consuming 
by  the  accused  of  a  piece  of  bread  and  a  piece  of  cheese 
in  the  church  before  the  altar,  the  morsels  being 
blessed  with  special  prayers.  If  he  was  able  to  swal- 
low them,  his  innocence  was  established,  but  if  not,  he 
was  considered  guilty.  This  test  was  in  use  princi- 
pally among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  It  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  ancient  Germanic  codes  of  the  Continent. 

(7)  The  suspended  loaf. — A  loaf  of  bread  was  baked 
by  a  deacon  from  meal  and  blessed  water,  through 
which  a  stick  of  wood  was  passed.  The  suspected 
person  then  appeared  with  two  witnesses,  between 
whom  the  bread  was  suspended,  which,  if  it  turned  in 
a  circle,  was  supposed  to  be  a  proof  of  guilt. 

(8)  The  Psalter,  which  consisted  in  clamping  into  the 
Book  of  Psalms  a  stick  of  wood  with  a  knob  attached, 
and  then  placing  the  whole  in  an  opening  ma,de  in 
another  piece  of  wood,  so  that  the  book  could  turn. 
The  guilt  of  the  accijsed  was  established  if  the  Psalter 
turned  from  west  to  east,  and  his  innocence,  if  it 
turned  in  a  contrary  direction. 

(9)  The  Examen  in  mensuris. — Though  forms  of 
prayer  in  connexion  with  its  use  have  been  handed 
down  to  us,  they  do  not  give  us  a  clear  idea  of  how  this 
test  was  conducted.  It  would  seem  to  have  been 
practised  but  seldom.  It  appears  to  have  been  an 
ordeal  decided  by  lot,  or  by  the  measuring  of  the  ac- 
cused by  a  stick  of  a  determined  length. 

(10)  Stecdinf/,  to  discover  a  murderer.  The  person 
suspected  of  the  murder  was  forced  to  look  upon  the 
body  or  the  wounds  of  the  victim.  If  the  wounds 
then  began  to  bleed  afresh,  the  guilt  was  supposed  to 
have  been  proved. 

In  addition  to  these^orms  of  genuine  ordeals,  two 
other  kinds  are  frequently  considered,  which,  however, 
do  not  exactly  correspond  to  the  idea  of  a  judgment  of 
God,  as  in  their  case  there  is  no  question  of  a  direct 


ORDER 


278 


ORDERICnS 


establishment  of  a  fact  by  the  intorposition  of  God. 
The  first  of  tliese  is  the  oath,  which  is  but  a  means  of 
estabhshiiiK  the  trutli,  accompanied  by  a  solemn 
calling  upon  (!od,  but  which  is  not  in  any  sense  a 
judj;inent  of  Ciod.  Another  example  is  furnished  by 
the  belief  that  the  perjured  would,  sooner  or  later,  be 
overtaken  by  death,  which  was  (jod's  punishment  for 
perjury,  but  this  was  not  a  judicial  ordeal.  The  same 
IS  true  of  the  Eucharist ic  test.  The  firm  belief  existed 
that  if  anyone  to  pro\-e  liis  innocence  should  re('ei\e 
Holy  Comnuinion,  he  would,  if  guilty,  be  punished  by 
Goii  witli  instant  death.  Here  also  it  is  question  of 
Divine  chastisement;  the  judgment  however  not  tak- 
ing place  by  means  of  a  judicial  process.  When  at  the 
Synod  of  Worms  in  868  it  was  ordered  that  the  bishops 
and  priests  should  clear  themselves  of  suspicion  by 
the  celebration  of  Mass,  and  the  monks  by  the  recep- 
tion of  Holy  Communion,  this  was  in  reality  of  the 
same  significance  as  the  oath  of  purgation,  by  which 
those  under  shadow  of  suspicion  swore  to  their  in- 
nocence. 

The  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  the  Prankish  and 
Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms,  as  we  have  remarked  above, 
were  very  broad-minded  in  their  acceptation  of  the 
greater  number  of  species  of  ordeals;  several  councils 
publishing  regulations  concerning  them  [cf.  Hefele, 
"Konziliengeschichte,"  2  ed.,  Ill,  611,  614,  623,  690, 
732;  IV,  5.55;  Synod  of  Tribur  (895),  IV,  672;  Synod 
of  Sehgenstadt  (1022)].  Ordeals  were  practised  in 
Britain,  France,  and  Germany  in  connexion  with 
legal  processes  before  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical 
tribunals  up  to  and  during  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries.  From  then  on  they  were  gradually 
discontinued. 

The  tribunals  of  Rome  never  made  use  of  ordeals. 
The  popes  were  always  opposed  to  them,  and  began, 
at  an  early  date,  to  take  measures  for  their  suppres- 
sion. It  is  true  that  in  the  beginning  no  general  de- 
cree was  published  regarding  them;  however,  in  indi- 
vidual cases  concerning  ordeals  brought  to  Rome,  the 
popes  always  pronounced  against  the  practice,  and 
designated  it  as  unlawful.  This  course  was  followed 
b}'  Nicholas  I  when,  in  867,  he  prohibited  the  duel  by 
which  King  Lothair  sought  to  decide  his  matrimonial 
dispute  with  Theutberga.  The  latter  had  previously, 
through  one  of  her  servants,  submitted  to  the  test  of 
hot  water  to  prove  her  innocence,  and  indeed  with 
favourable  results.  Upon  the  inquiry  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Mainz  as  to  whether  or  not  the  tests  of  the 
hot  water  and  the  glowing  iron  could  lawfully  be  made 
use  of  in  the  case  of  parents  who  were  accused  of  hav- 
ing smothered  their  sleeping  cliild,  Stephen  V  (885- 
891)  forbade  these  ordeals  (Deer.  C.  20,  C.  II,  qu.  5). 
Alexander  II  (1061-73)  likewise  condemned  these 
tests,  and  .Alexander  III  (1159-81)  prohibited  the 
bishop  and  the  clergy  of  the  Diocese  of  Upsala  from 
countenancing  a  duel  or  other  ordeal  imposed  by  law, 
as  such  a  practice  was  disapproved  of  by  the  Catholic 
Church.  Before  long  definite  condemnations  were 
published  by  the  popes,  as  for  example,  that  of  Ce- 
Icstine  III  (1191-98)  regarding  the  duel.  At  the 
Council  of  the  Lateran  In  1215,  Innocent  III  promul- 
gated a  general  decree  against  ordeals,  which  pro- 
hibited anyone  from  receiving  the  blessing  of  the 
Church  before  submitting  to  the  test  of  the  hot  water 
or  to  that  of  the  glowing  iron,  and  confirming  the 
validity  of  the  previous  prohibition  against  the  duel 
(Can.  xviii;  in  Hefele,  I.  c,  V,  687). 

Various  accounts  in  regard  to  the  co-operation  of 
the  popes  in  the  practice  of  ordeals  in  Prankish  times 
which  are  contained  in  apocryphal  writings  have  no 
historic  value.  From  the  twelfth  century,  a  thorough 
and  widespread  opposition  to  ordeals,  as  a  result  of  the 
stand  taken  by  the  popes,  began  to  manifest  itself 
generally,  and  whereas,  at  an  earlier  date,  no  one  was 
found  to  support  Agobard  of  Lyons  in  his  opposition  to. 
these  tests,  which  was  without  result,  the  writings  of 


Peter  Cantor  (d.  1197)  against  the  proceedings  of  the 
civil  courts  with  regard  to  ordeals  (in  his  "Verbum 
abbreviatum",  Migne,  P.  L.,  CCV,  226  sqq.)  had  a 
far  greater  success.  In  "Tristan",  Gottfried  of 
iStrasburg  sets  forth  his  disapproval  of  ordeals. 

As  a  result  of  the  General  Council  of  1215,  several 
synods  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries 
published  prohibitions  in  this  connexion.  A  synod 
held  at  Valladolid  in  1322  declares  in  Can.  xxvii: 
"The  tests  of  fire  and  water  are  forbidden;  whoever 
participates  in  them  is  ipxn  facio  excommunicated" 
(Hefele,  "Konziliengesch.",  VI,  616).  The  Kmperor 
Frederick  11  also  prohibited  the  duel  and  other  ordeals 
in  the  Constitution  of  iMelfi,  1231  (Michael,  "Ge- 
schichte  des  deutschen  Volkes",  I,  318).  Neverthe- 
less, there  are  to  be  found  in  Germanic  code  books  as 
late  as  the  thirteenth  century,  regulations  for  their  use. 
However,  a  clearer  recognition  of  the  false  grouml  for 
belief  in  ordeals,  a  more  highly-developed  judicial 
system,  the  fact  that  the  innocent  must  be  victims  of 
the  ordeal,  the  prohibitions  of  the  popes  and  the  sy- 
nods, the  refusal  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  to  co- 
operate in  the  carrying  out  of  the  sentence — all  these 
causes  worked  together  to  bring  about,  during  the 
course  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  the 
gradual  discontinuance  of  the  practice.  The  ancient 
test  of  the  cold  water  was  resuscitated  in  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  in  the  ducking  of  so-called 
witches,  consequent  upon  the  trials  for  witchcraft. 

Zeumer,  Formulfs  Merovingici  et  KaroHni  ccvi  in  Mon.  Germ. 
Hist.:  Legum,  sec.  V  (Hanover,  1882);  Franz,  Die  kitchlichen 
Benediktionen  im.  MittdaUer,  II  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1909),  307-98; 
Phillips,  Ueber  die  Ordalien  bei  den  Germanen  (Munich,  1847) ; 
Pfalz,  Die  germanischen  Gottesurteile  in  Bericht  iiber  die  Rtali^chule 
(Leipzig,  1865);  Dahn,  Studien  zut  Geschichte  der  germanischen 
GoUeaurteile  (Berlin,  1880) ;  Patteta.  Le  Ordalie.  Studio  di  sturia 
del  diritto  (Turin,  1890);  de  Smedt,  Les  origines  du  duel  judiciaire 
in  Etudes  religieuses,  LXIII,  1894,  337  sqq.;  Idem,  Le  duel  judi- 
ciaire et  I'Eglise,  ibid..  LXIV,  1895.  49  sqq.;  Vacandard,  L'Eglise 
et  les  ordalies  in  Etudes  de  critique  et  d'histoire  religieuse  (Paris, 
1905),  19  sqq. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Order,  Supernatural.  See  Supernatdral  Order. 

Ordericus  Vitalis,  historian,  b.  1075;  d.  about 
1143.  He  was  the  son  of  an  English  mother  and  a 
French  priest  who  came  over  to  England  with  the 
Normans  and  received  a  church  at  Shrewsbury.  At 
the  age  of  ten  he  was  sent  over  by  his  father  to  St. 
Evroult  in  southern  Normandy  and  remained  for  the 
rest  of  his  life  a  monk  of  that  abbey.  He  must  have 
travelled  occasionally:  we  have  evidence  of  his  pres- 
ence at  Cambrai,  for  instance,  and  at  Cluny,  and  he 
went  three  or  four  times  to  England:  still  he  passed 
most  of  his  days  at  home.  He  considered  himself, 
however,  an  Enghshman,  "Vitalis  Angligena",  and 
was  always  full  of  interest  in  English  affairs.  His  his- 
tory was  intended  at  first  to  be  a  chronicle  of  his  abbey 
but  it  developed  into  a  general "  Historia  Ecclesiastica" 
in  13  books.  Books  I  and  II  are  an  abridged  chronicle 
from  the  Christian  era  to  1143;  books  III-V  describe 
the  Norman  Conquests  of  South  Italy  and  England; 
book  VI  gives  the  history  of  his  abbey.  Books  VII- 
XIII  consist  of  his  universal  history  from  751  to  1141, 
book  IX  being  devoted  to  the  first  Crusade.  The 
work  begins  to  have  real  historical  importance  from 
about  the  date  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  but  Ordericus 
is  discriminating  throughout  in  his  choice  of  authori- 
ties. Chronologically  it  is  ill-arranged  and  very  in- 
accurate; it  is  oftenpedantic  in  form.  The  author 
has,  however,  a  wide  interest  and  a  keen  sense  of  detail 
and  picturesque  incident.  He  was  a  very  well-read 
man,  but  he  united  to  his  learning  a  taste  seldom  so 
frankly  admitted  for  popular  stories  and  songs.  He 
was  a  man  of  observation  and  he  attempted  to  give 
the  outward  appearance  of  the  characters  he  described. 
He  was  fair-minded,  anxious  to  give  two  sidesof  a  ques- 
tion and  to  be  moderate  in  his  judgments.  In  spite, 
therefore,  of  its  clumsy  arrangements  and  chronological 


ORDERS 


279 


ORDERS 


errors  the  "Hlstoria  Ecclesiastica"  gives  a  very  vivid 
picture  of  the  times  and  is  of  great  historical  value. 
A  competent  authority  has  declared  it  the  best  French 
history  of  the  twelfth  century.  Ordericus  was  also 
something  of  a  poet  and  there  are  manuscripts  of  his 
collected  Latin  poems.  The  best  text  of  the  "  Historia 
Ecclesiastica"  is  that  edited  by  Le  Provost  for  the 
"Soci6t6  de  I'histoire  de  France"  (5  vols.,  1838-55). 
The  fifth  volume  contains  a  valuable  introduction  by 
L.  Delisle.  There  is  also  a  text  in  Migne,  vol. 
CLXXXVIII.  A  French  translation  was  published 
in  Guizot's  "Collection  des  m^moires"  and  an  Eng- 
lish translation  in  Bohn's  "Antiquarian  Library" 
(4  vols.,  1853-5). 

MoLiNiER,  Les  sources  de  Vhistoire  de  France,  II,  219;  Freeman, 
Norman  Conquest,  IV,  495-500. 

F.  F.  Urquhart. 
Orders,  Anglican.    See  Anglican  Orders. 

Orders,  Holy. — Order  is  the  appropriate  disposi- 
tion of  things  equal  and  unequal,  by  giving  each  its 
proper  place  (St.  Aug.,  "  De  civ.  Dei,"  XIX,  xiii). 
Order  primarily  means  a  relation.  It  is  used  to 
designate  that  on  which  the  relation  is  founded  and 
thus  generally  means  rank  (St.  Thom.,  "Suppl.", 
Q.  xxxiv,  a.  2,  ad  4um).  In  this  sense  it  was  applied 
to  clergy  and  laity  (St.  Jer.,  "In  Isaiam",  XIX, 
18;  St.  Greg,  the  Great,  "Moral.",  XXXII,  xx). 
The  meaning  was  restricted  later  to  the  hierarchy 
as  a  whole  or  to  the  various  ranks  of  the  clergy. 
TertuUian  and  some  early  writers  had  already  used 
the  word  in  that  sense,  but  generally  with  a  quali- 
fying adjective  (Tert.,  "De  exhort,  cast.",  vii,  ordo 
sacerdotalis,  ordo  ecclesiasticus;  St.  Greg,  of  Tours, 
"Vit.  patr.",  X,  i,  ordo  clericorum).  Order  is  used 
to  signify  not  only  the  particular  rank  or  general 
status  of  the  clergy,  but  also  the  outward  action  by 
which  they  are  raised  to  that  status,  and  thus  stands  for 
ordination.  It  also  indicates  what  differentiates  laity 
from  clergy  or  the  various  ranks  of  the  clergy,  and  thus 
means  spiritual  power.  The  Sacrament  of  Order  is 
the  sacrament  by  which  grace  and  spiritual  power  for 
the  discharge  of  ecclesiastical  offices  are  conferred. 

Christ  founded  His  Church  as  a  supernatural  soci- 
ety, the  Kingdom  of  God.  In  this  society  there  must 
be  the  power  of  ruling ;  and  also  the  principles  by  which 
the  members  are  to  attain  their  supernatural  end,  viz., 
supernatural  truth,  which  is  held  by  faith,  and  super- 
natural grace  by  which  man  is  formally  elevated  to  the 
supernatural  order.  Thus,  besides  the  power  of  juris- 
diction, the  Church  has  the  power  of  teaching  (magis- 
terium)  and  the  power  of  conferring  grace  (power  of 
order).  This  power  of  order  was  committed  by  our 
Lord  to  His  Apostles,  who  were  to  continue  His  work 
and  to  be  His  earthly  representatives.  The  Apostles 
received  their  power  from  Christ:  "as  the  Father  hath 
sent  me,  I  alsosend  you"(John,  XX,  21).  Christ  pos- 
sessed fullness  of  power  in  virtue  of  His  priesthood^of 
His  office  as  Redeemer  and  Mediator.  He  merited 
the  grace  which  freed  man  from  the  bondage  of  sin, 
which  grace  is  applied  to  man  mediately  by  the  Sacri- 
fice of  the  Eucharist  and  immediately  by  the  sacra- 
ments. He  gave  His  Apostles  the  power  to  offer  the 
Sacrifice  (Luke,  xxii,  19),  and  dispense  the  sacraments 
(Matt.,  x.xviii,  18;  John,  xx,  22,  23);  thus  making  them 
priests.  It  is  true  that  every  Christian  receives  sanc- 
tifying grace  which  confers  on  him  a  priesthood.  Even 
as  Israel  under  the  Old  dispensation  was  to  God  "a 
priestly  kingdom"  (Exod.,  xix,  4-6),  thus  under  the 
New,  all  Christians  are  "a  kingly  priesthood"  (I  Pet., 
ii,  9);  but  now  as  then  the  special  and  sacramental 
priesthood  strengthens  and  perfects  the  universal 
priesthood  (cf.  II  Cor.,  iii,  3,  6;  Rom.,  xv,  16). 

Sacrament  of  Order. — From  Scripture  we  learn 
that  the  .\postles  appointed  others  by  an  external  rite 
(imposition  of  hands),  conferring  inward  grace.  The 
fact  that  grace  is  ascribed  immediately  to  the  ex- 


ternal rite,  shows  that  Christ  must  have  thus  ordained. 
The  fact  that  xcipovrovitv,  x^poToi'ta,  which  meant  elect- 
ing by  show  of  hands,  had  acquired  the  technical 
meaning  of  ordination  by  imposition  of  hands  before 
the  middle  of  the  third  century,  shows  that  appoint- 
ment to  the  various  orders  was  made  by  that  exter- 
nal rite.  We  read  of  the  deacons,  how  the  Apostles 
" praying,  imposed  hands  upon  them"  (.\cts,  vi,  6). 
In  II  Tim.,  i,  6  St.  Paul  reminds  Timothy  that  he  was 
made  a  bishop  by  the  imposition  of  St.  Paul's  hands 
(cf.  I  Tim.,  iv,  4),  and  Timothy  is  exhorted  to  appoint 
presbyters  by  the  same  rite  (I  Tim.,  v,  22;  cf.  Acts,  xiii, 
3;  xiv,  22).  In  Clem.,  "Horn.",  Ill,  Ixxii,  we  read  of 
the  appointment  of  Zachseus  as  bishop  by  the  imposi- 
tion of  Peter's  hands.  The  word  is  used  in  its  techni- 
cal meaning  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  ("Strom.", 
VI,  .xiii,  cvi;  cf.  "Const.  Apost.",  II,  viii,  36).  "A 
priest  lays  on  hands,  but  does  not  ordain"  (x"po^frc[ 
oi>  xE'Po™"")  "Didasc.  Syr.",  IV;  III,  10,  11,  20; 
Cornelius,  "Ad  Fabianum"  in  Euseb.,  "Hist.  Eccl.", 
VI,  .xliii. 

Grace  was  attached  to  this  external  sign  and  con- 
ferred by  it.  "I  admonish  thee,  that  thou  stir  up  the 
grace  of  God  which  is  in  thee,  through  (5id)  the  in- 
position  of  my  hands"  (II  Tim.,  i,  6).  The  context 
clearly  shows  that  there  is  question  here  of  a  grace 
which  enables  Timothy  to  rightly  discharge  the  office 
imposed  upon  him,  for  St.  Paul  continues  "God  hath 
not  given  us  the  spirit  of  fear:  but  of  power,  and  of 
love,  and  of  sobriety."  This  grace  is  something  per- 
manent, as  appears  from  the  words  "that  thou  stir 
up  the  grace  which  is  in  thee  " ;  we  reach  the  same  con- 
clusion from  I  Tim.,  iv,  14,  where  St.  Paul  says,  "Neg- 
lect not  the  grace  that  is  in  thee,  which  was  given  thee 
by  prophecy,  with  (i^erd)  imposition  of  hands  of  the 
priesthood."  This  text  shows  that  when  St.  Paul 
ordained  Timothy,  the  presbyters  also  laid  their  hands 
upon  him,  even  as  now  the  presbyters  who  assist  at  or- 
dination lay  their  hands  on  the  candidate.  St.  Paul 
here  exhorts  Timothy  to  teach  and  command,  to  be 
an  example  to  all.  To  neglect  this  would  be  to  neglect 
the  grace  which  is  in  him.  This  grace  therefore  en- 
ables him  to  teach  and  command,  to  discharge  his 
office  rightly.  The  grace  then  is  not  a  charismatic 
gift,  but  a  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  for  the  rightful 
discharge  of  official  duties.  The  Sacrament  of  Order 
has  ever  been  recognized  in  the  Church  as  such.  This 
is  attested  by  the  belief  in  a  special  priesthood  (cf.  St. 
John  Chrys.,  "De  sacerdotio";  St.  Greg,  of  Nyss., 
"  Oratio in  baptism.  Christi"),  which  requires  a  special 
ordination.  St.  Augustine,  speaking  about  baptism 
and  order,  says,  "Each  is  a  sacrament,  and  each  is 
given  by  a  certain  consecration,  ...  If  both  are  sac- 
raments, which  no  one  doubts,  how  is  the  one  not  lost 
(bv  defection  from  the  Church)  and  the  other  lost?" 
(Contra.  Epist.  Parmen.,  ii,  28-30).  The  Council  of 
Trent  says,  "Whereas,  by  the  testimony  of  Scripture, 
by  Apostolic  tradition,  and  by  the  unanimous  con- 
sent of  the  Fathers,  it  is  clear  that  grace  is  conferred  by 
sacred  ordination,  which  is  performed  by  words  and 
outward  signs,  no  one  ought  to  doubt  that  Order  is 
truly  and  properly  one  of  the  Seven  Sacraments  of 
Holy  Church"  (Sess.  XXIII,  c.  iii,  can,  3). 

Nu.MBER  OF  Orders. — The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXIII,  can.  2)  defined  that,  besides  the  priesthood, 
there  are  in  the  Church  other  orders,  both  major  and 
minor  (q.  v.).  Though  nothing  has  been  defined  with 
regard  to  the  number  of  orders  it  is  usually  given  as 
seven:  priests,  deacons,  subdeacons,  acolytes,  exor- 
cists, readers,  and  doorkeepers.  The  priesthood  is 
thus  counted  as  including  bishops;  if  the  latter  be 
numbered  separately  we  have  eight;  and  if  we  add  first 
tonsure,  which  was  at  one  time  regarded  as  an  order, 
we  have  nine.  We  meet  with  different  numberings  in 
different  Churches,  and  it  would  seem  that  mystical 
reasons  influenced  them  to  some  extent  (Martene,  "  De 
antiq.  eccl.  rit.",  I,  viii,  1, 1;  Denzinger,  "Kit. orient.", 


ORDERS 


280 


ORDERS 


II,  155).  The  "Statut:iccclpsi;rantiqua"enumorafo 
nine  orders,  adding  psalmists  and  counting  bishops  and 
priests  soiiarately.  Others  enumerate  eight  orders, 
thus,  e.  g.  the  author  of  "De  divin.  offic",  33,  and  St. 
Dunstan's  and  the  Jumieges  pontificals  (Mart("ne  I, 
viii,  11),  the  latter  not  counting  bishops,  and  adding 
cantor.  Innocent  III,  "De  sacro  alt.  minister.",  I,  i, 
counts  six  orders,  as  do  also  the  Irish  canons,  where 
acolytes  were  unknown.  Besides  the  psalmista  or 
cantor,  several  other  functionaries  seem  to  have  been 
recognized  as  holding  orders,  e.  g.,  fossarii  (fossorcs) 
grave-diggers,  hermcneuta:  (interpreters),  custodes  mar- 
tyr um  etc.  Some  consider  them  to  have  been  real 
orders  (Morin,  "Comm.  desacriseccl.ordin.",  Ill,  Ex. 
11,7);  but  it  is  more  probable  that  they  were  merely 
offices,  generally  committed  to  clerics  (Benedict  XIV, 
"De  syn.  dioc",  VIII,  ix,  7,  8).  In  the  East  there  is 
considerable  variety  of  tradition  regarding  the  number 
of  orders.  The  Greek  Church  acknowledges  five,  bish- 
ops, priests,  deacons,  subdeacons,  and  readers.  The 
same  number  is  found  in  St.  John  Damascene  (Dial, 
contra  manichaeos,  iii) ;  in  the  ancient  Greek  Church 
acolji^es,  exorcists,  and  doorkeepers  were  probably 
considered  only  as  offices,  (cf.  Denzinger,  "Rit. 
orient.",  I,  116). 

In  the  Latin  Church  a  distinction  is  made  between 
major  and  minor  orders  (q.  v.).  In  the  East  the  sub- 
diaconate  is  regarded  as  a  minor  order,  and  it  includes 
three  of  the  other  minor  orders  (porter,  exorcist, 
acolyte).  In  the  Latin  Church  the  priesthood,  dia- 
conate,  and  subdiaconate  (q.  v.)  are  the  major,  or 
sacred,  orders,  so-called  because  they  have  immediate 
reference  to  what  is  consecrated  (St.  Thom.,  "Suppl.", 
Q.  xxxvii,  a.  3).  The  hierarchical  orders  strictly  so- 
called  are  of  divine  origin  (Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXIII, 
can.  6).  We  have  seen  that  our  Lord  instituted  a 
ministry  in  the  persons  of  His  Apostles,  who  received 
fullness  of  authority  and  power.  One  of  the  first  ex- 
ercises of  this  Apostolic  power  was  the  appointment  of 
others  to  help  and  succeed  them.  The  Apostles  did 
not  confine  their  labours  to  any  particular  Church, 
but,  following  the  Divine  command  to  make  disciples 
of  all  men,  they  were  the  missionaries  of  the  first  gen- 
eration. Others  also  are  mentioned  in  Holy  Scripture 
as  exercising  an  itinerant  ministry,  such  as  those  who 
are  in  a  wider  sense  called  Apostles  (Rom.,  xvi,  7),  or 
prophets,  teachers,  and  evangelists  (Eph.,  iv,  11). 
Side  by  side  with  this  itinerant  ministry  provision  is 
made  for  the  ordinary  ministrations  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  local  ministers,  to  whom  the  duties  of  the 
ministry  passed  entirely  when  the  itinerant  ministers 
disappeared  (see  De.^con). 

Besides  deacons  others  were  appointed  to  the  min- 
istry, who  are  called  Trpcc-pirepoi  and  ^ttIo-kottoi.  There 
is  no  record  of  their  institution,  but  the  names  occur 
casually.  Though  some  have  explained  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  seventy-two  disciples  in  Luke  x,  as  the  in- 
stitution of  the  presbyterate,  it  is  generally  agreed  that 
they  had  only  a  temporary  appointment.  We  find 
presbyters  in  the  Mother  Church  at  Jerusalem,  re- 
ceiving the  gifts  of  the  brethren  of  Antioch.  They  ap- 
pear in  close  connexion  with  the  Apostles,  and  the 
Apostles  and  presbyters  sent  forth  the  decree  which 
freed  the  gentile  converts  from  the  burden  of  the  Mo- 
saic law  (.\cts,  x\',  23).  In  St.  James  (v,  14,  15)  they 
appear  as  performing  ritual  actions,  and  from  St.  Peter 
we  learn  that  they  are  shepherds  of  the  flock  (I  Pet. 
V,  2).  The  bishops  hokl  a  position  of  authority 
(Phil.,  i;  I  Tim.,  iii,  2;  Tit.,  i,  7;)  and  have  been  ap- 
pointed shepherds  by  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts,  xx,  28). 
That  the  ministry  of  both  was  local  appears  from  Acts, 
xiv,  23,  where  we  read  that  Paul  and  Barnabas  ap- 
pointed presbyters  in  the  various  Churches  which  they 
founded  during  their  first  missionary  journey.  It  is 
shown  also  by  the  fact  that  they  had  to  shepherd  the 
flock,  wherein  they  have  been  appointed,  the  presbj'- 
ters  have  to  shepherd  the  flock,  that  is  amongst  them 


(I  Pet.,  V,  2).  Titus  is  left  in  Crete  that  he  might  ap- 
point presbyters  in  every  city  (kotA  r)6\iy,  Tit.,  i,  5: 
ef.  Chrys.,  "Ad  Tit.,  homil.",  II,  i). 

We  cannot  argue  from  the  difference  of  names  to 
the  difference  of  official  position,  because  the  names 
are  to  some  extent  interchangeable  (Acts,  xx,  17,  28; 
Tit.,  i,  6,  7).  The  New  Testament  does  not  clearly 
show  the  dislini'lidii  l>i>tween  presbyters  and  bishops, 
and  we  mu^t  ex:! mine  its  evidence  in  the  light  of  later 
times.  Towaiils  the  cnil  of  the  second  century  there 
is  a  universal  and  unquestioned  tradition,  that  bishops 
and  their  superior  authority  date  from  Apostolic  times 
(see  HiEH.\RCHy  of  the  Early  Church).  It  throws 
much  light  on  the  New-Testament  evidence  and  we 
find  that  what  appears  distinctly  at  the  time  of  Igna- 
tius can  be  traced  through  the  pastoral  epistles  of  St. 
Paul,  to  the  very  beginning  of  the  history  of  flic  Mother 
Church  at  Jerusalem,  where  St.  James,  the  brother 
of  the  Lord,  appears  to  occupy  the  position  of  bishop 
(Acts,  xii,  17;  xv,  13;xxi,  18;  Gal.,  ii,  9) ;  Timothy  and 
Titus  possess  full  cjiiscopal  authority,  and  were  ever 
thus  recognized  in  tradition  (cf.  Tit.,  i,  5;  I  Tim.,  v, 
19  and  22).  No  doubt  there  is  much  obscurity  in  the 
New  Testament,  but  this  is  accounted  for  by  many 
reasons.  The  monuments  of  tradition  never  give  us 
the  hfe  of  the  Church  in  all  its  fullness,  and  we  cannot 
expect  this  fullness,  with  regard  to  the  internal  organi- 
zation of  the  Church  existing  in  Apostolic  times,  from 
the  cursory  references  in  the  occasional  writings  of 
the  New  Testament.  The  position  of  bishops  would 
necessarily  be  much  less  prominent  than  in  later 
times.  The  supreme  authority  of  the  Apostles,  the 
great  number  of  charismatically  gifted  persons,  the 
fact  that  various  Churches  were  ruled  by  Apostolic 
delegates  who  exercised  episcopal  authority  under 
Apostolic  direction,  would  prevent  that  special 
prominence.  The  union  between  bishops  and  presby- 
ters was  close,  and  the  names  remained  interchange- 
able long  after  the  distinction  between  presbyters  and 
bishops  was  commonly  recognized,  e.  g.,  in  Iren., 
"  Adv.  ha-res.",  IV,  xxvi,  2.  Hence  it  would  seem  that 
already,  in  the  New  Testament,  we  find,  obscurely  no 
doubt,  the  same  ministry  which  appeared  so  distinctly 
afterwards. 

Which  of  the  Orders  are  Sacramental? — All  agree 
that  there  is  but  one  Sacrament  of  Order,  i.  e.,  the 
totality  of  the  power  conferred  by  the  sacrament  is 
contained  in  the  supreme  order,  whilst  the  others  con- 
tain only  part  thereof  (Bt.  Thomas,  "Supplem.",  Q. 
xxxvii,  a.  i,  ad  2"'").  The  sacramental  character  of  the 
priesthood  has  never  been  denied  by  anyone  who  ad- 
mitted the  Sacrament  of  Order,  and,  though  not  ex- 
plicitly defined,  it  follows  immediately  from  the  state- 
ments of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Thus  (Sess.  XXIII, 
can.  2),  "If  any  one  saith  that  besides  the  priesthood 
there  are  not  in  the  Catholic  Church  other  orders, 
both  major  and  minor,  by  which  as  by  certain  steps, 
advance  is  made  to  the  priesthood,  let  him  be  anath- 
ema." In  the  fourth  chapter  of  the  same  session,  after 
declaring  that  the  Sacrament  of  Order  imprints  a 
character  "which  can  neither  be  effaced  nor  taken 
away;  the  holy  synod  with  reason  condemns  the  opin- 
ion of  those  who  assert  that  priests  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment have  only  a  temporarj'  power".  The  priesthood 
is  therefore  a  sacrament. 

With  regard  to  the  episcopate  the  Council  of  Trent 
defines  that  bishops  belong  to  the  divinely  instituted 
hierarchy,  that  they  are  superior  to  priests,  and  that 
they  have  the  power  of  confirming  and  ordaining 
which  is  proper  to  them  (Sess.  XXIII,  c.  iv,  can.  6,  7). 
The  superiority  of  bi.shops  is  abundantly  attested  in 
Tradition,  anrl  we  have  seen  above  that  the  distinction 
between  priests  ,and  bishops  is  of  Apostolic  origin. 
Most  of  the  older  scholastics  were  of  opinion  that  the 
episcopate  is  not  a  sacrament ;  this  opinion  finds  able 
defenders  even  now  (e.  g..  Billot,  "De  sacramentis", 
II),  though  the  majority  of  theologians  hold  it  is  cer- 


ORDERS 


281 


ORDERS 


tain  that  a  bishop's  ordination  is  a  sacrament.  With 
regard  to  the  sacramental  cliaracterof  tlie  other  orders 
see  Deacons;  Minor  Orders;  Subdeacons. 

Matter  wid  Form. — In  the  question  of  the  matter 
and  form  of  tliis  sacrament  we  nuist  distinguish  be- 
tween the  three  higher  orders  and  the  subdiaconate 
and  minor  orders.  Tiie  Church  having  instituted  the 
latter,  also  determines  their  matter  and  form.  With 
regard  to  the  former,  the  received  opinion  maintains 
that  the  imposition  of  hands  is  the  sole  matter.  This 
has  been  undoubtedly  used  from  the  beginning;  to  it, 
exclusively  and  directly,  the  conferring  of  grace  is  as- 
cribed by  St.  Paul  and  many  Fathers  and  councils.  The 
Latin  Church  used  it  exclusively  for  nine  or  ten  cen- 
turies, and  the  Greek  Church  to  this  day  knows  no 
other  matter.  Many  scholastic  theologians  have  held 
that  the  tradition  of  the  instruments  was  the  sole 
matter  even  for  the  strictly  hierarchical  orders,  but  this 
position  has  long  been  universally  abandoned.  Other 
scholastics  held  that  both  imposition  of  hands  and  the 
tradition  of  the  instruments  constitute  the  matter 
of  the  sacrament;  this  opinion  still  finds  defenders. 
Appeal  is  made  to  the  Decree  of  Eugene  IV  to  the 
Armenians,  but  the  pope  spoke  "of  the  integrating  and 
accessorj'  matter  and  form,  which  he  wished  Arme- 
nians to  add  to  the  imposition  of  hands,  long  since  in 
use  amongst  them,  that  they  might  thus  conform  to 
the  usage  of  the  Latin  Church,  and  more  firmly  adhere 
to  it,  by  uniformity  of  rites"  (Bened.,  XIV,  "  De  syn. 
dioc",  VIII,  X,  8).  The  real  foundation  of  the  latter 
opinion  is  the  power  of  the  Church  with  regard  to  the 
sacrament.  Christ,  it  is  argued,  instituted  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Order  by  instituting  that  in  the  Church  there 
should  be  an  external  rite,  which  would  of  its  own  na- 
ture signify  and  confer  the  priestly  power  and  corre- 
sponding grace.  As  Christ  did  not  ordain  His  Apostles 
b}'  imposition  of  hands,  it  would  seem  that  He  left 
to  the  Church  the  power  of  determining  by  which  par- 
ticular rite  the  power  and  grace  should  be  conferred. 
The  Church's  determination  of  the  particular  rite 
would  be  the  fulfilling  of  a  condition  reciuired  in  order 
that  the  Divine  institution  should  take  effect.  The 
Church  determined  the  simple  imposition  of  hands  for 
the  East  and  added,  in  the  course  of  time,  the  tradition 
of  the  instruments  for  the  West — changing  its  sym- 
bolical language  according  as  circumstances  of  place 
or  time  required. 

The  question  of  the  form  of  the  sacrament  naturally 
depends  on  that  of  the  matter.  If  the  tradition  of  the 
instruments  be  taken  as  the  total  or  partial  matter, 
the  words  which  accompany  it  will  be  taken  as  the 
form.  If  the  simple  imposition  of  hands  be  consid- 
ered the  sole  matter,  the  words  which  belong  to  it  are 
the  form.  The  form  which  accompanies  the  imposi- 
tion of  hands  contains  the  words  "Accipe  spiritum 
sanctum  ",  which  in  the  ordination  of  priests,  however, 
are  found  with  the  second  imposition  of  hands,  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  Mass,  but  these  words  are  not 
found  in  the  old  rituals  nor  in  the  Greek  Euchology. 
Thus  the  form  is  not  contained  in  these  words,  but  in 
the  longer  prayers  accompanying  the  former  imposi- 
tion of  hands,  substantially  the  same  from  the  begin- 
ning. All  that  we  have  said  about  the  matter  and 
form  is  speculative ;  in  practice,  whatever  has  been  pre- 
scribed by  the  Church  must  be  followed,  and  the 
Church  in  this,  as  in  other  sacraments,  insists  that  any- 
thing omitted  should  be  supplied. 

Effect  of  the  Sacrament. — The  first  effect  of  the  sac- 
rament is  an  increase  of  sanctifying  grace.  With  this, 
there  is  the  sacramental  grace  which  makes  the  recip- 
ient a  fit  and  holy  minister  in  the  discharge  of  his 
office.  As  the  duties  of  God's  ministers  are  manifold 
and  onerous,  it  is  in  perfect  accord  with  the  rulings  of 
God's  Providence  to  confer  a  special  grace  on  His  min- 
isters. The  dispensation  of  sacraments  requires  grace, 
and  the  rightful  discharge  of  sacred  offices  presupposes 
a  special  degree  of  spiritual  excellence.     "The  external 


sacramental  sign  or  the  power  of  the  order  can  be  re- 
ceived and  may  exist  without  this  grace.  Grace  is 
required  for  the  worthy,  not  the  valid,  exercise  of  the 
power,  which  is  immediately  and  inseparably  con- 
nected with  the  priestly  character.  The  principal 
effect  of  the  sacrament  is  the  character  (q.  v.),  a 
spiritual  and  indelible  mark  impressed  upon  the  soul, 
by  which  the  recipient  is  distinguished  from  others, 
designated  as  a  minister  of  Christ,  and  deputed  and 
empowered  to  perform  certain  offices  of  Divine  wor- 
ship (Summa,  III,  Q.  Ixiii,  a.  2).  The  sacramental 
character  of  order  distinguishes  the  ordained  from  the 
laity.  It  gives  the  recipient  in  the  diaconate,  e.  g., 
the  power  to  minister  officially,  in  the  priesthood,  the 
power  to  offer  the  Sacrifice  and  dispense  the  sacra- 
ments, in  the  episcopate  the  powerto  ordain  new  priests 
and  to  confirm  the  faithful.  The  Council  of  Trent  de- 
fined the  existence  of  a  character  (Sess.  VII,  can.  9). 
Its  existence  is  shown  especially  by  the  fact  that  ordi- 
nation like  baptism,  if  ever  valid,  can  never  be  re- 
peated. Though  there  have  been  controversies  with 
regard  to  the  conditions  of  the  validity  of  ordination, 
and  different  views  were  held  at  different  times  in  ref- 
erence to  them,  "it  has  always  been  admitted  that  a 
valid  ordination  cannot  be  repeated.  Reordinations 
do  not  suppose  the  negation  of  the  inamissible  charac- 
ter of  Order — they  presuppose  an  anterior  ordination 
which  was  null.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  mistakes 
were  maae  regarding  the  nullity  of  the  first  ordination, 
but  this  error  of  fact  leaves  the  doctrine  of  the  initer- 
ability  of  ordination  untouched"  (Saltet,  "Les  Re- 
ordinations", .392). 

Minister. — The  ordinary  minister  of  the  sacrament 
is  the  bishop,  who  alone  has  this  power  in  virtue  of  his 
ordination.  Holy  Scripture  attributed  the  power  to 
the  Apostles  and  their  successors  (Acts,  vi,  6;  xvi.  22; 
I  Tim.,  V,  22;  II  Tim.,  i,  6;  Tit.,  i,  5),  and  the  Fathers 
and  councils  ascribe  the  power  to  the  bishop  exclu- 
sively. Con.  Nic.  I,  can.  4,  Apost.  Const.  VIII,  28 
"  A  bishop  lays  on  hands,  ordains  ...  a  presbyter  lays 
on  hands,  but  does  not  ordain."  A  council  held  at 
Alexandria  (340)  declared  the  orders  conferred  by 
Caluthus,  a  presbyter,  null  and  void  (.\thanas., 
"Apol.  contra  Arianos",  ii).  For  the  custom  said  to 
have  existed  in  the  Church  of  Alexandria  see  Egypt. 
Nor  can  objection  be  raised  from  the  fact  that  chor- 
episcopi  are  known  to  have  ordained  priests,  as  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  some  chorcpiscopi  were  in  bish- 
ops' orders  (Gillman,  "Das  Institut  der  Chorbischofe 
im  Orient,"  Munich,  1903;  Hcfele-Leclercq,  "Con- 
ciles",  II,  1197-1237).  No  one  but  a  bishop  can  give 
any  orders  now  without  a  delegation  from  the  pope, 
but  a  simple  priest  may  be  thus  authorized  to  confer 
minor  orders  and  the  subdiaconate.  It  is  generally 
denied  that  priests  can  confer  priests'  orders,  and  his- 
tory, certainly,  records  no  instance  of  the  exercise  of 
such  extraordinary  ministry.  The  diaconate  cannot 
be  conferred  by  a  simple  priest,  according  to  the  ma- 
jority of  theologians.  This  is  sometimes  questioned, 
as  Innocent  VIII  is  said  to  have  granted  the  privilege 
to  Cistercian  abbots  (1489),  but  the  genuineness  of  the 
concession  is  very  doubtful.  For  lawful  ordination 
the  bishop  must  be  a  Catholic,  in  commimion  with  the 
Holy  See,  free  from  censures,  and  must  observe  the 
laws  prescribed  for  ordination.  He  cannot  lawfully 
ordain  any  except  his  own  subjects  without  authoriza- 
tion (see  below). 

Subject. — Every  baptized  male  can  validly  receive 
ordination.  Though  in  former  times  there  were  sev- 
eral semi-clerical  ranks  of  women  in  the  Church  (see 
Deaconesses),  they  were  not  admitted  to  orders  prop- 
erly so  called  and  had  no  spiritual  power.  The  first 
requisite  for  lawful  ordination  is  a  Divine  vocation; 
by  which  is  understoodthe  action  of  God,  whereby  He 
selects  some  to  be  His  special  ministers,  endowing 
them  with  the  spiritual,  mental,  moral,  and  physical 
qualities  required  for  the  fitting  discharge  of  their  or- 


ORDERS 


282 


ORDERS 


der  and  inspiring  tliom  witli  a  sincere  desire  to  enter 
the  eeelesijistical  state  for  God's  honour  and  their  own 
sanctification.  The  reality  of  tliis  Divine  eall  is  mani- 
fested in  general  by  sanctity  of  life,  right  faitli,  know- 
ledge corresponding  to  the  iirojier  exercise  of  the  order 
to  which  one  is  raised,  absence  of  physical  ilefects,  the 
age  required  by  the  canons  (see  lRRE(7i'LAniTY). 
Sometimes  this  call  was  manifested  in  an  extraordi- 
narj'  manner  (Acts,  i,  15;  xiii,  2);  in  genend,  however, 
the  "calling"  was  made  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
Church  founded  on  the  example  of  tlie  Apostles. 
Though  clergy  and  laity  had  a  voice  in  the  election  of 
the  candidates,  the  ultimate  and  definite  determina- 
tion rested  with  the  bishops.  The  election  of  the  can- 
didates b}'  clergj'  and  laity  was  in  the  nature  of  a  tes- 
timony of  fitness,  the  bishop  had  to  personally  ascer- 
tain the  candidates'  qualifications.  A  public  inquiry 
was  held  regarding  their  faith  and  moral  character 
and  the  electors  were  consulted.  Only  such  as  were 
personally  known  to  the  electing  congregation,  i.  e., 
members  of  the  same  Church,  were  chosen. 

A  specified  age  was  required,  and,  though  there  was 
some  diversity  in  different  places,  in  general,  for  dea- 
cons the  age  was  twenty-five  or  thirty,  for  priests 
thirtj'  or  thirty-five,  for  bishops  thirty-five  or  forty 
or  even  fifty  (.4post.  Const.,  II,  i).  Nor  was  phy.sical 
age  deemed  sufficient,  but  there  were  prescribed  speci- 
fied periods  of  time,  during  which  the  ordained  should 
remain  in  a  particular  degree.  The  different  degrees 
were  considered  not  merely  as  steps  preparatory  to  the 
priesthood,  but  as  real  church  offices.  In  the  begin- 
ning no  such  periods,  called  interstices,  were  appointed, 
though  the  tendency  to  orderly  promotion  is  attested 
already  in  the  pastoral  Epistles  (I  Tim.,  iii,  3,  16). 
The  first  rules  were  apparently  made  in  the  fourth 
century.  They  seem  to  have  been  enforced  by  Siriciua 
(385)  and  somewhat  modified  by  Zosimus  (41S),  who 
decreed  that  the  office  of  reader  or  exorcist  should  last 
till  the  candidate  was  twenty,  or  for  five  years  in  case 
of  those  baptized  as  adults;  four  years  were  to  be  spent 
as  acolyte  or  subdeacon,  five  years  as  deacon.  This 
was  modified  by  Pope  Gelasius  (492),  according  to 
whom  a  layman  who  had  been  a  monk  might  be  or- 
dained priest  after  one  year,  thus  allowing  three 
months  to  elapse  between  each  ordination,  and  a  lay- 
man who  had  not  been  a  monk  might  be  ordained 
priest  after  eighteen  months.  At  present  the  minor 
orders  are  generally  conferred  together  on  one  day. 

The  bishops,  who  are  the  ministers  of  the  sacrament 
ex  officio,  must  inquire  about  the  birth,  person,  age, 
title,  faith,  and  moral  character  of  the  candidate. 
They  must  examine  whether  he  is  born  of  Catholic 
parents,  and  is  spiritually,  intellectually,  morally,  and 
physically  fit  for  the  exercise  of  the  ministry.  The  age 
required  by  the  canons  is  for  subdeacons  twenty-one, 
for  deacons  twenty-two,  and  for  priests  twenty-four 
years  completed.  The  pope  may  dispense  from  any 
irregularity  and  the  bishops  generally  receive  some 
power  of  dispensation  also  with  regard  to  age,  not 
usually  for  subdeacons  and  deacons,  but  for  priests. 
Bishops  can  generally  dispense  for  one  year,  whilst  the 
pope  gives  dispensation  for  over  a  year;  a  dispensation 
for  more  than  eighteen  months  is  but  very  rarely 
granted.  For  admission  to  minor  orders,  the  testi- 
mony from  the  parish  priest  or  from  the  master  of  the 
school  where  the  candidate  was  educated — generally, 
therefore,  the  superior  of  the  seminary — is  required. 
For  major  orders  further  inquiries  must  be  made. 
The  names  of  the  candidate  must  be  published  in  the 
place  of  his  birth  and  of  his  domicile  and  the  result  of 
Buch  inquiries  are  to  be  forwarded  to  the  bishop.  No 
bishop  may  ordain  those  not  belonging  to  his  diocese 
by  reason  of  birth,  domicile,  benefice,  or  familiarilas, 
without  dimissorial  letters  from  the  candidate's  bishop. 
Testimonial  letters  are  also  required  from  all  the 
bishops  in  whose  dioceses  the  candidate  has  resided 
for  over  six  months,  after  the  age  of  seven.     Trans- 


gression of  this  rule  is  punished  by  suspension  laic? 
senlentice  against  the  ordaining  bishop.  In  recent 
years  several  decisions  insist  on  the  strict  interpreta- 
tion of  these  rules.  Subdeacons  and  deacons  should 
pass  one  full  year  in  these  orders  anfl  they  may  then 
proceed  to  receive  the  priesthood.  This  is  laid  down 
by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIII,  c.  xi.),  which  did 
not  prescribe  the  time  for  minor  orders.  The  bishop 
generally  has  the  power  to  dispense  from  these  inter- 
stices, but  it  is  absolutely  forbidden,  unless  a  special 
indult  be  obtained,  to  recei\'e  two  major  orders  or  the 
minor  orders  and  the  subdiaconate  in  one  day. 

For  the  subdiaconate  and  the  higher  orders  there 
is,  moreover,  required  a  title,  i.  e.,  the  right  to  receive 
maintenance  from  a  determined  source.  Again,  the 
candidate  must  observe  the  interstices,  or  times  re- 
quired to  elapse  between  the  reception  of  various  or- 
ders; he  must  also  have  received  confirmation  and  the 
lower  orders  preceding  the  one  to  which  he  is  raised. 
This  last  requirement  does  not  affect  the  validity  of 
the  order  conferred,  as  every  order  gives  a  distinct  and 
independent  power.  One  exception  is  made  by  the 
majority  of  theologians  and  canonists,  who  are  of 
opinion  that  episcopal  consecration  requires  the  pre- 
vious reception  of  priest's  orders  for  its  validity. 
Others,  however,  maintain  that  episcopal  power  in- 
cludes full  priestly  power,  which  is  thus  conferred  by 
episcopal  consecration.  They  appeal  to  history  and 
bring  forward  cases  of  bishops  who  were  consecrated 
without  having  previously  received  priest's  orders, 
and  though  most  of  the  cases  are  somewhat  doubtful 
and  can  be  explained  on  other  grounds,  it  seems  im- 
possible to  reject  them  all.  It  is  further  to  be  remem- 
bered that  scholastic  theologians  mostly  required  the 
previous  reception  of  priest's  orders  for  valid  episcopal 
consecration,  because  they  did  not  consider  episcopacy 
an  order,  a  view  which  is  now  generally  abandoned. 

Obligations. — For  obligations  attached  to  holy  Or- 
ders see  Breviary;  Celibacy  of  the  Clergy. 

Ceremonies  oj  Ordination. — From  the  beginning  the 
diaconate,  priesthood,  and  episcopate  were  conferred 
with  special  rites  and  ceremonies.  Though  in  the 
course  of  time  there  was  considerable  development  and 
diversity  in  different  parts  of  the  Church,  the  imposi- 
tion of  hands  and  prayer  were  always  and  universally 
employed  and  date  from  Apostolic  times  (Acts,  vi,  6; 
xiii,  3;  I  Tim.,  iv,  14;  II  Tim.,  i,  6).  In  the  early 
Roman  Church  these  sacred  orders  were  conferred 
amid  a  great  concourse  of  clergy  and  people  at  a 
solemn  station.  The  candidates,  who  had  been  pre- 
viously presented  to  the  people,  were  summoned  by 
name  at  the  beginning  of  the  solemn  Mass.  They 
were  placed  in  a  conspicuous  position,  and  anyone 
objecting  to  a  candidate  was  called  upon  to  state 
his  objections  without  fear.  Silence  was  regarded  as 
approval.  Shortly  before  the  Gospel,  after  the  candi- 
dates were  presented  to  the  pope,  the  entire  congrega- 
tion was  invited  to  prayer.  All  prostrating,  the  litan- 
ies were  recited,  the  pope  then  imposed  his  hands  upon 
the  head  of  each  candidate  and  recited  the  Collect 
with  a  prayer  of  consecration  corresponding  to  the 
order  conferred.  The  Galilean  Rite  was  somewhat 
more  elaborate.  Besides  the  ceremonies  used  in  the 
Roman  Church,  the  people  approving  the  candidates 
by  acclamation,  the  hands  of  the  deacon  and  the  head 
and  hands  of  priests  and  bishops  were  anointed  with 
the  sign  of  the  Cross.  After  the  seventh  century  the 
tradition  of  the  instruments  of  office  was  added,  alb 
and  stole  to  the  deacon,  stole  and  planeta  to  the  priest, 
ring  and  staff  to  the  bishop.  In  the  Eastern  Church, 
after  the  presentation  of  the  candidate  to  the  congre- 
gation and  their  shout  of  approval,  "He  is  worthy", 
the  bishop  imposed  his  hands  upon  the  candidate  and 
said  the  consecrating  prayer. 

We  now  give  a  short  description  of  the  ordination 
rite  for  priests  as  found  in  the  present  Roman  Pon- 
tifical.    All  the  candidates  should  present  themselves 


ORDERS 


283 


ORDERS 


in  the  church  with  tonsure  and  in  clerical  dress,  carry- 
ing the  vestments  of  the  order  to  which  they  are  to  be 
raised,  and  lighted  candles.  They  are  all  summoned 
by  name,  each  candidate  answering  " Adsxim". 
When  a  general  ordination  takes  place  the  tonsure  is 
given  after  the  Introit  or  Kyrie,  the  minor  orders  after 
the  Gloria,  subdiaconate  after  the  Collect,  the  diaconate 
after  the  Epistle,  priesthood  after  Alleluia  and  Tract. 
After  the  Tract  of  the  Mass  the  archdeacon  summons 
all  who  are  to  receive  the  priesthood.  The  candidates, 
vested  in  amice,  alb,  girdle,  stole,  and  maniple,  with 
folded  chasuble  on  left  arm  and  a  candle  in  their  right 
hand,  go  forward  and  kneel  around  the  bishop.  The 
latter  inquires  of  the  archdeacon,  who  is  here  the  rep- 
resentative of  the  Church  as  it  were,  whether  the  can- 
didates are  worthy  to  be  admitted  to  the  priesthood. 
The  archdeacon  answers  in  the  affirmative  and  his 
testimony  represents  the  testimony  of  fitness  given  in 
ancient  times  by  the  clergy  and  people.  The  bishop, 
then  charging  the  congregation  and  insisting  upon  the 
reasons  why  "the  Fathers  decreed  that  the  people  also 
should  be  consulted",  asks  that,  if  anyone  has  any- 
thing to  say  to  the  prejudice  of  the  candidates,  he 
should  come  forward  and  state  it. 

The  bishop  then  instructs  and  admonishes  the  can- 
didates as  to  the  duties  of  their  new  office.  He  kneels 
down  in  front  of  the  altar;  the  ordinandi  lay  them- 
selves prostrate  on  the  carpet,  and  the  Litany  of  the 
Saints  is  chanted  or  recited.  On  the  conclusion  of  the 
Litany,  all  arise,  the  candidates  come  forward,  and 
kneel  in  pairs  before  the  bishop  while  he  lays  both 
hands  on  the  head  of  each  candidate  in  silence. 
The  same  is  done  by  all  priests  who  are  present. 
Whilst  bishop  and  priests  keep  their  right  hands  ex- 
tended, the  former  alone  reciites  a  prayer,  inviting  all 
to  pray  to  God  for  a  blessing  on  the  candidates.  After 
this  follows  the  Collect  and  then  the  bishop  says  the 
Preface,  towards  the  end  of  which  occurs  the  prayer, 
"Grant,  we  beseech  Thee  etc."  The  bishop  then 
with  appropriate  formulae  crosses  the  stole  over  the 
breast  of  each  one  and  vests  him  with  the  chasuble. 
This  is  arranged  to  hang  down  in  front  but  is  folded 
behind.  Though  there  is  no  mention  of  the  stole  in 
many  of  the  most  ancient  Pontificals,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  of  its  antiquity.  The  vesting  with  the  chasuble 
is  also  very  ancient  and  found  already  in  Mabillon 
"Ord.  VIII  and  IX."  ^^fterwards  the  bishop  recites 
a  prayer  calling  down  God's  blessing  on  the  newly- 
ordained.  He  then  intones  the  "Veni  Creator",  and 
whilst  it  is  being  sung  by  the  choir  he  anoints  the 
hands  of  each  with  the  oil  of  catechumens. 

In  England  the  head  also  was  anointed  in  ancient 
times.  The  anointing  of  the  hands,  which  in  ancient 
times  was  done  with  chrism,  or  oil  and  chrism,  was  not 
used  by  the  Roman  Church,  said  Nicholas  I  (a.  d. 
864),  though  it  is  generally  found  in  all  ancient  or- 
dinals. It  probably  became  a  general  practice  in  the 
ninth  century  and  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
British  Church  (Haddan  and  Stubbs,  "Councils  and 
Eccl.  Documents",  I,  141).  The  bishop  then  hands 
to  each  the  chalice,  containing  wine  and  water,  with 
a  paten  and  a  host  upon  it.  This  rile,  with  its  corre- 
sponding formula,  which  as  Hugo  of  >St.  Victor  says 
("Sacr.",  Ill,  xii),  signifies  the  power  which  has  al- 
ready been  received,  is  not  found  in  the  oldest  rituals 
and  probably  dates  back  not  earUer  than  the  ninth  or 
tenth  century.  When  the  bishop  has  finished  the 
OfTertory  of  the  Mass,  he  seats  himself  before  the  mid- 
dle of  the  altar  and  each  of  those  ordained  make  an 
offering  to  him  of  a  Ughted  candle.  The  newly- 
ordained  priests  then  repeat  the  Mass  with  him,  all  say- 
ing the  words  of  consecration  simultaneously.  Before 
the  Communion  the  bishop  gives  the  kiss  of  peace  to 
one  of  the  newly-ordained.  After  the  Communion 
the  priests  again  approach  the  bishop  and  say  the 
Apostles'  Creed.  The  bishop  laying  his  hands  upon 
each  says:  "Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost,  whose  sins 


you  shall  forgive  they  are  forgiven  them;  and  whose 
sins  you  shall  retain,  they  are  retained."  This  imposi- 
tion of  hands  was  introduced  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  chasuble  is  then  folded,  the  newly-ordained  make 
a  promise  of  obedience  and  having  received  the  kiss  of 
peace,  return  to  theii  place. 

Time  and  Place. — During  the  first  centuries  ordi- 
nation took  place  whenever  demanded  by  the  needs 
of  the  Church.  The  Roman  pontiffs  generally  or- 
dained in  December  (Amalarius,  "De  offic",  11,  i). 
Pope  Gelasius  (494)  decreed  that  the  ordination  of 
priests  and  deacons  should  be  held  at  fixed  times  and 
days,  viz.,  on  the  fasts  of  the  fourth,  seventh,  and 
tenth  months,  also  on  the  fasts  of  the  beginning  and 
midweek  (Passion  Sunday)  of  I^ent  and  on  (holy) 
Saturday  about  sunset  (Epist.  ad  ep.  Luc,  xi).  This 
but  confirmed  what  Leo  the  Great  laid  down,  for  he 
seems  to  speak  of  ordination  on  Ember  Saturdays 
as  an  Apostolic  tradition  (Serm.  2,  de  jejun.  Pentec.) 
The  ordination  may  take  place  either  after  sunset  on 
the  Saturday  or  early  on  Sunday  morning.  The  or- 
dination to  major  orders  took  place  before  the  Gospel. 

Minor  orders  might  be  given  at  any  day  or  hour. 
They  were  generally  given  after  holy  communion.  At 
present  minor  orders  may  be  given  on  Sundays  and 
days  of  obligation  (suppressed  included)  in  the  morn- 
ing. For  the  sacred  orders,  a  privilege  to  ordain  on 
other  da^'s  than  those  appointed  by  the  canons,  pro- 
vided the  ordination  takes  place  on  Sunday  or  day  of 
obligation  (suppressed  days  included),  is  very  com- 
monly given.  Though  it  was  always  the  rule  that 
ordinations  should  take  place  in  public,  in  time  of  per- 
secution they  were  sometimes  held  in  private  buildings. 
The  place  of  ordinations  is  the  church.  Minor  orders 
may  be  conferred  in  any  place,  but  it  is  understood 
that  they  are  given  in  the  church.  The  Pontifical 
directs  that  ordinations  to  sacred  orders  must  be  held 
pubUcly  in  the  cathedral  church  in  presence  of  the 
cathedral  chapter,  or  if  they  be  held  in  some  other 
place,  the  clergy  should  be  present  and  the  principal 
church,  as  far  as  possible,  must  be  made  use  of  (cf. 
Cone.  Trid.,  Sess.  XXIII,  c.  vii).  (See  Subdeacon, 
Deacons,  Hierarchy,  Minor  Orders,  Aliment.'v- 
tign). 

The  subject  of  Order  is  treated  in  its  various  aspects  in  the 
general  works  on  Dogmatic  Theology  (Church  and  Sacra- 
ments). Billot;  Pesch.  De  Sacr.,  pars  II  (Freiburg,  1909); 
Tanquerey;  Hdrter;  Wilhelm  and  Scan.nell.  .i  Manual  of 
Catholic  Theology,  II  (London,  1908),  494-509;  Einig;  Tepl; 
Tournely;  Sasse;  Palmieri.  De  Romano  Pontifice;  Petavius, 
D,e  EccUsia;  Hibrarch  in  Dogm.,  Ill;  De  Augdstinis,  Haltz- 
clau  in  Wircehurgenses.  In  Moral  Theology  and  Canon  Law, 
Lehmkdhl;  Noldin,  De  Sacr.  (Innsbruck,  1906);  Aertnys; 
Genicot;  Ballerini-Palmieri;  Laure.vtius;  Devoti;  Crais- 
sox;  Lombardi;  Einig  in  Kirchenlei.,  a.  v.  Ordo;  Funk  in  Kradb, 
Real-Encykloptidie,  s.  v.  Ordo;  H.\TCH  in  Dictionary  of  Christian 
antiquities,  s.  v.  Orders,  Holy.  Special :  Hallier,  De  Sacris  Etec- 
tionibus  et  Ordinationibus  (Paris,  1636),  and  in  Migne,  Theol. 
Cursus,  XXIV;  MoRiN,  Comment,  historico-dogmaticus  de  sacria 
ecclesice  ordinationibus  (Paris,  1655) ;  Martene,  De  Aniiquis  Ec- 
clesiai  Rilibus  (Venice,  1733);  Benedict  XIV,  De  Synod.  Dio- 
ccesana  (Louvain,  1763);  Witasse.  De  Sacramento  Ordinis  (Paris, 
1717);  Denzinger,  Ritus  Orientalium  (Wurzburg,  1863);  Gab- 
PARRl,  Tractalus  Canonicus  de  Sacra  Ordinatione  (Paris,  1894); 
Bruders,  Die  Verfassung  der  Kirche  (Mainz,  1904),  365;  Words- 
worth. The  Ministry  of  Grace  (London,  19{)1) ;  Idem,  Ordination 
Problems  (London,  1909) ;  Whitham,  Holy  Orders  in  Oxford  Library 
of  Practical  Theology  (London,  1903);  Moberley.  Ministerial 
Priesthood  (London.  1897);Sanday,  Conception  of  Priesthood  (Lon- 
don. 1898);  Idem.  Priesthood  and  Sacrifice,  a  Report  (London, 
1900) ;  Harnack,  tr.  Owen.  Sources  of  the  Apostolic  Canons  (Lon- 
don, 1895) ;  Semeria,  Dogma,  Gerarchia  e  Culto  (Rome,  1902) ;  Du- 
chesne, Christian  Worship  (London,  1903);  Saltet,  Les  Riordi- 
nations  (Paris,  1907);  Mertens, //terarc/iie  in  deecrsfe.scuwen  des 
Christendoms  (Amsterdam,  1908) ;  Gore,  Orders  and  Unity  (Lon- 
don, 1909).  For  St.  Jerome's  opinions  see  Sanders,  Etudes  sur 
St.  Jerome  (Brussels,  1903),  and  the  bibliography  on  Hierarchy, 
ibid.,  pp.  335-44. 

H.  Ahaus. 
Orders,  Mendicant.     See  Mendicant  Friars. 
Orders,  Military.  _See  Military  Orders. 
Orders,  Minor.    See  Minor  Orders. 
Orders,  Relkiious.     See  Religioils  Orders. 
Orders  of  Merit.    See  Decorations,  Pontifical. 


ORDINARIATE 


284 


ORDINES 


Ordinariate  (from  Ouiunauy,  q.  v.). — This  tiTin 
is  usoil  in  spi'aking  colk'i'tivoly  of  all  the  various;  or- 
Riins  through  which  :in  ordinary,  ami  cspfoially  a 
bishop,  exercises  the  diflferent  forms  of  his  authority. 
This  word,  which  is  employed  particularly  in  Germany, 
does  not  occur  in  strict  canonical  language;  but  it  is 
exactly  equivalent  to  what  canonists  call  the  curia. 
Just  as  the  pope  is  ofTioially  responsible  for  all  that 
is  done  in  his  name  and  by  his  authority  in  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  the  Roman  Curia  (congregations  of 
cardinals,  tribunals,  offices),  so,  too,  an  ordinary  and 
especially  a  bishop  bears  the  official  responsibility  of 
whatever  is  done,  in  his  name  and  with  his  authority, 
by  the  persons  or  committees  composing  his  curia, 
who  are  the  organs  of  his  administration  (vicar-general, 
official,  judges,  secretaries,  councils  of  various  kinds). 
Whatever  may  be  the  exact  form  of  this  administra- 
tion in  each  diocese,  it  is  still  the  diocesan  adminis- 
tration and  the  ordinariate.  (See  Bishop;  Diocesan 
Chancery;  Official;  Vicar-General;  Vicar  Ca- 
pitular.) 

a.  boudinhon. 

Ordinary  (Lat.  ordinarius,  i.  e.,  judex),  in  ecclesi- 
astical language,  denotes  any  person  possessing  or 
exercising  ordinary  jurisdiction,  i.  e.,  jurisdiction  con- 
nected permanently  or  at  least  in  a  stable  way  with 
an  office,  whether  this  connexion  arises  from  Divine 
law,  as  in  the  case  of  popes  and  bishops,  or  from  posi- 
tive church  law,  as  in  the  case  mentioned  below.  Or- 
dinary jurisdiction  is  contrasted  with  delegated  juris- 
diction, a  temporary  communication  of  power  made 
by  a  superior  to  an  inferior;  thus  we  speak  of  a  dele- 
gated judge  and  an  ordinary  judge.  A  person  may 
be  an  ordinary  within  his  own  sphere,  and  at  the  same 
time  have  delegated  powers  for  certain  acts  or  the  ex- 
ercise of  special  authority.  The  jurisdiction  which 
constitutes  an  ordinary  is  real  and  full  jurisdiction  in 
the  external  forum,  comprising  the  power  of  legis- 
lating, adjudicating,  and  governing.  Jurisdiction  in  the 
internal  forum,  being  partial  and  exercised  only  in 
private  matters,  does  not  constitute  an  ordinary. 
Parish  priests,  therefore,  are  not  ordinaries,  though 
they  have  jurisdiction  in  the  internal  forum,  for  they 
have  not  jurisdiction  in  the  external  forum,  being  in- 
capable of  legislating  and  acting  as  judges;  their  ad- 
ministration is  the  exercise  of  paternal  authority  rather 
than  of  jurisdiction  properly  so  called. 

There  are  various  classes  of  ordinaries.  First,  they 
are  divided  into  those  having  territorial  jurisdiction 
and  tho.se  who  have  not.  As  a  rule  ordinary  juris- 
diction is  territorial  as  well  as  personal,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  pope  and  the  bishops;  but  ordinary  jurisdiction 
may  be  restricted  to  certain  persons,  exempt  from  the 
local  authority.  Such  for  instance  is  the  jurisdiction 
of  regular  prelates,  abbots,  generals,  and  provincials 
of  religious  orders  making  solemn  vows ;  they  can  legis- 
late, adjudicate,  and  govern;  consequently  they  are  or- 
dinaries; but  their  jurisdiction  concerns  individuals, 
not  localities;  they  are  not,  like  the  others,  called  local 
ordinaries,  ordinarii  locorum.  Superiors  of  congre- 
gations and  institutes  bound  by  simple  vows  are  not 
ordinaries,  though  they  may  enjoy  a  greater  or  less  de- 
gree of  administrative  exemption.  The  jurisdiction 
of  local  ordinaries  arises  from  Divine  law  or  ecclesias- 
tical law.  The  pope  is  the  ordinary  of  the  entire 
church  and  all  the  faithful ;  he  has  ordinary  and  im- 
mediate juri.sdiction  over  all  (Cone.  Vatic.,  Const. 
"Pastor  aiternus",  c.  iii).  BLshops  are  the  p.astors 
and  ordinary  judges  in  their  dioceses,  appointed  to 
govern  their  churches  by  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts,  xx, 
28).  Certain  bishops  have,  by  ecclesiastical  law,  a 
mediate  ordinary  power  over  other  bishops  and  dio- 
ceses; these  are  the  metropolitans,  primates,  and  pa- 
triarchs. In  a  lower  rank,  there  is  another  class  of 
ordinaries,  viz.,  prelates  who  exercise  jurisdiction  in 
the  external  forum  over  a  given  territory,  which  is  not 


a  diocese,  either  in  their  own  name,  as  in  the  case  of 
prelates  or  abbots  iiiillins  or  in  the  name  of  the  pope, 
like  vicars  and  prefei^ts  Apostolic  until  the  erection  of 
their  territories  into  comi)l<'te  dioceses. 

Local  ordinaries  hciiiK  unable  personally  to  perform 
all  acts  of  their  jurisilicfion  may  and  even  ought  to 
communicate  it  permanently  to  certain  persons,  with- 
out, however,  divesting  themselves  of  their  authority; 
if  the  duties  of  these  persons  are  specified  and  deter- 
mined by  law,  they  also  are  ordinaries,  but  in  a  re- 
stricted and  inferior  sense.  This  is  vicarial  jurisdic- 
tion, delegated  as  to  its  source,  but  ordinary  as  to  its 
exercise,  and  which  would  be  more  accurately  termed 
quasi-ordinary.  In  this  sense  vicars-general  and  dioc- 
esan officials  are  ordinaries;  so  also,  in  regard  to  the 
pope,  the  heads  of  the  various  organs  of  the  Curia  are 
ordinaries  for  the  whole  Church;  the  cardinal  vicar 
for  the  Diocese  of  Rome  and  his  district;  the  legate  a 
latere,  for  the  country  to  which  he  is  sent.  Finally, 
there  are  ordinaries  with  an  interimary  and  transitory 
title  during  the  vacancy  of  sees.  Thus  when  the  Holy 
See  is  vacant,  the  ordinaries  are  the  College  of  Cardi- 
nals and  the  cardinal  camerlengo;  when  a  diocese,  the 
chapter  and  also  the  vicar  capitular,  and  in  general  the 
interimary  administrator;  so,  too,  the  vicar,  for  re- 
ligious orders.  These  persons  possess  and  exercise 
exterior  jurisdiction,  although  with  certain  restric- 
tions, and  this  in  virtue  of  their  office;  they  are 
therefore  ordinaries. 

In  practice,  the  determination  of  the  persons  in- 
cluded under  the  term  ordinary  is  of  importance  in  the 
case  of  indults  and  the  execution  of  rescripts  issued 
from  Rome.  Since  the  decrees  of  the  Holy  Office 
dated  20  February,  1888,  and  20  April,  1898,  indults 
and  most  of  the  rescripts,  instead  of  being  addressed 
to  the  bishop,  are  addressed  to  the  ordinary;  and  it 
has  been  declared  that  the  term  ordinary  comprises 
bishops,  Apostolic  administrators,  vicars,  prelates 
or  prefects  with  separate  territorial  jurisdiction,  and 
their  officials  or  vicars-general;  and  also,  during  the 
vacancy  of  a  see,  the  vicar  capitular  or  lawful  admin- 
istrator. Thus  the  powers  are  handed  on,  without 
intermission  or  renewal,  from  one  ordinary  to  his 
successor.     (See  Jurisdiction.) 

See  the  canonical  writers  on  the  titles  De  officio  judicis  ordinarii, 
1.  I,  tit.  31,  and  De  officio  ordinarii,  1. 1,  tit.  16,  in  VI :  Sagmuller, 
Lehrbuch  des  kathol.  Kirchenrechts  (Freiburg,  1909),  §60,  87  aq. 
A.  BOUDINHON. 

Ordination.    See  Orders,  Holy. 

Ordines  Romani. — The  word  Ordo  commonly 
meant,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  a  ritual  book  containing 
directions  for  liturgical  functions,  but  not  including 
the  text  of  the  prayers  etc.,  recited  by  the  celebrant 
or  his  asssistants.  These  prayers  were  contained  in 
separate  books,  e.  g.,  the  Sacramentary,  Antiphonary, 
Psalter,  but  the  Ordo  concerned  itself  with  the  cere- 
monial pure  and  simple.  Sometimes  the  title  ' '  Ordo  " 
was  given  to  the  directions  for  a  single  function, 
sometimes  to  a  collection  which  dealt  in  one  docu- 
ment with  a  number  of  quite  different  functions  e.  g., 
the  rite  of  baptism,  the  consecration  of  a  church, 
extreme  unction,  etc.  Amalarius  (early  ninth  cen- 
tury) speaks  of  the  WTitings  "qua!  continent  per 
diversos  libellos  Ordinem  Romanum"  (P.  L.,  CV, 
1295).  Speaking  generally,  the  word  Ordo  in  this 
sense  gave  place  after  the  twelfth  century  to  "Care- 
moniale",  "Ordinarium"  and  similar  terms,  but  was 
retained  in  other  senses,  especially  to  denote  the 
brief  conspectus  of  the  daily  Office  and  Mass  as  adap- 
ted to  the  local  calendar  (see  Directories). 

A  considerable  luniiber  of  Ordines  arc  preserved 
among  our  manuscripts  frorji  the  eighth  to  the  twelfth 
century.  The  first  priiilcd  m  nHjdcrn  times  was  the 
so-called  "Ordo  Romanus  Vulgatus",  which  after 
an  edition  published  by  (jeorge  Cassander  at  Cologne 
(in  1.561)  was  reprinted  by  Hittorp  in  his  "De  divinis 
catholica)  ccclesia;  officiis"   (Cologne,   1568)  and  is 


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285 


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hence  often  known  as  the  Ordo  Romanus  of  Hittorp. 
This  is  not  a  pure  Roman  document  of  early  date. 
Already  in  the  seventeenth  century  G.  M.  Tomasi 
rightly  characterized  it  as  a  "farrago  diversorum 
rituum  secundum  varias  consuetudines",  and  de- 
clared that  its  heterogeneous  elements  could  only  be 
disentangled  by  careful  study  of  the  earlier  Ordines. 
At  present  it  is  regarded  as  the  work  of  a  compiler  in 
Gaul  in  thi'  scciiiul  half  of  the  tenth  century,  the  pre- 
cise date  being  still  disputi'd  (cf.  Monchemeyer,  "Am- 
alar  von  Metz",  14Uand214;  Biiumerin  "Katholik", 
18S9,  I,  621)).  Moreover,  this  conflated  Ordo  Roma- 
nus of  Hittorp  which  is  largely  derived  from  the  first, 
second,  third,  and  sixth  of  the  Ordines  of  Mabillon, 
mentioned  below,  is  only  one  among  a  number  of 
analogous  compilations.  Similar  documents  of  about 
the  same  period  have  been  published  by  other  scholars ; 
c.  g.,by  Martene  ("Thes.  nov.anec",  V,  101 — this  is  a 
valuable  monastic  Ordo  of  comparatively  early  date), 
by  Muratori  ("Lit.  Rom.  Vet.",  II,  391),  by  Gattico 
("Acta  caremon.",  I,  226),  and  by  Gerbert  ("Mon. 
Vet.  lit.  alem.",  II,  1  sqq.).  In  view  of  its  composite 
character,  the  Ordo  Vulgatus  is  of  no  great  liturgi- 
cal importance,  though  it  sometimes  fills  a  gap  in 
our  knowledge  upon  points  not  elsewhere  minutely 
treated.  It  deals  primarily  with  pontifical  high  Mass, 
but  it  also  describes  the  rite  of  the  consecration  of  the 
jiope  and  of  a  bishop,  the  dedication  of  churches,  the 
blessing  of  bells,  the  coronation  of  the  emperor  and 
of  a  king,  the  blessing  of  a  knight,  that  is  of  a  soldier 
{militis)  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  Church,  the 
benediction  of  a  bride,  and  the  ceremonies  to  be  ob- 
served in  the  opening  of  a  general  or  provincial  coun- 
cil. It  should  be  noticed,  moreover,  that  in  these 
miscellaneous  offices  we  do  not  find  the  characteristic 
features  of  an  ordo  in  its  technical  sense.  In  the  later 
portions  of  the  Ordo  Romanus  of  Hittorp  not  only  are 
the  details  of  the  ceremonial  indicated  in  their  due 
sequence,  but,  as  in  a  modern  Pontifical,  the  text  of 
the  prayers,  blessings  etc.,  to  be  recited  by  the  cele- 
brant, is  given  in  full. 

Much  more  valuable  to  the  liturgical  student  is  the 
series  of  fifteen  consuetudinaries,  first  printed  by 
Mabillon  in  his  "  Museum  ItaUcum"  (1689),  to  which 
the  terra  Orduies  Romani  is  commonly  applied.  They 
are  not  indeed  all  of  them  pure  and  homogeneous 
documents,  neither  do  they  represent  an  unadul- 
terated Roman  tradition,  nor  are  they  all,  strictly 
speaking,  Ordines  in  the  sense  defined  above.  But 
in  default  of  better  material,  and  while  we  are  waiting 
for  more  profound  critical  investigation  to  sort  out  our 
earliest  documents  and  assign  to  them  their  proper 
date  and  provenance,  Mabillon's  Ordines  constitute 
the  most  rehable  source  of  information  regarding  the 
early  liturgical  usages  of  the  Roman  Church.  Cov- 
ering the  whole  period  from  the  sixth  to  the  fifteenth 
century,  they  may  be  said,  taken  collectively,  to  have 
some  pretensions  to  completeness. 

Ordo  I. — The  first  of  these  Ordines  Romani,  de- 
scribing the  ceremonies  of  a  solemn  Mass  celebrated 
by  the  pope  himself  or  his  deputy,  is  the  most  valua- 
bie,  as  it  is  also  one  of  the  most  ancient.  Modern  opin- 
ion inclines  to  the  belief  that  the  early  part  of  it  (num- 
bers 1-21)  really  represents  in  substance  the  usages 
of  a  stational  Mass  in  the  time  of  Pope  Gregory  the 
Great  (Kosters,  "Studien  zu  Mabillons  rom.  Ord.",  6; 
cf.  Grisar,  ".Vnalecta  Romana",  I,  193),  but  there  are 
also,  undoubtedly,  in  our  present  text  adjustments  and 
additions  which  must  be  attributed  to  the  end  of  the 
seventh  century  (Atchley,  "Ord.  Rom.  Primus",  7,  fa- 
vours a  later  date,  but  in  this  he  only  follows  Probst). 
The  fact  that  .\malarius,  who  seems  to  have  had  a  copy 
of  this  Ordo  before  him,  did  not  find  its  description 
of  paschal  ceremonies  in  agreement  with  the  actual 
Roman  practice  of  his  day,  as  expounded  to  him  by 
Archdeacon  Theodore  in  832,  need  not  lead  us,  with 
Monchemeyer  ("Amalar",   141),  to  the  conclusion 


that  the  ceremonial  never  represented  the  official  Ro- 
man use,  and  that  it  was  merely  an  outline  serving  as 
a  model  for  similar  ceremonies  in  the  Prankish  domin- 
ions. On  the  contrary,  so  far  as  regards  numbers  1- 
21,  every  detail  attaches  itself  in  th.^  rliisrst  way  to  the 
pontifical  ceremonies  of  Rome.  An  iutnidmt  ion  por- 
tions out  the  liturgical  service  among  the'  cIi  tics  of  the 
seven  regions.  Then  the  procession  to  the  stational 
church  and  the  arrival  and  reception  there  are  mi- 
nutely described.  This  is  followed  with  an  account  of 
the  vesting,  the  Introit,  the  Kyries,  the  Collects,  and 
all  the  early  part  of  the  Mass.  Very  full  details  are 
also  given  of  the  manner  of  the  reception  of  the  offer- 
ings of  bread  and  wine  from  the  clergy  and  people, 
and  to  this  succeeds  a  description  of  the  Canon,  the 
Kiss  of  Peace,  the  Communion,  and  the  rest  of  the 
Mass.     The  account  ends  with  number  21. 

This  is  the  section  which  Grisar  has  proved,  with  all 
reasonable  probabiUty,  to  belong  to  the  time  of  Greg- 
ory the  Great  ("Analecta  Romana",  195-213).  In 
one  or  two  points  the  evidence  of  early  date  must  im- 
press even  the  casual  reader.  Such  is  the  bringing  of 
the  holy  Eucharist  to  the  pontiff  when  the  procession 
moves  towards  the  altar-steps  before  the  beginning  of 
Mass.  It  is  thus  described  in  n.  8:  "But  before  they 
arrive  at  the  altar  .  .  .  two  acolytes  approach  holding 
open  pixes  containing  the  Holy  Things  [temmtcs  capsas 
cum  Sanctis  palenles];  and  the  subdeacon  attendant 
taking  them  and  keeping  his  hand  in  the  aperture  of 
the  pix  shows  the  Holy  Things  to  the  pontiff  or  to  the 
deacon  who  goes  before  him.  Then  the  pontiff  or  the 
deacon  salutes  the  Holy  Things  with  bowed  head." 
Nothing  of  this  appears  in  the  account  of  Amalarius, 
who  could  hardly  have  failed  to  record  it  if  it  had  been 
in  existence  in  his  time.  Quite  in  accordance  with 
such  an  inference,  this  bringing  of  the  Eucharist  to  the 
pontiff  has,  in  the  second  Ordo  Romanus,  admittedly 
of  later  date,  been  replaced  by  a  sort  of  visit  of  the 
pontiff  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  the  church,  a 
practice  observed  in  pontifical  Masses  to  this  day. 
Again  we  may  note  that  the  first  Ordo  contains  no 
mention  of  the  Credo,  which  was  certainly  in  use  in 
Rome,  according  to  Walafrid  Strabo,  about  the  year 
800.  Again  the  word  cardinales,  in  accordance  with 
the  usage  of  St.  Gregory's  own  letters,  is  not  applied  to 
the  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  attached  to  the  papal 
service,  but  in  the  later  chapters  of  the  same  Ordo, 
we  do  find  reference  to  preshyteri  cardinales  (n.  48). 
All  these,  with  other  indications  of  early  date,  are 
pointed  out  by  Grisar.  It  is  not  easy  to  prove  that 
the  second  portion  of  the  first  Ordo,  nn.  22-51,  was  all 
originally  one  document.  On  the  contrary,  nn.  22 
and  48-51  seem  to  be  closely  connected,  while  all  the 
intervening  numbers  (23-47),  giving  an  account  of 
the  services  in  Lent  and  the  last  three  days  of  Holy 
Week  and  showing,  in  several  details,  signs  of  a  later 
origin,  are  clearly  continuous  and  indcprndent  of  the 
rest.  The  fact  that  Pope  Hadrian  and  Charlemagne 
are  mentioned  in  this  section,  as  al.so  that  the  Mass  of 
the  Presanctified  (contrary  to  the  Einsicddii  Ordo  of 
the  seventh  century  pubhshed  by  De  Kossi  in  "In- 
scrip.  Christ.",  II,  i,  34)  was  celebrated  by  the  iioiitiff 
on  Good  Friday  after  the  veneration  of  the  Cross, 
prove  that  this  section  can  hardly  be  older  than  the 
ninth  century.  Finally  the  chapters  published  by 
Mabillon  from  another  manuscript  as  an  appendix 
to  Ordo  I  under  a  separate  numeration  have  clearly  no 
immediate  connexion  with  what  goes  before.  They 
simply  provide  another  series  of  directions  for  Lent 
and  the  last  days  of  Holy  Week,  sometimes  coinciding 
even  verbally  with  the  rubrics  given  in  nn.  23-47  and 
Hoirietiiiii's  differing  in  various  particulars.  This  ap- 
pendix is  genrrally  assumed  to  be  later  in  date  than 
the  sec<]nd  section  of  the  Ordo. 

Ordo  II. — The  second  Ordo  Romanus  printed  by 
Mabillon  describes  again  a  solenm  pontifical  Mass  and 
is  clearly  based  upon  the  first  portion  of  Ordo  I,  some- 


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286 


ORDINES 


times  quotinj;,  or  opitoiiiizing,  but  elsewhere  develop- 
ing ami  adapting  the  directions  of  the  earlier  docu- 
ment. It  contains  some  ritual  features  which  arc 
certainly  not  of  Roman  but  of  Galilean  origin  (for 
example  the  recitation  of  the  Creed  in  tlie  Mass,  which 
some,  in  spite  of  NN'alafrid  Stralio,  consider  not  to  have 
been  known  in  Rome  before  the  eleventli  century,  as 
also  the  giving  of  a  pontifical  blcssinf;  after  the"  Pax 
Domini").  It  is  generally  accepted  tliat  this  Ordo  II 
belongs  to  the  time  of  the  general  introduction  of  the 
Roman  Liturgy  into  ( laul  in  the  days  of  Cliarlemagne, 
i.  e.  about  tlie  begiiuiing  of  tlie  ninth  century.  This 
Ordo,  as  well  as  ( )r(lo  1  and  imibably  another  now  lost, 
was  known  to  Amalarius,  who  in  his  "Eeloga"  has 
annotated  it  with  a  view  to  the  spiritual  edification 
of  his  readers. 

Ordo  III  and  Ordo  IV  contain  yet  another  series 
of  directions  for  a  solemn  Mass  celebrated  by  the  pope. 
That  of  Ordo  IV  is  only  a  fragment,  but  both  III  and 
IV  are  generally  considered  older  than  the  eleventh 
century.  Mabillon  considered  Ordo  III  to  be  dis- 
tinctly of  later  date  than  II  and  the  fact  that  the 
stational  church  in  III  is  called  "Monasterium",  a 
designation  which  does  not  seem  to  have  come  into  use 
before  the  ninth  century,  lends  support  to  this  view. 
It  is  also  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  this  Ordo  III  was 
apparently  unknown  to  Amalarius.  On  the  other 
hand  III  has  clearly  been  extensively  used  in  the  com- 
pilation of  the  Ordo  Romanus  Vulgatus,  which,  as 
already  stated,  probably  took  shape  in  the  second  half 
of  the  tenth  century.  That  the  fragmentary  Ordo 
IV  is  of  later  date  than  any  of  those  previously  men- 
tioned has  been  inferred  by  Mabillon  from  the  fact 
that  the  pope  is  here  described  as  communicating  at 
the  altar  and  not  at  his  throne,  as  in  the  preceding 
rituals.  Still,  the  manuscript  in  which  it  is  found  can- 
not be  later  than  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh  century 
(Ebner,  "Quellen",  133). 

Ordo  V  and  Ordo  VI  are  again  entirely  consecrated 
to  the  celebration  of  a  pontifical  high  Mass.  Ordo  V 
goes  into  details  as  to  the  vestments  worn  by  the  pope, 
and  separately  as  to  the  vestments  worn  by  a  Roman 
bishop  and  the  lesser  clergy.  It  is  specifically  a  Ro- 
man document  and  throughout  assumes  that  the  pope 
is  pontificating.  The  pope  here  communicates  at  his 
throne  and  the  Credo  is  sung  after  the  gospel.  But 
though  Berno  of  Reichenau  affirms  that  this  last  cus- 
tom only  began  at  Rome  in  1014,  the  fact  that  Wala- 
frid  Strabo  describes  it  as  sung  at  Rome  about  the  year 
800  (P.  L.,  CXIV,  947)  renders  this  a  very  unsatis- 
factory test  of  date.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sixth 
Ordo  is  not  directly  connected  with  Rome,  but  like 
Ordo  II  it  describes  the  ceremonies  of  a  pontifical 
Mass  adapted  from  the  papal  function  for  use  else- 
where. In  the  opinion  of  Kosters,  (Studien,  17)  it 
probably  belongs  to  the  first  half  of  the  tenth  century, 
since  it  was  used  by  the  compiler  of  the  Ordo  Vulgatus. 
It  has  been  copied  by  a  later  twelfth  century  hand 
upon  a  blank  page  of  the  English  "  Benedictional  of 
AJchbishop  Robert",  and  is  there  described  as  a  "rit- 
ual drawn  up  by  the  ancient  Fathers  of  the  West". 

Ordo  VII  is  probably  the  most  ancient  of  all  Mabil- 
lon's  Ordines  and  is  assigned  by  Probst,  Kosters,  and 
others  to  the  sixth  century.  The  whole  document 
deals  with  the  ceremonies  of  Christian  initiation,  i.  e. 
the  catechumenate  with  its  Lenten  scrutinies  (see 
Baptism),  the  rite  of  the  consecration  of  the  baptismal 
water,  the  baptism  itself,  and  finally  confirmation. 
The  Ordo  is  closely  related  to  the  Gelasian  Sacrament- 
ary,  and  the  prayers,  given  in  full  in  the  Gelasianum, 
are  here  for  the  most  part  only  indicated  by  their 
beginnings.  Like  the  Gelasianum,  the  Ordo  speaks 
throughout  of  infantes  as  if  they  alone  were  likely  to  be 
subjects  for  baptism,  and  the  whole  ceremony  is  modi- 
fied to  suit  the  case  of  infants  in  arms.  When  the 
catechumens  are  called  upon  to  recite  the  Nicene 
Creed,  it  is  directed  that  one  of  the  acolytes  shall  take 


up  one  of  the  children  upon  his  left  arm,  lay  his  right 
hand  upon  the  child's  head  and  recite  the  Creed  in 
Greek,  uiiile  another  acolyte,  holding  another  child, 
subscHiiiently  rcciti-s  the  Creed  in  Latin.  None  the 
less,  the  cercnidnial  of  the  scrutinies  was  originally 
designed  for  adidt  catechumens  wlio  were  capable  of 
understanding  the  ( lospels  and  of  learning  and  reciting 
the  Creed  for  themselves.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
Ordo  VII  consistently  regards  the  catechumens  as 
itifanlea,  this  cannot  be  interpreted  as  a  proof  of  rela- 
tively late  date,  for  we  find  that  already  :il  I  lie  be- 
ginning of  the  sixth  century  the  mr  iUiidrix.  Scnarius, 
asks  of  John,  deacon  of  Rome,  "quarc  Icrtio  ante 
Paseha  scrutinentur  infantes"  (why  the  infants  have 
to  undergo  the  scrutinies  three  times  before  Easter, 
Migne,  P.  L.,  LIX,  401).  Seeing  that  the  Gelasian 
Sacramentary  also  seems  to  know  only  of  three  scru- 
tinies, it  is  possible  that  Ordo  VII  which  requires  seven 
Bcrutines  may  be  of  even  older  date  than  the  sixth 
century,  for  it  is  hardly  likely  that  when  there  was 
question  of  none  but  infant  catechumens,  the  number 
of  scrutinies  should  have  been  increased  from  three  to 
seven.  The  whole  tendency  must  have  been  in  the 
direction  of  simplification.  It  may  be  noticed  that 
Mabillon's  Ordo  VII  is  incorporated  entire  in  an  in- 
struction on  baptism  by  Jesse,  Bishop  of  Amiens,  c. 
812. 

Ordo  VIII  is  concerned  with  the  subject  of  ordina- 
tions and  falls  naturally  into  two  divisions.  The  first 
part  deals  wit  li  t  lie  ordination  of  acolytes,  subdeacons, 
deacons,  and  jiriests,  the  second  with  the  ceremonial  of 
the  consecration  of  a  bishop.  Although  the  first  part 
is  extremely  concise,  and  the  second,  more  particu- 
larly in  regard  to  the  quatuor  capitida  (four  forms  of 
crime  held  to  be  a  bar  to  ordination),  is  relatively 
developed,  there  seems  no  sufficient  reason  for  ques- 
tioning the  essential  unity  of  the  whole  document.  In 
spite  of  certain  expressions,  notably  the  "ancilla  dei 
sacrata  qua;  a  Francis  nonnata  dicitur",  which  may 
easily  be  an  interpolation  or  a  gloss,  and  of  references 
to  the  Ember  seasons,  to  the  nomenclator,  and  the 
schola  (i.  e.  the  choir — which  last  seems  to  suggest  an 
age  posterior  to  Gregory  the  Great)  certain  critics, 
notably  Kosters  (Studien,  21-23) ,  make  no  difficulty  in 
assigning  the  document  to  the  early  part  of  the  sixth 
century.  It  is  certainly  noteworthy  that  though  there 
is  no  mention  in  Ordo  VIII  of  exorcists  or  any  cleric 
lower  than  the  grade  of  acolyte,  the  usages  described 
closely  agree  with  the  language  of  the  letter  of  Jo- 
hannes Diaconus  to  Senarius  at  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century  (Migne,  P.  L.,  LIX,  405).  The  function 
of  the  acolytes  "portandi  Sacramenta",  here  as  in 
Ordo  I,  is  recognized  by  assigning  to  them  httle  bags 
(sacciili)  as  their  distinctive  attribute,  instead  of  the 
candlestick  of  a  later  date,  while  the  delivery  of  the 
chalice  is  emphasized  as  the  significant  act  in  the  con- 
secration of  a  subdeacon.  When  Bishop  John  Words- 
worth (Ministry  of  Grace,  180)  assumes  that  the  deliv- 
ery of  the  chalice  is  a  Galilean  ceremony  and  that  it 
was  introduced  into  the  Roman  Church  in  the  seventh 
century  at  the  earliest,  he  has  clearly  forgotten  the 
exphcit  language  of  the  latter  to  Senarius:  "hie  apud 
nos  ordo  est  ut  accepto  sacratissimo  calice  in  quo  con- 
suevit  pontifex  dominici  sanguinis  immolare  myste- 
rium  subdiaconus  iam  dicatur".  Again  both  Kosters 
and  Grisar  (Gcschichte  Roms,  765)  regard  the  testing 
of  the  candidate  for  ordination  by  the  quatuor  capitula, 
requiring  him  to  swear  his  innocence  of  certain  un- 
natural crimes,  as  an  indication  which  points  to  an  age 
when  many  adult  pagans  still  entered  the  Church  as 
converts  and  were  likely  to  be  promoted  to  orders. 

Ordo  IX  is  entitled  "De  gradibus  Romana;  eccle- 
bIeb"  and  deals  briefly  with  the  ordinatiori  of  deacons 
and  priests,  with  the  consecration  of  a  bishop  some- 
what more  fully,  and  finally  with  the  consecration  and 
coronation  of  a  pope,  while  an  appendix  with  a  sepa- 
rate heading  treats  of  the  ember  days.    The  date  and 


ORDINES 


287 


ORDINES 


composition  of  this  document  has  recently  been  inves- 
tigated by  Dr.  Kosters  in  a  very  able  chapter  of  his 
"Studien".  His  conclusions  are,  that  the  substance  of 
the  Ordo  was  drawn  up  in  the  time  of  Pope  Constan- 
tine  I  (708-15),  and  underwent  some  revision  under 
Pope  Stephen  III  (752-7).  However,  the  most 
startling  part  of  Dr.  Kiisters'  discussion  is  his  demon- 
stration that  the  section  describing  the  coronation  of 
the  pope,  which  incidentally  introduces  the  name  of 
Leo,  belongs  not  to  the  period  of  Pope  Leo  lU  (c.  800), 
as  has  hitherto  been  .supposed,  but  to  that  of  Saint 
Leo  IX  (1044),  and  that  in  fact  the  papal  regnum,  or 
crown,  which  this  Ordo  describes  as  "made  of  white 
cloth  in  the  form  of  a  helmet",  was  for  the  first  time 
worn  by  that  pontiff.  The  statement  made  in  this 
Ordo  that  the  new  pope  should  be  a  priest  or  deacon 
ordained  by  his  predecessor  and  that  he  ought  not  to 
be  a  bishop  {nam  episcopus  esse  non  poterii)  is  particu- 
larly interesting  in  view  of  the  fact  that  Cardinal 
Deusdedit  in  the  eleventh  century,  who  comments  on 
the  text  of  this  document,  had  apparently  before  him 
no  clause  to  this  effect.  It  is  probably  an  interpola- 
tion of  about  that  period.  Other  points  of  interest  are 
the  mention  of  diaconissir  and  presbiterissa:,  and  the 
ceremony  of  holding  the  book  of  the  Gospels  over  the 
pope  at  his  ordination  (tenet  evangelium  super  caput  vel 
cervicem  eius) .  We  hear  of  this  last  ceremony  earlier  in 
the  East  (cf.  Apostolic  Con.stitutions,  VIII,  iv)  and  in 
Gaul,  and  it  is  now  part  of  the  rite  of  consecration  of 
every  bishop,  but  it  appears  late  at  Rome.  The  ap- 
pendix on  the  ember  days,  attached  to  this  Ordo  in 
the  Saint-Gall  Manuscript,  had  probably  no  original 
connexion  with  it  and  may  be  assumed  to  be  not 
Roman. 

Ordo  X  is  a  relatively  long  and  very  miscellaneous 
document  and  has  no  real  claim  to  be  included  in  the 
series  of  Ordines.  It  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  primitive 
form  of  Pontifical,  though  it  is  Roman  in  origin,  and  it 
is  difficult  to  persuade  oneself  that  it  has  not  resulted 
from  the  fusion  of  at  least  two  separate  elements.  The 
description  of  the  Holy  Week  ceremonies  which  occu- 
pies nn.  1-24  may  be  described  as  a  Ca?remoniale  pure 
and  simple,  and  so  is  the  burial  service  for  the  Roman 
clergy  in  nn.  36-40,  the  Roman  character  of  both  being 
unmistakable,  but  the  intervening  sections  26-3.5, 
which  consist  of  an  Ordo  for  administering  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Penance,  and  for  visiting,  anointing,  and  giv- 
ing Viaticum  to  the  sick,  form  a  service-book  complete 
in  itself,  including  not  merely  the  incipits  but  the  en- 
tire text  of  the  prayers  to  be  said  by  the  priest,  like 
any  modern  Ritual.  Thalhofer  (Liturgik,  I,  48)  has 
sought  to  draw  a  presumption  of  late  date  from  the 
form  of  absolution  in  n.  29,  which  is  indicative  and  not 
precative,  absolvimus  te  tnce  beati  Petri  etc.;  but  sub- 
stantially the  same  formula  occurs  with  an  interpo- 
lated Anglo-Saxon  translation  in  the  Egbert  Pontifical 
of  the  tenth  century.  Neither  are  the  reasons  con- 
vincing, upon  which  Kosters  bases  his  conclusion  that 
the  document  as  a  whole  is  posterior  to  the  year  1200. 
We  must  probably  be  content  to  leave  the  question  of 
date  unsettled. 

Ordo  XI  has  a  tolerably  full  account  of  the  papal 
ceremonial  as  it  extended  through  the  whole  ecclesias- 
tical year.  This  description  is  particularly  valuable, 
inasmuch  as  it  includes  not  only  the  functions  of  great 
solemnities  but  also  the  everyday  usages  and  a  consid- 
able  amount  of  detail  regarding  the  Divine  Office.  It 
has  lately  been  shown  by  Dr.  Kosters  that  what  we 
now  possess  in  Ordo  XI  is  only  a  fragment  of  a  much 
larger  work  compiled  by  Benedict,  Canon  of  St. 
Peter's,  which  was  primarily  a  treatise  upon  the  dig- 
nity of  the  Roman  pontiff  and  upon  the  cardinals  and 
various  officials  of  the  Roman  Court,  and  which  from 
the  nature  of  its  contents  was  called  "Liber  Politicus". 
This  title  has  left  a  trace  of  itself  in  the  heading  of  the 
manuscript  used  by  Mabillon,  where  by  a  strange  per- 
version it  appears  as  "liber  pollicitus".    The  treatise 


seems  to  have  been  completed  just  before  the  year 
1143. 

Ordo  XII  likewi.se  contains  a  somewhat  minute  de- 
scription of  the  papal  ceremonial  in  ecclesiastical  and 
quasi-ecclesiastical  functions  throughout  the  year, 
much  space  being  occupied  by  a  detailed  record  of 
the  regulations  followed  in  the  distribution  of  the 
bounties  called  presbyterin.  This  Ordo  is  avowedly 
extracted  from  the  "Liber  Censuum",  a  treatise  com- 
piled towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  by  Cardi- 
nal Cencius  de  Sabellis,  afterwards  Pope  Honorius  III 
(1216-1227).  But  here  again  Kosters  has  shown  that 
the  last  two  sections,  dealing  with  the  election  and 
consecration  of  the  pope  and  with  the  crowning  of  the 
emperor,  can  be  traced  back  to  the  "Politicus"  of 
Benedict.  Various  miscellaneous  matters,  concern- 
ing, e.  g.,  the  duties  and  dues  of  certain  minor  officials, 
the  oath  taken  by  senators  to  the  pope,  etc.,  also  find  a 
place  in  this  collection. 

Ordo  XIII  is  one  of  the  few  Ordines  which  we  pos- 
sess, at  least  substantially,  in  the  form  in  which  it  was 
first  written.  This  is  admittedly  an  official  treatise 
drawn  up  by  command  of  Pope  Gregory  X,  shortly 
after  the  publication  of  the  Constitution  "LTbi  pericu- 
lum",  issued  in  1274  to  regulate  the  procedure  of  the 
cardinals  a,ssembled  in  conclave  for  a  papal  election. 
The  earliest  portion  of  the  document  (nn.  1-12)  is  in 
fact  concerned  with  the  choice,  consecration,  and  coro- 
nation of  a  new  pope,  provision  being  made  for  the 
case  of  his  being  a  bishop,  priest,  or  deacon.  The  trea- 
tise seems  to  presuppose  an  acquaintance  with  Ordo 
XI  and  Ordo  XII  and  it  is  probably  in  consequence  of 
this  that  the  directions  for  the  ordinary  ceremonial  are 
very  conci.se.  This  Ordo  marks  the  transition  stage  to 
a  different  type  of  liturgical  document,  much  more  de- 
veloped and  distinctively  framed  with  a  \-iew  to  the 
part  played  by  the  Roman  pontiff  and  his  great  retinue 
of  ecclesiastical  officials.  Up  to  Ordo  XIII  we  may 
say  that  the  Ordines  Romani  are  represented  at  the 
present  day  by  the  "Pontificale"  and  the  "Cseremoni- 
ale  Episcoporum"  (q.  v.),  which  are  liturgical  text- 
books common  to  the  whole  of  Latin  Christianity. 
But  the  two  remaining  Ordines,  XIV  and  XV,  are  rep- 
resented to-day  by  the  " Ca!remoniale  Romanum", 
which  constitutes  the  rubrical  code  for  papal  functions 
in  Rome  and  has  no  application  in  the  ceremonial  of 
the  Catholic  Church  outside  the  Eternal  City. 

Ordo  XIV,  which  in  the  manuscripts  bears  the  sig- 
nificant title  "Ordinarium"  instead  of  Ordo,  is  a  much 
longer  document  than  any  of  those  hitherto  consid- 
ered. It  is  in  fact  the  first  rough  outline  of  the  bulky 
" Caeremoniale  Romanum"  which  regulates  the  detail 
of  papal  functions  at  the  present  day.  The  history  of 
Ordo  XIV  has  been  very  carefully  worked  out  by  Dr. 
Kosters  in  his  "Studien".  The  substance  of  the  docu- 
ment seems  to  have  been  the  work  of  Napoleone  Or- 
sini  and  Cardinal  Jacopo  Gaetani  Stefancschi,  the  lat- 
ter having  by  far  the  larger  share  of  its  composition. 
By  the  aid  of  a  manuscript  found  by  Father  Ehrle,  the 
librarian  of  the  Vatican,  at  Avignon,  we  are  able  to 
trace  how  the  work  took  shape.  (See  Denifle  and 
Ehrle,  "Archiv.  f.  Lit-  und  Kirchengeschichte  des. 
M.A.",  V,  564  sqq.)  It  was  begun  in  Rome  before  the 
popes  left  for  France,  but  it  was  further  developed  and 
modified  during  the  first  third  of  the  fourteenth  century 
while  the  papal  Court  was  at  Avignon,  and  we  know  at 
any  rate  that  the  first  nine  chapters  were  quoted,  as  we 
now  have  them,  in  the  conclave  which  assembled  in 
1334.  But  there  must  have  been  a  revision  of  the  trea- 
tise about  or  after  1389,  when  the  long  chapter  45: 
"  Incipit  Ordo  qualiter  Romanus  Pontifex  apud  basili- 
cam  beati  Petri  Apostoli  debeat  consecrari",  with  its 
directions  for  the  "possessio",  or  taking  possession  of 
the  Lateran,  was  drawn  up,  the  ceremony  being  in 
abeyance  while  the  popes  were  at  Avignon.  Long, 
however,  as  the  document  is,  and  fully  as  it  may  seem 
to  cover  the  ordinary  requirements  of  papal  official 


OREGON 


288 


OREGON 


life,  it  may  be  doubted  whet  her  we  possess  the  treatise 
in  its  entirety.  In  the  original  plan  of  Stefanesohi  we 
know  that  the  papal  obsequies  were  iiirluded,  but 
nothing  upon  this  liead  is  now  contained  in  Ordo  XIV, 
and  it  is  diflieult  to  conceive  that  this  omission  can 
have  taken  place  through  an  oversight  when  so  many 
other  needs  arc  minutely  provided  for. 

Oroo  XV  is  a  fresh  attempt  to  work  up  the  same 
materials,  while  supplying  at  the  same  time  the  lacu- 
nar which  had  hitherto  existed.  According  to  Kosters, 
chapters  1  100  and  143-153  were  first  drafted  in  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  and  were  revised  and 
supplemented  by  I'ietro  Amelii  down  to  the  year  1400. 
But  the  work  of  revision  and  modification  was  further 
carried  on  as  far  as  1435  by  Peter,  Bishoj)  of  Oloyca, 
while  a  final  editor,  who  may  very  possibly  have  been 
Peter  Kirten,  Bishop  of  Olivna,  put  a  last  "hand  to  the 
vvork  in  the  second  half  of  the  same  century.  A  selec- 
tion of  some  of  the  more  noteworthy  headings  of  the 
153  cliapters  of  the  work  will  perhaps  .serve  Ijeltcr  than 
anytliing  else  to  give  an  idea  of  the  comprrherisixcTicss 
of  this  prototype  of  the  Cseremonialc  liuniaiium, 
which  Mabillon  prints  under  the  name  of  Pietro 
Amelii: — 

Advent;  Vigil  of  the  Nativity;  Entoning  of  the  An- 
tiphons;  Matins;  Reading  of  the  Lessons;  First  Mass 
on  Christmas  Day;  Second  Mass;  Third  Mass;  St. 
Stephen  and  the  following  feasts;  Epiphany;  Bless- 
ing of  the  Candles  on  2  Feb.  with  the  Procession ;  Serv- 
ing the  Pope;  Ash  Wednesday;  What  happens  when 
the  King  receives  Ashes;  DiiTerent  occurrences  in 
Lent;  The  Progresses  of  the  Pope  in  penitential  Sea- 
sons; Taking  off  the  Pope's  Mitre;  Fourth  Sundav  of 
Lent  which  is  called  Rose  Sunday;  Blessing  ofthe 
Palms,  followed  by  detailed  instructions  for  the  Holy 
Week  ceremonies,  especially  regarding  the  Maundy 
and  the  banquet  on  Maundy  Thursday;  Cardinal- 
Priest  who  serves  the  Pope  on  Holy  Saturday;  Easter 
and  the  Communion  of  the  Cardinal  Deacons  etc.; 
Short  details  regarding  the  other  Feasts  of  the  Year; 
Office  for  the  Dead  on  All  Souls'  Dav;  What  is  to  be 
Observed  when  the  Pope  Sickens;  Death  of  the  Pope; 
Exequies  of  the  Pope;  Novendiale;  Distributions  of 
Cloth  after  the  Pope's  Death;  Directions  for  the  Con- 
clave. Meeting  a  Cardinal  who  comes  to  the  Roman 
Court;  Canonisations,  notably  that  of  St.  Bridget 
(1391).  ^ 

Ordines  Romani  Published  since  Mabillon. — 
Mabillon's  selection  by  no  means  exhausted  the  ma- 
terials of  this  nature  still  available.  Documents  un- 
known in  his  time  have  since  come  to  liglit  and  liave 
been  published  by  scholars  who  recognized  their  value. 
Foremost  amongst  these  is  the  Einsiedeln  Ordo,  al- 
ready alluded  to,  which  was  first  printed  by  De  Rossi 
in  his  "Inscriptiones  Christianae"  (II,  I,  34)  and  has 
since  been  re-edited  by  Duchesne  in  his  "Origines  du 
Culte  Chrdtien"  (tr.  Christian  Worship,  481).  This 
supplies  an  earlier  and  more  purely  Roman  account  of 
the  ceremonial  of  the  last  three  days  of  Holy  Week 
than  that  contained  in  Mabillon's  Ordo  I.  Again  an 
extremely  important  text  covering  much  the  same 
ground  as  Ordo  I  but  including,  besides  the  pontifical 
Mass  and  the  Holy  Week  ceremonial,  some  account 
of  the  ember-day  ordinations,  the  rite  of  the  dedica- 
tion of  a  church  with  relics,  and  the  candle  procession 
on  the  feiist  of  the  Purification,  has  been  published  by 
Mgr  Duchesne  in  the  work  just  named  from  a  ninth- 
century  manuscript  of  St-Amand.  Other  documents 
of  less  moment  have  been  printed  by  Gerbert  in  his 
"Monumenta  vet.  lit.  aleman."  (St.  Blasien,  1770),  by 
Martfene  in  his  "De  antiquis  eccles.  ritibus",  by  Ros- 
ters as  an  appendix  to  his  "Studien"  and  by  others. 

The  Ordines  Romani  of  Mabillon  were  first  published  in  his 
Musirum  Ilaliriim  (Paris.  1689).  with  a  full  introduction  and  an- 
notations. The  whole  has  been  reprinted  in  Migne,  P.  L., 
LXXXVIII,  S.il  sqq.  By  far  the  best  discussion  of  the  subject 
is  by  KoBTERH,  Studien  zu  Mabillons  mm  Ord.  (MQnster,  1905) ; 
but  see  also  Kober  in  KirchenUx.,  s.  v.;  Pbobst,  Die  tUieeten 


rgmischen  Sakramevlnrirn  und  Ordines  (Mttnster,  1892),  380  sqq.; 
GRI9AR  in  Znl~,-I,rifl  (  k„ll,.  Tliridimc,  1881.  pp.  699  scm.,  1885, 
pp.  SSSsqi].,  !->■"■    iM.    7  '7  ^. in.:  Idkm.  .l/»i/<T(a  Romium  (Home, 

1899).  198,-.,! I  ,  K  KiiMMi.  Iiluruik.  I  {FrcilmrK,  1894). 

4r>  aqq.;  Mi  i.i  i  ji,  /  -  ,  ;,.;  i)unrlnUrl,rift.  1,802,  Oil  a<jq,;  Atch- 
LKT,  Ordii  Ru:na:,.,     V,  i„.u..  U-oudoli.  19ll.'>). 

Herbert  Thurston. 


Oregon,  one  of  the  Pacific  Coa,st  States,  seventh  in 
size  among  the  states  of  the  Union.  It  received  its 
name  from  the  Oregon  (now  the  Columbia)  Hiver, 
which  is  the  state's  greatest  iidand  waterway. 
The  ultimate  origin  of  the  name  is  obscure.  Oregon 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  State  of  Washington, 
on  the  east  by  Idaho,  on  the  south  by  Nevada  and 
California,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its 
length  is  300  miles  from  north  to  south;  its  breadth 
396  miles.  Its  total  area  is  96,030  sq.  miles,  including 
1470  of  water  surface.  It  lies  between  42°  and  46° 
18'  N.  lat.,  and  between  116°  .35'  and  124°  35'  W.  long. 

Physical  Characteristics. — In  the  western  por- 
tion of  the  state  two  mountain  ranges  one  hundred 
miles  apart  run  parallel  with  the  coast  line;  in  the 
eastern  part  there 
stretches  out  a 
vast  inland  pla- 
teau. The  coast 
range  traverses 
the  state  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about 
twenty  miles  from 
the  ocean;  it  has 
an  average  height 
of  3500  feet,  ami 
is  densely  coverec 
with  fir,  spruce, 
and  cedar,  most  of 
which  is  valuable 

for  lumber.     The  ^^ 

Cascade   Moun-  Se^l  of  Oregon 

tains,  a  prolon- 
gation of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  extend  through  the  state 
from  north  to  south  at  a  distance  of  about  120  miles 
from  the  coast.  While  the  average  height  of  tliis 
range  is  about  6000  feet,  it  is  crowned  with  a  line  of 
extinct  volcanoes  whose  snow-capped  peaks  reach  a 
height  of  9000  feet,  Mt.  Hood,  just  east  of  the  city  of 
Portland,  attaining  an  altitude  of  11,225  feet. 

Division. — The  state  is  divided  physically  into 
three  sections  known  as  Western,  Southern,  and  East- 
ern Oregon,  differing  in  temperature,  rainfall,  and 
products.  The  Willamette  Valley  lies  in  Western 
Oregon.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Columbia 
River,  on  the  east  by  the  Cascades,  on  the  west  by  the 
Coast  Range,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Calapooia  Mts. 
It  is  the  most  thickly  settled  part  of  the  state,  and  is 
noted  for  its  beautiful  farm  homes  and  equable  climate. 
The  valley  is  about  100  miles  Icmg,  and  has  an  average 
width  of  sixty  miles,  not  including  its  mountain 
slopes.  It  presents  one  beautiful  sweep  of  valley  con- 
taining about  5,000,000  acres,  all  of  which  is  highly 
fertile.  It  is  drained  by  the  Willamette  River,  which 
runs  north,  receives  the  waters  of  many  important 
streams  rising  in  the  Cascades  and  coast  range,  and 
discharges  into  the  Columbia  River,  just  north  of 
Portland.  Western  Oregon  also  includes  the  impor- 
tant counties  west  of  the  Willamette  Valley  on  the 
coast.  Southern  Oregon  lies  west  of  the  Cascades, 
between  the  Willamette  Valley  and  California.  It 
comprises  the  counties  of  Douglas,  Coos,  Curry,  Jose- 
phine, and  Jackson.  The  principal  streams  of  this 
section  are  the  Umpqua  and  Rogue  Rivers,  which 
rise  in  the  Cascades,  pierce  the  Coast  Range,  and 
empty  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  valleys  of  the.se 
rivers  are  notable  for  their  abundant  and  varied  fruit 
production.  The  mountains  in  this  section  are  rich 
in  gold,  which  is  extensively  mined.  The  portion  of 
this  section  west  of  the  coast  range  is  generally  heavily 


OREGON 


289 


OREGON 


timbered  with  fir,  spruce,  and  cedar.  Extensive  coal 
deposits  are  found,  some  of  which  are  developed  and 
yield  largely.  Coos  Bay  is  one  of  the  best 
harbours  on  the  Oregon  Coast.  Eastern  Oregon 
embraces  all  the  state  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
forming  a  parallelogram  275  miles  long  and  230  miles 
wide.  It  is  a  great  inland  plateau  of  an  altitude 
varying  bctwci'n  2(1110  ami  .TOOO  feet.  The  southern 
half  of  tliis  ])lafi'.iu  Ix-ldiigs  to  the  Great  American 
Basin,  while  the  northern  portion  slopes  towards  the 
Columbia  river  valley.  In  the  north-eastern  part  of 
the  state,  between  the  Snake  and  Columbia  rivers, 
are  the  Blue  Mountains  whose  summits  are  more  than 
6000  feet  high,  and  whose  streams  are  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  irrigation.  The  Government  is  reclaiming 
large  tracts  by  irrigation  in  this  section.  Here  also 
is  the  most  valuable  and  important  mineral  belt  of 
the  state.  In  the  southern  ijortion  of  Eastern  Oregon 
are  several  short  mountain  ranges  from  2000  to  3000 
feet  high  which  are  a  continuation  of  the  longitudinal 
basin-ranges  of  Nevada.  Irrigation  is  contributing 
largely  towards  bringing  this  section  into  prominence. 
The  Klamath  irrigation  project,  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  United  States  Government,  contains 
about  200,000  acres  and  is  making  rapid  progress. 

Resources. — All  the  four  great  natural  resources — ■ 
viz:  forest,  fisheries,  soil,  and  minerals — are  present 
in  almost  inexhaustible  supply  awaiting  development. 

Lumber. — Oregon  has  approximately  three  hundred 
billion  feet  of  standing  merchantable  timber  (or 
nearly  one-fifth  of  the  standing  merchantable  timber 
in  the  United  States) ,  valued  at  $3,000,000,000.  Tim- 
ber covers  about  57  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the  state. 
Apart  from  the  value  of  this  timber  as  a  source  of 
lumber  supply,  it  serves  an  important  purpose  in 
maintaining  a  perpetual  flow  of  water  in  the  mountain 
streams  by  retarding  the  melting  of  snow  and  holding 
a  continuous  supply  of  moisture  in  the  ground  during 
the  summer.  The  most  densely  timbered  area  of  the 
state  is  west  of  the  Cascade  Range,  due  to  the  greater 
rainfall  in  that  section.  The  average  stand  of  timber 
on  the  forested  area  west  of  the  cascades  is  17,700 
feet  B.  M.  to  the  acre.  Localities  where  the  stand  is 
50,000  feet  per  acre  for  entire  townships  are  common  in 
the  coast  counties  of  Clatsop  and  Tillamook.  Some 
sections  are  found  where  a  yield  of  150,000  feet  to  the 
acre  is  estimated,  many  of  the  trees  scaling  40,000 
feet  or  more  of  commercial  lumber.  The  Douglas 
fir  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  300  feet,  and  five  to 
six  feet  in  thickness.  Bridge  timbers  more  than  100 
feet  in  length  are  obtained  from  these  trees.  About 
66  per  cent  of  the  timber  is  of  this  variety,  which 
yields  more  commercial  product  to  the  acre  than  any 
other  tree  in  North  America.  Three  per  cent  of  the 
merchantable  timber  of  Oregon  is  hardwood,  such  as 
ash,  oak,  maple,  and  myrtle.  There  are  about  ninety- 
five  species  that  attain  to  the  dignity  of  trees:  of  these 
thirty-eight  are  coniferous,  seventeen  deciduous  soft- 
woods, and  forty  hardwoods.  At  present  the  lumber 
industry  is  one  of  Oregon's  chief  sources  of  revenue. 
The  output  of  sawed  lumber  for  1906  was  2,500,000,000 
feet  valued  at  $30,000,000.  The  output  of  other  forest 
products  (piling,  poles,  shingles,  ties,  etc.)  brought 
the  total  forest  product  from  the  state  for  that  year 
to  the  sum  of  $60,000,000,  which  is  about  the  average 
annual  production.  Portland  is  the  largest  lumber 
shipping  port  in  the  world.  The  work  of  preventing 
destructive  forest  fires  is  carried  on  by  the  United 
States  Government  on  its  forest  reserves,  and  the 
state  maintains  a  patrol  of  300  men  to  protect  the 
forests  of  the  state. 

Minerals. — There  is  a  great  wealth  and  variety  of 
minerals  to  be  found  in  Oregon,  including  gold,  silver, 
copper,  iron,  asbestos,  nickel,  platinum,  coal,  anti- 
mony, lead,  and  clay,  salt  and  alkali  deposits,  and 
an  inexhaustible  supply  of  building  stone  (including 
sandstone,  limestone,  and  volcanic  rock).  Gold  is 
XI.— 19 


found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  seventeen  counties, 
and  is  the  only  mineral  mined  to  any  notable  extent. 
It  is  found  especially  in  the  Blue  Mountains.  A  large 
number  of  quartz  mills  are  operated  in  Eastern  and 
Southern  Oregon,  and  in  these  districts  placer  mines 
yield  largely.  There  are  two  pronounced  copper 
zones  in  the  state — one  in  Baker  County,  the  other 
in  the  south-western  section.  Oregon  coals  are  ligni- 
tic,  the  largest  bed  uncovered  being  in  the  vicinity 
of  Coos  Bay.  The  largest  iron  beds  in  the  state  are 
in  the  Willamette  Valley.  The  ore  is  of  limonite 
variety,  showing  about  fifty  per  cent  of  metallic  iron. 

Fisheries. — Oregon  is  unequalled  by  any  other  state 
in  salmon  fisheries  and  canning.  The  most  notable 
species  of  salmon  is  the  Columbia  River  Royal  Chi- 
nook. The  fish  industry  in  the  state  produces  up- 
wards of  $5,000,000  annually.  Reckless  overfishing 
threatened  to  exliaust  the  supply  and  to  imperil  the 
industry,  until  the  state  regulated  it  by  law  and  pro- 
vided for  it  by  hatcheries.  The  state  through  its 
department  of  fisheries  operates  at  the  annual  expense 
of  $50,000  ten  salmon  hatcheries,  from  which  nearly 
70,000,000  young  salmon  are  liberated  annually. 
Thus  the  Columbia  River  is  made  to  produce  year 
after  year  practically  the  same  supply  of  salmon.  In 
addition  to  the  canneries,  cold  storage  plants  are 
operated,  practically  the  whole  output  of  which  is 
shipped  to  European  markets. 

Agriculture. — Late  years  have  seen  a  great  expan- 
sion in  all  lines  of  farming.  In  1908  the  total  produc- 
tion of  the  farms  of  the  State  represented  a  gross  value 
of  about  one  hundred  million  dollars.  Owing  to  the 
lack  of  a  large  rural  population,  however,  only  a  frac- 
tion of  the  agricultural  lands  of  the  state  yield  even  a 
respectable  revenue.  The  most  thickly  settled  agri- 
cultural sections  are  the  great  Willamette  Valley  in 
Western  Oregon  (where  nearly  everything  grown  in  a 
temperate  climate  thrives),  and  a  stretch  of  nearly 
five  hundred  miles  of  rich  bottom  land  along  the  Co- 
lumbia River  and  the  shore  line  of  the  coast  counties. 
The  great  wheat  and  meat  producing  section  of  the 
state  is  in  Eastern  and  Central  Oregon.  The  Colum- 
bia River  Basin  in  Eastern  Oregon  is  one  of  the  best 
grain  districts  in  the  world.  Wasco,  Sherman,  Gil- 
liam, Morrow,  and  Umatilla  counties  produce  from 
ten  to  fifteen  million  bushels  of  wheat  annually.  The 
soil  is  mainly  a  volcanic  ash  and  silt,  very  fertile  and 
generally  deep.  Hood  River,  among  the  best-known 
apple  regions  in  the  world,  is  included  in  this  district. 
Umatilla  County  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  this  sec- 
tion: its  wheat  crop  averages  about  5,000,000  bushels 
annually,  while  the  alfalfa  lands,  comprising  about 
50,000  acres,  yield  three  crops  each  year,  totalling 
seven  tons  to  the  acre.  Live  stock  is  also  an  extensive 
industry :  there  are  in  this  county  about  350,000  sheep 
(with  fleeces  averaging  9J-^  pounds)  and  30,000 
cattle.  Most  of  the  sheep  and  a  large  proportion  of 
the  cattle  of  the  state  are  raised  in  central  Oregon 
which  comprises  about  twenty  million  acres.  This 
immense  territory  has  been  hitherto  without  any  rail- 
road communication  whatever,  and  is  at  present  de- 
voted to  range  systems  of  husbandry.  South-eastern 
Oregon,  comprising  Klamath  and  Lake  Counties, 
is  a  stock  and  dairy  section.  On  1  Jan.,  1909,  the 
live  .stock  of  the  state  was  valued  at  $54,024,000.  The 
revenue  to  the  state  from  dairy  products  was  $17,- 
000,000.  In  Southern  Oregon  poultry  raising  has 
become  quite  an  industry,  and  this  section  practically 
supplies  the  large  cities  on  the  coast. 

Means  of  Communication. — Oregon  is  bounded  on 
three  sides  by  navigable  water:  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the 
west,  the  Columbia  River  on  the  north,  and  the  Snake 
River  on  the  east.  Nin&  inlets  on  the  western  coast 
provide  harbour  facilities.  Of  these  Coos  Bay  ranks 
next  in  importance  to  the  Columbia  harbour.  Ocean- 
going vessels  enter  the  Columbia,  and  find  at  Portland 
the  only  freshwater  port  on  the  Pacific  coast.     Deep 


OREGON 


290 


OREGON 


water  navigation  now  oxtonds  150  miles  along  (he 
northern  bounilary  of  Oregon,  and,  with  the  comple- 
tion of  the  ship  railway  above  the  Cascades,  will  ex- 
tend to  250  miles.  The  Snake  Kiver  runs  along  the 
eastern  boundary  of  the  state  for  150  miles,  and  is 
navigable  for  a  considerably  greater  dislaiice  from 
whore  it  enters  the  Columbia.  The  Willamette  River 
which  empties  into  the  Columbia  just  north  of  Port- 
hind  is  navigable  as  far  as  Eugene,  150  miles  from 
Portland.  The  region  between  the  coa.st  and  the 
Cascade  ranges,  and  the  northern  fringe  of  the  state 
along  the  Columbia  and  Snake  rivers  are  well  supplied 
with  railroad  facilities.  The  vast  area  of  Eastern 
Oregon,  however,  has  been  hitherto  practically  with- 
out railroad  service.  This  immense  territory  is  fi- 
nally being  opened  up  (1910)  by  the  construction  of 
railroads  by  two  rival  systems  through  the  Deschutes 
Valley. 

EDrc.\TioNAL  System. — The  State  Board  of  Edu- 
cation is  composed  of  the  governor,  the  secretary  of 
state,  and  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction. "  In 
each  county  there  is  a  superintendent  wlio  liokls  office 
for  two  years,  and  each  school  district  has  a  board 
comprising  from  three  to  five  directors  whose  term  is 
three  years.  The  state  course  of  study  provides  for 
eight  grades  in  the  grammar  schools  and  four  years 
in  the  high  schools.  The  state  university  at  Eugene 
and  the  agricultural  college  at  Corvallis  complete  the 
state  school  system.  An  irreducible  fund  of  $3,500,- 
000  has  been  secured  by  the  sale  of  part,  of  the  school 
lands  of  the  state.  In  18S4  Congress  set  aside  sec- 
tions 16  and  36  of  all  the  public  domain  in  Oregon  for 
public  schools.  For  many  years  previous  to  1909 
there  were  four  state  normal  schools,  which  were 
practically  local  high  schools  subsidized  by  the  state. 
The  subsidy  was  withdrawn  by  the  legislature  of  that 
year,  and  there  is  now  one  state  normal  located  at 
Monmouth.  The  state  university  was  established  in 
1872.  The  agricultural  college  at  Corvallis,  which 
also  gives  a  college  course  in  the  liberal  arts  and 
sciences,  has  about  one  thousand  students.  There  are 
a  large  number  of  denominational  colleges  and  secon- 
dary schools  in  the  state.  At  Salem,  the  state  capital, 
are  located  the  charitable  and  penal  institutions  of 
the  state,  viz.,  the  schools  for  the  blind  and  deaf  mutes, 
the  insane  asylum,  boys'  reform  school,  and  the  peni- 
tentiary. 

HisTORT. — Explorations. — In  1543  the  Spanish  nav- 
igator Ferrelo  explored  the  Pacific  Coast — possibly  to 
the  parallel  of  42°,  the  southern  boundary  of  Oregon. 
Sir  Francis  Drake  in  "The  Golden  Hind"  (1.543), 
carried  the  English  colours  a  few  miles  farther  north 
than  Ferrelo  had  ventured.  The  same  point  was 
reached  by  the  Spaniard  Vizcaino  in  1603.  In  1774 
Juan  Perez  sailed  in  the  "Santiago"  from  the  harbour 
of  Monterey  and  explored  the  north-west  coast  as  far 
as  parallel  55°.  The  following  year  the  Spanish  ex- 
plored the  north-west  coast  under  Heceta,  who,  on 
his  return,  observed  the  strong  currents  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia.  Nootka  Sound  was  visited  and 
named  by  the  Enghsh  navigator  Cook  in  1778.  The 
visit  of  Cook  had  important  consequences.  The  na- 
tives loaded  his  ship  with  sea-otter  skins  in  exchange 
for  the  merest  trifles.  The  value  of  these  skins  was 
not  suspected,  until  the  ship  touched  at  Asiatic  and 
European  ports  where  they  were  sold  for  fabulous 
prices.  The  commercial  value  of  the  north-west  had 
been  discovered.  The  ships  of  all  nations  sought  for  a 
profitable  fur-trade  with  the  Indians,  and  the  strife 
for  the  possession  of  the  territory  entered  a  new  phase. 
Captain  Robert  Gray  of  Boston  discovered  the  Colum- 
bia River  in  1792  and  named  it  after  his  ship.  The 
country  was  first  explored  by  the  American  expedition 
of  Lewis  and  Clark  in  1804-5.  Astoria,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia,  the  first  white  settlement  in  Oregon, 
was  founded  in  1811  by  the  American  Fur  Company 
under  the  direction  of  John  Jacob  Astor.     Two  years 


later  the  Northwest  Company  (a  Canadian  fur  com- 
pany) bought  out  Astoria,  and  maintained  commercial 
.supremacy  until  it  merged  with  the  great  Ilud.son's 
Bay  Company  in  1S21. 

I'his  latter  company  dominated  Oregon  for  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century.  The  Oregon  country  at  that  time 
embraced  an  area  of  400,000  sq.  miles  and  extended 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  east  to  the  Pacific 
t>cean  and  from  the  Mexican  possessions  on  the  south 
to  the  Russian  possessions  on  the  north.  In  1824  a 
commanding  personality  arrived  on  the  Columbia  as 
chief  factor  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Co.,  in  the  Oregon 
country.  This  was  Dr.  John  McLoughlin  (q.  v.),  the 
most  heroic  figure  in  Oregon  history.  Realizing  that 
the  great  trading  post  should  be  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Columbia  and  Willamette  Rivers,  McLoughlin 
transferred  the  hcadciuarters  of  the  company  from 
Fort  George  (.\storiu)  to  Fort  Vancouver.  He  re- 
fused to  sell  li(|U<ir  to  the  Indians,  and  bought  up  the 
supplies  of  rival  traders  to  prevent  them  from  selling 
it.  He  commanded  the  absolute  obedience  and  re- 
spect of  the  Indian  jiopulation,  and  Fort  Vancouver 
was  the  haven  of  rest  for  all  travellers  in  the  Oregon 
country.  Speaking  of  McLoughlin's  place  in  Oregon 
history,  his  biographer,  Mr.  F'rederick  V.  Holman,  a 
non-Catholic,  pays  him  the  following  just  tribute: 
"Of  all  the  men  whose  lives  and  deeds  are  essential 
parts  of  the  history  of  the  Oregon  country.  Dr.  John 
McLoughlin  stands  supremely  first, — there  is  no 
second". 

Missionaries. — The  first  tidings  of  the  Catholic 
Faith  reached  the  Oregon  Indians  through  the  Cana- 
dian employees  of  the  various  fur-trading  companies. 
The  expecUtion  of  Astor  in  1811  was  accompanied  by  a 
number  of  Canadian  voyaijeitrs,  who  some  years  later 
founded  at  St.  Paul  the  first  white  settlement  in  the 
Willamette  Valley.  These  settlers  applied  in  1835  tc 
Bishop  Provencher  of  Red  River  (St.  Boniface,  Man- 
itoba) for  priests  to  come  among  them  to  bless  their 
marriages  with  their  savage  consorts,  to  baptize  their 
children,  and  revive  the  Faith  among  themselves.  It 
was  in  answer  to  this  petition  that  Fathers  F.  N. 
Blanchet  and  Modeste  Demers  were  sent  to  the  Ore- 
gon country  in  1838.  On  their  arrival  the  mission- 
aries found  a  log  church  already  erected  on  the  prairie 
above  St.  Paul.  Meanwhile  another  request  for 
missionaries  had  gone  forth.  The  Inchans  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains  had  repeated  the  Macedonian  cry 
to  their  brethren  in  the  East.  In  1831  the  Flatheads 
with  their  neighbours,  the  Nez  Percy's,  sent  a  deputa- 
tion to  St.  Louis  to  ask  for  priests.  They  had  heard 
of  the  black  robes  through  Iroquois  Indians,  who  had 
settled  among  them  and  thus  transplanted  the  seed 
sown  by  P'ather  Jogues.  It  was  not  until  1840  that 
Bishop  Rosati  of  St.  Louis  was  able  to  send  a  mission- 
ary. In  that  year  Father  De  Smet,  S.J.,  set  out  on 
his  first  trip  to  the  Oregon  country  where  he  became 
theapostleof  the  Rocky  RIountain  Indians.  Apeculiar 
perversion  of  the  facts  concerning  the  visit  of  the  In- 
dians to  St.  Louis  got  abroad  in  the  Protestant  re- 
ligious press  and  started  a  remarkable  movement 
towards  Oregon.  The  Methodists  sent  out  Jason  and 
Daniel  Lee  in  1834,  and  the  Methodist  mission  was 
soon  reinforced  until  it  was  valued  in  a  few  years  at 
a  quarter  of  a  million  dollars  and  became  the  domi- 
nating factor  in  Oregon  polities.  The  American  Board 
Mission  was  foundctl  b.\-  Dr.  Marcus  Whitman,  a 
physician,  and  Mr.  Spalding,  a  minister.  With  them 
was  associated  W.  H.  Gray  as  agent,  the  author  of  a 
"History  of  Oregon"  which  was  responsible  for  the 
spread  of  a  great  deal  of  misinformation  concerning 
the  early  missionary  history  of  Oregon. 

The  savage  murder  of  Dr.  Whitman  in  1847  was  a 
great  catastrophe.  Dr.  Whitman,  who  was  a  man  of 
highly  respected  character,  opened  his  mission  among 
the  Cayuse  Indians  near  Fort  Walla  Walla.  His 
position  as  physician   made   him  suspected   by  the 


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Indians  when  an  epidemic  carried  off  a  large  number  of 
the  tribe.  They  were  accustomed  to  l^ill  the  "medicine 
man"  who  failed  to  cure.  Besides  the  Indians  were 
rendered  hostile  by  the  encroachments  of  the  whites. 
The  immediate  cause  of  the  massacre  seems  to  have 
been  the  story  of  Jo  Lewis,  an  Indian  who  had  the 
freedom  of  the  mission  and  who  reported  that  he  over- 
heard a  conversation  of  Whitman  and  Spalding,  in 
which  Whitman  said  he  would  kill  off  the  Indians  so 
that  the  whites  could  get  their  land.  The  massacre 
took  place  on  29  Nov.,  1847.  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Whitman 
and  several  others  were  brutally  slain.  Spalding  was 
saved  only  by  the  prudence  of  Father  Brouillet  whose 
mission  was  near  by.  Spalding  seems  to  have  been 
crazed  by  the  outrage.  He  began  to  charge  the  Cath- 
olic priests  with  instigating  the  massacre.  There  had 
been  hard  feelings  before  between  the  missionary 
forces,  but  now  the  embers  were  farmed  into  a  flame 
and,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  all  serious  historians  have 
exonerated  the  Catholic  missions  of  the  slightest  com- 
plicity in  the  outrage,  Spalding's  ravings  instilled  a 
prejudice  which  half  a  century  has  been  required  to 
obliterate. 

Nearly  twenty  years  after  Whitman's  death  Spald- 
ing originated  a  new  story  of  Whitman's  services  in 
saving  Oregon  to  the  United  States,  in  which  the 
Catholics  were  again  brought  into  prominence.  "  His- 
tory will  be  searched  in  vain",  says  Bourne,  "for  a 
more  extraordinary  growth  of  fame  after  death."  The 
story  as  published  in  1865  by  Spalding  represents  that 
in  autumn,  1842,  Whitman  was  aroused  by  discovering 
that  the  Hudson's  Bay  Co.  and  the  Catholic  mission- 
ary forces  were  planning  to  secure  the  Oregon  Country 
for  England.  He  immediately  set  out  for  Washington 
to  urge  the  importance  of  Oregon  to  the  United  States 
and  to  conduct  a  band  of  immigrants  across  the  plains 
to  settle  the  country  with  Americans.  It  is  repre- 
sented further  that  he  found  Webster  ready  to  ex- 
change Oregon  for  some  cod  fisheries  on  the  shores  of 
Newfoundland  and  some  concessions  in  settling  the 
boundary  of  Maine.  Whitman,  however,  had  re- 
course to  President  Tyler,  who  promised  to  delay  the 
negotiations  between  Webster  and  Ashburton  until 
Whitman  could  demonstrate  the  possibility  of  leading 
a  band  of  emigrants  to  the  north-west.  Finally,  the 
legend  relates  that  Whitman  organized  a  great  band 
of  immigrants  and  conducted  them  to  Oregon  in  1843, 
thus  proving  to  the  authorities  at  Washington  the 
accessibility  of  the  disputed  territory  and  filling  the 
territory  with  American  home  builders.  Thus  Oregon 
was  saved  to  the  United  States.  Every  detail  of  this 
story  has  now  been  completely  discredited  by  critical 
historians.  The  core  of  fact  consists  merely  in  this, 
that  in  1842  Whitman  went  east  to  plead  with  the 
authorities  of  the  American  Board  not  to  close  down 
the  southern  section  of  his  mission,  and  on  his  return- 
to  Oregon  in  184.3  he  happened  in  with  a  band  of  im- 
migrants who  had  assembled  under  the  leadership  of 
Peter  Burnett.  The  legend  is  gradually  being  ex- 
punged from  school  books. 

Government  and  Legislation.— In  1843  a  pro- 
visional government  with  an  executive  council  was 
organized  by  the  settlers  in  the  Willamette  Valley. 
Two  years  later  a  governor  was  chosen  who  held  office 
until  the  Oregon  Territory  was  organized  under  the 
U.  S.  Government  on  14  August,  1848.  Lane,  the 
first  governor  of  the  territory,  arrived  in  1849.  Oregon 
was  admitted  as  a  State  14  Feb.,  18.59,  with  its  present 
boundaries.  The  primary  election  law  is  in  opera- 
tion, and  there  is  a  provision  that  the  state  legislators 
may  obligate  themselves  with  their  constituencies 
understatement  No.  1,  to  cast  their  ballot  for  United 
States  Senator  for  the  candidate  receiving  the  highest 
I)opular  vote  at  the  primary  election.  Thus  it  hap- 
pened that  United  States  Senator  Geo.  E.  Chamber- 
lain was  elected  in  1907  representing  the  minority 
party  in  the  state  legislature.     The  initiative  and 


referendum  obtain,  and  a  large  number  of  measures 
are  brought  before  the  people  by  petition  under  the 
initiative  power.  The  state  legislature  provides  a 
subsidy  for  institutions  caring  for  dependent  and  de- 
linquent minors. 

Freedom  of  Worship  is  provided  for  in  the  Bill  of 
Rights  in  the  Oregon  Constitution.  By  its  provisions 
all  persons  are  secured  in  their  "natural  right  to  wor- 
ship Almighty  God  according  to  the  dictates  of  their 
own  conscience".  No  law  shall  in  any  case  control  the 
free  exercise  and  enjoyment  of  religious  opinion.  No 
religious  test  shall  be  required  as  a  qualification  for  any 
office  of  trust  or  profit.  No  money  shall  be  drawn 
from  the  treasury  for  the  benefit  of  any  religious  or 
theological  institution,  nor  shall  money  be  appro- 
priated for  the  payment  of  religious  services  in  either 
houses  of  the  legislative  assembly.  But  by  recent 
enactment  the  salaries  of  two  chaplains,  one  a  Catholic, 
the  other  a  non-Catholic,  for  the  State  Penitentiary 
is  provided  for  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  The  Con- 
stitution further  provides  that  no  person  shall  be 
rendered  incompetent  as  a  witness  or  juror  in  conse- 
quence of  his  religious  opinions,  nor  be  questioned  in 
any  court  of  justice  touching  his  religious  belief  to  af- 
fect the  weight  of  his  testimony.  Oaths  and  affirma^ 
tions  shall  be  such  as  are  most  consistent  with  and 
most  binding  upon  the  consciences  of  the  persons  to 
whom  they  are  administered.  No  law  shall  be  passed 
restraining  freedom  to  express  opinions,  or  the  right 
to  speak,  write,  or  print  freely  on  any  subject,  but 
every  person  shall  be  held  responsible  for  the  abuse  of 
this  right.  Persons  whose  religious  tenets  or  con- 
scientious scruples  forbid  them  to  bear  arms  shall  not 
be  compelled  to  do  so  in  time  of  peace,  but  shall  pay 
an  equivalent  for  personal  service. 

There  are  many  enactments  regarding  the  observ- 
ance of  Sunday.  The  Sundays  of  the  year  as  well  as 
Christmas  are  legal  and  judicial  holidays.  No  person 
may  keep  open  a  house  or  room  in  which  liquor  is  re- 
tailed on  Sunday, — the  penalty  being  a  fine  which 
goes  to  the  school  fund  of  the  county  in  which  the 
offence  is  committed.  In  general  it  is  illegal  to  keep 
open  on  Sunday  any  establishment  "  for  the  purpose  of 
labor  or  traffic",  except  drug  stores,  livery  stables, 
butcher  and  bakery  shops,  etc. 

The  seal  of  the  confessional  is  guarded  by  the  fol- 
lowing provision:  "A  priest  or  clergyman  shall  not, 
without  the  consent  of  the  person  making  the  confes- 
sion, be  examined  as  to  any  confession  made  to  him 
in  his  professional  character  in  the  course  of  discipline 
enjoined  by  the  church  to  which  he  belongs." 

Persons  over  eighteen  years  of  age  may  dispose  of 
goods  and  chattels  by  will.  "A  person  of  twenty-one 
years  of  age  and  upwards  and  of  sound  mind  may  by 
last  will  devise  all  his  estate,  real  and  personal,  saving 
to  the  widow  her  dower."  The  will  must  be  in  writing. 
It  must  be  signed  by  the  testator  or  by  some  other 
person  under  his  direction  and  in  his  presence,  and 
also  by  two  or  more  competent  witnesses  subscribing 
their  names  in  presence  of  the  testator. 

Divorce. — The  following  grounds  are  recognized 
in  Oregon  for  the  dissolution  of  marriage:  (1)  Im- 
potency  existing  at  the  time  of  marriage  and  contin- 
uing to  the  time  of  suit.  (2)  Adultery.  (3)  Convic- 
tion of  felony.  (4)  Il.ibitual  gross  drunkenness  con- 
tracted since  marriage.  (."5)  Willful  desertion  for  one 
year.  (6)  Cruel  and  inhuman  treatment  or  personal 
indignities  rendering  life  burdensome.  (Bellinger  and 
Cotton,  "  Annotated  Codes  and  Stntuti's  of  Oregon.") 

Catholic  Education. — One  of  the  earliest  cares 
of  Vicar-General  Blanchet  on  arri\ii]K  in  Oregon  was 
the  Christian  education  of  the  youtli  eoTiimitted  to  his 
charge.  In  autumn,  1843,  it  was  decided  to  open  a 
school  for  boys  at  St.  Paul.  On  17  October  in  that 
year,  the  vicar-general  opened  St.  Joseph's  College 
with  solemn  blessing  and  placed  Father  Langlois  in 
charge.     On  the  opening  day  thirty  boys  entered  as 


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292 


OREGON 


boarders^all  sons  of  farmers  except  one,  the  son  of 
an  Indian  chief.  The  first  Catholic  school  for  girls 
in  Oregon  was  opened  early  in  October,  1S44,  by  six 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  de  Namur  who  had  just  ar- 
rived from  Belgium  with  Father  De  Smet.  So  im- 
mediate Wiis  the  success  of  the  sisters  that  Father  De 
Smet  writing  under  date  of  9  Oct.,  1844,  says  that 
another  foundation  was  projected  at  Oregon  City. 
This  plan  was  not  realized  until  1S4S.  In  September 
of  that  year  four  sisters  took  up  their  residence  and 
opened  a  school  at  the  Falls.  Meanwhile  two  events 
occurred  which  paralyzed  all  missionary  work  for  a 
decade.  The  first  was  the  Whitman  massacre  already 
referred  to,  which  aroused  the  intensest  hostility  to  the 
Catholic  missionaries.  The  second  was  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  California  which  for  the  time  caused  a  large 
emigration  of  the  male  population  from  Oregon.  This 
movement  of  the  population  deprived  the  Archdiocese 
of  all  religious,  both  men  and  women.  In  May,  1849, 
a  large  brigade  composed  of  Catholic  families  from  St. 
Paul,  St.  Louis,  and  Vancouver  started  for  the  Cali- 
fornia mines.  As  a  consequence  St.  Joseph's  College 
was  permanently  closed  in  June  of  the  same  year. 
The  Jesuit  P^athers  closed  the  mission  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier  on  the  Willamette;  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame 
closed  their  school  at  St.  Paul  in  1852,  and  the  fol- 
lowing spring  closed  the  school  at  Oregon  City  and 
left  for  California.  The  outlook  was  very  dark. 
The  tide  of  immigration  soon  turned  again  towarrls 
Oregon,  but  found  the  Church  crippled  in  its  educa- 
tional and  missionary  forces.  A  debt  had  been  con- 
tracted in  building  the  cathedral  and  convent  at  Ore- 
gon City.  To  raise  funds  Archbishop  Blanchet  went 
to  South  America  in  September,  1855,  and  remained 
there  making  collections  until  the  end  of  1857. 

A  new  era  opened  for  Catholic  education  in  Oregon 
in  Oct.,  1859,  when  twelve  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names 
arrived  from  Montreal  and  opened  at  Portland  St. 
Mary's  academy  and  college,  which  as  the  mother- 
house  of  the  community  in  the  province  of  Oregon  has 
for  half  a  century  played  an  honourable  part  in  the 
educational  work  of  the  north-west.  In  August, 
1871,  a  school  for  boys,  called  St.  Michael's  College, 
was  opened  with  64  pupils.  Its  first  principal  was 
Father  Glorieux,  now  Bishop  of  Boise.  In  1875  wo 
find  the  pupils  publishing  a  college  paper,  "The  Arch- 
angel". At  the  invitation  of  Archbishop  Gross,  the 
Christian  Brothers  took  charge  of  St.  Michael's  Col- 
lege in  1886.  The  name  was  subsequently  changed  to 
that  of  Blanchet  Institute  in  honour  of  the  first  arch- 
bishop. This  school  has  since  been  superseded  by  the 
modern  and  ample  structure  of  the  Christian  Broth- 
ers' Business  College.  In  1882  the  Benedictine  Fa- 
thers, at  the  in\'itation  of  Archbishop  Seghers,  estab- 
lished their  community  first  at  Gervais,  and  two  years 
later  at  Mt.  Angel.  A  college  for  young  men  at  Mt. 
Angel  was  opened  in  1888.  The  destruction  of  the 
monastery  by  fire  in  1S92  was  the  occasion  of  building 
the  magnificent  monastery  and  college  in  its  present 
commanding  position.  While  Mt.  Angel's  theological 
department  is  intended  primarily  for  the  education  of 
young  men  for  the  order,  it  has  been  the  Alma  Mater 
of  a  number  of  the  priests  of  the  archdiocese.  In  1904 
the  priorj'  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  abbey.  At 
Mt.  Angel,  too,  has  been  located  since  1883  an  acad- 
emy for  girls  conducted  by  the  Benedictine  Sisters, 
and  the  mother-house  of  the  community  in  Oregon. 
Columbia  University  was  opened  at  Portland  by  Arch- 
bishop Christie  in  1901.  The  following  year  it  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  Holy  Cross  Fathers,  under 
whose  direction  the  iastitution  has  experienced  a 
gratifying  development  and  has  come  to  occupy  a 
large  place  in  the  Catholic  life  of  the  metropolis.  St. 
Mary's  Institute  near  Beaverton,  an  academy  for 
girls,  is  the  mother-house  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Mary. 
This  congregation  was  founded  by  Archbishop  Gross 
in  1886.     The  Dominican  Sisters  (San  Jose,  Califor- 


nia), the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary 
(Scranton,  Penn.),  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  and  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis  (Milwaukee)  conduct  a  number 
of  excellent  schools  in  the  archdiocese.  About  nine- 
tenths  of  the  parishes  of  the  archdiocese  are  provided 
with  Catholic  schools.  An  annual  Catholic  Teachers' 
Institute  has  been  held  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Catholic  Educational  Association  of  Oregon  since 
1905.  These  summer  meetings  have  become  very 
popular,  and  are  attended  by  all  the  teachers  in  the 
Catholic  schools  of  the  archdiocese.  Prominent  ed- 
ucators from  various  sections  of  the  country  are  in- 
vited to  address  the  institute.  The  meetings  serve 
also  to  promote  interchange  of  ideas  and  good  fellow- 
ship between  the  teaching  communities  and  contribute 
notably  to  the  uniform  educational  progress  of  the 
schools. 

Charitable  Institdtions. — The  archdiocese  is 
well  equipped  with  institutions  of  charity.  St.  Vin- 
cent's Hospital,  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
of  Providence,  was  established  in  Portland  in  1874. 
It  will  accommodate  about  350  patients.  The  same 
community  conducts  a  hospital  at  Astoria.  The  Sis- 
ters of  Mercy  have  charge  of  hospitals  at  Albany, 
North  Bend,  and  Roseburg.  The  Sisters  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  have  conducted  a  home  for  wayward  girls 
in  Portland  since  1902.  The  judges  of  the  juvenile 
court  have  repeatedly  commended  the  work  of  these 
sisters  in  the  highest  terms.  The  archdiocese  has 
three  homes  for  dependent  children.  St.  Agnes'  Baby 
Home,  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  at  Park 
Place  near  Oregon  City,  was  estabhshed  in  1902;  it 
receives  orphans  and  foundlings  under  the  age  of  four 
years,  and  cares  constantly  for  about  ninety  babies. 
St.  Mary's  Home  for  Boys  is  situated  near  Beaverton 
and  is  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Mary.  Here  too 
is  the  location  of  the  Levi  Anderson  Industrial  school 
for  boys.  Occupying  a  commanding  site  on  the  Wil- 
lamette near  Oswego  is  the  magnificent  new  home  for 
orphan  girls  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Names.  Since  1901  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  have  con- 
ducted in  Portland  a  home  for  the  aged,  where  more 
than  a  hundred  old  people  of  either  sex  find  a  home 
in  their  dechning  years.  St.  Vincent  de  Paul's  and 
women's  charitable  societies  (e.  g.  St.  Ann  and  Ladies' 
Aid)  are  well  equipped  to  relieve  the  needy.  Fraternal 
societies  (e.  g.  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  Ancient 
Order  of  Hibernians,  and  Catholic  Order  of  Foresters, 
all  of  which  are  flourishing)  aid  materially  in  the  relief 
of  the  poor.  The  Catholic  Women's  League  of  Port- 
land was  organized  in  the  interests  of  young  women 
wage-earners,  especially  for  that  very  large  class  who 
have  come  west  to  find  positions  and  are  without  home 
ties.  The  proportion  of  Catholics  to  the  entire  popu- 
lation of  Oregon  nas  never  been  very  great,  perhaps 
not  more  than  one-tenth,  though  recent  immigration 
has  tended  to  increase  the  percentage.  Catholics 
have,  however,  been  well  represented  in  public  life  and 
in  professional  and  business  pursuits.  In  early  Ore- 
gon history  Dr.  McLoughlin  and  Chief  Justice  Peter 
Burnett  were  distinguished  converts.  The  latter, 
who  subsequently  became  first  governor  of  Cahfomia, 
is  the  author  of  "Reminiscences  of  an  old  Pioneer" 
and  "The  Path  which  led  a  Protestant  Lawyer  to  the 
Catholic  Church".  General  Lane,  the  first  Governor 
of  Oregon,  was  also  received  into  the  Church.  Among 
the  most  distinguished  citizens  of  the  state  to-day  are 
ex-United  States  Senator  John  M.  Gearin  and  General 
D.  W.  Burke. 

TransacHons  of  the  0.  Pioneer  Association  (Salem,  1874-87); 
Quarterly  oj  the  O.  Hist.  Society  (Portland.  1900 — ) ;  The  Oregonian 
(Portland,  18.50 — ).  files;  The  Catholic  SentineH.Von\B.nd.  1870 — ), 
filea;  Bancroft,  Hist,  of  the  Northwest  Coast  (San  Franciaeo, 
1884);  Idem,  Hint,  of  O.  (San  Francisco,  1886-88) ;  Schafeb,  Hist, 
of  the  Pacific  Northwest  (New  York,  1905) ;  HoLMAN.  Dr.  John 
McLcmghlin  (Cleveland.  1907):  Bourne,  Essays  in  Historical 
Criticism  (New  York,  1901),  containing  a  critical  examination  of 
the  Whitman  Legend;  Marshall,  History  vs.  the  Whitman  Sated 
Oregon  Story  (Chicago,  1904) ;  O'Haba,  Dr.  John  McLoughlin  m 


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O'REILLY 


Catholic  Univ.  Bulletin,  XIV,  n.  2;  Idem,  De  Smel  in  the  Oregon 
Country  in  Quarterly  of  O.  Hist.  Soc.  (September,  1909) ;  Chitten- 
den AND  Richardson,  De  SmeVs  Life  and  Travels;  de  Baets, 
Mgr  Seghers  (Paris,  1896);  Brouillet,  Authentic  Account  of  the 
Murder  of  Dr.  Whitman  (2nd  ed.,  Portland.  1S69) ;  Snowden, 
Hist,  of  Washington,  I-II  (New  York,  1909) ;  Sister  of  the  Holt 
Names,  Gleanings  of  Fifty  Years  (Portland,  1909). 

Edwin  V.  O'Hara. 

Oregon  City,  Archdiocese  of  (Oregonopolitan), 
includes  that  part  of  the  State  of  Oregon  west  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains,  being  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
counties  of  Wasco,  Crook,  and  Klamath.  It  com- 
prises an  area  of  21,398  square  miles.  By  an  indult  of 
the  Holy  See  dated  28  Feb.,  1836,  the  Oregon  Country 
north  of  the  American  line  was  annexed  to  the  vi- 
cariate .\postolic  of  Mgr  Provencher  of  Red  River. 
By  letters  of  17  April,  1838,  Rev.  F.  N.  Blanchet  was 
appointed  vicar-general  to  the  Archbishop  of  Quebec 
and  assigned  to  the  Oregon  mission.  The  vicar-gen- 
eral established  his  first  mission  at  St.  Paul  on  the  Wil- 
lamette, and  on  6  Jan.,  1839,  dedicated  at  that  place 
the  first  Catholic  church  in  Oregon.  The  church  had 
been  constructed  three  years  earlier  by  the  Canadian 
settlers  who  had  anticipated  the  coming  of  a  mission- 
ary among  them. 

As  the  line  of  demarcation  between  British  and 
American  territory  was  still  undecided,  and  missionary 
priests  had  been  sent  into  the  country  both  from 
Canada  and  from  the  United  States  (De  Smet  had 
come  from  St.  Louis),  Oregon  became  a  joint  mission 
depending  upon  the  Bishops  of  Quebec  and  Baltimore. 
At  the  suggestion  of  these  bishops,  the  mission  was 
erected  into  a  vicariate  Apostolic  by  a  brief  of  1  Dec, 
1843.  On  24  July,  1846,  the  vicariate  was  trans- 
formed into  a  province  comprising  the  Archdiocese 
of  Oregon  City  and  the  Dioceses  of  Walla  Walla 
and  Vancouver's  Island.  With  the  transfer  of  the 
See  of  Walla  Walla  to  Nesqually  (1848),  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Oregon  City  was  fixed 
at  the  Columbia  River  and  the  46°  lat.  This  territory 
was  diminished  by  the  erection  of  the  Vicariate  of 
Idaho  (1868)  and  finally  received  its  present  limits  by 
the  erection  of  the  Diocese  of  Baker  City  (1903). 

Bishops:  (1)  Frangois  Norbert  Blanchet  (q.  v.),  b. 
3  Sept.,  1795,  consecrated  2.5  July,  1S4.5.  There  were 
in  the  diocese  in  1845  ten  priests,  thirteen  Sisters  of 
Notre-Dame,  and  two  educational  institutions.  The 
first  priest  ordained  in  Oregon  was  Father  Jayol,  the 
ceremony  being  performed  by  Archbishop  Blanchet  at 
St.  Paul,  19  Sept.,  1847.  On  30  Nov.,  the  archbishop 
consecrated  at  St.  Paul,  Bishop  Demers  of  Vancouver's 
Island.  He  convened  the  First  Provincial  Council  of 
Oregon  City,  28  Feb.,  1848.  On  21  Dec,  Archbishop 
Blanchet  left  St.  Paul  and  took  up  his  residence  at 
Oregon  City.  In  1852  the  first  church  in  the  City  of 
Portland  was  dedicated  under  the  title  of  the  Immac- 
ulate Conception.  It  became  the  pro-cathedral  when 
Archbishop  Blanchet  moved  to  Portland  in  18G2. 
(2)  Charles  John  Seghers,  b.  26  Dec,  1839,  at  Ghent, 
successor  to  the  pioneer  Bishop  Demers  of  Vancou- 
ver's Island,  was  transferred  to  Oregon  City,  10  Dec, 
1878,  and  became  coadjutor  to  Archbishop  Blanchet 
who  at  once  retired  from  active  life.  Archbishop 
Seghers  is  remembered  for  his  heroic  devotion  to  the 
Indian  missions  of  Alaska  (q.  v.),  which  led  him  to 
resign  the  See  of  Oregon  City  in  1884.  (3)  William 
H.  Gross  (consecrated  Bishop  of  Savannah,  1873) 
was  promoted  to  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Oregon 
City,  1  Feb.,  1885,  and  invested  with  the  pallium  in 
Portland  by  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Gibbons  9  Oct. 
On  his  death  14  Nov.,  1898,  he  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  archbishop.  (4)  Most  Rev.  Alexander  Christie 
(consecrated  Bishop  of  Vancouver's  Island,  29  June, 
1898)  was  promoted  to  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Ore- 
gon City,  12  Feb.,  1899.  Statistics  for  1909:  diocesan 
priests,  50;  priests  of  rel.  orders,  40;  colleges,  3;  sec- 
ondary schools,  12;  elementary  schools,  35;  pupils, 
5500. 


Blanchet.  Historical  Sketches  (Portland.  1870);  The  Catholic 
Sentinel  (Portland,  IS70-1910),  files;  Catholic  Directory;  Diocesan 
Archives, 

Edwin  V.  O'Hara. 

O'ReUIy,  Bernard,  historian,  b.  29  Sept.,  1820,  in 
County  Mayo,  Ireland;  d.  in  New  York,  U.  S.  A.,  26 
April,  1907.  In  early  life  he  emigrated  to  Canada, 
where  in  1836  he  entered  Laval  University.  He  was 
ordained  priest  in  Quebec,  12  Sept.,  1843,  and  minis- 
tered in  several  parishes  of  that  diocese.  He  was  one 
of  the  heroic  priests  who  attended  the  plague-stricken 
Irish  emigrants  in  the  typhus-sheds  along  the  St.  Law- 
rence after  the  "black  '47".  Later  he  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  and  was  attached  to  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Fordham,  New  York.  When  the  Civil  War  broke 
out  he  went  as  a  chaplain  in  the  Irish  Brigade  and 
served  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  during  a  large 
part  of  its  campaigns.  He  then  withdrew  from  the 
Jesuits  and  devoted  himself  to  literature,  becoming 
one  of  the  editorial  staff  of  the  "New  American  Cyclo- 
pedia" to  which  he  contributed  articles  on  Catholic 
topics.  At  the  conclusion  of  tliis  work  he  travelled  ex- 
tensively in  Europe,  sending  for  several  years  an  in- 
teresting series  of  letters  to  the  New  York  "  Sun  " .  He 
lived  for  a  long  period  in  Rome  where  Pope  Leo  XIII, 
besides  appointing  him  a  prothonotary  Apostolic  in 
1887,  gave  him  the  special  materials  for  his  "Life  of 
Leo  XIII"  (New  York,  1887).  Among  the  m.any 
books  he  published  these  were  notable:  "Life  of  Pius 
IX"  (1877);  "Mirror  of  True  Womanhood"  (1876); 
"True  Men"  (1878);  "Key  of  Heaven"  (1878);  "The 
Two  Brides"  (1879);  "Life  of  John  MacHale,  Arch- 
bishop of  Tuam"  (1890).  On  his  return  to  New  York 
from  Europe  he  was  made  chaplain  at  the  convent  of 
Mount  St.  Vincent,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days. 
On  the  occasion  of  his  sacerdotal  jubilee  he  was  given 
a  signed  testimonial  of  appreciation  of  his  fellow 
priests  and  friends. 

Catholic  News  (New  York,  May,  1907);  Ave  Maria  (Notre 
Dame,  Indiana),  files;  Nat,  Cyclo.  of  Am.  Biog.,  s.  v. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

O'Reilly,  Charles  Joseph.  See  Baker  City, 
Diocese  of. 

O'Reilly,  Edmund,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  b.  at 
Dublin,  1616;  d.  at  Saumur,  France,  1669,  was  edu- 
cated in  Dublin  and  ordained  there  in  1629.  After 
ordination  he  studied  at  Louvain,  where  he  held  the 
position  of  prefect  of  the  college  of  Irish  Secular  Ec- 
clesiastics. In  1640  he  returned  to  Dublin  and  was 
appointed  vicar-general.  In  1642  the  Archbishop  of 
Dublin,  Dr.  Fleming,  having  been  ajipointed  on  the 
Supreme  Council  of  the  Confederate  Catholics,  trans- 
ferred his  residence  to  Kilkenny  and  until  1648 
O'Reilly  administered  the  Archdiocese  of  Dublin. 
With  the  triumph  of  the  Puritans  he  was  imprisoned, 
and  in  1653,  ordered  to  quit  the  kingdom,  he  took 
refuge  at  the  Irish  College  of  Lisle  where  he  was  noti- 
fied of  his  appointment  to  the  See  of  Armagh,  and 
shortly  after  consecrated  at  Brussels.  Ireland  was 
then  a  dangerous  place  for  ecclesiastics,  and  not  until 
1658  did  he  attempt  to  visit  his  diocese;  even  then  he 
could  proceed  no  farther  than  London.  Ordered  to 
quit  the  kingdom,  he  returned  to  France,  but  in  the 
following  year  went  to  Ireland,  this  time  directly  from 
France,  and  for  the  next  two  years  exercised  his  min- 
istry. Accused  of  favouring  the  Puritans  and  of  being 
an  enemy  of  the  Stuarts,  he  was  ordered  by  the  pope 
to  quit  Ireland.  At  Rome  he  was  able  to  vindicate 
himself,  but  he  was  not  allowed  to  return  to  Ireland  by 
the  English  authorities  until  1665,  and  then  only  in  the 
hope  that  he  would  favour  the  Remonstrance  of  Peter 
Walsh.  O'Reilly,  like  the  great  majority  of  the  Irish 
bishops  and  priests,  rejected  it,  nor  could  the  entrea- 
ties of  Walsh  or  the  threats  of  Ormond  change  him. 
In  consequence  he  was  imprisoned  by  Ormond,  and 
when  released,  driven  from  the  kingdom.    He  spent 


O'REILLY 


294 


O'REILLY 


the  rcmaininp:  years  of  liis  life  in  France,  chiefly  con- 
cerned witli  the  can-  of  tlic  Irisli  collcfic.-;  there. 

Sti-ART.  //iN/..riV,i/  Miminr.i  ..f  .\rm.„ih.  ,-,i.  Coi.KMAN  (Dub- 
lin, 1000):  Rknkiiax,  /ris/i  ATr),l,i/lu.i,s  iDul.lin,  IM'.l) ;  D'Alton, 
Archbishops  of  Dublin  (Dublin,  1S3S);  Buady,  Episcopal  Succes- 
sion in  Ireland  and  England  (Rome,  1876). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

O'Reilly,  Edmcnd,  theologian,  b.  in  London,  30 
April,  181 1 ;  d.  at  Dublin,  10  November,  1878.  Edu- 
cated at  Clongowes  and  i\Iaynooth,  he  made  his  the- 
ological studies  at  Rome,  where  after  seven  years  in 
the  Roman  College  he  gained  the  decree  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity  by  a  "public  act"  dc  univcrsa  thcologia. 
After  his  ordination  in  1838  he  taught  theology  for 
thirteen  years  at  Maj-nooth  into  which  he  was  mainly 
instrumental  in  introducing  the  Roman  spirit  and 
tradition,  after  which  he  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate 
at  Naples.  He  taught  theology  for  some  years  at 
St.  Beuno's  College  in  North  Wales  till  he  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Theology  imder  Newman  in  the 
Catholic  University  of  Ireland.  During  the  remainder 
of  his  life  he  resided  at  Milltown  Park  near  Dublin  as 
rector  of  a  House  of  Spiritual  Exercises;  and  he 
was  Provincial  of  Ireland  1863-70.  Constantly  con- 
sulted on  theological  questions  by  the  bishops  and 
priests  of  Ireland,  Cardinal  Newman  in  his  famous 
"Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk"  calls  him  "a  great 
authority"  and  "one  of  the  first  theologians  of  the 
day".  Dr.  W.  G.  Ward,  editor  of  "The  Dublin  Re- 
view", said:  "It  is  a  great  loss  to  the  Church  that  so 
distinguished  a  theologian  as  Father  O'Reilly  has 
published  so  little".  Dr.  Ward  wTote  of  his  chief 
work,  "The  Relations  of  the  Church  to  Society", 
"  Whatever  is  written  by  so  able  and  so  solidly  learned 
a  theologian,  one  so  docile  to  the  Church  and  so  fixed 
in  the  ancient  theological  paths,  cannot  but  be  of 
signal  benefit  to  the  Catholic  reader  in  these  anxious 
and  perilous  times. " 

FrecTnan's  Journal  (Dublin,  November,  1878);  Irish  Monthly, 
VI,  695. 

Matthew  Russell. 

O'Reilly,  Hugh,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  head  of 
the  Confederates  of  Kilkenny,  b.  1580;  d.  on  Trinity 
Island  in  Lough  Erne.  He  first  conceived  the  idea 
of  forming  this  national  movement  into  a  regular 
organization.  He  convened  a  provincial  synod  at 
Kells  early  in  March,  1642,  in  which  the  bishops  de- 
clared the  war  undertaken  by  the  Irish  people  for  their 
king,  religion,  and  country  to  be  just  and  lawful.  The 
following  May  (1642)  he  convened  a  national  synod, 
consisting  of  prelates  and  civil  lords,  at  Kilkenny. 
After  having  ratified  their  former  declaration,  they 
framed  an  oath  of  association  to  be  taken  by  all  their 
adherents,  binding  them  to  maintain  the  fundamental 
laws  of  Ireland,  the  free  exercise  of  religion,  and  true 
allegiance  to  Charles  I.  Orders  were  issued  to  levy 
men  and  raise  money;  to  establish  a  mint  and  an  offi- 
cial printing  press;  to  take  the  duty  off  such  foreign 
imports  as  wheat  and  corn,  lead,  iron,  arms  and  am- 
munition; the  bishops  and  clergy  should  pay  a  certain 
sum  for  national  purposes  out  of  the  ecclesiastical 
revenues  that  had  come  back  into  their  possession; 
and  agents  should  be  sent  to  Catholic  courts  to  solicit 
aid.  They  gave  letters  of  credit  and  chartered  some 
light  vessels  that  were  to  fly  the  Confederate  colours 
and  protect  the  coa.st,  and  they  drafted  a  remon- 
strance to  the  king  declaring  their  loyalty  and  protest- 
ing against  the  acts  of  tyranny,  injustice,  and  intoler- 
ance of  the  Purit;m  lord  justices  and  Parliament  of 
Dublin  in  confiscating  Catholic  lands  and  putting  a 
ban  on  Catholic  school-teachers.  The  assembly  lasted 
until  9  January,  agreeing  to  meet  20  May  following. 
The  seal  of  the  Confederation  bort^  in  its  centre  a  large 
cro.ss  rising  out  of  a  flaming  heart,  above  were  the 
wings  of  a  dove,  on  the  left  a  harp,  and  on  the  right  a 
crown;  the  legend  read:  pro  dec,  eege,  et  pateia, 

HIBERNI  UNANIMES. 


Wherever  the  primiite's  partisans  commanded,  the 
Protestant  bishops,  miiiislcrs,  and  people  were  safe, 
and  were  even  protected  in  the  exercise  of  their  own 
rehgious  worship.  Archbishop  O'Reilly  was,  through- 
out the  war  and  the  terrible  years  thatfolldwed  it,  the 
soul  and  guiile  of  tlie  national  party;  he  did  his  utmost 
to  restrain  the  violence  of  the  people,  who  would  have 
wreaked  vengeance  on  their  persecutors  had  they  been 
left  to  their  own  instincts  at  that  crisis.  He  urged  Sir 
Phelim  O'Neile  and  Lord  Iveagh  to  keep  the  armed 
multitudes  in  check  and  prevent  the  massacre  and  pil- 
lage of  Protestants.  Such  salutary  restraint  produced 
the  most  happy  results,  for  even  the  rudest  of  the 
northern  chieftains  respected  him  too  much  to  violate 
his  lessons  of  forbearance  and  charity,  \\hen  the 
great  chieftain,  Owen  Roe,  was  dying,  he  had  himself 
taken  to  Ballinacnrgy  Castle,  the  residence  of  his 
brother-in-law  Phili])  O'Reilly,  where  he  was  attended 
by  Archbishop  O'Reilly.  Local  tradition  gives  the 
ruined  Abbey  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  on  an  island  a  few 
miles  from  Ballinacorgy  Castle,  as  his  last  resting- 
place.  In  the  same  locality  Archbishop  O'Reilly  was 
buried.  The  primate's  signature  is  still  to  be  seen  in 
most  of  the  manifestoes  of  the  Confederation  of  Kil- 
kenny as  "Hugo  Armacanus". 

D'Alton,  History  of  Ireland,  III  (Dublin,  1910);  Gilbert, 
Hist,  of  the  Irish  Confederation  and  the  War  in  Ireland,  1640-41 
(7  vola.,  Dublin,  1882-91). 

Sister  M.  Stanislaus  Austin. 

O'Reilly,  John.    See  Adbl.ude,  Archdiocese  op. 

O'Reilly,  John  Boyle,  poet,  novelist,  and  editor, 
b.  at  l)(]uth  Castle,  Droghcda,  Ireland,  24  June,  1844; 
d.  at  Hull,  Massachusetts,  10  August,  1890;  second 
son  of  William  David  O'Reilly  and  Eliza  Boyle.  He 
attended  the  National  School,  conducted  by  his 
father,  and  was  employed  successively  as  printer 
on  the  "Drogheda  Argus",  and  on  the  staff  of 
"The  Guardian",  Pre-ston,  England;  he  after- 
wards became  a  trooper  in  the  Tenth  Hussars.  En- 
tering actively  into  the  Fenian  movement,  believ- 
ing in  his  inexperience  that  Ireland's  grievances 
could  be  redressed  only  by  physical  force,  he  was 
betrayed  to  the  authorities  and  duly  court-mar- 
tialled.  On  account  of  his  extreme  youth,  his  life 
sentence  was  commuted  to  twenty  years'  penal  ser- 
vitude in  Australia.  Later  study  of  his  country's 
cause  made  him  before  long  an  earnest  advocate  of 
constitutional  agitation  as  the  only  way  to  Irish  Home 
Rule.  In  1869,  O'Reilly  escaped  from  Australia, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  captain  of  a  whaling  barque 
from  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts.  In  1870,  he 
became  editor  of  "The  Pilot",  Boston,  and  from  1876 
until  his  death  in  1890  he  was  also  part  proprietor, 
being  associated  with  Archbishop  Williams  of  Boston. 
His  books  include  four  volumes  of  poems:  "Songs 
of  the  Southern  Seas  ",  "Songs,  Legends,  and  Ballads  , 
"The  Statues  in  the  Block",  and  "In  Bohemia";  a 
novel,  "Moondyne",  ba.sed  on  his  Australian  expe- 
riences; his  collaboration  in  anothernovel,  "TheKing's 
Men",  and  "Athletics  and  Manly  Sport".  A  sincere 
Catholic,  his  great  influence,  used  lavishly  in  for- 
warding the  interests  of  younger  Catholics  destined  to 
special  careers,  and  in  lifting  up  the  lowly  without  re- 
gard to  any  claim  but  their  need,  was  for  twenty  years 
a  valuable  factor  in  Catholic  i)roKress  in  America.  He 
was  married  in  1872  to  Mary  Murphy,  in  Boston,  who 
died  in  1897.      Their  four  daughters  survive  them. 

Roche,  Life  of  John  Boyle  O'Reilly  (New  York,  1891);  CON- 
WAY,  Watchwords  from  John  Boyle  O'Reilly  (Boston,  1891). 

K.^thekine  E.  Conway. 

O'Reilly,  Myles  William  Patrick,  soldier,  pub- 
licist, littcmtcnr,  b.  near  Balbriggan,  Co.  Dublin,  Ire- 
land, 13  March,  182.5;  d.  at  Dublin,  6  Feb.,  1880.  In 
1841  he  entered  Ushaw  College  (England),  and  grad- 
uated a  B.A.  of  London  University.  From  1845  to 
1847  he  studied  in  Rome,  and  then  returned  to  Ireland 


O'REILLY 


295 


ORENSE 


to  assist  the  famine-stricken  peasants.  In  1851  he 
was  associated  with  Newman  and  Archbishop  Leahy 
to  report  on  the  projected  Catholic  University,  and,  in 
1854  he  became  captain  of  the  Louth  Rifles.  He 
married  Miss  Ida  Jerningham,  3  Aug.,  1859.  Some 
months  later  he  offered  his  services  to  Pius  IX,  against 
Garibaldi.  Having  formed  an  Irish  Brigade,  he  was 
appointed  major,  under  General  Pimodan,  and  fought 
gallantly  in  every  engagement  until  the  surrender  of 
Spoleto,  IS  Sept.,  1860.  From  1862  to  1876  he  repre- 
sented County  Longford  in  the  British  Parliament, 
and  was  one  of  those  who  signed  the  requisition  for 
the  famous  Home  Rule  Conference  under  Isaac  Butt. 
He  ably  supported  Catholic  interests,  and  assisted  in 
the  movement  to  obtain  Catholic  chaplains  for  the 
array.  He  wrote  "Sufferings  for  the  Faith  in  Ire- 
land" (London,  1868).  He  also  contributed  to  the 
"Dublin  Review"  and  other  periodicals,  writing 
especially  in  defence  of  the  Holy  See  and  of  Catholic 
educational  matters.  After  the  death  of  his  wife  in 
1876,  he  accepted  the  position  of  Assistant  Commis- 
sioner of  Intermediate  Education  for  Ireland  in  April, 
1879,  which  he  filled  until  his  death.  He  was  interred 
at  Philipstown,  not  far  from  his  family  residence  in 
Co.  Louth. 

O'Clery,  The  Making  of  Italy  (Lontlon.  1898) ;  Contemporary 
newspapers;  Conry,  The  Irish  Brigade  in  Italy  (Dublin,  1907); 
GoQ.\RTY,  MS.  Memoir  (1910). 

W.  H.  Gkattan-Flood. 

O'Reilly,  Peter  J.    See  Peoria,  Diocese  of. 

Oremus,  invitation  to  pray,  said  before  collects 
and  other  short  prayers  and  occuring  continually  in 
the  Roman  Rite.  It  is  used  as  a  single  ejaculation  in 
the  East  (e.  g.,  Nestorian  Rite,  Brightman,  "Eastern 
Liturgies",  Oxford,  1896,  255,  etc.;  Jacobite,  ib.,  75, 
80,  etc.),  or  the  imperative:  "Pray"  (Coptic,  ib.,  162), 
"Stand  for  prayer"  (ib.,  158);  most  commonly,  how- 
ever with  a  further  determination,  "Let  us  pray  to 
the  Lord"  (toS  Kvplov  oeriSwfiev,  throughout  the  Byzan- 
tine Rite),  and  so  on.  Mgr  Duchesne  thinks  that  the 
Galilean  collects  were  also  introduced  bv  the  word 
Oremus  ("Origines  du  Culte",  Paris,  1898,  103).  It 
is  not  so  in  the  Mozarabic  Rite,  where  the  celebrant 
uses  the  word  only  twice,  before  the  Agios  (P.  L., 
LXXXV,  113)  a.ru\  Paler  Noster  (ib.,  118).  Oremus  is 
said  (or  sung)  in  the  Roman  Rite  before  all  separate 
collects  in  the  Mass,  Office,  or  on  other  occasions  (but 
several  collects  may  be  joined  with  one  Oremus),  before 
Post-Communions;  in  the  same  way,  alone,  with  no 
prayer  following,  before  the  offertory;  also  before  the 
introduction  to  the  Pater  noster  and  before  other  short 
prayers  (e.  g.,  Aufer  a  nobi^)  in  the  form  of  collects.  It 
appears  that  the  Oremus  did  not  originally  apply  to 
the  prayer  (collect)  that  now  follows  it.  It  is  thought 
that  it  was  once  an  invitation  to  private  prayer,  very 
likely  with  further  direction  as  to  the  object,  as  now  on 
Good  Friday  {Oremus  pro  ecc.lesia  sancla  Dei,  etc.). 
The  deacon  then  said:  Flectamns  genua,  and  all  knelt 
in  silent  prayer.  After  a  time  the  people  were  told  to 
stand  up  (Levate),  and  finally  the  celebrant  collected 
all  the  petitions  in  one  short  sentence  said  aloud  (see 
Collect).  Of  all  this  our  Oremus  followed  at  once 
by  the  collect  would  be  a  fragment. 

GlHR,  The  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass  (St.  Louis,  1908),  368,  416, 
497. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Orense,  Diocese  of  (Auriensis),  suffragan  of 
Compostela,  includes  nearly  all  of  the  civil  Province 
of  Orense,  and  part  of  those  of  Lugo  and  Zamora,  be- 
ing bounded  on  the  north  by  Pontevedra,  Lugo,  and 
Leon;  on  the  east  by  Leon  and  Zamora;  on  the  south 
by  Portugal ;  on  the  west  by  Portugal  and  Pontevedra. 
Its  capital,  Oren.se  (pop.,  14,168),  is  a  very  ancient 
city  on  the  banks  of  the  Mino  (Minho),  famous  since 
classical  antiquity  for  its  hot  springs.  The  See  of  Or- 
ense dates  from  a  remote  period,  certainly  before  the 


fifth  century.  The  First  Council  of  Braga  (561)  cre- 
ated four  dioceses,  the  bishops  of  which  afterwards 
signed  the  acts  of  the  Second  Council  of  Braga  below 
the  Bishop  of  Orense — an  indication  that  they  were  of 
junior  standing.  Moreover,  the  signatures  of  the  Bish- 
ops of  Tuy  and  Astorga,  two  very  ancient  Churches, 
come  after  that  of  the  Bishop  of  Orense.  According  to 
Idacius,  two  bishops,  Pastor  and  Siagrius,  were  conse- 
crated in  the  convent  of  Lugo  in  433,  and  one  of  them 
(it  is  not  known  which)  was  a  Bishop  of  Orense. 

In  464,  the  .Suevians,  who  had  invaded  Galicia,  em- 
braced Axianism,  and  only  in  the  time  of  King  Chara- 
ric  (560)  were  they  reconciled  to  Catholicism.  St. 
Gregory  of  Tours  tells  us  that  the  Galicians  embraced 
the  Faith  with  remarkable  fervour.  The  conversion 
and  instruction  of  both  king  and  people  appear  to  have 
been  completed  by  St.  lilartin  of  Dumiuni.  The 
names  of  the  bishops  of  Orense  are  unkno^^^l  until  571, 
when  the  diocese  was  governed  by  Witimir,  a  man  of 
noble  Suevian  lineage,  who  assisted  at  the  Second 
Council  of  Braga.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  St. 
Martin  of  Braga,  who  dedicated  to  him  as  his  "most 
dear  father  in  Christ",  his  treatise  "De  ira".  In  716 
Orense  was  destroyed  by  Abdelaziz,  son  of  Muza.  In 
832  Alfonso  II  combined  the  two  Dioceses  of  Orense 
and  Lugo:  Orense,  nevertheless,  appears  to  have  re- 
tained its  titular  bishops,  for  a  charter  of  Alfonso  the 
Chaste  is  witnessed  by  Maydo,  Bishop  of  Orense. 
When  Alfonso  III  (866-910)  had  reconquered  Orense, 
he  gave  it  to  Bishop  Sebastian,  who  had  been  Bishop 
of  Arcabica  in  Celtiberia  and  was  succeeded  by  Cen- 
seric  (844),  Sumna  (886),  and  Egila  (899),  who  took 
part  in  the  consecration  of  the  church  of  Santiago  and 
in  the  Council  of  Oviedo.  In  the  episcopacy  of  An- 
surius  (915-22)  the  holy  abbot  Franquila  (906)  erected 
the  Benedictine  monastery  of  S.  Esteban  de  Riljas  del 
Sil  (St.  Stephen  on  the  Sil),  where  Ansurius  him- 
self and  eight  of  his  successors  died  in  the  odour  of 
sanctity. 

At  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  the  diocese  was  laid 
waste,  first  by  the  Northmen  (970)  and  then  by  Al- 
manzor,  after  which  it  was  committed  to  the  care  of 
the  Bishop  of  Lugo  until  1071,  when,  after  a  vacancy 
of  seventy  years,  Sancho  II  appointed  Ederonio  to  the 
see.  Ederonio  rebuilt  the  old  cathedral  called  S.  Maria 
la  Madre  (1084-89).  The  most  famous  bishop  of  this 
period  was  Diego  Velasco,  whom  his  epitaph  calls 
"light  of  the  Church  and  glory  of  his  country  ".  He  as- 
sisted at  a  council  of  Palencia  and  three  councils  of 
Santiago,  and,  with  the  assent  of  Dona  Urraca  and  her 
son  Alfonso,  grantetl  privileges  (fueros)  to  Orense.  He 
ruled  for  thirty  years  and  was  succeeded  by  Martin 
(1132-56)  and  Pedro  Seguln.  The  latter  was  confes- 
sor to  Ferdinand  II,  who  granted  him  the  lordship  of 
Orense.  Bishop  Lorenzo  was  the  jurist  whom  Tu- 
dense  called  the  "pattern  of  the  law"  {rcgla  del  tlere- 
cho) ;  he  rebuilt  the  cathedral  and  the  bishop's  palace, 
and  constructed  the  famous  bridge  of  Orense,  with  its 
principal  arch  spanning  more  than  130  feet.  He  as- 
sisted at  the  Council  of  Lyons  in  1245.  Vaflez  de  No- 
voa  quarrelled  with  the  Franciscans,  while  he  was  pre- 
centor, and  burned  their  convent,  which  had  sheltered 
one  of  his  enemies,  but,  having  become  bishop,  he  re- 
built it  magnificently.  Vasco  Perez  Marino  (1333-43) 
was  distinguished  for  his  devotion  to  the  "  Holy  Christ 
of  Orense",  which  he  caused  to  be  transferred  from 
Finisterre  to  Oren.se  and  built  for  it  a  beautiful  chapel, 
modified  in  subsequent  periods.  Other  distinguished 
occupants  of  this  see  were  Cardinal  Juan  de  Torque- 
mada,  a  Dominican,  who  assisted  at  the  Councils  of 
Constance  and  Ba.slo;  Diego  de  Fonseca  (1471-84), 
who  repaired  the  cathedral;  Cardinals  Antoniotto  Pal- 
lavicino  and  Pedro  de_Isvalles,  and  the  inquisitor 
general  Fernando  Vald^s.  Francisco  Blanco  founded 
the  Hospital  of  S.  Roque,  assisted  at  the  Council  of 
Trent,  founded  the  Jesuit  colleges  at  Malaga  and 
Compostela,  and  endowed  that  at  Monterey.     The 


ORESME 


296 


ORESME 


zealous  Juan  Munoz  dc  la  Cueva,  a  Trinitarian,  wrote 
"Historical  Xotes  on  the  Cathedral  Cliuroli  of  Orcnse" 
(Madrid,  17:27).  IVdro  Quevcdo  y  Quintana  (d.  ISIS), 
having  been  president  of  the  Regency  in  ISIO,  w;uj  ex- 
iled by  the  Corles  of  Cadiz;  he  founded  the  conciUar 
seminary  of  Orense  in  1S02. 

The  original  cathedral  \v;is  dedicated  to  the  Mother 
of  God,  and  is  still  Icnown  as  Santa  Maria  la  Madre. 
The  Suevian  king  Chararic  (see  above)  l)uilt  ('joO)  an- 
other, more  sumptuous,  church  in  honour  of  St.  Mar- 
tin of  Tours  and  made  it  the  cathedral,  as  it  is  to  this 
day.  Both  churches,  having  suffered  severely  from 
time  and  the  invasions  of  Arabs  and  Northmen,  have 
been  repeatedly  restored.  The  later  cathedral  is  Ro- 
manesque, with  features  of  Gothic  transition:  its  old- 
est portions  date  from  the  thirteenth  century,  and  its 
latest  from  the  early  si.xt cent  li:  t  lie  facade  has  been  re- 
built in  modern  times.  Tlie  liigli  altar  has  a  silver  tab- 
ernacle, given  by  Bishop  Miguel  Ares,  and  statues  of 
Our  Lady  and  St.  Martin.  In  two  side  altars  are  the 
relics  of  St.  Euphemia  and  her  companions  in  martyr- 
dom, Sts.  Facundus  and  Primitivus.  The  plan  of  the 
church  is  a  Latin  cross,  with  three  naves,  the  tower 
standing  apart.  The  choir  stalls  are  the  work  of  Diego 
de  Solis  and  Juan  de  Anges  (late  sixteenth  centur}-). 
Of  the  cloisters  only  a  small  portion  remains,  a  perfect 
gem  of  ogival  work.  The  chtu-ch  of  St.  Francis  and  the 
Trinitj'  should  also  be  mentioned;  it  was  founded 
probably  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  as  a 
hospice  for  pilgrims. 

The  famous  men  of  the  diocese  include  Padre  Fei- 
}6o,  a  polygrapher  who  exploded  many  superstitions; 
Antonio  de  Remesar,  the  historian  of  Chiapa  and  Gua- 
temala; Gregorio  Hernandez,  the  sculptor;  Castellar 
Ferrer,  the  historian  of  Gahcia;  St.  Francis  Blanco,  a 
martyr  of  Japan. 

Pelayo,  Heterodoxos  espaflotes,  I  (Madrid,  1879) ;  Madoz.  Dice. 
Oeogrdfictf-€stadfstico-hist6rico  de  Espafla  (Madrid,  1848):  Florez, 
Esp.  Sagrada  (Madrid,  1789);  de  la  Fuente.  Hist,  eel.  de  Esp. 
(Barcelona,  1855) 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Am.\do. 

Oresme,  Nicole,  philosopher,  economist,  mathe- 
matician, andphysicist,  one  of  the  principal  founders  of 
modem  science;  b.  in  Normandy,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Bayeux;  d.  at  Lisieux,  1 1  July,  1382.  In  1348  he  was 
a  student  of  theology  in  Paris;  in  13.56  grand  master 
of  the  College  de  Navarre;  in  1362,  already  master  of 
theologv',  canon  of  Rouen;  dean  of  the  chapter,  2S 
March,  1364.  On  3  August,  1377,  he  became  Bishop 
of  Lisieux.  There  is  a  tradition  that  he  was  tutor  to 
the  daupliin,  afterwards  Charles  V,  but  this  is  irrecon- 
cilable with  the  dates  of  Oresme's  life.  Charles  seems 
to  have  had  the  highest  esteem  for  his  character  and 
talents,  often  followed  his  counsel,  and  made  him  write 
many  works  in  French  for  the  purpose  of  developing  a 
taste  for  learning  in  the  kingdom.  At  Charles's  in- 
stance, too,  Oresme  pronounced  a  discourse  before  the 
papal  Court  at  Avignon,  denouncing  the  ecclesiastical 
disorders  of  the  time.  Several  of  the  French  and 
Latin  works  attributed  to  him  are  apocrj-phal  or 
doubtful.  Of  his  authentic  writings,  a  Christological 
treatise,  "Decommunicationeidiomatum  in  Christo", 
was  commonly  used  as  early  !W  the  fifteenth  century 
by  the  theological  Faculty  of  Paris. 

But  Oresme  is  best  known  as  an  economist,  mathe- 
matician, and  physicist.  His  economic  views  are  con- 
tained in  a  Commentary  on  the  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  of 
which  the  French  version  is  dated  1370;  a  commen- 
tary on  the  Politics  and  the  Economics  of  Aristotle, 
French  edition,  1371;  and  a  "Treatise  on  Coins". 
These  three  works  were  written  in  both  Latin  and 
French;  all  three,  especially  the  last,  stamp  their  au- 
thor as  the  precursor  of  the  science  of  political  econ- 
omy, and  reveal  his  mastery  of  the  French  language. 
The  French  C'^mmentarj'  on  the  Ethics  of  Aristotle 
was  printed  in  Paris  in  1488;  that  on  the  Politics  and 
the  Economics,  in  1489.     The  treatise  on  coins,  "De 


origine,  natura,  jure  et  niutationibu3  monetarum", 
was  printed  in  Paris  early  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
also  at  Lyons  in  167.5,  as  an  ajipcndix  to  the  "De  re 
monetaria"  of  Marquardus  Freherus,  and  is  included 
in  the  "Sacra  bibliotheca  sanctorum  Patrum"  of 
Margaronus  de  la  Bigne  IX,  (Paris,  1S.59),  p.  159,  and 
in  the  "Acta  pubhca  monetaria"  of  David  Thomas 
de  Hagelstein  (Augsburg,  1642).  The  "Traicti6dc  la 
premiere  invention  des  monnoies",  in  French,  was 
printed  at  Bruges  in  1477. 

His  most  important  contributions  to  mathematics 
are  contained  in  "Tractatus  de  figuratione  potentia- 
rum  et  mensurarum  difformitatum",  still  in  manu- 
script. An  abridgment  of  this  work  printed  as 
"Tractatus  de  latitudinibus  formarum"  (1482,  1486, 
1505,  1.515),  has  heretofore  been  the  only  source  for 
the  study  of  his  mathematical  ideas.  In  a  quality,  or 
accidental  form,  such  as  heat,  the  Scholastics  dis- 
tinguished the  inlcnsio  (the  degree  of  heat  at  each 
point)  and  the  extensio  (e.g.,  the  length  of  the  heated 
rod):  these  two  terms  were  often  replaced  by  latiludo 
and  longitudo,  and  from  the  time  of  St.  Thomas  until 
far  on  in  the  fourteenth  century,  there  was  lively  de- 
bate on  the  latitudo  formce.  For  the  sake  of  lucidity, 
Oresme  conceived  the  idea  of  employing  what  we 
should  now  call  rectangular  co-ordinates:  in  modern 
terminology,  a  length  proportionate  to  the  longitudo 
was  the  abscissa  at  a  given  point,  and  a  perpendicular 
at  that  point,  proportionate  to  the  latiludo,  was  the 
ordinate.  He  shows  that  a  geometrical  property  of 
such  a  figure  could  be  regarded  as  corresponding  to 
a  property  of  the  form  itself  only  when  this  property 
remains  constant  while  the  units  measuring  the  longi- 
tudo and  latiludo  vary.  Hence  he  defines  latiludo 
uniformis  as  that  which  is  represented  by  a  line  paral- 
lel to  the  longitude,  and  any  other  latitudo  is  difformis; 
the  latiludo  uniformiter  difformis  is  represented  by  a 
right  line  inclined  to  the  axis  of  the  longitude.  He 
proves  that  this  definition  is  equivalent  to  an  alge- 
braical relation  in  which  the  longitudes  and  latitudes 
of  any  three  points  would  figure:  i.  e.,  he  gives  the 
equation  of  the  right  line,  and  thus  forestalls  Descartes 
in  the  invention  of  analytical  geometry.  This  doc- 
trine he  extends  to  figures  of  three  dimensions. 

Besides  the  longitude  and  latitude  of  a  form,  he 
considers  the  mensura,  or  quaniitas,  of  the  form,  pro- 
portional to  the  area  of  the  figure  representing  it.  He 
proves  this  theorem:  A  form  unifonniler  difformis 
has  the  same  quantitj'  as  a  form  uniformis  of  the  same 
longitude  and  having  as  latitude  the  mean  between 
the  two  extreme  limits  of  the  first.  He  then  shows 
that  his  method  of  figuring  the  latitude  of  forms  is 
applicable  to  the  movement  of  a  point,  on  condition 
that  the  time  is  taken  as  longitude  and  the  speed  as 
latitude;  quantity  is,  then,  the  space  covered  in  a 
given  time.  In  virtue  of  this  transposition,  the  the- 
orem of  the  latitude  unifonniler  difformis  became  the 
law  of  the  space  traversed  in  case  of  uniformly  varied 
motion:  Oresme's  demonstration  is  exactly  the  same 
as  that  which  Galileo  was  to  render  celebrated  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  Moreover,  this  law  was  never 
forgotten  during  the  interval  between  Oresme  and 
Galileo:  it  was  taught  at  Oxford  by  William  Heytes- 
bury  and  his  followers,  then,  at  Paris  and  in  Italy, 
by  all  the  followers  of  that  school.  In  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  long  before  Galileo,  the  Domin- 
ican Dominic  Soto  applied  the  law  to  the  uniformly 
acclerated  falling  of  heavy  bodies  and  to  the  uniformly 
decreasing  ascension  of  projectiles. 

Oresme's  physical  teachings  are  set  forth  in  two 
French  works,  the  "Trait6  de  la  sphere",  twice  printed 
in  Paris  (first  edition  without  date;  second,  1508X  and 
the  "Traits  du  ciel  et  du  monde",  written  in  1377  at 
the  request  of  King  Charles  V,  but  never  printed. 
In  most  of  the  essential  problems  of  statics  and  dynam- 
ics, Oresme  follows  the  opinions  advocated  in  Pans 
by  his  predecessor,  Jean  Buridan  de  BSthune,  and  his 


ORGAN 


297 


ORGAN 


contemporary,  Albert  de  Saxe  (see  Saxe,  Albert  de). 
In  opposition  to  the  Aristotelean  theory  of  weight, 
according  to  which  the  natural  location  of  heavy 
bodies  is  the  centre  of  the  world,  and  that  of  light 
bodies  the  concavity  of  the  moon's  orb,  he  proposes 
the  following :  The  elements  tend  to  dispose  themselves 
in  such  manner  that,  from  the  centre  to  the  periph- 
ery their  specific  weight  diminishes  by  degrees.  He 
thinks  that  a  similar  rule  may  exist  in  worlds  other 
than  this.  This  is  the  doctrine  later  substituted  for 
the  Aristotelean  by  Copernicus  and  his  followers,  such 
as  Giordano  Bruno.  The  latter  argued  in  a  manner  so 
similar  to  Oresme's  that  it  would  seem  he  had  read 
the  "Traits  du  ciel  et  du  monde".  But  Oresme  had  a 
much  stronger  claim  to  be  regarded  as  the  precursor  of 
Copernicus  when  one  considers  what  he  says  of  the 
diurnal  motion  of  the  earth,  to  which  he  devotes  the 
gloss  following  chapters  xxiv  and  xxv  of  the  "Traits 
du  ciel  et  du  monde".  He  begins  by  establishing  that 
no  experiment  can  decide  whether  the  heavens  move 
from  east  to  west  or  the  earth  from  west  to  east;  for 
sensible  experience  can  never  establish  more  than 
relative  motion.  He  then  shows  that  the  reasons 
proposed  by  the  physics  of  Aristotle  against  the  move- 
ment of  the  earth  are  not  valid;  he  points  out,  in  par- 
ticular, the  principle  of  the  solution  of  the  difficulty 
drawn  from  the  movement  of  projectiles.  Next  he 
solves  the  objections  based  on  texts  of  Holy  Scripture; 
in  interpreting  these  passages  he  lays  down  rules  uni- 
versally followed  by  Catholic  exegetists  of  the  present 
day.  Finally,  he  adduces  the  argument  of  simplicity 
for  the  theory  that  the  earth  moves,  and  not  the  heav- 
ens, and  the"  whole  of  his  argument  in  favour  of  the 
earth's  motion  is  both  more  explicit  and  much  clearer 
than  that  given  by  Copernicus. 

Meunier,  Essai  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages  de  Nicole  Oresme  (Paris, 
1857):  WoLowsKi  ed.,  Traictie  de  la  premihe  invention  des  mon- 
noies  de  Nicole  Oresme,  teites  fTani^ais  et  latin  d'apr^s  les  manu- 
scrits  de  la  Bibliotheque  Imperiale,  et  Traits  de  la  monnoie  de  Coper- 
nic,  texte  latin  et  traduction  fran^aise  (Paris,  1864);  Jocrdain, 
Memoire  sur  les  cmnmeiicements  de  VEconomie  politique  dans  les 
(coles  du  Moyen-Afje  in  Memoires  de  I'Academie  des  Inscriptions 
el  Belles-Lettres.  XXVIII,  pt.  II  (l-:t>:  (  ri,i/E,  Der  Algorismus 
proportionum  des  Nicolaus  Ore^tn.    i  <>^r  Mathcmatik  u. 

P/ij/siit,  XIII,  Supplcmentarj- (I.  It  i  '.",-79;  Idem.  Dcr 

Tractatus  de  Latiludinibus  Formnrun:  ,/.  A  -  ../,i;n  Oresme  (Ibid., 
1868),  92-97;  Idkm.  Die  malhemalischen  Schriften  des  Nicole 
Oresme  (Berlin,  1870) ;  Suter,  Eine  bis  jetzt  unbekannte  Schrift  des 
Nic.  Oresme  in  Zeitschr.  fiir  Mathematik  und  Physik,  XXVII, 
Hist.-litter.  AUheiUnw  (LfipziK,  1SS2).  121-25;  Cantor.  For- 
lesungen  Uber  dir  t',  , /,  ,/.  y  MiO.,  ut.rr. ,  TI  (2nd  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1900),  128-36;  III  m    -    /  ,     -  :,  Copernic:  Nicole 

Oresme  0377)  in   //  -  ( I'aria,  15  Nov., 

1909);  Idem,  i)..,,.. ',,.,.,-  -,.,;.,  ,/  /,,  ,n,  ,,/,,  ,■,.,  ,,  ,„i,-isieime  in  BW- 
letin  hispanique  {H'nili-3.ux,  l'JU^-li).  PlERRB    DUHEM. 

Organ  (Greek  bpyavov,  "an  instrument"),  a  musi- 
cal instrument  which  consists  of  one  or  several  sets  of 
pipes,  each  pipe  giving  only  one  tone,  and  which  is 
blown  and  played  by  mechanical  means.  I.  Origin 
AND  De\elop.ment. — \s  far  as  the  sounding  material 
is  concerned,  the  organ  has  its  prototype  in  the  syrinx, 
or  Pan's  pipe,  a  little  instrument  consisting  of  several 
pipes  of  differing  length  tied  together  in  a  row.  The 
application  of  the  mechanism  is  credited  to  Ctesibius, 
a  mechanician  who  lived  in  Alexandria  about  300  B.  c. 
According  to  descriptions  by  Vitruvius  (who  is  now 
generally  believed  to  have  written  about  A.  D.  60) 
and  Heron  (somewhat  later  than  Vitruvius),  the  or- 
gan of  Ctesibius  was  an  instrument  of  such  perfection 
as  was  not  attained  again  until  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  blowing  apparatus  designed  by  Ctesibius  con- 
sisted of  two  parts,  just  as  in  the  modem  organ;  the 
first  serving  to  compress  the  air  (the  "feeders");  the 
second,  to  store  the  compressed  air,  the  "wind",  and 
keep  it  at  a  uniform  pressure  (the  "reservoir").  For 
the  first  purpose  Ctesibius  used  air-pumps  fitted  with 
handles  for  convenient  working.  The  second,  the 
most  interesting  part  of  his  invention,  was  constructed 
as  follows:  a  bell-shaped  vessel  was  placed  in  a  bronze 
basin,  mouth  downwards,  supported  a  couple  of  inches 
above  the  bottom  of  the  basin  by  a  few  blocks.     Into 


the  basin  water  was  then  poured  until  it  rose  some 
distance  above  the  mouth  of  the  bell.  Tubes  connect- 
ing with  the  air-pumps,  as  well  as  others  connecting 
with  the  pipes  of  the  organ,  were  fitted  into  the  top 
of  the  bell.  When,  therefore,  the  air-pumps  were 
worked,  the  air  inside  the  bell  was  compressed  and 
pushed  out  some  of  the  water  below.  The  level  of  the 
water  consequently  rose  and  kept  the  air  inside  com- 
pressed. Any  wind  taken  from  the  bell  to  supply  the 
pipes  would  naturally  have  a  tendency  to  raise  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  bell  and  to  lower  that  outside. 
But  if  the  supply  from  the  air-pumps  was  kept  slightly 
in  excess  of  the  demand  by  the  pipes,  so  that  some 
of  the  air  would  always  escape  through  the  water  in 
bubbles,  a  very  even  pressure  would  be  maintained. 
This  is  what  was  actually  done,  and  the  bubbling  of 
the  water,  sometimes  described  as  "boiling",  was  al- 
ways prominent  in  the  accounts  given  of  the  instru- 
ment. 

Over  the  basin  there  was  placed  a  flat  box  contain- 
ing a  number  of  channels  corresponding  to  the  num- 
ber of  rows  of  pipes.  Vitruvius  speaks  of  organs  hav- 
ing four,  six,  or  eight  rows  of  pipes,  with  as  many 
channels.  Each  channel  was  supplied  with  wind 
from  the  bell  by  a  connecting  tube,  a  cock  being  in- 
serted in  each  tube  to  cut  off  the  wind  at  will.  Over  the 
box  containing  the  channels  an  upper-board  was  placed, 
on  the  lower  side  of  which  email  grooves  were  cut  trans- 
versely to  the  channels.  In  the  grooves  close-fitting 
"sliders"  were  inserted,  which  could  be  moved  in  and 
out.  At  the  intersections  of  channels  and  grooves, 
holes  were  cut  vertically  through  the  upper  board  and, 
correspondingly,  through  the  top  covering  of  the  chan- 
nels. The  pipes,  then,  stood  over  the  holes  of  the 
upper-board,  each  row,  representing  a  scale-like  pro- 
gression, standing  over  its  own  channel,  and  all  the 
pipes  belonging  to  the  same  key,  standing  over  the 
same  groove.  The  sliders  also  were  perforated,  their 
holes  corresponding  to  those  in  the  upper  board  and 
the  roof  of  the  channels.  When,  therefore,  the  slider 
was  so  placed  that  its  holes  were  in  line  with  the  lower 
and  upper  holes,  the  wind  could  pass  through  the 
three  holes  into  the  pipe  above;  but  if  the  slider  was 
drawn  out  a  little,  its  solid  portions  would  <'ut  olT  the 
connexion  between  the  holes  in  the  roof  of  t  lir  cliaiiiiels 
and  those  in  the  upper-board,  and  no  wind  ('(mid  jkiss. 
There  was  thus  a  double  control  of  the  pipes.  By 
means  of  the  cocks,  wind  could  be  admitted  to  any  one 
of  the  channels,  and  thus  sujjply  all  the  pipes  standing 
over  that  channel,  but  only  those  pipes  would  get 
the  wind  whose  slide  was  in  the  proper  position. 
Again,  by  means  of  the  slide,  wind  could  be  admitted 
to  all  the  pipes  standing  in  a  transverse  row,  but 
only  those  pipes  would  be  blown  to  whose  channels 
wind  had  been  admitted  by  the  cocks.  This  double 
control  is  still  a  leading  principle  in  modern  organ- 
building,  and  a  row  of  pipes,  differing  in  pitch,  but 
having  the  same  quality  of  tone,  is  called  a  sto]),  be- 
cause its  wind  supply  can  be  stopped  by  one  action. 
It  is  not  quite  certain  what  the  stops  in  the  ancient 
organ  meant.  It  is  very  unlikely  that  different  stops 
produced  different  qualities  of  tone,  as  in  the  mod- 
em organ.  Most  probably  they  represented  different 
"modes".  For  the  convenient  management  of  the 
slides  each  was  provided  with  an  angular  lever,  so  that 
on  pressing  down  one  arm  of  the  lever,  the  slide  was 
pushed  in;  the  lever  being  released,  the  slide  was 
pulled  out  again  by  a  spring. 

This  organ,  called  hydraulua,  or  orgrniinii  h)iilnnili- 
cum,  from  the  water  used  in  the  blowing  ii|ip;ir:i  I  us,  en- 
joyed great  popularity.  Writers  like  ( 'ice  id  nn-  hmd 
in  its  praise.  Even  emperors  took  pride  in  playing 
it.  It  was  used  to  heighten  the  pleasures  of  banquets 
and  was  associated  particularly  with  the  theatre  and 
the  circus.  Numerous  representations,  particularly 
on  coins  called  contorniates,  also  testify  to  its  general 
repute.     At  an  early  period  we  meet  organs  in  which 


OBQAN 


298 


ORGAN 


the  air  pumps  were  replaced  by  bellows.  Whether  in 
these  organs  the  water  api)aratus  was  dispensed  with, 
is  not  quite  certain.  It  woul<l  be  strange,  however,  if 
this  important  means  of  roguhiting  the  wind  jircs.-iure 
had  been  discontinued  whiU'  tlie  liydrauhis  wa.s  still  in 
vogue.  About  the  sixth  century  organ-building  .•^cenis 
to  have  gone  down  in  Western  Europe,  \\\n\r  it  was 
continued  in  the  Kastern  Empire.  It  was  a  great  event 
when,  in  757,  the  Emperor  Constantino  \'  C'oprony- 
mus  made  a  present  of  an  organ  to  King  Pepin.  In 
826  a  \'cnctian  priest  named  Georgius  erected  an 
organ  at  Aachen,  possibly  following  the  directions 
left  by  Vitruvius.  Shortly  afterwards  organ-building 
seems  to  have  flourished  in  Germany,  for  we  are  told 
(Baluze,  "Misc.",  V,  480)  that  Pope  John  VIII  (S7'J- 
80)  asked  Anno,  Bishop  of  Freising,  to  send  him  a  good 
organ  and  an  organist.  By  this  time  the  hydraulic 
apparatus  for  equalizing  the  wind-pressure  had  cer- 
tainly been  abandoned,  presumably  because  in  north- 
ern climates  the  water  might  freeze  in  winter  time. 
The  wind,  therefore,  was  supplied  to  the  pipes  directly 
from  the  bellows.  To  get  anything  like  a  regular  flow 
of  wind,  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  number  of  bellows 
worked  by  several  men.  Thus,  an  organ  in  Winches- 
ter cathedral,  built  in  951,  and  containing  400  pipes, 
had  twenty-six  bellows,  which  it  took  seventy  men  to 
blow.  These  seventy  men  e\'idently  worked  in  relays. 
In  all  probability  one  man  would  work  one  bellows,  but 
the  work  was  so  e.xhausting  that  each  man  could  con- 
tinue only  for  a  short  time.  The  bellows  were  pressed 
down  either  by  means  of  a  handle  or  by  the  blower 
standing  on  them.  It  seems  that  the  device  of  weight- 
ing the  bellows — so  that  the  blower  had  merely  to 
raise  the  upper  board  and  leave  the  weights  to  press 
it  dow^l  again — was  discovered  only  in  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Another  point  in  which  the  medieval  organ  was 
inferior  to  the  hydraulus,  was  the  absence  of  stops. 
There  were,  indeed,  several  rows  of  pipes,  but  they 
could  not  be  stopped.  All  the  pipes  belonging  to  one 
key  sounded  always  together,  when  that  key  was  de- 
pressed. Thus  the  ^^'inchester  organ  had  ten  pipes  to 
each  key.  What  the  difference  between  these  various 
pipes  was,  we  do  not  know;  but  it  appears  that  at  an 
early  date  pipes  were  introduced  to  re-enforce  the  over- 
tones of  the  principal  tone,  giving  the  octave,  twelfth, 
and  their  duplicates  in  still  higher  octaves.  Then,  to 
counterbalance  these  high-pitched  pipes,  others  were 
added  giving  the  lower  octave,  and  even  the  second 
lower  octave.  In  the  absence  of  a  stop  action,  variety 
of  tone  quality  was  of  course  unattainable,  except  by 
haying  different  organs  to  play  alternately.  Even  the 
Winchester  organ  had  two  key-boards,  representing 
practically  two  organs  (some  authorities  think  there 
were  three).  From  a  contemporary  description  we 
learn  that  there  were  two  organists  (or  three  according 
to  some),  each  managing  his  own  "alphabet".  The 
term  alphabet  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  alpha- 
betical name  of  the  note  was  attached  to  each  slide. 
The  modem  name  key  refers  to  the  same  fact,  though, 
according  to  Zarlino  ("Istitutioni  armoniche",  1.55S), 
in  a  roundabout  manner:  he  says  that  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  Guidonian 
staff  (see  Neum,  p.  772,  col.  2)  were  called  keys 
(daves,  clefs)  because  they  unlocked  the  secrets  of 
the  staff,  and  that,  hence,  the  same  name  was  ap- 
plied to  the  levers  of  instruments  like  the  organ 
inscribed  with  the  same  alphabetical  letters. 

WTiile,  in  the  Winchester  organ,  the  two  key-boards 
belonged  to  one  organ,  we  know  that  there  used  to  be 
also  entirely  separate  organs  in  the  same  building. 
The  smallest  of  these  were  called  "portatives",  be- 
cause they  could  be  carried  about.  These  were  known 
in  France  in  the  tenth  century  (Vioflet-le-Duc,  "In- 
struments de  musique",  p.  298).  A  larger  kind  was 
called  "positive",  because  it  was  stationary,  but  it, 
again,  seems  to  have  been  distinguished  from  a  still 


larger  instrument  known  simply  as  the  organ.  Later 
on,  when  in  reality  se\'eral  organs  were  conibined  in  the 
same  instrument,  one  of  the  .softer  divisions  was  called 
"positive".  This  name  is  still  retained  on  the  Conti- 
nent, while  in  English-speaking  countries  it  hsis  been 
changed  to  "choir  organ  .  There  was  still  another  in- 
strument of  the  organ  kind  called  a  "regal".  Its 
lieeuliarity  was  that,  instead  of  pipes,  it  had  reeds, 
fastened  at  one  end  and  free  to  vibrate  at  the  other. 
It  was  therefore  the  precursor  of  our  modern  harmo- 
nium. In  the  fourteenth  century  organs  were  con- 
structed with  different  key-boards  placed  one  above 
the  other,  each  controlling  its  own  division  of  the  or- 
gan. Soon  afterwards  couplers  were  designed,  that 
is,  mechanical  appliances  by  which  a  key  depressed  in 
one  key-board  (or  manual)  would  simultaneously  pull 
down  a  corresponding  key  in  another.  The  invention 
of  a  special  key-board  to  be  played  by  the  feet,  and 
hence  called  "pedals",  is  also  placed  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  Sometimes  the  pedal  keys  merely  pulled 
down  manual  keys  by  means  of  a  chord;  sometimes 
they  were  provided  with  their  own  rows  of  pipes,  as  in 
some  fourteenth-century  Swedish  organs  described  by 
C.  F.  Hcnnerberg  in  a  paper  read  at  the  International 
Musical  Congress  at  Vienna,  in  1909  ("Bericht",  91 
sqq.,  Vienna  and  Leipzig,  1909). 

It  seems  that  stops  were  not  reinvented  until  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  form  then  used  for  a  stop  ac- 
tion was  that  of  a  "spring-box".  About  the  four- 
teenth century,  it  appears,  the  slider  for  the  key  action 
had  been  discontinued,  and  channels  (grooves)  had 
been  used,  as  in  the  ancient  hydraulus,  but  running 
transversely,  each  under  a  row  of  pipes  belonging  to 
the  same  key.  Into  these  grooves  wind  was  admitted 
through  a  slit  covered  by  a  valve  (pallet),  the  valve 
being  pulled  down  and  opened  by  the  key  action,  and 
closed  again  by  a  spring.  Such  an  arrangement  is 
found  in  some  remnants  of  the  fourteenth  century 
Swedish  organs  (see  Henncrberg,  1  c).  In  these 
grooves,  then,  about  the  fifteenth  century,  secondary 
spring  valves  were  inserted,  one  under  each  hole  lead- 
ing to  a  pipe.  From  each  of  these  secondary  valves 
a  string  led  to  one  of  a  number  of  rods  running  longi- 
tudinally under  the  sound-board,  one  for  each  set  of 
pipes  corresponding  to  a  stop.  By  depressing  this 
rod,  all  the  secondary  valves  belonging  to  the  corre- 
sponding stop  would  be  opened,  and  wind  could  enter 
the  pipes  as  soon  as  it  was  admitted  into  the  grooves 
by  the  key  action.  Later  on  it  was  found  more  con- 
venient to  push  these  valves  down  than  to  pull  them. 
Little  rods  were  made  to  pass  through  the  top  of  the 
sound-board  and  to  rest  on  the  front  end  of  the  valves. 
These  rods  could  be  depressed,  so  as  to  open  the  valves, 
by  the  stop-roil  running  over  the  sound-board.  From 
these  secoiulary  valves  the  whole  arrangement  re- 
ceived the  name  spring-box. 

The  spring-box  solved  the  problem  in  principle,  but 
had  the  drawback  of  necessitating  frequent  repairs. 
Hence,  from  the  sixteenth  century  onwards,  organ- 
builders  began  to  use  sliders  for  the  stop  action.  Thus 
the  double  control  of  the  pipes  by  means  of  channel 
and  slide  was  again  used  as  in  the  hydraulus,  but  with 
exchanged  functions,  the  channel  now  serving  for 
the  key  action  and  the  slider  for  the  stop  action.  In 
modem  times  some  builders  have  returned  to  the  an- 
cient method  of  using  the  channel  longitudinally,  for 
the  stops  (Kcgelladc  and  similar  contrivances;  pneu- 
matic sound-boards).  Mention  should  also  be  made 
of  attempts  to  do  away  with  the  channels  altog(^ther, 
to  have  all  the  pipes  supplied  directly  from  a  universal 
wind-chest,  and  to  bring  about  the  double  control  of 
key  and  stop  action  by  the  mechanism  alone.  Each 
pipe  hole  is  then  provided  with  a  special  valve,  and 
key  and  stop  mechanism  are  so  arranged  that  only 
their  combined  action  will  open  the  valve.  Shortly 
after  the  stop-action  had  been  reinvented,  builders 
began  to  design  varieties  of  stops.     The  earlier  pipes 


ORGAN 


299 


ORGAN 


had  been  all  of  our  open  diapason  kind,  which  in 
principle  is  the  same  as  the  toy-whistle.  These  were 
now  made  in  different  "scales"  (scale  being  the  ratio 
of  diameter  to  length).  Also,  the  form  of  a  cone, 
upright  or  inverted,  replaced  the  cyUiidrical  form. 
Stopped  pipes — that  is,  pipes  closed  at  the  top — were 
added,  and  reeds — pipes  with  a  "beating"  reed  and  a 
body  Uke  tlie  "flue"  pipes — were  introduced.  Thus, 
by  the  sixteenth  ceatury  all  the  main  types  now  used 
had  been  invented. 

The  keys  in  the  early  medieval  organs  were  not,  it 
seems,  levers,  as  in  the  ancient  organ  and  modern  in- 
struments, but  simply  the  projecting  ends  of  the  slides, 
being,  presumably,  furnished  with  some  simple  device 
making  it  convenient  for  the  fingers  to  push  in  or  pull 
out  the  slides.  The  invention  of  key-levers  is  gener- 
ally placed  in  the  twelfth  century.  These  were  for  a 
long  time  placed  exactly  opposite  their  sliders.  When, 
tlierefore,  larger  pipes  began  to  be  placed  on  the  sound- 
board, the  distances  between  the  centres  of  the  keys 
had  to  be  widened.  Thus  we  are  told  that  organs  had 
keys  from  three  to  five  inches  wide.  This  incon- 
venience was  overcome  by  the  invention  of  the  roller- 
board,  which  is  placed  in  the  fourteenth  century.  The 
rollers  are  rods  placed  longitudinally  under  the  sound- 
board and  pivoted.  From  each  two  short  arms  pro- 
ject horizontally,  one  being  placed  over  a  key,  the 
other  under  the  corresponding  shder  or  valve.  Thus 
the  length  of  the  key-board  became  independent  of 
the  length  of  the  sound-board.  Consequently  we 
learn  that  in  the  fifteenth  century  the  keys  were  so 
reduced  in  size  that  a  hand  could  span  the  interval  of 
a  fifth,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  the  key- 
board had  about  the  size  it  has  at  present. 

The  number  of  keys  in  the  early  organs  was  small : 
only  about  one  or  two  octaves  of  natural  keys  with 
at  most  the  addition  of  b  flat.  Slowly  the  number  of 
keys  was  increased,  and  in  the  fourteenth  century 
we  hear  of  key-boards  having  thirty-one  keys.  In 
the  same  century  chromatic  notes  other  than  6  flat 
began  to  be  added.  Then  the  question  of  tuning  be- 
came troublesome.  Various  systems  were  devised, 
and  it  was  not  till  the  eighteenth  century,  through  the 
powerful  influence  of  J.  S.  Bach,  that  equal  tempera- 
ment was  adopted.  This  consists  in  tuning  in  fifths 
and  octaves,  making  each  fifth  slightly  flat  so  that  the 
12th  fifth  will  give  a  perfect  octave.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixteenth  century  the  lower  limit  of  the 
key-boards  began  to  be  fixed  on  the  Contipent  at 
C,  the  c  that  lies  below  the  lowest  tone  of  the  average 
bass  voice  and  requires  an  open  pipe  of  about  8  feet 
in  length.  In  England  organ  key-boards  were  gen- 
erally carried  down  to  the  G  or  F  below  that  C,  and 
only  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
continental  usage  prevailed  also  here.  The  total 
compass  of  the  manuals  now  varies  from  four  and  a 
half  to  five  octaves,  that  of  the  pedals  from  two  oc- 
taves and  three  notes  to  two  octaves  and  six  notes 
(C — d'  of  C^').  In  1712  it  occurred  to  a  London 
organ-builder  named  Jordan  to  place  one  manual  de- 
partment of  the  organ  in  a  box  fitted  with  shutters 
which  could  be  opened  or  closed  by  a  foot-worked 
lever,  a  kind  of  crescendo  and  decrescendo  being  thus 
obtained.  This  device,  which  received  the  name 
of  swell,  soon  became  popular  in  England,  while  in 
Germany  it  found  favour  only  quite  recently. 

As  we  have  seen,  all  through  the  Middle  Ages  the 
blowing  apparatus  consisted  of  bellows  which  deliv- 
ered the  wind  directly  to  the  sound-board.  It  was 
only  in  the  eighteenth  century  that  two  sets  of  bellows 
were  employed,  one  to  supply  the  wind,  the  other  to 
store  it  and  keep  it  at  even  pressure.  Thus,  after  an 
interval  of  about  a  thousand  years,  the  blowing  appar- 
atus regained  the  perfection  it  had  possessed  in  the 
hydraulus  during  the  preceding  thousand  years.  In. 
1762  a  clock-maker  named  Cummings  invented  a 
square,  weighted  bellows,  serving  as  a  reservoir,  and 


supplied  by  other  bellows  called  "feeders".  The 
feeders  are  generally  worked  by  levers  operated  either 
by  hand  or  foot.  In  quite  recent  times  machinery  has 
been  applied  to  supersede  the  human  blower,  hydrau- 
lic, or  gas,  or  oil  engines,  or  electromotors  being  used. 
The  difficulty  of  regulating  the  supply  is  easily  over- 
come in  the  case  of  hydraulic  engines,  which  can  be 
made  to  go  slowly  or  fast  as  required.  But  it  is  serious 
in  the  case  of  the  other  engines.  Gas  and  oil  engines 
must  always  go  at  the  same  speed,  and  even  with  elec- 
tromotors a  control  of  their  speed  is  awkward.  Hence, 
nowadays.  IkHows  serving  as  feeders  are  frequently 
supersc.le.l  liy  <i'iitrifugal  fans,  which  can  go  at  their 
full  speetl  witliout  delivering  wind.  It  is  sufficient, 
therefore,  to  fit  an  automatic  valve  to  the  reservoir, 
which  will  close  when  the  reservoir  is  full.  There  is 
this  drawback  in  the  fans:  that  to  produce  a  pressure 
as  required  in  modern  organs,  they  must  go  at  a  high 
speed  which  is  apt  to  produce  a  disturbing  noise. 
To  obviate  this  difficulty  several  fans  are  arranged  in 
series,  the  first  raising  the  wind  only  to  a  slight  pi'es- 
sure  and  so  delivering  it  to  a  second  fan,  which  de- 
livers it  at  an  increased  pressure  to  the  next,  and  so  on, 
until  the  requisite  pressure  is  attained  by  a  practically 
noiseless  process. 

A  genuine  revolution  in  the  building  of  organs  was 
brought  about  by  the  invention  of  the  pneumatic 
lever.  Up  to  the  twelfth  century,  it  appears,  the 
"touch"  (or  key-resistance)  was  fight,  so  that  the  or- 
gans could  be  played  with  the  fingers  (see  an  article  by 
Schubiger  in  "Monatshefte  flir  Musikgeschichte",  I, 
No.  9).  Later  on,  possibly  with  the  change  to  the 
groove  and  pallet  system,  it  became  heavy,  so  that  the 
keys  had  to  be  pushed  down  by  the  fists.  With  im- 
provement in  the  mechanism  a  lighter  touch  was  se- 
cured again,  so  that  playing  with  the  fingers  became 
possible  after  the  fifteenth  century.  Still,  a  difficulty 
was  always  felt.  In  large  organs  the  valve  which  ad- 
mits the  wind  to  the  key  channels  (the  pallet)  must  be 
of  considerable  size,  if  all  the  pipes  are  to  get  sufficient 
wind.  Consequently,  the  wind-pressure  which  has  to 
be  overcome  in  opening  the  valve  becomes  so  great  that 
it  taxes  the  power  of  the  organist's  fingers  unduly. 
This  difficulty  is  increased  when  couplers  are  used,  as 
the  finger  then  has  to  open  two  or  more  valves  at  the 
same  time.  To  overcome  this  difficulty.  Barker,  an 
Englishman,  in  1832,  thought  of  using  the  power  of  the 
wind  itself  as  an  intermediate  agent,  and  he  induced 
the  French  organ-builder  Cavaille-CoU  to  adopt  his 
idea  in  an  organ  erected  in  1841.  The  device  consists 
in  this:  that  the  key,  by  opening  a  small  valve,  ad- 
mits the  wind  into  a  bellows  which  acts  as  motor  and 
pulls  down  the  pallet.  Once  this  appliance  was  thor- 
oughly appreciated,  the  way  was  opened  to  dispense 
altogether  with  the  mechanism  that  connects  the  key 
with  the  pallet  (or  the  draw-stop  knob  with  the  slider), 
and  to  put  in  its  stead  tubular-pneumatic  or  electro- 
pneumatic  action.  In  the  former  the  key  opens  a  very 
small  valve  which  admits  the  wind  into  a  tube  of  small 
diameter;  the  wind,  travelling  through  the  tube  in  the 
form  of  a  compression  wave,  opens,  at  the  far  end,  an- 
other small  valve  controlling  the  motor  bellows  that 
opens  the  pallet.  In  the  electro-pneumatic  action  the 
key  makes  an  electric  contact,  causing  the  electric  cur- 
rent to  energize,  at  the  organ  end,  an  electro-magnet 
which,  by  its  armature,  causes  a  flow  of  wind  and  thus 
operates  on  a  pneumatic  lever. 

With  these  inventions  all  the  restrictions  in  organ- 
building,  as  to  number  of  .stops,  pressure  of  wind,  dis- 
tances etc.,  were  removed.  Also  means  of  control 
could  easily  be  multiplied.  Couplers  were  increased  in 
number,  and  besides  those  connecting  a  key  of  one 
manual  with  the  corresponding  key  of  another,  octave 
and  sub-octave  coujilers  were  added,  both  on  the  same 
manual  and  between  different  manuals.  In  the  matter 
of  a  stop-control,  combination  pedals — that  is  foot- 
worked  levers  drawing  a  whole  set  of  stops  at  a  time — 


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300 


ORGAN 


had  been  in  use  before  the  pneumatic  lever.  They 
were  now  often  replaced  by  small  pistons  placed  con- 
veniently for  the  hands.  These  piston.s  are  soniet  imes 
so  designed  a.s  not  to  interfere  with  the  arrangement 
of  stops  worked  by  hand;  .'Sometimes  they  are  made 
"adjustable" — that  is,  .so  contrivid  as  to  draw  any 
combination  of  stops  whioh  I  he  player  may  previously 
arrange.  Attem]jts  have  also  been  made  to  have  indi- 
vidual stops  playable  from  several  manuals.  This  is  a 
great  advantage,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  implies 
inaccessible  mechanism.  Casson's  "Octave-duplica- 
tion" avoiils  this  objection,  while,  by  making  a  whole 
manual  i)!ayable  in  octave  pitch,  it  considerably  in- 
crea.ses  the  variety  of  tone  obtainable  from  a  given 
number  of  stops. 

A  Sjiccial  difficulty  in  organ-plajnng  is  the  manipu- 
lation of  the  pedal  stops.  On  the  manuals  quick 
changes  of  strength  and  quality  can  be  obtained  by 
passing  from  one  key-board  to  another.  But,  as  only 
one  pedal  key-board  is  feasible,  similar  changes  on  the 
pedals  can  only  be  made  by  change  of  stops.  Hence 
special  facilities  are  here  particularly  desirable.  Cas- 
son's invention,  in  1889,  of  "pedal  helps" — little 
levers,  or  pistons,  one  for  each  manual,  which  make 
the  pedal  stops  adjust  themselves  automatically  to  all 
changes  of  stops  on  the  corresponding  manual — is  the 
most  satisfactory  solution  of  this  difficulty. 

II.  F.^Mous  ORt:.\N  Builders. — Ctesibius,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  hydraulus,  and  the  Venetian  Georgius, 
who  built  the  first  organ  north  of  the  Alps,  have  al- 
ready been  mentioned.  It  is  interesting  to  find  a  pope 
among  the  organ-builders  of  history:  Sylvester  II 
(999-1003),  who  seems  to  have  built  a  hydraulic  organ 
(Pretorius,  "Syntagma  Musicum",  II,  92).  We  may 
also  record  here  the  first  instructions  on  organ-build- 
iflg  since  the  time  of  Vitruvius  and  Heron,  contained 
in  a  work,  "  Diversarum  artium  schedula  ",  by  Theoph- 
ilus,  a  monk,  who  seems  to  have  written  before  1 100 
(Degering,  "Die  Orgel",  p.  65).  After  this  names  are 
scarce  until  the  thirteenth  century.  Then  we  hear  in 
Germany  of  a  large  organ  in  Cologne  cathedral,  built, 
probably,  by  one  Johann,  while  the  builders  of  famous 
organs  in  Erfurt  Cathedral  (122.5)  and  in  St.  Peter's 
near  Erfurt  (1226)  are  not  known.  A  Master  Gunce- 
lin  of  Frankfort  built  a  large  organ  for  Strasburg 
cathedral  in  1292,  and  a  Master  Raspo,  also  of  Frank- 
fort, probably  built  one  for  Basle  cathedral  in  1303. 
The  famous  organ  at  Halberstadt,  with  four  key- 
boards, was  built  between  13.59  and  1361  by  Nicholas 
Faber,  a  priest.  Of  the  fifteenth  century  we  will  men- 
tion only  Steffan  of  Breslau,  who  built  a  new  organ  for 
Erfurt  cathedral  in  1483.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
Gregorius  Vogel  was  famous  for  the  beauty  and  vari- 
ety of  tone  of  his  stops.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries  the  Silbermann  family  were  renowned . 
The  first  of  them  to  take  up  organ-building  was  Andreas 
Silbermann  (1678-1733);  his  brother  Gottfried  (16S3- 
1753),  the  mo.st  famous  organ-builder  in  the  family, 
was  also  one  of  the  first  to  build  pianofortes.  Three 
sons  of  Andreas  continued  the  work  of  their  father  and 
uncle:  Johann  Andreas  (1712-83),  Johann  Daniel 
(1717-1766),  and  Johann  Heinrich  (1727-1799),  the 
last  two  building  mainly  pianofortes.  In  a  third  gen- 
eration we  meet  Johann  Josias  (d.  1786),  a  son  of  Jo- 
hann Andreas,  and  Johann  Friedrich  (1762-1817),  a 
son  of  Johann  Heinrich.  In  the  nineteenth  century 
we  may  mention  Moser,  who,  about  18.30,  built  a  large 
organ  for  Freiburg  in  Switzerland,  where  they  imitate 
thunder-storms;  Schulze  of  Paulinzelle,  Ladegast  of 
Weissenfcls,  Walcker  of  Ludwigsburg,  Mauracher  of 
Graz,  Sauer  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  Weigle  of  Stutt- 
gart, Stahlhuth  of  Aachen. 

In  England  we  hear  in  the  fourteenth  century  of 
John  the  Organer  and  of  Walter  the  Organer,  who  was 
akso  a  clock-maker.  From  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries  the  names  of  a  large  number  of  organ-build- 
ers are  transmitted  to  us,  showing  organ-building  was 


in  a  flourishing  condition,  but  the  Puritans  destroyed 
most  organs,  and  organ-builders  almost  disappeared. 
When  organ-building  was  taken  up  again,  in  1660, 
there  was  a  scarcity  of  competent  builders,  and  Ber- 
nard Schmidt,  with  his  two  nephews  Gerard  and  Ber- 
nard, came  over  from  Germany.  Bernard  the  elder 
was  commonly  known  as  Father  Smith,  to  distinguish 
him  from  his  nephew.  At  the  same  time  John  Harris, 
a  son  of  Thomas  Harris  of  Salisbury,  who  had  been 
working  in  France,  returned  to  England.  His  son, 
Renatus,  became  the  principal  rival  of  Father  Smith. 
In  the  following  century  another  German,  John  Snetz- 
ler  (1710-c.  1800)  settled  in  England  and  became 
famous  for  the  quality  of  his  organ  pipes.  His  busi- 
ness eventually  became  that  of  W.  Hill  and  Son,  Lon- 
don. In  the  nineteenth  century  the  most  prominent 
builder  was  Henry  Willis  (1S21-1901),  who  designed 
several  ingenious  forms  of  pneumatic  actions  and 
brought  the  intonations  of  reeds  to  great  perfection. 
Mention  should  also  be  made  of  R.  Hope-Jones  of 
Birkenhead,  whose  electro-pneumatic  action  marked 
a  great  step  forward. 

In  Italy  the  Antegnati  family  were  prominent  dur- 
ing the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  Bartolomeo 
Antegnati  built  an  organ  in  1486  for  Brescia  cathedral, 
where  he  was  organist.  He  had  three  sons:  Giovan 
Francesco,  Giov.  Giacomo,  and  Giov.  Battista.  Fran- 
cesco is  also  known  as  a  maker  of  harpsichords.  G. 
Giacomo  was  the  organist  of  Milan  cathedral  and  built 
for  Brescia  cathedral  a  choir  organ  which  was  famous 
in  its  time.  Graziado,  a  son  of  G.  Battista,  built  a  new 
large  organ  for  Brescia  in  1580.  His  son  (Jostanzo  (b. 
1557)  was  an  organist  and  a  composer  of  renown.  In 
the  preface  to  a  collection  of  ricercari  (1608)  he  gives  a 
list  of  135  organs  built  bj'  members  of  his  family  (cf. 
Damiano  Muoni,  "Elgi  Antegnati",  Milan,  1883). 
Vineenzo  Columbi  built  a  fine  organ  for  St.  John  Late- 
ran  in  1549.  In  France  we  hear  of  an  organ  in  the  Ab- 
bey of  Fecamp  in  the  twelfth  century.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century  a  well-known  organ-builder  was  Job. 
Nicolaus  le  Ferre,  who,  in  1761,  built  an  organ  of  51 
stops  in  Paris.  More  famous  is  Don  Bedos  de  Celles 
(1714-97),  who  also  wrote  an  important  book,  "L'art 
du  facteur  d'orgues"  (Paris,  176f)-78).  In  the  nine- 
teenth century  a  renowned  firm  was  that  of  Daublaine 
&  Co.,  founded  1838;  in  1845  it  became  Ducrocquet  & 
Co.  and  sent  an  organ  to  the  London  Exhibition  of 
1851;  in  1855  it  changed  its  name  again  to  Merklin, 
Schlitze  &  Co.  and  erected  some  of  the  earliest  electro- 
pneumatic  organs.  The  most  famous  builder  of  mod- 
ern times,  however,  was  Aristide  Cavaill(5-Col  (1811- 
99),  a  descendant  of  an  old  organ-building  family, 
mentioned  above  in  connexion  with  Barker's  inven- 
tion of  the  pneumatic  lever;  he  was  also  highly  es- 
teemed for  the  intonation  of  his  reeds. 

In  America  the  first  organ  erected  was  imported 
from  Europe  in  1713  for  Queen's  Chapel,  Boston.  It 
was  followed  by  several  others,  likewise  imported.  In 
1745  Edward  Broomfield  of  Boston  built  the  first  or- 
gan in  America.  More  famous  was  W.  M.  Goodrich, 
who  began  business  in  the  same  city  in  1800.  The  best 
known  of  American  organ  builders  is  Hilborne  L. 
Roosevelt  of  New  York,  who,  with  his  son  Frank,  ef- 
fected many  bold  improvements  in  organ  building.  In 
1894  John  Turnell  Austin  patented  his  "universal  air- 
chest",  an  air-chest  large  enough  to  admit  a  man  for 
repairs  and  containing  all  the  mechanism,  as  well  as  the 
magazine  for  storing  the  wind  and  keeping  it  at  equal 
pressure  (Mathews,  "A  Handbook  of  the  Organ"). 

III.  The  Organ  in  Church  Service. — In  the  early 
centuries  the  objection  of  the  Church  to  instrumental 
music  applied  also  to  the  organ,  which  is  not  surprising, 
if  we  remember  the  association  of  the  hydraulus  with 
theatre  and  circus.  According  to  Platina  ("De  vitis 
Pontificum",  Cologne,  1.593),  Pope  Vitalian  (657-72) 
introduced  the  organ  into  the  church  service.  This, 
however,  is  very  doubtful.    At  all  events,  a  strong  ob- 


ORGAN 


301 


ORGAN 


jection  to  the  organ  in  church  service  remained  pretty 
general  down  to  the  twelfth  century,  which  may  be  ac- 
counted for  partly  by  the  imperfection  of  tone  in  or- 
gans of  that  time.  But  from  the  twelfth  century  on, 
the  organ  became  the  privileged  church  instrument, 
the  majesty  and  unimpassioned  character  of  its  tone 
making  it  a  particularly  suitable  means  for  adding 
solemnity  to  Divine  worship. 

According  to  the  present  legislation  organ  music  is 
allowed  on  all  joyful  occasions,  both  for  purely  instru- 
mental pieces  (voluntaries)  and  as  accompaniment. 
The  organ  alone  may  even  take  the  place  of  the  voices 
in  alternate  verses  at  Mass  or  in  the  Office,  provided 
the  text  so  treated  be  recited  by  someone  in  an  audible 
voice  while  the  organ  is  played.  Only  the  Credo  is  ex- 
cepted from  this  treatment,  and  in  any  case  the  first 
verse  of  each  chant  and  all  the  verses  at  which  any 
liturgical  action  takes  place — such  as  the  "Te  ergo 
quEesumus",  the  "Tantum  ergo",  the  "Gloria  Patri" 
— should  be  sung. 

With  some  exceptions,  the  organ  is  not  to  be  played 
during  Advent  and  Lent.  It  may  be  pla.ved  on  the 
Third  Sunday  in  Advent  (Gaudete)  and  the  Fourth  in 
Lent  (Lajtare)  at  Mass  and  Vespers,  on  Holy  Thurs- 
day at  the  Gloria,  and  on  Holy  Saturday  at  and,  ac- 
cording to  general  usage,  after  the  Gloria.  Moreover, 
it  ma3'  be  played,  even  in  Advent  and  Lent,  on  solemn 
feasts  of  the  saints  and  on  the  occasion  of  any  joyful 
celebration — as  e.  g.  the  Communion  of  children  [S. 
R.  C,  11  May,  1878,  3448  (.5728)].  Moreover,  by  a 
kind  of  indult,  it  would  seem,  the  organ  is  admitted, 
even  in  Lent  and  Advent,  to  support  the  singing  of  the 
choir,  but  in  this  case  it  must  cease  with  the  singing. 
This  permission,  however,  does  not  extend  to  the  last 
three  days  of  Holy  Week  (S.  R.  C,  20  March,  1903, 
4009) .  At  Offices  of  the  Dead  organ  music  is  excluded ; 
at  a  Requiem  Mass,  however,  it  may  be  used  for  the 
accompaniment  of  the  choir,  as  above. 

It  is  appropriate  to  play  the  organ  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  Mass,  especially  when  a  bishop  solemnly 
enters  or  leaves  the  church.  If  the  organ  is  played 
during  the  Elevation,  it  should  be  in  softer  tones; 
but  it  would  seem  that  ab.solute  silence  is  most  fitting 
for  this  august  moment.  The  same  may  be  said  about 
the  act  of  Benediction  with  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  It 
should  be  observed  that  the  legislation  of  the  Church 
concerns  itself  only  with  liturgical  services.  It  takes 
no  account  of  such  things  as  singing  at  low  Mass  or 
popular  devotions.  But  it  is  fitting,  of  course,  to  ob- 
serve on  such  occasions  the  directions  given  for  liturgi- 
cal services. 

IV.  Organ-Playing. — In  ancient  times  and  in  the 
early  Middle  Ages  organ-playing  was,  of  course,  con- 
fined to  rendering  a  melody  on  the  organ.  But  it  is 
not  improbable  that  the  earliest  attempts  at  poly- 
phonic music,  from  about  the  ninth  century  on,  were 
made  with  the  organ,  seeing  that  these  attempts  re- 
ceived the  name  of  OTganum.  From  the  thirteenth 
century  some  compositions  have  come  down  to  us 
under  that  name  without  any  text,  and  probably  in- 
tended for  the  organ.  In  the  fourteenth  century  we 
hear  of  a  celebrated  organ-player,  the  bhnd  musician 
Francesco  Landino  of  Florence,  and  in  the  fifteenth 
of  another  Florentine  player,  Squarcialupi.  At  this 
time  Konrad  Paumann  flourished  in  Germany,  some 
of  whose  organ  compositions  are  extant,  showing 
the  feature  which  distinguishes  organ,  like  all  instru- 
mental music,  from  vocal  music,  namely  the  diminu- 
tion or  figuration,  ornamentation,  of  the  melodies. 
With  Paumann  this  figuration  is  as  yet  confined  to  the 
melody  proper,  the  top  part.  With  Clauflio  Merulo 
(1533-1604)  we  find  the  figuration  extended  to  the 
accompanying  parts  also.  More  mature  work  was 
produced  by  Giovanni  Gabrieli  (15.57-1612)  in  his 
"Canzone  e  Sonate"  (1597  and  161.5).  Further  devel- 
opment of  a  true  instrumental  style  was  brought  about 
by  Samuel  Scheldt  (1587-1654).    Then  follow  a  series 


of  illustrious  composers  for  the  organ,  of  whom  we  may 
mention  Girolamo  Frescobaldi  (1583-1644),  Johann 
Jacob  Froberger  (died  1667),  Dietrich  Buxtehude 
(died  1707),  and  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  (1685-1750), 
at  whose  hands  organ  composition  reached  its  highest 
point. 

After  Bach  the  genera!  development  of  music,  being 
in  the  direction  of  more  individual  expression  and  con- 
stantly varying  emotion,  was  not  favouraljle  to  organ 
composition.  Accordingly,  none  of  the  best  men 
turned  their  attention  to  the  organ,  Mendelssohn's 
compositions  for  the  instrument  being  a  notable  excep- 
tion. In  modern  times  a  large  number  of  composers 
have  written  respectable  music  for  the  organ,  among 
whom  we  may  mention  the  French  Guilmant  and 
Widor  and  the  German  Rheinberger  and  Reger.  But 
none  of  them,  with  the  possible  exception  of  Reger, 
can  be  counted  as  first-class  composers.  The  scarcity 
of  really  good  modern  organ  compositions  has  led  or- 
ganists to  the  extended  use  of  arrangements.  If  these 
arrangements  are  made  with  due  regard  to  the  nature 
of  the  organ,  they  cannot  be  altogether  objected  to. 
But  it  is  clear  that  they  do  not  represent  the  ideal  of 
organ  music.  As  the  characteristic  beauty  of  organ 
tone  lies  in  its  even  continuation,  legato  playing  must 
be  the  normal  for  the  organ  even  more  than  for  other 
instruments.  While,  therefore,  staccato  playing  can- 
not absolutely  be  excluded,  and  an  occasional  use  of  it 
is  even  desirable  for  the  sake  of  variety,  still  the  mod- 
ern tendency  to  play  everything  staccato  or  mezzo- 
legato  is  open  to  great  objections.  The  alternation  and 
contrast  of  tone-colours  afforded  by  the  variety  of 
stops  and  the  presence  of  several  manuals  is  a  legiti- 
mate and  valuable  device.  But  too  much  variety  is 
inartistic,  and,  in  particular,  an  excessive  use  of  solo 
stops  is  alien  to  the  true  organ  style. 

A  word  may  be  added  about  the  local  position  of  the 
organ  in  the  church.  The  considerations  determining 
this  question  are  threefold :  the  proximity  of  the  organ 
to  the  singers,  the  acoustical  effect,  and  the  architec- 
tural fitness.  The  combination  of  these  three  claims 
in  existing  churches  frequently  causes  considerable 
difficulty.  Hence  it  is  desirable  that  in  planning  new 
churches  architects  should  be  required  to  provide  am- 
ple room  for  an  organ. 

There  is  no  good  history  of  the  organ.  On  the  ancient  organ  a 
good  book  ia  Degerinq.  Die  Orgel  (Miinster,  1905) ;  of.  M.\clean, 
The  Principle  of  the  Hydraulic  Organ  in  Quarterly  Mag.  of  the  In- 
ternational Musical  Society,  pt.  2  (Leipzig,  1905),  and  Schlesinger, 
Researches  inlo  the  Origin  of  the  Organs  of  the  Ancients,  ibid,,  pt.  2 
(Leipzig,  1901).  On  the  later  history,  Williams.  The  Story  of  the 
Organ  (London.  1903)  is  fairly  reliable.  The  historical  part  of 
Hopkins  and  Rimbadlt,  The  Organ,  Its  History  and  Construction 
(London,  1877),  though  out  of  date,  is  still  useful.  Further  works 
are:  Ritter,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Orgelspiels  im  14,  bis  IS,  Jahrhun- 
dcrt  (Leipzig,  1884);  Wangemann,  Geschichte  der  Orgel  (Leipzig, 
1887);  Gr^goire,  Histoire  de  I'orgue  (Antwerp,  1865);  Hinton, 
Story  of  the  Electric  Organ  (London.  1909) ;  Bewerunge,  Die 
Rbhrenpneumatik  in  Kirchenmusikalisches  Jahrbuch  (Ratisbon, 
1905);  BuHLE,  Die  musikalischen  Instrumente  in  den  Miniaturen 
des  frUhen  Mittelalters:  I.  Die  Blasinstrumente  (Leipzig.  1903); 
ViOLLET-LE-Duc,  Dictionnaire  raisonni  du  mobilier  franQais  de 
I'&poque  Carolingienne  d  la  Renaissance:  IL  Instruments  de  musique 
(Paris,  1874). 

On  the  construction  of  the  organ  the  principal  works  are:  Auna- 
LEY,  The  Art  of  Organ-Building  (2  vols..  4°.  New  York  and  Lon- 
don. 1905);  Robertson,  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Organ- Building 
(London,  1897) ;  Topfer-Allihn,  Die  Theorie  und  Praxis  des  Or- 
gelhaues  (Weimar,  1888) ;  Hill,  Organ  Cases  and  Organs  of  the 
Middle  Ages  and  Renaissance  (2  vols.,  folio,  London,  1883,  1891); 
Wedgwood,  Dictionary  of  Organ  Stops  (London,  1905);  Mat^ 
THEWS,  .1  Handbook  of  the  Organ  (London,  1897)  (t.eats  also  of 
organ-playing):  DiENEL,  Die  moderne  Orgel  (Berlin,  1891); 
.Schweitzer,  Deutsche  u.  franzGsische  Orgelbaukunst  und  Orgel' 
kun.it  (Leipzig.  190fi);  Casson.  The  Modern  Organ  (Denbigh, 
1883);  Idem,  The  Pedal  Organ  (London,  1905);  Idem,  Modem 
Pneumatic  Organ  Mechanism  (London,  1908):  SwANTON,  Lecture 
on  Organ  litoiving  (London,  1905) ;  International  Rules  for  Organ 
Building,  issued  by  the  Third  Congress  of  the  International 
Musical  .'Society  (Leipzig,  1909). 

The  eoclesiaatical  legislation  on  organ-playing  is  contained  in 
the  C'Tremoniale  Episcoporum  and  in  Decrees  of  the  S.  Congrega- 
tion of  Rites.  The  latter,  as  far  as  they  concern  the  subject,  are 
conveniently  put  togeth^  in  Auer,  Die  Entscheidungen  der  h. 
Ritcn-Kongregation  in  Bezug  auf  Kirchenmusik  (Ratisbon  and 
New  York,  1901). 

H.  Bewerunge. 


ORGANIC 


302 


ORIENTAL 


Organic  Articles.     See  Articles,  The  Organic. 

Oria,  Oiocf.se  of  (Uritana),  in  the  Province  of 
Lecce,  Apulia,  Italy,  suffragan  of  Taranto.  In  tlio 
Middle  Ap-s,  Oria  was  a  principality  that  passed  to 
the  Borroinci;  St.  Charles  sold  it  for  40,000  crowns, 
which  he  distributed  among  the  poor.  Oria  was  be- 
sieged by  Manfred  in  1266.  When  Brindisi  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Saracens  in  the  ninth  century,  its 
bishops  established  their  see  at  Oria  and  called  thein- 
Belves  Bishops  of  Brindisi  and  Oria,  oven  after  their 
return  to  their  former  capital.  It  would  appear 
that  Oria,  in  early  times,  had  bishops  of  its  own,  be- 
cause there  is  a  record  on  a  slab  in  the  cathedral, 
dating  from  the  eighth  or  ninth  century,  in  which 
there  is  mention  of  a  Bishop  Theodosius,  not  one  of 
the  bishops  of  Brindisi.  In  979  Bishop  Andrew  was 
slain  by  Porphyrins.  In  924  and  977  Oria  was  sacked 
by  the  Mohammedans.  The  town  was  erected  into 
an  episcopal  see  in  1591;  its  first  bishop  was  Vincent 
Tufo.  The  diocese  has  15  parishes,  120,000  inhab- 
itants, 9  religious  houses  of  men,  and  11  of  women. 
Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  XXI. 

U.  Benigni. 
Oriani,  Barnaba,  Italian  Barnabite  and  astrono- 
mer, b.  at  Carignano,  near  Milan,  17  July,  1752;  d. 
at  Milan,  12  November,  1832.  After  receiving  an 
elementary  education  in  his  native  town,  he  studied  at 
the  College  of  San  Alessandro,  Milan,  where  he  was 
educated  and  supported  by  the  Bamabites.  He  later 
joined  the  BaniaMtcs,  and,  after  studying  the  human- 
ities, physical  and  liiuthcmatical  sciences,  philosophy, 
and  theology,  was  ordained  priest  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
three.  Specially  interested  in  astronomy,  he  was 
shortly  after  his  ordination  (1776)  appointed  on  the 
staff  of  the  Observatory  of  Brera  in  Milan.  He  be- 
came assistant  astronomer  in  1778,  and  director  in 
1802.  In  1778  he  began  to  publish  the  dissertations 
on  astronomical  subjects  which  form  an  important 
part  of  the  original  memoirs  appearing  in  the  "Effe- 
meridi  di  Milano"  during  the  next  fifty-two  years. 
His  work  soon  attracted  considerable  attention,  and  in 
1785  a  notable  memoir  containing  his  calculation  of 
the  orbit  of  Uranus  and  a  table  of  elements  for  that 
planet  won  for  him  a  prominent  place  among  the 
astronomers  of  his  time.  He  was  admitted  to  mem- 
bership in  numerous  learned  societies,  and  offered  the 
position  of  professor  of  astronomy  at  Palermo,  which, 
however,  he  did  not  accept.  In  the  following  year  he 
travelled  throughout  Europe  at  the  expense  of  the 
state,  visiting  the  chief  observatories.  When  Napo- 
leon set  up  the  republic  in  Lombardy,  Oriani  refused 
absolutely  to  swear  hatred  towards  monarchy;  the  new 
government  modified  the  oath  of  allegiance  in  his  re- 
gard, retained  him  in  his  position  at  the  observatory, 
and  made  him  president  of  the  commission  appointed 
to  regulate  the  new  system  of  weights  and  measures. 
WTien  the  republic  was  transformed  into  the  Napo- 
leonic kingdom,  Oriani  received  the  decorations  of  the 
Iron  Crown  and  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  was  made 
count  and  senator  of  the  kingdom,  and  was  appointed 
in  company  with  De  Cesaris,  to  measure  the  arc  of  the 
mendian  between  the  zeniths  of  Rimini  and  Rome. 
He  was  a  devoted  friend  of  the  Theatine  monk  Piazzi, 
the  discoverer  of  Ceres,  and  for  thirty-seven  years  co- 
operated with  him  in  many  ways  in  his  astronomical 
labours.  Besides  his  constant  contributions  to  the 
Effemendi  di  Milano",  he  published  a  .series  of  im- 
portant memoirs  on  spherical  trigonometry  (Memorie 
deir  Istituto  Italiano,  1806-1(1)  and  the  "Istruzione 
suelle  misure  e  sui  pesi"  (.Milan,  ls:',l). 

Gabba  in  TiPAl.DO,  Ilaliani  lUustri,  III  (Venice,  18.36)  473-81- 
PoaoESDORKF  IlandwHrterhuch  zur  Gesck.  der  exaclen  Wiasen- 
tchaflen.  II  (U-ipziR,  18B.3);  Cacciatore  and  Schiapparelu, 
C^etpondrnza  Aslronamica  fra  Giuseppe  Piazzi  e  Barnaba  Oriani 
(Milan,  1874).  introduction. 

Edward  C.  Phillips. 
Oriental  Church.    See  Eastern  Churches. 


Oriental  Study  and  Research. — In  the  broads 
est  sense  of  the  term,  Oriental  study  comprises  the 
scientific  investigation  and  discussion  of  all  topics — 
linguist iis,  archa'ology,  ethnology,  etc. — connected 
with  the  East,  in  ]):irticular,  the  discovery  and  inter- 
pretation of  Eastern  literary  and  archa'ologic.al  re- 
mains. So  vastis  thrsuhjccl  tliat  it  has  of  a  necessity 
been  divided  into  many  departments,  each  of  which  in 
turn  embraces  various  specialized  branches.  Thus  the 
study  of  the  language,  customs,  philo.sophy,  and  reli- 
gion of  China  and  the  Far  East  is  in  itself  a  vast 
though  relatively  little-explored  tield  of  scientific  in- 
vestigation, white  the  study  of  Sanskrit,  together  with 
the  classic  lore  of  the  ancient  Hindus,  which  has  cast 
so  much  light  on  our  knowledge  of  the  European  lan- 
guages and  peoples,  forms  another  great  division  of 
Oriental  research. 

From  the  religious  point  of  view,  however,  the 
greatest  and  most  valuable  results  have  been  achieved 
by  the  study  of  the  group  of  languages  generally 
termed  Semitic,  and  through  archa:'ological  research 
in  the  so-called  Bible  Lands — Assyria  and  Babylonia, 
Syria  and  Palestine,  Arabia  and  the  Valley  of  the 
Nile.  Not  only  have  these  studies  and  explorations 
cast  a  great  deal  of  light  on  the  Old-Testament  writ- 
ings but  they  have,  moreover,  revealed  with  consider- 
able precision  and  detail  the  well-nigh  forgotten  history 
of  empires  and  civilizations  that  had  flourished  for 
many  centuries  and  passed  away  even  before  Greece 
or  Rome  had  acquired  any  great  political  or  literary 
importance.  The  earliest  efforts  of  European  schol- 
ars in  the  field  of  Oriental  research  were  naturally 
connected  with  the  scientific  study  of  Hebrew,  the 
language  of  the  Old  Testament.  To  say  nothing  of 
the  work  done  by  the  rabbis  of  the  medieval  period 
under  the  influence  of  Arabic  culture  in  the  Jewish 
colonies  of  Spain  and  northern  Africa,  we  find  prior 
to  the  Reformation  the  names  of  Johann  Reuchlin 
(145.5-1.522)  and  the  Dominican  Santes  Pagninus 
(1471-1541),  pioneers  who  prepared  the  way  for  such 
scholars  as  the  famous  Johann  Buxtorf  (1564—1629) 
and  his  son  (1599-1664),  both  succes.sivcly  professors 
at  Basle,  and  others  of  the  same  period.  For  ulterior 
developments  in  the  study  of  Hebrew  see  article  He- 
brew Language  and  Literature. 

In  connexion  with  the  impetus  given  to  Biblical 
Oriental  studies  in  the  sixteenth  century,  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglot  pub- 
lished under  the  direction  of  Cardinal  Ximenes  (14:j6- 
1517).  It  was  the  first  printed  edition  of  the  Scrip- 
tures in  the  original  text  accompanied  by  the  principal 
ancient  versions,  and  antedated  by  more  than  a  cen- 
tury the  London  Polyglot  of  Brian  \\'alton.  This 
great  work,  which  is  dedicated  to  Pope  Leo  X,  com- 
prises six  folio  volumes,  the  last  being  devoted  to  a 
Hebrew  lexicon  and  other  scientific  apparatus.  It 
was  begun  in  1502  and  finished  in  1517,  though  not 
published  until  1522.  In  its  preparation  the  cardinal 
was  aided  by  several  Greek  and  Oriental  scholars, 
among  whom  were  the  celebrated  Stunica  (D. 
L6pez  de  Zuniga),  Vergara,  and  three  Jewish  con- 
verts. The  zeal  for  Hebrew  naturally  led  to  the 
study  of  other  Semitic  languages  (Syriac,  Arabic, 
Ethiopic,  etc.),  which  were  eagerly  taken  up  not  only  as 
a  means  of  obtaining  a  more  comprehensive  knowledge 
of  Hebrew  through  the  newly-introduced  methods  of 
comparative  philology,  but  also  on  account  of  t  h<'  liter- 
ary treasures  they  contained,  which  had  hitherto 
remained  practically  unknown  to  European  scholars. 
In  this  broader  field  the  greatest  credit  is  due  to  the 
illustrious  Maronite  family  of  the  Assemani  (q.  v.). 
(For  the  work  done  by  scholars  in  the  study  of  Syriac 
see  Syriac  Language  and  Literature.) 

The  first  European  scholar  who  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  Ethiopic  was  Potken  of  Cologne,  about  1513. 
A  grammar  and  dictionary  were  published  by  Jacob 
Wemmers,  a  CarmeUte  of  Antwerp,  in  1638;  and  in 


ORIENTAL 


303 


ORIENTAL 


1661  appeared  the  first  edition  of  the  great  Lexicon 
by  Job  Ludolf,  who  in  the  edition  of  1702  prefixed  a 
"Dissertatio  de  Hannonia  Lingua?  JEth.  cum.  cet. 
Orient."  Ludolf  was  also  the  author  of  a  commen- 
tary on  Ethiopic  history.  Later  scholars  who  have 
attained  eminence  in  this  branch  are  Dillmann.  who 
among  other  works  published  several  books  of  the 
Ethiopic  version  of  the  Old  Testament:  Octateuch 
(Leipzig,  1853),  the  four  Books  of  Kings  (Leipzig, 
1861-71),  the  Book  of  Enoch  (1851),  and  the  "Book 
of  the  Jubilees"  (18.59) ;  R.  Lawrence,  whopubhshed  the 
"AscensioIsaiiE"  (Oxford,  1819),  and  the  "Apocalypse 
of  Ezra"  (1820);  Hupfeldt,  " E.xercitationes  ^thio- 
pica;"  (1825);  Ewald  "Ueber  des  ^thiop.  Buch's 
Henokh  Entstchung"  (1854)  etc.  (See  article  Ethi- 
opia.— Language  and  Literature.) 

In  the  field  of  Arabic  the  greatest  honour  is  due  to 
Baron  Sylvestre  de  Sacy  (1758-1838),  a  scholar  of 
marvellous  erudition  and  versatility,  equally  pro- 
ficient in  the  other  Semitic  languages  as  well  as  in 
Greek,  Latin,  and  the  modern  European  tongues.  He 
may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  Arabic 
grammar.  Among  his  works  are  a  "  Chrestomathie 
arabe"  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1806);  "Grammaire  arabe" 
(2  vols.,  1810)  etc.  In  Germany,  George  W.  Freytag 
(1788-1861)  became  a  great  authority  on  Arabic. 
His  greatest  work  is  the  "Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum" 
(1830-37).  Among  the  great  number  of  more  recent 
scholars  may  be  mentioned  Brockelmann,  "Geschichte 
der  Arabischen  Literatur"  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1899- 
1902) ;  Hartwig  Derenbourg,  C.  Caspari,  Theo.  Noel- 
deke  etc.  In  this  connexion  it  may  be  noted  that  an 
important  school  of  Arabic  studies  has  been  instituted 
by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  in  Beirut,  Syria.  As  regards 
the  study  of  Armenian,  modern  scholarship  owes  not  a 
little  to  the  scientific  and  Uterary  labours  of  the 
Mechitarists  (q.  v.),  a  religious  community  of  Arme- 
nians established  at  Venice  since  1716.  From  this  in- 
stitution, which  is  equipped  with  excellent  printing 
facilities,  have  been  issued  numerous  publications  of 
Armenian  texts,  as  well  as  translations  of  the  same  into 
various  European  languages.  The  latter  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  was  marked  by  a  great  revival  of 
interest  in  Oriental  studies,  owing  to  the  magnificent 
and  unex-pected  results  of  archipologieal  ex-ploration 
in  the  Bible  Lands,  particularly  in  Assyria,  Babylonia, 
and  Egypt.  The  account  of  the  discovery  and  de- 
ciphering of  the  historic  remains  unearthed  in  these 
countries  is  of  fascinating  interest,  and  records  one  of 
the  greatest  scientific  triumphs  in  the  annals  of  West- 
ern scholarship.  Of  this  great  movement,  which  has 
resulted  in  the  production  of  hundreds  of  volumes, 
only  the  briefest  account  can  be  given  here. 

Assyro-Babylonian  Research. — Though  preceded  by 
the  tentative  work  of  Rich  in  1811  and  1820,  syste- 
matic explorations  in  Assyria  may  be  said  to  have 
been  inaugurated  in  1843  by  Paul-Emile  Botta 
(French  vice-consul  residing  at  Mosul),  at  Kuyunjik 
(site  of  ancient  Ninive),  and  at  Khorsabad.  These 
were  interrupted  the  following  year,  but  were  resumed 
by  Victor  Place,  Botta's  successor,  in  1851  and  con- 
tinued till  18.55,  all  at  the  ex-pense  of  the  French 
Government,  which  also  published  the  results  in 
monumental  form.  Henry  .\usten  Layard  also  began 
excavations  in  1845  at  the  Mounds  of  Nimrud,  near 
Mosul,  and  his  work  was  continued  on  this  and  other 
sites  until  1847.  In  1849  he  began  another  exploring 
expedition  which  lasted  three  years.  It  was  under 
the  auspices  of  the  British  Museum  and  was  remark- 
ably successful.  Layard  also  deserves  great  credit 
for  the  graphic  and  scholarly  manner  in  which  he  pre- 
sented his  discoveries  to  the  public,  and  for  having 
aroused  interest  by  connecting  them  with  the  Bible 
story.  In  the  mean  time  another  expedition  sent 
out  by  the  French  Government,  under  the  direction 
of  FulgenceFresnel,  was  exploring  Babylonia,  but  un- 
forttmately  the  material  results  of  the  excavations 


were  lost  through  the  sinking  of  a  raft  on  the  Tigris 
(1851).  In  1852  the  Assyrian  Exploration  Fund  was 
organized  in  England,  and,  under  the  direction  of  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson,  Loftus,  and  Taylor,  excavations 
were  carred  on  in  various  parts  of  Babylonia,  and  by 
Hormuzd  Rassam  at  Kuyunjik.  Less  attention  was 
being  now  paid  to  the  identification  of  ancient  sites, 
and  more  to  the  inscribed  clay  tablets  which  were  dis- 
covered in  great  quantities;  and  Rassam,  without 
knowing  it,  unearthed  at  Ninive  a  portion  of  the 
famous  library  of  Assurbanipal  (688-26  B.  c). 

From  the  time,  that  cuneiform  inscriptions  and 
tablets  began  to  be  brought  from  the  East,  European 
scholars  had  applied  themselves  to  the  extremely 
difficult  task  of  deciphering  and  translating  them,  but 
without  success  until  George  Grotefend  (1775-1853), 
professor  at  the  lyceum  of  Hanover,  found  a  key  and 
partially  deciphered  a  few  inscriptions.  The  chief 
credit,  however,  for  the  great  achievement  which  at 
last  gave  access  to  the  vast  treasures  of  the  cuneiform 
writings  belongs  to  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson.  Between 
the  years  1835  and  1839  he  succeeded  in  copying  the 
great  inscription  of  Darius  at  Behistun  in  Persia. 
This  inscription  was  chiselled  in  three  columns  on  the 
face  of  a  mountain  cliff  more  than  three  hundred  feet 
above  the  ground,  and  it  was  copied  only  after  stren- 
uous labour  and  with  serious  risk  of  life.  Rawlinson 
assumed  as  a  working  hj'pothesis  that  the  first  column 
was  old  Persian  written  in  cuneiform  characters,  and 
the  assumption  was  justified  when  the  decipherment 
of  this  column  was  published  in  1846.  This  furnished 
a  key  to  the  third  column,  which  proved  to  be  Baby- 
lonian (the  most  important  for  students  of  Assyriol- 
ogy),  and  the  contents  of  this  column,  after  much 
painstaking  labour,  were  published  in  1851.  The 
second  column,  called  the  Median  or  Susian  text,  was 
not  deciphered  intil  1890.  Over  and  above  this  splen- 
did achievement,  Rawlinson  rendered  invaluable  ser- 
vice to  the  science  of  Assyriology  by  editing  the  Cunei- 
form Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia  pubhshed  by  the 
British  Museum.  Between  1855  and  1872  little  was 
done  by  way  of  excavation,  but  in  the  latter  year 
George  Smith,  a  young  employee  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum, discovered  some  tablets  containing  fragments 
of  a  Flood  legend  strikingly  similar  in  some  respects 
to  the  Biblical  narrative.  The  interest  aroused  by  the 
publication  of  these  fragments  determined  a  new 
era  of  excavation.  Between  1872  and  1875  Smith  was 
three  times  sent  to  .\ssyria  in  the  hope  of  finding  more 
fragments  bearing  on  Biblical  accounts.  In  this  he 
was  unsuccessful  and,  unfortunately  for  the  cause  of 
Assyriology,  he  died  prematurely  while  on  his  third 
expedition  in  1876. 

The  exploration  work  for  the  British  Museum  was 
continued  by  Hormuzd  Rassam,  wlio,  besides  other 
valuable  treasures  foimd  in  variou.s  jnirts  of  Babylonia, 
unearthed  in  the  expedition  of  1887-82  the  great 
bronze  doors  with  the  inscriptions  of  Shalmaneser 
II  (859-26  B.  c).  About  the  same  time  M.  de  Sarzec, 
French  consul  at  Bassorah  in  Southern  Babylonia, 
excavated  the  very  ancient  Telloh  statues  which 
were  acquired  by  the  French  Government  for  the 
Museum  of  the  Louvre.  The  work  of  de  Sarzec  was 
continued  until  his  death  in  1903,  and  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  an  enormous  quantity  of  clay  tablets, 
bronze  and  silver  figures,  vases,  etc.  The  French  ex- 
pedition to  Susa,  under  the  direction  of  M.  J.  de  Mor- 
gan (1897-1902),  wasoneof  the  most  important  in  the 
history  of  A.s.syriology,  for  it  resulted  in  the  finding 
of  the  Hammurabi  Code  of  Laws.  This  great  code, 
which  illustrates  in  many  respects  the  Pentateuchal 
I^aw,  was  first  translated  by  Father  Scheil,  the  eminent 
Dominican  scholar  who  was  the  Assyriologist  of  the 
expedition  ("Textes  Elamitiques-Semitiques",  Paris, 
1902),  and  later  into  German  by  Dr.  Hugo  Winckler 
of  Berlin,  into  EngUsh  by  Dr.  Johns  and  into  Italian 
by  Rev.  Dr.  Francesco  Man.     (See  articles  by  Dr. 


ORIENTAL 


3Q4 


ORIENTAL 


Gabriel  Oussani  in  the  "New  York  Review",  "The 
Code  of  Haniinurabi",  Aug.-Sept.,  1905;  "The  Code 
of  Hammurabi  and  the  Mosaic  Legishition",  Doc, 
1905-Jan.,  1906.)  In  18S4  the  first  Aniciicun  exjiedi- 
tion  was  sent  to  liabylonia  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Areha-ologieal  Institute  of  America,  and  under  the 
direction  of  W.  H.  Ward.  In  l.ss.s  tlie  liabylonian 
Exploration  Fund,  organized  in  riuladelphia,  w!is 
sent  out  under  the  dire<-tion  of  Dr.  John  Peters  in  the 
interests  of  the  Iniversity  of  Pennsylvania.  The  site 
ehosen  was  Xi]!pur,  and  the  work  of  excavation  was 
continued  at  intervals  mainly  on  this  site  until  1900. 
These  expeditions  resulted  in  the  recovery  of  more 
than  40,000  inscriptions,  clay  tablets,  stone  monu- 
ments etc.  The  vast  amount  of  material  brought  to 
light  by  the  excavations  in  Assyria  and  Babylonia 
powerfully  stimulated  the  ardour  of  students  of 
Assyriology  both  in  Europe  and  America.  The  limits 
of  the  present  article  will  allow  but  the  mention  of  a 
few  distinguished  names. 

In  Germany. — Eberhard  Scrader  (1836)  has  been 
called  the  father  of  German  Assyriology.  Succes- 
sively professor  at  Zurich,  Giessen,  Jena,  and  Berlin 
(1875),  he  has  WTitten  many  works  on  the  subject, 
among  which:  "Die  Assyrisch-Babylonisch  Keilin- 
schriften"  (1872,  tr.  "The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  and 
the  Old  Testament",  1885-9);  " Keilinschrif ten  und 
Geschichtsforschung"  (1878);  "Zur  Frage  nach  dem 
UrsprungderAltbabylonischerKultur"  (1884).  Other 
German  scholars  of  note  are  Hugo  Winckler  (Alt- 
testamentliche  Untersuchen,  Leipzig,  1892,  etc.); 
Friederich  Delitsch  (Grammar,  Lexicon  etc.),  J.  Jere- 
mias,  B.  G.  Niebuhr,  F.  Hommel,  F.  Kaulen  (Assy- 
rien  und  Babylonien  nach  dem  neuesten  Entdeckun- 
gen,  PVeiburg,  1899,  etc.),  C.  P.  Tiele,  Miirdter, 
Brunnow,  Peiser  etc.  In  France. — F.  Lenormant 
(Etudes  cuneiformes,  5  parts,  Paris,  1878-80);  J. 
Menant  (Ninive  et  Babylon,  Paris,  1887);  Hal^vy 
(Documents  religieux  de  I'Assyrie  et  de  la  Babv- 
lonie,  Paris,  1882);  V.  Scheil,  O.  P.  (Textes  Elam- 
ites,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1901-04);  Rev.  F.  Martin  (Tex- 
tes religieux  Assyriens  et  Babyloniens,  Paris,  1900); 
F.  Thureau-Dangin  (Recherches  sur  I'Origine  de  I'ecri- 
ture  cunciforme,  Paris,  1893),  oppcrt,  Loisy,  Fossey 
etc.  In  England. — Sir  H.  Rawlinson  (Cuneiform 
Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia,  5  vols.,  1861-1SS4,  etc.) ; 
A.  H.  Sayce  (Higher  Criticism  and  the  Monuments, 
London,  1894,  etc.);  L.W.King  (Letters  and  Inscrip- 
tions of  Hammurabi  .  .  .  and  other  Kings  of  the 
First  Dynasty  of  Babylon,  London,  1898-1900);  C. 
W.  Johns,  T.  G.  Pinches,  J.  A.  Craig  etc.  In  America. 
— Besides  the  scholars  already  referred  to  may  be 
mentioned  R.  W.  Rogers  (History  of  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,  I,  New  York,  1900);  H.  V.  Hilprecht  (Ex- 
plorations in  Bible  Lands  during  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  New  York,  1903);  Paul  Haupt  (numerous 
publications);  R.  F.  Harper,  M.  Jastrow,  C.  Johnston, 
J.  D.  Lyon,  J.  D.  Prince  etc. 

Egyptian,  Research. — Modern  Oriental  research  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Nile  began  in  1798  with  the  Egyp- 
tian campaign  of  Napoleon,  who  with  characteristic 
foresight  invited  M.  Gaspard  Monge  (1746-1818) 
with  a  corps  of  savants  and  artists  to  join  the  expedi- 
tion. The  results  of  their  observations  were  published 
at  the  expense  of  the  French  Government  (1809-13) 
in  .several  folio  volumes  under  the  title:  "Description 
de  I'Egypte",  but  the  numerous  specimens  collected 
by  these  scientists  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English 
after  the  naval  battle  of  .Vboukir  and  formed  later  the 
nucleus  of  the  Egyptian  department  of  the  British 
Museum.  The  mysterious  hieroglyphic  characters 
which  they  exhibited  were  soon  inaxle  the  object  of 
inten.se  study  both  in  England  and  France  and  the 
famous  Rosetta  Stone  which  bears  a  trilingual  in- 
scription (in  Greek,  in  the  Egyptian  demotic  script, 
and  in  the  hieroglj-phic  writing)  furni.shed  a  key  to  the 
meaning  of  the  latter,  which  was  discovered  almost 


simultaneously  in  France  bv  J.  Fran5oi8  Champollion 
(1791-1832),  and  in  England  by  Thomas  Young  (1773- 
1<S27).  Thus  the  Rosetta  inscription  (embodying  a 
part  of  a  decree  of  Ptolemy  \'  I^piphanes,  205-181 
B.  c.)  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  discoveries 
bearing  on  the  literature  and  <'ivilization  of  ancient 
Egypt  iis  does  the  Heliistun  in.-^cription  with  regard  to 
the  antique  treasures  discovered  in  A.s.syria  ati(l  Baby- 
lonia. ChampoUion's  discovery  aroused  a  great  in- 
terest in  Egyptian  inscriptions  and  in  1.S2S  tlie  Frencii 
scholar  was  sent  to  Egypt  together  with  l{oseilini  at 
the  head  of  a  Franco-Italian  expedition  which  proved 
most  fruitful  in  scientific  results.  A  German  expedi- 
tion under  the  direction  of  Lepsius  was  sent  out  in 
1840  to  study  Egyptian  monuments  in  relation  to 
Bible  history,  and  in  addition  to  explorations  made  in 
Egypt  and  Ethiopia  a  visit  was  made  to  the  Sina- 
itic  peninsula.  In  1850  Auguste  Mariette,  a  French 
savant,  made  the  remarkable  discovery  of  the  tombs 
of  the  sacred  Apis  bulls  at  Memphis  together  with 
thousands  of  memorial  inscriptions.  In  1857  he  was 
appointed  director  of  the  museum  of  antiquities  newly 
establisheti  in  Cairo,  and  at  the  same  time  he  received 
from  the  khedive  the  exclusive  right  of  excavating 
in  Egyptian  territory  for  scientific  purposes — a  right 
which  he  exercised  until  his  death  in  1880.  The  results 
of  his  explorations  were  enormous  and  the  science  of 
Egyptology  probably  owes  more  to  Mariette  than  to 
any  other  scholar.  He  was  succeeded  by  another 
eminent  French  scholar,  G.  Maspero,  and  the  explora- 
tions still  remaining  in  the  hands  of  the  French  were 
carried  on  systematically  and  with  steady  success;  but 
under  the  new  administration  permission  was  given  to 
representatives  of  other  nations  to  conduct  excava- 
tions and,  with  certain  restrictions,  to  export  the  re- 
sults of  their  findings.  The  Egyptian  Exploration 
fund  was  organized  in  England  in  1883,  and  after  e.\- 
cavations  in  the  Delta  on  the  site  of  the  Biblical  city 
of  Pithom  and  of  the  Greek  city  of  Naukratis,  the 
work  of  the  society  was  transferred  in  1896  to  Upper 
Egypt.  At  that  time  also  the  excavations  were  placed 
under  the  direction  of  W.  Flinders  Petrie  who  has 
achieved  astonishing  results,  especially  in  recon- 
structing in  accordance  with  the  testimony  of  the 
monuments  the  account  of  ancient  P>gyptian  !ii.«tory, 
which  he  has  carried  back  to  a  period  antedating  the 
reign  of  the  formerly-supposed  mythical  king  Menes, 
founder  of  the  first  Egyptian  dynasty.  Independent 
expeditions  were  also  fitted  out  by  Swiss,  Germans, 
and  Americans,  and  the  Orient  Gesellschaft  organized 
in  1899  has  conducted  systematic  explorations  at 
various  points  in  the  Orient.  Among  the  almost 
incredible  number  of  objects  brought  to  light  by  the 
Egyptian  explorers,  and  which  besides  filling  the 
new  and  enlarged  museum  of  Cairo  built  in  19(52,  go 
to  make  up  numerous  and  important  collections  in 
Europe  and  America,  may  be  mentioned  the  many 
papyrus  documents  (e.  g.  the  Logia  of  Jesus,  various 
apocal>'pses,  heretical  gospels,  etc.),  which  throw  light 
on  early  Christian  history  and  on  the  period  immedi- 
ately preceding  it.  The  abundance  and  historic  im- 
portance of  the  treasures  found  in  the  land  of  the 
Pharaohs  caused  a  great  number  of  European  scholars 
to  devote  their  attention  to  the  study  of  Egyptology. 
In  addition  to  the  names  already  referred  to  the  fol- 
lowing are  taken  at  random  from  a  list  of  scholars  far 
too  numerous  to  be  even  mentioned  in  the  present  ar- 
ticle. G.  Perrot  and  C.  Chippiez  (History  of  Art  in 
Ancient  Egypt,  2  vols.,  London,  1883);  P.  Renouf 
(Translation  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead,  parts  i-iv, 
London,  1893-95,  completed  by  E.  Naville,  1907);  E. 
A.  W.  Budge  (The  Mummy:  Chapters  on  Egyptian 
Funeral  Archeology.  Cambridge,  1873;  The  Book 
of  the  Dead,  3  vols.,  London,  1898);  W.  Max  Muller 
(Asien  und  Europa  nach  altiigyptischen  Denkma- 
lem,  Leipzig,  1S93);  J.  de  Morgan  (Recherches  sur  les 
origines  de  I'Egypte,  Paris,  1895-96);  J.  M.  Broderick 


ORIENTATION 


305 


ORIENTIUS 


and  A.  Morton  (Concise  Dictionary  of  Egyptian  Ar- 
cheology, London,  1901);  J.  P.  Mahaffy  (The  Em- 
pire of  the  Ptolemies,  London,  1895);  H.  Walhs,  J. 
Capart,  H.  Schneider,  J.  H.  Breasted,  A..  Wiedemann, 
M.  C.  Strack,  P.  Pierret,  K.  Piehl,  A.  Ermann  etc. 
Connected  with  Egyptology  is  the  study  of  Coptic,  the 
language  of  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
The  extant  Coptic  literature  is  almost  exclusively 
Christian,  and  except  for  hturgical  purposes,  it  fell 
into  disuse  after  the  Moslem  supremacy  in  Egypt  in 
the  seventh  century.  Among  the  scholars  who  have 
made  a  specialty  of  this  branch  of  Oriental  studies 
may  be  mentioned  E.  Renaudet  (eighteenth  century), 
E.  M.  Quatremere  (Recherches  critiques  et  histo- 
riques  sur  la  langue  et  la  httcrature  de  I'Egypte,  Paris, 
1808);  A.  J.  Butler  (Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of 
Egypt,  Oxford,  1884),  B.  T.  Evetts,  E.  Am<ilineau, 
E.  C.  Butler,  W.  E.  Crum,  and  H.  Hyvernat,  profes- 
sor of  Oriental  languages  and  archaeology  at  the  Cath- 
olic University  in  Washington,  who  has  published  in 
monumental  form  the  text  and  translation  of  the 
"Acts  of  the  Martyrs  of  the  Coptic  Church". 

Explorations  in  Syi-ia  and  Palestine. — Explorations 
in  the  Bible  lands  proper  were  taken  up  later  than  those 
in  Assyria  and  Egypt  and  thus  far  they  have  been  less 
fruitful  in  archaeological  results.  The  first  work, 
chiefly  topographical,  was  undertaken  by  Dr.  Ed- 
ward Robinson  of  New  York  in  1838  and  again  in 
1852.  The  results  of  his  investigations  appeared  in 
"Biblical  Researches",  3  vols.,  Berlin  and  Boston, 
1841  (3rd  edition,  1867),  but  he  is  better  known 
through  the  publication  of  liis  popular  work  entitled 
"The  Land  and  the  Book".  In  1847  the  American 
Government  commissioned  Lieutenant  Lynch  of  the 
U.  S.  Navy  to  explore  the  Valley  of  the  Jordan  and  the 
Dead  Sea.  In  1865  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund 
was  organized  in  England,  and  among  other  impor- 
tant resultsof  its  activities  has  been  an  accurate  survey 
and  mapping  out  of  the  territory  west  of  the  Jordan. 
From  1.867  to  1870  the  Fund  conducted  excavations 
at  Jerusalem  under  the  direction  of  Sir  Charles 
Warren.  They  proved  valuable  in  connexion  with 
the  identification  of  the  ancient  Temple  and  other 
sites,  but  little  was  found  in  the  line  of  archeological 
remains.  In  1887  a  German  Piilestine  Exploration 
Fund  was  organized,  and  beginning  in  1884  it  carried 
out  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Schumacher  a  careful 
survey  of  the  territory  east  of  the  Jordan.  The  most 
important  archaeological  discoveries  in  Palestine  are 
the  inscription  of  Mesha,  King  of  Moab  (ninth  century 
B.  c.)  found  at  Dibon  by  the  German  missionary 
Klein  in  1S68,  the  Hebrew  inscription,  probably  of  the 
time  of  Ezechias,  found  in  the  Siloam  tunnel  beneath 
the  hill  of  Ophel,  and  the  Greek  inscription  discovered 
by  Clermont-Ganneau.  In  this  connexion  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  still  more  important  finding  by 
natives  in  Egypt  (1887)  of  the  famous  Tel  el-Amarna 
tablets  (q.  v.),  or  letters  written  in  cuneiform  charac- 
ters and  proving  that  about  1400  B.  c,  prior  to  the 
Hebrew  conquest,  Palestine  was  already  permeated 
by  the  Assyro-Babylonian  civilization  and  culture. 
Further  excavations  in  Palestine  have  been  conducted 
at  various  points  by  W.  Flinders  Petrie,  the  Egyptian 
explorer,  (1889)  and  by  the  American  savant  F.  J. 
Bliss  (1890-1900).  Of  still  greater  importance  for 
Oriental  studies  bearing  on  the  Bible  has  been  the 
estabhshment  (1.S93)  by  the  Dominican  Fathers  at 
Jerusalem  of  a  school  of  Biblical  studies  under  the 
direction  of  F.  M.  Lagrange,  O.  P.  This  institute, 
which  has  for  its  object  a  theoretical  and  practical 
training  in  Oriental  subjects  pertaining  to  Holy 
Scripture,  numbers  among  its  staff  of  instructors  such 
scholars  as  Father  Scheil  and  Father  Vincent  who 
with  their  co-workers  publish  the  scholarly  "Revue 
biblique  Internationale".  Similar  schools  were  later 
founded  at  Jerusalem  by  the  Americans  (1900)  and  by 
the  Germans  (1903). 
XL— 20 


Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  see  Condamin.  Bahylone 
et  la  Bible  in  Diet,  apologel.  de  la  joi  cathol.  (Paris,  1909);  HlL- 
PBECHT,  Explorations  in  Bible  Lands  during  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(Philadelphia,  1903) ;  Peters  in  the  Encyclopedia  Americana,  s.  v. 
Oriental  Research;  Jastrow,  Religion  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia 
(Boston,  1898);  Oussani,  The  Bible  and  the  Ancient  East  in  the 
New  York  Review  (Nov.-Deo.,  1906) ;  Idem,  The  Code  of  Ham- 
murabi (loc.  cit.,  Aug.-Sept.,  1905);  Duncan,  The  Exploration  of 
Egypt  and  the  Old  Testament  (New  York,  1908) ;  Ermoni.  La  bible 
et  Varcheologie  syrienne  (Paris,  1904) ;  Idem,  La  bible  et  I' egyptologie 
(Paris,  1905) ;  Rogers.  History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (New 
York,  1900);  Maspebo,  Dawn  of  Ciiilization  (1894);  Idem,  The 
Struggle  of  the  Nations  (New  York,  1S97) ;  Paton,  Early  History  of 
Syria  and  Palestine  (New  York,  1901);  Pinches,  The  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  Light  of  the  History  of  .Assyria  and  Babylonia  (London, 
1902). 

James  F.  Driscoll. 

Orientation  of  Churches. — According  to  Ter- 
tullian  the  Cliristians  of  his  time  were,  by  some  who 
concerned  themselves  with  their  form  of  worship,  be- 
lieved to  be  votaries  of  the  sun.  This  supposition,  he 
adds,  doubtless  arose  from  the  Christian  practice 
of  turning  to  the  east  when  praying  (.-ipol.,  c.  xvi). 
Speaking  of  churches  the  same  writer  tells  us  that  the 
homes  "of  our  dove",  as  he  terms  them,  are  always 
in  "high  and  open  places,  facing  the  hght"  (Adv. 
Val.,  c.  iii),  and  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  (third  to 
fifth  century)  prescribe  that  church  edifices  should  be 
erected  with  their  "heads"  towards  the  East  (Const. 
Apost.,  II,  7). 

The  practice  of  praying  while  turned  towards  the 
rising  sun  is  older  than  Christianity,  but  the  Christians 
in  adopting  it  were  influenced  by  reasons  pecuhar  to 
themselves.  The  principal  of  these  reasons,  accord- 
ing to  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  was  that  the  Orient  con- 
tained man's  original  home,  the  earthly  paradise. 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  speaking  for  the  Middle  Ages, 
adds  to  this  reason  several  others,  as  for  example, 
that  Our  Lord  lived  His  earthly  Ufe  in  the  East,  and 
that  from  the  East  He  shall  come  to  judge  mankind 
(II-II.  Q.  Ixxxiv,  a.  3).  Thus  from  the  earUest  period 
the  custom  of  locating  the  apse  and  altar  in  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  church  was  the  rule.  Yet  the  great 
Roman  Basilicas  of  the  Lateran,  St.  Peter's,  St.  Paul's 
(originally),  St.  Lorenzo's,  as  well  as  the  Basilica  of 
the  Resurrection  in  Jerusalem  and  the  basilicas  of 
Tyre  and  Antioch,  reversed  this  rule  by  placing  the 
apse  in  the  western  extremity.  The  reasons  for  this 
mode  of  orientation  can  only  be  conjectured.  Some 
writers  explain  it  by  the  fact  that  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury the  celebrant  at  ISIass  faced  the  people,  and,  there- 
fore in  a  church  with  a  western  apse,  looked  towards 
the  East  when  officiating  at  the  altar.  Others  con- 
jecture that  the  peculiar  orientation  of  the  basilicas 
mentioned,  erected  by  Constantine  the  Great  or  under 
his  influence,  may  have  been  a  reminiscence  of  the 
former  predilection  of  this  emperor  for  sun-worship. 
In  the  Orient  the  eastern  apse  was  the  rule,  and  thence 
it  made  its  way  to  the  West  through  the  reconstructed 
Basilica  of  St.  Paul's,  the  Basilica  of  S.  Pietro  in 
Vincoli,  and  the  celebrated  basilica  of  Ravenna. 
From  the  eighth  century  the  propriety  of  the  eastern 
apse  was  universally  admitted,  though,  of  course 
strict  adherence  to  this  architectural  canon,  owing  to 
the  direction  of  city  streets,  was  not  always  possible. 
Kraus,  G'esch.  d.  christ.  Kunst,  I  (Freiburg.  1895) ;  Realency^ 
klopddie  d.  christ.  AUertiimer,  9.  v.  Orientirung  (Freiburg,  1886); 
LowRiB,  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church  (New  York,  1901);  En- 
lart,  Manuel  d' archeologie  fran^aise,  1  (Paris,  1902). 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Orientius,  Christian  Latin  pool  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury. He  wrote  an  elegiac  poetii  {('(iiniiioiiilorium)  of 
1036  verses  (divided  into  two  books)  (lisrrihing  the 
way  to  heaven,  with  warnings  ag.-iiiisl  ils  liiiidrances. 
He  was  a  Gaul  (II,  184),  who  had  been  convert ed  after 
a  life  of  sin  (I,  405  .sq.),  was  evidently  mii  experienced 
pastor,  and  wrote  at  a  time  when  his  country  was  be- 
ing devastated  by  the  invasion  of  savages.  All  this 
points  to  his  identification  with  Orientius,  Bishop  of 
Augusta  Ausciorum  (Auch),  who  as  a  very  old  man 


ORIFLAMME 


306 


ORIGEN 


was  sent  by  Thcodoric  1,  King  of  the  Goths,  as  ani- 
bivssador  to  the  Koiiian  gonorals  .Etius  and  Litorius 
in  439  ("Vita  f!.  Oriontii"  in  "Acta  SS.",  I  Mav,  61). 
The  Commoniloriiim  quotes  classical  poets — ^v'irgil, 
Ovid,  Catullus — and  is  perhaps  influenced  by  Pru- 
dentius.  It  exists  in  only  one  MS.  (Cod.  Ashbuni- 
ham.  s;pc.  X),  and  is  followed  by  some  shorter  anony- 
mous i)oonis  not  by  Orientius,  and  by  two  prayers  in 
verse  attributed  to  him.  The  first  complete  edition 
was  published  by  Martcne,  "Veterum  Scriptoruin 
Monumenta",  I  (Rouen,  1700);  then  by  Gallandi, 
"Bibliotheca  veterum  Patrum",  X  (Venice,  1774), 
185-90,  reprinted  in  "P.  L.",  LXI,  977-1006.  The 
best  modern  edition  is  by  Ellis  in  the  "Corpus  Scrip- 
torum  Eecl.  Latinorum",  XVI  (Vienna,  1888):  "Poe- 
tic Christiani  minores",  I,  191-261. 

Manitius.  Gesch.  d.  Litt.  d.  Mittelalters  im  Abendlande,  I  (Leip- 
zig. 1SS9),  410—4;  Fessler-Jcngmann,  Institutiones  Patrologia:, 
II,  ii  (Innsbruck,  1896),  374-6. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Oriflamme. — In  verses  309.'i-5  of  the  "Chanson 
de  Roland"  (eleventh  century)  the  oriflamme  is 
mentioned  as  a  royal  banner,  called  at  first  "Ro- 
maine"  afterwards  "Montjoie".  According  to  the 
legend  it  was  given  to  Charlemagne  by  the  pope,  but 
no  historical  text  affords  us  any  information  with  re- 
gard to  this  oriflamme,  which  is  perhaps  fabulous. 
As  Eudes,  who  became  king  in  888,  was  Abbot  of  St. 
Martin,  the  banner  of  the  church  of  St.  Martin  of 
Tours  was  the  earliest  military  standard  of  the  Prank- 
ish monarchy.  It  was  a  plain  blue,  a  colour  then  as- 
signed in  the  liturgy  to  saints  who  were,  like  St.  Mar- 
tin, confessors  and  pontiffs.  The  azure  ground 
strewn  with  gold  fleur-de-Us  remained  the  symbol  of 
royalty  until  the  fourteenth  century,  when  the  white 
standard  of  Jeanne  d'.\rc  WTOught  marvels,  and  by 
degrees  the  custom  was  introduced  of  depicting  the 
fleur-de-lis  on  white  ground.  But  from  the  time  of 
Louis  VI  (1108-37)  the  banner  of  St.  Martin  was  re- 
placed as  ensign  of  war  by  the  oriflamme  of  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Denis,  which  floated  about  the  tomb  of  St.  Denis 
and  was  said  to  have  been  given  to  the  abbey  by 
Dagobert.  It  is  supposed  without  any  certainty  that 
this  was  a  piece  of  fiery  red  silk  or  sendal  the  field  of 
which  was  covered  with  flames  and  stars  of  gold. 
The  standard-bearer  carried  it  either  at  the  end  of  a 
staff  or  suspended  from  his  neck.  Until  the  twelfth 
century  the  standard-bearer  was  the  Comte  de  Vexin, 
who,  as  "vowed"  to  St.  Denis,  was  the  temporal  de- 
fender of  the  abbey.  Louis  VI  the  Fat,  having  ac- 
quired Vexin,  became  standard-bearer;  as  soon  as  war 
began,  Louis  VI  received  Communion  at  St.  Denis  and 
took  the  standard  from  the  tomb  of  the  saint  to  carry 
it  to  the  combat.  "Montjoie  Saint  Denis",  cried  the 
men-at-arms,  even  as  in  England  they  cried  "Mont- 
joie Notre  Dame"  or  "  Montjoie  Saint  George".  The 
word  Montjoie  (from  Moris  gaudii  or  Mons  Jovis)  des- 
ignates the  heaps  of  stones  along  the  roadside  which 
served  as  mile-stones  or  as  sign-posts,  and  which  some- 
times became  the  meeting-places  for  warriors;  it  was 
applied  to  the  oriflamme  the  sight  of  which  was  to 
guide  the  soldiers  in  the  meUe.  The  descriptions  of 
the  oriflamme  which  have  reached  us  in  Guillaume  le 
Breton  (thirteenth  cent.),  in  the  "Chronicle  of  Flan- 
ders" (fourteenth cent.), in  the" RegistraDelphinalia" 
(1456),  and  in  the  inventor}'  of  the  treasury  of  St. 
Denis  (1.5.36),  show  that  to  the  primitive  oriflamme 
there  succeeded  in  the  course  of  centuries  newer  ori- 
flamines  which  little  resembled  one  another,  .^t  the 
battles  of  Poitiers  (1356)  and  Agincourt  (1415)  the 
oriflamme  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English;  it  would 
seem  that  after  the  Hundred  Years'  War  it  was  no 
longer  borne  on  the  battle-field. 
Galland,  Dets  anciennes  enneigne^  ei  Hendards  de  France  (Paris, 
1782);  DrPEi,  Retue  dee  aociittt  eamnUs,  1  (1875),  153-5;  Bau- 
dot, MorUjaie  St.  Denie  in  Rnue  det  Pyrentes,  XIV  (1902). 

Georges  Goyau. 


Origen  and  Origenism. — I.  Life  and  Work  of  Ori- 
gen. — A.  Bioghai'H  Y. — Origen,  most  modest  of  writers, 
hardly  ever  alludes  to  himself  in  his  own  works;  but 
Eusebius  has  devoted  to  him  almost  the  entire  sixth 
book  of  "I'icclcsiiisiical  History".  lOusebius  was 
thoroughly  ac(iu;iiiil(Mi  with  the  life  of  his  hero;  he  had 
collected  a  huiidnvl  of  his  letters;  in  colhiboration  with 
the  martyr  l'iim|)hilus  he  had  cuniposcd  t,hc  "Apol- 
ogy for  Origen";  he  dwelt  at  C;<'sarc:L  where  Origen's 
library  was  jireserved,  and  where  his  memory  still 
lingered ;  if  at  times  he  may  be  thought  somewhat  par- 
tial, he  is  undoubtedly  well  informed.  We  find  some 
details  also  in  the  "Farewell  Address"  of  St.  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus  to  his  master,  in  the  controversies  of 
St.  Jerome  and  Rufinus,  in  St.  Epiphanius  (HiEres., 
LXIV),  and  in  Photius  (Biblioth.  Cod.  118). 

(1)  Origen  at  Alexandria  {IS:':-  .'..'.'i  -Horn  in  185, 
Origen  was  barely  seventeen  wlim  ;i  lilniKiy  persecu- 
tion of  the  Church  of  Alexaii(hi.-i  I  nuke  out.  His 
father  Leonides,  who  admired  his  precocious  genius 
and  was  charmed  with  his  virtuous  life,  had  given  him 
an  excellent  literary  education.  When  Leonides  was 
cast  into  prison,  Origen  would  fain  have  shared  his 
lot,  but  being  unable  to  carry  out  his  resolution,  as  his 
mother  had  hidden  his  clothes,  he  wrote  an  ardent, 
enthusiastic  letter  to  his  father  exhorting  him  to  per- 
severe courageously.  When  Leoni'les  had  won  the 
martyr's  crown  and  his  fortune  had  been  confiscated 
by  the  imperial  atithorities,  the  heroic  child  laboured 
to  support  himself,  his  mother,  and  his  six  younger 
brothers.  This  he  successfully  accomplished  by  be- 
coming a  teacher,  selling  his  manuscripts,  and  by  the 
generous  aid  of  a  certain  rich  lady,  who  admired  his 
talents.  He  assumed,  of  his  own  accord,  the  direction 
of  the  catechetical  school,  on  the  withdrawal  of  Clem- 
ent, and  in  the  following  year  was  confirmed  in  his 
office  by  the  patriarch  Demetrius  (Eusebius,  "Hist. 
eccl.",  VI,  ii;  St.  Jerome,  "De  viris  illust.",  liv). 
Origen's  school,  which  was  frequented  by  pagans, 
soon  became  a  nursery  of  neophytes,  confessors,  and 
martyrs.  Among  the  latter  were  Plutarch,  Serenus 
Heraclides,  Heron,  another  Serenus,  and  a  female 
catechumen,  Herais  (Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VI,  iv). 
He  accompanied  them  to  the  scene  of  their  victories 
encouraging  them  by  his  exhortations.  There  is  noth- 
ing more  touching  than  the  picture  Eusebius  has 
drawn  of  Origen's  youth,  so  studious,  disinterested, 
austere  and  pure,  ardent  and  zealous  even  to  indiscre- 
tion (VI,  iii  and  vi).  Thrust  thus  at  so  early  an  age 
into  the  teacher's  chair,  he  recognized  the  necessity  of 
completing  his  education.  Frequenting  the  philo- 
sophic schools,  especially  that  of  Ammonius  Saccas,  he 
devoted  himself  to  a  study  of  the  jjliilosojihers,  partic- 
ularly Plato  and  the  Stoics.  In  this  he  w;is  but  follow- 
ing the  example  of  his  predcccsscirs  Pantenus  and 
Clement,  and  of  Heracles,  who  w;is  to  succeed  him. 
Afterwards  when  the  latter  shareil  his  labours  in  the 
catechetical  .school,  he  learned  Hebrew,  ^nd  commu- 
nicated frequently  with  certain  Jews  who  helped  him 
to  solve  his  difficulties. 

The  course  of  his  work  at  Alexandria  was  inter- 
rupted by  five  journeys.  About  213,  under  Pope 
Zephyrinus  and  the  emperor  Caracalla,  he  desired  "to 
see  the  very  ancient  Church  of  Rome",  but  he  did  not 
remain  there  long  (Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VI,  xiv). 
Shortly  afterwards  he  was  invited  to  Arabia  by  the 
governor  who  was  desirous  of  meeting  him  (VI,  xix). 
It  was  probably  in  215  or  216  when  the  persecution  of 
Caracalla  was  raging  in  Egypt  that  he  visited  Pales- 
tine, where  Theoctistus  of  Ciesarea  and  Alexander  of 
Jerusalem,  invited  him  to  preach  though  he  was  still  a 
layman.  Towards  218,  it  wo\ild  appear,  the  empress 
Mamma;a,  mother  of  Alexander  Sf\'erus,  lirnught  him 
to  Antioch  (VI,  xxi).  Finally,  at  a  nnich  later  period, 
under  Pontian  of  Rome  and  Zebinus  of  Antioch 
(Eusebius,  VI,  xxiii),  he  journeyed  into  Greece,  pass- 
ing through  Caesarea  where  Theoctistus,  Bishop  of 


ORIGEN 


307 


ORIGEN 


that  city,  assisted  by  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
raised  him  to  the  priesthood.  Demetrius,  although  he 
had  given  letters  of  recommendation  to  Origen,  was 
very  much  offended  by  this  ordination,  which  had 
taken  place  without  his  knowledge  and,  as  he  thought, 
in  derogation  of  his  rights.  If  Eusebius  (VI,  viii)  is  to 
be  believed,  he  was  envious  of  the  increasing  influence 
of  his  catechist.  So,  on  his  return  to  Alexandria,  Ori- 
gen soon  perceived  that  his  bishop  was  rather  un- 
friendly towards  him.  He  yielded  to  the  storm  and 
quitted  Egypt  (231).  The  details  of  this  affair  were 
recorded  by  Eusebius  in  the  lost  second  book  of  the 
"Apology  for  Origen";  according  to  Photius,  who  had 
read  the  work,  two  councils  were  held  at  Alexandria, 
one  of  which  pronounced  a  decree  of  banishment 
against  Origen  while  the  other  deposed  him  from  the 
priesthood  (Biblioth.  cod.  118).  St.  Jerome  declares 
expressly  that  he  was  not  condemned  on  a  point  of 
doctrine. 

(2)  Origen  at  Cmsarea  (232). — Expelled  from  Alex- 
andria. Origen  fixed  his  abotle  at  Cffisarea  in  Palestine 
(232),  with  his  protector  and  friend  Theoctistus, 
founded  a  new  school  there,  and  resumed  his  "Com- 
mentary on  St.  John"  at  the  point  where  it  had  been 
interrupted.  He  was  soon  surrounded  by  pupils.  The 
most  distinguished  of  these,  without  doubt,  was  St. 
Gregory  Thaumaturgus  who,  with  his  brother  Apollo- 
dorus,  attended  Origen's  lectures  for  five  years  and  de- 
hvered  on  leaving  him  a  celebrated  "Farewell  Ad- 
dress". During  the  persecution  of  Maximinus  (23.5- 
37)  Origen  visited  his  friend,  St.  Firmilian,  Bishop  of 
Caesarea  in  Cappadocia,  who  made  him  remain  for  a 
long  period.  On  this  occasion  he  was  hospitably  en- 
tertained by  a  Christian  lady  of  Csesarea,  named  Juli- 
ana, who  had  inherited  the  writings  of  Symmachus, 
the  translator  of  the  Old  Testament  (Palladius,  "Hist. 
Laus.",  147).  The  years  following  were  devoted 
almost  uninterruptedly  to  the  composition  of  the 
' '  Commentaries ' ' .  Mention  is  made  only  of  a  few  ex- 
cursions to  the  Holy  Places,  a  journey  to  Athens  (Eu- 
sebius, VI,  xxxii),  and  two  voyages  to  Arabia,  one  of 
which  was  undertaken  for  the  conversion  of  Beryllus, 
a  Patripassian  (Eusebius,  VI,  xxxiii;  St.  Jerome,  "De 
viris  ill.",  Ix),  the  other  to  refute  certain  heretics  who 
denied  the  Resurrection  (Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VI, 
xxxvii).  Age  did  not  diminish  his  activities.  He  was 
over  sixty  when  he  wrote  his  "Contra  Celsum"  and 
his  "  Commentary  on  St.  Matthew".  The  persecution 
of  Decius  (250)  prevented  him  from  continuing  these 
works.  Origen  was  imprisoned  and  barbarously  tor- 
tured, but  his  courage  was  unshaken  and  from  his 
prison  he  wrote  letters  breathing  the  spirit  of  the  mar- 
tyrs (Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VI,  xxxix).  He  was 
still  alive  on  the  death  of  Decius  (2.51),  but  only  lin- 
gering on,  and  he  died,  probably,  from  the  results  of  the 
sufferings  endured  during  the  persecution  (2.53  or  2.54), 
at  the  :i«('  of  sixty-nine  (Eu.sebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VII,  i). 
His  Inst  ila\s  were  spent  at  Tyr,  though  his  reason  for 
rctinu.j;  tliither  is  unknown.  He  was  buried  with 
honour  ;is  a  confessor  of  the  Faith.  For  a  long  time 
liis  sepulchre,  behind  the  high-altar  of  the  cathedral  of 
Tyr,  was  visited  by  pilgrims.  To-day,  as  nothing  re- 
mains of  this  cathedral  except  a  ma.ss  of  ruins,  the  ex- 
act location  of  his  tomb  is  unknown. 

B.  Works. — Very  few  authors  were  as  fertile  as  Ori- 
gen. St.  Epiphanius  estimates  at  six  thousand  the 
number  of  his  writings,  counting  separately,  without 
doubt,  the  different  books  of  a  single  work,  his  homi- 
lies, letters,  and  his  smallest  treatises  (Ha;res.,  LXIV, 
Ixiii).  This  figure,  repeated  by  many  ecclesiastical 
writers,  seems  greatly  exaggerated.  St.  Jerome  as- 
sures us  that  the  list  of  Origen's  writings  drawn  up  by 
St.  Pamphilus  did  not  contain  even  two  thousand  titles 
(Contra  Rutin.,  II,  xxii;  III,  xxiii);  but  this  list  was 
evidently  incomplete.  Eusebius  ("Hist,  eccl.",  VI, 
xxxii)  had  inserted  it  in  his  biography  of  St.  Pamphi-  ' 
lus  and  St.  Jerome  inserted  it  in  a  letter  to  Paula,  the 


interesting  part  of  which,  discovered  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, was  published  by  Klostermann  among  others 
(Sitzungsber.  der  .  .  .  Akad.  der  Wiss.  zu  Berlin, 
1897,  pp.  8.55-70). 

(1)  Exegetical  Writings. — Origen  had  devoted  three 
kinds  of  works  to  the  explanation  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures :  commentaries,  homilies,  and  scholia  (St.  "Jerome, 
"Prologus  interpret,  homiliar.  Orig.  in  Ezechiel"). 
The  commentaries  (t6moi  libri,  volumitia)  were  a  con- 
tinuous and  well-developed  interpretation  of  the  in- 
spired text.  An  idea  of  their  magnitude  may  be 
formed  from  the  fact  that  the  words  of  St.  John:  "In 
the  beginning  was  the  Word  ",  furnished  material  for  a 
whole  roll.  There  remain  in  Greek  only  eight  books  of 
the  "Commentary  on  St.  Matthew",  and  nine  books 
of  the  "Commentary  on  St.  John";  in  Latin  an  anony- 
mous translation  of  the  "Commentary  on  St.  Mat- 
thew" beginning  with  chapter  xvi,  three  books  and  a 
half  of  the  "Commentary  on  the  Canticle  of  Canti- 
cles" translated  by  Rufinus,  and  an  abridgment  of 
the  "Commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans" 
by  the  same  translator.  The  homilies  (6/uMai,  homr- 
ilia;,  tractatus)  were  familiar  discourses  on  texts  of 
Scripture,  often  extemporary  and  recorded  as  well  as 
possible  by  stenographers.  The  list  is  long  and  un- 
doubtedly must  have  been  longer  if  it  be  true  that 
Origen,  as  St.  Pamphilus  declares  in  his  "Apology", 
preached  almost  every  day.  There  remain  in  Greek 
twenty-one  (twenty  on  Jeremias  and  the  celebrated 
homily  on  the  witch  of  Endor) ;  in  Latin,  one  hundred 
and  eighteen  translated  by  Rufinus,  seventy-eight 
translated  by  St.  Jerome  and  some  others  of  more  or 
less  doubtful  authenticity,  preserved  in  a  collection  of 
homilies.  The  twenty  "Tractatus  Origenis"  recently 
discovered  are  not  the  work  of  Origen,  though  use 
has  been  made  of  his  writings.  Origen  has  been 
called  the  father  of  the  homily;  it  was  he  who  con- 
tributed most  to  popularize  this  species  of  literature 
in  which  are  to  be  found  so  many  instructive  details 
on  the  customs  of  the  primitive  Church,  its  institu- 
tions, discipline,  liturgy,  and  sacraments.  The 
scholia  (ffxi^^'o,  excerpta,  commaticum  interpretandi 
genus)  were  exegetical,  philological,  or  historical 
notes,  on  words  or  passages  of  the  Bible,  like  the  an- 
notations of  the  Alexandria  grammarians  on  the  pro- 
fane writers.  Except  some  few  short  fragments 
all  of  these  have  perished. 

(2)  Other  Writings. — We  now  possess  only  two  of 
Origen's  letters:  one  addressed  to  St.  Gregory  Thau- 
maturgus on  the  reading  of. Holy  Scripture,  the  other 
to  Julius  African  us  on  the  Greek  additions  to  the 
Book  of  Daniel.  Two  opuscula  have  been  preserved 
entire  in  the  original  form;  an  excellent  treatise  "On 
Prayer"  and  an  "Exhortation  to  Martyrdom",  sent 
by  Origen  to  his  friend  Ambrose,  then  a  prisoner  for 
the  Faith.  Finally  two  large  works  have  escaped  the 
ravages  of  time:  the  "Contra  Celsum"  in  the  original 
text,  and  the  "  De  principiis"  in  a  Latin  translation  by 
Rufinus  and  in  the  citations  of  the  "  Philocalia"  which 
might  equal  in  contents  one-sixth  of  the  whole  work. 
In  the  eight  books  of  the  "Contra  Celsum"  Origen 
follows  his  adversary  point  by  point,  refuting  in  de- 
tail each  of  his  false  imputations.  It  is  a  model  of 
reasoning,  erudition,  and  honest  polemic.  The  "De 
principiis",  composed  at  Alexandria,  and  which,  it 
seems,  got  into  the  hands  of  the  public  before  its 
completion,  treated  successively  in  its  four  books,  al- 
lowing for  numerous  digressions,  of:  (a)  God  and  the 
Trinity,  (b)  the  world  and  its  relation  to  God,  (c)  man 
and  his  free  will,  (d)  Scripture,  its  inspiration  and  in- 
terpretation. Many  other  works  of  Origen  have  been 
entirely  lost:  for  instance,  the  treatise  in  two  books 
"On  the  Resurrection",  a  treatise  "On  Free  Will",  and 
ten  books  of  "Miscellaneous  Writings"  (STpu/iarerr). 
For  Origen's  critical  work  see  Hexapla.  For  his 
writings  see  Westcott  in  "Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog.", 
8.  v.;  Preuschen  in  Harnack,  "Die  Ueberlieferung  und 


ORIGEN 


308 


ORIGKN 


Bestand  dor  altchristl.  Litteratur"  (Leipzig,  lS9:i), 
333-90;  Uardenhower,  "Geschichte  der  altkirchl. 
Litcratur."  (Freiburg),  II,  68-149;  Prat  in  Vigouroux, 
"Diet,  de  la  Bible",  s.  v. 

C.  PosTiiuMors  Influence  of  Okigen. — During 
his  lifetime  Origen  by  his  writings,  teaching,  and  in- 
tercourse exercised  \'ery  great  influence.  St.  Firmil- 
ian  of  Ca\sarca  in  Cui)padocia,  who  regard<'d  himself 
as  his  disciple,  made  him  remain  with  him  for  a  long 
period  to  profit  by  his  learning  (Kuseliius,  "Hist. 
eccl.",  VI,  xxvi;  Palladius,  "Hist.  Laus.",  147).  St. 
Alexander  of  Jerusalem  his  fellow-pupil  at  the  cate- 
chetical school  was  his  intimate  faithful  friend  (Euse- 
bius,  VI,  xiv),  as  was  Theoctistus  of  C;&sarea  in  Pales- 
tine, who  ordained  him  (Photius,  cod.  118).  Beryllus 
of  Bostra,  whom  he  had  won  back  from  heresy,  was 
deeply  attached  to  him  (Eusebius,  VI,  xxxiii;  St. 
Jerome,  "De  viris  ill.",  Ix).  St.  Anatolus  of  Laodicea 
sang  his  praises  in  his  "Carmen  Paschale"  (P.  G.,  X, 
210).  The  learned  Julius  Africanus  consulted  him, 
Origen's  reply  being  extant  (P.  G.,  XI,  41-8.5).  St. 
Hippolytus  highly  appreciated  his  talents  (St.  Jerome, 
"De  viris  ill.",  Ixi).  St.  Dionysius,  his  pupil  and 
successor  in  the  catechetical  school,  when  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria,  dedicated  to  him  his  treatise  "On  the 
Persecution"  (Eusebius,  VI,  xlvi),  and  on  learning  of 
his  death  wrote  a  letter  tilled  with  his  praises  (Photius, 
cod.  232).  St.  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  who  had  been 
his  pupil  for  five  years  at  Caesarea,  before  leaving 
addressed  to  him  his  celebrated  "Farewell  Address" 
(P.  G.,  X,  1049-1104),  an  enthusiastic  panegyric. 
There  is  no  proof  that  Heracles,  his  disciple,  colleague, 
and  successor  in  the  catechetical  school,  before  being 
raised  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Alexandria,  wavered  in 
his  sworn  friendship.  Origen's  name  was  so  highly 
esteemed  that  when  there  was  question  of  putting 
an  end  to  a  schism  or  rooting  out  a  heresy,  appeal  was 
made  to  it. 

After  his  death  his  reputation  continued  to  spread. 
St.  Pamphilus,  martyred  in  307,  composed  with  Euse- 
bius an  "Apology  for  Origen"  in  six  books,  the  first 
alone  of  which  has  been  preserved  in  a  Latin  transla- 
tion by  Rufinus  (P.  G.,  XVII,  541-616).  Origen  had 
at  that  time  many  other  apologists  whose  names  are 
unknown  to  us  (Photius,  cod.  117  and  118).  The 
directors  of  the  catechetical  school  continued  to  walk 
in  his  footsteps.  Theognostus,  in  his  "  Hypotyposes", 
followed  him  even  too  closely,  according  to  Photius 
(cod.  106),  though  his  action  was  approved  by  St. 
Athanasius.  Pierius  was  called  by  St.  Jerome  "Ori- 
genes  junior"  (De  viris  ill.,  Ixxvi).  Didymus  the 
Blind  composed  a  work  to  explain  and  justify  the 
teaching  of  the  "De  principiis"  (St.  Jerome,  "Adv. 
llufin.",  I,  vi).  St.  Athanasius  does  not  he.sitate  to 
cite  him  with  praise  (Epist.  IV  ad  Serapion.,  9  andlO) 
and  points  out  that  he  must  be  interpreted  generously 
(De  decretis  Nic,  27). 

Nor  was  the  admiration  for  the  great  Alexandrian 
less  outside  of  Egypt.  St.  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  gave 
significant  expression  to  his  opinion  (Suidas,  "Lexi- 
con", ed.  Bemhardy,  II,  1274:  'ilpiyivn^  i]  Trdintav  jifidv 
ix*"')).  In  collaboration  with  St.  Basil,  he  had 
pubhshed,  under  the  title  "Philocalia",  a  volume  of 
selections  from  the  master.  In  his  "Panegyric  on 
St.  Gregory  Thaumaturgus",  St.  Gregory  of  Nys.sa 
called  Origen  the  prince  of  Christian  learning  in  the 
third  century  (P.  G.,  XLVI,  00.5).  At  Cffisarea  in 
Palestine  the  admiration  of  the  learned  for  Origen  be- 
came a  passion .  St .  Pamphilus  wrote  his  "  Apology ' ' , 
Euzoius  had  his  writings  transcribed  on  parchment 
(St.  Jerome,  "De  viris  ill.",  xciii).  Eusebius  cata- 
logued them  carefully  and  drew  upon  them  largely. 
Nor  were  the  Latins  less  enthusiastic  than  the  Greeks. 
According  to  St.  Jerome,  the  principal  Latin  imitators 
of  Origen  are  St.  Eu.sebius  of  Verceil,  St.  Hilary  of 
Poitiers,  and  St.  Ambrose  of  Milan;  St.  Victorinus  of 
Pettau  had  set  them  the  example  (St.  Jerome,  "Adv. 


Uufin.",  I,  ii;  "Ad  Augustin.  Epist.",  cxii,  20).  Ori- 
gen's writings  were  so  much  drawn  upon  that  the  soli- 
tary of  Bethlehem  called  it  plagiarism,  jurta  Latin- 
rum.  However,  excepting  Kufinus,  who  is  practically 
only  a  translator,  St.  Jerome  is  perhaps  the  Latin 
writer  who  is  most  indebted  to  Origen.  Before  the 
Origenist  controversies  he  willingly  admitted  this,  and 
even  afterwards,  he  did  not  entirely  r(>pudiatc  it ;  cf. 
the  prologues  to  his  translations  of  Origen  (Ildniilies 
on  St.  Luke,  Jeremias,  and  Ezechiel,  the  Canticle 
of  Canticles),  and  also  the  prefaces  to  his  own  "Com- 
mentaries" (on  Micheas,  the  Epistles  to  the  Galatians, 
and  to  the  Ephesians  etc.). 

Amidst  these  expressions  of  admiration  and  praise, 
a  few  discordant  voices  were  heard.  St.  Methodius, 
bishop  and  martyr  (311),  had  written  several  works 
against  Origen,  amongst  others  a  treatise  "On  the 
Resurrection",  of  which  St.  Epiphanius  cites  a  long 
extract  (Ha>res.,  LXVI,  xii-lxii).  St.  Eustathius  of 
Antioch,  who  died  in  exile  about  337,  criticized  hisalle- 
gori.sm  (P.  G.,  XVIII,  613-673).  St.  Alexander  of 
Alexandria,  martyred  in  311,  also  attacked  him,  if  we 
are  to  credit  Leontius  of  Byzantium  and  the  emperor 
Ju.stinian.  But  his  chief  adversaries  were  the  heretics, 
Sabellians,  Arians,  Pelagians,  Nestorians,  Apollinarists. 
On  this  subject  see  Prat,  "Origene",  199-200. 

II.  Origenism. — By  this  term  is  understood  not  so 
much  Origen's  theology  and  the  body  of  his  teachings, 
as  a  certain  number  of  doctrines,  rightly  or  wrongly 
attributed  to  him,  and  which  by  their  novelty  or  their 
danger  called  forth  at  an  early  period  a  refutation 
from  orthodox  writers.  They  are  chiefly:  A. — AUe- 
gorisra  in  the  interpretation  of  Scripture;  B. — Sub- 
ordination of  the  Divine  Persons;  C. — The  theory  of 
successive  trials  and  a  final  restoration.  Before  ex- 
amining how  far  Origen  is  responsible  for  these  the- 
ories, a  word  must  be  said  of  the  directive  principle 
of  his  theology. 

The  Church  and  the  Rule  of  Faith. — In  the  preface 
to  the  "De  principiis"  Origen  laid  down  a  rule  thus 
formulated  in  the  translation  of  Rufinus:  "Ilia  sola 
credenda  est  Veritas  qua?  in  nuUo  ab  ecclesiastica  et 
apostolica  discordat  traditione".  The  same  norm 
is  expressed  almost  in  equivalent  terms  in  many  other 
passages,  e.  g.,  "non  debemus  credere  nisi  quemad- 
modum  per  successionem  Ecclesia;  Dei  tradiderunt 
nobis"  (InMatt.,ser.  46,  Migne,  XIII,  1667).  In  ac- 
cordance with  those  principles  Origen  constantly  ap- 
peals to  ecclesiastical  preaching,  ecclesiastical  teaching, 
and  the  ecclesiastical  rule  of  faith  {xaviiv) .  He  accepts 
only  four  canonical  Gospels  because  tradition  does  not 
receive  more;  he  admits  the  necessity  of  the  baptism  of 
infants  because  it  is  in  accordance  with  the  practice  of 
the  Church  founded  on  Apostolic  tradition;  he  warns 
the  interpreter  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  not  to  rely  on  his 
own  judgment,  but  "on  the  rule  of  the  Church  insti- 
tuted by  Christ".  For,  he  adds,  we  have  only  two 
lights  to  guide  us  here  below,  Christ  and  the  Church; 
the  Church  reflects  faithfully  the  light  rec»ived  from 
Christ,  as  the  moon  reflects  the  rays  of  the  sun.  The 
distinctive  mark  of  the  Catholic  is  to  belong  to  the 
Church,  to  depend  on  the  Church  outside  of  which 
there  is  no  salvation;  on  the  contrary,  he  who  leaves 
the  Church  walks  in  darkness,  he  is  a  heretic.  It  is 
through  the  principle  of  authority  that  Origen  is  wont 
to  unmask  and  combat  doctrinal  errors.  It  is  the 
principle  of  authority,  too,  that  he  invokes  when  he 
enumerates  the  dogmas  of  faith.  A  man  animated 
with  such  sentiments  may  have  made  mistakes,  be- 
cause he  is  human,  but  his  dispo.sition  of  mind  is 
essentially  Catholic  and  he  does  not  deserve  to  be 
ranked  among  the  promoters  of  heresy. 

A.  Scriptural  Allegorism. — The  principal  passageson 
the  inspiration,  meaning,  and  interpretation  of  the 
Scriptures  are  preserved  in  Greek  in  the  first  fifteen 
chapters  of  the  "Philocalia".  According  to  Origen, 
Scripture  is  inspired  because  it  is  the  word  and  work 


ORIGEN 


309 


ORIGEN 


of  God.  But,  far  from  being  an  inert  instrument,  the 
inspired  author  has  full  possession  of  his  faculties,  he  is 
conscious  of  what  he  is  writing:  he  is  physically  free  to 
deliver  his  message  or  not;  he  is  not  seized  by  a  pass- 
ing delirium  like  the  pagan  oracles,  for  bodily  disorder, 
disturbance  of  the  senses,  momentary  loss  of  reason 
are  but  so  many  proofs  of  the  action  of  the  evil  spirit. 
Since  Scripture  is  from  God,  it  ought  to  have  the  dis- 
tinctive characteristics  of  the  Divine  works:  truth, 
unity,  and  fullne.ss.  The  word  of  God  cannot  possi- 
bly be  untrue;  hence  no  errors  or  contradictions  can  be 
admitted  in  Scripture  (In  Joan.,  X,  iii).  The  author 
of  the  Scriptures  being  one,  the  Bible  is  less  a  collec- 
tion of  books  than  one  and  the  same  book  (Philoc, 

V,  iv-yii),  a  perfect  harmonious  instrument  (Philoc, 

VI,  i-ii).  But  the  most  Divine  note  of  Scripture  is 
its  fullness:  "There  is  not  in  the  Holy  Books  the  small- 
est passage  (xepaia)  but  reflects  the  wisdom  of  God" 
(Philoc,  I,  xxviii,  cf.  X,  i).  True  there  are  imper- 
fections in  the  Bible:  antilogies,  repetitions,  want  of 
continuity;  but  these  imperfections  become  perfec- 
tions by  leading  us  to  the  allegory  and  the  spiritual 
meaning  (Philoc,  X,  i-ii). 

At  one  time  Origen,  starting  from  the  Platonic 
trichotomy,  distinguishes  the  body,  the  soul,  and  the 
spirit  of  Holy  Scripture;  at  another,  following  a  more 
rational  terminology,  he  distinguishes  only  between 
the  letter  and  the  spirit.  In  reality,  the  soul,  or  the 
psychic  signification,  or  inoral  meaning  (that  is  the 
moral  parts  of  Scripture,  and  the  moral  applicaHons 
of  the  other  parts)  plays  only  a  very  secondary  role, 
and  we  can  confine  ourselves  to  the  antithesis :  letter  (or 
body)  and  spirit.  Unfortunately  this  antithesis  is  not 
free  from  equivocation.  Origen  docs  not  understand 
by  letter  (or  body)  what  we  mean  to-day  by  the  literal 
sense,  but  the  grammatical  sense,  the  proper  as  op- 
posed to  the  figurative  meaning.  Just  so  he  does  not 
attach  to  the  words  spiritual  meaning  the  same  signi- 
fication as  we  do:  for  him  they  mean  the  spiritual 
sense  properly  so  called  (the  meaning  added  to  the 
literal  sense  by  the  express  wish  of  God  attaching  a 
special  signification  to  the  fact  related  or  the  manner 
of  relating  them),  or  the  figurative  as  contrasted  with 
the  proper  sense,  or  the  accommodative  sense,  often 
an  arbitrary  invention  of  the  interpreter,  or  even  the 
literal  sense  when  it  is  treating  of  things  spiritual. 
If  this  terminology  is  kept  in  mind  there  is  nothing 
absurd  in  the  principle  he  repeats  so  often:  "Such  a 
passage  of  the  Scripture  has  no  corporal  meaning." 
As  examples  Origen  cites  the  anthropomorphisms, 
metaphors,  and  symbols  wliich  ought  indeed  to  be 
understood  figuratively. 

Though  he  warns  us  that  these  passages  are  the 
exceptions,  it  must  be  confessed  that  he  allows  too 
many  cases  in  which  the  Scripture  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood according  to  the  letter;  but,  remembering  his 
terminology,  his  principle  is  unimpeachable.  The 
two  great  rules  of  interpretation  laid  down  by  the 
Alexandria  catechist,  taken  by  themselves  and  inde- 
pendentlj'  of  erroneous  applications,  are  proof  against 
criticism.  They  may  be  formulated  thus:  (1)  Scrip- 
ture must  be  interpreted  in  a  manner  worthy  of  God, 
the  author  of  Scripture.  (2)  The  corporal  sense  or 
the  letter  of  Scripture  mu-st  not  be  adopted,  when 
it  would  entail  anything  impossible,  absurd,  or  un- 
worthy of  God.  The  abuse  arises  from  the  applica- 
tion of  these  rules.  Origen  has  recourse  too  easily  to 
allegorism  to  explain  purely  apparent  antilogies  or 
antinomies.  He  considers  that  certain  narratives  or 
ordinances  of  the  Bible  would  be  unworthy  of  God  if 
they  had  to  be  taken  according  to  the  letter,  or  if  they 
were  to  be  taken  solely  according  to  the  letter.  He 
justifies  the  allegorism  by  the  fact  that  otherwise  cer- 
tain accounts  or  certain  precepts  now  abrogated 
would  be  useless  and  profitless  for  the  reader:  a  fact 
which  appears  to  him  contrary  to  the  providence  of 
the  Divine  inspirer  and  the  dignity  of  Holy  Writ.     It 


will  thus  be  seen  that  though  the  criticisms  directed 
against  his  allegorical  method  by  St.  Epiphanius 
and  St.  Methodius  were  not  groundless,  yet  many  of 
the  complaints  arise  from  a  misunderstanding.  Cf. 
Zollig,  "Die  Inspirationslehre  des  Origenes"  (Frei- 
burg, 1902). 

B.  Subordination  of  the  Divine  Persons. — The  three 
Persons  of  the  Trinity  are  distinguished  from  all  crea- 
tures by  the  three  following  characteristics:  absolute 
immateriality,  omniscience,  and  substantial  sanctity. 
As  is  well  known  many  ancient  ecclesiastical  writers 
attributed  to  created  spirits  an  aerial  or  ethereal  en- 
velope without  which  they  could  not  act.  Though  he 
does  not  venture  to  decide  categorically,  Origen  in- 
clines to  this  view,  but,  as  soon  as  there  is  question 
of  the  Divine  Persons,  he  is  perfectly  sure  that  they 
have  no  body  and  are  not  in  a  body;  and  this  charac- 
teristic belongs  to  the  Trinity  alone  (De  princip.,  IV, 
27;  I,  vi,  4;  II,  ii,  2;  II,  iv,  3  etc.).  Again  the  knowl- 
edge of  every  creature,  being  essentially  hmited,  is 
always  imiierfect  anfl  capable  of  being  increased. 
Hut  it  would  be  repugnant  for  the  Divine  Persons  to 
pass  from  the  state  of  ignorance  to  knowledge.  How 
could  the  Son,  who  is  the  Wisdom  of  the  Father,  be 
ignorant  of  anything  ("In  Joan.",  1,  27;  "Contra 
Cels.",  VI,  xvii).  Nor  can  we  admit  ignorance  in  the 
Spirit  who  "searcheth  the  deep  things  of  God"  (De 
princip.,  I  iii,  4;  iv,  3.5).  Finally,  holiness  is  acci- 
dental in  every  creature,  whereas  it  is  essential,  and 
therefore  immutable,  in  the  Trinity.  Origen  in- 
cessantly recalls  this  principle  which  separates  the 
Trinity  from  all  created  spirits  by  an  impassable  abyss 
("De  princip.",  I,  v,  4;  I,  vi,  2;  I,  vii,  3;  "In  Num. 
hom.",  XI,  8  etc.).  As  substantial  holiness  is  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  the  Trinity  so  also  is  it  the  only 
source  of  all  created  holiness.  Sin  is  forgiven  only  by 
the  simultaneous  concurrence  of  the  Father,  the  Son, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost;  no  one  is  sanctified  at  baptism 
save  through  their  common  action;  the  soul  in  which 
the  Holy  Ghost  indwells  possesses  likewise  the  Son 
and  the  Father.  In  a  word  the  three  Persons  of  the 
Trinity  are  indi\-isible  in  their  being,  their  presence, 
and  their  operation. 

Along  with  these  perfectly  orthodox  texts  there  are 
some  which  must  be  interpreted  with  diligence,  re- 
membering as  we  ought  that  the  language  of  theology 
was  not  yet  fixed  and  that  Origen  was  often  the  first 
to  face  these  difficult  problems.  It  will  then  appear 
that  the  subordination  of  the  Divine  Persons,  so  much 
urged  against  Origen,  generally  consists  in  differences 
of  appropriation  (the  Father  creator,  the  Son  re- 
deemer, the  Spirit  sanctifier)  which  seem  to  attribute 
to  the  Persons  an  unequal  sphere  of  action,  or  in  the 
liturgical  practice  of  praying  the  Father  through  the 
Son  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  or  in  the  theory  so  widespread 
in  the  Greek  Church  of  the  first  five  centuries,  that  the 
Father  has  a  pre-eminence  of  rank  (rdfis)  over  the 
two  other  Persons,  inasmuch  as  in  mentioning  them 
He  ordinarily  has  the  first  place,  and  of  dignity 
(aiiu/m),  because  He  represents  the  whole  Di\-imty, 
of  which  He  is  the  principle  (dpxv),  the  origin 
(afrios),  and  the  source  (ti)7')).  That  is  why  St. 
Athanasius  defends  Origen's  orthodoxy  concerning 
the  Trinity  and  why  St.  Basil  and  St.  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus  replied  to  the  heretics  who  claimed  the 
support  of  his  authority  that  they  misunderstood  him. 

C.  The  Origin  and  Destiny  of  Rational  Beings. — 
Here  we  encounter  an  unfortunate  amalgam  of  phi- 
losophy and  theology.  The  system  that  results  is  not 
coherent,  for  Origen,  frankly  recognizing  the  contra- 
diction of  the  incompatible  elements  that  he  is  trying 
to  unify,  recoils  from  the  consequences,  protests 
against  the  logical  conclusions,  and  oftentimes  cor- 
rects by  orthodox  professions  of  faith  the  heterodoxy 
of  his  speculations.  It  must  be  said  that  almost  all 
the  texts  about  to  be  treated  of,  are  contained  in  the 
"De  principiis",  where  the  author  treads  on  most 


ORIGEN 


310 


ORIGEN 


dangerous  groun<l.  Tlio  system  may  be  reduccil  to  a 
few  liypotheses,  tlie  error  luid  danger  of  whicli  were 
not  roeognized  by  Origen. 

(1)  Khrnily  of  the  Cnalion — Whatever  exists  out- 
side of  God  was  created  by  Him:  the  Alexandrian 
catcchist  always  defended  this  thesis  most  energeti- 
cally against  the  pagan  philosophers  who  admitted  an 
uncrcateii  matter  ("  Deprincip.",  II,  i,  5;  "  In  Genes.", 
I,  12,  in  Migne,  XII,  48-49).  But  he  believes  that 
God  created  from  eternity,  for  "it  is  absurd  ",  he  says, 
"to  imagine  the  nature  of  God  inactive,  or  His  good- 
ness inefficacious,  or  His  dominion  without  subjects" 
(De  princip..  Ill,  v,  3).  Consequently  he  is  forced  to 
admit  a  double  infinite  series  of  worlds  before  and 
after  the  present  world.  (2)  Original  Equality  of  the 
Created  Spirits. — In  the  beginning  all  intellectual  na- 
tures were  created  equal  and  alike,  as  Go<l  had  no  mo- 
tive for  creating  thi'in  otherwise"  (De  princip.,  II,  ix, 
6).  Their  present  <lilferences  arise  solely  from  their 
different  use  of  the  gift  of  free  will.  The  spirits  cre- 
ated good  and  happy  grew  tired  of  their  happiness 
(op.  cit.,  I,  iii,  S),  and,  through  carelessness,  fell,  some 
more  some  less  (I,  vi,  2).  Hence  the  hierarchy  of  the 
angels;  hence  also  the  four  categories  of  created  intel- 
lects: angels,  stars  (supposing,  as  is  probable,  that 
they  are  animated,  "De  princip.",  I,  vii,  3),  men,  and 
demons.  But  their  roles  may  be  one  day  changed;  for 
what  free  will  has  done,  free  will  can  undo,  and  the 
Trinity  alone  is  essentially  immutable  in  good. 

(3)  Essence  and  raison  d'etre  of  Matter. — Matter  ex- 
ists only  for  the  spiritual;  if  the  spiritual  did  not  need 
it,  matter  would  not  exist,  for  its  finality  is  not  in 
itself.  But  it  seems  to  Origen — though  he  does  not 
venture  to  declare  so  expressly — that  created  spirits 
even  the  most  perfect  cannot  do  without  an  extremely 
diluted  and  subtle  matter  which  serves  them  as  a 
vehicle  and  means  of  action  (De  princip.,  II,  ii,  1;  I, 
vi,  4  etc.).  Matter  was,  therefore,  created  simulta- 
neously with  the  spiritual,  although  the  spiritual  is  log- 
ically prior;  and  matter  will  never  cease  to  be  because 
the  spiritual,  however  perfect,  will  always  need  it. 
But  matter  which  is  susceptible  of  indefinite  transfor- 
mations is  adapted  to  the  varying  condition  of  the 
spirits.  "When  intended  for  the  more  imperfect 
spirits,  it  becomes  solidified,  thickens,  and  forms  the 
bodies  of  this  visible  world.  If  it  is  serving  higher  in- 
telligences, it  shines  with  the  brightness  of  the  celes- 
tial bodies  and  serves  as  a  garb  for  the  angels  of  God, 
and  the  children  of  the  Resurrection"  (op.  cit.,  II,  ii, 
2). 

(4)  Universality  of  the  Redemption  and  the  Final  Res- 
toration.— Certain  Scriptural  texts,  e.  g.,  I  Cor.,  xv, 
25-28,  seem  to  extend  to  all  rational  beings  the  benefit 
of  the  Redemption,  and  Origen  allows  himself  to  be  led 
also  by  the  philosophical  principle  which  he  enunci- 
ates several  times,  without  ever  proving  it,  that  the 
end  is  always  like  the  beginning:  "We  think  that  the 
goodness  of  God,  through  the  mediation  of  Christ, 
will  bring  all  creatures  to  one  and  the  same  end" 
(De  princip.,  I,  vi,  1-3).  The  universal  restoration 
(dirofcariffTaffi!)  follows  necessarily  from  these  prin- 
ciples. 

On  the  least  reflection,  it  will  be  seen  that  these 
hypotheses,  starting  from  contrary  points  of  view,  are 
irreconcilable:  for  the  theory  of  a  final  restoration  is 
diametrically  opposed  to  the  theory  of  successive  in- 
definite trials.  It  would  be  easy  to  find  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Origen  a  mass  of  texts  contradicting  these  prin- 
ciples and  de.^^roying  the  resulting  conclusions.  He 
affirms,  for  instance,  that  the  charity  of  the  elect  in 
heaven  does  not  fail;  in  their  case  "the  freedom  of  the 
will  will  be  bound  so  that  sin  %vill  be  impossible"  (In 
Roman.,  V,  10).  So,  too,  the  reprobate  will  always  be 
fixed  in  evil.lessfrom  in.ability  to  free  themselves  from 
it.  than  because  they  wish  to  be  evil  (De  princip.,  I, 
viii,4),  for  malice  has  become  natural  to  them,  it  is  as  a 
second  nature  in  them  (In  Joann.,  xx,  19).   Origen  grew 


angry  when  accused  of  teaching  the  eternal  salvation 
of  the  devil.  But  the  hypotheses  which  he  lays  down 
here  and  there  are  none  the  less  worthy  of  censure. 
What  can  be  said  in  his  defence,  if  it  be  not  with  St. 
Athanasius  (De  decretis  Nic,  27),  that  we  must  not 
.seek  to  find  his  real  o])inion  in  the  works  in  which  he 
(liscu.sses  tlie  arguments  for  and  against  ductrine  as  an 
intellectual  exercise  or  amusement;  or,  with  St.  Jerome 
(.\d  Pammach.  Epist.,  XLVIII,  12),  that  it  is  one 
thing  to  dogmatize  and  another  to  enunciate  hypo- 
thetical opinions  which  will  be  cleared  up  by  discus- 
sion? 

III.  Orioenist  Controversies. — The  discussions 
concerning  Origen  and  his  teaching  are  of  a  very  sin- 
gular and  very  complex  character.  They  break  out 
unexpectedly,  at  long  intervals,  and  assume  an  im- 
mense importance  quite  unforeseen  in  their  humble 
beginnings.  They  are  complicated  by  so  many  per- 
sonal disputes  and  so  many  questions  foreign  to  the 
fundamental  subject  in  controversy  that  a  brief  and 
rapid  expose  of  the  polemics  is  difficult  and  well-nigh 
impossible.  Finally  they  abate  so  suddenly  that  one 
is  forced  to  conclude  that  the  controversy  was  super- 
ficial and  that  Origen's  orthodoxy  was  not  the  sole 
point  in  dispute. 

A. — First  Origenist  Crisis. — It  broke  out  in  the 
deserts  of  Egypt,  raged  in  Palestine,  and  ended  at 
Constantinople  with  the  condemnation  of  St.  Chrys- 
ostom  (392-404).  During  the  second  half  of  the 
fourth  century  the  monks  of  Nitria  professed  an  ex- 
aggerated enthusiasm  for  Origen,  whilst  the  neighbour- 
ing brethren  of  Sceta,  as  a  result  of  an  unwarranted 
reaction  and  an  excessive  fear  of  allegorism,  fell  into 
Anthropomorphism.  These  doctrinal  discussions 
gradually  invaded  the  monasteries  of  Palestine,  which 
were  under  the  care  of  St .  Eiiii)lKiniiis.  Bishop  of  Sala- 
mis,  who,  convinced  of  the  dangers  of  Origenism,  had 
combatted  it  in  his  works  and  was  determined  to  pre- 
vent its  spread  and  to  extirpate  it  completely.  Hav- 
ing gone  to  Jerusalem  in  394,  he  preached  vehemently 
against  Origen's  errors,  in  presence  of  the  bishop  of 
that  city,  John,  who  was  deemed  an  Origenist.  John 
in  turn  spoke  against  Anthropomorphism,  directing 
his  discourse  so  clearly  against  Epiphanius  that  no 
one  could  be  mistaken.  Another  incident  soon  helped 
to  embitter  the  dispute.  Epiphanius  had  raised  Paul- 
inian,  brother  of  St.  Jerome,  to  the  priesthood  in  a 
place  subject  to  the  See  of  Jerusalem.  John  com- 
plained bitterly  of  this]violation  of  his  rights,  and  the 
reply  of  Epiphanius  was  not  of  a  nature  to  appease 
him. 

Two  new  combatants  now  enter  the  lists.  From  the 
time  when  Jerome  and  Rufinus  settled,  one  at  Bethle- 
hem and  the  other  on  Mt.  Olivet,  they  had  lived  in 
brotherly  friendship.  Both  admired,  imitated,  and 
translated  Origen,  and  were  on  most  amicable  terms 
with  their  bishop,  when  in  392  Aterbius,  a  monk  of 
Sceta,  came  to  Jerusalem  and  accused  them  both  of 
Origenism.  St.  Jerome,  very  sensitive  on<t.he  question 
of  orthodoxy,  was  much  hurt  by  the  insinuation  of 
Aterbius  and  two  years  later  sided  with  St.  Epipha- 
nius, whose  reply  to  John  of  Jerusalem  he  translated 
into  Latin.  Rufinus  learnt,  it  is  not  known  how,  of 
this  translation,  which  was  not  intended  for  the  pub- 
lic, and  Jerome  suspected  him  of  having  obtained  it  by 
fraud.  A  reconciliation  was  effected  sometime  later, 
but  it  was  not  lasting.  In  397  Rufinus,  then  at  Rome, 
had  translated  Origen's  "De  principiis"  into  Latin, 
and  in  his  preface  followed  the  example  of  St.  Jerome, 
whose  dithyrambic  eulogy  addressed  to  the  Alexan- 
drian catechist  he  remembered.  The  solitary  of  Beth- 
lehem, grievously  hurt  at  this  action,  wrote  to  his 
friends  to  refute  the  perfidious  implications  of  Ru- 
finus. denounced  Origen's  errors  to  Pope  Anastasius, 
tried  to  win  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  over  to  the 
anti-Origenist  cause,  and  began  a  discussion  with 
Rufinus,  marked  with  great  bitterness  on  both  sides. 


ORIGEN 


311 


ORIGEN 


Until  400  Theophilus  of  Alexandria  was  an  acknowl- 
edged Origenist.  His  confident  was  Isidore,  a  former 
monk  of  Nitria,  and  his  friends,  "the Tall  Brothers", 
the  accredited  leaders  of  the  Origenist  partv.  He  had 
supported  John  of  Jerusalem  against  St.  Epiphanius, 
whose  Anthropomorphism  he  denounced  to  Pope  Siri- 
cius.  Suddenly  he  changed  his  views,  exactly  why 
was  never  known.  It  is  said  that  the  monks  of  Sceta, 
displeased  with  his  paschal  letter  of  399,  forcibly  in- 
vaded his  episcopal  residence  and  threatened  himwith 
death  if  he  did  not  chant  the  palinody.  What  is  cer- 
tain is  that  he  had  quarrelled  with  St.  Isidore  over 
money  matters  and  with  "the  Tall  Brothers",  who 
blamed  his  avarice  and  his  worldliness.  As  Isidore 
and  "the  Tall  Brothers"  had  retired  to  Constanti- 
nople, where  Chrysostom  extended  his  hospitality  to 
them  and  interceded  for  them,  without,  however,  ad- 
mitting them  to  communion  till  the  censures  pro- 
nounced against  them  had  been  raised,  the  irascible 
Patriarch  of  Alexandria  determined  on  this  plan:  to 
suppress  Origenism  everywhere,  and  under  this  pre- 
text ruin  Chrysostom,  whom  he  hated  and  envied. 
For  four  years  he  was  mercilessly  active:  he  con- 
demned Origen's  books  at  the  Council  of  Alexandria 
(400),  with  an  armed  band  he  expelled  the  monks  from 
Nitria,  he  wrote  to  the  bishops  of  Cyprus  and  Pales- 
tine to  win  them  over  to  his  anti-Origenist  crusade, 
issued  paschal  letters  in  401,  402,  and  404  against  Ori- 
gen's doctrine,  and  sent  a  missive  to  Pope  Anastasius 
asking  for  the  condemnation  of  Origenism.  He  was 
successful  beyond  his  hopes ;  the  bishops  of  Cyprus  ac- 
cepted his  invitation.  Those  of  Palestine,  assembled 
at  Jerusalem,  condemned  the  errors  pointed  out  to 
them,  adding  that  they  were  not  taught  amongst 
them.  Anastasius,  while  declaring  that  Origen  was 
entirely  unknown  to  him,  condemned  the  propositions 
extracted  from  his  books.  St.  Jerome  undertook  to 
translate  into  Latin  the  various  elucubrations  of  the 
patriarch,  even  his  virulent  diatribe  against  Chrysos- 
tom. St.  Epiphanius,  preceding  Theophilus  to  Con- 
stantinople, treated  St.  Chrysostom  as  temerarious, 
and  almost  heretical,  until  the  day  the  truth  began  to 
dawn  on  him,  and  suspecting  that  he  might  have  been 
deceived,  he  suddenly  left  Constantinople  and  died  at 
sea  before  arriving  at  Salamis. 

It  is  well  known  how  Theophilus,  having  been  called 
by  the  emperor  to  explain  his  conduct  towards  Isi- 
dore and  "the  Tall  Brothers",  cleverly  succeeded  by 
his  machinations  in  changing  the  roles.  Instead  of 
being  the  accused,  he  became  the  accuser,  and  sum- 
moned Chrysostom  to  appear  before  the  conciliabule 
of  the  Oak  (ad  QuercumJ,  at  which  Chrysostom  was 
condemned.  As  soon  as  the  vengeance  of  Theophilus 
was  satiated  nothing  more  was  heard  of  Origenism. 
The  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  began  to  read  Origen, 
pretending  that  he  could  cull  the  roses  from  among 
the  thorns.  He  became  reconciled  with  "the  Tall 
Brothers"  without  asking  them  to  retract.  Hardly 
had  the  personal  quarrels  abated  when  the  spectre 
of  Origenism  vanished  (cf.  Dale,  "Origenistic  Contro- 
versies" in  "Diet,  of  Christ.  Biog.",  IV,  146-151). 

B.  Second  Origenistic  Crisis. — This  new  phrase,  quite 
as  intricate  and  confusing  as  the  former,  has  been 
partially  elucidated  by  Prof.  Dickamp,  upon  whose 
learned  study,  "Die  origenistischen  Streitigkeiten 
in  sechsten  Jahrhundert"  (Munster,  1899),  we  draw. 
In  514  certain  heterodox  doctrines  of  a  very  singular 
character  had  already  spread  among  the  monks  of 
Jerusalem  and  its  environs.  Possibly  the  seeds  of  the 
dispute  may  have  been  sown  by  Stephen  Bar-Sudaili, 
a  troublesome  monk  expelled  from  Edessa,  who  joined 
to  an  Origenism  of  his  own  brand  certain  clearly 
pantheistic  views.  Plotting  and  intriguing  continued 
for  about  thirty  years,  the  monks  suspected  of  Origen- 
ism being  in  turn  expelled  from  their  monasteries,, 
then  readmitted,  only  to  be  driven  out  anew.  Their 
leaders  and  protectors  were  Nonnus,   who   till  his 


death  in  547  kept  the  party  together,  Theodore  Aski- 
das  and  Domitian  who  had  won  the  favour  of  the 
emperor  and  were  named  bishops,  one  to  the  See  of 
Ancyra  in  Galatia,  the  other  to  that  of  Ctesarea  in 
Cappadocia,  though  they  continued  to  reside  at  court 
(537).  In  these  circumstances  a  report  against  Ori- 
genism was  addressed  to  Justinian,  by  whom  and  on 
what  occasion  it  is  not  known,  for  the  two  accounts  that 
have  come  down  to  us  are  at  variance  (Cyrillus  of 
Scythopolis,  "Vita  Sabs";  and  Liberatus,  "Breviar- 
ium",  xxiii).  At  all  events,  the  emperor  then  wrote 
his  "Liber  adversus  Origenem",  containing  in  addi- 
tion to  an  expose  of  the  reasons  for  condemning  it 
twenty-four  censurable  texts  taken  from  the  "De 
principiis",  and  lastly  ten  propositions  to  be  anathe- 
matized. Justinian  ordered  the  patriarch  Mennas  to 
call  together  all  the  bishops  present  in  Constantinople 
and  make  them  subscribe  to  these  anathemas.  This 
was  the  local  synod  (a-ivodos  {vS-qtwvaa.)  of  543.  A  copy 
of  the  imperial  edict  had  been  addressed  to  the  other 
patriarchs,  including  Pope  Vigilius,  and  all  gave  their 
adhesion  to  it.  In  the  case  of  Vigilius  especially  we 
have  the  testimony  of  Liberatus  (Breviar.,  xxiii)  and 
Cassiodorus  (Institutiones,  1). 

It  had  been  expected  that  Domitian  and  Theodore 
Askidas,  by  their  refusal  to  condemn  Origenism,  would 
fall  into  disfavour  at  Court;  but  they  signed  whatever 
they  were  asked  to  sign  and  remained  more  powerful 
than  ever.  Askidas  even  took  revenge  by  persuading 
the  emperor  to  have  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  who  was 
deemed  the  sworn  enemy  of  Origen,  condemned  (Lib- 
eratus, "Breviar.",  xxiv;  Facundas  of  Hermianus, 
"Defensio  trium  capitul.",  I,  ii;  Evagrius,  "Hist.", 
IV,  xxxviii).  Justinian's  new  edict,  which  is  not  ex- 
tant, resulted  in  the  assembling  of  the  fifth  cecumenical 
council,  in  which  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  Ibas,  and 
Theodoretus  were  condemned  (553). 

Were  Origen  and  Origenism  anathematized?  Many 
learned  writers  believe  so ;  an  equal  number  deny  that 
they  were  condemned;  most  modern  authorities  are 
either  undecided  or  reply  with  reservations.  Relying 
on  the  most  recent  studies  on  the  question  it  may  be 
held  that:  (1)  It  is  certain  that  the  fifth  general  coun- 
cil was  convoked  exclusively  to  deal  with  the  affair  of 
the  Three  Chapters  (q.  v.),  and  that  neither  Origen 
nor  Origenism  were  the  cause  of  it.  (2)  It  is  certain 
that  the  council  opened  on  5  May,  553,  in  spite  of  the 
protestations  of  Pope  Vigilius,  who  though  at  Con- 
stantinople refused  to  attend  it,  and  that  in  the  eight 
conciliary  sessions  (from  5  May  to  2  June),  the  Acts  of 
which  we  possess,  only  the  question  of  the  Three 
Chapters  is  treated. 

(3)  Finally  it  is  certain  that  only  the  Acts  concern- 
ing the  affau-  of  the  Three  Chapters  were  submitted 
to  the  pope  for  his  approval,  which  was  given  on  8 
December,  553,  and  23  February,  554.  (4)  It  is  a  fact 
that  Popes  Vigilius,  Pelagius  I  (5.5G~(J1),  Pelapius 
II  (579-90),  Gregory  the  Great  (590-004),  ha  treat- 
ing of  the  fifth  council  deal  only  with  the  Three  Chap- 
ters, make  no  mention  of  Origenism,  and  speak  as  if 
they  did  not  know  of  its  condemnation.  (5)  It  must 
he  admitted  that  before  the  opening  of  the  council, 
which  had  been  delayed  by  the  resistance  of  the  pope, 
the  bishops  already  assembled  at  Constantinople  had 
to  consider,  by  order  of  the  emperor,  a  form  of  Origen- 
ism that  had  practically  nothing  in  common  with  Ori- 
gen, but  which  was  held,  we  know,  by  one  of  the 
Origenist  parties  in  Palestine.  The  arguments  in  cor- 
roboration of  this  hypothesis  may  be  found  in  Dick- 
amp  (op.  cit.,  66-141).  (6)  The  bishops  certainly 
subscribed  to  the  fifteen  anathemas  proposed  by  the 
emperor  (ibid.,  90-96);  an  admitted  Origenist,  Theo- 
dore of  Scythopolis,  was  forced  to  retract  (ibid.,  125- 
129);  but  there  is  no  proof  that  the  approbation  of  the 
pope,  who  was  at  that  time  protesting  against  the 
convocation  of  the  council,  was  asked.  (7)  It  is  easy 
to  understand  how  this  extra-conciliary  sentence  was 


ORIGINAL 


312 


ORIGINAL 


mistaken  at  a  later  period  for  a  decree  of  the  actual 
CBCumenical  council. 

Besides  the  works  cited  in  the  body  of  the  article,  the  following 
may  be  consulted:  on  the  life,  works,  and  theolog>'  of  Origen: 
HuET.  Origcniamt  in  P.  G.,  XVII;  Redepenning,  Origenes  (Bonn, 
1841-6). 

On  the  recent  works  concerning  Origen,  see  Ehrhard.  Die 
aUechristliche  I.illeralur  und  ihre  Brforschung  von  1SSJ,-1900  (Frei- 
burg. 1900).  320-51. 

On  Origon's  doctrine;  BlOG,  The  Christian  Platonists  of  Alex- 
andria (Oxford.  1<SS6);  Fairweather.  Origen  and  Greek  Patristic 
Theology  (Edinburgh.  1901);  Freppel,  Origlne  (Paris.  186S); 
Denis,  La  philosophie  d'Origtne  (Paris.  1884);  Capitaine.  Dc 
Origenis  ethica  (Miinster,  1898);  Prat,  Origkne,  le  th^ologien  et 
I'ejrfgete  (Paris.  1907). 

The  best  edition  of  Origen's  works  is  the  one  in  course  of  pubH- 
cation  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  BerHn;  the  following  works 
have  appeared:  De  martyrio.  Contra  Celsum,  De  oratione  by 
Kotschau  (2  vols..  Leipzig,  1899) ;  Twenty  Homilies  on  Jeremias, 
Homily  on  the  Witch  of  Endor,  and  Fragments  by  Klostermann 
(Leipzig,  1901);  Commentary  on  St,  John  (nine  books  and  frag- 
ments) by  Preuscben  (Leipzig.  1903).  For  the  still  unedited 
texts  of  the  Pbilocalia  there  is  the  excellent  edition  of  Robinson 
(Cambridge.  1893).  There  is  an  English  translation  of  the  De 
principiis  and  the  Contra  Celsum  bv  Crombie  in  Ante-Nicene 
Christian  Library.  Edinburgh,  X  (1869)  and  XXIII  (1872);  a 
translation  of  the  Commentaries  on  St,  Matthew  and  on  St,  John  by 
Menzies  in  the  supplementary  vol.  (1897)  of  the  same  collection. 

F.  Pr.\t. 

Original  Sin. — I.  Meaning;  II.  Principal  Adver- 
saries; III.  Original  Sin  in  Scripture;  IV.  Original 
Sin  in  Tradition;  V.  Original  Sin  in  face  of  the  Ob- 
jections of  Human  Reason;  VI.  Nature  of  Original 
Sin;  VI 1.  How  Voluntary. 

I.  Meaning. — Original  sin  tnay  be  taken  to  mean: 
(1)  the  sin  that  Adam  committed;  (2)  a  consequence 
of  this  first  sin,  the  hereditary  stain  with  which  we  are 
born  on  account  of  our  origin  or  descent  from  Adam. 
From  the  earliest  times  the  latter  sense  of  the  word 
was  more  common,  as  may  be  seen  by  St.  Augustine's 
statement:  "the  deliberate  sin  of  the  First  man  is  the 
cause  of  original  sin"  (De  nupt.  et  concup.,  11,  xxvi, 
43).  It  is  the  hereditary  stain  that  is  dealt  with  here. 
As  to  the  sin  of  Adam  we  have  not  to  examine  the 
circumstances  in  which  it  was  committed  nor  to  make 
the  exegesis  of  the  third  chapter  of  Genesis. 

II.  Principal  Adversaries. — Theodorus  of  Mop- 
suestia  opened  this  controversy  by  denying  that  the  sin 
of  Adam  was  the  origin  of  death.  (See  the  "  Exccrpta 
Theodori",  by  Marius  Mercator;  cf.  Smith,  "A  Dic- 
tionary of  Christian  Biography  ",  IV,  942.)  Celestius, 
a  friend  of  Pelagius,  was  the  first  in  the  West  to  hold 
these  propositions,  borrowed  from  Theodorus:  "Adam 
was  to  die  in  every  hypothesis,  whether  he  sinned  or 
did  not  sin.  His  sin  injured  himself  only  and  not  the 
human  race"  (Mercator,  "Liber  Subnotationum", 
preface) .  This,  the  first  position  held  by  the  Pelagians, 
was  also  the  first  point  condemned  at  Carthage  (Den- 
zinger,  "Enchiridion",  no  101 — old  no.  6.5).  Again.st 
this  fundamental  error  Catholics  cited  especially 
Rom.,  V,  12,  where  Adam  is  shown  as  transmitting 
death  with  sin.  After  some  time  the  Pelagians  ad- 
mitted the  transmission  of  death — this  being  more 
easily  understood  as  we  see  that  parents  transmit 
to  their  children  hereditary  diseases  —  but  they  still 
violently  attacked  the  transmission  of  sin  (St.  Au- 
gustine, "C/Ontra  duas  epist.  Pelag.",  IV,  iv,  6). 
And  when  St.  Paul  speaks  of  the  transmission  of  sin 
they  understood  by  this  the  transmission  of  death. 
This  was  their  second  position,  condemned  by  the 
Council  of  Orange  [Denz.,  n.  175  (14.5)],  and  again  later 
on  with  the  first  by  the  Council  of  Trent  [Sess.  V,  can. 
ii;  Denz.,  n.  789  (671)).  To  take  the  word  sin  to  mean 
death  was  an  evident  falsification  of  the  text,  so  the 
Pelagians  soon  abandoned  the  interpretation  and 
admitted  that  Adam  caused  sin  in  us.  They  did  not, 
however,  understand  by  sin  t  he  hereditary  stain  con- 
tracted at  our  birth,  but  the  sin  that  adults  commit  in 
imitation  of  Adam.  This  was  their  third  position,  to 
which  is  opposed  the  definition  of  Trent  that  sin  is 
transmitted  to  all  by  generation  (propagatione),  not  by 
imitation  [Denz.,  n.  790  (672)].  Moreover,  in  the  fol- 
lowing canon  are  cited  the  words  of  the  Council  of 


Carthage,  in  which  there  is  question  of  a.sin  contracted 
by  general  ion  :iii(l  ('IT:ic(m1  byrcgenerati()n]D(!nz.,n.  102 
(66)].  The  lc;i(lrrs  of  the  Reformation  admitted  the 
dogma  of  origin;il  sin,  but  at  present  there  are  many 
Protestants  imbued  with  Socinian  doctrines  whose 
theory  is  a  revival  of  Pelagianism. 

111.  Original  Sin  in  Scripture. — The  classical 
text  is  Rom.,  v,  12  sqq.  In  the  preceding  part  the 
Apostle  treats  of  justification  by  Jesus  Christ,  ;inil  to 
put  in  evidence  the  fact  of  His  being  the  one  Saviour, 
he  contr:isls  with  this  Divine  Head  of  m.ankind  the 
huni;ni  lii'ad  who  cau.sed  its  ruin.  The  question  of 
origin:il  sin,  therefore,  comes  in  only  incidentally.  St. 
Paul  supposes  the  idea  that  the  faithful  \v.i\c,  of  it 
from  his  oral  instructions,  and  he  speaks  of  it  to  make 
them  understand  the  work  of  Redemption.  This 
explains  the  brevity  of  the  development  and  the  ob- 
scurity of  some  verses.  We  shall  now  show  what,  in 
the  text,  is  opposed  to  the  three  Pelagian  positions: 

(1)  The  sin  of  Adam  has  injured  the  human  race 
at  least  in  the  sense  that  it  has  introducctl  death — • 
"Wherefore  as  by  one  man  sin  entered  into  this  world 
and  by  sin  death;  and  so  death  passed  upon  all  men". 
Here  there  is  question  of  physical  death.  First,  the 
literal  meaning  of  the  word  ought  to  be  presumed 
unless  there  be  some  reason  to  the  contrary.  Second, 
there  is  an  allusion  in  this  verse  to  a  passage  in  the 
Book  of  Wisdom  in  which,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
context,  there  is  question  of  physical  death.  Wis., 
ii,  24:  "But  by  the  envy  of  the  devil  death  came  into 
the  world".  Cf.  Gen.,  ii,  17;  iii,  .3,  19;  and  another 
parallel  passage  in  St.  Paul  himself,  I  Cor.,  xv,  21: 
"For  by  a  man  came  death  and  by  a  man  the  resur- 
rection of  the  dead  ".  Here  there  can  be  question  only 
of  physical  death,  since  it  is  opposed  to  corporal  resur- 
rection, which  is  the  subject  of  the  whole  chapter. 

(2)  Adam  by  his  fault  transmitted  to  us  not  only 
death  but  also  sin — "for  as  by  the  disobedience  of  one 
man  many  [i.  e.,  all  men]  were  made  sinners"  (Rom., 
V,  19).  How  then  could  the  Pelagians,  and  at  a  later 
period  Zwingh,  say  that  St.  Paul  speaks  only  of  the 
transmission  of  physical  death?  If  according  to  them 
we  must  read  death  where  the  Apostle  wrote  sin,  we 
should  also  read  that  the  disobedience  of  Adam  has 
made  us  mortal  where  the  Apostle  writes  that  it  has 
made  us  sinners.  But  the  word  sinner  has  never 
meant  mortal,  nor  has  sin  ever  meant  death.  Also 
in  verse  12,  which  corresponds  to  verse  19,  we  see 
that  by  one  man  two  things  have  been  brought  on  all 
men,  sin  and  death,  the  one  being  tlie  consequence  of 
the  other  and  therefore  not  identical  with  it. 

(3)  Since  Adam  transmits  death  to  his  children 
by  way  of  generation  when  he  begets  them  mortal,  it 
is  by  generation  also  that  he  transmits  to  them  sin,  for 
the  Apostle  presents  these  two  effects  as  produced  at 
the  same  time  and  by  the  same  causality.  The  ex- 
planation of  the  Pelagians  differs  from  that  of  St.  Paul. 
According  to  them  the  child  who  receive^ mortality 
at  his  birth  receives  sin  from  Adam  only  at  a  later 
period  when  he  knows  the  sin  of  the  first  man  and  is 
inclined  to  imitate  it.  The  causality  of  Adam  as  re- 
gards mortality  would,  therefore,  be  completely  differ- 
ent from  his  causality  as  regards  sin.  Moreover,  this 
supposed  influence  of  the  bad  example  of  Adam  is 
almost  chimerical;  even  the  faithful  when  they  sin 
do  not  sin  on  account  of  Adam's  b.ad  examjile,  a 
fortiori  infidels  who  are  completely  ignorant  of  the 
history  of  the  first  man.  And  yet  all  men  are,  by  the 
influence  of  Adam,  sinners  and  condomni'd  (Horn., 
v,  18,  19).  The  influence  of  Adam  cannot,  tlicrcfore, 
be  the  influence  of  his  bad  example  which  we  imitate 
(Augustine,  "Contra  .Julian.",  VI,  xxiv,  7.5). 

On  this  account,  several  recent  Protestants  have 
thus  modified  the  Pelagian  explanation:  "Even  with- 
out being  aware  of  it  all  men  imitate  Adam  inasmuch 
as  they  merit  death  as  the  punishment  of  their  own 
sins  just  as  Adam  merited  it  as  the  punishment  for  his 


ORIGINAI. 


313 


ORIGINAL 


sin."  This  is  going  farther  and  farther  from  the  text 
of  St.  Paul.  Adam  would  be  no  more  than  the  term 
of  a  comparison,  he  would  no  longer  have  any  influence 
or  causality  as  regards  original  sin  or  death.  More- 
over, the  Apostle  did  not  alRrm  that  all  men,  in  imi- 
tation of  Adam,  are  mortal  on  account  of  their  actual 
sins;  since  children  who  die  before  coming  to  the  use 
of  reason  have  never  committed  such  sins;  but  he 
expressly  affirms  the  contrary  in  the  fourteenth  verse : 
"But  death  reigned",  not  only  over  those  who  imi- 
tated Adam,  but  "even  over  them  also  who  have  not 
sinned  after  the  similitude  of  the  transgression  of 
Adam."  Adam's  sin,  therefore,  is  the  sole  cause  of 
death  for  the  entire  human  race.  Moreover,  we  can 
discern  no  natural  connexion  between  any  sin  and 
death.  In  order  that  a  determined  sin  entail  death 
there  is  need  of  a  positive  law,  but  before  the  Law 
of  Moses  there  was  no  positive  law  of  God  appointing 
death  as  a  punishment  except  the  law  given  to  Adam 
(Gen.,  ii,  17).  It  is,  therefore,  his  disobedience  only 
that  could  have  merited  and  brought  it  into  the  world 
(Rom.,  v,  13,  14).  The.se  Protestant  writers  lay 
much  stress  on  the  last  words  of  the  twelfth  verse. 
We  know  that  several  of  the  Latin  Fathers  understood 
the  words,  "in  whom  all  have  sinned",  to  mean,  all 
have  sinned  in  Adam.  This  interpretation  would  be 
an  extra  proof  of  the  thesis  of  original  sin,  but  it  is  not 
necessary.  Modern  exegesis,  as  well  as  the  Greek 
Fathers,  prefers  to  translate  "and  so  death  passed 
upon  all  men  because  all  have  sinned  ".  We  accept  this 
second  translation  which  shows  us  death  as  an  effect 
of  sin.  But  of  what  sin?  "The  personal  sins  of  each 
one",  answer  our  adversaries,  "this  is  the  natural 
sense  of  the  words  'all  have  sinned.'  "  It  would  be 
the  natural  sense  if  the  context  was  not  absolutely 
opposed  to  it.  The  words  "all  have  sinned"  of  the 
twelfth  verse,  which  are  obscure  on  account  of  their 
brevity,  are  thus  developed  in  the  nineteenth  verse: 
"for  as  by  the  disobedience  of  one  man  many  were 
made  sinners".  There  is  no  question  here  of  per- 
sonal sins,  differing  in  species  and  number,  committed 
by  each  one  during  his  life,  but  of  one  first  sin  which 
was  enough  to  transmit  equally  to  all  men  a  state  of 
sin  and  the  title  of  sinners.  Similarly  in  the  twelfth 
verse  the  words  "All  have  sinned"  must  mean,  "all 
have  participated  in  the  sin  of  Adam",  "all  have 
contracted  its  stain".  This  interpretation  too  re- 
moves the  seeming  contradiction  between  thetwelfth 
verse,  "all  have  sinned",  and  the  fourteenth,  "who 
have  not  sinned",  for  in  the  former  there  is  question 
of  original  sin,  in  the  latter  of  personal  sin.  Those 
who  say  that  in  both  cases  there  is  question  of  personal 
sin  are  unable  to  reconcile  these  two  verses. 

IV.  Origin.\l  Sin  in  Tr.4dition. — On  account  of  a 
superficial  resemblance  between  the  doctrine  of  origi- 
nal sin  and  the  Manichiean  theory  of  our  nature  being 
evil,  the  Pelagians  accused  the  Catholics  and  St. 
Augustine  of  Manichaeism.  For  the  accusation  and  its 
answer  see  "  Contra  duas  epist.  Pelag.",  I,  II,  4;  V,  10; 
III,  IX,  2.5;  IV,  III.  In  our  own  times  this  charge 
has  been  reiterated  by  several  critics  and  historians  of 
dogma  who  have  been  influenced  by  the  fact  that  be- 
fore his  conversion  St.  Augustine  was  a  Manichcean. 
They  do  not  identify  Manieha-ism  with  the  doctrine 
of  original  sin,  but  they  say  tliat  St.  Augustine,  with 
the  remains  of  his  former  Manichaan  prejudices, 
created  the  doctrine  of  original  sin  unknown  before  his 
time.  It  is  not  true  that  the  doctrine  of  original  sin 
does  not  appear  in  the  works  of  the  pre-Augustinian 
Fathers.  On  the  contrary,  their  testimony  is  found 
in  special  works  on  the  subject.  Nor  can  it  be  said, 
as  Harnack  maintains,  that  St.  Augustine  himself 
acknowledges  the  absence  of  this  doctrine  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Fathers.  St.  Augustine  invokes  the  testi- 
mony of  eleven  Fathers,  Greek  as  well  as  Latin  (Contra 
Jul.,  II,  x,  33).  Baseless  also  is  the  assertion  that 
before  St.  Augustine  this  doctrine  was  unknown  to  the 


Jews  and  to  the  Christians;  as  we  have  already  shown, 
it  was  taught  by  St.  Paul.  It  is  found  in  the  fourth 
Book  of  Esdras,  a  work  written  by  a  Jew  in  the  first 
century  after  Christ  and  widely  read  by  the  Chris- 
tians. This  book  represents  Adam  as  the  author  of 
the  fall  of  the  human  race  (vii,  48),  as  having  trans- 
mitted to  all  his  posterity  the  permanent  infirmity, 
the  maUgnity,  the  bad  seed  of  sin  (iii,  21,  22;  iv,  30). 
Protestants  themselves  admit  the  doctrine  of  original 
sin  in  this  book  and  others  of  the  same  period  (see 
Sanday,  "The  International  Critical  Commentary: 
Romans",  134,  137;  Hastings,  "A  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible",  I,  841).  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  make  St. 
Augustine,  who  is  of  a  much  later  date,  the  inventor 
of  original  sin. 

That  this  doctrine  existed  in  Christian  tradition  be- 
fore St.  Augustine's  time  is  shown  by  the  practice  of 
the  Church  in  the  baptism  of  children.  The  Pelagians 
held  that  baptism  was  given  to  children,  not  to  remit 
their  sin,  but  to  make  them  better,  to  give  them  super- 
natural life,  to  make  them  adoptive  sons  of  God,  and 
heirs  to  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  (see  St.  Augustine, 
"De  peccat.  meritis",  I,  xviii).  The  Catholics  an- 
swered by  citing  the  Nicene  Creed,  "Conflteor  unum 
baptisma  in  remissionem  peccatorum".  They  re- 
proached the  Pelagians  with  introducing  two  bap- 
tisms, one  for  adults  to  remit  sins,  the  other  for  chil- 
dren with  no  such  purpose.  Catholics  argued,  too, 
from  the  ceremonies  of  baptism,  which  suppose  the 
child  to  be  under  the  power  of  evil,  i.  e.,  exorcisms, 
abjuration  of  Satan  made  by  the  sponsor  in  the  name  of 
the  child  [Aug.,  be.  cit.,  xx.xiv,  63;  Denz.,  n.  140  (96)]. 

V.  Original  Sin  in  F.\cb  of  the  Objections  of 
Re.\son. — We  do  not  pretend  to  prove  the  existence 
of  original  sin  by  arguments  from  reason  only.  St. 
Thomas  makes  use  of  a  philosophical  proof"  which 
proves  the  existence  rather  of  some  kind  of  decadence 
than  of  sin,  and  he  considers  his  proof  as  probable  only, 
satis  probabiliter  probari  potest  (Contra  Gent.,  IV,  Hi). 
Many  Protestants  and  Jansenists  and  some  Catholics 
hold  the  doctrine  of  original  sin  to  be  necessary  in 
philosophy,  and  the  only  means  of  solving  the  prob- 
lem of  the  existence  of  evil.  This  is  exaggerated  and 
impossible  to  prove.  It  suffices  to  show  that  human 
reason  has  no  serious  objection  against  this  doctrine 
which  is  founded  on  Revelation.  The  objections  of 
Rationalists  usually  spring  from  a  false  concept  of  our 
dogma.  They  attack  either  the  transmission  of  a 
sin  or  the  idea  of  an  injury  inflicted  on  his  race  by  the 
first  man,  of  a  decadence  of  the  human  race.  Here  we 
shall  answer  only  the  second  category  of  objections, 
the  others  will  be  considered  under  a  later  head  (VII). 

(1)  The  law  of  progress  is  opposed  to  the  hypothesis 
of  a  decadence.  Yes,  if  the  progress  was  necessarily 
continuous,  but  history  proves  the  contrary.  The 
fine  representing  progress  has  its  ups  and  downs,  there 
are  periods  of  decadence  and  of  retrogression,  and  such 
was  the  period.  Revelation  tells  us,  that  followed  the 
first  sin.  The  human  race,  however,  began  to  rise 
again  little  by  little,  for  neither  intelligence  nor  free 
will  had  been  destroyed  by  original  sin  and,  conse- 
quently, there  still  remained  the  possibility  of  material 
progress,  whilst  in  the  spiritual  order  God  did  not 
abandon  man,  to  whom  He  had  j)romised  redemption. 
This  theory  of  decadence  has  no  connexion  with  our 
Revelation.  The  Bible,  on  the  contrary,  shows  us 
even  spiritual  progress  in  the  people  it  treats  of;  the 
vocation  of  Abraham,  the  law  of  Moses,  the  mission  of 
the  Prophets,  the  coming  of  the  Messias,  a  revelation 
which  becomes  clearer  and  clearer,  ending  in  the 
Gospel,  its  diffusion  amongst  all  nations,  its  fruits  of 
holiness,  and  the  progress  of  the  Church. 

(2)  It  is  unjust,  says  another  objection,  that  from 
the  sin  of  one  man  should  result  the  decadence  of  the 
whole  human  race.  This  would  have  weight  if  we  took 
this  decadence  in  the  same  sen.se  that  Luther  took  it, 
i.  e.  human  reason  incapable  of  understanding  even 


ORIGINAL 


314 


ORIGINAL 


moral  truths,  free  will  destroyed,  the  very  substance 
of  man  ehan(je<l  into  evil.  Hut  acconliiiK  t"  Catholic 
theology  man  ha.-;  not  lost  his  natural  faculties:  by  the 
sin  of  .\datn  he  ha.s  been  deprived  only  of  the  Divine 
gifts  to  which  his  nature  had  no  strict  right,  thi'  com- 
plete mastery  of  his  pa.ssions,  exemption  from  death, 
sanctifying  grace,  the  \ision  of  God  in  the  next  life. 
The  Creator,  whose  gifts  were  not  due  to  the  human 
race,  had  the  right  to  Ix'stow  them  on  such  conditions 
as  He  wished  and  to  make  their  conservation  depend 
on  the  fidelity  of  the  head  of  the  family.  \  prince  can 
confer  a  hereditary  dignity  on  condition  that  the  re- 
cipient remains  loyal,  and  that,  in  case  of  his  rebel- 
ling, this  dignity  shall  be  taken  from  him  and,  in  con- 
sequence, from  his  descendants.  It  is  not,  however, 
intelligible  that  the  prince,  on  account  of  a  fault  com- 
mitted by  a  father,  should  order  the  hands  and  feet  of 
all  the  descendants  of  the  guilty  man  to  be  cut  off  im- 
mediately after  their  birth.  This  comparison  repre- 
sents the  doctrine  of  Luther  which  we  in  no  way 
defend.  The  doctrineof  the  Church  supposes  no  sensi- 
ble or  afflictive  punishment  in  the  next  world  for  chil- 
dren who  die  with  nothing  but  original  sin  on  their 
souls,  but  only  the  privation  of  the  sight  of  God 
[Denz.,  n.  1.526  (1389)]. 

VI.  N.iTUHE  OF  Original  Sin. — This  is  a  difficult 
point  and  many  systems  have  been  invented  to  explain 
it:  it  will  suffice  to  give  the  theological  explanation  now 
commonly  received.  Original  sin  is  the  privation  of 
sanctifying  grace  in  consequence  of  the  sin  of  Adam. 
This  solution,  which  is  that  of  St.  Thomas,  goes  back 
to  St.  Anselm  and  even  to  the  traditions  of  the  early 
Church,  as  we  see  by  the  declaration  of  the  Second 
Council  of  Orange  {a.  d.  529):  one  man  has  transmit- 
ted to  the  whole  human  race  not  only  the  death  of  the 
body,  which  is  the  punishment  of  sin,  but  even  sin 
itself,  which  is  the  death  of  the  soul  [Denz.,  n.  175  (145)]. 
As  death  is  the  privation  of  the  principle  of  life,  the 
death  of  the  soul  is  the  privation  of  sanctifying  grace 
which  according  to  all  theologians  is  the  principle  of 
supernatural  life.  Therefore,  if  original  sin  is  "the 
deal  h  of  the  soul" ,  it  is  the  privation  of  sanctifying  grace. 

The  Council  of  Trent,  although  it  did  not  make 
this  solution  obligatory  by  a  definition,  regarded  it 
with  favour  and  authorized  its  use  (cf.  Pallavicini, 
"Istoria  del  Concilio  di  Trento",  vii-ix).  Original  sin 
is  described  not  only  as  the  death  of  the  soul  (Sess.  V, 
can.  ii),  but  as  a  "privation of  justice  that  each  child 
contracts  at  its  conception"  (Sess.  VI,  cap.  iii).  But 
the  council  calls  "justice"  what  we  call  sanctifying 
grace  (Sess.  VI) ,  and  as  each  child  should  have  had  per- 
sonally his  own  justice  so  now  after  the  fall  he  suffers 
his  own  privation  of  justice.  We  may  add  an  argu- 
ment based  on  the  principle  of  St.  Augustine  already 
cited,  "  the  deliberate  sin  of  the  first  man  is  the  cause 
of  original  sin".  This  principle  is  developed  by  St. 
Anselm :  "the  sin  of  Adam  was  one  thing  but  the  sin  of 
children  at  their  birth  is  quite  another,  the  former  was 
the  cause,  the  latter  is  the  effect "  (De  conceptu  virgi- 
nali,  xxvi).  In  a  child  original  sin  is  distinct  from  the 
fault  of  Adam,  it  is  one  of  its  effects.  But  which  of 
these  effects  is  it?  We  shall  examine  the  several  effects 
of  Adam's  fault  and  reject  those  which  cannot  be  ori- 
ginal sin: — 

(1)  Death  and  Suffering. — These  are  purely  physi- 
cal evils  and  cannot  be  called  sin.  Moreover  St.  Paul, 
and  after  him  the  councils,  regarded  death  and  origi- 
nal sin  as  two  distinct  things  transmitted  by  Adam. 

(2)  Concupiscence. — This  rebellion  of  the  lower  ap- 
petite transmitted  to  us  by  Adam  is  an  occasion  of  sin 
and  in  that  sense  comes  nearer  to  moral  evil.  How- 
ever, the  occasion  of  a  fault  is  not  necessarily  a  fault, 
and  whilst  original  sin  is  effaced  by  baptism  concupis- 
cence still  remains  in  the  person  baptized;  therefore 
original  .sin  and  concupiscence  cannot  be  one  and  the 
same  thing,  as  was  held  by  the  early  Protestants 
(see  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  V,  can.  v). 


(.3)  The  absence  of  sanctifying  grace  in  the  new-born 
child  is  also  an  effect  of  the  first  .sin,  for  Adam,  having 
received  holinc'^s  and  justice  from  (Jod,  lost  it  not  only 
for  himself  but  also  for  us  (loc.  cit.,  can.  ii).  If  he  has 
lost  it  for  us  we  were  to  have  received  it  from  him  at 
our  birth  with  the  other  prerogatives  of  our  race. 
Therefore  the  absence  of  sanctifying  grace  in  a  child  is 
a  real  privation,  it  is  the  want  of  soniclliiiig  that  should 
have  been  in  him  according  to  tlic  1  )ivinc  )}l:in.  If  this 
favour  is  not  merely  something  phy.-ical  but  is  some- 
thing in  the  moral  order,  if  it  is  holiness,  its  jiiixation 
may  be  called  a  sin.  But  sanctilyiiig  grace  i.s  holiness 
and  is  so  called  by  the  Council  of  Tniit,  because  holi- 
ness consists  in  union  with  God,  .-iiid  grace  unites  us 
intimately  with  God.  Moral  goodness  consists  in  this 
that  our  action  is  according  to  the  moral  law,  but  grace 
is  a  deification,  as  the  Fathers  say.  a  perfect  conform- 
ity with  God  who  is  the  first  rule  of  all  morahty.  (See 
Gkace.)  Sanctifying  grace  therefore  enters  into  the 
moral  order,  not  as  an  act  that  passes  but  as  a  perma- 
nent tendency  which  exists  even  when  the  subject  who 
possesses  it  does  not  act;  it  is  a  turning  towards  (iod, 
conversio  ad  Deum.  Consequently  the  privation  of 
this  grace,  even  without  any  other  act,  would  be  a 
stain,  a  moral  deformity,  a  turning  away  from  God, 
auersio  a  Deo,  and  this  character  is  not  found  in  any 
other  effect  of  the  fault  of  Adam.  This  privation, 
therefore,  is  the  hereditary  stain. 

VII.  How  Voluntary. — "There  can  be  no  sin  that 
is  not  voluntary,  the  learned  and  the  ignorant  admit 
this  evident  truth  ",  writes  St.  Augustine  (De  vera  relig., 
xiv,  27).  The  Church  has  condemned  the  opposite 
solution  given  by  Baius  [prop,  xlvi,  xlvii,  in  Denz.,  n. 
1046  (926)].  Original  sin  is  not  an  act  but,  as  already 
explained,  a  state,  a  permanent  privation,  and  this  can 
be  voluntary  indirectly — just  as  a  drunken  man  is  de- 
prived of  his  reason  and  incapable  of  using  his  liberty, 
yet  it  is  by  his  free  fault  that  he  is  in  this  state  and  hence 
his  drunkenness,  his  privation  of  reason  is  voluntary 
and  can  be  imputed  to  him.  But  how  can  original  sin 
be  even  indirectly  voluntary  for  a  child  that  has  never 
used  its  personal  free  will?  Certain  Protestants  hold 
that  the  child  on  coming  to  the  use  of  reason  will  con- 
sent to  its  original  sin;  but  in  reality  no  one  ever 
thought  of  giving  this  consent.  Besides,  even  before 
the  use  of  reason,  sin  is  already  in  the  soul,  according 
to  the  data  of  Tradition  regarding  the  baptism  of  chil- 
dren and  the  sin  contracted  by  generation.  Some  the- 
osophists  and  spiritists  admit  the  prc-existence  of  souls 
that  have  sinned  in  a  former  life  which  they  now  for- 
get; but  apart  from  the  absurdity  of  this  metempsy- 
chosis, it  contradicts  the  doctrine  of  original  sin,  it 
substitutes  a  number  of  particular  sins  for  the  one  sin 
of  a  common  father  transmitting  sin  and  death  to  all 
(cf.  Rom.,  V,  12  sqq.).  The  whole  Christian  religion, 
says  St.  Augustine,  may  be  summed  up  in  the  inter- 
vention of  two  men,  the  one  to  ruin  us,  the  other  to 
save  us  (De  pecc.  orig.,  xxiv).  The  right  solution  is  to 
be  sought  in  the  free  will  of  Adam  in  his  sVi,  and  this 
free  will  was  ours:  "we  were  all  in  Adam",  says  St. 
Ambrose,  cited  by  St.  Augustine  (Opus  imperf.,  IV, 
civ).  St.  Basil  attributes  to  us  the  act  of  the  first  man : 
"  Because  we  did  not  fast  (when  Adam  ate  the  forbid- 
den fruit)  we  have  been  turned  out  of  the  g;n<len  of 
Paradise"  (Hom.  i  de  jejun.,  iv).  Earlier  still  is  the 
testimony  of  St.  Irena'us;  "In  the  person  of  the  first 
Adam  we  offend  God,  disobeying  His  precept" 
(Hajres.,  V,  xvi,  3). 

St.  Thomas  thus  explains  this  moral  unity  of  our 
will  with  the  will  of  Adam.  "An  individual  can  be 
considered  either  as  an  individual  or  as  part  of  a  whole, 
a  member  of  a  society.  .  .  .  Considered  in  the  .second 
way  an  act  can  be  his  although  he  lias  not  done  it  him- 
self, nor  has  it  been  done  by  his  free  will  but  by  the 
rest  of  the  society  or  by  its  head,  the  nation  being  con- 
sidered as  doing  what  the  prince  does.  For  a  society  is 
considered  as  a  single  man  of  whom  the  individuals  are 


ORIHUELA 


315 


ORIHUELA 


the  different  members  (St.  Paul,  I  Cor.,  xii).  Thus 
the  multitude  of  men  who  receive  their  human  nature 
from  Adam  is  to  be  considered  as  a  single  community 
or  rather  as  a  single  body.  ...  If  the  man,  whose 
privation  of  original  justice  is  due  to  Adam,  is  consid- 
ered as  a  private  person,  this  privation  is  not  his 
'fault',  for  a  fault  is  essentially  voluntary.  If,  how- 
ever, we  consider  him  as  a  member  of  the  family  of 
Adam,  as  if  all  men  were  only  one  man,  then  his  priva- 
tion partakes  of  the  nature  of  sin  on  account  of  its  vol- 
untary origin,  which  is  the  actual  sin  of  Adam"  (De 
Malo,  iv,  1).  It  is  this  law  of  solidarity,  admitted  by 
common  sentiment,  which  attributes  to  children  a  part 
of  the  shame  resulting  from  the  father's  crime.  It  is 
not  a  personal  crime,  objected  the  Pelagians.  "No", 
answered  St.  Augustine,  "but  it  is  paternal  crime' 
(Op.  imperf.,  I,  cxlviii).  Being  a  distinct  person  I  am 
not  strictly  responsible  for  the  crime  of  another,  the 
act  is  not  mine.  Yet,  as  a  member  of  the  human  fam- 
ily, I  am  supposed  to  have  acted  with  its  head  who 
represented  it  with  regard  to  the  conservation  or  the 
loss  of  grace.  I  am,  therefore,  responsible  for  my  pri- 
vation of  grace,  taking  responsibility  in  the  largest 
sense  of  the  word.  This,  however,  is  enough  to  make 
the  state  of  privation  of  grace  in  a  certain  degree  vol- 
untary, and,  therefore,  "without  absurdity  it  may  be 
said  to  be  voluntary"  (St.  Augustine,  "Retract.",  I, 
xiii). 

■Thus  the  principal  difficulties  of  non-believers 
against  the  transmission  of  sin  are  answered.  "Free 
will  is  essentially  incommunicable."  Physically,  yes; 
morally,  no ;  the  will  of  the  father  being  considered  as 
that  of  his  children.  "  It  is  unjust  to  make  us  respon- 
sible for  an  act  committed  before  our  birth."  Strictly 
responsible,  yes;  resiionsible  in  a  wide  sense  of  the 
word,  no;  the  crime  of  a  father  brands  his  yet  unborn 
children  with  shame,  and  entails  upon  them  a  share 
of  his  own  responsibility.  "Your  dogma  makes  us 
strictly  responsible  for  the  fault  of  Adam."  That  is  a 
misconception  of  our  doctrine.  Our  dogma  does  not 
attribute  to  the  children  of  Adam  any  properly  so- 
called  responsibility  for  the  act  of  their  father,  nor  do 
we  say  that  original  sin  is  voluntary  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  word.  It  is  true  that,  considered  as  "  a  moral  de- 
formity ",  "a  separation  from  God",  as  "the  death  of 
the  soul",  original  sin  is  a  real  sin  which  deprives  the 
soul  of  sanctifying  grace.  It  has  the  same  claim  to  be  a 
sin  as  has  habitual  sin,  which  is  the  state  in  which  an 
adult  is  placed  by  a  grave  and  personal  fault,  the 
"stain"  which  St.  Thomas  defines  as  "  the  privation  of 
grace"  (I-II,  Q.  cix.  a.  7;  III,  Q.  Ixxxvii,  a.  2,  ad  3""), 
and  it  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  baptism,  putting 
an  end  to  the  privation  of  grace,  "takes  away  all 
that  is  really  and  properly  sin",  for  concupiscence 
which  remains  "is  not  really  and  properly  sin", 
although  its  transmission  was  equally  voluntary 
(Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  V,  can.  v.).  Considered 
precisely  as  voluntary,  original  sin  is  only  the  shadow 
of  sin  properly  so-called.  According  to  St.  Thomas 
(In  II  Sent.,  dist.  xxv,  Q.  i,  a.  2,  ad  2<™),  it  is  not 
called  "sin"  in  the  same  sense,  but  only  in  an 
analogous  sense. 

Several  theologians  of  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries,  neglecting  the  importance  of  the  pri- 
vation of  grace  in  the  explanation  of  original  sin,  and 
explaining  it  only  by  the  participation  we  are  sup- 
posed to  have  in  the  act  of  Ailam,  exaggerate  this  par- 
ticipation. They  exaggerate  the  idea  of  voluntary  in 
original  sin,  thinking  that  it  is  the  only  way  to  explain 
how  it  is  a  sin  properly  so  called.  Their  opinion, 
differing  from  that  of  St.  Thomas,  gave  rise  to  un- 
called-for and  insoluble  difficulties.  At  present  it  is 
altogether  abandoned. 

For  the  Scriptcral  proof:  MacEvilly,  An  Exposition  of  the 
Epistles  of  SI.  Paul.  I  (4th  ed..  New  York,  1891),  4.5;  CoRNELT, 
Commentarius  in  epist.  ad  Rnmanos  (Paris,  1896),  269;  Corldt, 
Spicilegium  dogmatica-hihlicum.  I  (Ghent,  1884).  228;  Prat,  La 
TMologie  de  S.  Paul,  I  (Paris,  190S).  292. — For  the  doctrine  of 


St.  Augustine:  Augustine,  Anti- Pelagian  Works  (London, 
1880);  ScHWANE,  Dogmengeschichte.  II  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg  im  Br., 
1894) ;  PoRTALi^  in  Diet,  de  theol.  calh..  s.  v.  Augustin. — For  the 
THEOLOGICAL  EXPLANATION:  St.  Thomas,  II-II,  QQ.  clxiii.  clxiv; 
De  Rubeis,  De  peecato  oHginali  (Wurzburg,  18o7) :  Scheeben, 
Dogmatik,  II  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1880),  clxxxvi;  Mohler,  Symr 
holism  (London,  1894) ;  Le  Bachelet,  Le  peche  originel  (Paris, 
1900);  Lahousse,  De  Deo  Creante  (Bruges,  1904);  Pesch, 
Pra-lectiones  de  Deo  Creante  (3rd  ed.,  Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  1908). 
— For  the  rationalistic  view:  Tennant,  The  Sources  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Fall  and  Original  Sin  (Cambridge.  1903). 

S.  Harent. 

Orihuela,  Diocese  op  (Oriolensis,  Oriol.\na), 
comprises  all  the  civil  Province  of  Alicante  except  the 
two  townships  (pueblos)  of  Caudete  (Albaccte)  and 
Ayora  (Valencia).  The  city  of  Orihuela,  with  its  sub- 
urbs, has  a  population  of  24,364.  The  episcopal  see 
was  in  ancient  times  at  Bigastro  or  the  place  known  as 
Cehegin.  Jaime  the  Conqueror  recovered  Orihuela 
from  the  Moors  in  126.5,  giving  it  to  his  son-in-law  Al- 
fonso X,  the  Wise,  of  Castile,  and  restoring  the  church, 
which  came  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  See  of  Carta- 
gena. When  Orihuela  was  lost  to  the  Castilian  crown, 
in  1304,  Martin  of  Aragon  petitioned  the  pope  to  give 
it  a  bishop  of  its  own.  The  first  concession  was  made 
by  the  antipope  Benedict  XIII  (Luna),  who  made  the 
church  of  El  Salvador  a  collegiate  church.  On  the 
petition  of  Alfonso  V,  Martin  V  instituted  a  vicariate- 
general,  independent  of  Murcia  and  Cartagena,  for  the 
portion  of  the  diocese  lying  within  the  Kingdom  of 
Aragon.  No  bishop  was  appointed  until  1437,  when  it 
was  given  as  its  first,  a  scion  of  the  House  of  Corella, 
who  never  took  possession.  Eugenius  IV  suppressed 
the  new  diocese;  Jidius  II  accorded  to  the  church  of 
Orihuela  the  rank  of  cathedral  (1510),  but  subject  to 
the  Bishop  of  Cartagena.  Peace  was  secured  only 
when  Philip  II,  in  the  Cortes  of  Monz6n  (1563),  de- 
cided to  separate  the  church  of  Orihuela  from  Carta- 
gena, and  obtained  from  Pius  IV,  in  1564,  the  creation 
of  a  new  bishopric. 

The  first  bishop  was  a  native  of  Burgos,  Gregorio 
Gallo  y  Andrada,  confessor  to  Queen  Isabel  of  Valois. 
Among  his  successors,  Jose  Esteban  added  to  the  ca- 
thedral the  chapter  of  St.  Stephen,  where  he  is  buried. 
Juan  Elias  G6mez  de  Terdn  built  at  his  own  expense 
(1743)  the  coneiliar  seminary  of  La  Purisima  Concep- 
ci6n,  the  Seminary  of  St.  Miguel,  and  the  House  of 
Mercy.  He  also  caused  to  be  erected  the  Chapel  of 
the  Holy  Communion,  the  chapter  house,  and  the 
archiniim.  This  bishop  lies  buried  in  the  church  of 
La  Misericordia  at  Alicante.  Jose  de  Rada  y  Aguirre 
was  confessor  to  Ferdinand  VI.  Jos6  Tormo  enlarged 
the  seminary,  rebuilt  much  of  the  episcopal  jialace, 
erected  episcopal  residences  at  Cox  and  Klche,  and  the 
Chapel  of  the  Holy  Communion  in  the  gre:it  church  of 
the  latter  city.  Several  works  of  public  utility  are  due 
to  him,  such  as  the  aqueduct  of  Flrh(  .  the  bridge  of 
Rojales,  and  a  wall  protecting  the  cultiv;itcd  lands  of 
Orihuela  against  inundation.  .Vnother  occupant  of 
this  see  was  Cardinal  Dcspuig  (1791).  Francisco  An- 
tonio Cebridn  y  Valda  (1797)  ruled  the  diocese  eigh- 
teen years,  afterwards  becoming  Patriiirch  of  the  In- 
dies. The  episcopate  of  Felix  Ilcrrcro  \';dvorde  was 
long  and  fruitful;  he  improv(Ml  the  cathednil  and  other 
churi  lies,  LilMiiircd  to  rci):iir  the  dam:tgc  done  by  the 
eartliiiii;iki'  of  Is'J'.l,  and  sulTcred  a  long  exile  in  Italy 
after  Ihrdialli  <.f  Fcniinaiid  \II. 

Conspicuou.s  aiiKiiig  the  buildings  of  Orihuela  is  the 
Seminary  of  St.  Miguel.  situ:itrd  upon  it  rocky  emi- 
nence. Founded  in  174:1.  it  possesses  ;t  good  library,  a 
hall  of  exercises  (sulihi  'h  (tria.-;}  built  by  Bishop  Pedro 
Mari;i('ubi'rc.  ( Is.'i'.M.  :ind  the  gencrid  (/n'/i/r/i/w.  of  the 
diocese.  It  is  divided  into  two  colleges:  that  of  the 
Aposliilir-  Missiuiuuies,  founded  by  Hishop  'I'erdn,  and 
the  episriip:d  eiillegc.  The  most  notable  of  the 
churches  is  the  C:tthedral  of  the  Transfiguration  (El 
Salvador) :  its  style  is  a  simple  ogival  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  The  principal  door — the  "Door  of  the 
Chains" — is  Gothic;  that  of  the  Annunciation  is  Plat- 


ORIOL 


31-6 


ORKNEYS 


eresquo.  The  preat  chapel,  of  boautifu!  opval  work, 
W!is  (lomolisheii  in  IS'27  to  cnlargo  the  enclosure.  The 
grille  of  the  choir  aiui  the  high  altar  have  been  consid- 
ered the  hnest  in  the  kingdom  (\'iciaua) :  they  are  Re- 
naissance of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  vast  episcopal 
Ealacc,  separated  from  tlie  cathedral  by  a  street,  was 
uilt  in  1733  by  Bishop  Jose  Flores  Osirio,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Kiver  .Segura.  It  contains  a  magnificent 
staircase.  The  principal  churches  are  Sta  Justa  y 
Rufina  and  the  Ap6stol  Santiago  (St.  James  the  .Apos- 
tle), both  restored  Gothic.  The  former  is  said  to  have 
been  a  parish  church  in  the  time  of  the  Goths,  but  it 
was  reconstructed  between  1319  and  1348.  That  of 
Santiago  is  a  fine  Gothic  structure,  and  bears  the  de- 
vice of  the  Catholic  Sovereigns:  Tanto  Mcnt.*;  and 
the  arms  of  Charles  V.  The  great  chapel  was  built  be- 
tween 1554  and  1609,  and  the  tabernacle,  of  rare  mar- 
bles, is  eighteenth-century  work. 

Orihuela  hatl  many  monasteries  and  convents — 
Augustinian,  Franciscan,  Carmelite,  Mercedarian, 
Dominican,  Trinitarian,  Alcantarine,  Capuchin,  and 
of  the  Hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  God.  Those  of  the 
Franciscans  and  the  Capuchins  are  still  extant,  as  also 
of  the  Salesian  and  Augustinian  Sisters  and  the  Claris- 
sas. But  the  principal  edifice  of  Orihuela  is  that  of  its 
university,  otherwise  called  the  Patriarchal  College  of 
Preachers,  founded  by  the  prelate  Fernando  de  Loa- 
ces,  a  native  of  Orihuela,  who  spent  80,000  ducats 
($800,000)  on  it  and  gave  it  to  the  Dominicans.  At 
first  this  institution  was  occupied  only  with  ecclesias- 
tical studies,  for  members  of  the  order,  but  it  after- 
wards obtained  faculties  for  the  conferring  of  scien- 
tific degrees,  with  privileges  equal  to  those  of  the  most 
celebrated  universities,  and  the  titles  of  Illustrious, 
Royal,  and  Pontifical  (1640).  It  was  suppressed  in 
1824.  The  building,  having  been  declared  an  histori- 
cal monument,  was  given  to  the  Jesuits,  who  now 
carrj'  on  in  it  a  college  and  boarding-school.  In  the 
same  building  the  public  archives  and  library  are 
housed,  the  latter  consisting  largely  of  books  taken 
from  the  suppressed  convents.  The  sarcophagus  of  the 
founder  is  in  the  chancel  of  the  magnificent  church. 
A  statue  of  St.  Thomas  stands  above  the  principal 
door,  and  above  it  a  colossal  Minerva. 

By  the  Concordat  of  1851,  the  See  of  Orihuela  is  to 
be  transferred  to  Alicante,  a  city  with  two  excellent 
churches:  that  of  S.  Nicolds  and  the  older  church  of 
Sta.  Maria,  formerly  a  mosque.  It  was  destroyed  by 
fire  and  entirely  rebuilt  in  the  ogival  style.  The  col- 
legiate church  founded  by  Alfonso  X,  the  Wise,  was 
made  a  collegiate  church  by  Clement  VIII  ( 1600) ,  and, 
by  the  terms  of  the  Concordat,  is  destined  to  be  the 
cathedral  of  Alicante.  Also  celebrated  is  the  sanctu- 
ary of  the  Holy  Face  at  Alicante,  originally  occupied 
by  Hieronymites,  but  now  by  the  Poor  Clares.  The 
Unen  cloth  bearing  the  imprint  of  the  Holy  Face  was 
brought  from  Rome  by  Mosson  Mena  of  Alicante  and 
is  an  object  of  great  veneration  in  that  part  of  the 
country.  Elcha,  famous  for  its  palm-trees,  has  a  note- 
worthy church  dedicated  to  the  Assumption,  on  which 
feast  it  still  holds  a  dramatic  representation  of  medie- 
val character.  Orihuela  has  a  hospital,  a  Casa  de  Mis- 
ericordia  for  the  poor  and  orphans  (1734),  and  a  found- 
ling asylum  founded  by  Charles  III  in  1764. 

RuriNO  Gea,  PdtjinaK  de  la  Historia  de  Orihuela:  El  pleito  del 
obispado  de  UiSS-ir,!!.',  (Orihuela,  1900);  MolU,  CrOnica  del  obis- 
paiio  de  Orihuela  (Alicante.  1900);  Llorente.  Espana,  sus  monu- 
menlos  u  arles:  Valencia,  11  (Barcelona.  1889);  DE  LA  Fdente, 
Historia  de  las  Unirersidades  de  Eapafia  (Madrid,  1885);  Idem, 
Historia  eclcsidstica  de  Espafia  (Barcelona,  1855). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

Oriol,  Joseph,  Saint,  priest,  "Thaumaturgus  of 
Barcelona",  b.  at  Barcelona,  23  November,  16.50;  d. 
there,  23  March,  1702.  He  studied  in  the  University 
of  Barcelona,  rccei\'ing  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  The- 
ology, 1  August,  1674.  Ordained  priest,  30  May, 
1676,  he  visited  Rome  in  1686  and  was  granted  a 


benefice  in  the  church  of  Nuestra  Sefiora  del  Pino,  in 
Barcelona.  His  priestly  life  was  remarkable  for  a 
spirit  of  penance,  profound  humility,  and  prudence 
in  directing  souls.  Impelled  by  a  desire  of  martyr- 
dom, he  went  to  Rome  in  April,  IdOS,  to  offer  liiin.self 
for  the  foreign  missions,  but,  falling  sick  at  Marseilles, 
he  returned  to  Barcelona.  Goil  bestowed  upon  him 
prophetic  :ind  miraculous  power.  The  dying,  the 
blind,  tlie  deaf  and  dumb,  the  lame,  and  the  paralytic, 
were  instanlly  eined  by  him.  He  was  beatified  by 
Pius  \TI,  .")  September,  1806,  and  canonized  by  Pius 
X,  20  iMa\-,  1909.     His  feast  occurs  on  23  March. 

Sai.otti.  Vilii  :li  San  Giuseppe  Oriol  (Rome.  1909);  Mabdeu, 
Vida  del  Bailo  Josef  Oriol  (Italian  and  Spanish.  1806;  new  Span- 
ish cd.,  Barcelona,  1S86) ;  Ballester.  Vida  de  Sail  Josi  Oriol 
(Barcelona,  1909) ;  Eularia  Anzizd,  Vida  de  St.  Joseph  Oriol 
(in  Catalan,  Barcelona,  1909;  Spanish  tr.,  Barcelona,  1910). 

Charles  J.  Mullaly. 

Oristano,  Diocese  of  (Arborensis),  in  Sardinia. 
Oristano  was  the  capital  of  the  giudicatura  (independ- 
ent district)  of  Arborea,  given  to  the  House  of  Sardi, 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Saracens,  and  was  .subject 
to  Pisa.  It  was  the  last  city  to  surrender  to  the  Ara- 
gonese  (1478),  against  whom  it  was  valiantly  defended 
by  Mariano.  Bishops  of  Arborea  are  mentioned  for 
the  first  time  in  the  letters  of  Gregory  VII.  The 
bishop  Tragadorio  (1195)  built  the  cathedral;  Friar 
Guido  Cattano  (1312)  took  part  in  the  Franciscan 
controversy  on  the  poverty  of  Jesus  Christ;  Jacopo 
Serra  (1492)  was  Vicar  of  Rome  and  became  a  cardi- 
nal; Girolamo  Barberani  (1565)  had  several  disputes 
with  the  Dominicans  and  Pius  V;  Antonio  Canopolo 
(1588)  founded  the  seminary,  rebuilt  by  Luigi  Eraan- 
uele  del  Carretto  (1756),  and  contributed  also  to  other 
works  of  public  utility.  In  1503  there  was  united  to  the 
See  of  Oristano  that  of  Santa  Giusta,  where  SS.  Justa, 
Justina,  and  ^Enedina  martyred  under  Hadrian(?), 
are  venerated.  Bishops  of  Santa  Giusta  are  known 
from  the  year  1119.  The  diocese  is  a  suffragan  of 
Cagliari;  it  has  74  parishes,  with  97,000  inhabitants,  3 
religious  houses  of  men,  and  7  of  women,  3  schools  for 
boys,  and  2  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d'  Italia,  V. 

II.  Benigni. 

Orkneys,  a  group  of  islands  situated  between  58° 
41'  and  59°  24'  N.  lat.  and  2°  22'  and  3°  25'  W.  long., 
and  lying  to  the  north  of  Scotland,  from  which  they 
are  separated  by  Pent  land  Firth.  They  include  Holme 
and  Klippen,  the  most  important,  however,  being 
Pomona  or  Mainland.  The  total  area  is  over  three 
hundred  and  seventy-five  square  miles  and  the  popu- 
lation (of  Xorse  descent),  almost  exclusively  Calvin- 
ist  and  English  speaking,  numbers  30,000.  These 
islands,  for  the  most  part  level  (the  greatest  altitude 
being  1541  feet,  on  Hoy),  rocky,  barren,  treeless,  part- 
ly covered  by  swampland,  produce  only  barley,  oats, 
potatoes,  and  beets.  Stock  raising  is  an  important 
industry,  the  yearly  production  being  30^00  cattle, 
40,000  sheep,  5000  pigs,  and  6000  horses  of  a  small  but 
sturdy  breed.  The  hunting  of  birds,  seal,  and  whales, 
and  the  deep-sea  fisheries  (herring,  cod,  and  lobsters) 
furnish  the  inhabitants  with  further  means  of  suste- 
nance. Excellent  trout  are  to  be  caught  in  the  nu- 
merous fiords  and  small  lakes.  Mining  for  iron,  tin, 
and  silver  is  also  carried  on  successfully.  The  ex- 
portation of  down  and  woven  stuffs,  (shawls,  etc.) 
forms  a  lucrative  source  of  income.  Politically,  the 
Orkneys  form,  with  the  Shetlands,  a  county,  the 
capital  being  Kirkwall  (a  town  of  5000  inhabi- 
tants), important  as  a  trading  centre,  with  a  good 
harbour. 

History.— Among  the  ancients  the  OpuHies  i-Tjtroi 
also  called  Orcacies  insula;,  are  the  Orkneys,  mentioned 
by  Pliny,  Mela,  and  Tacitus.  Julius  Agricola,  as  com- 
mander of  the  trooi)s  garrisoned  in  Britain,  in  a.  d.  69, 
had  the  coast  of  Enghuid  explored  by  his  ships  of  war, 
and  took  back  more  trustworthy  information  concern- 


ORLANDINI 


317 


ORLANDUS 


ing  these  mythical  territories,  which  he  brought 
under  the  sceptre  of  Rome  for  the  time  being.  Noth- 
ing is  known  of  the  inhabitants  at  that  time,  but  they 
were  probably  Celts.  About  872  the  rulers  of  the 
separate  islands  were  forced  to  submit  to  the  rule  of 
Harold  Haarfager,  King  of  Norway,  who  also  sub- 
jugated the  Hebrides,  Isle  of  Man,  aiid  Ireland.  Later 
Eric  Blodsee  sought  refuge  on  the  Orkneys  from  his 
victorious  adversaries.  From  these  islands  also  Olaf 
Trygvesson  undertook  the  conquest  of  his  ancestral 
kingdom  (995),  and  Harold  Hardrada  set  forth  on  his 
last  campaign  against  England  (1066).  Thence  also 
Olaf  Kyrre  returned  to  his  native  land  (1067)  and 
Hakon  IV  began  his  military  expedition  against  Scot- 
land (1263).  In  1271  Magnus  IV  of  Norway  ceded 
to  King  Alexander  III  of  Scotland  all  Scottish  islands 
"with  the  exception  of  the  Orkneys",  in  return  for  a 
yearly  tribute,  a  condition  which  was  renewed  in 
later  documents.  Instead  of  being  under  the  direct 
government  of  the  monarchs  of  Norway,  the  Orkneys 
were  now  ruled  by  jor/s,  appointed  by  them  from  the 
houses  of  Strathearn  and  Sinclair.  After  the  marriage 
of  James  III  of  Scotland  to  the  daughter  of  Christian 
I,  King  of  the  united  countries,  the  latter  mortgaged 
the  Orkneys  to  Scotland  as  security  for  his  daughter's 
dowry  (6  Sept.,  1468),  which  he  had  not  paid,  and 
later  attempts  at  redemption  proved  fruitless.  Thus 
it  was  that  Scottish  ways  and  the  English  language 
gradually  found  access  into  the  Orkneys  and  then  lie- 
came  predominant.  But  many  Norse  customs  and 
many  Scandinavian  forms  of  expression  still  persist, 
as  though  the  nation  preserved  a  certain  attachment 
for  the  mother-country,  with  which  tradition  says  it 
will  be  one  day  reunited. 

Religious  History. — Although  the  monks  from 
Zona  were  active  in  the  Orkneys  at  a  very  early  period, 
the  exact  date  when  the  Gospel  was  first  preached  and 
the  nationality  of  the  first  missionaries  are  unknown. 
The  early  Christian  communities  probably  succumbed 
during  the  disturbances  of  the  migratory  movements, 
and  the  later  Norse  settlers  were  pagans.  Christian- 
ity first  attained  predominance,  however,  under  Olaf 
Trygvesson.  About  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century 
Kirkwall  (Kirkevaag)  was  made  the  seat  of  a  diocese 
{dioeccsis  Orcadensis) ,  in  connexion  with  which  a  cathe- 
dral chapter  was  later  established,  and  the  Shetland 
Islands  were  assigned  it  as  an  archidiaconate.  The 
prelates  (at  first  prevailingly  Norse,  and  later  of 
Scotch  extraction)  were  suffragans  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Lund,  were  later  under  Trondhjem  (Nidaros),  and 
after  1472  under  St.  Andrews.  Practically  nothing 
is  known  as  to  their  names  and  the  dates  of  their 
episcopates,  and  the  documentary  sources  show  im- 
portant discrepancies.  Some  bishops  received  aca- 
demic honours,  which  would  indicate  that  they  were 
not  ignorant  men  for  their  times.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  last  Catholic  bishop,  Robert  Reid  (d.  14 
Sept.,  1558),  who  is  described  as  "vir  omni  literatura 
cuitus  et  in  rebus  gerendis  peritissimus",  and  who 
in  1540  brought  to  completion  the  magnificent  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Magnus,  which  had  been  begun  by  his 
predecessors.  His  successor,  Adam  Bothwell,  died 
(23  Aug.,  1593)  an  apostate.  At  this  time  the  last 
■  sparks  of  Catholicism  were  extinguished  on  the  Ork- 
neys under  the  fury  of  Calvinistic  fanaticism  which 
had  been  raging  for  decades,  laying  waste  churches  and 
employing  both  craft  and  force  to  draw  the  inhabi- 
tants from  the  faith  of  their  fathers. 

History  op  Art. — Burial  chambers  and  stone 
circles  (atStenness  on  Mainland)  testify  to  the  prim- 
itive artistic  sense  of  the  original  Celtic  inhabitants. 
The  earliest  traces  of  the  Norse  occupation  are  to 
be  found  on  Sandey, — burial  mounds  such  as  those 
in  Scandinavia  and  great  stone  walls  as  ramparts  about 
the  houses  of  warriors.  The  settlements  were  copies, 
on  a  more  modest  scale,  of  the  native  places  of  the 
founders,  Osko,  Nidaros  etc.     No  secular  buildings 


of  the  Middle  Ages  have  survived.  Only  the  ruins 
of  the  episcopal  residence  at  Kirkwall,  where  King 
Hakon  IV  died  (15  December,  1263),  are  to  be  seen. 
The  first  Christian  temple  at  Birgsay  has  completely 
disappeared.  Of  two  churches  at  Deer  Ness  and 
Broch  of  Birsay  on  Mainland  (remarkable  for  their 
double  towers  between  nave  and  choir)  only  sketches 
are  extant.  It  is  over  a  hundred  years  since  the  first 
disappeared,  but  considerable  ruins  of  the  second  are 
still  to  be  seen.  There  are  also  traces  of  the  church  of 
St.  Magnus  at  Egilsay  and  of  the  round  apsidal  church 
on  Orphir.  The  great  monumental,  architectural 
work  of  the  whole  archipelago,  however,  is  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Magnus  at  Kirkwall  (Kirkevaag),  which  is 
surpassed  but  slightly  by  the  celebrated  cathedral  of 
Trondhjem.  It  was  begun  in  1137  by  St.  Ragnvald 
(canonized  1192),  prince  (jarl)  and  crusader,  and  rep- 
resents the  artistic  ideas  of  generations.  Laid  out 
originally  according  to  Norman-Roman  style,  it  seems 
to  have  been  strongly  influenced  by  the  Gothic,  and 
shows  a  harmonious  combination  of  the  two  elements. 
The  central  nave  is  supported  by  twenty-eight  col- 
umns of  surpassing  beauty.  Above  the  intersection 
of  the  nave  and  transept  rises  an  imposing  square 
tower,  the  dome  of  which  was  unfortunately  ruined 
by  fire  in  the  seventeenth  century  and  was  replaced 
by  another  which  is  too  low.  Doors  made  of  stones 
of  many  colours  fitted  together  open  into  the  interior 
of  the  temple.  Since  the  introduction  of  Calvinism 
altars,  statues  of  the  saints,  and  sacred  vessels  have 
disappeared;  even  the  relics  of  the  founder  were  scat- 
tered to  the  winds.  The  burial  sites  of  the  jarls  have 
likewise  been  forgotten. 

Mela,  De  situ  orfcis,  III,  vi:  Puny,  HUt.  nal.,  IV,  xxx;  Taci- 
tus, Agricota,  x;  Styffe,  Skandinavien  under  unionstiden  (2nd  ed., 
Stockholm,  1880) ;  ToDOR,  Orkneys  and  Shetlands  Geologij.  Flora, 
etc.  (London,  1883);  Wallace,  Descriplion  of  the  Isles  of  Orkney 
(London,  1884) ;  Fea,  Present  Utate  of  the  Orkney  Islands  (Lonilon, 
i885):  Storm,  Hist,  top,  skriftcr  om  Norneoy  norske  Landsdale 
(Christiania,  189.5);  Dietrichson.  Van-faders  r.iA-  (C'liristiania, 
Copeiiliagen,  1900) ;  Walsh,  Hii  "'""  <  •'>:.  '  '■.■•'■  "  s..<:!.,„d 
(Glasgow,  1874);  Lyon,  tfisl.  "I     '1  .:  ■    ■<       I    '.    '    ,  L-h. 

1843);  Keyser,  Den  norske  Air/       '  /,  i2 

vols.  Christiania,  1856-58)  Gam-.  ^'  ..  ,  ,.,  ~  .  <  i:  ,■  i~' ~  .■,.  K.'.i; 
Ecbel,  Hierarchia  catholica  medii  tvri  (2  vols.,  R:itiabon,  1S9S- 
1901). 

Pius  Wittmann. 

Orlandini,  Niccoi^d,  b.  at  Florence,  1554;  d.  1006 
at  Rome,  17  May.  He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  7 
Nov.,  1572;  became  rector  of  the  Jesuit  college  at 
Nola;  was  master  of  novices  at  Naples  for  five  years; 
and  finally  appointed  secretary  of  the  general  Acqua- 
viva,  who  in  1558  detailed  him  to  write  the  history  of 
the  Jesuit  Order.  This  work  comprises  only  the  gen- 
eralate  of  St.  Ignatius.  It  was  edited  by  Sacchini,  and 
appeared  under  the  title  "  Historic  Societatis  Jesu 
prima  pars"  (Rome,  1614,  1615,  1621;  Antwerp,  1620; 
Cologne,  1620).  It  is  written  in  the  form  of  annals, 
and  is  based  chiefly  on  a  life  written  by  the  saint's 
secretary,  de  Polanco.  Ranke,  "Hist,  of  the  Popes", 
III  (London,  1903),  328,  says  of  Oriandini:  "In  his 
style  of  writing,  as  well  as  in  the  business  of  life,  he 
was  exceedingly  careful,  accurate,  and  wary".  The 
history  was  continued  by  Sacchini,  Possinus,  Jouv- 
ancy,  and  Cordara.  The  sixth  an<l  last  part,  reaching 
to  1633,  was  published  at  Rome  in  1758.  Other  works 
are:  "Annual  littera;  Societatis  Jesu,  anni  1583-85" 
(Rome,  158.5-86-88);  "Vita  Petri  Fabri"  (Lyons, 
1017);  the  same  under  the  title  "Forma  sacerdotis 
.•\postolici,  e.xjiressa  in  exemjilo  Petri  Fabri"  (Dil- 
lingen,  1647);  and  "Tractatus  scu  Commentarii  in 
Summarium Const itutionuiiiet  in  rcgulas communes", 
ed.Soero(Rochanii)ton,  1X76).  His"  Vila  Petri  Fabri" 
hiisbeen  translated  into  French  (Bordeaux,  1017)  and 
Italian  (Rome,  1029). 

fiotAKEHvoaKL,  Biblioth^quedctaC.de  J.,V  (Brussels  and  Paris. 
1894),  19.34-35;  Sacchini  in.  introduction  to  Historic  Societatis 
Jesu  prima  pars,  mentioned  above. 

Michael  Ott. 
OrlanduB  de  Lassus.    See  Lassus. 


ORLEANS 


318 


ORLEANS 


Orleans,  CorxciLS  of. — Six  national  councils 
were  lulil  at  Orleans  in  the  Merovinsian  period.  I. — 
At  the  first,  eonyoked  by  Clovis  (July,  511),  thirty- 
three  bishops  assisted  and  passed  thirty-one  decrees  on 
the  duties  and  oblisations  of  individuals,  the  right  of 
sanctuary,  and  ecclesiastical  discipline.  These  de- 
crees, equally  ai)[)lical)le  to  Franks  and  Romans,  first 
established  equality  between  conquerors  and  con- 
quered. The  council  claimed  the  right  of  sanctuary 
in  fa\'Our  of  churches  and  episcopal  residences;  it  stip- 
ulated that  ecclesiastics  need  not  produce  the  culjirit, 
if  the  pursuer  would  not  swear  on  the  Gospels  to 
do  him  no  injury.  It  settled  the  conditions  of  free- 
dom for  a  slave  upon  whom  Holy  orders  had  been  con- 
ferred; ruled  that  freemen  should  not  be  ordained 
without  the  king's  consent,  or  authorization  of  the 
judge;  determined  the  immunities  of  ecclesiastics  and 
church  property  and  committed  to  the  bishops  the 
welfare  of  the  sick  and  the  poor;  settled  the  relations 
of  monks  with  their  abbots  and  of  abbots  with  the 
bishops.  The  i)ractice  of  divination  was  forbidden. 
Clovis  approved  the  decrees  of  the  council,  which 
thus  appears  as  the  first  treaty  between  the  Frankish 
State  and  the  Church.  II. — The  second  national 
council  held  under  Childebert  (June,  533),  attended  by 
twenty-five  bishops,  decreed  that,  conformably  to  the 
earnest  desire  of  Pope  Hormisdas,  annual  provincial 
councils  should  be  held;  further,  that  marriage  could 
not  be  dissolved  by  will  of  the  contracting  parties  for 
infirmities  consequent  on  the  contract;  forbade  the 
marriage  of  Christians  and  Jews;  and  excommunicated 
those  who  partook  of  flesh  offered  in  sacrifice  to  idols. 
III. — The  third  national  council  (May,  538),  attended 
by  thirteen  bishops,  determined  impediments  of  mar- 
riage; pronounced  excommunication  against  ecclesi- 
astics in  the  higher  orders  who  lived  incontinently; 
decreed  that  the  archbishops  should  be  elected  by  the 
bishops  of  the  pro\ince,  with  the  consent  of  the 
clergj-  and  the  citizens;  tlie  bishops  by  the  archbishop, 
the  clergy,  and  the  people  of  the  city. 

IV. — The  fourth  national  council  (541)  assembled 
thirty-eight  bishops  and  maintained  the  date  fixed 
by  Pope  Victor  for  Easter,  contrary  to  Justinian's  or- 
dinances, and  ordered  those  who  had  or  wished  to  have 
a  parish  church  on  their  lands  to  take  the  necessary 
measures  for  the  dignity  of  Divine  worship.  Finally 
it  perfected  the  measures  taken  by  the  Council  of  511 
relative  to  the  emancipation  of  slaves:  slaves  emanci- 
pated by  bishops  were  to  retain  their  freedom  after 
the  death  of  their  emancipators,  even  though  other 
acts  of  their  administration  were  recalled;  it  au- 
thorized the  official  ransom  of  Christians  who  had 
fallen  into  the  power  of  the  Jews  but  had  invoked 
the  right  of  sanctuary  to  recover  their  freedom;  it  de- 
clare<l  that  Jews  who  exhorted  Christian  slaves  to 
become  Jews  in  order  to  be  set  free  should  be  forbid- 
den to  own  such  slaves.  V. — The  fifth  national  coun- 
cil (October,  549)  assembled  nine  archbishops  and 
forty-one  bishops.  After  defending  Mark,  Bishop 
of  Orleans,  from  attacks  made  on  him,  it  pronounced 
an  anathema  against  the  errors  of  Nestorius  and  Euty- 
ches,  it  prohibited  simony,  prescribed  that  elections  of 
bishops  take  place  in  all  freedom,  with  consent  of  the 
clergy,  the  people,  and  the  king,  and  that  no  bishop  be 
consecrated  until  he  had  been  one  year  in  the  clergy. 
It  censured  all  who  attempted  to  subject  to  any  servi- 
tude whatsoever  slaves  emancipated  within  the 
Church,  and  those  who  dared  take,  retain,  or  dispose 
of  church  property.  It  threatened  with  excommuni- 
cation all  wlio  (mibezzled  or  appropriated  funds  given 
by  King  Childebert  for  the  foundation  of  the  hospital 
of  Lyons,  and  it  placed  lepers  under  the  special  charge 
of  each  bishop.  VI. — The  sixth  national  council, 
helfl  under  Clovis  II  about  638  or  639  at  the  request 
of  Sts.  Eloi  and  Ouen,  condemned  and  expelled  from 
the  kingdom  a  Greek  partisan  of  Monothelitism,  at 
the  request  of  Salvius,  Bishop  of  Valence.     VII. — The 


seventh  national  council,  held  in  1022  under  Bishop 
Odolric,  proceeded  against  the  Maiiicha'ans  and  their 
few  adherents  in  the  city.  In  Seiilcmlier,  1478,  Louis 
XI  held  at  Orl(5ans  a  fruitless  as.scmbly  of  the  clergy 
and  the  nobility  to  discuss  the  Crusade,  the  necessity 
for  a  general  council,  and  the  re-establishment  of  the 
"pragmatic  sanction". 

DncHATE.^n,  Hist,  ^du  diocise  d'OMans  '(Orleans,  lSfl2); 
Hefele,  Hist,  des  Connies,  new  French  tr.  Leclercq  (Paris,  1907 
sqq.). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Orleans,  Diocese  of  (Aureliandm),  comprises 
the  Department  of  Loiret,  suffragan  of  Paris  since 
1622,  previously  of  Sens.  After  the  Revolution  it 
was  re-established  by  the  Concordat  of  1802,  when  it 
included  the  Departments  of  Loiret  and  Loir  et  Cher, 
but  in  1822  Loir  et  Cher  was  included  in  the  new  Dio- 
cese of  Blois.  The  present  Diocese  of  OrliJans  differs 
considerably  from  that  of  the  old  regime;  it  has  lost 
the  arrondissement  of  Romorantin  which  has  passed 
to  the  Diocese  of  Blois  and  the  canton  of  Janville,  now 
in  the  Diocese  of  Chartres.  It  includes  the  arrondisse- 
ment of  Montargis,  formerly  subject  to  Sens,  the  ar- 
rondissement of  Gien,  once  in  the  Diocese  of  Auxerre, 
and  the  canton  de  Chdtillon  sur  Loire,  once  belonging 
to  Bourges.  To  Gerbert,  Abbot  of  St.  Pierre  le  Vif  at 
Sens  (1046-79),  is  due  a  detailed  narrative  according 
to  which  Saints  Savinianus  and  Potentianus  were  sent 
to  Sens  by  St.  Peter  with  St.  Altinus;  the  latter,  it  was 
said,  came  to  OrWans  as  its  first  bishop.  Before  the 
ninth  century  there  is  no  historical  trace  in  the  Dio- 
cese of  Sens  of  this  Apostohc  mi-ssion  of  St.  Altinus, 
nor  in  the  Diocese  of  Orleans  before  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth. Diclopitus  is  the  first  authentic  bishop;  he 
figures  among  the  bishops  of  Gaul  who  (about  344) 
ratified  the  absolution  of  St.  Athanasius.  Other  bish- 
ops of  the  early  period  are:  St.  Euvertius,  about  355  to 
385,  according  to  M.  Cuissard;  St.  Aignan  (.\nianus) 
(385-453),  who  invoked  the  aid  of  the  "patrician" 
j^iltius  against  the  invasion  of  Attila,  and  forced  the 
Huns  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orleans;  St.  Prosper  (453- 
63);  St.  Monitor  (about  472);  St.  Flou  (Flosculus),  d. 
in  490;  St.  Eucherius  (717-43),  native  of  Orleans  and  a 
monk  of  Jumicges,  who  protested  against  the  depreda- 
tions of  Waifre,  a  companion  of  Charles  Martel,  and 
was  exiled  to  Cologne  by  this  prince,  then  to  Liege, 
and  dietl  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Trond. 

Of  the  eighth-century  bishops,  Theodulfus  was  no- 
table. It  is  not  known  when  he  began  to  govern,  but 
it  is  certain  that  he  was  already  bishop  in  798,  when 
Charlemagne  sent  him  into  Narbonne  and  Provence 
as  missus  dommicus.  Under  Louis  le  Df^'bonnaire  he 
was  accused  of  aiding  the  rebelhous  King  of  Italy,  was 
deposed  and  imprisoned  four  years  in  a  monastery  at 
Angers,  but  was  released  when  Louis  came  to  Angers 
in  821.  The  "Capitularies"  which  Theodulfus  ad- 
dressed to  tlie  clergy  of  Orleans  are  considered  a  most 
important  monument  of  Catholic  tradition  on  the  du- 
ties of  priests  and  the  faithful.  His  Ritual,  his  Peni- 
tential, his  treatise  on  baptism,  confirmation,  and  the 
Eucharist,  his  edition  of  the  Bible,  a  work  of  fine  pen- 
manship preserved  in  the  Puy  cathedral,  reveal  him  as 
one  of  the  foremost  men  of  his  time  (see  P.  L.,  CV, 
187).  His  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  devotion  to  the 
spreafl  of  learning.  The  Abbey  of  Ferrieres  was  then 
becoming  under  .Mcuin  a  centre  of  learning.  Theodul- 
fus oiM'ncd  the  .Vblicy  of  Fleury  to  the  young  noble- 
men sent  thither  by  Charlemagne,  in\ited  the  clergy 
to  establish  free  schools  in  th<'  country  districts,  and 
quoted  for  Ihcni,  "These  that  are  learned  shall  shine 
as  the  brightness  of  thi>  firmaniciil  :  and  they  that  in- 
struct many  to  justice,  as  stars  to  all  eternity"  (Dan., 
xii,  3).  One  nioTminent  of  his  time  still  suivives  in  the 
diocese,  the  ajjse  of  the  church  of  Germigiiy  modelled 
after  the  imperial  chapel,  and  yet  retaining  its  unique 
mosaic  decoration.  Other  noteworthy  bishops  are: 
Jonas  (821-43),  who  wrote  a  treatise  against  the  Icon- 


ORLEANS 


319 


ORLEANS 


oclasts,  also  a  treatise  on  the  Christian  hfe  and  a  booli 
on  the  duties  of  Icings  (for  these  texts  see  P.  L.,  CVI, 
117);  St.  Thierry  II  (1016-21);  Blessed  Phihp  Berru- 
yer  (1234-6);  Blessed  Roger  le  Fort  (1321-8);  Cardi- 
nal Jean  de  Longueville  (1521-33),  who  received  Queen 
Eleanor,  sister  of  Charles  V,  in  the  cathedral  of  Or- 
leans, and  King  Francis  I  in  the  church  of  St.  Aiguan 
of  Orleans;  Cardinal  Antoine  Sanguin  (1534-52),  who 
received  Charles  V  at  Orleans  in  1539;  Bernier  (1S02- 
6) ;  Fayer  ( 1.S43-9),  member  of  the  Constituent  Assem- 
bly of  184S;  Dupanloup  (1849-78).  For  the  Abbeys  of 
Fleury  and  Ferrieres  see  Fleury  and  Ferrieres. 

After  his  victory  over  the  Alamanni,  Clovis  was  bent 
on  the  sack  of  Verdun,  but  the  archpricst  there  ob- 
tained mercy  for  his  fellow-citizens.  To  St.  Euspicius 
and  his  nephew  St.  Mesmin  (IMaximinus),  Clovis  also 
gave  the  domain  of  Micy,  near  Orleans  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Loire  and  the  Loiret,  for  a  monastery  (508) . 
When  Euspicius  died,  St.  Maximinus  became  abbot, 
and  during  his  rule  the  religious  life  flourished  there 
notably,  and  the  monastery  counted  many  saints. 
From  Micy  monastic  life  spread.  St.  Liphardus  and 
St.  Urbicius  founded  the  Abbey  of  Meung-sur-Loire; 
St.  Ly6  (La^tus)  died  a  recluse  in  the  forest  of  Orleans; 
St.  Viatre  (Viator)  in  Sologne;  St.  Doulchard  in  the 
forest  of  Ambly  near  Bourges.  St.  Leonard  introduced 
the  monastic  life  into  the  territory  of  Limoges;  St.  Al- 
mir,  St.  Ulphacius,  and  St.  Bomer  in  the  vicinity  of 
Montmirail;  St.  Avitus  (d.  about  527)  in  the  district  of 
Chartres;  St.  Calais  (d.  before  536)  and  St.  Leonard  of 
Vendoeuvre  (d.  about  570)  in  the  valley  of  the  Sarthe; 
St.  Fraimbault  and  St.  Constantine  in  the  Javron  for- 
est, and  the  aforesaid  St.  Bomer  (d.  about  560)  in  the 
Passais  near  Laval;  St.  Leonard  of  Dunois;  St.  Alva 
and  St.  Ernier  in  Perche;  St.  Laumer  (d.  about  590) 
became  Abbot  of  Corbion.  St.  Lubin  (Leobinus),  a 
monk  of  Micy,  became  Bishop  of  Chartres  from  544- 
56.  Finally  Ay  (Agilus),  Viscount  of  Orleans  (d.  after 
587),  a  protector  of  Micy,  was  also  a  saint.  The  monks 
of  Micy  contributed  much  to  the  civilization  of  the 
Orleans  region;  they  cleared  and  drained  the  lands  and 
taught  the  semi-barbarous  inhabitants  the  worth  and 
dignity  of  agricultural  work.  Early  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, Theodulfus  restored  the  Abbey  of  Micy  and  at 
his  request  St.  Benedict  of  Aniane  sent  fourteen  monk.^ 
and  visited  the  abbey  himself.  The  last  abbot  of 
Micy,  Chapt  de  Rastignac,  was  one  of  the  victims  of 
the  "September  Massacres",  at  Paris,  1792,  in  the 
prison  of  L'Abbaye. 

The  schools  of  Orleans  early  acquired  great  prestige; 
in  the  sixth  century  Gontran,  King  of  Burgundy,  had 
his  son  Gondebaud  educated  there.  After  Theodolfus 
had  developed  and  improved  the  schools,  Charle- 
magne, and  later  Hugh  Capet,  sent  thither  their  eldest 
sons  as  pupils.  These  institutions  were  at  the  height  of 
their  fame  from  the  eleventh  century  to  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth.  Their  influence  spread  as  far  as  Italy 
and  England  whence  students  came  to  them.  Among 
the  medieval  rhetorical  treatises  which  have  come  down 
to  us  under  the  title  of  ' '  Ars  "  or  "  Summa  Dictaminis  " 
four,  at  least,  were  written  or  re-edited  by  OrI6ans  pro- 
fessors. In  1230,  when  for  a  time  the  doctors  of  the 
University  of  Paris  were  scattered,  a  number  of  the 
teachers  and  disciples  took  refuge  in  Orleans;  when 
Boniface  VIII,  in  1298,  promulgated  the  sixth  book  of 
the  Decretals,  he  appointed  the  doctors  of  Bologna 
and  the  doctors  of  Orleans  to  comment  upon  it.  St. 
Yves  (1253-1.303)  studied  civil  law  at  Orleans,  and 
Clement  V  also  studied  there  law  and  letters;  by  a  Bull 
published  at  Lyons,  27  .hinuary,  1306,  he  endowed  the 
Orleans  institutes  with  the  title  and  privileges  of  a 
University.  Twelve  of  his  successors  granted  the  new 
university  many  privileges.  In  the  fourteenth  century 
it  had  as  many  as  five  thousand  students  from  France, 
Germany,  Lorraine,  Burgundy,  Champagne,  Picardy, 
Normandy,  Totnaine,  Guyan,  Scotland.  Among 
those  who  studied  or  lectured  there  are  quoted :  in  the 


fourteenth  century.  Cardinal  Pierre  Bertrandi;  in  the 
fifteenth,  John  Reuchlin;  in  the  sixteenth,  Calvin  and 
Theodore  de  Beze,  the  Protestant  Anne  Duboing,  the 
publicist  Francois  Hotmann,  the  jurisconsult  Pierre  de 
i'Etoile;  in  the  seventeenth,  Moliere  (perhaps in  1640), 
and  the  savant  Du  Cange;  in  the  eighteenth,  the  juris- 
consult Pothier. 

Among  the  notable  saints  of  the  diocese  are:  St. 
Baudilus,  a  Nimes  martyr  (third  or  fourth  century) ; 
the  deacon  St.  Lucanus,  martyr,  patron  of  Loigny 
(fifth  century) ;  the  anchorite  St.  Donatus  (fifth  cen- 
tury); St.  May,  abbot  of  Val  Benolt  (fifth  century); 
St.  Mesnie,  virgin  and  (perhaps)  martyr,  sister  of  St. 
Mesmin   (.sixth  century);  St.  Felicule,  patroness  of 


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Cathedr.\l.  Ohle.\n.s 

Gien  (sixth  century);  St.  Sigisinund,  King  of  Bur- 
gundy, who,  by  order  of  the  Merovingian,  Clodomir, 
and  despite  the  entreaties  of  St.  Avitus,  was  thrown 
(524)  into  a  well  with  his  wife  and  children;  St.  Gon- 
tran, King  of  Orleans  and  Burgundy  (561-93),  a  con- 
fessor; St.  Loup  (Lupus),  Archbishop  of  Sens,  born 
near  Orleans,  and  his  mother  St.  Agia  (first  half  of  the 
seventh  century);  St.  Gregory,  former  Bishop  of  \ico- 
polis,  in  Bulgaria,  who  died  a  recluse  at  Pithivicra 
(1004  or  1007);  St.  Rose,  Abbess  of  Ervauville  (d. 
1130);  Blessed  Odo  of  OrlC-ans,  BLshop  of  Caiiilirai 
(1105-13);  the  leper  St.  Alpaix,  died  in  1211  at  Cudot, 
where  she  was  visited  by  Alix  of  Champagne,  widow  nf 
Louis  VII;  St.  Guillaume  (d.  1200).  Abbot  of  I'on- 
tainejean  and  subsequently  Archbi.shop  of  Bourges; 
the  Dominicans,  Blessed  Reginald,  ilcan  of  tlic  collegi- 
ate church  of  St.  Aignan,  Orleans  (d.  1220);  the  I'ing- 
li.shman  St.  Richard,  who  studied  theology  at  ( )rleans 
in  1236,  Bishop  of  Chichester  in  1244,  a  frien<l  of  St. 
Edmund  of  Canterbury;  St.  Maurus,  called  to  i'laiice 
by  St.  Irmocent,  Bishop  of  Mans,  and  seni  llnlljei  by 
St.  Benedict,  resided  at  Orleans  with  fcjiu-  eoiii|i.iMioiis 
in  542;  St.  Radegonde,  on  her  way  from  Noyon  lo  Poi- 
tiers in  544,  and  St.  Columbanus,  exiled  from  Luxeuil 
at  the  close  of  the  sixth^  century ,  both  visited  Orleans. 
Charlemagne  had  the  church  of  St.  Aignan  rebuilt  and 
reconstructed  the  monastery  of  St.  Pierre  le  Puellier. 
In  the  cathedral  of  Orleans  on  31  December,  987,  Hugh 


ORLEY 


320 


ORLEY 


Capet  had  Iiis  son  Robert  (b.  at  Orleans)  crowned 
king.  Innoront  II  and  St.  Bernard  visited  Fleury  and 
Orli'-ansin  li:iO. 

The  people  of  Orleans  were  so  impressed  by  the 
preaching  of  Blessed  Robert  of  Arbrissel  in  1113  that 
he  was  invited  to  found  the  monastery  of  La  Made- 
leine, which  he  re-vi.sited  in  1117  with  St.  Bernard  of 
Thiron.  The  charitable  deeds  of  St.  Louis  at  Puise- 
au.\,  Chateauncuf-siir-Loire,  and  Orleans,  where  he 
wius  present  at  the  translation  of  the  relics  of  St.  /Vif;- 
nan  (2tJ  October,  1259),  and  where  lie  fre(|uciitly  went 
to  care  for  the  poor  of  the  Hotel  IMcu,  are  well  known. 
Pierre  de  Beaufort,  Archdeacon  of  Sully  and  canon  of 
Orleans,  ius  Gregory  XI  (l.'jTl-sj,  wa.s  the  last  pope 


South  Side,  Cathedral,  Orleans 
that  France  gave  to  the  Church ;  he  created  Cardinal 
Jean  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  Abbot  of  St.  Benoit-sur- 
Loire.  Blessed  Jeanne  de  Valois  was  Duchess  of  Or- 
leans and  after  her  separation  from  Louis  XII  (1498) 
she  established,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
monastery  of  L'Annonciade  at  Ch&teauneuf-sur- 
Loire.  Etienne  Dolet  (1509-46),  a  printer,  philolo- 
gian,  and  pamphleteer,  executed  at  Paris  and  looked 
uponbysomeasa"  martyr  of  the  Renaissance ' ' ,  was  a 
native  of  Orleans.  Cardinal  Odet  de  Coligny,  who 
joined  the  Reformation  about  1560,  was  Abbot  of  St. 
Euvertius,  of  Fontainejean,  Ferrieres,  and  St.  Benolt. 
Admiral  Coligny  (1519-72)  (see  Saint  Bartholo- 
mew's Day)  was  born  at  Chatillon-sur-Loing  in  the 
present  diocese.  .Vt  t  he  beginning  of  the  religious  wars 
Orl(5ans  was  disputed  between  the  Guises  and  the  fol- 
lowers of  the  Protestant  Conde.  In  the  vicinity  of  Or- 
Kians  Duke  Francis  of  Guise  was  assassinated  3  Feb- 
ruary, 1562. 

The  Calvinist,  Jacques  Bongars,  councillor  of  Henry 
IV,  who  collected  and  edited  the  chronicles  of  the  Cru- 
sades in  his  "Gcsta  Dei  per  Francos",  was  born  at  Or- 
leans in  1554.  The  Jesuit,  Denis  Petav  (Petavius),  a 
renowned  scholar  and  theologian,  was  born  at  Orleans 
in  1583.  St.  Francis  of  Sales  came  to  Orleans  in  1618 
and  1619.  Venerable  Mother  Fran5oise  de  la  Croix 
(1591-1657),  a  pupil  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  who 
founded  the  congregation  of  Augustinian  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  Notre  Dame,  was  bom  at  Petay  in  the  dio- 


cese. The  Miramion  family,  to  which  Marie  Bonneau 
is  celcbralcil  in  the  annals  of  charity  under  the  name  of 
Mnie  (le  Miramion  (1629-96),  belonged  by  marriage, 
were  from  ( )rl('aiLs.  St.  Jane  de  Chantal  was  superior  of 
the  Orl(5ans  couvenl  of  the  Visitation  in  1627.  Mme 
Guyon,  celcbratcilin  the  annals  of  (Quietism  (q.  v.),was 
born  at  Montargis  in  lt)4s.  France  was  saved  from 
English  domination  through  the  deli verance  of  Orleans 
by  Joan  of  Arc  (8  May,  M2'.ll.  ( )n21  July,  M.")."..  Iierre- 
habilitation  was  publicly  proclaimed  at  Orlr.aris  in  a 
solenui  procession,  and  before  her  death  in  November, 
14.')S,  Isabel  Rom6e,  the  mother  of  Joan  of  Are,  saw  a 
monument  erected  in  honour  of  her  daughter,  at  Tour- 
nelles,  near  the  Orleans  bridge.  The  monument,  de- 
stroyed by  the  Huguenots  in  1567,  was  set  up  again  in 
1509  wIk'U  the  Catholics  were  once  more  masters  of  the 
city.  Until  1792,  and  again  from  1802  to  1830,  finally 
from  1842  to  the  present  day,  a  great  religious  feast, 
celebrated  8  May  of  every  year  at  Orleans  in  honour  of 
Joan  of  Arc,  attracted  multitudes  (see  Joan  of  Arc). 
The  Church  of  Orleans  was  the  last  in  France  to  take 
up  again  the  Roman  liturgy  (1874).  The  Sainte  Croix 
cathedral,  perhaps  built  and  consecrated  by  St.  Euver- 
tius in  the  fourth  century,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  999 
and  rebuilt  from  1278  to  1329;  the  Protestants  pillaged 
and  destroyed  it  from  1562  to  1567;  the  Bourbon  kings 
restored  it  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  princijial  pilgrimages  of  the  diocese  are:  Our 
Lady  of  Bethlehem,  at  Ferrieres  (q.  v.);  Our  Lady  of 
Miracles  at  Orleans,  dating  back  to  the  seventh  cen- 
tury (Joan  of  Arc  visited  its  sanctuary  8  May,  1429); 
Our  Lady  of  Clery,  dating  from  the  thirteenth  century, 
visited  by  Philip  the  Fair,  Philip  VI,  and  especially  by 
Louis  XI,  who  wore  in  his  hat  a  leaden  image  of  Notre 
Dame  de  Clery  and  who  wished  to  have  his  tomb  in 
this  sanctuary  where  Dunois,  one  of  the  heroes  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  war  was  also  interred.  Prior  to  the 
,\.Ksociations  Law  of  1901  the  Diocese  of  Orleans 
eouuleil  Franciscans,  Benedictines,  Missionary  Priests 
of  the  Society  of  Mary,  Lazarists,  Missionaries  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  and  several  orders  of  teaching  Brothers. 
.\mong  the  congregations  of  w'omen  wliieli  originated 
in  this  diocese  must  be  mentioned:  the  Calvary  Bene- 
dictines, a  teaching  and  nursing  order  founded  in  1617 
by  I'lincess  .Antoinette  d'Orleans-Longueville,  and  the 
Capueliiii  Leelerc  du  Tremblay  known  as  Pere  Joseph; 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Aignan,  a  teaching  order  founded  in 
1853  by  Bishop  Dupanloup,  with  mother-house  in  Or- 
leans. At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  the 
religious  congregations  of  this  diocese  conducted:  1 
creche ;  77  infant  schools ;  2  institutions  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb;  10  orphanages;  2  houses  for  penitent  women, 
12  religious  houses  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  own 
homes;  2  houses  of  retreat;  27  hospitals  or  asylums;  1 
poor  house.  In  1905  (last  year  of  the  Concordat)  the 
diocese  had  371,019  inhabitants;  41  pastorates;  293 
succursal  parishes;  23  vicariates  subventioned  by  the 
State. 

OalKa  Christiana,  VIII  (1744),  140S-1513;  Instrumenta,  479- 
546;  Duchesne,  Pastes  Episcopaux,  453-60:  Cuissabd,  Les  pre- 
miers hlques  d'OrUans  (Orleans,  1887);  Duchateau,  Hist,  du 
diocese  d'Orleans  (ibid.,  1888) ;  Bimbenet,  Hist,  de  la  ville  d'Or- 
leans  (3  vols.,  ibid.,  1884-7) :  Baunard,  Vie  des  saints  et  personages 
illustres  de  Veglise  d'Orlians  (3  vols.,  ibid.,  1862-3);  Cochabd, 
Les  saints  de  Veglise  d'Orlians  (ibid.,  1879);  Cuissard,  Thioditlfe, 
ivique  d'OrUans,  sa  vie  et  ses  tsuvres  (ibid.,  1892);  S6jouRN]fi,  Les 
reliqucs  de  St.  Aignan,  ivique  d'Orleans  (ibid.,  1905);  Cuissard; 
Les  chanoines  et  dignitaires  de  la  cathedrale  d'Orlians  (ibid.,  1900); 
Delisle,  Les  icotes  d'Orleans  au  douziime  et  au  treizhne  siicles 
(Paris,  1869);  Bimbenet,  Hist,  de  I'universiti  d'Orlians  (Orleans, 
1853) ;  FouRNlER,  Les  stattUs  et  priviUges  des  Universitis /ran^aises^ 
I  (Paris,  1890) ;  Jarossay,  Hist,  d'un  monasthre  orleanais,  Micy 
St.  Mesmin,  son  influence  Teligieuse  et  sociale  (Orleans,  1901). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Orley,  Barent  Van  (Bernard),  painter,  b.  at 
Brussels,  about  1491 ;  d.  there  6  January,  1542.  He 
studied  under  Raphael  in  1 509.  He  returned  to  Brussels 
and  was  commissioned  in  1515  to  paint  an  altar-piece 
for  the  Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Fumes.  In 
1518  he  was  appointed  official  painter  to  Margaret  of 


ORME 


321 


O'RORKE 


Austria,  Regent  of  the  Netherlands,  and  two  years 
afterwards  entertained  Diirer  in  his  house  for  some 
time,  during  which  Diiicr  painted  Orley's  portrait, 
now  in  the  Dresden  Museum.  In  1530,  Margaret  of 
Austria  having  died,  ( Irlcy  received  the  official  ap- 
pointment from  liir  successor,  Mary  of  Hungary.  Or- 
ley  was  a  Catlinlic,  Inil  assisted  at  various  Lutheran 
meetings  held  in  his  f:ithci'sh()U.se.  He  and  his  brother 
were  arrested,  with  several  other  iKiiiiins,  .■md  sen- 
tenced to  pay  fines,  and  to  do  pul)lir  |icii;(iiic  in  the 
church  of  St.  Gudule  (Bru.ssels).  Tin-  ai(isl  liad  seven 
chilih-en  hv  his  first  wife,  .\gncs  Seghcres,  and  two  by 
his  scond'wife,  Catlicrinc  llellincx. 

He  ])ainted  in  oil  anil  in  tempera,  and  made  a  great 
many  designs  for  glass  windows.  Some  of  the  finest 
windows  in  St.  Gudule's  are  from  his  drawings.  He 
was  an  engraver  and  an  able  craftsman.  With  Mich- 
ael Cocxie  he  superintended  the  manufacture  of  the 
tapestries  for  the  Vatican  designed  from  Raphael's 
cartoons  for  Leo  X.  Three  pieces  of  tapestry  from  his 
own  drawings  are  at  Hampton  Court,  the  Louvre,  and 
the  Castrta  Palace  at  Naples.  Many  of  his  pictures 
derive  their  extreme  brilliance  from  being  painted  on  a 
grovrnd  of  gold-leaf.  A  tradition  that  he  visited  Eng- 
land lacks  definite  proof.  The  eight  portraits  of  the 
first  Regent  of  the  Netherlands,  and  four  of  the  sec- 
ond, he  is  said  to  have  painted,  have  not  yet  been 
found.  His  works  occasionally  bear  the  family  motto 
"Elx  sijne  tijt"  (Every  man  his  day). 

Fetis,  Musee  Royal  de  Bdgique  (Brussels,  1865) ;  and  see  the 
writings  of  van  Mander,  Michiels,  Siret.  and  Ophemert. 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Orme,  Philibert  de  l',  architect,  b.  about  1512; 
d.  1570.  His  style,  classical  and  of  the  more  severe 
Italian  type,  later  developed  characteristics  show- 
ing greater  personal  independence.  He  has  also 
importance  as  an  author  on  subjects  in  his  par- 
ticular line,  and  is  our  chief  source  of  information 
on  his  own  works  and  the  events  of  his  life,  although 
his  writings  are  not  devoid  of  exaggerations.  While 
still  a  youth  he  went  to  Rome;  he  would  probably  have 
remained  there  in  the  service  of  Paul  III,  had  not 
Cardinal  du  Bellay  and  others  urged  him  to  go  to 
France.  Soon  after  his  return  to  his  native  city  of 
Lyons  (1536)  he  gave  evidence  of  his  originality  as  an 
artist  in  the  invention  of  the  trompe  vaulting,  so 
popular  with  the  French,  i.  e.  arches  with  double 
curves  supporting  weight  imposed  on  them  from  the 
side  and  in  the  artistic  stone  carving,  which  gives 
them  their  charm.  He  was  obliged  to  leave  the 
ixii'tal  of  St.  Nizier  at  Lyons  incomplete  in  order  to 
build  the  chateau  of  St.  Maur-les-FossiJs  at  Paris  for 
Bellay,  which  he  later  had  to  enlarge.  According  to 
his  own  statements,  he  introduced  in  this  important 
innovations,  e.  g.  in  the  construction  of  colunms.  In 
1538  he  prevented  the  occupation  of  Brest  by  the 
English.  Francis  I  now  deputed  him  to  make  a  semi- 
annual inspection  of  the  fortifications  on  the  coast  of 
Brittany,  and  review  and  provide  for  the  vessels 
stationed  there,  and  appointed  him  commandant 
of  fortifications.  In  1547  Orme  began  work  on  the 
king's  tomb.  Under  Henry  II  he  was  promoted  imtil 
he  finally  became  supervisor  of  all  royal  buildings.  In 
this  capacity  he  directed  the  work  on  the  chateaux 
of  Fontainebleau,  St-Germain-en-Laye,  Madrid  etc., 
and  had  at  the  same  time  to  investigate  the  character 
of  the  servnce  which  had  been  rendered  Francis  I  in 
connexion  with  these  undertakings. 

While  in  his  fifties  he  built  the  chMeau  of  Anet 
and  Meudon.  The  former,  in  which  he  was  allowed 
complete  liberty,  is  of  special  importance  for  the 
study  of  his  style;  the  disposition  of  the  columns  shows 
the  pure  classic  style.  An  unfortunate  arrangement 
of  some  water-piping  in  the  second  building,  in  itself 
a  very  important  piece  of  work,  brought  on  him  the 
mockery  of  his  jealous  rivals.  Although  he  was  a  lay- 
XI.— 21 


man,  the  king  and  queen  granted  him  various  abbeys, 
the  revenues  from  which  made  him  a  wealthy  man. 
He  experienced  for  a  time  the  disfavour  of  the  court, 
and  in  1559  was  superseded  by  Primaticcio  as  super- 
visor of  royal  buildings.  In  1564  he  was  commissioned 
by  the  regent  to  build  the  Tuileries.  According  to  his 
plan,  of  which  he  himself  gives  a  detailed  description 
and  appreciation,  the  whole  was  to  be  in  the  form  of  a 
quadrangle,  with  four  corner  pavilions,  enclosing  a 
large  central  court  and  four  smaller  courts,  an  entrance 
being  provided  on  each  of  the  two  longer  sides  of  the 
rectangle.  Only  the  garden  fagade  was  completed. 
The  central  pavilion  with  the  cupola  is  especially 
beautiful.  In  this  the  master  took  liberties  which, 
despite  his  admiration  for  the  classic,  he  proclaimed 
as  theoretical.  He  wi'ote  that  he  had  never  found 
columns  or  ornamentation  exhibiting  like  proportions 
or  even  .similar  arrangement  of  columns,  and  that  the 
limitations  of  the  architect  came  less  from  the  pre- 
scribed measurements  than  from  the  stipulations 
made  with  regard  to  the  building.  This  accounts  for 
the  "French  column",  among  other  things  in  the 
Tuileries,  with  its  Ionic  capital,  but  consisting  of 
many  fluted  drums,  separated  by  ornamental  bands. 
Above  all,  Orme's  works  are  not  devoid  of  curious 
attempts  at  originality.  In  the  last  years  he  wished 
to  work  out  his  compositions  according  to  "Biblical 
laws  and  sacred  numbers". 

As  an  author,  Orme  would  have  taken  his  place  be- 
side Vitruvius  and  Alberti  had  he  completed  his  work 
on  "Architecture".  In  two  of  the  nine  books  of  the 
first  volume  he  deals  in  a  masterly  manner  with  stone- 
carving  and  the  construction  of  the  vault.  A  new 
edition  of  his  work  was  issued  by  C.  Nizet  in  1894. 
Another  work  he  entitled  "Nouvelles  inventions  pour 
bien  batir  et  S.  petits  frais",  as  he  describes  in  this  his 
device  for  constructing  roofs  of  great  span  by  bolting 
together  planks  (instead  of  using  single  heavy  beams). 
This  was  republished  at  Rouen  in  1648  with  his 
"Architecture".  Of  interest  in  itself,  and  also  as 
illustrating  his  activity,  is  a  memoir  in  which  he  defends 
himself  against  the  attacks  of  his  adversaries.  This 
was  incorporated  by  Berty  in  the  "Grands  architectes 
frangais  de  la  Renaissance"  (Paris,  1860). 

Palustre,  La  Renaissance  en  France  (Paris,  1879) ;  VON  Get- 
MtJLLER,  Die  Baukunst  der  Renaissance  in  Frankreick  (Stuttgart, 
1896  and  1901);  Destailleur,  Notices  sur  quelques  artistes  Jran- 
tais  (Paris,  1863). 

G.  GlETMANN. 

Ormuzd  and  Ahriman.    See  Ahriman. 

Oroomiah.     See  Urumiah,  Diocese  of. 

Oropus,  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Anazarbus  in 
Cilicia  Secunda.  It  never  really  depended  on  Anazar- 
bus but  on  Seleucia  in  Isauria,  as  is  evident  from  the 
Greek  text  of  the  "  Notitiae  Episcopatuum  "  of  Antioch 
in  the  sixth  and  tenth  centuries  ("Echos  d'Orient", 
1907,  X,  95,  145),  where  the  city  figures  as  Oropa  or 
Oroba,  and  from  the  Latin  translation  where  it  is 
called  Oropus  ("Itinera  Hierosolymitana",  Geneva, 
1880.  I,  334).  Oropus  is  no  other  (liaii  Olba,  suffra- 
gan of  Seleucia,  annexed  witii  tlie  l'ro\in<'e  of  Isauria 
to  the  Patriarchate  of  Con.sluntincjple  in  the  eighth 
century,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  "Notitia;"  of  Leo 
the  Wise  and  of  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus.  (See 
Olba.) 

S.  Vailh6. 

O'Rorke,  Patrick  Henry,  soldier,  b.  in  County 
Cavan,  Ireland,  25  March,  1837;  killed  at  the  battle 
of  Getty.sburg,  Penn.,  U.  S.  A.,  July,  1863.  He  was 
a  year  old  when  his  parents  emigrated  to  the  United 
States.  They  settled  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  where  he 
attended  the  public  schools,  and  in  1853  went  to  work 
as  a  marble-cutter.  Shortly  after  he  was  appointed  a 
cadet  in  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  at  West  Point, 
graduating  with  highest  honours  in  June,  1861. 
Commissioned  as  a  lieutenant  in  the  regular  army,  he 


oRosins 


322 


ORPHANS 


distinguished  himself  in  the  Civil  War  aa  a  staff-officer 
in  the  enpncer  corps,  wa,«i  made  colonel  of  the  140th 
rPKimcnt  of  New  York  Volunteers,  with  which  com- 
nianii  he  i);irtirii):ile(l  in  the  battles  of  Fredericksburg 
and  Chancellorsville.  At  Gettysburg  while  leading 
his  men  in  defence  of  Little  Round  Top,  in  the  very 
crisis  of  the  battle  he  caught  up  the  colours,  and, 
mounting  a  rock  to  urge  on  his  men,  was  struck  and 
fell  dead.  The  Comte  de  Paris  in  his  "Histoire  de  la 
guerre  civile  en  Amdrique"  (VI,  iv,  379)  says  this  was 
one  of  the  most  striking  and  dramatic  episodes  of  the 
battle.  His  widow  became  a  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  and  one  of  the  successful  educators  in  their 
New  York  convents. 

CcLLUM,  Biog.  Register  of  Officers  and  Graduates  of  the  U.  S. 
Military  Academy  (Boston,  1891);  O'Hanlon,  Irish  American 
History  of  the  U.  S..  II  (New  York,  1906),  SOO;  Fitzgerald,  Ire- 
land and  Her  People,  II  (Chicago,  1910);  Nat.  Cyclopedia  Am. 
Biog.,  8.  V, 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Orosius,  Paulus,  historian  and  Christian  apologist ; 
b.  probablv  at  Bracara,  now  Braga,  in  Portugal,  be- 
tween SSO'and  390,  the  dates  of  birth  and  death  not 
being  precisely  known.  His  first  name  has  been  known 
only  since  the  eighth  century.  Having  early  conse- 
crated himself  to  the  service  of  God,  he  was  ordained, 
and  went  to  Africa  in  413  or  414.  The  reason  for  his 
leaving  his  native  country  is  not  known;  he  tells  us 
onlj'  that  he  left  his  fatherland  "sine  voluntate, 
sine  necessitate,  sine  consensu"  (Commonitorium,  i). 
He  repaired  to  St.  Augustine,  at  Hippo,  to  question 
him  as  to  certain  points  of  doctrine,  concerning  the 
soul  and  its  origin,  attacked  by  the  Priscillianists. 
In  414  he  prepared  for  St.  Augustine  a  "Commoni- 
torium de  errore  Priscillianistarum  et  Origenistarum  " 
(P.  L..  XXXI,  1211-16;  also,  ed.  Scheijss,  in  "Priscil- 
liani  quiE  supersunt",  in  "Corpus  script,  eccl.  lat.", 
Vienna,  1889,  XVIII,  149  sqq.)  to  which  St.  Augustine 
replied  with  his  "Ad  Orosium  contra  Priscillianistas 
et  Origenistas".  In  order  to  become  better  ac- 
quainted with  these  questions  concerning  the  soul  and 
its  origin,  Orosius,  with  a  hearty  recommendation 
from  St.  Augustine  (Epist.  clxvi),  went  to  Palestine, 
to  St.  Jerome.  Pelagius  was  then  trying  to  spread  his 
false  doctrines  in  Palestine,  and  Orosius  aided  St. 
Jerome  and  others  in  their  struggle  against  this  heresy. 
In  415  Bishop  John  of  Jerusalem,  who  was  inclined  to 
the  teaching  of  Origen  and  influenced  by  Pelagius, 
summoned  the  presbyters  of  his  church  to  a  council  at 
Jerusalem.  At  this  council  Orosius  sharply'attacked 
the  teachings  of  Pelagius.  But,  as  Pelagius  declared 
that  he  believed  it  impossible  for  man  to  become  per- 
fect and  avoid  sin  without  God's  assistance,  John  did 
not  condemn  him,  but  decided  that  his  opponents 
should  state  their  arguments  before  Pope  Innocent. 
In  consequence  of  his  opposition  to  Pelagius,  Orosius 
was  drawn  into  dis.sensions  with  Bishop  John,  who 
accused  him  of  having  maintained  that  it  is  not  pos- 
sible for  man  to  avoid  sin,  even  with  God's  grace.  In 
answer  to  this  charge,  Orosius  wrote  his  "  Liber  apolo- 
geticus  contra  Pelagium  de  Arbitrii  libertate"  (P.  L., 
XXXI,  1173-1212,  and  ed.  Zangemeister,  "Orosii 
opera"  in  '  'Corpus  script,  eccl.  lat.",  V,  Vienna,  1882), 
in  which  he  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  Council  of 
41.5  at  Jerusalem,  and  a  clear,  correct  treatment  of  the 
two  principal  questions  against  Pelagius:  the  capa- 
bility of  man's  free  will,  and  Christian  perfection  in 
doing  God's  will  here  on  earth. 

In  the  spring  of  416  Orosius  left  Palestine,  to  return 
to  Augustine  in  Africa,  and  thence  home.  He 
brought  a  letter  from  St.  Jerome  (Epist.  cxxxiv)  to 
St.  Augustine,  as  well  as  writings  of  the  two  Gallic 
bishops.  Hero  and  Lazarus,  who  were  in  Palestine 
BtruggUng  against  Pelagianism  (cf.  St.  Augustine, 
Epist.  clxx\').  He  also  brought  from  Jerusalem  the 
then  recently  discovered  relics  of  the  Protomartyr 
Stephen    and    a    Latin    letter    from    Lucian,    who 


had  discovered  them  (Gennadius,  "De  Viris  Illustr.", 
xxxi,  xlvi,  xlvii,  ed.  Czapla,  Miinster,  1898,  87- 
89,  104).  After  a  short  stay  with  Augustine 
at  Hippo,  Orosius  began  his  journey  home,  but, 
on  reaching  Minorca,  and  hearing  of  the  wars  and 
devastations  of  the  Vandals  in  Spain,  he  returned 
to  Africa.  The  relics  of  St.  Stephen,  which  he 
left  in  Minorca,  became  the  object  of  a  great 
veneration,  which  spread  into  Gaul  and  Spain.  On 
the  conversion  of  Jews  through  these  relics,  cf.  Sev- 
erus,  "De  virtutibus  ad  conversionem  Juda'orum  in 
Minoricensi  Insula  factis",  P.  L.,  XLl,  821-32. 
Orosius  went  back  to  Africa  and  at  St.  Augustine's 
suggestion  wrote  the  first  Christian  Universal  His- 
tory: "Historiarum  ad  versus  paganos  libri  septem" 
(P.  L.,  XXXI,  663-1174;  ed.  Zangemeister,  in  "Cor- 
pus script,  eccl.  lat.",  V,  Vienna,  1882),  thought  to  be 
a  supplement  to  the  "Civitas  Dei",  especially  the 
third  book,  in  which  St.  Augustine  proves  that  the 
Roman  Empire  suffered  as  many  calamities  before 
as  after  Christianity  was  received,  combating  the 
pagan  argument,  that  the  abandonment  of  their 
deities  had  led  to  calamity.  St.  Augustine  wished 
to  have  this  proof  developed  in  a  special  work  through 
the  whole  period  of  human  history,  and  this  Orosius 
did,  reviewing  the  history  of  all  the  known  peoples 
of  antiquity,  with  the  fundamental  idea  that  God 
determines  the  destinies  of  nations.  According  to  his 
view,  two  chief  empires  had  governed  the  world: 
Babylon  in  the  East,  and  Rome  in  the  West.  Rome 
received  the  heritage  of  Babylon  through  the  inter- 
mediate Macedonian  and  Carthaginian  Empires. 
Thus  he  holds  that  there  were  four  Kro:it  empires  in 
history — a  view  widely  accepted  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
The  first  book  briefly  describes  the  globe,  and  traces 
its  history  from  the  Deluge  to  the  founding  of  Rome; 
the  second  gives  the  history  of  Rome  to  the  sack  of 
the  city  by  the  Gauls,  that  of  Persia  to  Cyrus,  and  of 
Greece  to  the  Battle  of  Cunaxa;  the  third  deals  chiefly 
with  the  Macedonian  Empire  under  Alexander  and 
his  successors,  as  well  as  the  contemporary  Roman 
history;  the  fourth  brings  the  history  of  Rome  to  the 
destruction  of  Carthage;  the  last  three  books  treat 
Roman  history  alone,  from  the  destruction  of  Car- 
thage to  the  author's  own  time.  The  work,  completed 
in  418,  shows  signs  of  haste.  Besides  Holy  Scripture 
and  the  chronicle  of  Eusebius  revised  by  St.  Jerome, 
Livy,  Eutropius,  Caesar,  Suetonius,  Florus,  and  Justin 
are  used  as  sources.  In  pursuance  of  the  apologetic 
aim,  all  the  calamities  suffered  by  the  various  peoples 
are  described.  Though  superficial  and  fragmentary, 
the  work  is  valuable;  it  contains  contemporary  in- 
formation on  the  period  after  a.  d.  378.  It  was  used 
largely  during  the  Middle  Ages  as  a  compendium,  and 
nearly  200  manuscript  copies  are  still  extant.  .\Ifreii' 
the  Great  translated  it  into  Anglo-Saxon  (ed.  H.  Sweet, 
London,  1843). 

DE  MoERNER,  De  Orosii  vita  eiusque  historiarum  libris  7  adv. 
paganos  (Berlin,  1844):  M^jean,  Paul  Orose  el  son  apologclique 
centre  les  paiens  (.Strasburg.  1882);  Ebert,  Allg.  Geschichte  der 
Literalur  des  Mittelallers  im  Abendland,  I  (Leipzig,  1889),  337-44; 
Bardenhewer,  Patrology,  tr.  Shahan  (St.  Louis,  1908);  Pott- 
bast,  Bibl.  historica  medii  am,  II  (Berlin,  1896),  882-3. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Orphans  and  Orphanages. — The  death  of  one  or 
both  parents  makes  the  child  of  the  very  poor  a  ward 
of  the  community.  The  obligation  of  support  is  im- 
posed upon  parents  or  grandparents  by  nearly  every 
system  of  laws;  but  there  is  no  such  obligation  upon 
any  other  relative.  Natural  sympathy,  however,  and 
wiilingness  to  bear  a  distributed  burden  for  the  com- 
mon good,  rather  than  to  enforce  an  individual  one, 
contribute  to  the  acceptance  of  the  care  of  orphans  as 
a  public  duty.  In  Biblical  times  the  fatherless,  the 
stranger,  and  the  widow  shared  the  excess  fruits  of 
the  harvest  (Deut.,  xxiv,  21).  The  people  were 
told  God  "is  the  father  of  orphans"  (Ps.  Ixvii,  6)  and 


ORPHANS 


323 


ORPHANS 


His  bounty  was  to  be  shared  with  them.  Luxury  and 
paganism  introduced  more  selfish  considerations. 
Neglect  of  the  destitute  orphan  is  only  to  be  expected 
in  a  world  where  the  unwelcome  infant  is  exposed  to 
any  fate.  The  Romans  apparently  did  not  provide 
for  widows  and  orphans.  The  Athenians  viewed  the 
duty  as  economic  and  patriotic,  and  ordained  that 
children  of  citizens  killed  in  war  were  to  be  educated 
up  to  eighteen  years  of  age  by  the  State.  Plato  (Laws, 
927)  says: — "Orphans  should  be  placed  under  the  care 
of  pubhc  guardians.  Men  should  have  a  fear  of  the 
loneliness  of  orphans  and  of  the  souls  of  their  departed 
parents.  A  man  should  love  the  unfortimate  orphan 
of  whom  he  is  guardian  as  if  he  were  his  own  child. 
He  should  be  as  careful  and  as  diUgent  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  orphan's  property  as  of  his  own  or  even 
more  careful  still." 

When  Christianity  began  to  affect  Roman  life,  the 
best  fruit  of  the  new  order  was  charity,  and  special 
solicitude  was  manifested  towards  the  orphan.  An- 
toninus Pius  had  established  relief  agencies  for  children. 
The  Christians  founded  hospitals,  and  children's  asy- 
lums were  established  in  the  East.  St.  Ephraem,  St. 
Basil,  and  St.  John  Chrysostom  built  a  great  number 
of  hospitals.  Those  for  the  sick  were  known  as 
nosocomia,  those  for  poor  children  were  known  as 
eupholrophia,  and  those  for  orphans,  orphariotrophia. 
Justinian  released  from  other  civic  duties  those  who 
undertook  the  care  of  orphans.  In  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  "Orphans  as  well  as  widows  are  always 
commended  to  Christian  love.  The  bishop  is  to  have 
them  brought  up  at  the  expense  of  the  Church  and  to 
take  care  that  the  girls  be  given,  when  of  marriageable 
age,  to  Christian  husbands,  and  that  the  boys  should 
learn  some  art  or  handicraft  and  then  be  provided  with 
tools  and  placed  in  a  condition  to  earn  their  own  living, 
so  that  they  may  be  no  longer  than  necessary  a  burden 
to  the  Church"  (.4post.  Const.,  IV,  ii,  tr.  Uhlhorn, 
p.  185).  St.  Augustine  says:  "The  bishop  protects  the 
orphans  that  they  may  not  be  oppressed  by  strangers 
after  the  death  of  the  parents."  Also  epistles  25*2- 
255:  "Your  piety  knows  what  care  the  Church  and 
the  bishops  should  take  for  the  protection  of  all  men 
but  especially  of  orphan  children."  The  rise  of  mo- 
nastic institutions  following  upon  this  period  was  accel- 
erated by  the  fruit  of  charitable  work  for  the  poor, 
chief  amongst  which  was  the  care  of  children.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  the  monasteries  preserved  to  modern 
times  the  notion  of  the  duty  of  the  Church  to  care  for 
its  orphans.  They  were  the  shelters  where  the  orphans 
were  taught  learning  and  trade  avocations.  The 
laity  also  were  exhorted  to  perform  their  share  of  this 
charge. 

No  one  figure  stands  out  so  prominently  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  care  of  orphans  as  that  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  (1576-1660).  To  this  work  he  attracted  the 
gentlemen  of  the  court,  noble  ladies,  and  simple  peas- 
ants. In  his  distracted  country  he  found  the  orphan 
the  most  appealing  victim,  and  he  met  the  situation 
with  the  skill  of  a  general.  No  cUstinction  was  ob- 
served between  foundlings  and  orphans  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  work  with  the  Association  of  Charity; 
nor  was  there  any  distinction  as  to  the  condition  of  the 
children  that  were  aided,  other  than  that  they  were 
orphans,  or  abandoned,  or  the  children  of  the  poor. 
Seventeen  years  or  more  after  that  he  established 
amongst  noble  women  the  "Ladies  of  Charity". 
When  the  war  between  France  and  Austria  had  made 
orphans  the  most  acute  sufferers,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
secured  as  many  as  possible  from  the  provinces,  and 
had  them  cared  for  in  Paris  by  Mile  le  Gras  and  the 
Sisters  of  Charity  then  fully  established.  Three  towns 
alone  furnished  no  less  than  1000  orphans  under  the 
age  of  seven  years.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  spread  over 
the  world,  and  ever  since  have  been  looked  to  for  the 
protection  of  the  orphan,  or  have  been  the  inspiration 
for  other  orders  seeking  to  perform  the  same  work. 


When  the  Revolution  broke  out  in  France  there  were 
426  houses  of  benevolence  conducted  in  that  country 
by  the  Sisters  of  Charit}',  and  of  these  a  large  major- 
ity cared  for  orphans.  They  were  suppressed,  but 
many  were  reopened  by  Napoleon. 

In  more  modern  times  a  similar  enlistment  of  women 
to  serve  the  orphan  has  been  observed  all  over  Europe. 
In  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland  fifty-one  houses 
of  Sisters  of  Charity  had  been  established  between  1855 
and  1898;  and  in  all,  except  in  a  few  hospitals,  the  work 
of  an  orphanage  is  conducted  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent. On  the  American  Continent,  however,  the  first 
orphan  asylum  antedated  St.  Vincent  de  Paul's  in- 
fluence by  a  century,  and  was  due  not  to  French  but  to 
Spanish  inspiration.  This  was  an  orphanage  for  girls, 
which  was  established  in  1548  in  Mexico  by  a  Spanish 
order  and  was  called  La  Caridad  (Steelman,  "Chari- 
ties for  Children  in  Mexico").  The  first  orphanage 
in  the  territory  now  comprised  in  the  United  States 
was  that  of  the  Ursulines,  founded  in  New  Orleans  in 
1727  under  the  auspices  of  Louis  XV. 

Whenever  in  Europe,  following  the  reUgious  changes 
of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  the  care  of 
orphans  was  not  committed  to  ecclesiastical  oversight, 
it  was  considered  to  be  a  public  duty.  Under  the 
English  poor  law  it  was  the  duty  of  the  parish  to  sup- 
port the  indigent  so  that  none  should  die.  It  is  prob- 
able that  destitute  orphans  were  cared  for  under  this 
principle,  but  apprenticing  and  indenturing  were  the 
only  solutions  of  the  difficulties  arising  from  the  pres- 
ence of  orphans  or  dependent  children.  In  later 
years,  if  children  were  too  young  or  too  numerous  for 
this  they  were  kept  in  the  workhouse,  one  of  the  pro- 
visions being  as  follows:  "Children  under  seven  are 
placed  in  such  of  the  wards  appropriated  to  female 
paupers  as  may  be  deemed  ex-pedient."  The  so-called 
orphanage  movement  began  in  England  in  1758  by 
the  estabhshment  of  the  Orphan  Working  Home.  In 
the  next  century  the  exposures,  principally  by  Charles 
Dickens,  of  the  evils  bred  by  the  workhouse  and  the 
indenturing  system  led  to  many  reforms.  Numerous 
private  asylums  were  founded  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Victoria  under  royal  patronage,  and  with  considerable 
official  oversight  and  solicitude.  In  Colonial  America 
the  influence  of  the  English  poor  law  was  felt,  with  the 
same  absence  of  distinction  as  to  child  and  adult,  and 
as  to  care  of  the  child.  All  paupers  were  the  charges 
of  the  towns  or  counties.  Almshouses  were  estab- 
lished, and  later,  in  most  States  of  the  Union,  orphan 
children  were  cared  for  in  these.  Indenturing  was 
practised  as  often  as  possible.  In  New  York  State 
children  were  removed  from  almshouses  following  the 
passage  of  a  law  directing  this  in  1875.  It  provided 
that  all  children  over  three  years  of  age,  not  defective 
in  mind  or  body,  be  removed  from  poorhouses  and 
be  placed  in  families  or  orphan  asylums.  It  has  since 
been  amended  by  reducing  the  age  to  two  years  and 
not  excepting  the  defectives.  The  first  orphan  asy- 
lum in  New  York  City,  a  Protestant  institution,  now 
located  at  Hastings-on-Hudson,  N.  Y.,  was  estab- 
lished in  1806  largely  through  the  efforts  of  Mrs. 
Alexander  Hamilton.  The  first  Catholic  orphan  asy- 
lum in  New  York  City  was  founded  in  1817  by  the 
Sisters  of  Charity  in  Prince  Street,  and  is  now  main- 
tained in  two  large  buildings  at  Kingsbridge,  N.  Y. 

Of  the  seventy-seven  charities  for  children,  mostly 
orphanages,  established  in  America  before  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century  as  listed  by  Folks,  twenty- 
one  were  Catholic  and  all  of  these  were  orphanages. 
One  of  the  mo.st  interesting  of  the  others  is  Girard 
College,  founded  by  the  merchant  prince  of  Phila- 
delphia, Stephen  Girard,  with  an  endowment  of  $6,- 
000,000  which  has  since  increased  nearly  fivefold.  By 
the  terms  of  Girard's  will  no  minister  of  the  Gospel  is 
permitted  to  cross  the  threshold.  Neither  the  educa- 
tional results  nor  the  philanthropy  to  orphan  boys 
seem  to  be  adequate  to  the  fortune  involved.     An 


ORPHANS 


324 


ORPHANS 


interesting  asylum  in  No^v  York  City  is  the  Leake  and 
Watts  Asylum  founded  in  1831  to  provide  "a  free 
home  for  well-beliavcd  full  orphans  of  rcsportable 
parentage  in  destitute  oirrumstanees.  phy.sically  and 
mentally  sound,  between  the  ages  of  three  and  t\vcl\-e 
years,  who  are  entrusted  to  the  care  of  the  trustees 
until  fifteen  years  of  age.  Disorderly  and  uiigo\(>rn- 
able  chiklren  are  not  admitted."  The  Hebrew  orphan 
asylums  of  New  York  City  are  large  and  well  managed, 
caring  for  about  3000  children.  In  the  Catholic  in- 
stitutions of  the  Archdiocese  of  New  York  the  orphans 
and  half-orphans  number  about  8000.  In  the  Diocese 
of  Brooklyn  they  number  close  to  3600.  In  all  the 
large  cities  of  America,  Catholic  orphanages  are  found. 
It  is  probable  that  they  would  number  close  to  300  and 
the  orphan  inmates  close  to  50,000. 

The  upkeep  and  management  of  these  large  institu- 
tions call  for  the  solution  of  many  complex  problems  of 
varying  components.  They  must  provide  plenty  with- 
out wastefulness,  clothe  adequately  without  cheapness 
or  painful  uniformity,  educate  in  letters  and  handi- 
craft without  overwork,  and  ]5ro\-ide  amusement  with- 
out laxity,  as  well  as  discipline  without  repression. 
Buildings  must  be  safe  and  have  adequate  sanitary  de- 
tails conducive  to  health.  A  thorough  medical  over- 
sight of  inmates,  individually  and  collectively,  com- 
pletes a  programme  of  requirements  which  bear  very 
heavily  and  continuously  on  the  management.  Al- 
ways and  everywhere  it  has  been  considered  an  honour 
to  take  part  in  such  works  and  in  the  oversight  of 
them.  Naturally  the  feature  about  orphan  asylums 
most  often  remarked  by  visitors  not  accustomed  to  the 
situation  is  the  radical  difference  from  domestic  life  in 
the  surroundings  of  the  children.  This  has  led  some 
to  propose  changes  in  the  institutional  scheme,  by 
which  buildings  of  reduced  size  but  adequate  number 
shall  be  substituted  for  one  or  two  large  ones;  that  a 
matron  or  house-mother  be  employed  to  supervise 
each,  and  that  each  also  shall  have  its  own  outfit  and 
details  for  domestic  management.  Some  would  recom- 
mend that  such  charges  be  put  in  the  joint  care  of  a 
man  and  his  wife,  that  the  home-like  protection  of 
the  children  may  be  provided  for.  These  and  similar 
features  comprise  what  is  known  as  the  "Cottage 
System".  It  fails  in  many  points  to  present  the 
hoped-for  advantages.  The  fixed  charges  and  salary 
list  are  so  extensively  increased  that  the  burden  would 
be  in  most  cases  unbearable.  Some  few  institutions 
have  made  efforts  in  this  direction,  resulting  in  sudden 
and  heavy  increases  in  expenditures.  .Vdojited  on  a 
modest  scale,  the  "Cottage  System"  offers  some  ad- 
vantages to  Catholic  religious  communities  operating 
orphanages,  and  its  success  would  seem  to  be  a  ques- 
tion of  wisely  planned  management  and  skillful  archi- 
tecture, controlled  by  conservative  authority  over  the 
proposed,  new,  and  regularly  recurrent  expenditures. 
Perhaps  the  real  difficulty  is  that  it  does  not  improve 
the  situation  of  the  child  in  the  matter  of  accustoming 
it  to  the  natural  life  of  the  outside  world. 

Over  against  this  institutional  method  of  caring 
for  destitute  children,  resulting  in  what  is  called  the 
orphanage,  but  not  necessarily  opposed  to  it,  are  those 
methods  which  .seek  to  put  the  child  earlier  under  the 
influences  of  family  hfe.  This  is  done  by  boarding-out 
and  by  placing-out.  The  former  is  a  system  in  which 
the  overseer  of  the  poor  or  similar  officer  confides  the 
child  to  some  family,  as  a  boarder,  and  pays  regularly 
for  its  care  up  to  the  age  of  self-support.  Success  and 
prevention  of  wTong  in  this  .system  can  only  be  ob- 
tained at  great  expense  and  by  rigorous  watchfulness. 
It  originated  in  the  English  poor  law  and  was  designed 
to  provide  a  means  by  which  i-hildren  could  be  removed 
from  the  poorhouse;  it  is  much  in  vogue  still  through- 
out the  United  States.  The  weakness  seems  to  lie 
in  the  danger  of  profit-seeking  amongst  pcf)ple  who 
offer  to  care  for  children  for  money.  Alore  i)ermaiient 
good  for  the  child  is  obtained  by  the  second  method — 


placing-out  in  free  homes.  This  is  sometimes  called 
indenturing  in  the  cases  of  older  (children  and  some- 
times adoption.  The  former  has  almost  disapjicared 
in  the  United  States,  except  as  a  form  oKscrved  by 
some  overseers  of  the  poor  and  some  child-caring 
agencies.  Real  apprenticing  or  "binding-out"  has 
passed  away.  Adoption  is  not  a  legal  act  unless  con- 
firmed by  the  proper  procedure  in  a  court  of  record. 
Advantage  in  placing-out  appears  to  lie  in  the  full  ab- 
sorption of  the  child  into  a  vacancy  in  a  household, 
where  affection  can  be  expected  to  develop,  and  where 
the  conditions  surrounding  the  child  during  all  of  its  ma- 
turing years  will  be  those  entirely  normal  to  any  simi- 
lar family  group  in  the  community.  Nearly  all  the 
States  which  have  laws  bearing  upon  this  practice 
have  recognized  religious  rights,  and  have  provided 
that  where  practicable  such  children  must  be  placed 
in  homes  of  their  own  religious  faith.  Placing-out  can 
only  be  practised  where  an  ample  number  of  excellent 
homes  can  be  obtained.  By  specializing  in  the  work 
it  becomes  possible  to  place  even  large  numbers  of 
orphans  and  to  surround  them  with  a  strong  and  en- 
lightened protection.  The  good  results  most  often  are 
mutual,  the  foster-parents  gaining  as  much  by  their 
charity  as  the  child. 

When  the  New  York  Catholic  Protectory  was  taken 
over  in  1863  from  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society 
which  had  organized  it,  .Archbishop  Hughes  impressed 
upon  the  managers  how  placing-out  should  be  con- 
ducted: "Let  one  or  two  gentlemen  be  employed,  the 
one  to  keep  office  during  the  absence  of  the  other,  but 
one  or  the  other  to  go  abroad  through  the  interior  of 
the  country,  with  good  letters  to  make  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  bishop  of  a  diocese  and  the  priest  of  a  par- 
ish as  well  as  such  Catholic  mechanics  and  farmers 
as  might  be  ilispo.sed  to  receive  one  or  other  of  the 
childrrn  who  will  come  under  your  charge,  and  in  this 
way  let  the  children  be  in  their  house  of  protection  just 
as  short  as  possible.  Their  lot  is,  and  is  to  be  in  one 
sense,  a  sufficiently  hard  one  under  any  circumstances, 
but  the  sooner  they  know  what  it  is  to  be,  the  better 
they  will  be  prepared  for  encountering  its  trials  and 
diflSculties"  (Letter  to  B.  Silliman  Ives,  19  June, 
1863).  The  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society  of  New  York 
City  had  for  years  assisted  in  performing  such  a  work 
as  this,  and  in  1898  established  a  sjjecial  agency  for  it, 
known  as  the  Catholic  Home  Bureau.  It  acts  with  the 
co-operation  between  the  committing  authorities  and 
the  institutions  housing  orphans  and  other  destitute 
children.  About  two  hundred  and  fifty  children  are 
placed  by  it  each  year  in  good  Catholic  families. 
Subsequent  visitation  of  the  children  is  practised  with 
great  care.  In  1909  a  similar  bureau  was  started  in 
Washington  and  another  in  Baltimore.  In  many 
cities  of  the  Union,  Catholic  agents  are  employed  by 
the  local  children's  aid  societies  to  perform  this  work 
for  the  protection  of  Catholic  children. 

Placing-out  was  the  practice  in  early  Christian 
days.  The  widows  and  deaconesses  of  the  early 
church  took  orphans  into  their  homes  as  Fabiola  did 
in  Rome.  Some  believe  that  the  terms  widow  and 
orphan  are  so  often  found  joined  in  ancient  Christian 
literature  because  of  this  custom.  It  was  the  general 
practice  at  the  time  of  the  first  persecutions.  Uhl- 
horn  (Christian  Charity  in  the  Ancient  Church,  p. 
185)  says:  "  It  would  al.so  often  happen  that  individual 
members  of  the  Church  would  receive  oiphans,  es- 
pecially those  whose  parents  had  perished  in  a  perse- 
cution." Thus  was  Origen  adopted,  after  Leonidas, 
his  father,  had  sufTcred  martyrdom,  by  a  pious  woman 
in  Alexandria  (Eu.scbius,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  VI,  ii).  Again 
the  child  of  the  female  martyr,  Felicitas,  fount!  a 
mother;  and  Eusebius  tells  us  of  Sevems,  a  Palestinian 
composer,  who  especially  interested  himself  in  the 
orphans  and  widows  of  those  who  had  fallen.  In  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions  members  of  the  Church  are 
urgently  exhorted  to  such  acts.     "If  any  Christian^ 


ORSI 


325 


ORSINI 


whether  boy  or  girl,  be  left  an  orphan,  it  is  well  if  one 
of  the  brethren,  who  has  no  child,  receives  and  keeps 
him  in  a  child's  place.  They  who  do  so  perform  a  good 
work  by  becoming  fathers  to  the  orphans  and  will  be 
rewarded  by  God  for  this  service".  The  taking  of  an 
orphan  to  rear,  and  giving  it  a  place  in  a  new  family 
circle  has  always  been  an  honoured  custom  amongst 
good  people  in  all  times.  In  simple  communities  it  is 
the  sole  solution  of  a  distressing  problem.  When  in 
modern  times  a  war  or  an  extraordinary  disaster 
created  an  embarrassment  by  reason  of  the  number 
to  be  cared  for,  the  organized  asylum  has  been  a 
blessing.  The  same  must  be  said  of  the  asylums 
caring  for  the  army  of  orphan.s  found  in  the  large 
cities,  particularly  since  they  serve  as  shelters  during 
the  period  of  observation,  and  in  the  case  of  handi- 
capped children  during  a  longer  period. 

Uhlhorn,  christian  Charity  in  the  Ancient  Church  (Edinburgh, 
1883);  Baart.  Orphans  and  Orphan  Asylums  (Buffalo,  1885); 
L'Allemand,  Hist,  des  en/ants  abandonnis  (Paris,  1885);  Bou- 
GAUD.  History  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (London,  1899) ;  Folks,  The 
Care  of  Destitute,  Neglected  and  Delinquent  Children  (New  Yorlc, 
1907) ;  Baluffi.  The  Charity  of  the  Church  a  Proof  of  her  Divinity 
(Dublin,  1885);  Devas,  Studies  of  Family  Life  (London.  1886); 
Steelman,  Charities  for  Children  in  Mexico  (Chicago,  1907). 

Charles  F.  McKenna. 

Orsi,  Giuseppe  Agostino,  cardinal,  theologian, 
and  ecclesiastical  historian,  b.  at  Florence,  9  May, 
1692,  of  an  aristocratic  Florentine  family;  d.  at  Rome, 
12  June,  1761.  He  studied  grammar  and  rhetoric 
under  the  Jesuits,  and  entered  the  Dominican  Order  at 
Fiesole,  21  February,  1708.  At  his  profession  he  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Giuseppe  Agostino,  having  been 
called  in  secular  life  Agostino  Francesco.  His 
studies  included  not  only  theology,  in  which  he  gave 
particular  attention  to  the  Fathers  and  the  great 
Scholastics,  but  also  the  classical  and  Italian  liter- 
atures. Having  been  master  of  studies  for  some  time 
at  the  convent  of  San  Marco  at  Florence,  he  was  called 
to  Home  in  1732  as  professor  of  theology  at  the  college 
of  St.  Thomas,  where  he  was  also  made  prior.  He 
held  this  position  two  years,  when  he  became  the  theo- 
logian of  Cardinal  Neri  Corsini,  nejihew  of  Pope 
Clement  XII.  In  1738  he  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Index.  In  1749  Benedict 
XIV  made  him  "Magister  Sacri  Palatii",  or  papal 
theologian,  and  on  24  September,  1759,  Clement  XIII 
created  him  cardinal  of  the  Title  of  San  Sisto.  In 
this  position  Orsi  was  an  active  member  of  several 
Congregations  until  his  death.  He  was  buried  in  his 
church  of  San  Sisto. 

Orsi's  literary  activity  covered  especially  dogmatics, 
apologetics,  and  church  history.  His  most  important 
works  are  the  following:  "Dissertatio  historica  qua 
ostenditur  catholicam  ecclesiam  tribus  prioribus  saculis 
cajjitalium  criminum  reis  pacem  et  absolutionem  neuti- 
quam  negasse"  (Milan,  1730);  "Dissertatio  apolo- 
getica  pro  SS.  Perpetuae,  Felicitatis  et  sociorum 
martyrumorthodoxiaadversusBasnagium"  (Florence, 
172S);  "Deir  origine  del  dominio  e  della  sovranitS. 
teraporale  de'  Romani  Pontefici"  (Rome,  1742);  and 
"Storia  ecclesiastica" — this,  his  chief  work  (20  vols., 
Rome,  1747-61),  brought  the  narrative  only  to  the 
close  of  the  sixth  century;  the  twenty-first  volume, 
which  Orsi  had  begun,  was  finished  by  his  former  pu- 
pil Gio.  Bottari  (Rome,  1762).  The  work  was  after- 
wards brought  up  to  the  year  1.587  by  the  Dominican 
Fil.  Becchetti  (new  ed.  in  42  vols.,  Venice,  1822;  in 
50  vols.,  Rome,  1S38).  It  has  been  translated  into 
foreign  languages.  Other  writings  of  Orsi  are:  "Dis- 
sertazione  dommatica  e  morale  contra  I'uso  matcriale 
della  parola"  (Rome,  1727);  " Dimostrazione  teolo- 
gica"  (Milan,  1729),  in  defence  of  the  preceeding  work 
on  truthfulness  (the  question  of  reatrictio  menUdis); 
"Dissertatio  theologica  de  invocatione  Spiritus  Sancti 
in  liturgiis  GriBcorum  et  Orientalium"  (Milan,  1731); 
"  Dissertationes  duie  de  baptismo  in  nomine  Jesu 
Christi  et  de  chrismate  confirmationis"  (Milan,  1733) 


— this  was  defended  by  Orsi,  in  the  "Vindicia;  dis- 
sertationis  de  baptismo  in  nomine  Jesu  Christi" 
(Florence,  1735),  against  the  attacks  of  the  doctors 
of  Paris;  "De  concordia  gratiae  et  liberi  arbitrii" 
(Rome,  1734);  "De  irreformabiU  Romani  Pontificis  in 
definiendis  fidei  controversiis  judicio"  (Rome,  1739); 
"De  Romani  Pontificis  in  Synodos  cecumenicos 
eorumque  canones  potestate"  (Rome,  1740).  The 
last  two  are  directed  against  Galhcanism. 

Bottari,  Vita  del  card.  Orsi,  in  vol.  XXI  of  the  Storia  ecclesias- 
tica; Fabroni,  Vitce  Italorum  illustrium,  XI,  1-37;  Hurter, 
Nomenclator  (3d  ed.),  IV,  1505  sqq.  J,  p,  KiRSCH. 

Orsini,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  distinguished 
families  of  the  Roman  nobility,  whose  members  often 
played  an  important  role  in  the  history  of  Italy,  par- 
ticularly in  that  of  Rome  and  of  the  Papal  States. 
The  Roman  or  principal  line  of  the  family,  from  which 
branched  off  a  series  of  collateral  lines  as  time  went  on, 
may  be  traced  back  into  the  early  Middle  Ages,  and  a 
legendary  ancestry  goes  back  even  as  far  as  early 
Roman  times.  The  Roman  line,  as  well  as  its  branches, 
had  large  possessions  in  Italy  and  were  the  rulers  of 
numerous  and  important  dominions,  fortified  towns, 
and  strongholds.  In  Rome,  the  Orsini  were  the  hered- 
itary enemies  of  the  equally  distinguished  Colonna  (q. 
v.) :  in  the  great  medieval  conflict  between  papacy  and 
empire,  the  latter  were  for  the  most  part  on  the  side 
of  the  emperor  and  the  leaders  of  the  Ghibelline  party, 
while  the  Orsini  were  ordinarily  champions  of  the 
papacy  and  leaders  of  the  Guelph  party.  The  Orsini 
gave  three  popes  to  the  Church — Celestine  III  (q.  v.), 
Nicholas  III  (q.  v.),  and  Benedict  XIII  (q.  v.) — as 
well  as  many  carchnals  and  numerous  bishops  and 
prelates.  Other  members  of  the  family  distinguished 
themselves  in  political  history  as  warriors  or  states- 
men, and  others  again  won  renown  in  the  fields  of  art 
and  science.  The  wars  between  the  Orsini  and  Co- 
lonna form  an  important  part  of  the  medieval  history 
of  Rome  and  of  Central  Italy.  Forming  as  they  did 
a  part  of  the  conflicts  waged  by  the  emperors  in  Italy, 
they  influenced  in  a  very  prominent  manner  the  gen- 
eral historical  development  of  that  time. 

Among  the  cardinals  of  the  Orsini  family  who  were 
flistinguished  in  the  history  of  the  Church,  as  well  as 
in  ecclcsiastico-political  history,  the  following  are  es- 
pecially worthy  of  mention: — 

(1)  Matted  Rosso  Orsini,  nephew  of  Cardinal 
Gaetano  Orsini  (later  Pope  Nicholas  III),  created  a 
cardinal  by  Urban  IV  in  December,  1262;  d.  4  Sept., 
1305  (according  to  some  authorities,  1306).  As  legate 
for  the  provinces  of  the  Patrimony  of  Peter  and  of  the 
Marches,  he  fought  against  Peter  de  Vico,  who,  in 
the  name  of  Manfred,  invaded  the  papal  territory  with 
German  mercenaries.  Soon  after  the  elevation  of  his 
uncle,  Nicholas  III,  to  the  papal  throne  (1277),  he  was 
named  by  this  pope  anlipiii-st  of  tlic  V'atic;m  Basil- 
ica, rector  of  the  great  lliispital  (jf  th<'  Holy  Cihost  in 
Vatican  territory,  anfl  i-niliiKil  iirotcctcir  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan Order.  After  tlic  dciiMi  of  Xidiolas  III  (1280), 
the  cardinals  assembh'cl  in  \itcilio  for  tin-  election  of 
his  successor,  but,  owing  to  ])arty  di.ssensions,  many 
months  passed  before  a  decision  was  reached.  The 
party  which  iiirliiicd  towards  the  French,  and  which 
\vm\  the  sniii)ort  of  Cli;irles  of  Anjou,  King  of  Naples, 
hiiiiseir  present  in  \'it(rl)o,  wished  to  elect  an  exponent 
of  the  policy  of  l''r:inre,  and  cliose  as  their  candidate 
the  French  Cardinal  Simon.  However,  the  two  cardi- 
nals Orsini,  Mattco  Rosso  and  Giordano,  the  latter  a 
brother  of  thr  deceased  pope,  Nicholas  III,  energeti- 
cally opposed  this  choice.  As  neither  party  could 
command  the  necessary  majority,  no  election  resulted. 
In  February,  1281,  the  French  party  resol\<'d  to  have 
recour.se  to  a  bold  strokeT  At  the  instigation  of  the 
marshal  of  the  conclave,  Annibaldi,  who  was  at 
variance  with  the  Orsini,  citizens  from  Viterbo  sud- 
denly attacked  the  anti-French  cardinals,  and  took 


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326 


ORSINI 


prisoners  the  two  Orsini,  carryinR  them  away  from  the 
Conclave  aiul  liolding  them  in  custody.  The  candi- 
date of  the  I'lenoh  party  was  now  elected  pope  under 
the  name  of  Martin  IV  (22  February,  1281),  where- 
upon Giordano  was  released,  and  afterwards  Matt-eo 
Rosso.  The  instigator  of  the  attack  was  excommuni- 
cated and  the  city  of  \'iterbo  placed  under  an  interdict. 
When  the  news  of  the  capture  of  the  two  Cardinals 
Orsini  was  received  in  Rome,  great  confusion  ensued. 
Their  relati\'es  were  driven  from  the  city  by  the  ad- 
herents of  the  Annibaldi,  but  were  later  recalled  by 
Martin  IV,  with  whom  the  Cardinals  Orsini  had 
become  reconciled.  During  the  conflict  between 
Boniface  VIII  and  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  it  was 
Cardinal  Matteo  who,  having  remained  faithful  to  the 
persecuteil  (jontiff,  brought  Boniface  back  to  Rome 
after  the  attack  of  Anagni  (1303).  Cardinal  Matteo 
attended  the  numerous  conclaves  held  between  1254 
and  1305,  there  being  no  less  than  thirteen.  He  died 
in  Perugia  in  1305  or  1306.  His  body  was  later  trans- 
ferred to  Rome,  where  it  lies  in  the  Orsini  Chapel  in  St. 
Peter's. 

(2)  Napoleone  Orsini,  son  of  Rinaldo,  a  brother  of 
Pope  Nicholas  III,  b.  1263;  d.  at  Avignon,  24  March, 
1342.  In  his  youth  he  embraced  the  ecclesiastical 
state,  was  appointed  papal  chaplain  by  Honorius  IV 
(1285-7),  was  created  Cardinal  Deacon  of  S.  Adriano 
by  Nicholas  IV  in  May,  1288,  and  later,  under  Clem- 
ent V  was  named  archpriest  of  St.  Peter's.  Commis- 
sioned by  Pope  Boniface  VIII,  he  brought  Orvieto 
back  to  its  submission  to  the  Holy  See,  shortly  after 
which  the  pope  named  him  legate  for  Umbria,  Spoleto, 
and  the  March  of  Ancona.  In  this  capacity  he  left  the 
Curia  on  27  May,  1300,  returning,  however,  on  28 
May,  1301.  During  this  time  he  had  to  combat  va- 
rious enemies  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  recovered  the 
city  of  Gubbio  for  the  pope.  He  was  entrusted  with 
his  second  papal  legation  by  Clement  V.  Leaving 
Avignon,  which  was  at  that  time  the  residence  of  the 
Curia,  he  set  out  on  8  March,  1306,  for  the  Papal 
States  with  the  commission  to  make  peace  between  the 
parties  which  were  everywhere  at  variance,  and  to 
bring  back  the  various  states  of  the  Roman  Church  to 
their  allegiance  to  the  pope.  This  mission  occupied 
more  than  three  years,  terminating  on  12  June,  1309. 
Cardinal  Napoleone  played  an  important  part  during 
the  political  disturbances  of  the  time.  At  first  an  op- 
ponent of  the  Colonna  and  their  ambitions,  he  later 
became  a  promoter  of  French  policy  and  entered  into 
close  relations  with  the  French  rulers.  At  the  elec- 
tions of  Clement  V  and  John  XXII  he  exercised  a 
decisive  influence,  but  subsequently  became  an  enemy 
of  the  latter.  He  upheld  the  Franciscan  Spirituals, 
and  espoused  the  cause  of  King  Louis  of  Bavaria 
against  the  pope.  A  cardinal  for  fifty-four  years,  he 
took  part  in  the  election  of  seven  popes  (Celestine  V 
to  Clement  VI),  on  at  least  three  of  whom  he  placed 
the  tiara.  He  is  also  known  as  an  author,  having 
written  a  biography  of  St.  Clare  of  Montefalco. 

(3)  GiAN  Gaetano  Orsini,  prothonotary  Apostolic, 
raised  to  the  cardinalate  by  Pope  John  XXII  in  De- 
cember, 1316;  d.  1339  (or,  according  to  some  sources, 
27  August,  1.335).  In  1326  he  was  sent  to  Italy  as 
papal  legate  for  certain  lands  belonging  to  the  Papal 
States,  and  remained  there  until  1334,  He  endeav- 
oured, though  with  little  success,  to  bring  back  several 
rebelUous  states  and  vassals  to  their  allegiance  to  the 
Apostolic  See,  excommunicated  the  obstinate  Cas- 
truccio  of  Lucca  and  Bishop  Guido  Tarlato  of  Arezzo, 
as  both  supported  the  Visconti  of  Milan  in  their  con- 
flict against  the  pope,  and,  after  the  coronation  of 
King  Louis  the  Bavarian  in  Rome  in  1327,  placed  that 
city  under  an  interdict.  After  the  departure  of  the 
excommunicated  emperor,  the  legate  entered  Rome 
with  the  army  of  King  Robert  of  Naples,  whereupon 
the  people  once  more  agreed  to  recognize  the  suze- 
rainty of  the  pope.     John  XXII,  however,  refused  to 


sanction  the  war  undertaken  by  the  cardinal  legate 
against  the  Colonna,  and  ordered  him  to  return  to 
Tuscany.  In  November,  132S,  he  opened  a  campaign 
.against  the  cities  of  Corneto  ami  Viterbo,  which 
submitted  to  the  pope  in  the  following  year.  The 
years  between  1334  and  his  death  he  passed  in 
Avignon. 

(4)  Matteo  Orsini,  d.  probably  on  IS  August,  KMO. 
He  entered  the  Dominican  Order,  coniplclcd  I  he  full 
course  of  theology,  obtained  the  Dcgn^e  of  Master, 
and  taught  theology  at  Paris,  Florence,  and  Rome. 
He  won  great  distinction  by  his  zeal  for  the  .spread  of 
the  order,  and  was  appointed  provincial  of  the  Koman 
province  in  1322.  In  this  capacity  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  embassy  deputed  by  the  Romans  to  invite 
John  XXII  to  transfer  liis  r('si(l(Mice  to  the  Eternal 
City.  On  20  October,  1326,  the  pope  named  him 
Bishop  of  Girgenti  (Sicily),  but  shortly  after  (15  June, 
1327)  transferred  him  to  the  archicpiscopal  See  of 
Liponto  (Manfredonia,  Soutliern  Italy),  made  him 
Cardinal-Priest  of  S.  Giovanni  e  Paolo  on  18  De- 
cember, 1327,  and  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Sabina  on  18 
December,  1338.  He  continued  in  various  ways  to 
promote  the  welfare  of  the  Dominican  Order,  richly 
endowing  the  Convent  of  St.  Dominic  in  Bologna. 

(5)  GiACOMO  Or.sini,  created  cardinal-deacon  by 
Gregory  XI  on  30  May,  1371,  d.  at  Vicovaro  or  at 
Tagliacozzo,  1379.  He  was  distinguished  for  his 
kno%vledge  of  the  law.  Appointed  papal  legate  in 
Siena  in  1376,  he  was  a  strong  supporter  of  Gregory 
XI.  In  the  Conclave  of  1378,  he  espoused  the  cause 
of  Urban  VI,  but  later  attached  himself  to  the  anti- 
pope  Clement  VII 

(6)  PoNCELLo  Orsini,  Bishop  of  Aversa  (Southern 
Italy)  from  19  June,  1370,  d.  2  February,  1395.  He 
was  created  cardinal-priest  with  the  title  of  St.  Clem- 
ent at  the  great  consistory  convoked  by  Urban  VI  on 
28  September,  1378.  He  became  papal  legate,  and 
at  first  worked  zealously  for  the  interests  of  Urban  VI 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  schism.  Later,  however, 
repelled  by  the  impetuous  procedure  of  the  pope,  he 
secretly  left  the  Curia  and  took  up  his  abode  upon  his 
own  possessions.  At  the  Conclave  of  1389,  he  was  a 
candidate  for  the  papacy.  The  new  pope,  Boniface 
IX,  appointed  him  to  important  ecclesiastical  offices, 
and  he  exercised  great  influence  upon  the  Curia  until 
his  death. 

(7)  ToMMASO,  of  the  line  of  the  Counts  of  Manupello, 
raised  to  the  cardinalate  (1381)  by  Urban  VI;  d.  1() 
July,  1390.  He  was  sent  by  the  pope  as  legate  to  the 
Patrimony  and  the  Marches,  where  Prince  Rinaldo 
Orsini  of  Aquila  and  Tagliacozzo  had  seized  the  cities 
of  Urbino  and  Spoleto  in  addition  to  other  territory. 
The  legate  declared  war  against  him  and  won  back  for 
the  pope  the  cities  of  Narni,  Ameli,  Terni,  and  later 
also  Viterbo.  His  conduct  towards  the  Papal  Vicar 
of  Viterbo,  brought  upon  himself  the  disfavour  of  the 
pope,  who  imprisoned  him  in  the  fortress  of  Amelia, 
but  later  granted  him  his  liberty.  On  the  occasion 
of  the  conspiracy  of  several  of  the  cardinals  against 
Urban,  Cardinal  Orsini  remained  loyal  to  the  pope. 
His  relations  were  intimate  with  Urban's  successor, 
Boniface  IX,  during  whose  pontificate  he  died. 

(8)  Giordano  Orsini,  a  very  distinguished  person- 
ality in  the  College  of  Cardinals  in  the  first  three  de- 
cades of  the  fifteenth  century,  d.  at  Petricoh,  29  July, 
1438.  After  a  thorough  and  comprehensive  training, 
he  became  Auditor  of  the  Rota,  and  in  February, 
1400,  was  raised  by  Boniface  IX  to  the  Archiepiscopal 
See  of  Naples.  On  12  June,  1405,  Innocent  VII  made 
him  a  member  of  the  College  of  Cardinals,  at  first  with 
the  title  of  St.  Martino  of  Monti,  and  later  with 
that  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso.  In  1412  he  was 
appointed  Cardinal-Bishop  of  Albano,  and  in  1431 
Cardinal-BLshop  of  Sabina.  He  participated  in  the 
election  of  Gregory  XII  (1406),  but  later,  with  several 
other  cardinals,  renounced  allegiance  to  the  pope, 


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327 


ORSINI 


against  whom  he  pubhshed  a  tract.  He  assisted  at 
the  Council  of  Pisa,  and  took  part  in  the  election 
of  the  Pisan  pope,  Alexander  V  (1409),  and  of  his 
successor  John  XXIII  (Balthasar  Cossa).  The  latter 
sent  him  as  envoy  to  Spain,  later  appointing  him 
papal  legate  to  the  Marches,  in  which  position  he  was 
equally  distinguished  for  his  ability  and  prudence. 
He  assisted  zealously  at  the  Council  of  Constance, 
and  took  part  in  the  election  of  Martin  V  (1417).  He 
was  sent  by  this  pope  as  legate  to  England  and  France, 
in  company  with  Cardinal  Filastre,  to  make  peace 
between  the  two  countries.  He  was  also  selected  for 
the  difficult  embassy  to  Bohemia  and  the  neighbouring 
countries  (1426),  where  he  was  to  combat  the  Hussite 
heresy.  On  this  occasion  he  took  with  him  as  his 
secretary  the  future  cardinal,  Nicholas  of  Cusa.  Upon 
his  return,  the  pope  entrusted  to  him  another  difficult 
task,  namely  the  visitation  and  reform  of  the  churches 
and  ecclesiastical  institutions  of  Rome.  In  the  Con- 
clave of  14.31  Eugene  IV  was  elected  pope.  A  close 
friendship  existed  between  him  and  Giordano,  and  the 
latter  supported  him  loyally  and  energetically  during 
all  the  trying  conditions  of  the  time.  With  two  other 
cardinals,  Giordano  was  commissioned  to  proceed 
against  the  usurpers  of  ecclesiastical  possessions  in 
Italy,  after  which  he  was  delegated  by  the  pope  to 
attend  the  Council  of  Basle  (q.  v.),  where  he  exerted 
every  effort  to  uphold  the  rights  of  the  pope  against 
the  schismatic  element  in  the  council.  We  are  in- 
debted to  him  for  a  diary  of  this  council.  Later,  as 
papal  legate,  he  journeyed  with  Cardinal  Conti  to  Siena 
to  meet  Emperor  Sigismund  on  his  way  to  Rome  to 
receive  the  imperial  crown.  A  man  of  wide  culture, 
Giordano  took  an  active  part  in  the  literary  life  of  his 
time.  Numerous  and  valuable  manuscripts  were  the 
result  of  his  journe3dngs  as  legate,  and  these  he  willed 
to  St.  Peter's  in  Rome  (cf.  the  catalogue  of  manu- 
scripts in  Cancelfieri,  "De  secretariis  basilicae  Vati- 
cance",  II,  Rome,  1786,  pp.  906-14).  An  Augustinian 
monastery  was  founded  by  him  in  Bracciano.  He  died 
dean  of  the  College  of  Cardinals,  and  was  buried  in 
St.  Peter's  in  a  chapel  founded  and  richly  endowed 
by  him. 

(9)  Latino  Orsini,  likewise  of  the  Roman  branch 
of  the  family  and  the  owner  of  rich  possessions,  b. 
1411;  d.  11  August,  1477.  He  entered  the  ranks 
of  the  Roman  clergy  as  a  youth,  became  subdeacon, 
and  as  early  as  10  March,  14.38,  was  raised  to  the 
Episcopal  See  of  Conza  in  Southern  Italy.  Trans- 
ferred from  this  see  to  that  of  Trani  (Southern  Italy) 
on  8  June,  1439,  he  remained  archbishop  of  the  latter 
after  his  elevation  to  the  cardinalate  by  Nicholas  V 
on  20  December,  1448.  On  4  December,  1454,  the 
Archbishopric  of  Bari  was  conferred  upon  him,  which 
made  it  pcssible  for  him  to  take  up  his  residence  in 
Rome,  the  See  of  Trani  being  given  to  his  brother,  John 
Orsini,  Abbot  of  Farfa.  Paul  II  appointed  him  legate 
for  the  Marches.  Sixtus  IV,  for  whose  election  in 
1471  Cardinal  Latino  had  worked  energetically,  named 
him  camerlengo  of  the  College  of  Cardinals,  granted 
him  in  1472  the  Archdiocese  of  Taranto,  which  he 
governed  by  proxy,  and,  in  addition,  placed  him  at  the 
head  of  the  government  of  the  Papal  States.  He  was 
also  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  papal  fleet 
in  the  war  against  the  Turks,  and,  acting  for  the  pope, 
crowned  Ferdinand  King  of  Naples.  He  founded  in 
Rome  the  monastery  of  S.  Salvatore  in  Lauro,  which 
he  richly  endowed  and  in  which  he  established  the 
canons  regular,  donating  to  it  also  numerous  manu- 
scripts. In  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  became  deeply 
religious,  though  he  had  been  worldly  in  his  youth, 
leaving  a  natural  son  named  Paul,  whom,  with  the 
consent  of  the  pope,  he  made  the  heir  of  his  vast 
possessions. 

(10)  GiAMBATTisT.*.  Orsini,  nephew  of  Latino,  d. 
22  Feb.,  1503.  He  entered  the  service  of  the  Curia 
at  an  early  age,  became  cameral  cleric,  canon  of  St. 


Peter's,  and  was  elevated  to  the  cardinalate  by  Sixtus 
IV  in  1483.  Innocent  VIII  conferred  upon  him  in 
1491  the  Archiepiscopal  See  of  Taranto,  which  he 
governed  by  proxy,  and,  as  papal  legate  for  Romagna, 
the  Marches,  and  Bologna,  he  was  entrusted  with  the 
administration  of  these  provinces  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
States.  In  the  Conclave  of  1492,  the  election  of 
Alexander  VI  was  almost  entirely  due  to  him.  How- 
ever, Cardinal  Giambattista,  together  with  the  head  of 
the  House  of  Orsini,  the  Duke  of  Bracciano,  having 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  Florentines  and  the  French 
in  the  Italian  wars,  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  Vatican 
at  the  command  of  the  pope  and  thrown  into  the 
dungeon  of  the  Castel  Sant'  Angelo,  where  he  died. 
The  report  was  current  that  he  had  been  poisoned 
by  Alexander  VI. 

Other  cardinals  of  the  family  of  Orsini  who  are 
worthy  of  mention  because  of  the  active  part  taken 
by  them  either  as  administrators  of  the  papal  states 
or  as  legates  in  other  lands  are  the  following : 

(11)  Flavio  Orsini,  flourished  in  the  .sixteenth  cen- 
tury, d.  16  May,  1581.  He  was  created  a  cardinal 
in  1565,  having  been  a  bishop  since  1560,  first  of  the 
See  of  Muro  and  later  that  of  Spolcto.  In  1572  he 
was  sent  by  Gregory  XIII  as  legate  to  Charles  IX  of 
France,  principally  to  support  this  monarch  in  his 
conflict  with  the  Huguenots. 

(12)  Altsssandro  Orsini,  belonging  to  the  ducal 
family  of  Bracciano,  b.  1592;  d.  22  August,  1626.  He 
was  brought  up  at  the  court  of  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdi- 
nand I  of  Tuscany,  and  in  1615  created  a  cardinal  by 
Paul  V.  As  Legate  to  Ravenna  under  Gregory  XV, 
he  distinguished  himself  in  1621  by  his  great  charity 
on  the  occasion  of  the  outbreak  of  a  malignant  pesti- 
lence. Upon  his  return  to  Rome,  he  devoted  himself 
to  religion  and  to  the  practice  of  an  austere  asceticism. 
He  even  begged  permission  of  the  pope  to  resign  the 
cardinalate  and  to  enter  the  Jesuit  Order,  but  this  was 
refused.  Nevertheless,  the  pious  cardinal  always  re- 
mained closely  united  to  the  Jesuits.  He  was  a  patron 
of  Gahleo. 

(13)  ViRGiNio  Orsini,  likewise  of  the  ducal  family 
of  Bracciano,  b.  1615;  d.  21  August,  1676.  He  re- 
nounced his  birthright  in  his  youth,  entered  the  mili- 
tary order  of  the  Knights  of  Malta,  and  more  than  once 
distinguished  himself  in  the  war  against  the  Turks  by 
his  reckless  bravery.  In  December,  1641,  Urban 
VIII  raised  him  to  the  cUgnity  of  cardinal,  and  ap- 
pointed him  Protector  of  the  Polish  as  well  as  of  the 
Portuguese  Orient.  He  was  commissioned  to  direct 
the  building  of  the  new  fortifications  with  which  Ur- 
ban VIII  enclosed  the  Leonine  City  and  a  quarter  of 
Trastevere,  and  which  are  still  in  existence.  In  1675 
he  became  Cardinal  Bisiiop  of  Frascati,  but  died  the 
next  year,  leaving  behind  him  a  reputation  of  a  pious, 
gentle,  and  benevolent  prince  of  the  Church. 

In  addition  to  the  members  of  the  Orsini  family 
who  were  prominent  as  cardinals  in  the  history  of  the 
Roman  Church,  others  have  gained  a  place  in  political 
history  as  statesmen,  warriors,  or  patrons  of  the  arts 
and  sciences. 

(1)  Or.so  di  Bobone,  nephew  of  Pope  Celestine  III 
(1191-8)  and  the  first  Orsini  to  hold  a  conspicuous 
place  in  Rome.  Under  the  protection  of  his  uncle, 
the  pope,  he  was  destined  to  have  the  principal  part 
in  laying  the  foundation  of  the  dominion,  power,  and 
prestige  of  the  Roman  Orsini.  His  grandchild,  (2) 
Matted  Rcsso  Orsini,  was  made  senator  of  Rome 
by  Pope  Gregory  IX  in  1241.  In  this  capacity  he 
took  a  decided  stand  against  the  ventures  of  Emperor 
Frederick  II  in  Italy.  He  was  a  patron  of  religious 
undertakings,  a  personal  friend  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
and  a  member  of  that  saint's  Third  Order.  While  one 
of  the  sons  of  Matteo  RoSso,  Gian  Gaetano,  ascended 
the  papal  throne  as  Nicholas  III,  another,  (3)  Rinaldo, 
continued  the  activities  of  his  father  in  the  political 
field,  exerting  himself  to  the  utmost  to  prevent  the 


oRsisins 


328 


ORTELIUS 


Rllianco  of  Rome  with  the  Hohenstaufcn  Konrailiii. 
A  son  of  this  Hinaldo,  (4)  Matteo  Orsini,  was  twice 
senator  in  Rome.  His  wise  and  energetic  uncle, 
Nicholas  III  (q.  v.).  to  show  that  papal  rule  was  once 
more  dominant  in  Rome,  deprived  Kinji  Charles  of 
Anjoil  of  ihf  senatorial  dijrnily,  and  in  1127S  (lublished 
the  decree  that  thenceforth  no  foreign  enipiror  or  king 
could  become  senator,  a  Roman  being  alone  eligible 
for  the  dignity,  and  then  only  with  the  consent  of  the 
pope  and  for  one  year.  The  power  of  1  he  ( )rsini  was  in 
general  much  strengthened  by  this  cajiable  pope  of 
their  race. 

In  the  course  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, the  following  were  particularly  famous  as  mili- 
tary leaders  in  the  numberless  internal  wars  of  Italy; 

(5)  P.\OLO  Orsini,  who  in  the  beginning  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  fought  as  condotliere  in  the  service  of 
several  popes,  wjis  taken  prisoner  by  Ladislas  of 
Naples,  again  set  at  liberty,  and  fell  in  battle  against 
Braccio  da  Montone  before  Perugia  on  5  July,  1416. 

(6)  ViRGiNio  Orsini,  Lord  of  Bracciano,  was  leader  of 
the  forces  of  Sixtus  IV  (1471-84)  in  the  war  against 
Ferrara,  and  victor  at  the  battle  of  Campo  Morto 
against  the  Neapolitans  (14S2).  Later,  however,  he 
entered  the  service  of  Naples  to  oppose  King  Charles 
VIII  of  France  (1483-98);  in  1494,  however,  he  took 
the  side  of  the  latter,  and  was  imprisoned  on  this  ac- 
count. He  died  on  18  January,  1497,  in  prison  at 
Naples.  (7)  NiccoLO  Orsini,  Count  of  Petighano, 
was,  at  this  time,  in  the  service  of  the  Anjous,  military 
leader  in  the  war  against  Naples,  Sixtus  IV,  Siena, 
Florence,  and  Venice.  Later,  however,  he  went  over 
with  his  army  to  the  Venetian  standard,  and  became 
general-in-chief  of  the  Venetian  Republic  in  the  war 
against  the  League  of  Cambrai.  He  captured  Pailua, 
but  was  defeated  in  1.509,  and  died  in  the  following 
year.  Of  the  members  of  the  Orsini  family  who  flour- 
ished during  the  sixieenth  century  (S)  Paolo  Gior- 
dano Orsini  is  also  worthy  of  mention.  Born  in 
1.541,  he  was  created  a  duke,  with  the  title  of  Brac- 
ciano, by  Pope  Pius  IV  (1500).  Under  Paul  IV,  he 
was  general  of  the  papal  troops  in  the  war  against  the 
Turks  (1566).  His  first  wife,  Isabella  Medici,  being 
murdered,  he  took  as  his  second  wife  Vi  ttoria  Accoram- 
boni,  widow  of  the  murdered  Francesco  Peretti,  a 
nephew  of  Sixtus  V.  Accused  of  murdering  the  latter, 
Paolo  Giordano  was  obliged  to  leave  Rome.  He  died 
at  Salo  in  1585.  (9)  FuLvio  Orsini  was  distinguished 
as  a  humanist,  historian,  and  archaeologist,  b.  on  11 
December,  1529;  d.  in  Rome,  18  May,  1600.  He  was 
the  natural  son  probably  of  Maerbale  Orsini  of  the 
Une  of  Mugnano.  Cast  off  by  his  father  at  the  age  of 
nine,  he  found  a  refuge  among  the  choir  boys  of  St. 
John  Lateran,  and  a  protector  in  Canon  Gentile 
Delfini.  He  applied  himself  energetically  to  the  study 
of  the  ancient  languages,  published  a  new  edition  of 
Amobius  (Rome,  1.583)  and  of  the  Septuagint  (Rome, 
1587),  and  wrote  works  dealing  with  the  history  of 
Rome — "Familise  Romana;  ex  antiquis  numismati- 
bus"  (Rome,  1577),  "Fragmenta  historicorum"  (Ant- 
werp, 1595),  etc.  He  brought  together  a  large  collec- 
tion of  antiquities,  and  built  up  a  costly  library  of 
manuscripts  and  books,  which  later  became  part  of  the 
Vatican  library  (cf.  de  Nolhac,  "La  bibliotheque  de 
Fulvio  Onsini",  Paris,  1887). 

A  woman  of  the  Orsini  family  likewise  played  an 
important  political  role  in  the  seventeenth  century: 
Marie  Anne,  nee  de  la  Trdmoille,  b.  1642.  Her  first 
husband  was  Talleyrand,  Prince  de  Chalais,  after 
whose  death  she  married  Flavio  Orsini,  Duke  of 
Bracciano,  who  remained  loyal  to  Pope  Innocent  XI 
in  his  difficulties  with  Louis  XIV  of  France.  Marie 
Anne  used  her  influence  with  the  Curia  in  the  inter- 
ests of  France  and  of  Louis  XIV,  and  in  1701,  after 
the  death  of  her  husband,  went  to  Madrid  as  mistress 
of  the  robes  to  Queen  Marie- Louise,  who,  together 
with  her  husband  Phihp  V  of  Spain,  was  completely 


under  her  influence.  She  ilid  nuich  to  strengthen 
the  throne  of  llic.^e  rulers,  but,  nevertheless,  in  1714 
when  I'liilip  married  Mli/.abctli  l''anicsc,  she  was  dis- 
missed with  ingratitude  ami  returned  lo  Rome,  whore 
she  (lied  on  5  December,  1722  (.see  Hill,  "The  Princess 
Orsini",  London,  1899). 

The  ancient  family  of  the  Roman  Orsini  is  extinct. 
The  present  princes  of  the  family  in  Koine  descend 
from  the  Neapolitan  line,  which  may  be  lrac<d  back 
to  Fr.ancesco  Orsini,  Count  of  Traiii  and  Conversano. 
In  1463  they  became  Dukes  of  Gr.avina,  later  (1724) 
princes  of  the  Em))ire  an<l  Roman  princes.  The  head 
of  the  family  always  enjoys  the  dignity  of  assistant 
at  the  papal  throne.  The  present  head  is  Filippo 
Orsini-Gravina-Sarzina,  b.  10  December,  1842.  Sev- 
eral noble  families  outside  of  Italy  trace  back  their 
descent  to  the  ancient  Italian  Orsini,  as  for  example  the 
Juvenels  des  Ursins  in  France  and  the  Rosenbergs  in 
Austria  and  Germany. 

San.sovino,  Hist,  di  casa  Orsini  e  degli  uomini  illusiri  delta 
viedefiima  (Venice,  1505);  Inchoff,  Genealogite  familitB  Ursiiut 
(.\msterdani,  1710);  Ciaconius,  Vitte  et  res  gestcE  Summorum 
PontiJ.  Roman,  et  S.  R.  E.  Cardinalium  (4  vols.,  Rome,  1677). 
continued  by  Guarnacci  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1751) ;  Hdyskens, 
Kardinal  Napoleo  Orsini  (part  1,  Marburg,  1902);  Idem,  Das 
Kapitet  von  St.  Peter  unter  dem  Einfluss  der  Orsini  {127e-lSJ,S)  in 
Histor.  Jahrb..  XXVII  (1906).  266-90;  Stebnfeld,  Der  Kardinal 
Johann  Gaetan  Orsini  (Berlin,  1905) ;  FlNKE,  .4 us  den  Tagen  Boni- 
faz  VIII  (Milnster,  1902),  96  sqq.  (regarding  Cardinal  Matteo 
Rosso  Orsini) ;  Souchon,  Die  Papstwahlen  von  Bonifaz  VIII  bis 
Urban  VI  (Brunswick,  1888);  CJregorovius,  Gesch.  der  Stadt 
Ram  im  Mitlelaller  (5th  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1903);  Reumont,  Geseh. 
der  Stadt  Rom  (3  vols.,  Berlin,  1867-70);  Pastor,  Gesch.  der 
P&pste  (4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1901 — );  Moroni,  Dizionario  di  erudi- 
zione  storico-ecclesiastica,  s.  v.  Orsini. 

3.  P.  KlRSCH. 

Orsisius  {' kpalaioi,  Oresiesis-Heru-sa  Ast),  an 
Egyptian  monk  of  the  fourth  century,  was  a  disciple 
of  Pachomius  on  the  ishind  Tabcnna  in  the  Nile. 
When  Pachomiusdied  (3  IS),  (_)r.sisius  was  chosen  as  his 
successor;  but  he  resigned  in  favour  of  Theodore.  It 
was  not  till  Theodore's  death  (c.  380)  that  Orsisius, 
advised  by  St.  Athanasius,  accepted  the  ofl!ice  of 
hegumen.  Theodore  and  Orsisius  are  said  to  have 
helped  Pachomius  in  the  composition  of  his  rule; 
Gennadius  (De.  vir.  ill.,  IX)  mentions  another  work: 
"Orcsiesis  the  monk,  a  colleague  of  Pachomius  and 
Theodore  and  a  man  perfectly  learned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, composed  a  Divinely  savouretl  book  containing 
instruction  for  all  monastic  discipline,  in  which  nearly 
the  whole  Old  and  New  Testaments  are  explained  in 
short  dissertations  in  as  far  as  they  affect  monks;  and 
shortly  before  his  death  he  gave  this  book  to  his  breth- 
ren as  his  testament."  This  is  supposed  to  be  the 
work:  "Doctrina  de  institutione  monachorum"  trans- 
lated by  St.  Jerome  into  Latin  (P.  L.,  CIII,  4.53  sq., 
and  P.  G.,  XL.,  870-894).  Migne  i)rints  after  it 
(P.  G.,  XL.,  895  sq.)  another  work  attributed  to  the 
same  author:  "De  sex  cogitationibus  sanctorum", 
which,  however,  is  probably  by  a  later  Oresius. 

Cave,  Srriptorum  ercl.  historia  literaria,  I  (Basle,  1741),  209; 
Ceillier,  Uistoire  ginerale  des  auteurs  sacris,  IV  (Paris,  1860), 
235  .sq. 

Adrian  Fortescde. 

Orte.  See  Civita  Castellana,  Orte  and  Gal- 
LESE,  Diocese  of. 

Ortelius  (Oertel),  Abraham,  cartographer,  geog- 
rapher, and  archa'ologist,  b.  in  .\ntwerp,  4  April,  1527; 
d.  there,  'JS  June,  1.59S.  His  family  came  from  Augs- 
burg, wlicrefore  Ortelius  frequently  referred  to  him- 
self as  "  Belgo-Germanus".  The  death  of  his  father  in 
1535,  who  had  been  a  wealthy  merchant,  seems  to 
have  placed  the  family  in  difficulties,  for  Ortelius  be- 
gan to  trade  or  peddle  geographical  charts  and  maps 
while  still  a  mere  youth.  When  t  wenty  years  of  age  he 
joined  a  guild  as  a  eolourer  of  charts.  IBy  purchasing 
as  valuable  maps  as  possible,  mounting  them  on  can- 
vas, colouring,  and  re-selling  them,  he  managed  to  as- 
sist in  suiiporting  the  family,  as  may  be  gleaned  from  a 
contemporary  letter.    This  trading  in  maps  was  prob- 


ORTHODOX 


329 


ORTHODOX 


ably  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  his  unusually  extended 
trips  to  Germany,  England,  Italy,  and  particularly  for 
his  annual  visits  to  the  great  fair  at  Leipzig.  Mean- 
while he  did  not  confine  himself  entirely  to  trafficking 
in  charts.  Five  years  before  Mercator  published  his 
famous  Carta  Navigatoria  (1.569)  appeared  Ortelius's 
great  eight-leaved  map  of  the  world.  As  the  only  ex- 
tant copy  of  this  great  map  is  that  in  the  library  of  the 
University  of  Basle  (cf.  Bernoulli,  "Ein  Karteninkun- 
abelnband",  Basle,  190.5,  p.  5)  it  is  still  almost  entirely 
unknown.  No  copy  has  yet  been  found  of  Ortelius's 
great  map  of  Asia,  but  in  his  chief  work,  which  assures 
him  for  all  time  a  place  of  honour  in  the  history  of  car- 
tography, we  find  not  only  his  own  map  of  Asia  on  a 
smaller  scale,  but  also  a  number  of  maps  of  other  car- 
tographers, who  otherwise  are  completely  unknown. 
This  work  is  the  "Theatrum  orbis  terrarum",  which 
appeared  in  1570;  it  was  the  first  great  modern  atlas, 
and  contained  seventy  copper  engravings  on  fifty- 
three  double-folio 
pages.  Orteliushas 
combined  in  this 
work  in  a  syste- 
matic manner  all 
recent  maps  of  the 
world  and  separate 
countries,  of  which 
he  had  heard  dur- 
ing his  long  activity 
as  trader  and  col- 
lector. Where  sev- 
eral maps  of  one 
country  were  avail- 
able, he  chose  the 
most  modern  and 
most  reliable  copy. 
When  the  name  of 
the  author  was 
mentioned  on  the 
map,  Ortehus  did 
not  change  a  line  or 
a  name  then,  but, 
when  the  author's  name  was  not  given,  he  resolutely 
made  such  changes  as  appeared  to  him  necessary.  He 
conscientiously  gave  credit  to  the  author  of  maps 
which  were  published  on  a  reduced  scale  by  himself. 
Considering  geography  as  an  eye  of  history  (hislnrite 
oculus),  he  usually  added  the  ancient  historical  names 
of  countries  and  cities  to  the  modern  ones. 

To  the  atlas  he  appended  a  geographical  dictionary 
which  contained  both  the  ancient  and  modern  names. 
More  important  for  us  than  this  dictionary  is  the  ap- 
pended catalogue  of  maps  (Catalogus  audorum  tabu- 
larum  geographicarum) ,  in  which  appear  the  names  and 
works  of  ninety-nine  cartographers  who  lived  before 
1570.  As  concerning  many  of  these  cartographers  we 
have  no  other  knowledge  than  that  contained  in  this 
catalogue,  and  as  Ortelius  utilized  but  forty-six  of  the 
maps  mentioned  by  him,  this  little  list  is  to-day  one  of 
the  most  important  sources  for  a  history  of  cartog- 
raphy. Later  on  this  "Theatrum"  was  enlarged  and 
improved.  In  1593  there  were  137,  in  1612  no  less 
than  166  maps,  while  the  list  of  authors  reached  183 
for  the  time  up  to  1595 ;  antiquated  maps  were  replaced 
by  more  modern  ones,  or  changed  according  to 
the  more  accurate  reports  forwarded  for  the  most 
part  by  missionaries,  and  it  soon  appeared  not  only  in 
the  Latin  language,  but  also  in  Dutch,  High  German, 
Italian,  and  French  translations.  Very  numerous  were 
the  smaller  editions  and  extracts  in  the  various  lan- 
guages. As  late  as  1697  there  appeared  in  Venice  a 
''Teatro  del  Monde  di  Abramo  Ortclio".  As  the 
"Theatrum"  had  been  dedicated  to  the  Spanish  king 
Philip  II  by  Ortelius,  the  latter  was  given  the  title  of  a 
Royal  Geographer  (geographus  regius).  His  contem- 
poraries honoured  him  as  t  he  "  Ptolemy  of  his  century  " . 
Separate  from  his  atlas  Ortelius  pubhshed  in  1587 


the  "Thesaurus  geographicus",  which  possesses  to 
this  day  consideratilc  value  as  a  dictionary  of  old  geog- 
raphy. In  the  form  of  a  letter  to  his  friend  Gerhard 
Mercator,  Ortelius  published  in  1575  his  "Itinerarium 
per  nonnullas  Galliip  Belgica;  partes",  which  contains 
much  valuable  information  as  to  the  old  geography  of 
Belgium,  but  which  is  chiefly  valuable  on  account  of 
its  philologico-archffiological  importance.  One  of  the 
fruits  of  his  restless  activity  as  a  collector  of  archaeo- 
logical specimens  was  his  pamphlet:  "Deorum, 
Dearumque Capita e  veteribus  numismatibus "  (1575), 
which  contained  a  number  of  reproductions  from  his 
widely  admired  archa?ological  collection.  In  his 
"  Aurei  seculi  imago  sive  Germanorum  veterum  mores, 
ritus  et  religio  delineata  et  commentariis  ex  utriusque 
lingua;  scriptoribus  descripta",  he  gives  a  short  com- 
mentary to  the  works  of  ancient  writers  on  Germany, 
illustrated  with  ten  engravings.  Despite  the  great 
honour  freely  accorded  to  Ortelius,  he  remained  hum- 
ble and  modest.  "Until  his  very  end  he  was",  as  F. 
Ratzel  says,  "a  good  Catholic  and  had  particularly 
many  friends  among  the  Jesuits".  True  to  his  motto, 
"Contemno  et  orno  [mundum],  mentc,  manu",  Orte- 
lius, unmarried  and  earnest,  remained  above  the  petty 
squabbles  which  so  often  disturb  scientific  circles. 
"Quietis  cultor  sine  hte,  uxore,  prole"  is  written  on 
his  tombstone  in  the  Pra?monstratensian  abbey  at 
Antwerp.  This  epitaph  was  written  by  Justus  Lip- 
sius. 

Theatrum  orbis  terrarum,  especially  the  introduction  to  the  first 
posthumous  edition:  Ratzel  in  Allg.  deutsche  Biogr.,  XXIV,  428- 
3.3:  Hesselr.  Erde^iir  LnnflinT-BataVft  Archivum,  I:  Abrahami 
Ortclii  ICi''^':-' :^y!  \  ■■',"..,>,"-)  pt  virorum  eruditorum  ad  eundum 
.  .  .  rjir'  '■  (I.:!-  ]  ^ '7] ;  T1EI.E,  Het  Kaartboek  van  Abra- 
ham Orh  ^  i-  i  ..rin.  Ill  C's  Gravenhage,  1876-7), 
83-121;  iM>,  luM.iM.  i;  III  '  !i/ni/sh€r.  d.  philos.-philoloff.  u.  hist. 
Kl.  d.  k.  I...1:,.  Au.i.i.  ,;.   II  I II  US99),  438-45. 

Joseph  Fischer. 

Orthodox  Church,  the  technical  name  for  the 
body  of  Christians  who  use  the  Byzantine  Rite  in 
various  languages  and  are  in  union  with  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople  but  in  schism  with  the  Pope  of 
Rome.  The  epithet  Orthodox  ((ipfi6So|os),  meaning 
"right  believer",  is,  naturally,  claimed  by  people  of 
every  religion.  It  is  almost  exactly  a  Greek  form  of 
the  oflScial  title  of  tlic  chief  ciiomies  of  the  Greeks, 
i.  e.  the  Moslems  (iiui'iiiin,  Jl,lilis).  The  Monophy- 
site  Armenians  call  themselves  ugliapar,  meaning 
exactly  the  same  thing.  How  "Orthodox"  became 
the  proper  name  of  the  Eastern  Church  it  is  diflicult  to 
say.  It  was  used  at  first,  long  before  the  schism  of 
Pliotius,  especially  in  the  East,  not  with  any  idea  of 
opposition  against  the  West,  but  rather  as  the  antithe- 
sis to  the  Eastern  heretics — Nestorians  and  Monoph- 
ysites.  Gradually,  although  of  course  both  East 
and  West  always  claimed  both  names,  "Catholic" 
became  the  most  common  name  for  the  original 
Church  in  the  West,  "Orthodox"  in  the  East.  It 
would  be  very  diflRcult  to  find  the  right  name  for  this 
Church.  "Eastern"  is  too  vague,  the  Nestorians 
and  Monophysites  are  Eastern  Churches;  "Schis- 
matic" has  the  same  disadvantage.  "Greek"  is 
really  the  least  expressive  of  all.  The  Greek  Church 
is  only  one,  and  a  very  small  one,  of  the  sixteen 
Churches  that  make  up  this  vast  communion.  The 
millions  of  Russians,  Bulgars,  Rumanians,  Arabs,  and 
so  on  who  belong  to  it  are  Greek  in  no  sense  at  all. 
According  to  their  common  custom  one  may  add  the 
word  "Eastern"  to  the  title  and  speak  of  the  Ortho- 
dox Eastern  Church  (^  iipS45ofos  ai/aroXiKT)  iKKX-qaia). 
The  Orthodox,  then,  are  the  Christians  in  the  East  of 
Europe,  in  Egypt  and  Asia,  who  accept  the  Councils 
of  Ephesus  and  Chalcedon  (are  therefore  neither 
Nestorians  nor  Monophysites),  but  who,  as  the  result 
of  the  schisms  of  Photius  (ninth  cent.)  and  Cerularius 
(eleventh  cent.),  are  not  in  communion  w'ith  the  Cath- 
olic Church.  There  is  no  common  authority  obeyed  by 
all,  or  rather  it  is  only  the  authority  of  "Christ  and 


ORTHODOXY 


330 


ORTHOSIAS 


the  seven  (Epumenic.il  Synotis"  (from  Nieanal,  in  32"), 
to  Niciva  11,  in  7S7).     These  sixteen  Churches  are: 

(1)  The  four  ICastcrn  patriarchates — Constantinople, 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jerusalem — and  the  Church  of 
Cyprus,  independent  since  the  Council  of  I'4ihcsus. 

(2)  !>ince  the  preat  schism  eleven  new  churches  have 
been  added,  all  hut  one  formed  at  the  expense  of  the 
once  vast  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople.  They  are 
the  six  national  Churches  of  Russia,  Greece,  Servia, 
Montenegro,  Rumania,  and  Bulgaria,  four  independ- 
ent Churches  in  the  .\ustro-Hungarian  Monarchy, 
namely  Carlovitz,  Herniannstadt,  Czernovitz,  Bosnia- 
Herzegovina,  and  lastly  the  Church  of  Mount  Sinai, 
consisting  of  one  monastery  separated  from  Jerusalem. 
One  of  these  Churches,  that  of  Bulgaria,  is  in  schisin 
with  Constantinople  since  1872.  The  total  number 
of  Orthodox  Christians  in  the  world  is  estimated 
variously  as  95  to  100  millions.  (See  Eastern 
Churches  ;  Greek  Church ;  Constantinople,  Heresy 
and  Schism;  Russia.) 

Adrian  FoHTESctrB. 

Orthodoxy,  ipSoSo^la,  signifies  right  belief  or  purity 
of  faith.  Right  belief  is  not  merely  subjective,  as 
resting  on  personal  knowledge  and  convictions,  but 
is  in  accordance  with  the  teaching  and  direction  of 
an  absolute  extrinsic  authority.  This  authority  is 
the  Church  founded  by  Christ,  and  guided  by  the 
Holy  Ghost.  He,  therefore,  is  orthodox,  whose  faith 
coincides  with  the  teachings  of  the  Catholic  Church. 
As  divine  revelation  forms  the  deposit  of  faith  en- 
trusted to  the  Church  for  man's  salvation,  it  also, 
with  the  truths  clearly  deduced  from  it,  forms  the  ob- 
ject and  content  of  orthodoxy.  Although  the  term 
orthodox  or  orthodoxy  does  not  occur  in  the  Scriptures, 
its  meaning  is  repeatedly  insisted  on.  Thus  Christ 
proclaims  the  necessity  of  faith  unto  salvation  (Mark, 
xvi,  16).  St.  Paul,  emphasizing  the  same  injunction 
in  terms  more  specific,  teaches  "one  Lord,  one  faith, 
one  baptism"  (Eph.,  iv,  5,  6).  Again,  when  directing 
Titus  in  his  ministerial  labours,  he  admonishes  him 
to  speak  in  accord  with  "sound  doctrine"  (Tit.,  ii,  1). 
And  not  only  does  St.  Paul  lay  stress  on  the  soundness 
of  the  doctrine  to  be  preached,  but  he  al.so  directs  at- 
tention to  the  form  in  which  it  must  be  delivered: 
"  Hold  the  form  of  sound  words  which  thou  hast  heard 
of  me  in  faith"  (II  Tim.,  i,  13).  Consistent  with  the 
teachings  and  method  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles,  the 
Fathers  point  out  the  necessity  of  preserving  pure  and 
undefiled  the  deposit  of  revelation.  "Neither  in  the 
confusion  of  paganism",  says  St.  Augustine,  "nor  in 
the  defilement  of  heresy,  nor  in  the  lethargy  of  schism, 
nor  yet  in  the  blindness  of  Judaism  is  religion  to  be 
sought;  but  among  those  alone  who  are  called  Catholic 
Christians,  or  the  orthodox,  that  is,  the  custodians  of 
sound  doctrine  and  followers  of  right  teaching"  (De 
Vera  Relig.,  cap.  v).  Fulgentius  writes:  "I  rejoice 
that  with  no  taint  of  perfidy  you  are  solicitous  for  the 
true  faith,  without  which  no  conversion  is  of  any  avail, 
nor  can  at  all  exist"  (De  Vera  Fide  ad  Petrum,  Pro- 
leg).  The  Church,  likewise,  in  its  zeal  for  purity  of 
faith  and  teaching,  has  rigorously  adhered  to  the  ex- 
ample set  by  the  Apostles  and  early  Fathers.  This  is 
manifest  in  its  whole  history,  but  especially  in  such 
champions  of  the  faith  as  Athanasius,  in  councils,  con- 
demnations of  heresy,  and  its  definitions  of  revealed 
truth.  That  orthodox  faith  is  requisite  for  salvation 
is  a  defined  doctrine  of  the  Church.  "Whosoever 
wishes  to  be  saved",  declares  the  Athanasian  Creed, 
"must  first  of  all  hold  integral  and  inviolate  the  Catholic 
faith,  without  which  he  .shall  surely  be  eternally  lost". 
Numerous  Councils  and  papal  decisions  have  reiter- 
ated this  dogma  (cf.  Council  of  Florence,  Denz.,  714; 
Prof,  of  Faith  of  Pius  IV,  Denz.,  1000;  condemnation 
of  Indifferentism  and  Latitudinarianism  in  the  Svll. 
of  Pius  IX,  Denz.,  171.5,  1718;  Council  of  the  Vatican, 
"De  Fide",  can.  vi,  Denz.,  1815;  condemnation  of  the 


Modernistic  position  regarding  the  nature  and  origin 
of  dogma,  Encyc.  "Pascendi  Doniinici  (iregis",  1907, 
Denz.,  2079).  While  truth  must  \n-  intolerant  of  er- 
ror (II  Cor.,  vi,  14,  15),  the  Church  does  not  deny  the 
possibility  of  salvation  of  those  earnest  and  sincere 
persons  outside  her  fold  who  live  and  die  in  invincible 
ignorance  of  the  true  faith  (cf.  Council  of  the  Vatican, 
Se.ss.  Ill,  cap.  iii,  Denz.,  1794;  S.  Aug.,  Ep.  xliii  ad 
Galerium).  (See  Church;  Faith  ;  Faith,  Protestant 
Confessions  of;  Heresy;  Indifferentism.) 

St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theol.,  II-II,  De  fiile.  QQ.  i-vii;  RnsBO, 
Thf  True  Religion  and  Its  Dogmas  (Boston,  1886);  Ricabds, 
Catholic  Christianity  and  Modern  Unbelief  (New  York,  1884). 

Charles  J.  Callan. 

Orthodoxy,  Feast  (or  Sunday)  of,  the  first  Sun- 
day of  the  Great  Forty  days  (Lent)  in  the  Byzantine 
Calendar  (sixth  Sunday  before  Easter),  kept  in  mem- 
ory of  the  final  defeat  of  Iconoclasm  and  the  restora- 
tion of  the  holy  icons  to  the  churches  on  19  February 
(which  was  the  first  Sunday  of  Lent),  842  (see  Icono- 
clasm). A  iKTixtual  fe.ist  on  the  anniversary  of  that 
day  was  ordained  by  the  Synod  of  Constantinople,  and 
is  one  of  the  great  feasts  of  the  year  among  Orthodox 
and  Byzantine  Uniats.  The  name  "Orthodoxy"  has 
gradually  affected  the  character  of  the  feast.  Origin- 
ally commemorating  only  the  defeat  of  Iconoclasm, 
the  word  was  gradually  understood  in  a  more  general 
sense  as  opposition  to  all  heterodoxy.  In  this  way, 
though  its  first  occasion  is  not  forgotten,  the  feast  has 
become  one  in  honour  of  the  true  Faith  in  general. 
This  is  shown  by  its  special  service.  After  the  ( Irthros 
and  before  the  holy  Liturgy  a  procession  is  m.ade  with 
crosses  and  pictures  to  some  destined  spot  (often 
merely  round  the  church).  Meanwhile  a  Canon,  at- 
tributed to  St.  Theodore  of  Studium,  is  sung.  Arrived 
at  the  place,  the  Synodikon  is  read.  This  Synodikon 
begins  with  the  memory  of  certain  saints,  confessors, 
and  heroes  of  the  faith,  to  each  of  whose  names  the 
people  cry  out:  "Eternal  Memory!"  (alwvla  ii  ft-vrifiri) 
three  times.  Then  follows  a  long  list  of  heretics  of  all 
kinds,  to  each  of  which  the  answer  is:  "Anathema" 
once  or  thrice.  The  heretics  comprise  all  the  old  of- 
fendersof  any  reputation,  Arians,  Nestorians,  Monoph- 
ysites,  Monothelites,  Iconoclasts,  and  so  on.  Then 
comes  again  "Eternal  Memory"  to  certain  pious  em- 
perors, from  Constant  ine  on.  There  is  inevitably  con- 
siderable difference  between  the  Orthodox  and  Uniat 
lists.  The  Orthodox  acclaim  Photius,  Cerularius,  other 
anti-Roman  patriarchs  and  many  schismatical  em- 
perors. They  curse  Honoriusamong  the  Mnnotliejites, 
the  opponents  of  Hesychasm.  Th(;  Uniat  Synodikon 
is  purged  of  these  names.  In  Russia  politics  have 
their  place  in  the  Synodikon;  the  emperor  and  his 
family  are  acclaimed;  all  are  cursed  who  deny  the 
divine  right  of  the  Russian  monarchy  and  all  who 
"dare  to  stir  up  insurrection  and  rebellion  against  it". 
The  text  of  the  Canon,  Synodikon,  etc.,  and  the  ru- 
brics will  be  found  in  either  Triodion,  Orthodox  or 
Uniat. 

Allatius,  De  dominicis  el  hebdomadis  Gracorum,  xv.  appendix 
to  £>e  ecclesice  occid.  et  orient,  perpetuo  consensu  (Cologne,  1648); 
NiLLES,  Kalendarium  manuale  (2nd  ed.,  Innsbruck,  1897),  101- 
18. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Orthosias,  a  titular  see  of  Phcenicia  Prima,  suffra- 
gan of  Tyre.  The  city  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time 
in  I  Mach.,  xv,  37,  as  a  Phoenician  port  (D.  V., 
Orthosias);  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  V,  xvii)  places  it  be- 
tween Tripoli,  on  the  south,  and  the  River  Eleutherus, 
on  the  north;  Strabo  (Geographia,  XVI,  ii,  12,  15), 
near  the  Eleutherus;  Peutinger's  "Table",  agreeing 
withHierocles,  George  of  Cyprus,  and  others,  indicates 
it  between  Tripoli  and  Antaradus.  Le  (^uien  (Oriens 
Christ.,  II,  825)  mentions  four  bishops,  beginning 
with  Phosphorus  in  the  fifth  century.  Two  Latin 
titulars  of  the  fourteenth  century  appear  in  Eubel, 
"Hierarchia  cath.  medii  xvi",  1,  396.     In  the  "Not. 


ORTOLANO 


331 


ORVIETO 


Episcop."  of  Antioch  for  the  sixth  century  ("Echos 
d'Orient",  X,  145)  Orthosias  is  suffragan  of  Tyre, 
wliile  in  that  of  the  tenth  century  (op.  cit.,  X,  97)  it  is 
confounded  with  Antaradus  or  Tortosa.  The  discov- 
ery on  the  banks  of  the  Eleutherus  of  Orthosian  coins, 
dating  from  Antoninus  Pius  and  bearing  figures  of 
Astarte,  led  to  tlic  identification  of  the  site  of  Orthosias 
near  the  River  EI-Barid  at  a  spot  marked  by  ruins, 
called  Bordj  Hakmon  el-Yehoudi. 

Beurlier  in  ViGOuRoux.  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.;  Smith,  Dirt. 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Geography.  II,  407. 

S.  Vailh^. 

Ortolano  Ferrarese,  painter  of  the  Ferrara  School, 
b.  in  Ferrara,  about  1490;  d.  about  1.525.  His  real 
name  was  Giovanni  Battista  Benvenuti,  and  he  was 
called  L'Ortolano  because  his  father,  Francisco,  was  a 
gardener.  Of  his  career  little  is  known,  save  that  he 
was  a  diligent  student  of  the  works  of  Raphael  and 
Bagnacavallo  in  1512-13  at  Bologna.  His  master- 
piece, a  picture  of  rich  colour  and  fine  draughtsman- 
ship, representing  Saint  Sebastian,  Saint  Roch,  and 
Saint  Demetrius,  is  in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 
It  was  brought  from  the  church  of  Bondeno  near  Fer- 
rara in  1844,  and  purchased  by  the  gallery  in  1861.  In 
the  cathedral  at  Ferrara  are  other  works  attributed  to 
him,  which  later  critics  have  given  to  Garofalo,  but  in 
some  of  the  smaller  churches  of  Ferrara,  those  of  San 
Nicoolo,  the  Servi,  and  San  Lorenzo,  there  are  pictures 
which  may  be  readily  accepted  as  his.  His  work  so 
resembles  that  of  Garofalo  that  there  is  a  never-ceas- 
ing controversy  between  the  critics  who  accept  the  re- 
spective claims  of  each,  and  nearly  as  much  dispute 
has  arisen  over  his  works  as  over  those  of  Giorgione. 
There  is  a  fine  picture  usually  accepted  as  his,  in  the 
possession  of  Lord  Wimborne  in  England,  and  this 
shows  very  strongly  the  influence  upon  the  painter  of 
Lorenzo  Costa.  Two  of  his  paintings  are  in  the  gal- 
lery at  Ferrara,  and  others  at  Naples  and  Berlin,  while 
there  are  several  similar  works  in  private  possession  in 
Ferrara. 

Lanzi,  Storia  Pittorica  (Bassano,  1509) ;  Laderchi.  Pittura  Fer- 
rarese (Ferrara,  16U);  Idem,  Guida  di  Ferrara  (Ferrara,  1525). 

George  Charles  Williamson. 

Ortona.  See  Lanciano  and  Ortona,  Arch- 
diocese OF. 

Ortwin.     See  Gratius  (van  Geaes),  Ortwin. 

Orval  (AuREA  Vallis,  Gueldenthal),  formerly  a 
Cistercian  abbey  in  Belgian  Luxemburg,  Diocese  of 
Trier.  It  was  founded  in  1071  by  Benedictines  from 
Calabria,  who  left  in  1110  to  be  succeeded  by  Canons 
Regular.  These  were  replaced  in  1132  by  Cistercians 
from  the  newly  founded  monastery  of  Tre  Fontane. 
Their  first  abbot  Constantine  had  been  a  disciple  of 
St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  dying  in  the  repute  of  holi- 
ness after  fourteen  years.  Owing  to  the  industry  and 
frugality  of  the  monks,  and  the  competent  manage- 
ment of  the  abbots,  Orval  became  exceptionally  rich. 
In  1750  it  owned  no  less  than  300  towns,  villages,  and 
manors,  and  had  an  annual  income  of  1,200,000  livres. 
In  proportion  to  its  riches  was  its  charity  towards  the 
.poor.  Under  the  leadership  of  able  and  pious  abbots 
its  discipline  was  always  in  a  flourishing  condition, 
with  the  exception  of  a  short  period  towards  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  the  storms  of  the  Reformation  raged 
in  the  Netherlands.  Abbot  Bernard  de  Montgaillard 
(1605-28),  who  was  famous  for  piety  and  learning, 
restored  the  decaying  discipline  by  drawing  up  new 
statutes  for  the  monastery.  After  a  short  interrup- 
tion during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  reform  which 
Bernard  had  introduced  was  zealously  carried  out 
by  the  succeeding  abbots,  especially  by  Carl  von 
Benzeradt  (1668-1707),  who  also  founded  the  abbey 
of  Diisselthal  in  1707.  The  doctrines  of  Jansenius 
were  espoused  by  a  few  monks  early  in  the  eighteenth 


century,  but,  happily,  those  that  were  imbued  with 
them  had  to  leave  the  monastery  in  1725.  The  abbey 
and  its  church  fell  a  prey  to  the  ravages  of  the  French 
Revolution  in  1793.  In  the  literary  field  the  monks  of 
Orval  did  not  distinguish  themselves  in  any  special 
manner.  The  only  noteworthy  writer  was  Gilles 
d'Orval,  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  He  wrote  the  continuation,  to  the  year 
1251,  of  the  "Gesta  Pontificum  Leodiensium",  which 
had  been  written  up  to  the  year  1048  by  Heriger  of 
Lobbes  and  Anselm  of  Liege  (Mon.  Germ.  Script., 
XXV,  1-129). 

TiLLifeRE,  Hist,  de  Vabhaye  d'Orval  (2nd  ed..  Namur.  1907); 
Jeantin,  Chroniques  histor.  sur  Vabbaye  d'Orval  (Nancy.  1850): 
Marx.  Gesch.  des  Erzstiftes  Trier,  II.  i  (Trier,  1860),  568-79; 
ScHOHN,  Eiflia  sacra,  II  (Bonn.  1889).  297-308. 

Michael  Ott. 

Orvieto,  Diocese  op  (Urbevetana),  in  Central 
Italy.  The  city  stands  on  a  rugged  mass  of  tufa,  near 
the  rivers  Paglia  and  Chiana,  the  swamps  of  which 
were  drained  by  Sixtus  V.  Some  believe  this  town  to 
be  the  ancient  Hebanum  or  Oropitum;  others,  e.  g. 
Mliller  and  Gamurrini,  hold  that  it  was  the  primitive 
port  (therefore  Urhs  vetus,  or  old  city)  of  the  Etruscan 
city  of  Volsinii,  destroyed  by  the  Romans  at  an  uncer- 
tain date,  and  rebuilt  on  the  site  of  the  present  Bolsena 
which  gives  its  name  to  the  largest  lake  of  the  Italian 
peninsula.  In  the  country  around  Orvieto  there  are 
many  Etruscan  tombs.  The  name  of  Urbs  Vetus  ap- 
pears for  the  first  time  in  Procopius,  corrupted  into 
Urbebentum;  it  is  also  found  in  the  writings  of  St. 
Gregory  the  Great. 

During  the  Gothic  War,  Orvieto  was  defended  by 
the  Goths  for  a  long  time.  Later,  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Lombards  ((306).  From  the  latter  end  of  the 
tenth  century  the  city  was  governed  by  consuls,  who, 
however,  took  the  oath  of  fealty  to  the  bishop;  but 
from  1201  it  governed  itself  through  a  podesta  (in  that 
year,  the  Bishop  Richard)  and  a  captain  of  the  people. 
On  account  of  its  position,  Orvieto  was  often  chosen 
by  the  popes  as  a  place  of  refuge  and  Adrian  IV  forti- 
fied it.  A  "Studium  Generale"  was  granted  to  the 
city  by  Gregory  XI  in  1337.  In  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  bitter  feuds  arose  between  the 
Filipeschi  and  the  Monaldeschi  families,  and  were 
not  quelled  until  the  city  came  under  the  rule  of 
Ermanno  Monaldeschi,  whom  Cardinal  Albornoz  re- 
duced to  obedience  to  the  Holy  See.  One  of  the  first 
convents  of  the  Dominican  Order  was  built  at  Or- 
vieto (1220);  and  in  1288  there  was  founded  in  the 
town  a  monastery  of  Armenian  monks.  In  1199  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Pietro  Parenzo  took  place  at  Or- 
vieto; he  was  a  Roman  whom  Innocent  III  had  sent  to 
govern  that  city  with  a  view  to  suppressing  the 
Patarian  movement  that  Ermanno  of  Parma  and 
Gottardo  of  Marsi  had  roused  in  the  town. 

The  cathedral  of  Orvieto  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
churches  in  Italy;  it  was  begun  in  1285,  and  is  of  the 
Gothic  style,  with  three  naves;  its  tripartite  fagade 
was  a  conception  of  Lorenzo  Maitani,  and  is  embel- 
lished in  its  lower  portion  with  scenes  from  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  and  in  its  upper  part  with  mo- 
saics and  statues  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Prophets, 
and  the  Apostles.  The  walls  in  the  interior  of  the 
edifice  are  built  of  layers  of  Travertine  marble  and  of 
basalt;  the  choir  is  adorned  with  frescoes,  illustrating 
the  life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  they  are  by  Ugolino  di 
Prete  Ilario,  Peter  di  Puccio,  and  Anthony  of  Viterbo; 
the  stalls  of  the  choir  are  of  inlaid  work.  The  chapel 
on  the  right,  called  Our  Lady  of  San  Brizio,  was 
painted  by  the  Blessed  Angelico  of  Fiesole  ("Christ 
Glorified",  "Last  Judgment",  and  "The  Prophets", 
done  in  1447)  and  by  Luca  Signorelli  ("Fall  of  Anti- 
christ", "Resurrection  of  the  Dead",  "Damned  and 
Blessed",  etc.);  Michelangelo  took  inspiration  from 
these  paintings  for  his  "Last  Judgment"  of  the  Sis- 
tine  Chapel;  there  is,  also  by  Signorelli,  the  "  Burial  of 


ORVIETO 


332- 


ORVIETO 


Jesus",  and  thero  are  several  sculptures  by  Soalza 
(ir)72),  amoiis;  tliem  the  fjioup  of  the  Piota,  chiselled 
from  a  single  Idock  of  niarhle.  The  chapol  on  Ihi-  op- 
posite side,  called  "of  the  Corporal",  contains  the 
large  reliquary  in  which  is  preserved  the  corporal 
of  the  miracle  of  Holseiia  (see  below).  This  recepta- 
cle was  made  b^■  order 
of  Hishop  IVrtrand 
(lei  Monaldesclii.  by 
tlu'SiiMiese  rudlinodi 
Ma'stro  Vieri  (13o7); 
it  is  of  silver,  adoriieil 
with  enanielliiiftsthat 
represent  the  Passion 
of  Jesus  and  the  mir- 
acle; the  frescoes  of 
the  walls,  by  Ugolino 
(1357-64),  also  repre- 
sent the  miracle.  In 
the  palace  of  the 
popes,  built  by  Boni- 
face VIII,  is  the  civic 
museum,  which  con- 
tains Etruscan  antiq- 
uities and  works  of 
art  that  are,  for  the 
greater  part,  from  the 
cathedral.  Among 
the  other  notable 
churches  of  Orvieto 
are  San  Giovenale, 
which  contains  rem- 


Papal  Pala 
Erected  by  Pope  Bonif, 


over  it;  while,  in  1377,  the  town  was  sacked  by  the 
adventiner  llawkwood  (.Acuto).  On  the  l.shmd  of 
Martana,  in  the  lake  near  by,  Anialasunta,  daughter 
of  Theodoricus  and  wife  of  Thcodatus,  was  slr.iiit;lcil. 
To  this  island,  in  the  sixth  (•(•ntury,  was  transferred 
Ihi^  body  of  St.  Christina,  a  virgin  and  m;utvr  of 
HoLseiia  (21(7?),  but 
it  was  later  returned 
to  the  city ;  tlie  church 
of  this  saint  contains 
a  reclining  statue  of 
her  by  Luca  doUa 
Jiubljia;  annexed  to 
the  church  is  an  an- 
cient Christian  ceme- 
tery, and  ancient 
Christian  inscriptions 
are  numerous  at  Bol- 
sena.  Three  bishops 
of  \'olsinii  are  known: 
Caudentius  (499), 
Candidus  (liOl),  who, 
it  a])pears,  is  not  the 
Bishop  of  Orvieto  of 
that  name,  and  Ag- 
nellus  (t)80). 

The  M iracle  of 
Bolscna  is  not  sup- 
ported by  strong  his- 
torical evidence,  and 
its  tradition  is  not 
altogether  consistent; 


VUI  (1294-1303) 


nants  of  ancient   frescoes,  and  San  Andrea,    which  for  in  the  first  place  Urban  IV  makes  no  mention 

has  a  dodecagon  tower;  in  1220  Pierre  d'Artois  was  of  it  in  the   Bull  by  which  lie  established  the  feast 

consecrated  King  of  Jerusalem  by  Honorius  III  in  this  of  Corpus  Christi,  although  the  miracle  is  said   to 

church.  have  taken  place  in  his  day  and  to  have  determined 

The  first  known  Bishop  of  Orvieto  was  John  (about  him  in  his  purpose  of  establishing  that  feast;  likewise, 

590),  and  in  591  appears  a  Bishop  Candidus;  among  the  two  biographers  of  Pope  Urban  impugn  the  truth 


its  other  prelates  were  Coa 
stantino  Medici,  O.P.,  sent  by 
Alexander  IV  in  1255  to 
Greece,  where  he  died;  Fran- 
cesco Monaldeschi  (12S0),  who 
did  much  for  the  construction 
of  the  cathedral.  In  1.528 
Clement  VII  sought  refuge  at 
Orvieto,  and  while  there  or- 
dered the  construction  of  the 
"Pozzo  di  San  Patrizio"  (the 
well  of  St.  Patrick),  by  San- 
gallo.  Bishop  Sebastiano  Vanzi 
(1562)  distinguished  himself 
at  the  Council  of  Trent  and 
built  the  seminary,  which  was 
enlarged  afterwards  by  Car- 
dinal Fausto  Polo  (1645)  and 
by  Giacomo  Silvestri,  the  lat^ 
ter  of  whom  gave  to  it  the  col- 
lege and  other  property  of  the 
Jesuits  (1773);  Cardinal  Paolo 
Antamori  (1780)  caused  the 
history  of  the  cathedral  of  Or- 
vieto to  be  written  by  Gug- 
lielmo  dclla  Valle;  and  lastly 
G.  B.  Lambruschini  (1807). 

With  the  Sec  of  Orvieto  has 
been  united  from  time  imme- 
morial that  of  Bolsena  (the 
ancient  Volsinii),  of  the  ruins 


of  this  tradition  by  their  silence, 
i.  e.  Wuratori,  "Rerum  Itali- 
carum  scriptorcs".  III,  pt.  I, 
400  sq. ;  and  especially  Thier- 
ricus  Vallicoloris,  who,  in  his 
life  of  the  pope  in  Latin  verse, 
describes  in  detail  all  the  acts 
of  the  pontiff  during  the  latter's 
stay  at  Orvieto,  referring  else- 
where also  to  the  devotion  of 
Urban  in  celebrating  the  Mass, 
and  to  the  institution  of  the 
Yeasi  of  Corpus  Christi,  with- 
out at  any  time  making  allu- 
sion to  the  miracle  at  Bolscna. 
The  latter  is  related  in  the  in- 
scription on  a  slab  of  red  mar- 
ble in  the  church  of  St.  Chri.s- 
liiia,  and  is  of  later  date  than 
1  he  canonization  of  St.  Thomas 
A(iuinas  (1328).  The  oldest 
historical  record  of  the  miracle 
is  contained  in  the  enamel ' '  his- 
tories" that  adorn  the  front 
of  the  reliquary  (1337-39).  It 
is  to  be  noted  that  in  the  nar- 
ratives of  the  miracle  cited  by 
Fumi  (II  Santuario,  73)  the  re- 
liquary only  is  called  "taber- 
naculum  D.N.J.C.",  or  "tab 
.  pro  D.N.J.C."  or,  again. 


Designed  by  Lorenzo  Maitani  (1275-1330) 

of  which  th(^re  are  still  the  remnants  of  the  tem-  "tabernacolo  del  Corpo  di  Xpo." 

pie  of  Nortia,  of  the  "Thermte",  or  hot  baths,  of  In  1344  Clement  VI,  referring  to  this  matter  in  a 

Sejanus,  of  the  mausoleum  of  L.  Canuelius,  etc.     Ac-  Brief,  uses  only  the  words  "propter  miraculum  ali- 

cording  to  Pliny,  2000  statues  were  taken  to  Rome  quod"  (Pennazzi,  367);  Gregory  XI,  in  a  Brief  of  25 

from  Vol.sinii,  when  the  latter  was  destroyed  in  2.54  June,  1337,  gives  a  short  account  of  the  miracle;  and 

B  c.     In  the  Middle  Ages,  Bolsena  had  much  to  suffer  abundant  reference  to  it  is  found  later  on  (1435),  in 

from  the  neighbouring  lords  (Vico,  BLsenzo,  Cerbara,  the  sermons  of  the   Dominican  preacher  Leonardo 

etc.),  and  from  the  Orvietans,  who  claimed  dominion  Mattel  of  Udine  ("In  festo  Corp.  Christi",  xiv,  ed. 


ORY 


333 


OSAKA 


Venice,  1652,  59)  and  by  St.  Antoninus  of  Florence 
(■'Chronica",  III,  19,  xiii,  1),  the  latter,  however,  does 
not  say  (as  the  local  legend  recites)  that  the  priest 
doubted  the  Real  Presence  of  Christ  in  the  Holy 
Eucharist,  but,  merely  that  a  few  drops  from  the 
chalice  fell  upon  the  corporal.  For  the  rest,  a  similar 
legend  of  the  "blood-stained  corporal"  is  quite  fre- 
quent in  the  legendaries  of  even  earlier  date  than  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  coincides  with  tlie  great 
Eucharistic  polemics  of  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth 
centuries.  The  reddish  spots  on  the  corporal  of 
Bolsena,  upon  close  observation,  show  the  profile  of  a 
face  of  the  type  by  which  the  Saviour  is  traditionally 
represented. 

FuMi,  Ciidice  diplom.  delta  cilli  di  Orvielo  (Florence,  1884); 
Orvieto,  iiolt'  .^toriche  (Citt^  di  Castello,  1S91) ;  II  duomo  di  Orvieto 
(Rome,  1891) ;  II  Santuario  del  SS.  Corpvrale  mi  duomo  di  Orvieto 
(Rome,  1S96);  Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  V;  Adami,  Storia 
di  Volseno  (3  vols.,  1737);  Pennazzi,  Storia  delV  Ostia  e  del  Cor- 
porate, etc.  (Montefiaacone,  1731). 

U.  Benigni. 

Ory,  Matthieu,  inquisitor  and  theologian,  b.  at 
La  Caune,  1492;  d.  at  Paris,  1557.  Entering  the 
Dominican  Order  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  he  studied 


to  thia  work  Ory  is  called  Ortia. 

D.  J.  Kennedy. 
Osage  Indians.    See  Siodx. 

Osaka,  Diocese  of  (Osachensis).  Osaka  (Oye, 
great  river;  saka,  cliff),  one  of  the  three  municipal 
prefectures  (ken)  of  Japan,  is  situated  on  both  banks 
of  the  Yodo  River  and  along  the  eastern  shore  of  Osaka 
Bay.  The  second  city  in  Japan  in  population,  it  far 
outstrips  all  other  cities  of  the  empire  in  wealth,  com- 
merce, and  iiiilustries.  The  name  Osaka  apparently 
dates  only  IriDii  ;il)0ut  1492;  previously  the  town  was 
called  .\  nil  nil  I  I  '(lashing  waves",  still  used  in  poetry). 
According  to  oiu'  earliest  information  concerning  the 
town,  not  undoubtedly  genuine,  it  received  its  original 
name  from  Jinmu,  first  Emperor  of  Japan,  who  landed 
there  about  COO  b.  c.  In  a.  d.  313  Emperor  Nintoku 
made  it  his  capital.  Various  subsequent  emperors 
(e.  g.  Kotoku  in  645  and  Shomu  in  724)  also  resided 
there,  but  it  was  only  after  it  had  become  in  the  six- 
teenth century  a  great  Buddhist  religious  centre  that 
the  wealth  and  importance  of  the  city  began  rapidly 
to  increase.     Fortified  in  1534,  it  was  the  chief  strong- 


Castle,  Osaka,  Japan 


in  the  convent  of  St-Jacques,  Paris,  and  at  the  Sor- 
bonne,  obtaining  the  licentiate  in  theology,  6  Feb- 
ruary, 1,527.  His  reputation  for  learning  and  elo- 
quence led  to  his  appointment  as  grand  inquisitor 
for  France  (1534),  an  office  which  he  held  until  his 
death.  Compelled  to  pronounce  upon  false  accusa- 
tions made  against  Saint  Ignatius  Loyola  and  "The 
Spiritual  Exercises",  he  detected  the  fraud  of  the 
calumniators.  Instead  of  condemning  the  saint,  he 
praised  and  assisted  him,  and  kept  for  himself  a  copy 
of  the  Exercises.  He  was  indefatigable  in  preaching 
•  the  Word  of  God,  held  .several  offices  in  his  order,  and 
combated  false  doctrines  and  evil-doing.  Some 
writers  erroneously  call  Ory  a  Spaniard  and  write 
his  name  Ortiz.  The  only  fully  authenticated  printed 
work  of  Ory  is  his  "  Alexipharmacum"  (Paris,  1544; 
Venice,  1551-5S).  In  the  second  part  he  uses  against 
the  heretics  five  words  of  St.  Paul,  viz.  grace,  justifi- 
cation, sin,  liberty,  law  (no  exclusive  reference  to  I 
Cor.,  xiv,  19).  Other  works  attributed  to  him  are: 
"Opusculum  de  imaginibus",  and  "Septem  scholse 
contra  ha;reticos",  but  Echard  does  not  assign  the 
places  or  dates  of  their  publication. 

QuiTiFAND  Echard,  Scriplores  Ord.  Prad.,  II  (Paris,  1721),  102; 
SixTus  Senensis.  Bibliolheca  Sancta  (Venice.  1566;  L.vons,  l.Ml); 
Orlandini,  Historiie  Societali.i  Jesu  pars  prima,  sive  IiinaHita 
(Rome,  1615);  Thompson,  Saint  Ignatius  Loyola  (London,  1910), 


hold  of  the  Buddhists  during  the  bloody  persecution 
to  which  they  were  subjected  under  Nebunaga.  All 
efforts  to  dislodge  them  failed  until,  in  obedience  to 
the  order  of  the  emperor,  they  yielded  up  possession 
of  the  town  in  1580.  The  true  founder  of  the  modern 
prosperity  and  importance  of  Osaka  was  undoubtedly 
Hideyoshi  (see  J.\pan).  Recognizing  that  the  strate- 
gic position  of  the  town  would  enable  him  to  dominate 
the  daimyos  of  the  south  and  west,  he  determined  to 
make  Osaka  his  capital,  and  built  on  the  site  of  the 
great  Buddhist  monastery  the  Castle  of  Osaka — an 
admirable  example  of  old  Japanese  architecture.  The 
palace  which  he  built  within  this  castle  has  been 
placed  by  some  authorities  among  the  most  glorious 
the  world  has  ever  seen;  it  was  deliberately  burned 
by  the  Tokugawa  party  in  18GS,  before  they  retreated 
to  Yedo  (now  Tokio).  Hideyoshi  devoted  himself 
sedulously  to  the  improvement  of  the  town,  laying 
out  new  streets  and  causing  the  wealthy  merchants 
of  Fushumi  and  Sakai  to  immigrate  thither.  Situated 
in  the  middle  of  the  richest  agricultural  district  of 
Japan,  the  growth  of  Osaka  has  been  unceasing  during 
the  last  three  centuries,  although  its  commercial  supre- 
macy was  for  a  time  imperilled  when  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  tran.sferred  from  Kioto  to  Yedo  (1868). 
In  1871  a  mint  was  established  in  Osaka,  its  manage- 


O  SALUTARIS 


334 


OSBALD 


ment  being  pntrustod  to  Europoan  officials.  The  port 
was  opened  to  foreign  trade  in  1868,  but,  as  the  har- 
bour was  poor  and  unsuitable  for  large  vessels,  Kobe 
(20  miles  west )  attracted  most  of  the  foreign  conmierce 
especially  after  the  establishment  of  railway  con- 
nexion between  the  cities  in  1873.  At  present,  how- 
ever, an  extensive  scheme  of  improvement  to  render 
the  harbour  capable  of  accomodating  the  largest  ves- 
sels is  being  executed,  and,  on  its  completion,  Osaka 
will  take  first  place  in  foreign,  as  in  internal  commerce. 
Judging  from  the  rapid  growth  of  its  population  (821,- 
235  in  1898;  1,226,590  in  1908),  Osaka  should  be  in  the 
near  future  the  real  metropolis  of  Japan.  Intersected 
by  a  myriad  of  canals,  the  city  is  often  called  the 
"Venice  of  the  East",  while  its  numerous  industries, 
among  which  cotton-spinning  occupies  a  leading  posi- 
tion, has  won  it  the  title  of  the  "Manchester  of 
Japan". 

The  diocese  embraces  the  territory  stretching  from 
Lake  Biwa  and  the  confines  of  the  imperial  provinces 
of  Jetchidzcn,  JMino,  and  Owari  to  the  western  shores 
of  the  island  of  Nippon,  together  with  the  adjacent 
islands  (except  Shikoku)  belonging  to  this  territory. 
\Yhile  it  was  St.  Francis  Xavier's  intention  to  proceed 
directly  to  Miako  (the  modern  Kioto),  then  the  reli- 
gious and  political  capital  of  Japan,  it  was  not  until 
1559  that  Christianity  was  first  preached  in  the  terri- 
tory by  Father  Caspar  Vilela,  S.J.,  founder  of  the 
Church  in  Miako.  After  converting  about  one  hun- 
dred natives  and  fifteen  bonzes,  a  plot  against  his  life 
necessitated  his  temporary  withdrawal,  and  the  civil 
war,  which  for  some  j'ears  devastated  the  capital,  af- 
forded little  opportunity  for  cultivating  further  the 
seeds  of  Christianity.  Peace  being  restored,  Christian- 
ity began  again  to  make  headway,  and  in  September, 
1564,  we  find  five  churches  erected  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  capital.  By  1574  the  number  of  faithful 
included  many  in  the  shogun's  palace  and  even  one  of 
his  brothers-in-law.  Between  1577  and  1579  the  con- 
verts in  the  Miako  region  were  estimated  at  between 
9000  and  10,000.  In  1582  the  central  provinces  con- 
tained 25,000  faithful,  ministered  to  by  five  fathers 
and  nine  brothers  of  the  Jesuit  Order.  When  Hide- 
yoshi  determined  to  transfer  the  seat  of  government 
from  Kioto  to  Osaka,  Father  Organtino,  S.J.,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  advice  of  Justus  IJkondono,  a 
Christian  noble,  petitioned  the  Taiko  for  a  site  for 
a  church.  His  request  was  granted  and  the  first 
church  in  Osaka  was  opened  at  Christmas,  1583. 
By  1585  the  number  of  nobles  baptized  at  Osaka  was 
sixty-five.  On  the  issue  of  the  Taiko's  edict  banish- 
ing the  missionaries  and  closing  the  churches  (see 
Japan),  there  were  in  the  eighteen  leagues  between 
Miako  and  Sakai  twenty  churches  and  35,000  faith- 
ful. Though  no  European  met  with  martyrdom  dur- 
ing the  first  persecution,  the  sufferings  of  the  Chris- 
tians were  terrible;  fifty  churches  and  eight  residences 
of  the  Jesuits  in  the  central  provinces  were  burned,  al- 
though the  churches  in  Osaka,  Miako,  and  Sakai  were 
spared.  Henceforth  until  the  Taiko's  death  the  min- 
istry had  to  be  carried  on  secretly.  In  1593  the  Fran- 
ciscan embassy  from  the  Philippines  arrived,  and 
erected  the  Church  of  Our  Lady  of  Portiuncula  and  a 
hospital  for  lepers  in  Miaho.  In  the  next  year  Francis- 
cans established  the  Convent  of  Bethlehem  in  Osaka. 
(Concerning  the  persecution  following  the  San  Felipe 
incident  see  Japan;  Nagasaki,  Diocese  of.)  From 
Hideyoshi's  death  (1598)  to  1613,  the  Church  in  Japan 
enjoyed  comparative  peace.  At  the  court  of  Hide- 
yori,  the  aiccessor  of  Hideyoshi,  were  numerous  Chris- 
tians, several  of  whom  commanded  his  troops  during 
the  bombardment  of  Osaka  (1615).  A  list  of  the 
Christians  in  Miaho,  Fushumi,  Osaka,  and  Sakai 
having  been  drawn  up  in  1613,  a  decree  was  published 
at  Miaho  on  11  Feb.,  1614,  ordering  all  to  depart  with- 
in five  days.  For  details  of  the  persecution,  for  which 
this  decree  was  the  signal  and  which  within  twenty- 


five  years  annihilated  the  Church  in  Japan,  consult 
Deplace,  "l>a  Catholicisme  au  Japon",  II  (Mechlin, 
1909).  The  first  church  in  Osaka  after  the  reopen- 
ing of  Japan  to  foreigners  was  erect('d  by  Father 
Cousin  (now  Bishop  of  Nagasaki)  in  1869.  The  ag- 
nosticism of  the  Japanese  and  the  general  laxity  of 
morals  constitute  formidable  obstacles  to  the  growth 
of  Christianity.  The  mission  is  entrusted  to  the 
Paris  Society  of  Foreign  Missions.  It  was  erected 
into  a  diocese  on  16  March,  1888,  the  present  bishop 
being  Mgr  Jules  Chatron  (elected  23  July,  1896). 
According  to  the  latest  statistics  the  diocese  counts: 
27  missionaries  (3  native),  4  Marianite  Brothers,  37 
catechists,  16  sisters,  34  stations,  32  churches,  24 
oratories,  4  schools  with  419  pupils,  1  high-school  with 
100  pupils,  5  orphanages  with  228  inmates,  32  hospi- 
tals, 3711  Christians. 

For  bibliography,  see  Japan  and  Nagasaki. 

Thomas  Kennedy. 

O  Salutaris  Hostia  (O  Saving  Host),  the  first 
line  of  the  penultimate  stanza  of  the  hymn,  "Verbum 
supernum  prodiens",  composed  by  St  .Thomas  Aqui- 
nas for  the  Hour  of  Lauds  in  the  Office  of  the  Feast 
of  Corpus  Christi.  This  stanza  and  the  final  stanza, 
or  doxology  (Uni  IHnoque  domino),  have  been  selected 
to  form  a  separate  hymn  for  Benediction  of  the  Most 
Blessed  Sacrament.  Usually,  and  most  appropriately, 
it  is  begun  either  when  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  is 
opened  or  when  the  monstrance  is  being  placed  on  the 
throne  of  exposition.  In  England  the  singing  of  the 
"O  Salutaris"  is  enjoined  in  the  "Ritus  servandus", 
the  code  of  procedure  apjiroved  by  a  former  synod  of 
the  Province  of  Westminster  (see  Benediction  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament).  But  the  use  of  the  hymn,  not 
being  prescribed  in  the  rubrics,  is  not  of  universal 
obligation.  It  is,  however,  very  generally  used,  al- 
though any  other  appropriate  texi,  is  permissible,  such 
as  the  "Adoro  Te  devote",  the  "Pange,  lingua",  the 
antiphon  "O  sacrum  convivium"  etc.  While  it  is 
not  forbidden  to  sing  vernacular  hymns  at  Benediction 
the  "O  Salutaris",  being  a  liturgical  text,  cannot  be 
sung  in  the  vernacular  (S.R.C.,  27  Feb.,  1882,  Leav- 
enworth. Cf.  "Am.  Eccl.,  Rev.",  April,  1895,  341). 
The  hymn  is  often  chosen  as  a  motet  for  solemn  Mass, 
and  may  thus  be  used  after  the  proper  Offertory  for  the 
day  has  been  sung  or  recited.  An  indefensible,  but, 
fortunately,  very  rare,  custom,  perhaps  inaugurated 
by  Pierre  de  la  Rue,  the  profound  contrapuntal  com- 
poser of  the  fifteenth  century,  was  that  of  replacing 
the  "Benedictus"  at  Mass  by  the  "O  Salutaris". 
Gounod  imitated  his  example  in  his  first  "Mass  of 
the  Orph6onistes",  but  in  his  second  mass  of  that 
name  gives  both  the  "Benedictus"  and  the  "O  Salu- 
taris", as  Rossini  in  his  posthumous  "Messe  Solen- 
nelle"  and  Prince  Poniatowski  in  his  "Mass  in  F". 
The  plain-song  melody  in  the  eighth  mode  is  beauti- 
ful, and  forms  the  theme  of  de  la  Rue's  musical  tour 
deforce  in  the  Mass  of  that  title.  The  modem  settings 
have  been  very  numerous,  although  not  always  ser- 
viceable, inasmuch  as  many  are  too  theatrical  for 
church  use;  others  are  entirely  for  solo  use,  and 
still  others  probably  violate  the  prescription  of  the 
Motu  Proprio  of  22  November,  1903,  requiring  that 
in  hymns  the  traditional  form  be  preserved.  There 
are  about  twenty-five  poetical  versions  of  the  hymn  in 
English. 

H.  T.  Henry. 

Osbald,  King  of  Northumbria,  d.  799.  Symeon  of 
Durham  (Historia  Regum)  tells  us  that  when  Ecfwald, 
a  pious  and  just  king,  took  up  the  reins  of  government 
in  Northumbria  on  the  expulsion  of  Ethelred,  Osbald 
with  another  eorlderman  named  Athelheard  collected 
a  force  early  in  780  at  Seletune  (probably  Silton  in  the 
North  Riding  of  Yorkshire),  and  set  fire  to  the  house 
of  Beam,  whom  Huntingdon  and  Wendover  call  the 


OSBALDESTON 


335 


OSCOTT 


king's  justiciary.  In  793  the  deacon  Alcuin  addressed 
an  affectionate  but  forcible  letter  to  King  Ethelred, 
Osbald,  and  Osberct,  whom  he  calls  most  dear  friends 
and  children,  urging  them  to  flee  from  vices  which  lead 
to  destruction  and  practise  virtues  by  which  we  ascend 
to  heaven.  He  points  out  the  terrible  lesson  to  be 
learnt  from  the  iniquities  and  consequent  destruction 
of  former  rulers.  When  King  Ethelbert.,  who  had 
been  liberated  from  exile  and  reigned  seven  years,  was 
murdered  on  19  April,  796,  at  Corbe  or  (Jorebrygge 
(Corbridge),  Osbald  the  "patrician"  was  chosen  by 
some  of  the  nobles  of  his  nation  as  king,  but,  after  a 
reign  of  only  twenty-seven  days,  deserted  by  all  the 
royal  following  and  the  nobles,  he  fled  and  took  refuge 
with  a  few  others  on  the  island  of  Lindisfarne.  Ear- 
dulf  was  then  recalled  from  exile  and  crowned  in  May 
at  St.  Peter's,  York,  and  reigned  for  the  next  ten 
years.  Probably,  when  at  Lindisfarne,  Osbald  re- 
ceived the  letter  sent  to  him  in  796  by  Alcuin.  In 
this  the  latter  states  that  for  more  than  two  years  he 
had  endeavoured  to  persuade  Osbald  to  assume  the 
monastic  habit  and  fulfil  the  vow  he  had  taken;  but 
now  he  had  gained  a  still  worse  reputation  and  more 
unhappy  events  had  befallen  him.  He  suspects  him 
further  of  the  murder  of  Ethelred,  besides  shedding 
the  blood  of  nobles  and  people  alike.  He  urges  him 
not  to  add  sin  to  sin  by  attempting  his  restoration  to 
power.  It  would  be  more  to  his  shame  to  lose  his  soul 
than  to  desert  his  impious  comrades.  Rather  he 
should  endeavour  to  the  utmost  to  gain  the  reward  not 
only  of  his  own  conversion,  but  that  of  others  who 
are  in  exile  with  him.  Finally  he  begs  him  frequently 
to  have  his  letter  read  to  him.  Alcuin's  advice  bore 
fruit  and  Osbald  with  some  brethren  sailed  from  Lind- 
isfarne to  the  land  and  king  of  the  Picts.  He  became 
an  abbot  and,  on  his  death,  was  buried  in  the  church 
at  York. 

Symeon  of  Durham^ s  Historia  Regum.  Surteea  Soc,  LI  (1868), 
pp.  25,  37,  211.  219  (also  in  the  Rolls  Series);  Alcuin's  Letters  in 
P.  L..  C-CI,  nn.  xi  and  Ixi  and  notes:  Monumenta  Alcuin,  ed. 
jAFrf  (BerUn,  1864),  184-195.  305. 

S.  Anselm  Parkek. 

Osbaldeston,  Edw.\rd,  Venerable,  English  mar- 
tyr, b.  about  1560;  hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered  at 
York,  16  November,  1.594.  Son  of  Thomas  Osbaldes- 
ton, and  nephew  of  Edward  Osbaldeston,  of  Osbaldes- 
ton Hall,  Blackburn,  Lancashire,  he  went  to  the 
English  College  of  Douai,  then  at  Reims,  where  he  was 
ordained  deacon  in  December,  1583,  and  priest  21  Sep- 
tember, 1.585.  He  was  sent  on  the  mission  27  April, 
1589,  and  was  apprehended  at  night  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  an  apostate  priest  named  Thomas 
Clark  at  an  inn  at  Tollerton,  Yorkshire,  upon  St. 
Jerome's  day,  30  September,  1594.  He  had  said  his 
first  Mass  on  the  feast  day  of  St.  Jerome,  and  in  con- 
sequence had  a  great  devotion  to  the  saint.  The 
day  following  his  arrest  he  was  taken  to  York,  where 
he  was  tried  at  the  next  assizes  and  attainted  of 
high  treason  for  being  a  priest.  Bishop  Challoner 
prints  the  greater  part  of  a  letter  addressed  by  the 
martyr  to  his  fellow-prisoners  in  York  Castle,  the  full 
text  of  which  is  still  extant,  and  which  reveals  the 
great  humility  and  serene  trust  in  God  with  which  he 
anticipated  his  death. 

Challoner.  Memoirs  of  Missionary  Priests,  I,  no.  106;  Knox, 
First  and  Second  Douay  Diaries  (London.  1878) ;  Catholic  Record 
Society's  Publications,  IV  (London,  1907) ;  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,V. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Osbem,  hagiographer,  sometimes  confused  with 
Osbert  de  Clare  alias  Osbern  de  Westminister,  b.  at 
Canterbury  and  brought  up  by  Godric,  who  was  dean 
from  1058-80.  He  became  a  monk,  and  later,  prior 
of  Christ  Church,  and  was  ordained  by  Archbishop 
Lanfranc.  He  died  probably  between  1088  and  1093. 
He  was  very  skilful  in  music  and  is  said  to  have  written 
two  treatises  "De  re  musica"  and  "De  vocum  con- 
sonantiis"   (F6tis,  "Biog.  Music",  Paris,  1870,  VI, 


383).  But  he  is  known  best  as  a  translator  of  saints' 
lives  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  as  an  original  writer. 
William  of  Malmesbury  (Gesta  Regum,  II,  166) 
praises  the  elegance  of  his  style.  Works:  1.  "Vita 
S.  Alphegi  et  de  translatione  S.  Alphegi",  written  at 
Lanfranc's  command,  about  1080  when  there  arose 
some  dispute  concerning  Alphege's  sanctity;  it  is 
printed  in  "Acta  SS.",  April,  II,  631;  in  Mabillon, 
"  ActaSS.  O.S.B.",  sac.  vi,  104;  in  P.  L.,  CXLIX,  375; 
in  Wharton,  "Anglia  Sacra",  II,  122;  see  "Gesta  Pon- 
tificum",  in  Rolls  Series,  1870,  p.  33.  2.  "Vita  S. 
Dun.stani"  and  "Liber  Miraculorura  Sancti  Dun- 
stani",  written  in  1070;  printed  in  Mabillon  op.  cit., 
sa-c.  V,  644-84;  in  "Acta  SS.",  May,  IV,  359;  in  P.  L., 
CXXXVII,  407;  and  in  Stubbs,  "Memorials  of  St. 
Dunstan".  The  life  given  in  Mabillon,  op.  cit.  (p. 
684),  is  probably  the  work  of  Eadmer.  3.  "Vita  S. 
Odonis  archiepiscopi  Cantuariensis".  From  William 
of  Malmesbury's  "Gesta  Pontif.",  in  Rolls  Series 
1870,  p.  24,  we  learn  that  Osbern  wrote  Odo's  life, 
butthe  work  has  perished;  the  life  in  P.  L.,  CXXXIII, 
831  and  Mabillon,  op.  cit.,  ssec.  v,  287  is  not  his. 
Wharton,  in  his  "Angha  Sacra"  (London,  1691), 
75-87  published  a  life  of  St.  Bregwin  which  waa 
wrongly  attributed  to  Osbern. 

Stubbs,  Memorials  of  S,  Dunstan  in  Rolls  Series:  introduc- 
tion and  life;  Hardy,  Descrip.  Catal.  of  British  History  (1865); 
Wright.  Biog.  Brit.  Lit.  Anglo-Norman  (London,  1846),  26; 
KlNGSFO^D  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  (London,  1909),  e.  v.;  Ceillier, 
Auteurs  sacres  (Paris,  1858),  a.  v. 

S.  Anselm  Parker. 

Oacott  (St.  Mary's  College). — In  1793,  a  num- 
ber of  the  Catholic  nobility  and  gentry  of  England 
formed  a  committee  for  the  establishment  of  a  school 
for  the  education  of  their  sons  and  the  clergy  in  an 
English  atmosphere.  The  buildings  at  Oscott,  in- 
tended for  the  bishop's  residence,  were  accepted  for 
the  projected  institution  by  agreement  with  Bishop 
Thomas  Talbot,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Midland  Dis- 
trict. Oscott  (anciently  Auscot)  is  a  hamlet  in  the 
Perry  Barr  township,  in  the  parish  of  Handsworth, 
about  four  miles  north  of  Birmingham,  and  at  the  ex- 
treme .south  of  Staffordshire.  A  mission  had  been 
founded  there  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century 
by  Andrew  Bromwich,  a  confessor  of  the  faith. 

Dr.  John  Bew,  sometime  president  of  St.  Gregory's 
College,  Paris,  was  nominated  president  in  February, 
1794.  The  first  three  boys  entered  in  May,  and  the 
establishment  was  formally  opened  in  November  as 
a  college  for  boys  and  ecclesiastics  under  the  joint 
management  of  a  committee  of  laymen  and  the  bishop 
of  the  district.  Structural  additions  were  made,  and 
the  total  number  of  boys  rose  to  thirty-five.  The  out- 
look was  gloomy,  and  when  in  1808,  the  college  with 
its  liabilities  was  offered  to  Bishop  Milner,  he  accepted 
it  not  without  reluctance.  Thus  ended  the  "Old  Gov- 
ernment". The  "New  Government ",  under  Milner's 
strenuous  guidance,  with  Thomas  Potts  as  president 
(1808-15)  and  Thomas  Walsh  (afterwards  bishop  of 
the  district)  as  spiritual  director,  speedily  changed  the 
aspect  of  affairs.  Milner  invigorated  the  discipline, 
and  improved  the  studies  and  liturgical  observances. 
Important  additions  were  made  to  the  building,  and  the 
chapel  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  first  on  English  soil, 
was  opened  in  1820.  Francis  Quick,  a  convert,  held 
the  office  of  president  from  1816  to  1818.  On  the 
death  of  Bishop  Milner  in  1826,  the  president,  Thomas 
Walsh  (1818-1826)  became  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the 
Midland  District,  and  Henry  Weedall  became  presi- 
dent (182.5-40).  Under  the  direction  of  the  pious  and 
courteous  Weedall,  the  man  who  more  than  any  other 
created  the  spirit  of  Oscott,  the  institution  progressed 
till  the  buildings  were  no  longer  able  to  accommodate 
the  number  of  pupils.  Plans  of  a  new  college,  on  the 
lines  of  Wadham  College,  Oxford,  were  prepared  by 
Joseph  Potter,  the  cathedral  architect  of  Lichfield.  A 
rich  and  providential  bequest,  together  with  the  gifts 


OSCOTT 


336. 


OSCOTT 


of  the  clorcy  and  faithful,  suppUed  the  means;  and  in 
less  than  tliree  years  a  stately  Gothie  pile  arose  on  an 
eminence  two  miles  from  the  old  eolU-gc.  The  new 
edifice  is  situated  at  the  extreme  north  of  Warwick- 
shire, some  six  miles  from  the  centre  of  Birmingham, 
and  was  built  on  a  piece  of  ground  overgrown  with 
heather  and  gorse  at  the  edge  of  the  Sutton  ColdHeld 
common.  The  name  of  Oscott  has  been  transferred  to 
the  new  site,  previously  associated  with  the  name  of 
Jordan's  Grave.  Bishop  Wiseman  succeeded  Weedall 
in  1840.  His  reputation  as  a  srhoj.'ir  and  bis  knowl- 
edge of  men  and  alTairs  made  liis  :[]i|Miiiitment  in  the 
early  days  of  the  Oxford  Muxcnicn!  nmsl  ojiportune. 
During  the  forties  an<l  onwurds,  Oscott  afforded  the 
incoming  clergymen  from  the  Kslablishment  a  wel- 
come, a  home,  and  a  place  of  study.  In  those  years  we 
meet  with  the  names  of  Le  Page  l{cnouf,  St.  George 
Mivart,  John  Brande  Morris,  H.  U.  Walker,  T.  Wil- 
kinson, D.  H.  Haigh,  C.  Cholmondely,  E.  Estcourt,  B. 
Smith  etc.  Augustus  Welby  Pugin,  himself  a  con- 
vert, taught  and  worked  at  Oscott.  The  saintly  Pas- 
sionist  Father  Dominic  was  received  there  when  he 
came  over  from  Italy  to  convert  England  in  Novem- 
ber, 1840.  Father  Ignatius  Spencer  resided  and  exer- 
cised a  fruitful  apostolate  in  the  college  from  1839  to 
1846.  Cardinal  Newman  referred  gratefully  to  the 
fact  that  just  after  he  had  been  received  into  the 
Church  by  Father  Dominic  at  Littlemore,  he  "at  once 
found  himself  welcomed  and  housed  at  Oscott."  In 
February,  1846,  Newman  and  his  community  re- 
moved to  Old  O.scott  at  the  suggestion  of  Bishop 
Wiseman.  Newman  called  the  old  college  "Mary- 
vale",  a  name  which  it  still  bears.  There  they  re- 
mained till  1849. 

Henry  F.  C.  Logan  was  president  from  1847  to  1848, 
John  Moore  from  1848  to  1853,  and  Mgr  Weedall  from 
1853  to  1859.  The  first  Provincial  Synod  of  the  re- 
stored hierarchy  of  Westminster  took  place  at  Oscott 
in  the  summer  of  1852,  on  which  occasion  Dr.  New- 
man preached  the  sermon  entitled  "The  Second 
Spring".  The  second  and  third  Provincial  Synods 
were  hkewise  held  there  in  1855  and  1859.  After  the 
presidency  of  George  Morgan  (1859-60)  a  distin- 
guished period  in  the  life  of  the  college  opened  in  the 
autumn  of  1S60,  w-ith  the  appointment  of  James  Spen- 
cer Northcote.  A  scholar,  a  gentleman,  an  ideal  edu- 
cator, brought  up  amid  the  culture  of  Oxford,  and 
since  his  conversion  in  1846  saturated  with  the  spirit 
of  ancient  Christian  Rome,  he  was  eminently  the  man 
for  the  time.  He  developed  the  scholastic  work  of  the 
college,  and  brought  it  into  line  with  the  non-Catholic 
pubhc  schools.  In  1863  Cardinal  Wiseman  and  Mgr. 
Manning  took  part  in  the  celebration  of  the  silver  ju- 
bilee of  the  new  college.  After  Northcote's  retirement 
in  1877  on  account  of  ill  health,  John  Hawksford 
(1877-80),  Edward  Acton  (lSSO-4),  and  Mgr.  J. 
H.  Souter  (1SS5-9)  carried  on  and  expanded  the 
tradition  they  had  inherited.  But  a  new  fa.shion,  the 
memory  doubtless  of  the  Fitzgerald  v.  Northcote  trial, 
and  of  the  two  outbreaks  of  sickness  in  the  .sixties,  and 
the  opening  of  the  Oratory  School  at  Edgbaston  (May, 
lS59j  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Newman,  told  against 
them.  The  roll  of  students  declined  steadily,  and  not- 
withstanding the  enthusiastic  celebration  of  the  golden 
jubilee  of  the  new  college  in  1888,  the  venerable  insti- 
tution was  closed  in  July,  1889,  to  be  opened  in  the 
September  following  as  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  for 
the  Diocese  of  Birmingham. 

The  high  prestige  which  St.  Mary's  College  enjoyed 
for  so  long  a  time  is  due  to  the  number  of  distinguished 
families  of  England,  Ireland,  and  other  countries, 
whose  sons  were  educated  within  its  walls,  and  to  the 
solid  piety  and  fine  courteous  tone  by  which  Oscotians 
were  recognised.  Oscott  counts  among  its  alumni  one 
cardinal  and  twenty  bishops,  many  members  of  Par- 
liament, and  others  distinguished  in  the  diplomatic 
and  military  services. 


In  accord  with  the  movement  promoted  by  the  early 
provincial  synods  of  Westminster,  Bishop  tlllathorne 
established  in  187:5  the  Birmingham  diocesan  semi- 
nary at  Olton,  a  few  miles  south  of  Birmingham.  He 
placed  the  Rev.  Edward  Ilsley  (now  bishop  of  the  dio- 
cese) over  it  as  rector,  while  he  himself  personahy  di- 
rected its  .spirit.  The  institution  llciurislied,  thongh 
the  number  of  students  averaged  but  twenty.  Mean- 
while Oscott  maintained  its  own  school  of  philoso- 
jihers  and  theologians.  Oscott,  like  Olton,  suffered 
from  financial  strain.  With  a  bold  stroke  Bishop  Ils- 
l(>y  closed  O.scott  as  a  mix(-d  college,  sold  the  seminary 
buildings  and  estate,  and  gathered  all  his  seminarists 
and  teaching  stall'  into  the  one  greater  seminary  of  >St. 
Mary's,  Oscott.  The  new  institution  began  with 
thirty-six  students  in  September,  1889,  vmder  the  rec- 
torship of  the  bishop.  Subjects  from  other  dioceses 
arrived,  and  in  a  year  or  two  a  maximum  of  eighty- 
six  was  reached.  This  success,  combined  with  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  central  position,  a  splendid  site,  commo- 
dious buildings,  a  beautiful  chapel,  and  a  rich  library, 
led  in  1897  to  the  conversion  of  Oscott,  on  the  urgent 
initiative  of  Cardinal  Vaughan,  into  a  central  seminary 
for  seven  of  the  midland  and  southern  dioceses  of  Eng- 
land, with  Mgr.  H.  Parkinson  as  rector.  The  institution 
did  its  work  well  and  progressively  until  the  death  of 
Cardinal  Vaughan,  when  anewpolicy  of  concentration 
of  diocesan  resources  commended  itself  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical authorities,  and  the  dissolution  of  the  central  sem- 
inary followed  in  1909.  From  that  date  Oscott  has 
continued  its  earlier  work  as  the  diocesan  seminary, 
though  admitting,  as  had  been  its  custom,  subjects 
from  other  dioceses.  In  the  Birmingham  seminary 
the  lectures  in  theology  and  philosophy  have  invari- 
ably been  given  in  Latin,  and  the  usual  scholastic  dis- 
cussions have  supplemented  the  lectures.  The  course 
has  been  gradually  improved  by  the  extension  of  phi- 
losophy to  three  years,  by  the  addition  of  two  years  of 
physical  science  in  connexion  with  philo.sophy.  Ascet- 
ical  theology  has  been  taught  regularly  since  1873. 
Hebrew,  Greek,  Elocution,  the  history  of  philosophy 
and  of  religion,  and  also  social  science  take  their  proper 
places  in  the  curriculum.  "Recreative"  lectures  by 
outsiders  are  frequently  given,  and  the  "Exchange" 
lectures,  delivered  alternately  at  Stonyhurst  and  at 
Oscott  by  the  professors  of  each  institution,  have  pro- 
vided fruitful  opportunities  of  intercourse. 

The  interior  aspect  of  the  college  is  like  a  glimpse  of 
the  old  Catholic  world.  The  windows  of  the  cloisters 
and  refectory  are  blazoned  with  the  armorial  bearings 
of  ancient  Catholic  families.  The  walls  are  adorned 
with  2f)0  oil  paintings  of  religious  subjects,  mainly  the 
gift  of  John,  sixteenth  Earl  of  Shrewsbury.  Its  libra- 
ries of  30,000  volumes  include  the  "Harvington"  li- 
brary, dating  back  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, the  "  Marini "  library,  purchased  in  Rome  for  the 
college  in  1839  at  the  cost  of  £4,000,  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  early  printed  books,  early  books  on  the  iMiglish 
Martyrs,  the  "Kirk"  collection,  MSS.  and  pamphlets, 
and  the  "Forbes"  collection  of  Oriental  and  other 
memoirs,  consisting  in  all  of  sixty  large  folio  volumes. 
Among  the  numerous  treasures  of  ecclesia-stical  art 
may  be  mentioned  the  collection  of  embroidery  of  the 
fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries,  the 
silver-gilt  monstrance  by  an  Antwerp  artist  of  1547, 
valued  at  £2,000,  and  the  massive  bronze  lectern 
(early  sixteenth  century)  from  St.  Peter's  Louvain, 
which  is  an  artistic  achievement  of  the  highest  excel- 
lence. 

TheOscotian,  182,')-28,  new  series,  1881-88.  third  series,  1900; 
HusENBETH.  The  Hi.iloru  of  Sedgley  Park  School  (London,  1S56); 
Idem,  Life  of  Mgr.  Wenlall  (London,  1800);  Idem,  Life  of  Milner 
(Dublin,  1862);  Greaney,  The  Buildings,  Museum  etc.,  of  St. 
Mari/'s  College,  Oscolt  (Birmingham,  1899);  Idem,  A  Catalogue 
of  the  Works  of  Art  and  Antiquity  of  .S(.  Mary's  College  (Birming- 
ham, 1880);  Parkinson.  SI.  Mary's  College.  Oscott  in  The  Catholic 
University  Bulletin  (March  and  April,  1909);  Ward,  The  Life 
and  Times  of  Cardinal  Wiseman  (London,  1897). 

Henry  Parkinson. 


OSEE 


337 


OSEE 


Osee. — Name  and  Country  :  Osee  (Heshed'^^al- 
iration),  son  of  Beeri,  was  one  of  the  Minor  Prophets, 
and  a  subject  of  the  Ephraimite  Kingdom  which  he 
calls  "the  land",  whose  king  is  for  him  "our  king", 
and  the  localities  of  which  are  familiar  to  him,  while  he 
speaks  of  Juda  but  seldom  and  does  not  even  make 
mention  of  Jerusalem. 

Time  of  his  Ministry: — According  to  the  title  of 
the  book,  Osee  prophesied  during  the  reign  of  Jero- 
boam II  in  Israel,  and  in  the  time  of  Ozias,  Joatham, 
Achaz,  and  Ezechias,  kings  of  Juda,  hence  from  about 
750  to  725  B.  c.  The  title,  however,  is  not  quite  satis- 
factory and  does  not  seem  to  be  the  original  one,  or,  at 
least,  to  have  been  preserved  in  its  primitive  form. 
None  of  the  historical  allusions  with  which  the  proph- 
ecy is  filled  appears  to  be  connected  with  any  event 
later  than  the  reign  of  Manahem  (circa  745-7.35); 
there  is  nothing  concerning  the  Syro-Ephraimite  war 
against  Juda,  nor  the  terrible  intervention  of  Tiglath- 
Pile-ser  III  (734-733).  The  era  of  the  Prophet,  there- 
fore, if  it  is  to  be  judged  from  his  writings,  ought  to  be 
placed  about  750-735;  he  was  perhaps  contempora- 
neous with  the  closing  years  of  Amos  and  certainly  with 
the  first  appearance  of  Isaias.  1  he  reign  of  Jeroboam 
II  was  marked  by  great  and  glorious  external  prosper- 
ity; but  this  prosperity  contributed  to  make  the  polit- 
ical and  religious  decadence  more  rapid.  Political 
dissolution  was  approaching.  Zachary,  son  of  Jero- 
boam, was  assassinated  after  a  reign  of  six  months. 
His  murderer,  Sellum,  retained  the  sceptre  but  one 
month,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Manahem,  who  occu- 
pied the  throne  for  ten  years,  745-735.  Israel  was 
hastening  to  its  ruin,  which  was  to  be  completed  by 
the  taking  of  Samaria  by  Sargon  (722). 

The  Book  of  Osee: — It  always  occupies  the  first 
place  among  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  most  prob- 
ably on  account  of  its  length.  In  point  of  time  Amos 
preceded  it.  The  book  is  divided  into  two  distinct 
parts:  cc.  i-iii,  and  cc.  iv-xiv.  (a)  In  the  first  part, 
Osee  relates  how,  by  order  of  Jahve,  he  wedded  Gomer, 
a  "wife  of  fornications",  daughter  of  Debelaini,  in 
order  to  have  of  her  "children  of  fornications " : — sym- 
bols, on  the  one  hand,  of  Israel,  the  unfaithful  spouse 
who  gave  to  Baal  the  homage  due  to  Jahve  alone ;  and, 
on  the  other,  figures  of  the  children  of  Israel,  who  in 
the  eyes  of  Jahve,  are  but  adulterous  children.  The 
outraged  husband  incites  the  children  against  their 
guilty  mother,  whom  he  prepares  to  punish :  while  for 
the  children  themselves  is  reserved  a  fate  in  keeping 
with  their  origin.  The  first  is  named  Jezraliel — the 
reigning  dynasty  is  about  to  expiate  the  blootl  shed  by 
its  ancestor  Jehu  in  the  valley  of  Jezrahel.  The  second 
is  a  daughter,  L6-Ruhamah,  "disgraced"  Jahve  will  be 
gracious  no  more  to  his  people.  The  third  is  called  L6- 
Ammi,  "not  my  people" — Jahve  will  no  longer  recog- 
nize the  children  of  Israel  as  his  people.  However, 
mercy  will  have  the  last  word.  Osee  is  commanded  to 
receive  Gomer  again  and  to  prepare  her,  by  a  tempo- 
rary retirement,  to  renew  conjugal  intercourse — Israel 
was  to  prepare  herself  in  captivity  to  resume  with 
Jahve  the  relationship  of  husband  and  wife. 

Is  the  marriage  of  Osee  historical  or  purely  allegori- 
cal? The  hypothesis  most  in  favour  at  present  says 
that  the  marriage  is  historical,  and  the  grounds  for  it 
are,  (1)  the  obvious  sense  of  the  narrative;  (2)  the  ab- 
sence of  any  symbolical  sense  in  the  words  Gomer  and 
Debelaim;  (3)  that  the  second  child  is  a  daughter.  It 
appears  to  us,  however,  with  Davidson  (Hastings, 
"  Diet,  of  the  Bible  ",  II,  421  sqq.)  and  Van  Hoonacker, 
that  the  first  reason  is  not  convincing.  A  careful  read- 
ing of  cc.  i-iii  discloses  the  fact  that  the  action  is  ex- 
tremely rapid,  that  the  events  are  related  merely  in 
order  to  express  a  doctrine,  and,  moreover,  they  appear 
to  take  place  within  the  single  time  requisite  to  one  or 
two  speeches.  And  yet,  if  these  events  are  real,  a 
large  part  of  the  Prophet's  life  must  have  been  spent 
in  these  unsavoury  circumstances.  And  again,  the 
XL— 22 


names  of  the  children  appear  to  have  been  bestowed 
just  at  the  time  that  their  meaning  was  explained  to 
the  people.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  regard 
to  the  last  child:  "Call  his  name,  Not  my  people: 
for  you  are  not  my  people.  .  .  ."  Another  rea- 
son for  doubting  this  hypothesis  is  that  it  is 
difficult  to  suppose  that  God  ordered  His  Prophet  to 
take  an  unfaithful  wife  merely  with  a  view  to  her  being 
unfaithful  and  bearing  him  aduUonius  children.  And 
how  are  we  to  explain  the  fact  that  the  prophet  re- 
tained her  notwithstanding  her  adultery  till  after  the 
birth  of  the  third  child,  and  again  received  her  after 
she  had  been  in  the  possession  of  another?  That  the 
second  child  was  a  daughter  may  be  explained  by 
dramatic  instinct,  or  by  some  other  sufficiently  plausi- 
ble motive.  There  remain  the  names  Gomer  and  De- 
belaim. Van  Hoonacker  proposes  as  possible  trans- 
lations: consummation  (imminent  ruin),  doomed  to 
terrible  scourges;  or,  top  (of  perversity),  addicted  to 
the  cakes  of  figs  (oblations  offered  to  Baal).  Nestle  also 
translates  Bath  Dehelaim  by  daughter  of  the  cakes  of 
figs,  but  in  the  sense  of  a  woman  to  be  obtaineil  at  a 
small  price  (Zeitsch.  flir  alttest.  Wissenschaft,  XXIX, 
233  .seq.).  These  are  but  conjectures;  the  obscurity 
may  be  due  to  our  ignorance.  Certain  it  is  at  least 
that  the  allegorical  meaning,  adopted  by  St.  Jerome, 
satisfies  critical  exigencies  and  is  more  in  conformity 
with  the  moral  sense.  The  doctrinal  meaning  is  iden- 
tical in  either  case  and  that  is  the  only  consideration  of 
real  importance. 

(b)  The  second  part  of  the  book  is  the  practical  and 
detailed  application  of  the  first.  Van  Hoonacker  di- 
vides it  into  three  sections,  each  of  which  terminated 
with  a  promise  of  salvation  (iv-vii,  la  .  .  .  vii,  lb  .  .  . 
xi  .  .  .  xii-xiv).  We  may  accept  this  division  if  we  also 
admit  his  ingenious  interpretation  of  vi,  11 — viii,  la: — 
And  yet  Juda,  I  shall  graft  on  thee  a  branch  (of  Eph- 
raim)  when  I  shall  re-establish  my  people;  when  I  shall 
heal  Israel.  In  the  first  section  he  speaks  almost 
exclusively  of  religious  and  moral  corruption.  The 
princes  and  especially  the  priests  are  chiefly  respon- 
sible for  this  and  it  is  on  them  that  the  punish- 
ment will  principally  fall;  and  as  he  speaks  simply 
of  the  "house  of  the  king"  it  would  appear  that 
the  dynasty  of  Jehu  still  occupied  the  throne.  It 
is  different  in  the  following  chapters.  In  vii,  la- 
viii,  the  political  and  social  disorders  are  espe- 
cially emphasized.  At  home  there  are  conspiracies, 
regicides,  anarchy,  wliile  abroad  alliances  with  foreign 
powers  are  sought.  No  doubt  Menahcm  was  already 
reigning.  And  yet  the  religious  disorders  remained 
the  principal  object  of  the  prophet's  reprobation.  And 
in  spite  of  all,  mercy  ever  retains  its  prerogatives. 
Jahve  will  gather  together  again  some  day  His  scat- 
tered children.  In  the  last  section  it  is  felt  that  the 
final  catastrophe  is  close  at  hand;  and,  nevertheless, 
once  again,  love  remains  victorious.  The  book  ends 
with  a  touching  exhortation  to  the  people  to  turn  to 
God  who  on  His  part  promises  the  most  tempting 
blessings.  An  epiphonema  reminds  at  last  every  one 
that  the  good  and  the  wicked  shall  receive  the  retribu- 
tion each  has  merited. 

.Style  and  Text. — St.  Jerome  has  described  in  a 
few  words  the  style  of  our  Prophet:  "Osee  commati- 
cus  est,  et  quasi  per  sententias  loquens."  (P.  L., 
XXVIII,  1015.)  An  intense  emotion  overpowers  the 
Prophet  at  the  sight  of  his  dying  country.  He  mani- 
fests this  grief  in  short  broken  phrases  with  little  logi- 
cal sequence,  but  in  which  is  revealed  a  tender  and 
afflicted  heart.  Unfortunately  the  notorious  obscu- 
rity of  the  Prophet  hides  many  details  from  our  view, 
this  obscurity  is  due  also  to  many  allusions  which  we 
cannot  grasp,  and  to  the  imperfect  condition  of  the  text. 
The  question  has  been  raised  as  to  whether  we  possess 
it  at  least  in  its  substantial  integrity.  Some  critics 
claim  to  have  discovered  two  main  series  of  interpola- 
tions; the  first,  of  small  extent,  consists  of  texts  rela- 


OSIMO 


338 


OSIMO 


live  to  Juda;  the  second,  which  is  of  far  greater  im- 
portance, consists  of  the  Messianic  passages  which,  it 
IS  said,  lie  outside  the  range  of  the  prophet's  vision.  It 
is  pos.sible  to  detect  several  pn)l)abl<'  glosses  in  the 
first  series:  the  second  assertion  is  purely  arbitrary. 
The  Messianic  texts  have  all  the  characteristics  of 
Osee's  style;  they  arc  closely  connected  with  the  eon- 
text  and  are  entirely  in  accordance  with  his  general 
doctrines. 

Te.\ching. — It  is  fundamentally  the  same  as  that 
of  Amos: — the  same  strict  Monotheism,  the  same  ethi- 
cal conception  wliich  paves  the  way  for  the  Brnli  ixiii- 
pcres  and  the  worship  which  mu.st  be  in  spirit  and  in 
truth.  Only  Osee  lays  much  more  stress  on  the  idolatry 
which  perhaps  had  been  increased  in  the  interval  and 
was  in  any  case  better  known  to  the  Ephrairaite 
Prophet  than  to  his  .ludean  predecessor.  And  Amos 
had  in  return  a  much  more  extended  historical  and 
geographical  horizon.  O.see  sees  but  the  dying  Israel. 
His  characteristic  point  of  view  is  the  bond  between 
Jahve  and  Israel.  Jahve  is  the  spouse  of  Israel,  the 
bride  of  Jahve, — a  profoundly  philosophical  and  mys- 
tical image  which  ai)pears  here  for  the  first  time  and 
which  we  find  again  in  Jeremias,  Ezechiel,  Canticle  of 
Canticles,  Apocalypse,  etc. 

(a)  The  Ancient  AUiance. — Jahve  has  taken  to  Him- 
self His  spouse  by  redeeming  her  out  of  the  bondage  of 
Egypt.  Ho  has  united  Himself  to  her  on  Sinai.  The 
bride  owed  fidelity  and  exclusive  love,  trust,  and  obedi- 
ence to  the  spouse;  but  alas!  how  has  she  observed  the 
conjugal  compact?  Fidelity. — She  has  prostituted 
herself  to  the  IBaals  and  Astartes,  degrading  herself  to 
the  level  of  the  infamous  practices  of  the  Canaanite 
high  places.  She  has  worshipped  the  calf  of  Samaria 
and  has  given  herself  up  to  every  superstition.  No 
doubt  she  has  also  paid  homage  to  Jahve,  but  a  hom- 
age wholly  external  and  carnal  instead  of  the  adora- 
tion which  must  be  above  all  things  internal  and 
which  He  Himself  exacts:  "With  their  flocks,  and  with 
their  lierds  they  shall  go  to  seek  the  Lord,  and  shall 
not  find  him  .  .  ."(v,  6).  "  For  I  desired  mercy  and 
not  sacrifice:  and  the  knowledge  of  God  more  than 
holocaiists"  (\'i,  6).  Trust  has  failed  in  like  manner. 
Costly  alliances  were  sought  with  other  nations  as 
though  the  protection  of  the  spouse  were  not  sufficient: 
— "Ephraim  hath  given  gifts  to  his  lovers  (viii,9).  He 
hath  made  a  covenant  with  the  Assyrians,  and  carried 
oil  into  Egypt ' '  (Vulg. ,  xii,  1 ) .  The  very  favours  which 
she  has  received  from  Jahve  in  her  ingratitude  she 
ascribes  to  fal.se  gods.  She  said:  "I  will  go  after  my 
lovers,  that  gave  me  my  bread,  and  my  water,  my  wool, 
and  my  flax"  (Vulg.,ii,  5).  Obedience: — All  the  laws 
which  govern  the  pact  of  union  have  been  violated: 
"Shall  I  write  to  him  [Ephraim]  my  manifold  laws, 
which  have  been  accounted  as  foreign"  (viii,  12).  It 
is  a  question  here  at  least  primarily  of  the  Mosaic  legis- 
lation. Osee  and  Amos  in  spite  of  contrary  opinion 
knew  at  least  in  substance  the  contents  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. Anarchy  is  therefore  rife  in  politics  and  religion : 
"They  have  reigned  but  not  by  me:  they  have  been 
princes,  and  I  knew  not:  of  their  silver,  and  their  gold 
they  have  made  idols  to  themselves"  I. viii,  4). 

The  root  of  all  these  evils  is  the  absence  of  "knowl- 
edge of  God  "  (iv-v)  for  which  the  priest  especially  and 
the  princes  are  to  blame,  an  absence  of  theoretical 
knowledge  no  doubt,  but  primarily  of  the  practical 
knowledge  which  has  love  for  its  object.  It  is  the  ab- 
sence of  this  practical  knowledge  chiefly  that  Osee 
laments.  The  Prophet  employs  yet  another  symbol 
for  the  bond  of  union.  He  sets  forth  in  some  exquisite 
lines  the  symbol  of  the  chosen  son.  Jahve  has  given 
birth  to  Israel  by  redeeming  it  out  of  the  bondage  of 
Egypt.  He  has  borne  it  in  his  arms,  has  guided  its 
first  feeble  steps  and  sustained  itwith  bonds  of  love;  he 
has  reared  and  nourished  it  (xi,  1  sq.)  and  the  only  re- 
turn made  by  Ephraim  is  apostasy.  Such  is  the  his- 
tory of  the  covenant.    The  day  of  retribution  is  at 


hand;  it  has  even  dawned  in  anarchy,  civil  war,  and 
every  kind  of  scourge.  The  consummation  is  immi- 
nent. It  would  seem  that  repentance  itself  would  be 
unable  to  ward  it  off.  As  later  Jeremias,  so  now  Osee 
announces  to  his  people  with  indescribable  emotion  the 
final  ruin:  Jezrahel  "Disgraced",  "Not  my  people." 
The  children  of  Israel  are  about  to  go  into  exile,  there 
they  "shall  sit  many  days  without  king,  and  without 
prince,  and  without  sacrifice,  and  without  altar,  and 
without  ephod  and  without  teraphim  "  (iii,  4).  Na- 
tional authority  shall  come  to  an  end  and  public  na- 
tional religion  will  be  no  more. 

(b)  The  New  Covenant. — Yet  the  love  of  Jahve  will 
change  even  this  evil  into  a  remedy.  The  unworldly 
princes,  now  separated  from  the  people,  will  no  longer 
draw  them  into  sin.  The  disappearance  of  the  exter- 
nal national  religion  will  cause  the  idolatrous  sacri- 
fices, symbols,  and  oracles  to  disappear  at  the  same 
time.  .\nil  the  road  will  be  open  to  salvation;  it  will 
come  "at  the  end  of  days".  Jahve  cann<jt  abandon 
forever  His  chosen  son.  At  the  very  thought  of  it  He 
is  filled  with  compassion  and  his  heart  is  stirred  within 
him.  Accordingly  after  having  been  the  lion  which 
roars  against  his  guilty  people  He  will  roar  against 
their  enemies,  and  His  children  will  come  at  the  sound 
of  His  voice  from  all  the  lands  of  their  exile  (xi,  10  .sq.). 
It  will  be,  as  it  were,  a  new  exodus  from  Egypt. 
Juda  will  be  reinstated  and  a  remnant  of  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim  shall  be  joined  with  him  (vi,  11 — vii,  la). 
"The  children  of  Israel  shall  return  and  shall  .seek 
the  Lord  their  God,  and  David  their  king"  (iii,  5). 
The  new  alliance  shall  never  be  broken:  it  shall  be 
contracted  in  justice  and  in  righteousness,  in  kindness 
and  in  love,  in  fidelity  and  knowledge  of  God. 
There  shall  be  reconciliation  with  nature  and  peace 
among  men  and  with  God.  Prosperity  and  un- 
limited extension  of  the  people  of  God  shall  come  to 
pass,  and  the  children  of  this  new  kingdom  shall  be 
called  the  sons  of  the  living  God.  Great  shall  be  the 
day  of  Jezrahel  (the  day  when  "God  will  sow");  (ch. 
ii),  ch.  i,  1-3  (Vulg.,  i,  10— ii,  1)  ought  likely  to  be  set  at 
theendof  ch.  ii.  Cf.  Condamin  in  "Revue  biblique", 
1902,  386  sqq.  This  is  an  admirable  sketch  of  the 
Church  which  Christ  is  to  found  seven  and  a  half 
centuries  later.  The  doctrine  of  Osee,  like  that  of 
Amos,  manifests  a  transcendence  which  his  historical 
and  religious  surroundings  cannot  explain.  Digitus 
Dei  est  hie. 

Among  Catholic  commentaries  cf.  especially  Van  Hoonacker, 
Les  dome  pelits  prophiles  (Paris.  1908).  Among  Protestant  works 
Harper,  A  Critical  and  Exegetical  Commentary  on  Amos  and 
Hosea  (Edinburgh,  1905).  a  commentary  of  Liberal  tendencies. 

Jean  CalSs. 

Osimo,  Diocese  of  (Auximana),  in  the  Province 
of  Ascoli  Piceno,  Italy.  Osimo  was  contained  in  the 
territory  of  the  Donation  of  Pepin.  In  the  conflicts 
between  the  popes  and  the  Swabian  emperors,  it  was 
Ghibelhne;  but  remained  faithful  when  in  1375,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  Florentines,  nearly  all  the  cities  of 
the  Pontifical  States  rebelled  against  the  Holy  See. 
Among  other  rulers  it  had  Pandolfo  Malatesta  (1416); 
Francesco  Sforza  (1435);  and  finally,  Buccolino,  who 
surrendered  the  city  to  the  Holy  See  in  1494.  Rem- 
nants of  the  Roman  walls  and  baths  still  exist;  the 
cathedral  is  of  the  eighth  century,  restored  and  en- 
larged by  Bishop  Gentilis  (1205) ;  the  baptistery  of  the 
church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  is  notable;  the  com- 
munal palace  possesses  a  collection  of  inscriptions;  the 
Collegio  Campana  had  among  its  students  Leo  XII 
and  Pius  VIII.  Saints  Florentius,  Sisinnius,  and 
Diocletius  were  martyrs  of  Osimo;  the  city  venerates 
as  its  first  bishop  St.  Leopardus,  of  unknown  era;  the 
first  bishop  of  certain  date  is  Fortunatus  (649). 
Among  its  prelates  were  Vitalianus  (743),  and  Gen- 
tilis (1177).  Gregory  IX  transferred  the  sec  to 
Ricanati  in  1240  to  punish  Osimo  for  its  felony,  but 
Bishop  Rinaldo  persuaded  Urban  IV  to  restore  the 


osins 


339 


OSMA 


see  to  Osimo,  and  the  first  bishop  thereafter  was 
St.  Benvenuto  Scotivoli  (d.  1283),  who  was  succeeded 
by  Berardo  Berardi,  afterwards  cardinal;  C.  Giovanni 
Uguccione  (1320),  who  died  in  prison,  for  which  reason 
the  see  was  again  suppressed,  the  bishops  residing  at 
Cingoli;  Urban  VI  restored  the  diocese,  and  among 
its  subsequent  bishops  were  Antonino  Ugolino  Sini- 
baldi  (1498);  Cardinal  Antonio  M.  Galli  (1591);  and 
the  Dominican   Cardinal   Galamini    (1620).     Under 


i/^^.   ^ 

^ 

1       r- 

^i-ii 

■ 

k 

,;.,  yjfflCTB 

HH 

H^K^ 

-.-^t'^  JKr  -  '^=^^^^^2^ -* 

~ss==!i=«ft 

u. 

..   I^M 

L.    03IM0    (Xill    Ce 

Bishop  Agostino  Pipia,  Benedict  XIII  re-established 
the  Diocese  of  Cingoli,  uniting  it  to  that  of  Osirao. 

Cingoli,  an  ancient  city  of  Piceno,  is  frequently' 
named  in  connexion  with  the  war  between  Cff.sar  and 
Pompey ;  its  cathedral  of  Santa  Maria  is  of  the  seven- 
teenth century ;  the  Gothic  church  of  Sant'  Esuperanzio 
is  a  notable  temple.  The  first  known  bishop  of  this  see 
was  Theodosius  (495)  succeeded  by  Julianus,  who  ac- 
companied Pope  Vigilius  to  Constantinople  in  544; 
between  the  dates  of  Theodosius  and  Julianus  is 
placed  the  incumbency  of  St.  Esuperantius,  whose 
history  is  legendary.  No  other  bishops  of  Cingoli  are 
known.  The  Diocese  of  Osimo  is  subject  directly  to 
the  Holy  See;  it  has  34  parishes,  with  49,200  inhabi- 
tants, 2  religious  houses  of  men,  and  4  of  women,  2 
schools  for  boys  and  2  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  VII;  Martorelli,  Memorie 
storiche  delta  citta  di  Osimo  (Venice,  1705) ;  Compagnoni,  Memorie 
delta  Chiesa  e  dei  vescovi  di  Osimo  (Rome,  1782). 

U.  Benigni. 

Osius.    See  Hosius  of  Cordova. 

Osma,  Diocese  of  (Oxomensis),  borders  Burgos 
and  Logrono  on  the  north,  Soria  and  Saragossa  on  the 
east,  Soria  and  Guadalajara  on  the  .south,  and  Segovia 
on  the  west;  and  includes  the  civil  provinces  of  Soria 
and  Burgos,  with  a  small  portion  of  Segovia.  It  is 
the  ancient  Uxama  and  has  1250  inhabitants.  Burgo 
de  Osma,  the  episcopal  see,  has  3000.  The  origin  of 
the  diocese  is  obscure:  some  refer  it  to  St.  James  the 
Apostle,  others  to  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great. 
Fldrez  alleges  it  only  as  "probable"  that  it  existed  in 
the  first  centuries,  when  bishops,  to  escape  persecu- 
tion, used  to  establish  their  sees  in  obscure  places; 
hence  it  might  have  been  selected  rather  than  Clunia, 
the  capital  of  a  judicial  district.  John,  Bishop  of 
Osma,  signed  the  acts  of  the  Synod  of  Toledo,  in  597 ; 
Gregory  signed  at  the  synod  of  610;  Gila  signed 
the  acts  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  Councils  of  Toledo,  and 
sent  as  his  delegate  to  the  eighth,  Godescalchus,  who 
afterwards  succeeded  him,  and  signed  the  eleventh; 
Severian  signed  at  the  twelfth,  and  Sonna  at  the 
thirteenth  and  sixteenth.  After  the  Arab  invasion 
the  bishops  of  Osma  continued,  as  titulars,  in  Asturias: 
a  letter  against  Adoptionism,  addressed  to  Elipandus, 
Archbishop  of  Toledo,  is  signed  by  Eterius,  Bishop 
of  Osma,   and  Beatus,   a  priest.     The  "Chronicon 


Albedense"  mentions  Felmirus,  Bishop  of  Osma,  in 
the  time  of  Alfonso  III  (821). 

The  succession  was  then  lost  until  Ferniin  Gonzalez, 
Count  of  Castile,  conquered  Osma,  placing  in  its  see 
Silo,  a  monk  of  Arlanza.  The  place  was  again  lost, 
and  the  see  with  it;  but  eventually  Alfonso  VI  called 
in  the  Cluniacs,  under  Bernardo  Salvitd,  (later  Arch- 
bishop of  Toledo),  and  made  Pierre  de  Vituris,  a 
French  monk.  Bishop  of  Osma.  Then  began  pro- 
tracted boundary  disputes  with  the  Bishops  of  Oca 
and  of  Burgos,  compromised  at  the  Council  of  Husil- 
los,  in  Palencia,  in  1088;  others  followed  with  the 
Bishops  of  Sigtienza  and  of  Tarazona,  to  whose  juris- 
diction Alfonso  the  Fighter  assigned  the  territory 
taken  from  Castile,  finally  settled  in  the  time  of  Al- 
fonso VII,  at  a  council  at  Burgos,  where  Cardinal 
Guido  was  present  as  papal  legate.  After  Vituris,  the 
see  was  occupied  by  Pedro,  formerly  archdeacon  of 
Toledo,  canonized  as  St.  Peter  of  Osma.  Finding  the 
old  church  in  ruins  he  chose  as  the  site  for  a  new  one 
El  Espinar.  His  successor,  the  Frenchman,  Raymond 
Salvitd,  continued  the  boundary  controversy  and  the 
building  of  the  church,  and,  having  been  transferred 
to  the  See  of  Toledo,  was  succeeded  by  Beltriin  (1128). 
To  provide  for  the  building  of  his  church,  Bishop 
Beltriin  obtained  a  commutation  of  the  Vow  of  San- 
tiago for  a  visit  and  alms  to  Osma;  he  also  founded  the 
Confraternity  of  the  True  Cross,  the  brethren  of  which 
bound  themselves  to  leave  legacies  for  the  building 
of  the  cathedral. 

Bishop  Diego  de  Acebes  accompanied  St.  Domi- 
nic against  the  Albigenses.  In  1232  Bishop  Juan 
Dominguez,  finding  the  cathedral  again  too  small, 
rebuilt  it,  with  the  exception  of  some  cloister  chajiels, 
still  to  be  seen,  spared  out  of  respect  for  the  memory 
of  St.  Peter  of  Osma.  It  is  in  the  transition  style  from 
Romanesque  to  ogival,  with  later  improvements  and 
additions.  Pedro  Gonzalez,  Cardinal  de  Mendoza, 
Bishop  of  Osma  in  1478,  built  the  marble  pulpit. 
Bishop  Pedro  Acosta,  who  had  previously  occupied 
the  See  of  Oporto,  brought  with  him  the  Italian 
Giovanni  di  Juni,  who  (1540)  embeUished  the  re-table 
of  the  high  altar  with  figures  of  St.  Peter  of  Osma  and 
St.  Dominic,  and  also  designed  the  university.  Bishop 
Acosta  founded  (1557),  in  Aranda  de  Duero,  the 
"Sancti  Spiritus"  convent  of  the  Dominicans,  and 
the  chapel  of  the  Santo  Cristo  del  Milagro,  originally 
designed  as  a  chapel  of  St.  Dominie  de  (luziiian.  The 
organ  on  the  right  is  the  gift  of  Bishup  Marl  in  Carrillo 
in  1641,  that  on  the  left,  of  the  chapter  in  1765.  The 
chapel  of  the  Cristo  del  Milagro  contains  an  altar  and 
re-table,  with  an  inscription  giving  the  traditional 
legend,  built  by  Bishop  Andres  de  Soto.  With  the 
assistance  of  Bishop  Garcia  de  Loaisa,  Melendez  de 
Guraiel,  Dean  of  Osma,  built  the  chapel  of  St.  Peter, 
now  the  chief  patron  of  the  diocese.  The  chapel  of 
Our  Lady  of  the  Thorn-bush,  planned  by  Bishop 
Pedro  Arastegui,  corresponds  to  the  Santo  Christo. 
In  1506,  Bishop  Alonso  Enriquez,  rebuilt  the  cloisters. 
Between  1736  and  1744  Pedro  Agustin  de  la  Cuadra 
built  the  new  tower  adjoining  the  west  wall  in  the 
Barocque  style.  Joaquin  de  Electa,  confessor  to 
Charles  III,  built  a  chapel  for  Juan  de  Palafox,  Bishop 
of  Osma,  completed  in  1781.  The  frescoes  are  by 
Mariano  Maella. 

The  bishops  of  Osma  were  formerly  lords  of  the 
city.  At  the  petition  of  Bishop  John  II,  Alfonso  VIII 
issued  a  warrant  confirming  the  lordship  to  the  cathe- 
dral chapter,  and  left  instructions  that  the  lordship 
of  Osma,  with  its  castle,  should  be  given  to  Bishop 
Mendo  (1210-25)  in  recompense  for  his  services  at  the 
battle  of  Las  Navas  de  Tolosa  (1212).  King  John 
I  granted  the  castle  of_Osma  to  Bishop  Pedro  Gonzdlez 
de  Frias,  Bishop  Pedro  de  Montoya  surrounded  Burgo 
with  a  wall,  in  1456.  Bishop  Pedro  Alvarez  de 
Acosta  founded  the  university  at  his  own  expense,  and 
in  1578,  adjacent  to  the  cathedral,  the  consistorial 


OSMUND 


340 


OSMTTND 


buildings,  prison,  ami  publio  granary.  Bishop  Se- 
bastian Perez  (ir)Si; -S3)  transferred  the  seminary 
from  tlio  college  of  the  university  to  the  Casas  del 
Cortijo  (P'arni  BuiKliiisisi,  and  Fernando  de  Aeebedo 
(1610-15)  began  the  Seminary  of  S.  Domingo  de 
Guzmiln,  wliioh  Bisliop  Joaquin  Eleta  reconstructed 
in  17S:?  after  plans  nia<le  by  the  engineer  .Sebastini. 
Sebastian  de  Arevalo  rebuilt  the  Hospital  of  S.  Agus- 
tin,  founded  in  1468  by  Pedro  de  Montoya. 

Soria,  the  capital,  disputes  with  Osma  the  right  to 
the  eiiiscopal  sec.  There  is  the  church  of  S.  Pedro,  re- 
stored by  Alfonso  I  of  Aragon,  in  Hoe's,  and  made  col- 
legiate in  1 152  by  John  II,  Bisliop  of  Osma.  Over  the 
altar  of  the  retro-choir  is  an  "  Entombment  of  Christ ", 
by  Titian.  It  was  rebuilt  by  Bishop  Acosta.  Near 
Soria  are  the  Romanesque  ruins  of  the  monastery  of 
S.  Juan  de  Duero  and  the  hermitage  of  St.  Saturius, 
patron  of  the  city.  The  convent  of  La  Merced  at 
Soria  once  had  for  its  superior  the  dramatist  Gabriel 
Tellez  (Tirso  do  Molina),  to  whom  are  due  the  build- 
ing and  painting  of  the  sacristy  of  Nuestra  Senora  de 
la  Merced. 

^CorvalAn,  Descripcidn  histdrica  del  Obispado  de  Osma  (Madrid. 
17SS):  DE  Quir6s,  Vida  de  S.  Pedro  de  Osma:  Fl6rez,  Espaiia 
sagrada.  VII  (Madrid,  17S9);  R.iB.iL,  Espafia,  sus  monumenlas 
.  .  .  SoHa  (Barcelona.  18S9);  De  la  Fdente,  Hialoria  de  las 
Unicersidades  de  Espatta,  II  (Madrid,  18S5) ;  Biografia  edesids- 
tica  (Madrid,  1848-68). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

Osmund,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  d.  1099;  his 
feast  is  kept  on  4  Deo.  Osmund  held  an  exalted  posi- 
tion in  Normandy,  his  native  land,  and  according  to  a 
late  fifteenth-century  document  was  the  son  of  Henry, 
Count  of  Seez,  and  Isabella,  daughter  of  Robert,  Duke 
of  Normandy,  who  was  the  father  of  William  the  Con- 
queror (Sarum  Charters,  373).  With  his  uncle,  the 
king,  he  came  over  to  England,  proved  a  trusty  coun- 
sellor, and  was  made  chancellor  of  the  realm.  The 
same  document  calls  him  Earl  of  Dorset.  He  was 
employed  in  many  civil  transactions  and  was  engaged 
as  one  of  the  chief  commissioners  for  drawing  up  the 
Domesday  Book.  He  became  Bishop  of  Sarum,  vir- 
tually William's  choice,  by  authority  of  Gregory  VII 
and  was  consecrated  by  Lanfranc  in  1078.  This  dio- 
cese comprised  the  Counties  of  Dorsetshire,  Wiltshire, 
and  Berkshire,  for  in  1058  the  old  Bishoprics  of  Sher- 
borne and  Ramsbury  had  been  united  under  Bishop 
Hermann  and  the  see  transferred  to  Old  Sarum.  This 
is  described  as  a  fortress  rather  than  a  city,  placed  on  a 
high  hill,  surrounded  by  a  massive  wall  ("Gest. 
Pontif ",  183)  and  Peter  le  Blois  refers  to  the  Castle 
and  Church  as  "the  ark  of  God  shut  up  in  the  temple 
of  Baal".  In  1086  Osmund  was  present  at  the  Great 
Gemot  held  at  Old  Sarum  when  the  Domesday  Book 
was  accepted  and  the  great  landowners  swore  fealty  to 
the  sovereign  (see  Freeman,  "Norman  Conquest"). 
Hedied  in  the  night  of  3  Dec,  1099,  and  was  succeeded, 
after  the  see  had  been  vacant  for  eight  years,  by  Roger, 
a  crafty  and  time-serving  statesman.  His  remains 
were  buried  at  Old  Sarum,  translated  to  New  Salis- 
bury on  23  July,  1457,  and  deposited  in  the  Lady 
Chapel  where  his  sumptuous  shrine  was  destroyed  un- 
der Henry  VIII.  A  flat  slab  with  the  simple  inscrip- 
tion MXCIX  has  lain  in  various  parts  of  the  cathedral. 
In  1644  it  was  in  the  middle  of  the  Lady  Chapel.  It 
is  now  under  the  eastern-most  arch  on  the  south  side. 

Osmund's  work  was  threefold: — (1)  The  building 
of  the  cathedral  at  Old  Sarum,  which  was  consecrated 
on  5  Apr.,  1092.  Five  days  afterwards  a  thunderstorm 
entirely  destroyed  the  roof  and  greatly  damaged  the 
whole  fabric.  (2)  The  constitution  of  a  cathedral 
body.  This  was  framed  on  the  usual  Norman  model, 
with  dean,  precentor,  chancellor,  and  treasurer,  whose 
duties  were  exactly  defined,  some  thirty-two  canons, 
a  subdean,  and  succentor.  All  save  the  hist  two  were 
bouncl  to  residence.  These  canons  were  "secular", 
each  living  in  his  own  house.  Their  duties  were  to  be 
special  companions  and  advisers  of  the  bishop,  to  carry 


out  with  fitting  solemnity  the  full  round  of  liturgical 
services  and  to  do  missionary  work  in  the  surround- 
ing districts.  There  was  formed  a  school  for  ch^gy  of 
which  the  chancc'llor  was  the  head.  The  catheilral  was 
thoroughly  constituted  "the  Mother  Church"  of  the 
diocese,  "a  city  set  on  a  hill".  Osmund's  canons  were 
renowned  for  tlii-ir  musical  talent  and  their  zeal  for 
learning,  and  had  gnat  influence  on  the  foundation  of 
other  cathedral  bodies.  (3)  The  formation  of  the 
"Sarum  Use".  InSt.  Osmund'sday  there  were  many 
other  "Uses"  (those  of  York,  Hereford,  Bangor,  and 
Lincoln  remained)  and  other  customs  peculiar  to  local 
churches,  and  the  number  was  increased  by  the  influx 
of  Normans  under  William.  Osmund  invented  or 
introduced  little  himself,  though  the  Sarum  rite  had 
some  peculiarities  distinct  from  that  of  other  churches. 
He  made  selections  of  the  practices  he  saw  round  him 
and  arranged  the  offices  and  services.  Intended  pri- 
marily for  his  own  diocese,  the  Ordinal  of  Osmund, 
regulating  the  Divine  Office,  Mass,  and  ("ah  iiilar,  was 
used,  within  a  hundred  years,  almost  thiouglmut  Eng- 
land, Wales,  and  Ireland,  and  was  introduced  into 
Scotland  about  1250.  The  unifying  influence  of  the 
Norman  Conquest  made  its  spread  more  easy.  It 
held  general  approval  until  in  Mary's  reign  so  many 
clergy  obtained  particular  licences  frcjin  Cardinal  Pole 
to  say  the  Roman  Breviary  that  this  became  univer- 
sally received.  The  "Register  of  St.  Osmund"  is  a 
collection  of  documents  without  any  chronological 
arrangement,  gathered  together  after  his  time,  di- 
vided roughly  into  two  parts:  the  "Consuetudinary" 
(Rolls  Series,  1-185,  and  in  Rock,  vol.  Ill,  1-110), 
styled  "De  Officiis  Ecclesiasticis",  and  a  series  of 
documents  and  charters,  all  more  or  less  bearing  on 
the  construction  of  the  cathedral  at  Old  Sarum,  the 
foundation  of  the  cathedral  body,  the  treasures  be- 
longing to  it,  and  the  hi.story  of  dependent  churches. 
The  existing  "Consuetudinary  '  was  taken  from  an 
older  copy,  re-arranged  with  additions  and  modifica- 
tions and  ready  j)roljably  wlicn  Richard  Poore  conse- 
crated the  cathedral  at  New  Salisbury  in  1225.  A 
copy,  almost  verbatim  the  same  as  this,  was  taken 
from  the  older  book  for  the  use  of  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin, 
which  was  erected  into  a  cathedral  and  modelled  on 
the  church  at  Sarum  by  Henry  de  Loundns  who  was 
bishop  from  1213-28.  This  is  given  by  Todd  in  the 
British  Magazine  (vols,  xxx  and  xxxi). 

WiUiam  of  Malmesbury  in  summing  up  O.smund's 
character  says  he  was  "so  eminent  for  chastity  that 
common  fame  would  itself  blush  to  speak  otherwise 
than  truthfully  concerning  his  virtue.  Stern  he  might 
appear  to  penitents,  but  not  more  severe  to  them  than 
to  himself.  Free  from  ambition,  he  neither  imjiru- 
dently  wasted  his  own  substance,  nor  sought  tlie 
wealth  of  others"  (Gest.  Pontif.,  184).  He  gatljereil 
together  a  good  library  for  his  canons  and  even  as  a 
bishop  did  not  disdain  to  transcribe  anc  1 1  )i  nd  hoc  iks  him- 
self. At  one  time  Osmund  thought  Archbishop  Ansehn 
too  unyielding  and  needlessly  scrupulous  in  the  dis- 
pute concerning  investitures  and  in  1095  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Rockingham  favoured  the  king.  But  after  the 
Lateran  Council  in  1099,  he  boldly  sided  with  the 
archbishop  and  the  beautiful  anecdote  is  related, 
showing  his  simple  sincerity,  how  when  Anselm  was 
on  his  way  to  Windsor,  Osmund  knelt  before  him  and 
received  his  forgiveness.  He  had  a  great  reverenc(' 
for  St.  Aldhelm  who  300  years  before  as  Bishop  of 
Sherborne  had  been  Osmund's  predecessor.  He  offici- 
ated at  the  saint's  translation  to  a  more  fitting  shrine 
at  Malmesbury  and  helped  Lanfranc  to  obtain  his 
canonization.  Abbot  Warin  gave  him  a  bone  of  the 
left  arm  of  St.  Aldhelm  which  he  kept  at  Sarum  where 
miracles  were  wrought.  In  1228  the  Bishop  of  Sarimi 
and  the  canons  applied  to  Gregory  IX  for  Osmund's 
canonization  but  not  until  some  200  years  afterwards 
on  1  Jan.,  1457,  was  the  Bull  issued  by  Callistus  III. 
In  1472  a  special  indulgence  was  granted  by  Sixtus  IV 


OSNABRUCK 


341 


OSNABRUCK 


for  a  visit  to  his  cathedral  on  his  festival  and  a  convo- 
cation held  in  S.  Paul's  in  1481  fixed  4  Dec.  as  the  day 
to  commemorate  him. 

Ada  SS.,  Jan..  I;  Rock,  Church  of  Out  Fathers  (London,  1853); 
Jones,  Rtgister  of  St.  Osmund  (Rolls  Series,  1883  and  1884),  with 
long  and  good  introductions  to  each  vol.;  Sarum  Cliarters  and 
Documents  (Rolls  Series,  London,  1891);  Malmesbury,  Gesta 
Pontif.  (Rolls  Series),  9.'i,  183-4,  424-429;  Idem,  Gesta  Regum: 
BuTl^ER,  Lives,  s.  v.  (London,  1833);  Eadmer,  Hist.  Novorum,  I 
and  II,  in  P.  L.,  CLIX;  Ceillier,  Auteurs  sacres,  a.  v.  (Paris, 
1863).  For  the  saint's  canonization  see  Wilkins,  Concilia  (Lon- 
don, 1737),  I,  501;  III,  432,  613;  Bekynton,  Correspondence,  I, 
117  (Rolls  Series). 

S.  Anselm  Barker. 

Osnabriick,  Dioce.se  of  (OsNABRtinENsis),  di- 
rectly subject  to  the  Holy  See,  comprises,  in  the 
Prussian  Province  of  Hanover,  the  civil  districts  of 
Osnabriick  and  Aurich  (excepting  Wilhelnishaven) 
and  that  part  of  Hanover  situated  on  the  west  of  the 
We.ser.  In  1910  it  numbered  12  deaneries,  108 
pari.shes,  1.53  pastoral  stations,  271  secular  and  12 
regular  jiriosts,  204,.500  Catholics.  As  Apostolic  ad- 
ministnifor,  the  bishop  is  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the 
Nortliom  Missions  of  Germany  and  Prefect-.'^postolic 
of  Schlcswig-Holstein  (see  Germany,  Vicari.\te 
Apostolic  of  Northern).  According  to  the  Bull 
"Impensa  Romanorum"  (26  March,  1824),  he  is 
elected  by  the  chapter  of  the  cathedral,  composed  of 
a  dean,  six  canons,  and  four  vicars,  elected  in  turn  by 
the  bishop  and  by  the  chapter.  Among  the  higher 
educational  institutions  of  the  diocese  is  the  Gym- 
nasium Carolinum,  founded  by  Charlemagne;  similar 
schools  are  at  Meppen,  Papenburg,  and  Osnabriick. 
The  only  religious  communities  of  men  are  the  Capu- 
chin convent  at  Klemenswerth  and  the  Apostolic 
School  of  the  Marists  at  Meppen.  The  religious 
orders  of  women  include  Benedictines,  Borromcans, 
Franciscans,  Ursulines,  and  others. 

The  Romanesque  cathedral  of  Sts.  Crispin  and 
Crispinian  w;vs  built  at  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century,  and  replaced  the  wooden  church  erected  by 
Charlemagne.  Later  it  took  on  Gothic  embellish- 
ments, and  in  time  became  a  treasury  of  precious 
objects  of  medieval  art.  Other  fine  churches  are 
St.  John's,  Osnabriick,  with  three  naves,  Transition 
style  (12.56-1592),  the  Sacred  Heart,  church  (1897- 
1901),  and  the  churches  in  Iburg,  Lingen,  Meppen, 
Kloster-Oesede,  Bissendorf,  Norden,  Salzbergen,  and 
others. 

History. — The  foundation  of  the  diocese  is  veiled 
in  obscurity,  for  lack  of  authentic  documents.  Osna- 
briick is  certainly  the  oldest  see  founded  by  Charle- 
magne in  Saxony.  The  first  bishop  was  St.  Wiho 
(785-804) ;  the  second  bishop,  Meginhard,  or  Meingoz 
(804-33),  was  the  real  organizer  of  the  see.  The  tem- 
poral possessions  of  the  see,  originally  quite  limited, 
grew  in  time,  and  its  bishops  exercised  an  extensive 
civil  jurisdiction  within  the  territory  covered  by 
their  rights  of  immunity  (q.  v.).  The  temporal  pro- 
tectorate (.\dvocatia,  Vogtei)  exercised  over  so  many 
medieval  dioceses  by  laymen  became  after  the  twelfth 
century  hereditary  in  the  Amelung  family,  from  whom 
it  passed  to  Henry  the  Lion.  After  Henry's  over- 
throw it  fell  to  Count  Simon  of  Tecklenburg  and  to 
his  descendants,  though  the  source  of  many  conflicts 
with  the  bishops.  In  1230  the  Count  of  Tecklenburg 
was  forced  to  renounce  all  jurisdiction  over  the  town 
of  Osnabriick,  and  the  lands  of  the  see,  the  chapter, 
and  the  parish  churches.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
bishop  and  chapter,  from  the  thirteenth  century  on, 
spread  their  jurisdiction  over  many  convents, 
churches,  and  hamlets.  Scarcely  any  other  German 
see  freed  itself  so  thoroughly  from  civil  jurisdiction 
within  its  territory.  The  royal  prerogatives  were 
transferred  little  by  little  to  the  bishop,  e.  g.,  the  hold- 
ing of  fairs  and  markets,  rights  of  toll  and  coinage, 
forest  and  hunting  rights,  mining  royalties,  fortresses, 
etc.,  80  that  the  bishop  by  the  early  part  of  the  thir- 


teenth century  was  the  real  governor  of  the  civil 
territory  of  Osnabriick. 

Among  the  prominent  medieval  bishops  are  Drogo 
(9.52-68);  Conrad  of  Veltberg  (1002);  the  learned 
Thietmar  or  Detmar  (1003-22);  Benno  11  (1007-88); 
Johann  I  (1001-10),  who  built  the  actual  cathedral  in 
place  of  the  wooden  one  desti-oycd  by  file  in  the  time 
of  his  predeces.sor;  Diethard  I  (1119-37)  was  the  first 
bishop  elected  by  the  free  choice  of  the  catlu'(h';il 
clergy;  Philip  II  (1141-73)  ended  the  conflicts  be- 
tween his  see  and  the  Abbeys  of  Corvey  and  Hersfeld; 
Arnold  (1137-1191)  died  a  crusader  before  Akkon. 
In  the  time  of  Engelbert  of  Isenburg  (1239-50),  Bruno 
of  Isenburg,  and  Conrad  II  of  Rietberg  (1269-07)  the 
new  orders  of  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  and  Augustin- 
ians  were  received  with  favour.  In  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries  the  power  of  the  bishops 
waned  before  the  increasing  influence  of  the  chapter, 
of  the  military  servants  (or  knights)  of  the  diocese, 
and  of  the  town  of  Osnabriick.  The  latter  sought  to 
free  itself  from  the  bishop's  sovereignty,  but  never 
became  a  free  city  of  the  empire.  The  see  was  almo.st 
continually  engaged  in  warlike  troubles  and  diffi- 
culties and  had  also  to  defend  itself  against  the 
Bishops  of  Minden  and  Miinster.  From  the  four- 
teenth century  on  we  meet  many  auxiliary  bishops 
of  Osnabriick,  made  necessary  by  the  civil  duties 
that  absorbed  the  attention  of  the  ordinary. 

The  successor  of  Bishop  Conrad  IV  of  Rietberg 
(1488-1508)  was  Eric  of  Brunswick  (1508-32),  simul- 
taneously Bishop  of  Miinster  and  Paderborn.  He 
opposed  the  Reformers  strongly  and  successfully. 
Franz  of  Waldeck  (1533-53),  also  Bishop  of  Minden, 
acted,  on  the  contrary,  a  very  doubtful  part.  He 
offered  httle  resistance  to  Lutheranism  in  Miinster, 
though  he  vigorously  opposed  the  Anabaptists;  after 
1543  he  allowed  in  Osnabriick  an  evangelical  service. 
But  the  chapter  and  the  Dominicans  opposed  a  Ger- 
man service  that  dispensed  with  all  the  characteristics 
of  the  Mass.  In  1548  Bishop  Franz  promised  to 
suppress  the  Reformation  in  Osnabriick,  and  to  exe- 
cute the  Augsburg  "Interim",  but  fulfilled  his  promise 
very  indifferently;  on  his  death-bed  he  received 
Lutheran  communions.  His  successor,  John  IV  of 
Hoya  (1553-74),  was  more  Catholic,  but  was  succeeded 
by  three  bishops  of  a  Protestant  temper:  Henry  III 
of  Saxony  (1574-85),  Bernhard  of  Waldeck  (1,585-91), 
and  Philip  Sigismund  (1591-1623).  Under  them  the 
Reformation  overran  nearly  the  whole  diocese. 

In  1624  Cardinal  Eitel  Frederick  of  Hohenzollern 
became  Bishop  of  Osnabriick,  and  called  in  the 
Jesuits.  But  he  had  scarcely  begun  his  work  when 
he  died,  and  left  to  his  successor,  Francis  of  Warten- 
berg  (162.5-61),  the  task  of  executing  the  Counter- 
Reformation  (q.  v.).  The  city-council  was  purified 
of  anti-Catholic  elements,  and  the  former  Augustinian 
convent  was  turned  over  to  the  Jesuits.  The  Edict 
of  Restitution  was  executed  successfully  by  him,  and 
in  1631  he  founded  a  university  at  Osnabriick.  But 
in  1633  Osnabriick  was  captured  by  the  Swedes,  the 
university  was  discontinued,  Cathcilic  rclij^inus  exer- 
cises suppressed,  and  the  see  (1633-51)  administered 
by  the  conquerors.  By  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  the 
bishop  succeeded  in  preventing  the  secularization  of 
the  see,  as  contemplated  by  the  Swedes.  Never- 
theless, it  was  stipulated  that  henceforth  a  Catholic 
and  a  Protestant  bishop  (of  the  Augsburg  Confession) 
would  alternately  hold  the  see.  During  the  rule  of 
the  Protestant  bishop,  always  chosen  from  the  House 
of  Brunswick-Liineburg,  the  spiritual  government  of 
the  Catholics  was  committed  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Cologne.  Wartenberg  was  made  cardinal  in  1660, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  Protestant  married  "bish- 
op", Ernest  Augu.stus  (1661-98),  who  transferred  the 
residence  to  Hanover.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
Catholic  bishop.  Prince  Charles  Joseph  of  Lorraine, 
Bishop  of  Olmiitz,  later  Archbishop  of  Trier  (1698- 


O  SOLA 


342 


OSSORY 


1715).  The  Protestant  Bishop  Ernest  Augustus 
(1715-21)  was  succeeded  by  Clemens  August  of 
Bavaria,  Elector  of  Cologne  (1721-61).  The  last 
bislio]).  Prince  Frederick  of  England  (17(11-1803), 
later  Duke  of  York,  was,  until  his  majority  (1783), 
under  the  guardianship  of  his  father,  George  III  of 
England. 

In  1803  the  see,  the  chapter,  the  convents,  and  the 
Catholic  charitable  institutions  were  finally  secular- 
ized. The  territory  of  the  see  passed  to  Prussia  in 
1806,  to  the  Kingdom  of  Westphalia  in  1807,  to 
France  in  1810,  and  again  to  Hanover  in  1814. 
Klemens  von  Gruben,  titular  Bishop  of  Paros,  was 
made  vicar  Apostolic,  and  as  such  cared  for  the 
spiritual  interests  of  the  Catholic  population.  Under 
Leo  XII  the  Bull  "Impensa  Romanorum  Pontificum" 
(2t)  March,  1824)  re-established  the  See  of  Osnabriick 
as  an  exempt  see,  i.  e.,  immediately  subject  to  Rome. 
This  Bull,  recognized  by  the  civil  authority,  promised 
that,  for  the  present,  the  Bishop  of  Hildesheim  would 
be  also  Bishop  of  Osnabriick,  but  had  to  be  repre- 
sented at  Osnabruck  by  a  vicar-general  and  an 
auxiliary  bishop,  and  this  lasted  for  thirty  years. 
Klemens  von  Gruben  was  succeeded  by  the  auxiliary 
bishop  Karl  Anton  von  Liipke,  also  administrator  of 
the  North  German  Missions.  After  his  death  new 
negotiations  led  to  the  endowment  of  an  independent 
see.  Pius  IX,  with  the  consent  of  King  George  V 
of  Hanover,  appointed  Paulus  Melchers  of  Mtinster, 
bishop,  3  August,  1857.  In  1866  the  territory  of  the 
diocese  passed,  with  Hanover,  to  Prussia;  Melchers 
became  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  was  succeeded  in 
1866  by  Johannes  Heinrich  Beckmann  (1866-78), 
who  was  succeeded  by  Bernard  Hoting  (1882-98) 
after  a  vacancy  of  four  years  owing  to  the  Kultur- 
kampf  (q.  v.).  The  present  bishop  (1911),  Hubert 
Voss,  was  appointed  12  .-Vpril,  1899. 

MosER,  OsTuihr/f  ;  .  h'  I,'  rlnckte  (Osnabriick,  1768),  also  in 
MosER'scolleet.a  i.  .  N  \  I-VIII  (Berlin,  1843) ;  Sandhoff, 
AntistiiumOsruii'r  :  :  j  rcgesfa  (2  parts.  Miinster,  1785) ; 

F.  E.  Stuve,  i?» .'',,, './^r,  „  ,/  (leschichte  des  Hochstift&  und  des 
FUratentuma  Osnabriick  (Osnabruck,  1789);  C.  STiiVE,  Gesch.  des 
HochsH/ts  Osnabriick  (Jena  and  Osnabruck,  1853,  1872,  1882), 
three  pts. ;  MEtTRER,  Das  Bislum  Osnabriick  (Munster,  1856); 
MoLLER,  Gesch.  der  WeihbiscMfe  von  Osnabriick  (Lingen,  1887); 
Oanabriicker  Urkundenbuch,  ed.  by  Phillips  and  Bar  (4  vols., 
Osnabruck,  1892-1902);  Jostes,  Die  Kaiser- und  Konigsurkunden 
des  OsnabrUcker  Landes  (Munster,  1899);  OsnabrUcker  Geschichts- 
guellen  (Osnabriick,  1891 — ) :  Sopp,  Die  Entwicklung  der  Landes- 
herrlichkeil  im  FUrstenlum  Osnabriick  (Idstcin.  1902) ;  HOFFMEYER, 
Gesch.  der  Stadt  und  des  Regierungsbezirks  Osnabruck  (Osnabriick, 
1904);  Jaeger,  Die  Schola  Carolina  Osnabrugensis  (Osnabriick, 
1904);  numerous  papers  in  Zeitschrifl  fiir  vaterldndische  Gesch. 
vnd  .Miertumskunde  (Munster  1838 — ) ;  and  in  Mitteilungen  des 
Vereins  far  Geschichie  und  Landeskunde  von  Osnabriick  (33  vols., 
Osnabriick.  to  1909);  Elenchus  cleri  diaceseos  Osnabrugrnsis  pro 
1910  (Osnabriick,  1910) ;  Wi'RM,  Fuhrer  von  Osnabruck  (2nd  ed., 

1906).  Joseph  Lins. 

O  sola  magnarum  urbium.  See  Quicumque 
Christum  qu.^ritis. 

Osrhoene.    See  Abgar;  Edessa. 

Ossat,  Arx.\ud  d',  French  cardinal,  diplomat,  and 
writer,  b.  at  Larrocjue-Magnoac  (Gascony),  20  July, 
1.537;  d.  at  Rome,  13  March,  1604,  was  the  son  of  a 
blacksmith.  He  was  sent  to  the  College  of  Auch  as  tutor 
to  the  sons  of  a  nobleman,  then  to  Paris,  where  he  be- 
came the  pupil  and  friend  of  the  famous  Ramus,  whom 
lie  defended  in  two  pamphlets  against  Charpentier, 
rector  of  the  university.  He  next  studied  law  at 
Bourges  under  Cujas  and  became  an  advocate  before 
the  Parliament  of  Paris,  while  acting  as  tutor  to  Jean 
de  la  Barriere,  the  future  reformer  of  the  Feuillants. 
In  1.572  he  joined  the  hou.sehold  of  Paul  de  Foix, 
Archbishop-elect  of  Toulouse,  whom  he  accompanied 
on  various  embassies  and  finally  to  Rome.  De  Foix 
dying  in  1.584,  d'Ossat  remained  at  Rome,  supervising 
the  French  embassy  for  a  year,  and  then  becoming 
secretary  successively  to  Louis  d'Este  and  Joyeuse, 
two  cardinal  protectors  of  the  interests  of  France.  In 
1588  he  refused  the  post  of  minister  of  foreign  affairs 


to  Henry  III.  Driven  from  Rome  by  the  rupture  of 
diplomatic  relations  after  the  murder  of  Cardinal  de 
Guise  (1588),  he  returned  after  the  death  of  Henry  III 
(1,589)  as  the  private  agent  of  his  widow,  Louise  de 
Vaudemont.  He  used  his  position  to  support  the 
cause  of  Henry  IV,  whose  conversion  he  prepared  the 
pope  to  accept.  As  agent  for  that  prince,  co-operat- 
ing with  du  Perron,  he  negotiated  the  reconciliation 
with  the  pope,  which  took  place  19  Sept.,  1595.  This 
was  the  greatest  act  of  d'Ossat's  diplomatic  career, 
assuring  as  it  did  the  definitive  triumph  of  Henry  IV 
over  the  League,  and  the  restoration  of  peace  and 
prosperity  to  France  after  more  than  thirty  years  of 
civil  war.  D'Ossat  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Rennes 
(1596),  cardinal  (1.589),  and  finally  Bishop  of  Bayeux. 
Remaining  at  Rome  without  any  well-defined  office, 
he  was  charged  with  occasional  missions  to  Venice 
and  Florence  (1598),  or  managed  the  French  embassy 
in  the  absence  of  the  ambassador,  and  was  always  the 
enlightened  and  devoted  representative  of  French  in- 
terests. All  the  ambassadors  of  Henry  IV  had  orders 
to  make  known  to  him  the  business  with  which  they 
were  charged  and  to  be  guided  by  his  advice.  Villeroy, 
the  minister  for  foreign  affairs,  himself  consulted  him 
on  all  matters  in  anyway  connected  with  Rome.  Ossat, 
through  his  influence  and  talents,  secured  for  Henry 
IV  the  pope's  aid  and,  when  necessary,  induced  the 
Holy  See  to  accept,  at  least,  without  public  protest, 
such  measures  as  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  the  non- 
publication  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  the  Edict  of 
Nantes,  the  Franco-Turkish  and  Franco-English  al- 
liances, the  annulment  of  Henry  IV's  marriage  with 
Margaret  of  Valois,  and  the  conclusion  of  that  be- 
tween the  Due  de  Bar  and  Catherine  de  Bourbon, 
Henry's  sister  and  a  stubborn  Calvinist.  At  the 
same  time  d'Ossat  used  his  influence  at  Rome  for 
the  benefit  of  the  historian  de  Thou,  the  philosopher 
Montaigne,  and  the  savant  Peiresc.  Clement  VIII 
showed  his  esteem  of  Ossat  by  commanding  that  the 
cardinal's  family  should  attend  his  obseijuies  with  all 
the  assistants  at  the  pontifical  throne.  D  Ossat  was 
buried  in  the  church  of  St.  Louis  of  the  French,  where 
his  tomb  is  still  to  be  seen.  Bentivoglio,  in  his 
"M<5moires",  says  of  him  that  never  was  a  man  more 
worthy  of  the  hat  because  of  his  religious  zeal,  the 
integrity  of  his  morals,  and  the  eminence  of  his  learn- 
ing. 

In  the  course  of  his  diplomatic  career  d'Ossat  wrote 
many  letters  and  memoranda.  Garnier  de  Maul^on 
edited  some  of  them  in  1614,  when  they  were  printed 
for  the  first  time;  several  editions,  largely  augmented, 
afterwards  appeared,  the  best  being  that  of  Amelot  de 
la  Haussaie,  in  1708,  which  contains  nearly  400  letters. 
Since  then  twenty-one  letters  have  been  published  by 
Tamizey  de  Larroque,  and  eleven  by  the  writer  of  this 
article.  These  letters  formerly  served  as  models  for 
diplomats,  owing  not  only  to  the  importance  of  the 
questions  which  they  treat,  but  especially  to  the  talent 
for  exposition  which  d'Ossat  displays  in  them.  The 
French  Academy  inscribed  Ossat  among  the  "dead 
authors  who  have  written  our  French  language  most 
purely".  Wiquefort  in  his  "M6moires  sur  les  ambas- 
sadeurs"  finds  in  them  "the  clearest  and  most  en- 
lightened judgment  ever  displayed  by  any  minister", 
and  Lord  Chesterfield  wrote  to  his  son  that  the  "sim- 
I)licity  and  clearness  of  Cardinal  d'Ossat's  letters  show 
how  business  letters  should  be  written".  Besides 
these  letters  his  published  works  are:  "  Arnaldi  Ossati 
in  disputationem  Jaeobi  Carpentarii  de  methodo  "  (4°, 
Paris,  1564)  and  "Arnaldi  Ossati  additio  ad  exposi- 
tionem  de  methodo"  (Paris,  1564). 

D'Arconville,  Vie  du  cardinal  d'Ossat  (Paris,  1771);  Degert, 
Le  cardinal  d'Ossat,  Mque  de  Rennes  et  de  Bayeux  {1537-1604) 
(Paris,  1894).  AntOINE   DegERT. 

Ossory,  Diocese  of  (Ossohiensis),  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Leinster,  Ireland,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 


OSSORT 


343 


OSSORY 


the  Suir,  on  the  east  by  the  Barrow,  on  the  west  by  sail  (1118)  the  limits  of  the  diocese  were  permanently 

Tipperary  and  King's  County,  and  on  the  north  by  fixed  substantially  as  they  have  since  remained.     At 

Queen's  County.     It  has  an  area  of  600,000  acres,  the  same  time  the  see  was  transferred  from  Seir-Kieran 

and  corresponds  geographically  with  the  ancient  King-  to  Aghaboe  (see  Canice,  S.^int),  but  at  the  end  of  the 

dom.  of  Ossory,   whose  first   king,   Aengus  Osrithe,  twelfth  century  it  was  transferred  to  Kilkenny,  where 

flourished  in  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era.  it  has  since  remained.     It  is  probable  that  St.  Canice 


His  successors  extended 
their  boundaries  to  in- 
clude part  of  Tipperary. 
In  the  fifth  century  the 
neighbouring  tribe  of  the 
Deisi,  aided  by  the  Corca- 
Laighde,  conquered  South 
Ossory,  and  for  over  a 
century  the  Corca-Laigh- 
de  chiefs  ruled  in  place  of 
the  dispossessed  Ossory 
chiefs.  Early  in  the  sev- 
enth century  the  ancient 
chiefs  recovered  much  of 
their  lost  possessions,  the 
foreigners  were  overcome, 
and  the  descendants  of 
Aengus  ruled  once  more. 
One  of  the  greatest  was 
Carroll,  prominent  in  the 
ninth  century  and  distin- 
guished in  the  Danish 
wars. 

Ossory  had  been  Chris- 
tianized long  before  this. 
St.  Kieran,  its  apostle,  now 
the  patron  of  the  diocese. 


Ul 

i 

-1— ^ 

1 

1 

i 

m 

m 

St.  M,\ry's  Cathedral,  Kilkenny 


was  born  about  the  fourth  century  at  a  place  now 
known  as  St.  Kieran's  Strand,  near  Cape  Clear,  and 
was  probably  converted  to  the  Faith  by  foreign  trad- 
ers. According  to  the  tradition,  he  went  to  Rome  and 
was  there  ordained  priest  and  bishop.  Having  met 
St.  Patrick,  St.  Kieran  received  from  him  a  bell  with 
the  charge  to  return 
to  Ireland  and  found 
a  monastery  on  the 
spot  where  the  bell 
should  first  sound. 
When  the  saint  had 
passed  beyond  Os- 
sory, and  was  de- 
scending the  western 
slopes  of  Slieve 
Bloom,  the  bell  at 
length  sounded;  and 
here  St .  K  ieran  estab- 
hshed  tlie  monastery 
of  Seir-Kieran,  thi 
centre  from  whu  li 
Ossory  was  evang(  1- 
ized.  St.  Patrick 
also  visited  Ossory 
and  preached  and 
founded  churches 
there.  There  is  some 
difficulty  in  accept- 
ing the  story  of  St. 
Kieran  having 
preached  before  St. 
Patrick,     since     the 


founded  a  monastery  at 
Kilkenny,  and  not  unlikely 
that  the  beginnings  of  a 
town  soon  appeared  there, 
to  become  more  important 
when  the  bishops  changed 
from  Aghaboe.  Kilkenny 
also  became  the  residence 
of  Marshall,  Earl  of  Pem- 
broke, Strongbow's  heir 
and  descendant,  by  whom 
Kilkenny  Castle  was  built. 
Before  the  fourteenth 
century  Marshall's  in- 
heritance passed  to  the 
Butlers,  and  under  them 
Kilkenny  became  great.  It 
was  made  up  of  an  Irish 
and  an  English  town,  each 
with  a  charter,  and  each, 
until  ISOO,  returning  two 
members  to  the  Irish  Par- 
liament. The  united  towns 
were  incorporated  by  a 
charter  from  Elizabeth, 
and  by  a  further  charter 
from  James  I,  as  a  free  city, 


former  is  said  to  have  flourished  in  the  sixth  century. 
It  is,  however,  certain  that  St.  Kieran  laboured  in 
Ossory.  In  the  centuries  following  the  newly-con- 
verted kingdom  was  ruled  from  Seir-Kieran  by  the 
abbots.     They  had  other  monasteries  subject  to  them. 


with  a  mayor.  The  city  still  returns  a  member  to  the 
Imperial  Parliament.  The  Butlers,  ennobled  as  Earls 
and  Dukes  of  Ormonde,  have  always  interested  them- 
selves in  its  welfare.  These  powerful  nobles  were 
sometimes  charged  with  the  government  of  Ireland; 
not  infrequently  Kilkenny  was  the  residence  of  the 
viceroy  and  saw  a 
Parliament  sitting 
within  its  walls,  and 
there  the  Statute  of 
Kilkenny  was  passed 
(13G7).  The  Or- 
mondes were  always 
favourable  to  Anglo- 
Norman  develop- 
ment at  Kilkenny, 
and  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  thirteenth 
century  no  Irisliman 
was  appointed  to  the 
See  of  Ossory.  In 
the  reign  of  Bishop 
Hugh  De  Rous  (1202 
-15J  the  cathedral  of 
St.  Canice  was  built. 
Two  subsequent 
bishops,  De  Mapil- 
ton  (1251-60)  and 
Thomas  Barry 
(1427-60),  filled  the 
oflice  of  treasurer 
of  Ireland,  while 
another,  Richard  De 


of  Ossorj'.  Co.  Kilkenny,  Iri 


Northalis  (1387-95),  acted  as  the  King's  ambassa- 
dor abroad.  At  the  Reformation,  though  the  Earls 
of  Ormonde  were  among  the  first  to  conform,  Ossory 
clung  to  the  Faith;  and  when  John  Bale  was  appointed 
bishop  by  Edward  VI,  and  endeavoured  to  Protestant- 


and  probably  other  bishops,  and  perhaps  were  not  ize  the  people,  he  was  roughly  handled  and  driven 

always  bishops  themselves,  though  at  Seir-Kieran,  as  from  Kilkenny,  leaving  Ossory  in  peace.     The  peace 

at  lona,  there  was  always  a  bishop.    Their  jurisdiction  ended  with  the  death  of  Mary,  and  in  Elizabeth's 

was  tribal  rather  than  territorial,  and  hence  the  dio-  reign  the  see  was  vacant  for  seventeen  years.     From 

cese  was  enlarged  or  contracted  as  the  fortunes  of  the  1602  to  1618  Ossory  was  again  without  a  bishop,  and 

Ossory  chiefs  rose  or  fell.     At  the  synod  of  Rathbrea-  when  Dr.  Rothe  was  appointed  (1620)  there  waa  not  a 


OSTENSORIUM 


344 


OSTENSORIUM 


Catholic  bislinp  in  Iroland.  In  tho  rebellion  of  1641 
Kilkenny  was  the  centre  of  national  resistance  and 
till'  liea(j(iuaiters  of  the  Catholic  Confederation.  The 
part  played  by  Dr.  Hothe  was  prominent  and  patri- 
otic; l)Ml  his  best  efforts  were  unavailinn.  for  Ormonde 
was  able  to  foment  divisions,  the  Anglo-Irish  and  the 
old  Irish  would  not  blend  for  the  comnioii  Kood,  and 
the  want  of  vigour  in  Catholic  counsels  prepared  the 
way  for  Ormonde's  treachery  and  Cromwell's  victo- 
ries. While  the  Croinwellians  held  K'lkenny.  Hothe 
died  there  (!().")()),  and  for  twenty  years  following 
( ).ssory  was  governed  by  vicars.  During  t  he  few  periods 
of  toleration  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II  a  feeble  revival 
of  religion  took  place.  In  1G7S  the  bishop  reported 
to  Home,  that  in  many  cases 
one  priest  was  in  charge  of  five 
or  six  parishes;  that  the  few  n  - 
maining  Franciscans,  Domini- 
cans, Jesuits,  and  Cainiehin.- 
ministered  by  stealth  and  in 
ruined  churches;  and  that  the 
Carmelites,  Cistercians,  and 
Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augus- 
tine had  completely  disap- 
peared. 

In  the  penal  times  Ossor\ 
suffered  much,  but  its  faith 
survived,  and  when  toleration 
came  it  was  ruled  by  an  exccii- 
tional  man,  De  Burgo  (17511 
86).  Equally  capable  was  his 
successor,  Troy  (1777-St)l, 
subsequently  Archbishop  of 
Dubhn.  To  understand  his 
praise  of  Ceorge  III,  his  friend- 
ship with  the  viceroy  and  with 
Luttrell,  son  of  the  infamous 
Lord  Carhami)ton,  we  must 
make  allowance  for  the  timer- 
in  which  he  lived.  He  acted 
from  no  personal  motive,  but 
for  the  good  of  the  Church,  for 
he  was  zealous  in  propagating 
the  Faith  and  enforcing  discip- 
line. He  was  among  the  first 
of  the  Irish  bishops  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  relaxation  (jf 
the  penal  laws  and  set  u))  a 
college  for  his  diocese  by  the 
purchase  of  Burrell's  Hall,  Kil- 
kenny-. Two  of  its  first  staff 
became  his  successors.  Dr. 
Dunne  (1787-89)  and  Dr. 
Lanigan  (1789-1812).  Under 
the  latter  the  college  at  Bur- 
rell's Hall  was  transferred  to 
more  suitable  premises  and  its 

curriculum  extended.     It  was  ''""'''',""''' 

not  until  the  episcopate  of  Dr.  aThi^lrai    n  a-nn 

Kinsella  that  a  diocesan  college  worthy  of  Ossory  was 
founded.  In  1836  the  foundation  stone  of  St.  Kieran's 
College,  Kilkenny,  was  laid  and  two  years  later  the  col- 
lege was  opened  for  students.  Dr.  Kinsella  also  aided 
his  priests  to  build  several  parochial  churches.  He  laid 
the  foundation  stone  of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Mary  in 
1843,  though  the  exterior  was  not  finished  until  1857, 
nor  solenmly  consecrated  until  1899.  Dr.  Walsh 
(184(5-72}  succeeded  Dr.  Kinsella,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Dr.  Moran,  now  (1911)  Cardinal  Archbishop  of 
Sydney.  Dr.  Moran  was  succeeded,  in  1884,  by  Dr. 
Brow-nrigg,  a  native  of  Carlow.  Educated  at  May- 
nooth,  Dr.  Brownrigg  displayed  unusual  ability,  was 
ordained  priest  in  1861,  and  was  .subsequently  profes- 
sor at  St .  Peter's  College,  Wexford,  and  superior  of  the 
House  of  Missions  at  Enni-scorthy. 

No  diocese  in  Ireland  is  more  interesting  than  Os- 
sory for  historical  and  antiquarian  remains.     There 


are  the  relics  of  old  churches  iissociated  with  the  lives 
and  acts  of  tlu-  early  Irish  saints,  such  as  lho.se  of  Seir- 
Kieran  and  .Xghaboe.  There  are  round  towers,  Nor- 
man casllcs,  and  holy  wells,  ratlis  and  mounds,  an- 
cient forts,  cromlechs,  and  pillar  stones.  In  the  parish 
of  Danesfiirt  is  Bunichurcli  castle,  in  Durrow  the  cas- 
tle of  Cullaliill.  There  arc  the  ruins  of  Kells  I'riory 
and  of  liiistioge,  the  Dominican  priory  of  Hosebercon, 
and  tho  Cistercian  abbey  of  .Jerpoint.  Kilkenny  C;ustlc 
is  an  interesting  rchc  of  history,  and  near  by  arc  the 
remains  of  the  Franciscan  abbey,  the  Black  Abbey, 
and  St.  John's  priory.  The  number  of  distinguished 
men  connected  with  the  diocese  is  large.  Clyn  and 
Grace,  the  annalists,  were  both  of  Kilkenny.  Hothe 
was  not  only  a  imblic  man,  but 
an  author  of  eminence.  De 
Burgo's  work  on  the  Irish  Domi- 
nicans Ls  still  an  essential  book 
for  Irish  historians.  Other 
famous  men  arc:  James  But- 
ler, .\rchbishop  of  Cashel, 
author  of  "Butler's  Cate- 
chism"; Dr.  JNIinogue,  Bishop 
of  Sacramento ;  Dr.  Ireland, 
.\rchbishop  of  St.  Paul's;  Dr. 
O'Reilly,  Archbishop  of  Ade- 
laide; Dr.  John  O' Donovan; 
Dr.  Kelly,  for  many  years  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  history 
at  Maynooth;  Dr.  O'Hanlon, 
theological  professor  in  the 
same  college;  Dr.  MacDonald, 
his  successor;  and  Dr.  Car- 
rigan,  whose  "History  of  Os- 
sory" is  the  most  complete 
historyof  any  Irish  diocese.  In 
1910  the  diocese  contained:  41 
pari-shes;  36  parish  priests;  5 
administrators;  5S  curates;  11 
regulars  (a  total  of  119  priests); 
96  churches;  1  college;  4  houses 
(>(  regulars;  lu  convents;  4 
houses  of  Christian  Brothers. 
In  1901  the  Catholic  popula- 
tion was  83,519;  the  non-Cath- 
olic, 6029. 

Mf)RAN.  Spicilegium  Ossoriense 
(I)ul.lin.  1S74-S4I;  Carrigan,  His- 
tni-)/ iiii'l  Anttriuilir.^  of  the  Diocese  of 
O.siuri/  (I)uliliii,  r.«l.'>);  Lanigan,  £c- 
rlr.^iasticul  lliatory  of  Ireland  (Dublin, 
1SJ2);  Healv,  Life  and  Writings  of 
.S/.  Patrick  (Dublin,  1905);  Moban, 
Aiinlecta  of  Dand  Rathe  (Dublin, 
1SS4):  Gilbert,  History  of  Irish 
Affairs  (Dublin,  1880);  O'Donovan. 
iMl.,  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters  (Dub- 
lin, 1860);  Weehan,  Confederation 
.//  Kilkenny  (Dublin,  1882);  Idem, 
Irish  Hierarchy  in  the  Seventeenth 
Century  (Dublin,  1872);  Rinuccini, 
Embassy  in  Ireland,  tr.  HcTTON 
(Dublin,  1873) ;  Grace,  Annals  (Dub- 
lin. 1842);  Clyn,  Annals  (Dublin,  1849);  Harris,  Ware  (Dub- 
lin 1764)'  Carte,  Li/e  of  James,  Duke  of  Ormonde:  HabdimaN, 
Statute  of  Kilkenny  (T>uh\\rt.  1843);  Utokss.  Lives  of  the  Saxnls 
from  the  Book  of  Lismore  (Oxford.  1890);  Brady.  Episcopal 
Succession  (Rome.  1867);  Murphy,  Cromwell  in  Ireland  (Dub- 
lin, 1871);  Prenderoast,  CromweUian  Settlement  (Dublin,  1875); 
Catholic  Directory  for  1910. 

E.  A.  D  Alton. 

Ostensorium  (from  ostendere,  "to  show")  means, 
in  accordance  with  its  etymology,  a  ve.ssel  designed 
for  the  more  convenient  exhibition  of  some  object  of 
piety.  Both  the  name  ostensorium  and  the  kindred 
word  moiislrance  (monslrancia,  from  monslrare)  were 
originally  applied  to  all  kinds  of  vessels  of  goldsmith's 
or  silversmith's  work  in  which  glass,  crystal,  etc.  were 
so  employed  as  to  allow  the  contents  to  be  readily  dis- 
tinguished, whether  the  object  thus  honoured  were  the 
Sacred  Host  itself  or  only  the  relic  of  some  saint. 
Modern  usage,  at  any  rate  so  far  as  the  English  lan- 


XVIII 


.  Paris 


OSTENSORIUM 


345 


OSTENSORIITM 


guage  is  concerned,  has  limited  both  terms  to  vessels 
intended  for  the  exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
and  it  is  in  this  sense  only  that  we  use  ostensorium 
here. 

It  is  plain  that  the  introduction  of  ostensoria  must 
have  been  posterior  to  the  period  at  which  the  prac- 
tice of  exposing  the  Blessed  Sacrament  or  carrying  it 
in  procession  first  became  familiar  in  the  Church. 
This  (as  may  be  seen  from  the  articles  Benediction 
or  THE  Blessed  Sacr.4.ment,  Corpus  Christi,  and 
F^xposiTioN  OP  the  Blessed  Sacrament)  cannot  be 
assigned  to  an  earlier  date  than  the  thirteenth  century. 
At  the  same  time,  Lanfranc's  constitutions  for  the 
monks  of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury  (c.  1070),  direct 
that  in  the  Palm  Suntlay  procession  two  priests  vested 
in  albs  should  carry  a  portable  shrine  (feretrum)  "in 
which  also  the  Body  of  the  Lord  ought  to  be  depcs- 
ited".  Although  there  is  here  no  suggestion  that  the 
Host  should  be  exposed  to  view,  but  rather  the  con- 
trary, still  we  find  that  this  English  custom  led,  in  at 
least  one  instance,  to  the  construction  of  an  elabo- 
rately decorated  shrine  for  the  carrying  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  on  this  special  occasion.  Simon,  Abbot  of 
St.  Albans  (1166-S.3),  presented  to  the  abbeya  costly 
ark -shaped  vessel  adorned  with  enamels  representing 
scenes  of  the  Passion,  which  was  to  be  used  on  Palm 
Sunday  "that  the  faithful  might  see  with  what  honour 
the  most  holy  IJody  of  Christ  should  be  treated  which 
at  this  season  offered  itself  to  be  scourged,  crucified 
and  Ijuried"  ("Gesta  Abbatuni",  Rolls  Series,  I,  191- 
92).  That  this,  however,  was  in  any  proper  sense  an 
ostensorium  in  which  the  Host  was  exposed  to  view  is 
not  stated  and  cannot  be  assumed.  At  the  same  time 
it  is  highly  probable  that  such  ostensoria  in  the  strict 
sense  liegan  to  be  constructed 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
there  are  some  vessels  still  in 
existence — for  example,  an 
octagonal  monstrance  at  Bari, 
bearing  the  words  "Hie  Cor- 
pus Domini" — which  may 
very  well  belong  to  that  date. 
A  large  number  of  medieval 
ostensoria  have  been  figured 
by  Cahier  and  Martin  (Me- 
langes Arch(^ologiques,  I  and 
VII)  and  by  other  authorities, 
and  though  it  is  often  difficult 
to  distinguish  between  simple 
r<'liqu:ines  and  vessels  in- 
tended for  the  exposition  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament,  a  cer- 
tain line  of  development  may 
be  traced  in  the  evolution  of 
these  latter.  Father  Cahier 
suggests  with  some  probabil- 
ity (Melanges,  VII,  271)  that 
while  at  fiist  the  ciborium  it- 
self was  employed  for  carry- 
ing the  Blessed  Sacrament  in 
processions,  etc.,  the  sides  of 
the  cup  of  the  ciborium  were 
at  first  prolonged  by  a  cylinder 
of  crystal  or  glass,  and  the  or- 
dinary cover  superimposed. 
Such  a  vessel  might  have 
served  for  either  purpose,  viz., 
OsTENsoRiTTM — GERMAN  either  for  giving  Communion 
Gold.smith's  Work  qj  f^j.  carrying  the  Host 
visibly  in  procession.  Soon, 
however,  the  practice  of  exposition  became  sufficiently 
common  to  seem  to  require  an  ostensorium  for 
that  express  object,  and  for  this  the  upright  cylin- 
drical vessel  of  crystal  was  at  first  retained,  often 
with  supports  of  an  architectural  character  and  with 
tabernacle  work,  niches,  and  statues.  In  the  central 
cylinder  a  large  Host  was  placed,  being  kept  upright 


by  being  held  in  a  lunette  (q.  v.)  constructed  for  the 
purpose.  Many  medieval  monstrances  of  this  type 
are  still  in  existence.  Soon,  however,  it  became  clear 
that  the  ostensorium  could  be  better  adapted  to  the 
object  of  drawing  all  eyes  to  the  Sacred  Host  itself  by 
making  the  transpar- 
ent portion  of  the  ves- 
sel just  of  the  size 
required,  and  sur- 
rounded, like  the  sun, 
with  rays.  Mon- 
strances of  this  shape, 
dating  from  the  fif- 
teenth century,  are 
also  not  uncommon, 
and  for  several  hun- 
dred years  past  this 
has  been  by  far  the 
commonest  form  in 
practical  use. 

Of  course  the  adop- 
tion of  ostensoria  for 
processions  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament 
was  a  gradual  process, 
and,  if  we  may  trust 
the  miniatures  found 
in  the  hturgical  books 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
Sacred  Host  was  often 
carried  on  such  occa- 
sions in  a  closed  cibo- 
rium. An  early  ex- 
ample of  a  special 
vessel  constructed  for 
this  purpose  is  a  gift 
made  by  Archbishop 
Robert  Courtney,  an 
Englishman  by  birth, 
who  died  in  1324,  to 
his    cathedral   church 

of  Reims.      He  be-    

queathed  with  other  j^^^^  Ostensorium  (XV  Century) 
ornaments      a    golden  Basilica  of  St.  Ambrose,  Milan 

cross  set  with  precious 

stones  and  having  a  crystal  in  the  middle,  in  which  is 
placed  the  Body  of  Christ,  and  is  carried  in  procession 
upon  the  feast  of  the  most  holy  Sacrament. "  In  a 
curious  instance  mentioned  by  Bergner  (Handbuchd. 
Kirch.  Kunstaltertiimer  in  Deutschland,  356)  a  casket 
constructed  in  1205  at  Augsburg,  to  hold  a  miraculous 
Host  from  which  blood  had  trickled,  had  an  aperture 
bored  in  it  more  than  a  century  later  to  allow  the  Host 
to  be  seen.  Very  probably  a  similar  plan  was  some- 
times adopted  with  vessels  which  are  more  strictly 
Eucharistic.  Early  medieval  inventories  often  allow 
us  to  form  an  idea  of  the  rapid  extension  of  the  use  of 
monstrances.  In  the  inventories  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury they  are  seldom  or  never  mentioned,  but  in  the 
fifteenth  century  they  have  become  a  feature  in  all 
larger  churches.  Thus  at  St.  Paul's,  London,  in  1245 
and  1298  we  find  no  mention  of  anything  like  an  osten- 
sorium, but  in  1402  we  have  record  of  the  "cross  of 
crystal  to  put  the  Body  of  Christ  in  and  to  carry  it 
upon  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  and  at  Easter".  At 
Durham  we  hear  of  "a  goodly  shrine  ordained  to  be 
carried  on  Corpus  Christi  day  in  procession,  and  called 
'Corpus  Christi  Shrine',  all  finely  gilded,  a  goodly 
thing  to  behold,  and  on  the  height  of  the  said  shrine 
was  a  four-square  box  all  of  crystal  wherein  was  en- 
closed the  Holy  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  and  it  was 
carried  the  same  day  with  iiij  priests"  (Rites  of  Dur- 
ham, c.  Ivi).  But  in  the  greater  English  churches  a 
preference  seems  to  have  been  shown,  connected  no 
doubt  with  the  cerenionial  of  the  Easter  sepulchre,  for 
a  form  of  monstrance  which  reproduced  the  figure  of 
Our  Lord,  the  Sacred  Host  being  inserted  behind  a 


OSTIA 


346 


OSTIA 


crystal  door  in  the  breast.  This,  at  any  rate,  was  the 
civse,  i.  c.  in  tlie  Lincoln,  Salisbury,  and  other  famous 
cathedrals.  These  statues,  however,  for  the  exposi- 
tion of  the  Blessed  luioharist  seem  to  have  been  of 
comparatively  late  date.  On  the  continent,  and  more 
particularly  in  Spain,  a  fnsliion  seems  to  have  been  in- 
troduced in  the  sixteenth  century  of  constructing  o.s- 
tensoria  of  enormous  size,  standing  six,  seven,  or  even 
ten.  feet  in  heiglit,  and  weighing  many  hundreds  of 
pounds.  Of  course  it  was  necessary  that  in  such  cases 
tlie  shrine  in  which  the  Blessed  Sacrament  was  more 
immediately  contained  should  be  detachable,  so  that 
it  could  be  used  for  giving  benediction.  The  great 
monstrance  of  the  cathedral  of  Toledo,  which  is  more 
than  twelve  feet  high,  and  the  construction  of  which 
occupied  in  all  more  than  100  years,  is  adorned  with 
260  statuettes,  one  of  the  largest  of  which  is  said  to  be 
made  of  the  gold  brought  by  Columbus  from  the  New 
^^•orld. 

In  the  language  of  the  older  liturgical  manuals,  the 
ostensorium  is  not  infrequently  called  tabernaculum, 
and  it  is  under  that  name  that  a  special  blessing  is  pro- 
vided for  it  in  the  "Pontificale  Romanum".  Several 
other  designations  are  also  in  use,  of  which  the  com- 
monest is  perhaps  cuslodin,  though  this  is  also  spe- 
ciall}-  applied  to  the  sort  of  transparent  pyx  in  which  the 
Sacred  Host  is  immediately  secured.  In  Scotland, 
before  the  Reformation,  an  ostensorium  was  com- 
monly called  a  "eucharist",  in  England  a  "monstre" 
or  "monstral".  The  orb  and  rays  of  a  monstrance 
should  at  least  be  of  silver  or  silver  gilt,  and  it  is  rec- 
ommended that  it  should  be  surmounted  by  a  cross. 

An  excellent  chapter  in  Corblet,  Hisloire  du  Sacrement  de 
I'Eucharislie,  II  (Paris.  18S2),  gives  a  general  account  with  a  de- 
scription of  many  famous  ostensoria.  Schrod  in  Kirchenlexikon, 
s.  V.  Monsiram;  Raible,  Der  Tabernakel  einsi  und  jelzt  (Freiburg, 
1908);  Thurston,  Bmediclion  of  the  Ble.^-<  I  ^,  ,.,  -■  in  The 
Month  (July.  1901);  Otte,  Handbuch  der  Air-  -  ;,  \rchd- 

o/oeie.  I  (Leipzig,  1883),  208-10;  Martin  A.     '  \l.l-i„aes 

archeologiques,  I.  VII  (Paris.  1847-75);  Km-i  .-,  A  ■ .  K,-„t„i,ie 
chritienne,  II.  334  sqq.;  Barrier  de  Montault.  Les  o.^tensoires 
du  XIV'  Steele  en  Limousin  in  the  Congres  Arckeoiog.  de  France, 
1879,  555-590.  See  also  articles  too  numerous  to  specify  in  detail 
in  the  Revue  de  VArl  ChrHien  and  the  Zeitschrift  fUr  christliche 
Kunst,  where  many  excellent  reproductions  of  medieval  mon- 
strances will  be  found.  HERBERT   ThURSTON. 

Ostia  and  Velletri,  Subijrbicarian  Diocese  of 
(OsTiENSis  ET  Veliternensis),  near  Rome,  central 
Italy.  Ostia,  now  a  small  borough,  was  the  ancient 
port  of  Rome,  the  first  Roman  colony  founded  by 
Ancus  Marcius,  chiefly  to  exploit  the  salt  deposits. 
Prior  to  Imperial  times,  it  had  no  harbour,  the  mouth 
of  the  Tiber  affording  the  only  shelter  for  shipping; 
the  Emperor  Claudius,  therefore,  built  an  artificial 
harbour  at  Ostia,  and  Trajan  afterwards  built  a  basin 
there,  and  enlarged  the  canal  by  which  the  harbour 
communicated  with  the  Tiber.  Here  a  new  city 
sprang  up,  called  Portus  Romanus,  which  was  em- 
bellished by  Marcus  Aurelius  and  other  emperors,  and 
connected  with  Rome  by  a  new  way,  the  Via  Portu- 
ensis,  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber.  With  the 
decay  of  the  Empire,  Ostia  and  Portus  decayed,  and 
in  the  tenth  century  the  basin  of  Portus  had  become  a 
marsh.  Between  827  and  844  Gregory  IV  restored 
the  city,  fortified  it  against  the  Saracens,  and  gave  it 
the  name  of  Gregoriopolis. 

Leo  IV  defeated  the  Saracen  fleet  at  Ostia  in  847, 
and  stretched  a  chain  across  the  Tiber.  Ostia  was 
afterwards  fortified  by  Cardinal Ugolino  (Gregory  IX), 
by  Cardinal  Giuliano  della  Rovere  (Julius  II),  and  by 
Paul  III,  while  Paul  V,  in  1612,  reopened  the  basin 
north  of  the  Tiber.  Excavations  at  Ostia  were  begun 
under  Pius  VII;  they  disclosed  the  forum,  a  theatre, 
three  temples,  the  sanctuaries  of  Mithra  and  of  the 
Magna  Mater,  the  emporium,  and  a  great  many  in- 
scriptions. 

Not  counting  St.  Cyriacus,  martyr,  and  Maximus 
the  bishop  who,  according  to  the  Acts  of  St.  Laurence, 
consecrated  Pope  Dionysius  in  269,  the  first  Bishop 


of  Ostia  was  Maximus,  a.  d.  313.  We  know  from  St. 
Augustine  that  the  Bishop  of  Ostia  sometimes  con- 
secrated the  ))()!)(■.  St.  Monica  (q.  v.)  died  at  Ostia, 
and  was  buried  in  tlie  church  of  St.  Aurea,  though  her 
body  w:is  tr:iMsfcn'cd,  later,  to  Rome.  The  great 
lK)spil;d  wliicli  St.  Gallicanus  built  at  Ostia  w;is  a 
noted  estalilisluucnt.  As  early  as  707,  the  Bi.sliop  of 
()sti:i  ri'sidcd  :it  Home,  holding  the  office  of  liihliolhe- 
{■nnns  xiiiuiir  i rii< xi{r.  The  popes  later  on  employed 
tlic'in  in  the  iidininistration  of  the  Llniversal  Church, 
especially  in  legations.  They  were  among  the  bishops 
who  took  turns  in  exercising  the  pontifical  functions 
during  vacancies  of  the  Holy  See,  and  who  became 
known  as  episcopi  cardinalcs,  or  "cardinal  bishops". 
Among  the  Bishops  of  Ostia  were  Georgius,  who  in  755 
accomiKuiieil  Stephen  III  to  France;  Donatus,  who 
was  sent  by  Nicholas  I  to  Constantinople  in  866  to 
deal  with  the  case  of  Photius,  but  was  stopped  at  the 
Byzantine  frontier.  In  869  this  Donatus  was  head  of 
the  legation  to  the  Council  of  Constantinople  and  to 
Bulgaria.  Others  were:  Blessed  Gregory  (1037);  St. 
Peter  Daraian  (1058);  Gerard  of  Chatillon  (1072)  and 
Otho  of  ChAtillon  (Lirban  II)  (1077),  who  served  as 
legates  on  various  occasions,  and  were  both  imprisoned 
by  Henry  IV;  Leo  Marsicanus,  also  called  Ostiensis 
(1101),  the  chronicler;  Lambert  Faganini  (1117) 
(Honorius  II);  Alberic  (1135),  legate  in  the  Holy 
Land,  where  he  presided  over  the  Council  of  Jerusalem, 
and  also  in  England  and  France.  Hugo  (11.50)  was 
the  first  to  bear  the  double  title  of  Ostia  and  Velletri. 

Velletri  (Velitra)  is  an  ancient  city  of  the  Volscians, 
which,  in  494  b.  c,  became  a  Latin  colony,  but  re- 
volted in  393,  and  was  among  the  first  of  Rome's  ene- 
mies in  the  Latin  War,  for  which  reason,  in  338,  the 
walls  of  the  town  were  destroyed,  while  its  inhabitants 
were  taken  to  Rome  to  peopie  the  Trastevere,  their 
lands  being  distributed  among  colonists.  Velletri 
was  the  home  of  the  family  of  Augustus.  In  its  later 
history,  the  battle  of  Velletri  (1744)  is  famous.  The 
cemetery  near  the  Villa  Borgia  shows  the  great  an- 
tiquity of  Christianity  in  this  region.  The  first  known 
Bishop  of  Velletri  was  Adeodatus  (about  464); 
Joannes,  in  592,  was  entrusted  by  Gregory  the  Great 
with  the  care  of  the  Diocese  of  Tres  Tabernoe  (Three 
Taverns),  now  Cisterna  (see  Albano).  From  the 
eighth  century,  Velletri  again  had  bishops  of  its  own; 
of  whom  the  last  recorded  was  Joannes  (868).  An- 
other see,  united  with  Velletri,  is  that  of  Norma 
(Norba);  its  territory  is  a  deserted,  malarial  country; 
only  one  of  its  bishops,  who  lived  in  the  tenth  century, 
is  known.  Other  bishops  of  Velletri,  before  the  union 
of  the  sees,  were  Gaudiosus  (Gaudericus),  one  of  the 
legates  to  the  Council  of  Constantinople  (869),  and 
Joannes,  who,  in  1058,  usurped  the  pontifical  Throne, 
under  the  name  of  Benedict  X. 

Among  the  successors  of  Hugo  in  the  united  sees 
were  Ubaldo  Allucingoh  (Lucius  III);  UgoUno  de' 
Conti,  1206  (Gregory  IX);  Rinaldo  de'  Conti  (Alex- 
ander IV);  Petrus  a  Tarantasia,  O.P.,  1272  (Innocent 
V);  Latino  Malabranca  Orsini  (1278),  a  great  states- 
man and  diplomat;  Nicold  Boccasino,  O.P.  (Benedict 
XI);  Nicolo  da  Prato,  the  pacifier  of  Tuscany  (1304). 
During  the  Avignon  period,  all  the  bishops  of  Ostia 
were  Frenchmen,  residing  at  Avignon  or  serving  as 
legates;  the  most  famous  of  them  was  Pierre  d'Etain 
(1373),  who  persuaded  Urban  V  to  go  to  Rome. 
During  the  schism,  each  of  the  rival  popes  appointed 
a  Bishop  of  Ostia.  Among  the  legitimate  bishops 
may  be  mentioned  William  of  Estouteville  (1461), 
who  built  the  episcopal  palace;  Giuliano  della  Rovere 
(Julius  II);  Alessandro  Farnese,  1.524  (Paul  III); 
Gian  Pietro  Carafa,  1534  (Paul  IV);  Alessandro  Far- 
nese (1580),  who  restored  the  cathedral;  Antonio  M. 
Sauli  (1623),  founder  of  a  Basilian  monastery;  Do- 
menico  Ginnasio  (1683),  who  restored  the  cathedral 
and  founded  a  hospital  at  Ostia;  Bartholommeo  Pacca 
(q.  v.);  Louis  Micara  (1844). 


OSTIARIUS 


347 


OSTROGOTHS 


The  united  dioceses  have  16  parishes,  with  34,000 
inhabitants,  5  religious  houses  of  men  and  5  of  nuns, 
1  educational  establishment  for  male  students,  and 
3  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  I;  Borgia,  Istoria  della  Chiesa 
eciUadi  Vdlctri  (Nocera,  1723). 

U.  Benigni. 
Ostiarius.     See  Porter. 

Ostiensis.    See  Henry  of  Segtisio,  Blessed. 

Ostiensis,  surname  of  Leo  Marsicantjs,  Benedic- 
tine chronicler,  b.  about  1045;  d.  22  May,  1115,  1116, 
or  1117.  He  belonged  to  an  old  noble  family,  and  at 
the  age  of  fourteen  entered  Monte  Cassino,  where  his 
talents  soon  won  him  the  regard  of  Abbot  Desiderius, 
later  Pope  Victor  III.  Desitlerius  entrusted  his  edu- 
cation to  the  future  Cardinal  Aldemar.  On  the  com- 
pletion of  his  studies,  Ostiensis  became  librarian  and 
archivist  of  the  monastery,  and,  as  such,  his  main 
task  was  to  settle,  in  accordance  with  the  exi.sting  doc- 
uments, all  disputes  concerning  landed  property  in 
which  the  monastery  became  involved.  Abbot  Oderi- 
sius,  who  succeeded  Desiderius,  urged  Ostiensis  to 
write  a  history  of  the  monastery,  but,  on  account  of 
his  numerous  duties,  he  was  unable  to  give  himself  en- 
tirely to  the  work.  Paschal  II  created  him  Cardinal 
Bishop  of  Ostia.  In  the  conflict  between  the  pope  and 
Henry  V,  Ostiensis  vigorously  defended  the  papacy. 
His  unfinished  chronicle,  originally  called  "Legenda 
gancti  Bencdicti  longa",  treats  the  period  between  529 
and  1075;  Petrus  Diaconus  continued  it  to  1139. 
Trustworthy  and  impartial,  the  chronicle  is  a  valuable 
mine  of  information  for  the  history  of  Lower  Italy,  but 
as  the  documents  on  which  the  narrative  rests  are  still 
extant,  it  has  no  special  importance  for  our  knowledge 
of  the  time.  It  was  first  edited  under  the  title, 
"Chronica  sacri  monasterii  Casinensis  auctore  Leone 
cardinali  episcopo  Ostiensi",  by  Abbot  Angelus  de 
Nuce  (Paris,  166S);  then  by  Wattenbach  in  "Monu- 
menta  Germania;:  Scriptores",  VII,  574-727,  and 
Migne  in  "P.  L.",  CLXXIII,  479-763.  Ostiensis  has 
left  several  lesser  works:  "Narratio  de  consecratione 
ecclesiarum  a  Desiderio  et  Oderisio  in  Monte  Casino 
sedificatarum"  (P.  L.,  CLXXIII,  997-1002),  and 
"Vita  sancti  Mennatis  eremitse  et  confessoris"  (edited 
In  part,  P.  L.,  CLXXIII,  989-92). 

GATTnLA.  Hist,  abbatia  Casinensis  (Veoice,  1733),  879;  Pott- 
hast,  Bibl.  hist,  medii  mi,  I  (Berlin,  1896),  718;  Wattenbach, 
DeiUschlands  GeschichtsqueUen,  II  (Berlin.  1894),  236-8. 

Patricius  Schlager. 

Ostracine,  titular  see  and  suffragan  of  Pelusium  in 
Augustamnica  prima.  Pliny  (Hist,  naturalis,  V,  xiv) 
places  the  town  sixty-five  miles  from  Pelusium.  Ptol- 
emy (IV,  v,  6)  locates  it  in  Cassiotis,  between  Mount 
Cassius  and  Rhinocolura.  We  learn  from  Josephus 
("Bellum  Jud.",  IV,  xi,  5)  that  Vespasian  stopped 
there  with  his  army  on  the  way  from  Egypt  into  Pales- 
tine; the  city  then  had  no  ramparts.  It  received  its 
water  from  the  Delta  by  a  canal.  A  Roman  garrison 
was  stationed  there.  Hierocles,  George  of  Cyprus, 
and  other  geographers  always  mention  it  as  in  Au- 
gustamnica. Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus,  II,  545) 
speaks  of  three  bishops,  Theoctistus,  Serapion,  and 
Abraham,  who  lived  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries. 
There  is  at  present  in  this  region,  near  the  sea,  a  small 
town  called  Straki,  which  probably  replaced  Ostracine. 

Am^lineau,  La  Glographie  de  VEgypte  d  I'ipogue  copte  (Paris, 
1893),  288. 

S.  Vailhe. 

Ostraka,  Chrlstian,  inscriptions  on  clay,  wood, 
metal,  and  other  hard  materials.  Like  papyri,  they  are 
valuable  esi)ecially  as  the  literary  sources  for  early 
Christianity.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  Oriental  coun- 
tries, especially  Egypt.  The  greatest  number  are 
pieces  of  clay  or  scraps  of  pots  inscribed  with  colours 
or  ink.  The  oldest  Christian  ostraka,  like  the  papj-ri, 
are  Greek  and  date  from  the  fifth  century.   Next  come 


the  Coptic  and  Arabian  ostraka.  Some  of  the  texts 
not  yet  deciphered  include  several  Nubian  ostraka  in  a 
language  spoken  in  the  old  Christian  negro-king- 
doms in  the  vicinity  of  Aloa  on  the  Blue  Nile.  In 
these  inscriptions  Greek  letters  are  used,  with  some 
other  signs.  As  to  contents,  ostraka  are  either  profane 
or  ecclesiastical.  Potsherds  were  often  used  for  cor- 
respondence in  place  of  the  less  durable  papyrus;  oc- 
casionally the  recipient  wrote  the  answer  on  the  back 
of  the  potsherd.  Ostraka  were  also  used  for  mercan- 
tile purposes,  as  bills,  receipts,  etc.  C.  M.  Kaufmann 
and  J.  C.  Ewald  Falls,  wliile  excavating  the  town  of 
Menas  in  the  Libyan  desert,  discovered  ostraka  of  this 
class — the  oldest  Christian  potsherds  in  the  Greek  lan- 
guage (fifth  century) — and  H.  J.  Bell  and  F.  G.  Ken- 
yon  of  the  British  Museum  deciphered  them.  They 
refer  to  the  vine-culture  of  the  sanctuaries  of  Menas 
and  represent,  for  the  most  part,  short  vouchers  for 
money  or  provisions.  The  currency  is  based  upon 
gold  solidi  issued  by  Constantine;  the  date  is  reck- 
oned by  the  year  of  indiction.  Of  historical  interest  is 
the  assistance  given  to  invalid  workmen,  the  employ- 
ment of  the  lower  clergy,  the  manner  of  provisioning 
the  workmen,  and  especially  the  statements  about  the 
harvest  periods  in  the  Libyan  district.  The  series  of 
Coptic  ostraka  which  deals  with  the  clergy  and  the 
monasteries  in  the  Nile  valley  is  particularly  extensive. 
We  find  references  to  all  phases  of  administration  and 
popular  life. 

The  ecclesiastical  ostraka,  in  a  narrow  sense,  con- 
tain Biblical  citations  from  the  New  Testament,  pray- 
ers, extracts  from  the  synaxaria  (lives  of  the  saints), 
and  are  partly  of  a  liturgic  character.  Greek,  which 
was  then  the  language  of  the  Church,  is  much  used, 
with  the  Coptic.  Among  the  samples  published  by  W. 
E.  Crum,  the  be.st  judge  of  Coptic  dialects,  there  is  a 
local  confession  of  faith  from  the  sixth  century,  besides 
the  Preface  and  Sanctus  of  the  Mass,  prayers  from  the 
Liturgy  of  St.  Basil  and  of  St.  Mark,  a  part  of  thedidas- 
calia  of  Schentlte  of  Athribis,  a  Greek  confession,  and 
an  excommunication,  also  in  Greek.  Particularly  re- 
markable are  those  ostraka  which  contain  liturgical 
songs.  They  represent  our  present  song-books  for 
which  purpose  rolls  of  papyrus  were  less  suited  than 
the  more  durable  potsherds;  in  some  cases  wooden 
books  were  used.  Among  the  pieces  translated  by 
Crum  we  find  petitions  for  ordination  in  which  the 
petitioner  promises  to  learn  by  heart  one  of  the  Gos- 
pels, and  a  reference  to  an  ancient  abstinence  move- 
ment, against  which  is  directed  a  decree  that  the  con- 
secration-wine should  be  pure  or  at  least  three-fourths 
pure. 

A  complete  collection  of  Greek,  Coptic,  and  Arabic  ostraka 
from  the  beginnings  of  the  Christian  epoch  does  not  exist.  The 
most  important  may  be  found  in  Wilken,  Griechische  Ostraka 
aits  Aegitpten  und  Nubien  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1899) ;  Crum,  Coptic 
Ostraka  from  the  Collections  of  the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund,  the 
Cairo  Museum  and  others  (London,  1902). 

Carl  Maria  Kaufmann. 

Ostrogoths,  one  of  the  two  chief  tribes  of  the 
Goths,  a  Germanic  people.  Their  traditions  relate 
that  the  Goths  originally  lived  on  both  sides  of  the 
Baltic  Sea,  in  Scandinavia  and  on  the  Continent. 
Their  oldest  habitations  recorded  in  history  were  sit- 
uated on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vistula.  They  left 
these,  all  or  in  part,  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century,  and  settled  near  the  Black  Sea,  between  the 
Don  and  Danube.  Thence  they  emerged  frequently  to 
attack  and  pillage  the  cities  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  fought  continuously  with  the  Romans  and  the 
neighbouring  Germanic  tribes.  The  emperor  Decius 
fell  in  battle  with  them  in  251.  Crossing  the  Danube 
into  Thracia  in  269  they  were  defeated  by  Claudius; 
Aurelian  drove  them  back  across  the  Danube  and  gave 
them  Dacia.  We  now  find  the  Ostrogoths  east  of  the 
River  Dniester,  and  the  Visigoths  to  the  west.  During 
the  reign  of  Constantine  they  again  attempted  to  cross 


OSTDNI 


348 


OSWALD 


the  Danube  but  were  repulsed.  During  the  years 
350-7.1  the  Goths  were  united  under  the  leadership 
of  Krmaiuiric,  the  ()strop)th.  In  37.5  they  were  con- 
quered l)y  tlic  Huns.  Sonie  escaped  into  the  Crimea, 
where  they  retained  their  languape  up  to  tlie  sixteenth 
century;  the  mass  of  the  jieople,  however,  remjiined 
in  their  own  lands  and  i)aid  trilnite  to  th<'  Huns;  but 
were  otherwise  fairly  independent  and  elected  their 
own  kinsjs.  When  the  empire  of  the  Huns  collapsed 
after  the  death  of  Attila  (453),  thi'  Ostrogoths  re- 
gained independence.  Their  old  lands  between  Don 
and  Danube,  however,  they  had  to  surrender  to  the 
Huns,  while  they  obtained  Pannonia  from  the  Ro- 
mans. Theodoric,  the  Amaling,  who  was  their  king 
from  474  or  475,  fought  with  the  Byzantine  emperor 
Zeno  at  various  times,  although  he  obtained  jieaceful 
relations  during  most  of  his  reign.  He  endeavoured 
to  secure  permanent  domiciles  for  his  people.  In  488 
lie  started  for  It.aly,  aided  and  abetted  by  Zeno. 
Theodoric  defeated  Odoacer,  who  reigned  as  king  in 
Italy,  and  founded  in  493  the  great  Ostrogothic  Em- 
pire, which  included  Italy,  Sicily,  Dalmatia,  Upper 
Rhaetia,  and  later  on  Provence,  with  the  capital 
Ravenna,  and  which  stood  under  Byzantine  suzer- 
ainty. Theodoric  dreamed  of  an  amalgamation  of 
the  Teutons  and  the  Romans,  of  a  Germanic  state,  in 
which  the  Ostrogoths  were  to  dominate.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  law  and  order  in  his  lands; 
Roman  art  and  literature  flourished.  He  was  tolerant 
towards  the  Catholic  Church  and  did  not  interfere  in 
dogmatic  matters.  He  remained  as  neutral  as  possi- 
ble towards  the  pope,  though  he  exercised  a  prepon- 
derant influence  in  the  afTairs  of  the  papacy.  He 
and  his  peoiile  were  Arians  and  Theodoric  considered 
himself  as  protector  and  chief  reiiresentative  of  the 
sect.  His  successor  did  not  possess  the  necessary 
vigour  and  ability  to  continue  this  work.  His  daugh- 
ter Amalasvintha  succeeded  him  in  526,  first  as  re- 
gent for  her  son  Athalaric,  and  after  the  latter's 
death,  in  534,  as  queen.  She  was  assassinated  by 
her  cousin  Theodahad,  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne. 
The  Byzantine  emperor  Justinian  now  made  him- 
self her  avenger  and  declared  war  upon  the  Ostro- 
goths. His  general  Belisarius  captured  Naples  in 
53f).  In  place  of  the  incompetent  Theodahad  the 
Goths  chose  Witiches  as  king,  but  he  also  proved  to  be 
an  incapable  general.  Belisarius  succeeded  in  enter- 
ing Ravenna  in  539  and  in  taking  Witiches  prisoner. 
After  his  recall  in  540,  the  Goths  reconquered  Italy 
under  their  new  king  Totila.  In  544  Belisarius  ap- 
peared once  more  and  the  war  was  continued  with 
varj'ing  success.  In  551  Narses  became  commander- 
in-chief  in  place  of  Belisarius,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  defeated  Totila  at  Taginie  in  the  Apennines. 
Totila  was  killed  in  the  battle.  The  survivors  of  the 
Ostrogoths  chose  Teja  as  their  king,  but  were  practi- 
cally annihilated  in  the  battle  near  Mount  Vesuvius 
in  553,  after  a  desperate  struggle  in  which  Teja  was 
killed.  Their  last  fortress  fell  in  555,  after  which  the; 
Ostrogoths  disappear.  The  few  survivors  mingled 
with  other  peoples  and  nations;  .some  were  romanizcd 
in  Italy,  and  others  wandered  north  where  they  dis- 
:i|i|"  u'  d  iiiiiong  the  various  Germanic  tribes.  Italy 
1"  '  ii;m   :i  I'.Nzantine  province. 

I:.-  I  :  :  ,,  ,' /..  Golhs  (London,  1898);  Dahn,  Die  Konige  iler 
Ci, /,.-;,.,..,  11  IV  (Wurzburg.  lSOl-66):  M.4.V80,  Geschichlc  dcs 
oitiiulUchcn  Ilcichx  in  Ilalien  (Breslau,  1824);  HoDOKlN,  Italy  and 
her  invaders.  Ill,  IV  (I.rf)ndon,  18S.5);  Hartm.^nn,  Das  italicnixche 
Kdnigreich  (Gotha,  1897);  Wietersheim,  Geschichle  der  Volker- 
wanderung,  I,  II  (Leipzig,  1880,  81). 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Ostuni.    See  Brindisi,  Diocese  of. 

O'SuUivan  Beare,  Philip,  b.  in  Ireland,  c.  1.500; 
d.  in  l^pain,  HitiO,  .son  of  Dermot  O'SulIivan  and 
nephew  of  Dona!  O'SulIivan  Beare,  Lord  of  Dnnboy. 
He  was  sent  to  Spain  in  1602,  and  was  educated  at 
CompostcUa  by  Vcndamma,  a  Spaniard,  and  Father 


Synnott,  an  Irish  .lesuit.  He  served  in  the  Spanish 
army.  In  1621  he  published  his  "Catholic  History 
of  Ireland",  a  work  not  always  reliable,  but  valii.ible 
for  the  Irish  wars  of  the  author's  own  day.  He  :ilso 
wrote  a  "Life  of  St.  Patrick",  a  confutation  of  Gerald 
Barrv  and  a  rei)lv  to  Usher's  attack  on  his  "  Historv  ". 

Ma'c^kk,  Irixh  \l'nlirs  of  the  Seventeenth  Cmturu  {n\i\<Vm.  ISII',); 
<)'Sui.i.ivvN.  Cnlh.tlic  History  of  Ireland,  ed.  Kellv  (Dulilin, 
ISoO) ;  O'Si  LLivAN,  History  of  Ireland,  tr.  Byrne  (London,  1U04). 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Oswald,  S.MNT,  ArchbLshop  of  York,  d.  on  29  Feb- 
ruary, 992.  Of  Danish  parentage,  Oswald  was 
brought  up  by  his  uncle  Odo,  Archbishop  of  Cantor- 
bury,  and  instructed  by  Fridegode.  For  some  time 
he  was  dean  of  the  house  of  the  secular  canons  at 
Winchester,  but  led  by  the  desire  of  a  stricter  life  he 
entered  the  Benedictine  Monastery  of  Fleury,  where 
Odo  himself  had  received  the  monastic  habit.  He 
was  ordained  there  and  in  959  returned  to  England 
betaking  himself  to  his  kinsman  Oskytel,  then  .'Arch- 
bishop of  York.  He  took  an  active  part  in  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  at  York  until  St.  Dunstan  procured  his 
appointment  to  the  See  of  Worcester.  He  was  conse- 
crated by  St.  Dunstan  in  962.  Oswald  was  an  ar- 
dent supporter  of  Dunstan  in  his  efforts  to  purify 
the  Church  from  abuses,  and  aided  by  King  Edgar 
he  carried  out  his  policy  of  replacing  by  communities 
the  canons  who  held  monastic  possessions.  Edgar 
gave  the  monasteries  of  St.  Albans,  Ely,  and  Benlleet 
to  O.swald,  who  established  monks  at  Wcstburv  (9S:i), 
Pershore  (984),  at  Winchelcumbe  (9S5),  and  at  Wor- 
cester, and  re-establislied  Ripon.  But  his  most  fa- 
mous foundation  was  that  of  Ramsey  in  Huntingdon- 
shire, the  church  of  which  was  dedicated  in  974,  and 
again  after  an  accident  in  991.  In  972  by  the  joint 
action  of  St.  Dunstan  and  Edgar,  Oswald  was  made 
Archbishop  of  York  and  journeyed  to  Rome  to  re- 
ceive the  pallium  from  John  XIII.  He  retained, 
however,  with  the  sanction  of  the  pope,  juristlict ion 
over  the  Diocese  of  Worcester  where  he  frequently  re- 
sided in  order  to  foster  his  monastic  reforms  (Eadmer, 
203).  On  Edgar's  death  in  975,  his  work,  hitherto 
so  successful,  received  a  severe  check  at  the  hands  of 
Elfhere,  Iving  of  Mercia,  who  broke  up  many  com- 
munities. Ramsey,  however,  was  spared,  owing  to 
the  powerful  patronage  of  Ethelwin,  Earl  of  Exst 
Anglia.  Whilst  Archbishop  of  York,  Oswald  col- 
lected from  the  ruins  of  Ripon  the  relics  of  the  saints, 
some  of  which  were  conveyed  to  Worcester.  He  died 
in  the  act  of  washing  the  feet  of  the  poor,  as  was  his 
daily  custom  during  Lent,  and  was  buried  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary  at  Worcester.  Oswald  used 
a  gentler  policy  than  his  colleague  Ethelwold  and 
always  refrained  from  violent  measures.  He  greatly 
valued  and  jiroinoted  learning  amongst  the  clergy  and 
induced  many  scholars  to  come  from  Fleury.  He 
wrote  two  treatises  and  some  synodal  decrees.  His 
feast  is  celebrated  on  28  February. 

Iliaturians  o/  York  in  Rolls  Series,  3  vols.;  see  Intrndurli':iix  by 
Raine.  Tlie  anonymous  and  contemporarj'  lifr  r,f  th,  ni'.nl:  of 
Kamsev,  I.  399-)7.'),  and  Eadmer,  Lift  and  .1/  11'    '.'i 

(al.so  in  P.  Z,..CLIX)  are  the  best  authorities;  tlii    !i  -i     >- 

Tus  and  two  others  in  vol.  II  are  of  little  valu--.    1-  •■     1  ■  i-  . 

Ill,  7.i2;  Acta  O.S.B.  (Venice,  1733),  sxc.  v,  72s,  V\  hiuhi.  /,,«,/. 
Lit.,  I  (London,  1846),  462;  TvNEMOtjTH  and  CAl'GRAyE,  ed. 
HoRSTMAN,  II  (Oxford.  1901),  252;  Hunt,  Hist  of  the  English 
Church  from  697-1066  (London,  1899) ;  Idem  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog., 
s.  v.;  LiNGARD.  Anglo-Saxon  Church  (London,  1845). 

S.  Anselm  Parker. 

Oswald,  S.MNT,  king  and  m.artyr;  b.,  probably, 
(j05;  d.  5  .Aug.,  642;  the  second  of  seven  brothers,  sons 
of  Ethelfrid,  who  was  grandson  of  Ida,  founder  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Northumbriain  .547.  Oswald's  mother 
was  Acha.  daughter  of  Ella  or  Alia,  who,  after  Ida's 
death,  had  .seized  Deira  and  thus  separated  it  from  the 
Northern  Bernicia.  The  years  of  Oswald's  youth  were 
spent  at  home,  as  long  as  his  father  reigned,  but  when, 
in  617,  Ethelfrid  was  slain  in  battle  by  Redwald,  King 


OSWIN 


349 


OSWIN 


of  the  East  Angles,  Oswald  with  his  brothers  fled  for 
protection  from  Edwin,  their  uncle,  Acha's  brother,  to 
the  land  of  the  Scots  and  were  cared  for  at  Columba's 
Monastery  at  Hii,  or  lona.  There  they  remained  un- 
til Edwin's  death  in  the  battle  of  Heathfield  (633). 
Eanfrid,  his  elder  brother,  then  returned  to  accept 
the  Kingdom  of  Deira,  whilst  Osric,  cousin  of  Edwin, 
received  Bernicia.  The  kingdom  was  thus  again  di- 
vided and  both  parts  relapsed  into  paganism.  In  the 
following  year  Osric  was  slain  in  battle,  and  Eanfrid 
treacherously  murdered  by  the  British  king,  Cadwalla. 
Oswald  thereupon  came  down  from  the  North,  and  in 
635  a  small  but  resolute  band  gathered  round  him 
near  the  Roman  Wall  at  a  spot  seven  miles  north  of 
Hexham,  afterwards  known  as  Hevenfelt,  or  Heaven's 
Field.  Here,  encouraged  by  a  vision  and  promise  of 
victory  from  St.  Columba,  who  shrouded  with  his 
mantle  all  his  camp,  Oswald  set  up  a  cross  of  wood 
as  his  standard — the  first  Christian  symbol  ever  raised 
in  Bernicia — and  gave  battle  to  the  Britons,  who  were 
led,  probably,  by  Cadwalla.  The  Britons  were  com- 
pletely routed,  and  thenceforth  could  only  act  on  the 
defensive. 

Oswald's  victory  reunited  the  Northumbrian  King- 
dom not  only  because  he  delivered  it  from  the  humili- 
ating yoke  of  the  Mercians  and  Britons,  but  also  be- 
cause on  his  father's  side  he  was  a  descendant  of  Ida 
of  Bernicia  and  on  his  mother's  of  the  royal  house  of 
Ella  of  Deira.  Thus  united,  Northumbria  could  not 
fail  to  become  the  chief  power  in  a  confederation  against 
Penda  of  Mercia  and  the  Britons  of  Wales.  Oswald 
was  thoroughly  grounded  in  the  principles  of  the 
Christian  religion,  and,  though  but  twelve  nobles 
with  whom  he  returned  from  exile  were  Christians, 
far  from  abandoning  his  faith,  his  first  care  was 
to  spread  it  among  the  Bernicians,  thus  confirming 
the  political  union  effected  by  Edwin  with  a  religious 
union  unknown  before.  Edwin,  it  is  true,  had  him- 
self received  the  Faith  in  627,  through  the  influence  of 
his  wife  Ethelburga,  sister  of  the  Kentish  Iving,  who 
had  brought  St.  Paulinus  to  the  North,  but  his  exam- 
ple was  followed  only  by  the  people  of  Deira.  Oswald , 
brought  up  in  Columba's  monastery  at  lona,  naturally 
looked  to  the  North  for  missionaries.  The  first 
preacher  who  set  forth  soon  returned,  having  found 
the  Northumbrian  people  too  barbarous  and  stubborn. 
Then  Aidan  was  sent,  "a  man  of  singular  meekness, 
piety  and  moderation",  who  established  his  episcopal 
see  at  Lindisfarne,  in  635.  Oswald's  zealous  co-oper- 
ation with  the  monk-bishop  soon  filled  the  land  with 
churches  and  monasteries,  and  the  church  at  York, 
begun  by  Edwin,  was  completed.  Moreover,  his  won- 
derful humility  in  the  midst  of  success,  his  charity, 
and  his  piety  soon  had  their  effect  in  turning  his  sub- 
jects from  Woden  to  Christ.  We  are  told  that  the 
king  in  his  Court  acted  as  the  interpreter  of  the  Irish 
missionaries  who  knew  not  the  tongue  of  his  thanes. 

It  was  Oswald's  work  to  add  to  the  warlike  glory 
of  his  father  Ethelfrid  and  the  wise  adniiiii.'^tration  of 
his  uncle  Edwin  the  moral  power  of  Christianity,  and 
to  build  up  a  great  kingdom.  Edwin  had  gathered 
the  whole  English  race  into  one  political  body  and  was 
overlord  of  every  English  kingdom  save  that  of  Kent. 
The  Venerable  Bede  (III,  6)  says  that  Oswald  had  a 
greater  dominion  than  any  of  his  ancestors,  and  that 
"he  brought  under  his  sway  all  the  nations  and  prov- 
inces of  Britain,  which  are  divided  into  four  languages, 
namely  the  Britons,  the  Picts,  the  Scots,  and  the 
English".  He  had  great  power  in  the  North-West,  as 
far  south  as  Chester  and  Lancashire,  and  was  probably 
owned  as  overlord  by  the  Welsh  Kingdom  of  Strath 
Clyde,  as  well  as  by  the  Picts  and  the  Scots  of  Dal- 
riada.  In  the  East  he  was  supreme  in  Lindsey,  and 
the  words  of  Bede  seem  to  imply  that  he  was  overlord 
of  Mercia,  which  was  still  ruled  by  Penda;  but  this 
could  have  been  scarcely  more  than  nominal.  The 
West  Saxons  in  the  South,  influenced  by  the  fear  of 


Penda,  readily  acknowledged  Oswald,  their  allegiance 
being  strengthened,  in  635,  by  the  conversion  of  King 
Cynegils,  of  Wessex,  at  whose  baptism  Oswald  stood 
sponsor,  and  whose  daughter  he  married.  Both 
sovereigns  then  established  Bishop  Birinus  at  Dor- 
chester. 

This  vast  supremacy,  extending  from  north  to 
south,  and  broken  only  by  Penda's  kingdom  in  Mid- 
Britain  and  that  of  the  East  Angles,  led  Adamnan  of 
Hii  to  caU  Oswald  "The  Emperor  of  the  whole  of 
Britain".  Christianity  seemed  to  be  forming  a  net- 
work round  the  pagan  Penda  of  Mercia.  The  king- 
dom of  the  East  Angles,  which  was  still  Christian,  but 
acknowledged  Penda  as  overlord,  was  necessary  to 
Oswald  to  maintain  the  connexion  between  his  domin- 
ions in  the  north  and  the  south.  War  was  therefore 
inevitable.  At  the  battle  of  Maserfeld,  said  to  be 
seven  miles  from  Shrewsbury,  "on  the  border  of 
Wales,  near  Offa's  dyke",  Oswald  was  slain  on  5  Aug., 
642,  and  thus  perished  "the  most  powerful  and  most 
Christian  King"  in  the  eighth  year  of  his  reign  and  in 
the  flower  of  his  age.  His  last  words  were  for  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  his  soldiers,  whence  the  proverb: 
"God  have  mercy  on  their  souls,  as  said  Oswald  when 
he  fell."  His  body  was  mutilated  by  Penda,  and  his 
liir.bs  set  up  on  stakes,  where  they  remained  a  full 
year,  until  they  were  taken  away  by  Oswy  and  given 
to  the  monks  at  Bardney  in  Lindsey.  In  the  tenth 
century  some  of  the  bones  were  carried  off  by  Ethel- 
red  and  Ethelfleda  of  Mercia  to  St.  Peter's,  Glouces- 
ter. His  head  was  taken  from  the  battlefield  to  the 
church  of  St.  Peter  in  the  royal  fortress  at  Bambor- 
ough,  and  was  afterwards  translated  to  Lindisfarne, 
where,  for  fear  of  the  Danes,  it  was  placed  in  S75  in 
the  coffin  of  St.  Cuthbert  which  found  its  resting- 
place  at  Durham  in  998.  It  was  in  the  coffin  at  the 
translation  of  St.  Cuthbert  in  1104,  and  was  thought 
to  be  there  when  the  tomb  was  opened  in  1828.  His 
arm  and  hand  (or  hands)  were  taken  to  Bamborough 
and  perhaps  afterwards  removed  to  Peterborough, 
and  were  still  incorrupt  in  the  time  of  Symeon  of  Dur- 
ham, early  in  the  twelfth  century.  Reginald  gives  an 
account  of  his  personal  appearance:  arms  of  great 
length  and  power,  eyes  bright  blue,  hair  yellow,  face 
long  and  beard  thin,  and  his  small  lips  wearing  a 
kindly  smile. 

Bede,  History:  Reginald,  Life  (printed  by  the  Surtees  Soc, 
and  ali  portions  not  containing  matter  taken  from  Bede  in  R.  S. 
among  works  of  Sym.  of  Durliam) ;  Sym.  of  Durham,  Hisl. 
Dunelm.;  Idem,  Hist.  Regum  in  R.  S.  and  Surtees  Soe.  Publica- 
tions: Adamnan.  Life  of  S.  Columba,  ed.  and  tr.  by  Fowler  (Ox- 
ford. 1894) ;  Alcdin.  Carmen  in  Historians  of  York,  in  R.  S.;  Wil- 
liam OF  Malmesbdry,  Gesta  Pontif:  Idem,  Gesta  Regum  m 
R.  S. ;  MisccU.  Biogr.  in  Surtees  Soc.  Publications.  For  account 
of  his  relics  sec  also  Raine,  St.  Cuthbert:  Idem,  Opening  of  S. 
Cuthbert' s  Tomb  (Durham,  1828);  Wall,  Shrines  of  British 
Saints:  Oswald  and  Cuthbert  (London,  1905). — Raine  in  Diet,  of 
Christ.  Biogr.,  s.  v.;  Botleh,  Lines,  Aug.  5;  Green,  Making  of 
England  (London,  1897),  vi;  Bellesheim,  Cath.  Ch.  of  Scotland, 
tr.  Hunteh-Blair,  I  (Edinburgh,  1887);  Montalembert, 
Moines  d' Occident,  tr.  (London,  1896);  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland,  I 
(Edinburgh,  1870);  HtTNT,  History  of  the  English  Church  from 
597-1068  (London,  1899). 

S.  Ansblm  Parker. 

Oswin,  Saint,  king,  and  martyr,  murdered  at 
Gilling,  near  Richmond,  Yorkshire,  England,  on  20 
August,  651,  son  of  0.sric,  King  of  Deira  in  Britain. 
On  the  murder  of  his  father  by  Cadwalla  in  634, 
Oswin  still  quite  young  was  carried  away  for  safety 
into  Wessex,  but  returned  on  the  death  of  his  kins- 
man St.  Oswald,  in  642,  either  because  Oswy  had 
bestowed  upon  him  Deira,  one  portion  of  the  King- 
dom of  Northumbria,  himself  ruling  Bernicia,  or,  as 
is  more  probable,  because  the  people  of  Deira  chose 
him  for  king  in  preference  to  Oswy.  Under  his  sway 
of  seven  years,  peace,  order,  and  happiness  reigned 
throughout  the  kingdom.  But  in  the  reliitions  be- 
tween Oswy  iiiid  ( Iswiii  t  here  wns  iippnrciit  peace  only, 
the  former  was  emiiloying  every  subtlety  to  bring 
about  his  rival's  death.     At  length  Oswy  declared 


OTFRIED 


350 


OTHLO 


an  open  warfare,  and  Oswin,  unable  to  meet  the 
superior  forces  of  his  adversary,  disbanded  his  army, 
either  from  worldly  prudence  (liede)  or  heroic  virtue 
(monk  of  Tyuenioutli),  and  made  liis  way  for  greater 
security  to  Hunwald  an  eorldorman  upon  whom  lie 
had  lately  conferred  the  fief  of  Gilling.  Hunwald 
promised  to  conceal  him  but  treacherously  betrayed 
him  to  Ethelwin,  one  of  Oswy's  officers,  and  he  was 
murdered.  He  was  buried  at  Gilling  and  soon  after- 
wards transferred  to  Tynemouth,  though  another 
account  says  he  was  buried  at  Tynemouth.  The 
anonymous  monk  of  St.  Albans,  who  in  the  reign  of 
King  Steplien  was  resident  at  Tynemouth,  and  there 
wrote  tlie  saint's  life,  says  that  his  memory  was  for- 
gotten during  the  Danish  troubles,  but  in  1065  his 
burial-place  was  made  known  by  an  apparition  to  a 
monk  named  Ednmnd,  and  his  relics  were  translated 
on  11  March,  1100,  and  again  on  20  August,  1103. 
At  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  under  Henry 
^TII  there  was  still  a  shrine  containing  the  body 
and  vestments  of  St.  Oswin.  A  portion  of  his  body 
was  preserved  as  a  relic  at  Durham  (cf.  Smith, 
"Bede",  HI,  .xiv).  Eanfleda,  Oswy's  queen,  daughter 
of  St.  Edwin,  prevailed  upon  him  to  found  in  repara- 
tion a  monastery  at  Gilling,  some  remains  of  which 
still  exist,  though  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes. 
Bede  in  his  "History"  (HI,  xiv)  gives  a  description 
of  his  character  and  features:  "most  generous  to  all 
men  and  above  all  things  humble;  tall  of  stature 
and  of  graceful  bearing,  with  pleasant  manner  and 
engaging  address".  There  is  now  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum  (Cotton  MS.  Galba  A.  5.)  a  psalter 
which  until  the  fire  of  1731  bore  the  inscription 
"Liber  Oswini  Regis." 

Tynemoi'th  and  C.\pgrave,  Nova  Legenda  Anglia:,  ed.  Horst- 
M.tN.  II  (Oxford,  1901),  268;  Acta  SS.,  Aug..  IV.  63;  Surtees  Soc. 
Publ:  Miscellanea  Biographica,  VIII,  1-59,  and  Introd.  (London. 
1834);  Lives  of  English  Saints,  ed.  Newm.in  (London,  1900); 
Raine  in  Did.  of  Christ.  Biag.,  a.  v.;  and  Bdtleb,  Lives  of  the 
Saints,  III  (Baltimore),  287-88. 

S.  Anselm  Parker. 

Otfried  of  Weissenburg,  the  oldest  German  poet 
known  by  name,  author  of  the  "Evangelienbueh",  a 
rhymed  version  of  the  Gospels,  flourished  in  the  ninth 
century,  but  the  exact  dates  of  his  life  are  unknown. 
He  was  probably  born  at  or  near  Weissenburg  in  Al- 
sace, where  he  also  seems  to  have  received  his  earliest 
education.  Later  on  he  studied  at  Fulda  under  the 
famous  Rabanus  Maurus,  who  was  abbot  there  after 
822  and  presided  over  the  monastic  school.  After  com- 
pleting his  studies,  Otfried  returned  to  Weissenburg 
and  entered  the  well-known  Benedictine  abbey  there, 
becoming  prefect  of  the  abbey-school.  He  was  notary 
there  in  .S.51.  At  Weissenburg  he  began  his  great  poem, 
the  "Liber  evangeliorum  theotisce  conscriptus",  the 
completion  of  which  occupied  the  greater  part  of  his 
hf  e.  It  was  dedicated  to  King  Louis  the  German  and  to 
Bishop  Salomo  of  Constance,  to  both  of  whom  rhymed 
epistles  are  addressed  in  the  Franconian  dialect.  The 
poet  also  addressed  an  epistle  in  Latin  prose  to  Bishop 
Liutbert  of  Mainz  to  gain  official  approbation  for  his 
work.  Hence  the  poem  must  have  been  finished  some 
time  between  8G3,  when  Liutbert  became  archbishop, 
and  871 ,  when  Salomo  died.  In  the  letter  to  Liutbert, 
Otfried  tells  us  that  he  undertook  to  write  the  poem  at 
the  request  of  some  of  the  brethren  and  of  a  venerable 
lady,  whose  name  is  not  mentioned,  for  the  express 
purpose  of  supplanting  the  worldly  poetry  that  found 
such  favour  with  the  people.  He  furthermore  wished 
to  make  known  the  story  of  the  Gospels  to  those  who 
did  not  know  Latin.  The  poem  itself  is  in  strophic 
form  and  contains  some  1.5,000  lines.  It  is  divided 
into  five  books,  with  reference  to  the  five  senses,  which 
are  to  be  purified  and  sanctified  by  the  reading  of  the 
sacred  story.  The  first  book  narrates  the  Nativity  of 
Christ;  the  second  and  third.  His  Teachings  and  Mira- 
cles; the  fourth,  the  Passion;  the  fifth,  the  Resurrec- 
tion, Ascension,  and  Last  Judgment.     Between  the 


narrative  portions  chapters  are  inserted  superscribed 
"Moraliter",  "Spiritahter",  "Mystice",  in  which  the 
events  narrated  are  interpreted  allegorically  and  sym- 
bolically. 

While  Otfried  bases  his  work  chiefly  on  the  Vulgate, 
he  also  makes  use  of  the  writings  of  Rabanus,  Bede, 
and  Alcuin,  as  well  as  those  of  St.  Jerome^  St.  Augus- 
tine, and  others.  In  fact  he  is  more  of  a  theologian 
than  a  poet,  though  some  passages  show  undeniable 
poetic  talent.  Still,  the  poem  is  far  infciicir  to  the 
"Heliand"  (q.  v.),  and  never  became  re:illy  popular. 
Particularly  noteworthy  is  the  opening  chapter  of  the 
first  book,  where  the  autlior  explains  his  reasons  for 
writing  in  German,  and  not  in  Latin.  This  passage 
glows  with  a  noble  patriotism;  the  Franks  are  praised 
with  sincere  enthusiasm  and  are  favourably  compared 
with  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  In  form,  Otfried's 
poem  marks  an  epoch  in  German  literature:  it  is  the 
first  poem  to  employ  rhyme  instead  of  the  old  Ger- 
manic alliteration,  though  the  rhyme  is  still  very  im- 
perfect, being  often  mere  assonance,  with  frequent 
traces  of  alliteration.  Three  almost  complete  manu- 
scripts of  the  work  are  preserved,  at  Vienna,  Heidel- 
berg, and  Munich;  fragments  of  a  fourth  are  found  at 
Berlin,  Wolfenbiittel,  and  Bonn.  The  Vienna  codex  is 
the  best.  Otfried  was  noticed  as  early  as  1495  by  the 
Abbot  of  Tritheim,  and  passages  from  his  poem  ap- 
peared in  print  as  early  as  1 53 1 ,  in  the  "  Libri  tres  rerum 
Germanicarum  "  of  Beatus  Rhenanus.  An  edition  then 
appeared  at  Basle,  1571,  with  a  preface  by  Mathias 
Flacius,  of  Illyria.  Graff,  who  published  an  edition  at 
Konigsberg,  1831,  called  the  poem  "Krist",  but  that 
name  is  now  obsolete.  Modern  editions  are  those  of 
Kelle  (3  vols.,  Ratisbon,  1856-81),  Piper  (Paderborn, 
1878,  and  Freiburg,  1882-84),  and  Erdmann  in  Zach- 
er's  "  Germanistische  Handbibliothek",  V  (Halle, 
1882).  Modern  German  versions  have  been  made  by 
Rapp  (Stuttgart,  1858)  and  Kelle  (1870). 

See  introductions  to  the  editions  of  Kelle,  Piper,  and  Erd- 
mann. Also,  Lachmann,  Otfrid  in  Kleinere  Schriftcu,  I  (Berlin, 
1876),  449-60;  ScHONBACH.  Otfridstudien  in  Zeitschrift  fiXr  deu- 
tsches  Altertum,  38-40;  ScHtiTZE,  Beilrdge  zur  Poe'.ik  Olfrids  (Kiel, 
1887);  Martin  in  Allgcmeinc  Deutsche  Biographie,  XXIV,  529 
sq.;  PLtJMHOFF,  Beitrdge  zu  den  Quellen  Otfrids  (Kiel,  1898). 

Arthur  F.  J.  Remy. 

Othlo  (Otloh),  a  Benedictine  monk  of  St.  Emmer- 
an's,  Ratisbon,  b.  1013  in  the  Diocese  of  Freising;  d. 
1072.  Having  made  his  studies  at  Tegernsee  and 
Hersfeld,  he  was  called  to  Wiirzburg  by  Bishop  Megin- 
hard  on  account  of  his  skill  in  writing.  He  entered 
the  Benedictine  Order,  1032,  at  St.  Emmcran's  in 
Ratisbon,  was  appointed  dean,  1055,  and  entrusted 
with  the  care  of  the  monastic  school.  To  escape  the 
oppressions  of  Bishop  Otto  he  fled  to  Fulda  in  1062 
where  he  remained  until  1067,  when,  after  a  short  stay 
at  Amorbach,  he  returned  to  Ratisbon  and  employed 
his  time  in  literary  work.  In  his  early  days  he  had  a 
great  relish  for  the  Classics,  especially  for  Lucan,  but 
later  he  thought  them  not  suited  for  religious,  and 
tried  to  replace  the  heathen  authors  by  writings  of 
his  own  which  served  for  education  and  edification. 
Othlo  is  praised  as  modest  and  pious;  he  was  opposed 
to  dialectics,  not  out  of  lack  of  education  but  because 
he  wished  to  be  untrammelled  by  set  words  and  forms. 
He  is  accused  of  having  originated  the  legend  oi  the 
transfer  of  the  relics  of  St.  Denis  the  Areopagite  to 
Ratisbon,  and  also  of  having  forged  many  letters  of 
exemption  for  his  abbey  (Lechner  in  "Neues  Archiv", 
XXV,  627,  and  "Zeitschr.  fiir  kath.  Theol.",  XXXI, 
18).  Among  his  writings  are:  "  Dialogus  de  suis  tenta- 
tionibus,  varia  fortuna  et  scriptis",  which  marked  the 
beginning  of  autobiography  in  the  Middle  Ages 
(Mabillon,  "Anal,  nov.",  IV,  i07) ;  Life  of  St.  Wolfgang 
of  Ratisbon  ("Acta  SS.",  Nov.,  II,  1,  565);  Life  of  St. 
Boniface,  compiled  from  the  letters  of  the  saint  found 
at  Fulda;  Life  of  St.  Alto  (partly  in  "Acta  SS.",  Feb., 
II,  3.59  and  entire  in  "  Mon.  Ger.  hist. :  Scriptores",  XV, 
2, 843);  Lifeof  St.  Magnus  ("  Acta  SS.",  Sept.,  II,  701). 


OTHMAR 


351 


OTRANTO 


In  Fez  ("Thesaurus",  III,  143-613)  are  found:  "Dia- 
logus  de  tribus  qusstionibus",  treating  of  the  symbol- 
ism of  the  number  three;  "  De  promissionis  bonorum  et 
malorum  causis";  "De  cursu  spirituali";  "De  trans- 
latione  s.  Dionysii  e  Francia  in  Germaniam",  a  frag- 
ment ; ' '  De  miraculo  quod  nuper  accidit  cuidam  laico" ; 
"De  admonitione  clericorum  et  laicorum";  "Despirit- 
uah  doctrina",  in  hexameters;  "Liber  Proverbio- 
rum";"Sermo  in  natah  apostolorum " ;  " Liber  visio- 
num  turn  suarum  turn  aliorum  " .  His  collected  works 
are  found  in  Migne  (P.  L.,  CXLVI,  27-434). 

EsSER  in  Kirchenlex.,  a.  v.;  Allg.  d.  Biographic;  Wattenbach, 
Geschichtsquellent\\,G5\  Michael,  Gesch.  des  deuisch.  Volkes,  III 
(Freiburg,  1903),  19;   Hauck,  Kirchmgesch.  deulschl,   III,  968, 

IV,  80, 94.  Francis  Mershman. 

Othmar  (Audomar),  Saint,  d.  16  Nov.,  759,  on 
tlie  island  of  Werd  in  the  Rhine,  near  Eschncz,  Swit- 
zerland. He  was  of  Alemannic  descent,  received  his 
education  in  Rhittia,  was  ordained  priest,  and  for  a 
time  presided  over  a  church  of  St.  Florinus  in  RhoBtia. 
This  church  was  probably  identical  with  the  one  of 
St.  Peter  at  Remiis,  where  St.  Florinus  had  laboured 
as  a  priest  and  was  buried.  In  720  Waltram  of  Thur- 
gau  appointed  Othmar  superior  over  the  cell  of  St. 
Gall.  He  united  into  a  monastery  the  monks  that 
hved  about  the  cell  of  St.  Gall,  according  to  the  rule 
of  St.  Columban,  and  became  their  first  abbot.  He 
added  a  hospital  and  a  school ;  during  his  abbacy  the 
Rule  of  St.  Columban  was  replaced  by  that  of  St. 
Benedict.  When  Karlmann  renounced  his  throne  in 
747,  he  visited  Othmar  at  St.  Gall  and  gave  him  a  let- 
ter to  his  brother  Pepin,  recommending  Othmar  and 
his  monastery  to  the  king's  liberality.  Othmar  per- 
sonally brought  the  letter  to  Pepin,  and  was  kindly 
received.  When  the  Counts  Warin  and  Ruodhart  un- 
justly tried  to  gain  possession  of  some  property  be- 
longing to  St.  Gall,  Othmar  fearlessly  resisted  their 
demands.  Hereupon  they  captured  him  while  he  was 
on  a  journey  to  Constance,  and  held  him  prisoner, 
first  at  the  castle  of  Bodmann,  then  on  the  island  of 
Werd  in  the  Rhine.  At  the  latter  place  he  died,  after 
an  imprisonment  of  six  months,  and  was  buried.  In 
769  his  body  was  transferred  to  the  monastery  of  St. 
Gall  and  in  867  he  was  solemnly  entombed  in  the  new 
church  of  St.  Othmar  at  St.  Gall.  His  cult  began  to 
spread  soon  after  his  death,  and  now  he  is,  next  to  St. 
Maurice  and  St.  Gall,  the  most  popular  saint  in  Swit- 
zerland. His  feast  is  celebrated  on  16  November.  He 
is  represented  in  art  as  a  Benedictine  abbot,  generally 
holding  a  little  barrel  in  his  hand,  an  allusion  to  the 
alleged  miracle,  that  a  barrel  of  St.  Othmar  never  be- 
came empty,  no  matter  how  much  he  took  from  it  to 
give  to  the  poor. 

P.  L.,  CXIV,  1029-42;  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.,  II,  41-47. 
To  this  life  was  added  by  Iso  of  St.  Gall:  De  miracutis  S. 
Othmari,  Ubriduo.  in  P.  L..  CXXI,  779-96,  and  Mon.  Germ.  Hisl.: 
Script.,  II,  47-54;  BuROENER,  Helvetia  Sancla,  II  (Einsiedeln 
and  New  York,  18B0),  147-51. 

Michael  Ott. 

Otho,  Marcus  Salvius,  Roman  emperor,  succes- 
sor, after  Galba,  of  Nero,  b.  in  Rome,  of  an  ancient 
Etruscan  family  settled  at  Ferentinum,  28  April, 
a.  d.  32;  d.  at  Bri.xellum  on  the  Po,  15  April,  69.  He 
Jed  a  profligate  life  at  the  court  of  Nero.  As  husband 
of  the  courtesan  Poppaea  Sabina  he  was  sent  for  ap- 
pearance's sake  to  Lusitania  as  governor.  When 
Sulpicius  Galba  was  proclaimed  emperor,  Otho  re- 
turned to  Rome  with  him.  In  contrast  to  the  miserly 
Galba,  he  sought  to  win  the  affection  of  the  troops  by 
generosity.  On  15  January,  69,  five  days  after  Galba 
had  appointed  Lucius  Calpurnius  Piso  co-emperor  and 
successor,  twenty-three  soldiers  proclaimed  Otho  em- 
peror upon  the  open  street.  As  Galba  hurried  to  take 
measures  against  this  procedure,  he  and  his  escort 
encountered  his  opponents  at  the  Forum;  there  was  a 
struggle,  and  Galba  was  murdered.  Otho  was  now 
sole  ruler;  the  senate  confirmed  his  authority.     The 


statues  of  Nero  were  again  set  up  by  Otho  who  also 
set  aside  an  immense  sum  of  money  for  the  completion 
of  Nero's  Golden  House  (Aurea  Domus).  Meantime 
Aulus  Vitellius,  legate  under  Galba  to  southern  Ger- 
many, was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Cologne.  Alienus 
Cfficina,  who  had  been  punished  by  Galba  for  his  out- 
rageous extortion,  persuaded  the  legions  of  northern 
Germany  to  agree  to  this  choice;  their  example  was 
followed  by  the  troops  in  Britain.  In  a  short  time  a 
third  of  the  stantling  army  had  renounced  the  emperor 
at  Rome.  In  the  winter  of  69  these  troops  advanced 
into  the  plain  of  the  River  Po,  stimulated  by  antici- 
pation of  the  wealth  of  Italy  and  Rome,  and  strength- 
ened by  the  presence  of  German  and  Belgian  auxilia- 
ries. On  the  march  they  learned  that  Galba  was  dead 
and  Otho  was  his  successor.  At  first  Vitellius  entered 
into  negotiations  with  the  new  ruler  at  Rome.  Com- 
promise failing,  both  made  ready  for  the  decisive 
struggle.  Otho  vainly  sought  to  force  the  citizens  of 
Rome  to  take  energetic  measures  for  security.  To 
e.xpiate  any  wrong  done  he  recalled  the  innocent  per- 
sons who  had  been  banished  by  Nero's  reign,  and 
caused  Nero's  evil  adviser,  Sophonius  Tigellinus,  to  be 
put  to  death.  Finally  he  placed  the  republic  in  the 
care  of  the  Senate  and  started  for  upper  Italy  on  14 
March,  with  the  main  part  of  his  guard,  that  had  been 
collected  in  Rome,  and  two  legions  of  soldiers  belong- 
ing to  the  navy,  while  seven  legions  were  advancing 
from  Dalmatia,  Pannonia,  and  Mcesia.  A  fleet  near 
Narbonensis  was  to  check  the  hostile  troops  from 
Gaul,  that  would  advance  from  the  south.  After  some 
favourable  preliminary  skirmishes  near  Placentia  and 
Cremona  Otho  gave  the  command  for  a  pitched  battle 
before  a  junction  had  been  effected  ■with  the  legions 
from  Moesia.  While  the  emjieror  himself  remained 
far  from  the  struggle  at  Brixellum  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Po,  his  soldiers  were  defeated  in  battle  near 
Cremona,  and  large  numbers  of  them  killed  (14  April). 
The  next  day  the  remnant  of  his  army  was  obliged  to 
surrender.  On  recei\nng  news  of  the  defeat,  Otho 
killed  himself.  His  body  was  burned,  as  he  had  di- 
rected, on  the  spot  where  he  had  so  ingloriously  ended. 
Vitellius  was  recognized  as  emperor  by  the  Senate. 

.Schiller,  Geschichte  der  romischen  Kaiserzeit,  I  (Gotha,  1SS3); 
VON  DoMASZEWSKi,  Geschichtc  der  rdmischen  Kaiser,  H  (Leipzig, 
1909). 

Kabl  Hoeber. 
O'Toole,   Lawrence.    See  Lawrence  O'Toole, 

Saint. 

Otranto,  Archdiocese  op  (Hydruntina). — 
Otranto  is  a  city  of  the  Province  of  Lecce,  Apulia, 
Southern  Italy,  situated  in  a  fertile  region,  and  once 
famous  for  its  breed  of  horses.  It  was  an  ancient 
Greek  colony,  which,  in  the  wars  of  Pyrrhus  and  of 
Hannibal,  was  against  Rome.  As  it  is  the  nearest  port 
to  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  it  was  more 
important  than  Brindisi,  under  the  Roman  emperors. 
In  the  eighth  century,  it  was  for  some  time  in  the  pos- 
session of  Arichis,  Duke  of  Benevento  (75S-S7).  Hav- 
ing come  again  under  Byzantine  rule,  it  was  among  the 
last  cities  of  Apulia  to  surrender  to  Robert  Guiscard 
(1068),  and  then  became  part  of  the  Principality  of 
■Paranto.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  Jews  had  a  school 
there.  In  1480  there  occurred  the  sack  of  Otranto  by 
the  Turks,  in  which  12,000  men  are  said  to  have 
perished — among  them.  Bishop  Stephen  Pendinelli, 
who  was  sawn  to  death;  the  "valley  of  the  martyrs" 
still  recalls  that  dreadful  event.  On  other  occa- 
sions, as  in  1537,  the  Turks  landed  at  Otranto,  but 
they  were  repulsed.  In  1804,  the  city  was  obliged  to 
harbour  a  French  garrison  that,  was  established  there 
to  watch  the  movements  of  the  English  fleet;  and  in 
1810,  Napoleon  gave  Otranto  in  fief  to  Fouche. 

The  cathedral  of  Otranto  is  a  work  of  Count  Roger 
I  (10S8),  and  was  adorned  later  (about  1163),  by 
Bishop  jonathas,  with  a  mosaic  floor;  the  same  Count 
Roger  also  founded  a  Basilian  monastery  here,  which, 


OTTAWA 


352 


OTTAWA 


under  Abbot  Nicetas,  became  a  place  of  study;  its  li- 
brary was  nearly  all  bought  by  Bcssarioii.  The  first 
known  bishop  of  this  see  was  Petrus,  to  whom  8t. 
Ciregory  the  tireat  refers  in  596;  and  there  is  record  of 
his  two  successors;  thev  were  Sabinus  (599)  and  Pe- 
trus (001);  Hishop  Marcus  (about  870)  is  believed  to 
be  the  author  of  the  office  for  Holy  Saturday;  Petrus 
(95^s;  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  nietroiiolilan  by 
Polyeuctus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (950-70), 
with  the  obligation  to  establish  the  Greek  Rite 
throughout  the  province.  The  Latin  Rite  was  intro- 
duced again  after  the  Norman  conquest,  but  the 
Cireek  Kite  remained  in  use  in  several  towns  of  the 
archdiocese  and  of  its  suffragans,  until  the  sixteenth 
century.  Bishop  Jacob  IV  (1378),  also  Patriarch  of 
Jerusalem,  had  a  part  in  the  schism  of  the  West,  for 
which  reason  lie  was  imprisoned  by  Charles  of  Anjou, 
and  compelled  to  abjure  publicly;  after  that,  however, 
he  betook  himself  to  Avignon;  Peter  Anthony  of 
Capua  (1530)  distinguished  himself  at  the  Council  of 
Trent;  Francis  M.  dall'Aste  (1590)  was  author  of 
"MemorabiUa  Hydruntinse  Ecclesis". 

In  ISIS  Castro,  formerly  a  suffragan  of  Otranto, 
was  united  to  it.  Castro's  bishops  are  known  from 
1137;  among  them  was  John  Parisi,  killed  in  1296  by 
Canon  Hector,  of  Otranto. 

The  suffragans  of  Otranto  are  Gallipoli,  Lecce,  and 
Ugento;  the  archdiocese  has  50  parishes,  100,200  in- 
habitants, 4  religious  houses  of  men,  11  of  women,  2 
schools  for  boys,  and  9  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chuse  d'ltalia;  XXI. 

U.  Benigni. 

Ottawa,  Archdiocese  of  (Ottawiensis),  in  Can- 
ada, originally  comprised  the  Ottawa  Valley,  traversed 
by  the  river  of  the  same  name.  The  northern  portion 
of  this  diocese  was,  in  1882,  made  the  Vicariate  Apos- 
tolic of  Pontiac,  and  then  became  the  Diocese  of  Pem- 
broke, itself  dismembered  in  1908  to  form  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Temiskamingue.  Ottawa  still  has  an 
area  of  10,000  square  miles,  extends  into  the  Counties 
of  Carleton,  Russell,  Prescott,  and  Lanark  of  the 
Province  of  Ontario,  and  into  those  of  Wright,  La- 
belle,  Argenteuil,  Terrebonne,  and  Montcalm  of  the 
Province  of  Quebec.  The  Dominion  official  census  of 
1901  gave  the  population  of  the  archdiocese  as  158,000 
Cathohcs,  128,000  of  whom  are  French-speaking  and 
30,000  English-speaking.  A  few  hundreds  more  speak 
other  languages. 

Ottawa,  metropolitan  see  and  capital  of  the  Domin- 
ion, was  founded  in  1827  simultaneously  with  the 
opening  of  works  on  the  Rideau  Canal,  and  took  its 
first  name  of  Bytown  from  Colonel  By,  a  British 
officer  and  engineer,  who  had  charge  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  canal.  With  its  water  power  and  admirable 
position  at  the  foot  of  the  Chaudiere  Falls  and  at  the 
mouth  of  two  rivers,  Bytown  soon  came  to  the  front 
as  a  centre  of  industry.  In  1848  its  prospects  were 
such  that  Rome  raised  the  thriving  little  town  to  the 
rank  of  an  episcopal  see.  In  1854  Bytown  was  granted 
city  incorporation,  and  took  the  name  of  Ottawa. 
When  the  Canadian  Confederation  was  definitively 
established  in  1807,  Ottawa  was  chosen  as  capital,  and 
has  been  ever  since  the  residence  of  the  governor- 
general  and  the  headquarters  of  Canadian  federal 
politics. 

Joseph-Eug&ne-Bruno  Guigues,  first  Bishop  of  Ot- 
tawa (1848-74)  gave  his  incipient  diocese  a  solid  or- 
ganization; churche.s  and  schools  were  built,  and  the 
college,  seminary,  and  hospital  soon  followed.  Gifted 
with  keen  foresight.  Bishop  Guigues  formed  a  diocese 
with  the  slender  resources  at  his  disposal.  At  his 
death  the  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  had  in- 
creased from  32,0(X)  to  93,000,  and  the  number  of 
priests  from  15  to  80. 

Joseph-Thomas  Duhamcl,  second  bishop  and  first 
Archbishop  of  Ottawa,  whose  episcopate  of  thirty-four 


years  brought  the  diocese  to  its  present  prosperous 
state,  will  figure  in  the  ecclesiastical  hi.story  of  Canada, 
as  a  prudent,  saintly,  and  indi'faligablc  worker.  A 
country  parisii-|)riest  before  asiciiding  the  episc(ij)al 
tluciMi',  he  continued  to  lead  tlie  lalxirious  hfe  of  an 
ordinary  i)riesl.  His  epi.sc(p|):il  visitation  was  his 
(inly  liiiliday.  On  thes<'  uiiasinns  he  would  preach 
several  times  in  the  day,  preside  at  the  usu.ai  cere- 
monies of  the  visitation,  anil  investigate  can  fully  the 
administration  of  the  parish.  Though  slric^ken  with 
angina  jiectoris  two  years  before  his  death,  he  re- 
mained at  his  post  and  died  in  one  of  his  country 
parishes  while  making  his  visitation,  5  June,  1908. 
He  had  been  made  an  archbishop  in  1886. 

Archbishop  Gauthier  has  been  translated  from  the 
See  of  Kingston,  Ontario  to  Ottawa,  6  Sejit.,  1910. 

The  Catholic  University  is  Ottawa's  foremost 
seat  of  learning  (see  Ottawa,  I'mversitv  of). 
Higher  education  for  young  ladies  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  Grey  Nuns  of  the  Cross  and  of  the  Sis- 
ters of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame  (q.  v.). 
Each  of  these  communities  has  a  large  institute  re- 
ceiving hundreds  of  boarders  and  day  pu])ils.  The 
elementary  schools  are  established  in  conformity  with 
the  Separate  School  Laws  of  Ontario  and  the  Public 
School  Laws  of  Quebec.  Catholic  elementary  schools 
are,  therefore,  maintained  by  government  taxation. 
Catholic  ratepayers  have  nothing  to  pay  for  other  ele- 
mentary schools.  The  Catholic  schools  are  efficient 
and  well  equipped.  In  the  mind  of  Archbishop  Duha- 
mcl, Ottawa,  situated  on  the  borders  of  two  great 
provinces  and  possessing  government  libraries  and 
museums,  was  destined  to  be  an  educational  centre. 
Hence  the  numerous  houses  of  studies  established  by 
religious  orders  in  the  capital. 

Orders  of  Men:  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  with 
five  parishes,  the  university,  a  scholasticate,  and 
juniorate;  Dominicans  with  parish  and  scholasticate; 
the  Capuchins,  with  parish  and  juniorate;  Fathers  of 
the  Company  of  Mary,  with  five  parishes,  scholasticate, 
and  juniorate  ;  Regular  Canons  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  w-ith  five  parishes  and  college;  Redemptor- 
ists,  with  house  of  studies;  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
with  agricultural  college. 

The  most  important  charitable  institutions  are  (1) 
four  orphanages  directed  by  the  Sisters  of  Wisdom, 
the  Grey  Nuns,  and  the  Sisters  of  Providence;  (2) 
three  homes  for  the  aged,  directed  by  the  Grey  Nuns 
and  the  Sisters  of  Providence;  (3)  one  house  of  correc- 
tion for  girls,  under  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity; 
(4)  one  Misericordia  Refuge  for  fallen  women;  (5) 
three  hospitals  conducted  by  the  Grey  Nuns  of  the 
Cross.  The  Ottawa  General  Hospital,  the  largest  of 
the  three,  was  founded  in  1845  and  has  been  enlarged 
at  different  times.  The  Youville  Training  School  for 
Nurses  is  attached;  (6)  St.  George's  Home,  the  Cana- 
dian headquarters  of  the  Catholic  Emigration  Society 
of  England.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Paul  receive 
there  the  emigrant  Catholic  children  and  distribute 
them  in  Canadian  families. 

The  Cathedral  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
usually  called  the  Basilica,  since  it  has  received  the 
title  of  minor  basilica,  is  a  vast  Gothic  structure 
with  twin  towers  two  hundred  feet  high,  and  a  seating 
capacity  of  2000.  The  parishes  of  St.  Joseph,  the 
Sacred  "Heart,  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  St.  Bridget 
have  also  beautiful  churches. 

Alexis,  Histoire  de.  la  Province  eccUsiaslique  d' Ottawa  (Ottawa, 

F.  X.  Brunei 

Ottawa,  University  of,  conducted  by  the  Oblates 
of  Mary  Immaculate,  founded  in  1848.  It  was  in- 
corporated in  1849  under  the  title  of  the  "College 
of  Bytown,"  thus  taking  the  original  name  of  the 
city  chosen  in  1866  as  the  capital  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  and  now  known  as  Ottawa.     The  title  in 


OTTO 


353 


OTTO 


question  was  changed  in  1861  to  that  of  the  "College 
of  Ottawa",  and  the  power  of  granting  degrees  was 
conferred  on  the  institution  by  civil  charter  in  1866. 
The  university  thus  began  its  complete  secular 
existence  with  the  confederation  of  the  Canadian 
Provinces,  and  has  grown  with  the  growth  of  the 
Dominion.  Pope  Leo  XIII,  by  Brief  of  .5  February, 
1889,  raised  the  College  and  the  State  University 
of  Ottawa  to  the  rank  of  a  Catholic  University.  The 
Brief  expresses  the  will  of  the  Holy  See  that  the 
Archbishop  of  Ottawa  shall  be  ex  officio  Apostolic 
chancellor  of  the  university,  and  that  he  and  the 
"other  bishops  of  the  [ecclesiastical]  provinces  of 
Ottawa  and  Toronto  who  shall  afRliate  their  sem- 
inaries and  colleges  and  other  similar  institutions 
with  the  aforesaid  university,  do  watch  over  the 
preservation  of  a  correct  and  sound  doctrine  in  the 
same."  It  may  be  added  that  the  institution  has 
also  been  of  late  years  placed  among  the  number  of 
Colonial  and  Indian  universities,  whose  students  are 
entitled  to  certain  privileges  accorded  by  a  statute 
of  the  University  of  Oxford,  passed  in  1887. 

Situated  in  the  capital  of  the  Dominion,  and  in  a 
district  which  is  largely  French  in  population,  the 
University  of  Ottawa  offers  parallel  courses  in  Eng- 
lish and  French.  It  is  left  to  the  choice  of  parents 
and  students  to  take  the  classical  course  in  one  or 
other  of  the  two  languages.  The  university  is  gov- 
erned by  a  chancellor,  rector,  vice-rector,  senate, 
and  council  of  administration.  The  faculties  so  far 
organized  are  those  of:  (1)  theology,  (2)  law,  this 
being  an  examining  body  only,  according  to  certain 
provisions  and  regulations  made,  in  this  regard,  by 
the  provincial  legislature  of  Ontario,  (3)  philosophy, 
a«d  (4)  arts.  Other  departments  are  the  collegiate 
course  and  the  commercial  course,  the  former  leading 
to  matriculation  which  admits  to  the  arts  course  in 
Canadian  universities  and  to  technical  schools.  The 
course  in  arts,  after  matriculation,  covers  four  years. 
In  theology  a  course  of  four  years  is  provided,  and 
embraces  all  the  branches  of  ecclesiastical  science 
usually  taught  in  Catholic  seminaries.  The  univer- 
sity has,  in  a  separate  building  known  as  the  Science 
Hall,  well-equipped  physical,  chemical,  and  miner- 
alogical  laboratories,  also  a  natural  history  museum 
and  excellent  numismatic  and  conchological  col- 
lections. 

On  2  December,  1903,  fire  totally  destroyed  the 
main  building,  a  structure  covering  the  greater  part 
of  a  block  400  feet  by  200.  The  library  of  the 
university,  consisting  of  over  30,000  volumes,  was 
wholly  destroyed,  but  has  been  replaced,  in  great  part, 
largely  by  donations. 

The  teaching  staff  consists  of  fifty  professors  and 
instructors.  The  number  of  students  in  1909-10  was 
591 ;  of  these  350  were  in  residence  in  the  Theological 
Building,  or  Scholasticate  of  the  Oblate  Fathers,  the 
Collegiate  Building  or  Juniorate,  and  the  New  Arts 
Building.  Students  whose  homes  are  not  in  Ottawa 
are  required  to  live  in  the  University  buildings. 
Private  rooms  are  provided.  The  University  Cal- 
endar gives  a  long  list  of  graduates  and  alumni,  in- 
cluding names  of  men  prominent  in  every  walk  of 
Canadian  life. 

The  Science  Hall,  completed  in  1901,  and  the  New 
Arts  Building  erected  to  replace  the  building  de- 
stroyed in  1903,  are  fire-proof  structures  and  are 
among  the  best-equipped  college  buildings  in  Canada. 
The  University  owns  ten  acres  of  property  in  the  city. 

Like  other  seats  of  learning  in  Canada,  the  univer- 
sity lately  Ijegan  to  offer  the  advantages  of  an  extra- 
mural course  to  those  who  desire  to  pursue  collegiate 
studies,  but  who  are  unable  to  attend  its  lectures. 
Extra-mural  students  are  allowed  to  do  the  work  of 
the  arts  course,  and  to  present  themselves  for  ex- 
aminations. Before  being  registered,  candidates  for 
a  degree  must  pass  the  matriculation,  or  an  examina- 
XI.— 23 


tion  accepted  by  the  senate  as  equivalent.  Students 
are  to  attend  the  university  for  the  latter  part  of  the 
course,  if  at  all  possible. 

The  "Calendar"  and  "Annuaire",  published  an- 
nually by  the  university,  give  detailed  information 
in  regard  to  courses  of  study,  conditions  of  admission, 
examinations,  and  fees  in  all  departments.  The 
"University  of  Ottawa  Review",  issued  monthly  and 
forming  an  annual  volume  of  from  four  to  five 
hundred  pages,  is  the  organ  of  the  students. 

Francis  W.  Grey. 

Otto,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Bamberg,  b.  about  1060;  d. 
30  June,  1139.  He  belonged  to  the  noble,  though  not 
wealthy,  family  of  Mistelbach  in  Swabia,  not  to  the 
Counts  of  Andechs.  He  was  ordained  priest,  but 
where  he  was  educated  is  not  known.  While  still 
young  he  joined  the  household  of  Duke  Wladislaw  of 
Poland;  in  1090  he  entered  the  service  of  Emperor 
Henry  IV,  and  about  1101  was  made  chancellor.  In 
1102  the  emperor  appointed  and  invested  him  as 
Bishop  of  Bamberg.  In  the  conflict  of  investitures 
(q.  v.)  he  sided  chiefly  in  political  matters  with  Henry 
IV,  although  he  avoided  taking  sides  openly.  He  re- 
fused to  be  consecrated  by  a  schismatic  bishop. 
Through  ambassadors  he  declared  his  loyalty  to  the 
Holy  See.  In  1105  he  joined  the  party  of  Henry  V, 
went  to  Rome,  and  there  on  13  May,  1106,  was  con- 
secrated bishop.  He  never  became  a  partisan.  In 
1110-11  he  accompanied  Henry  on  his  journey  to 
Rome,  but,  like  other  noble  characters,  he  disap- 
proved of  the  disgraceful  treatment  of  Pope  Paschal. 
This  is  clear  from  the  fact  that  he  received  the  pallium 
from  the  pope  on  15  April,  1111.  When  the  war 
broke  out  again,  he  did  not  desert  Henry  V,  and  in 
consequence  was  suspended  by  the  papal  party  at  the 
Synod  in  Fritzlar  in  1118.  At  the  Congress  of  Wurz- 
burg  in  1121  he  strove  hard  for  peace,  which  was  con- 
cluded in  1122  at  Worms.  Meanwhile  he  had  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  his  diocese  and  as  bishop  had  led  a 
model,  simple,  and  even  a  poor  life.  He  increased  the 
possesssions  of  the  Church  by  new  acquisitions,  re- 
covered alienated  dependencies,  completed  the  cathe- 
dral, improved  the  cathedral  school,  built  castles  and 
churches.  In  particular  he  favoured  the  monks,  and 
founded  over  twenty  monasteries  in  the  Dioceses  of 
Bamberg,  Wtirzburg,  Ratisbon,  Passau,  Eichstatt, 
Halberstadt  and  Aquileia.  He  reformed  other  mon- 
asteries. Thus  he  merited  the  name  of  "Father  of  the 
Monks". 

His  greatest  service  was  his  missionary  work  among 
the  Pomeranians.  In  the  Peace  with  Poland  in  1120 
the  latter  had  engaged  to  adopt  Christianity.  At- 
tempts to  convert  them  through  Polish  priests  and 
through  an  Italian  Bishop,  Bernard,  proved  futile. 
Duke  Boleslaus  III  then  appealed  to  Otto,  and  it  is 
due  to  Otto  that  the  undertaking  partook  of  a  Ger- 
man character.  Through  an  understanding  with  the 
pope,  who  appointed  him  legate,  the  emperor  and 
the  princes,  he  started  in  May,  1124,  and  travelled 
through  Prague,  Breslau,  Posen,  and  Gnesen  in  East 
Pomerania,  was  received  by  the  duke  with  great  re- 
spect, and  won  over  the  people  through  his  quiet  yet 
firm  attitude,  his  magnificent  appearance,  generous 
donations,  and  gentle,  inspiring  sermons.  He  con- 
verted Pyritz,  Kammin,  Stettin,  Julin,  and  in  nine 
places  established  eleven  churches;  22,165  persons 
were  baptized.  In  1125  he  returned  to  Bamberg.  As 
heathen  customs  began  to  assert  themselves  again,  he 
once  more  journcyi'd  to  Pomerania  through  Magde- 
burg and  Iluvclbcrg  about  the  year  1128.  In  the  Diet 
of  Usedom  he  gained  over  through  his  inspiring  dis- 
courses all  the  nobles  of  the  land  to  Christendom.  He 
then  converted  new  communities,  and  led  back  those 
who  had  fallen  away.  Even  after  his  return  (in  the 
same  year)  he  was  in  constant  communication  with 
the  Pomeranians  and  sent  them  priests  from  Bam- 


OTTO 


354 


OTTO 


berg.  His  wish  to  consocnitc  a  bisliop  for  Pi)mor;ini:i 
was  not  fulfilled,  as  the  Arehbishops  of  Ma^ili'l'iirR 
anil  Gncsen  claimed  the  metropolitan  riglils.  ( )uly  in 
1140  was  his  former  companion  Adalhi'it  confirnu'd 
as  Bishop  of  Julin.  In  IISS  the  bishoijric  was  re- 
moved to  Hammin  and  made  directly  subject  to  the 
Holy  See.  In  Bamberg  he  once  more  gave  himself  up 
to  his  duties  as  bishop  and  prince  and  performed  them 
with  great  zeal.  He  kept  out  of  all  political  turmoil. 
In  the  papal  schism  of  ll.'5()-.'U  he  tried  to  remain 
neutral.  The  active,  pious,  clever  bishop  was  greatly 
esteemed  by  tlie  other  princes  and  by  Kiiipcror  Lutli- 
air.  He  was  buried  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Michael  in 
Bamberg.  Bishop  Kmbrice  of  W'iirzburg  delivered 
the  funeral  oration  and  applied  to  Otto  the  words  of 
Jeremias:  "The  Lord  called  thy  name,  a  plentifid 
olive  tree,  fair,  fruitful,  and  beautiful."  On  his  mis- 
sion journey  he  is  rei)orted  to  have  worked  many  mira- 
cles. Many  happened  also  at  his  tomb.  In  1189  Otto 
was  canonized  by  Clement  III.  His  feast  is  kept  on 
30  September,  partly  also  on  30  June;  in  Pomerania 
on  1  October. 

LoosHORN,  Geschichle  des  Bistums  Bambertj.  TI  (\liniii  ],,  Isss), 
1-368;    Jdritsch,  Geschichte  des  Bischofs    t>t''     I  ■':■■<,'',  ri/ 

(Gotha,  1889);    Wiesenkr.  Geschichle  der  rh,  />       '-    ui 

Pommern  {Berlin,  1S80);  Hauck,  Kirchenge.-^rfi ,  '  ' ■  h  r  '^ '.'.mis, 
III  (Leipzig,  1903),  S71-S7. 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Otto  I,  THE  Gre.\t,  Roman  emperor  and  German 
king,  b.  in  912;  d.  at  Memleben,  7  May,  973;  son  of 
Henry  I  and  his  consort  Mathilda.  In  929  he  mar- 
ried Edith,  ihiuglitiT  of  King  Athelstan  of  England. 
He  succeeiUd  llrnry  as  king  in  936.  His  coronation 
at  Aachen  showed 
that  the  Carlovin- 
gian  traditions  of 
empire  were  still  in 
force.  Otto  pro- 
jected a  strong 
c  e  n  t  r  a  1  p  o  w  e  r, 
whii'h  was  oi)p<ise(l 
\)\  the  derm  an 
spirit  of  individual- 
ism. Otto's  brother 
Henryheadedtho.se 
great  insurrection- 
ary movements 
which  Otto  was  first 
obliged  to  bui>- 
Otto  I,  THE  Great  press.     The   new 

From  a  print  in  the  British  Museum  Duke  of  Bavaria 
Eberhard,  refused  to  pay  homage  to  the  king.  Otto 
subdued  Bavaria  and  bestowed  the  ducal  throne 
upon  Amulf's  brother  Berthold.  This  attitude  to- 
wards the  ducal,  by  the  royal,  power,  now  for  the 
first  time  openly  assumed,  roused  strong  opposition. 
The  Franks,  ancient  rivals  of  the  Saxf)ns,  resented 
this  absorption  of  power.  The  Prankish  Duke  Eber- 
hard formed  an  alliance  with  Otto's  half-brother, 
Thankmar,  and  with  other  disaffected  nobles.  Otto's 
younger  brother  Henry  and  the  unruly  Duke  Eiselbert 
of  Lorraine  raised  the  banner  of  insurrection.  Agita- 
tion was  stirred  up  on  the  Rhine  and  in  the  royal  Pal- 
atinate on  the  Saale.  The  affair  first  took  a  decisive 
turn  when  Dukes  Eberhard  and  Giselbert  fell  in  the 
battle  of  Andernach.  The  victory  did  not,  however, 
result  in  absolute  power.  An  internecine  agitation 
in  Franconia  between  the  lesser  nobles  and  the  duchy 
favoured  the  king.  Henry  now  became  reconciled 
with  his  royal  brother,  but  his  insincerity  was  mani- 
fest when,  shortly  after,  he  conspired  with  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Mainz  and  the  seditious  border  nobles  to 
assassinate  Otto.  The  plot  was  discovered.  In  941 
there  was  a  final  reconciliation.  The  monarchic 
principle  had  triumphed  over  the  particularism  of  the 
nobles,  and  the  way  was  paved  for  a  reorganization  of 
the  constitution.     Otto  made  good  use  of  his  success. 


The  hereditary  duchies  were  filled  by  men  closely  con- 
nected with  the  royal  house,  p'ranconia  was  held  by 
Otto  in  his  own  possession;  Lorraine  fell  to  Conrad  the 
Red,  his  son-in-law;  his  brother  Henry  received 
Bavaria,  having  meanwhile  married  .Judith,  daughter 
of  the  Bavarian  duke;  while  Swabia  was  bestowed 
upon  his  son  Ludolph.  The  iiowcr  of  these  dukes 
was  substantially  reduced.  Otto  was  maiiifi'stly  en- 
deavouring to  restore  their  aiici<'iit  ollicial  cliaracter 
to  the  duchies.  This  belittling  of  their  politic;d  posi- 
tion suited  his  design  to  lu.-ike  his  kingdom  more  and 
more  the  sole  ex]>oneiit  of  the  imjierial  idea.  It  would 
ha\('  been  a  significant,  step  in  the  right  direction  could 
he  have  made  it  an  hereditary  monarchy,  and  he 
worked  energetically  towards  this  object. 

The  apparently  united  realm  now  reverted  to 
Charlemagne's  policies  in  the  regions  where  he  had 
paved  the  way.  The  Southern  nices  iiromolcd  the 
work  of  Germanizing  and  Christianizing  in  the  adja- 
cent Slav  states,  and  by  degrees  German  infiuence 
spread  to  the  Oder  and  throughout  Bohemia.  The 
ancient  idea  of  universal  empire  now  possessetl  Otto's 
mind.  He  endeavoured  to  extend  his  suzerainty  over 
France,  Burgundy,  and  Italy,  and  welcomed  the 
quarrel  between  Hugo  of  France  and  Ludwig  IV,  each 
of  whom  hail  married  one  of  his  sisters.  King  and 
dukes  in  France  balanced  the  scales  of  power  which 
Otto  could  grasp  at  any  time  as  supreme  arbitrator. 
With  similar  intent  he  turned  the  private  quarrels  of 
the  reigning  house  of  Burgundy  to  account.  Conrad 
of  Burgundy  now  appeared  as  Otto's  prot(5g6.  More 
significant  was  the  attitude  he  was  about  to  assume 
towards  the  complicated  situation  in  Italy.  The 
spiritual  and  moral  debasement  in  the  Italian  Penin- 
sula was  shocking,  even  in  Rome.  The  names  of 
Theodora  and  Marozia  recall  an  unutterably  sad 
chapter  of  church  history.  The  disorder  in  the  capi- 
tal of  Christendom  was  only  a  symi)tom  of  the  con- 
ditions throughout  Italy.  Upper  Italy  witnessed  the 
wars  of  Berengarius  of  Friuli,  crowned  eni])eror  by 
Marozia's  son,  John  X,  against  Rudolph  II  of  Upper 
Burgundy.  After  the  assassination  of  Berengarius 
in  924,  the  strife  was  renewed  between  this  Rudolph 
and  Hugo  of  Lower  Burgundy.  Hugo  finally  became 
sole  ruler  in  Italy  and  assumed  the  imperial  throne. 
But  his  supremacy  was  shortly  after  overthrown  by 
Berengarius  of  Ivrea,  against  whom,  also,  there  ap- 
peared a  growing  opposition  in  favour  of  Adelaide,  the 
daughter  of  Rudolph  II  of  Upper  Burgundy,  to  sup- 
press which  Berengarius  obtained  forcible  possession 
of  the  princess.  All  these  disorders  had  been  studied 
by  Otto.  Convinced  of  the  significance  of  the  an- 
cient ideas  of  empire,  he  wished  to  subject  Italy  to  his 
authority,  basing  his  right  upon  his  royal  rank.  In 
951  he  came  to  Italy,  released  Adelaide  and  married 
her,  whilst  Berengarius  swore  allegiance  to  him.  Un- 
der the  influence  of  the  Roman  .\lberich,  the  son  of 
Marozia,  Pope  .Vgapetus  refused  the  imperial  crown  to 
the  German  king.  But  even  without  the  coronation, 
the  universality  of  his  rule  was  apparent.  He  stood 
de  facto  at  the  head  of  the  West.  The  royal  power 
was  now  in  need  of  the  strongest  support.  New  and 
dangerous  insurrections  demonstrated  the  lack  of  in- 
ternal solidarity.  Particularism  once  more  raised  its 
head.  Otto's  son  Ludolph  was  the  spirit  of  the  new 
uprising.  He  demanded  a  share  in  the  government 
and  was  especially  irritated  by  the  influence  of  Otto's 
Burgunilian  consort.  The  particularist  element  aa- 
sembleil  in  Ludolph's  camp.  It  fermented  through- 
out almost  the  entire  duchy  and  broke  out  openly  in 
many  ijarts.  The  danger  was  more  threateinng  than 
it  had  been  in  the  first  insurrection.  In  9.54  the  Mag- 
yars once  more  thronged  into  the  empire.  Owing  to 
this  crisis,  the  necessity  for  a  strong,  central  power  was 
generally  recognized,  and  the  insurrection  died  out. 
It  was  definitively  terminated  at  the  Imperial  Diet 
of  Auerstadt,  where  it  was  announced  that  Conrad  and 


OTTO 


355 


OTTO 


Ludolph  had  forfeited  their  duchies.  Meanwhile  the 
Magyar  hordes  surrounded  Augsburg.  Bishop  Ulrich 
liproically  defended  the  threatenetl  city.  In  the  great 
battle  on  the  Lechfelde  in  955,  the  Hungarian  array 
wa.s  compli'tely  routed  by  Otto,  who  had  advanced 
to  the  defence  of  the  city.  By  this  victory  he  freed 
Germany  finally  from  the  Himgarian  peril.  It  marked 
a  crisis  in  the  history  of  the  Magyar  race,  which  now 
became  intlependent  and  founded  an  empire  with 
definite  boundaries.  It  also  caused  Otto  to  realize 
that  his  great  object  of  preventing  the  participation 
of  power  with  the  duchies  was  not  attainable  by  force 
or  through  the  prestige  of  his  kingly  rank.  He  at 
once  endeavoured  to  obtain  a  strong  support  from  the 
Cierman  Church  throughout  the  empire. 

The  Ottonian  system,  a  close  alliance  of  the  German 
reahn  with  the  Church,  was  begun.  Charlemagne, 
too,  had  carried  out  the  great  conception  of  unity  of 
Church  and  State,  but  the  ecclesiastical  idea  had  given 
a  religious  colouring  to  Prankish  statemanship,  whilst 
Otto  planned  a  State  Church,  with  the  spiritual  hier- 
archy a  mere  branch  of  the  interior  government  of  the 
realm.  In  order  to  solve  this  problem  Otto  was  first 
constrained  to  permeate  the  Church  with  new  spiritual 
and  moral  life  and  also  free  himself  from  the  dominion 
of  the  lay  aristocracy.  His  own  deeply  religious  na- 
ture was  his  best  guarantee,  iconic  jiart  of  the  sjiirit  of 
asceticpietywhichdistinguisheillii.siiiotlicr,  Mathilda, 
was  found  also  in  the  son;  and  his  brother  Bruno, 
later  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  as  the  clever  representa- 
tive of  ecclesiastical  views,  also  exercised  a  great  in- 
fluence upon  the  king's  religious  dispositions.  The 
close  union  of  Church  and  State  had  an  equally  salu- 
tary effect  upon  both  of  the  powers  concerned.  By 
granting  the  Church  such  royal  domains  as  were  not 
in  use,  the  State  could  devote  its  revenues  to  military 
purposes.  For  the  united  realms  this  situation  was 
likewise  rich  in  blessings,  since  under  the  protection 
of  the  bishops,  commerce  and  trade  were  developed 
on  the  great  ecclesiastical  estates,  and  the  lower  classes 
received  from  the  Church  protection  against  the 
nobles.  The  kingdom  everywhere  retained  suprem- 
acy-over the  Church:  the  king  could  nominate  bishops 
and  abbots;  the  bishops  were  subject  to  the  royal 
tribunals;  and  synods  could  only  be  called  with  the 
royal  approval.  The  German  court  became  the  cen- 
tre of  religious  and  spiritual  life.  In  the  so-called 
Ottonian  renaissance,  however,  women  were  chiefly 
concerned,  led  by  the  women  of  the  royal  family: 
Mathilda,  Gerberga,  Judith,  Adelaide,  andTheophano. 
Quedlinburg,  founded  by  Otto  in  936,  was  an  influen- 
tial centre  of  culture  But  this  Ottonian  system  de- 
pended upon  one  premise:  if  it  were  to  benefit  the 
State,  the  king  must  control  the  Church.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  supreme  authority  over  the  German 
Church  was  the  pope.  Yet  Otto's  policy  of  imperial- 
ism was  rooted  in  the  recognition  of  the  above  premise. 
The  conr|Upst  of  Italy  should  result  in  the  subjection 
of  the  highest  ecclesiastical  authority  to  German  roy- 
alty. (Jtto  was  consequently  obliged  to  make  this 
campaign;  and  the  much  discussed  question  of  the 
motive  dictating  the  imperial  policy  is  resolved. 
The  unworthy  John  XII  was  at  that  time  reigning  in 
Rome.  He  was  the  son  of  Alberieh,  the  Tyrant  of 
Rome,  whose  covetous  glances  were  directed  towards 
the  E.xarchate  and  the  Pentapolis.  A  rival  in  these  as- 
I)irafions  rose  in  the  person  of  Berengarius  who  en- 
deavoured to  extend  his  rule  ov(T  Rome.  Otto  com- 
pliefl  with  the  pope's  request  for  aid,  which  exactly 
suited  his  projected  church  policy.  He  had  previously 
cau.sed  his  son  Otto,  a  minor,  to  be  elected  and 
anointed  king  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  in  961.  He  left 
his  brother  Bruno,  and  his  natural  son,  Wilhelm,  re- 
gents in  Germany,  and  journeyed  over  the  Brenner 
and  thus  to  Rome,  where  he  was  crowned  emperor  on 
2  Feb.,  962.  On  this  occasion  the  so-called  Ottonian 
privilege  was  conferred,  whose  genuineness  has  been 


frequently,  though  unjustly,  attacked.  In  its  first 
part  this  privilege  recalls  the  Pactum  Illudovici  of  817. 
It  confirms  the  grants  which  the  Church  received  from 
the  Carlovingians  and  their  successors.  The  second 
part  goes  back  to  the  Constitution  of  Lothair  (824), 
according  to  which  the  consecration  of  kings  should 
not  be  permitted  before  swearing  allegiance  to  the  Ger- 
man ruler.  When  Otto  marched  against  Berengarius, 
Pope  John  entered  into  treasonable  relations  with  the 
emperor's  enemies;  whereupon  Otto  returned  to  Rome 
and  forced  the  Romans  to  take  an  oath  never  to  elect 
a  pope  without  his  own  or  his  son's  approval.  John 
was  deposed  and  a  layman,  Leo  VIII,  placed  upon  the 
papal  throne.  Then  Berengarius  was  defeated  in  his 
turn  and  carried  a  prisoner  to  Bamberg.  Once  more 
Rome,  always  in  a  state  of  unrest,  rose  in  arms.  The 
exiled  pope,  John,  forced  his  supplanter  to  flee.  But 
John  died  in  964,  and  the  Romans  elected  a  new 
pope,  Benedict  V.  The  emperor  energetically  restored 
order  and  Leo  was  reinstated  in  his  position.  It  was 
already  apparent  that  the  emperor  really  controlled 
the  papacy  which  occupied  the  position  of  a  mere  link 
in  the  German  constitution.  The  Ottonian  system 
was  of  the  greatest  significance  to  Germany  in  her  posi- 
tion towards  the  secular  powers.  How  greatly  the 
German  King  was  strengthened  through  the  close 
alliance  between  Church  and  State  and  how  it  en- 
lianccil  till'  prestige  of  the  empire,  is  evident  from  the 
[iriigrcss  iliat  Tcutonism  and  Christianity  were  mak- 
ing in  .Slav  territory.  Otto  chose  Magdeburg,  for 
which  he  had  a  special  attachment,  as  the  local  centre 
of  this  new  civilization,  and  raised  it  to  an  arch- 
bishopric. 

Recurring  disorders  now  recalled  him  to  Rome. 
The  pope  whom  he  had  chosen,  John  XIII,  found  an- 
tagonists in  the  Roman  nobility.  The  emperor  per- 
formed his  duties  as  protector  of  the  Church  with 
stern  justice  and  punished  the  turbulent  nobles.  John 
XIII  then  crowned  his  son.  Otto,  emperor.  As  a  logi- 
cal consequence  of  his  imperial  policy,  he  now  openly 
avowed  his  intention  of  acquiring  Lower  Italy.  His 
supremacy  would  be  absolutely  safeguarfled  if  he  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  possession  of  the  southern  part  of 
the  peninsula.  Otto,  however,  finally  abaniloncd  the 
war  in  the  south.  His  son's  prospect  of  obtaining 
a  Byzantine  princess  for  his  bride  turned  the  scale 
against  it.  The  old  German  axiom  of  legitimacy, 
which  was  once  more  honoured  in  this  marriage,  was 
destined  later  on  to  revenge  itself  bitterly. 

Otto  was  buried  at  Magdcbing.  His  contempo- 
raries compared  his  tremendous  pliysical  strength  to 
that  of  a  lion.  He  was  a  Saxim  through  and  through. 
In  his  youth  he  had  learned  all  the  arts  (jf  tin-  profes- 
sion of  arms.  Though  subject  to  violi-iit  Hts  of  tem- 
per, and  conscious  of  his  power  and  genius,  he  prayed 
as  devoutly  as  a  child.  A  shrewd  calculator,  always 
convincing  and  always  toiling,  he  correctly  estimated 
the  importance  of  dililoniatic  muulial  imis,  lie  was  a 
keen  ob,s(TV<'r  and  pos.s.'.Kscd  a  liii.'  kno«  j,,!;;,.  ,,f  hu- 
man nature  which  always  rnalilid  liini  to  select  the 
proper  persons  for  important  offices  in  the  govern- 
ment. 

KorKK  AND  DoXNir.ER,  Jnhrhiirhrr  <{''s  >l<iitsrhcn  Rciches  unter 

Of..   /,  ,„  r;,-.,    ,      fT.  iliii,  I-;:;s;,  T\;-,ri:r   >M.  lirMMi.KH,  Kaiser 

11"      '      ''         ■      I  .  i:."  ■     lv7-..     I /'  •      ■     '  ./.    h.jixrrreich 

>■■     ■  /.        ■        ,■  '■    I  I  tiTishruck, 

|N'  I         ....      ;,  .     .        I .    \    ■  /.,■,, ,,,,,./,  (Dus- 

-  I   ■     ■        !  -■■-■        -  ••    .    '    i       /'..    ■,'  .        ■  .       .       '         // ?i„i  Ottos 

I  .  .;'■•,.•!  ■.,■,;,,,■  Philo- 


Mi- 


■  Zt;it  und 
m/  KuUur  (Pro- 
''    Friedrich    von 

'■!-<). 

Kampers. 


otto  II,  King  of  the  Germans  and  Emperor  of 
Rome,  son  of  Otto  I  and  Adelaide,  b.  955;  d.  in  Rome, 
7  Dec,  983.    In  961  he  was  elected  king  at  Worms,  and 


OTTO 


356 


OTTO 


was  crowned  at  Aix,  26  May.  Frail  in  body,  ho  pos- 
sessed an  intrepid  and  arbitrary  spirit.  With  him  be- 
gan that  extravagant  policy  of  imperialism,  which 
aimed  at  restoring  the  world  bounclaries  of  the  an- 
cients, and  to  encompass  the  Ancient  Sea  (the  Medi- 
terranean). Germany  and  Italy  wore  to  wield  the 
balance  of  power.  Reacting  against  this  imperialis- 
tic policy  was  the  revived  strength  of  particularism. 
The  conflict  with  the  ducal  House  of  Bavaria  gave  a 
dangerous  aspect  to  affairs.  In  Bavaria  (with  Otto's 
approval)  the  duchess  dowager  Judith  acted  as  regent 
for  her  son  Henry.  Upon  coming  of  ago  he  was  given 
the  Duchy  of  Bavaria  in  foe  by  Otto  II,  who,  at  the 
same  time,  invested  Ludolph's  son  Otto  with  Swabia 
on  the  tloath  of  Duke  Burchard,  ignoring  the  latter's 
widow,  Hodwig,  a  daughter  of  Judith.  Henry,  named 
the  "QuLirrclsorao",  supported  by  Abraham  of  Frie- 
sing,  Boloslaw  of  Bo- 
hemia, and  Mcsishiv 
of  Poland,  oppDsid 
this.  The  war  fiiiull\ 
ended  by  Judith  bi- 
ing  immured  in  :i 
cloister  and  Henry 
declared  to  have  for- 
feited his  duchy.  Lu- 
dolph's son  Otto  re- 
ceived the  vacant 
ducal  throne.  The 
Eastmark  was  sepa- 
rated from  Bavaria 
and  given  in  fee  to 
Luitpold  of  Babon- 
berg,  who  laid  tlio 
foundation  of  the  fu- 
ture renown  of  In- 
family.  In  97S  I.n- 
thair,  who  aspin-d 
to  the  acquisition  of 
Western  Germany, 
invaded  Lorraine, 
and  pillaged  Aix 
where  Otto  narrowly 
escaped  capture.  But  Lothair  did  not  advance  fur- 
ther. In  Dortmtmd  a  war  of  reprisal  was  at  once 
decided  upon;  with  00,000  men.  Otto  marched  upon 
Paris,  which  he  failed  to  take.  Lothair,  however,  was 
obhged  to  come  to  terms,  and  in  980  the  two  kings 
met  near  Sedan,  where  Otto  obtained  an  agreement 
securing  the  former  boundaries. 

In  Rome,  Crescentius,  a  son  of  Theodora,  headed  a 
disorderly  factional  government  and  sought  to  settle 
the  affairs  of  the  Holy  See  by  coercion.  Otto  cros.sed 
the  Alps  and  freed  the  papacy.  While  in  Rome  his 
mind  became  imbued  with  dreams  of  ancient  impe- 
riaUsm ;  he  would  give  his  imperialistic  policy  a  firm 
foundation  by  bringing  all  Italy  under  subjection.  In 
Southern  Italy  the  Byzantines  and  Saracens  united 
against  the  German  pretensions,  and  in  982  the  war 
with  these  ancient  powers  commenced.  Tarentum 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  German  king,  but  1.5  July, 
982,  he  was  defeated  near  Capo  Colonne,  not  far  from 
Cotrone.  This  battle  resulted  in  the  surrender  of  Apulia 
and  Calabria  and  destroyed  the  prestige  of  the  impe- 
rial authority  throughout  Italy.  The  effect  spread  to 
the  people  of  the  North  and  the  turbulent  Slavs  on  the 
East,  and  .shortly  after  the  Danes  and  Wends  rose  up 
inarms.  But  Otto  was  victorious.  The  Christian  mis- 
sion, under  the  leadership  of  pilgrims  of  Passau,  had 
made  great  progress  in  the  territory  of  the  Magyars. 
Then  came  the  defeat  in  Calabria,  whereupon  all  of 
Slavonia,  particularly  the  heathen  part,  revolted 
against  German  sovereignty.  The  promising  begin- 
nings of  German  and  Christian  culture  east  of  the 
Elbe,  inaugurated  by  Otto,  were  destroyed.  In  Bo- 
hemia the  ecclesiastical  organization  was  thoroughly 
established,  but  the  emperor  was  unable  to  support 


the  bishop  whom  he  had  placed  there.  On  the  Havel 
and  the  Spree  Christianity  was  almost  annihilated. 
Affairs  wore  in  equally  bad  condition  among  the 
Wends.  The  reign  of  Otto  II  has  been  justly  called 
the  period  of  martyrdom  for  the  German  Church.  The 
missions  which  had  been  organized  by  Otto  I  wore, 
with  few  exceptions,  destroyed.  Otto  II  now  renewed 
the  despotic  policy  towards  the  Saxonian  border 
nobles  and  incited  open  discontent.  In  9s:5  ho  hold  an 
Imperial  Diet  where  his  son  was  elected  king  as  Otto 
III  and  where  the  assembled  nobles  pledged  their  sup- 
jjort.  He  departed  with  high  hopes  for  Southern  Italy. 
Fortune  seemed  to  favour  the  imperial  Icailcr,  who  ex- 
pected to  wipe  out  the  disgrace  suffered  in  the  south. 
He  chose  a  new  pope,  Peter  of  Pavia  (John  XIV). 
While  in  Rome  he  was  stricken  with  malaria  and  was 
buried  in  St.  Peter's.  At  the  time  of  his  death  the  rela- 
tions of  the  empire 
towards  the  papacy 
were  still  undefined. 
He  had  been  unable 
to  maintain  his  polit- 
ical ascendency  in 
Rome.  His  imperi- 
alistic policy  had 
placed  the  restraints 
of  progressive  and 
liacific  Christianity 
and  Germanization 
on  the  borders;  and 
ho,  pursuing  fanciful 
il  roams,  believed 
that  he  might  dare  to 
transfer  the  goal  of 
his  policy  to  the 
south. 

GlESEBRECHT,         Jahr- 
hticher    des    deutschen 
Kriches     unler     Otto      II 
(H(-rlin,     1840);     Uhler, 
Jiilirhiirher  des  deutschen 
rtiches  unler   Otto    II    u. 
Otto  III  (Leipzig,  1902); 
Detmer,  Otto  II  bis  turn 
Tode  seines  Voters  (Leip- 
zig, 1878);    Mt)LLER-M.\NN,  Die  auswdrtige  Politik  Kaiser  Ottos 
II  (Basle,  1898);  Moltmann.  Theophano.  die  Gemahlin  Ottos  II 
in  ihrer  Bedeulung  fur  die  Politik  Otto  I  u.   Otto  II  (Gottingen, 

1873).  F.  Kampers. 

otto  III,  German  king  and  Roman  emperor,  b. 
980;  d.  at  Paterno,  24  Jan.,  1002.  At  the  age  of  three 
he  was  elected  king  at  Verona,  in  very  restless  times. 
Henry  the  Quarrelsome,  the  deposed  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
claimed  his  guardianship.  This  nobleman  wished  for 
the  imperial  crown.  To  further  his  object  he  made  an 
alliance  with  Lothair  of  France.  Williger,  Archbishop 
of  Mainz,  the  leader  of  Otto's  party,  improved  the 
situation.  He  induced  Henry  to  release  the  impris- 
oned king,  for  which  his  Duchy  of  Bavaria  was  re- 
stored. Otto's  mother,  Theophano,  now  assumed 
the  regency.  She  abandoned  her  husband's  imperial- 
istic policy  and  devoted  herself  entirely  to  furthering 
an  alliance  between  Church  and  State.  Her  policy 
bore  a  broad  national  stamp.  On  her  husband's  death, 
this  princess  styled  herself  simply  "Emperor"  in 
Italy,  though  she  was  obliged  for  political  reasons  to 
acknowledge  Crescentius  as  Patrician  by  her  personal 
presence  in  Rome  in  989.  In  France  Louis  V  had  died 
without  heirs,  and  Hugh  Capet  was  elected.  This  was 
the  work  of  the  French  episcopate.  Theophano  was 
not  able  to  prevent  France  from  speedily  freeing  her- 
self from  German  influence.  The  regent  endeavoured 
to  watch  over  the  national  questions  of  the  Empii-e 
in  the  East.  One  of  the  greatest  achievements  of  this 
empress  Wiis  her  success  in  maintaining  feudal  suprem- 
acy over  Bohemia. 

After  her  death,  the  less  capable  Adelaide  assumed 
the  regency.  Unlike  her  predecessor,  hers  was  not  a 
nature  fitted  to  rule;  the  Slavs  rose  on  the  eastern 


Rome 


OTTO 


357 


OTTO 


border,  and  the  Normans  were  with  difficulty  held  in 
check.  She  died  in  999.  The  influence  of  these  two 
women  upon  the  education  of  the  young  liing  (who 
assumed  the  government  in  994)  was  not  slight.  But 
two  men  exercised  even  greater  influence  on  him: 
Johannes  Nonentula,  a  proteg6  of  Theophano,  and 
Bernward  of  Hildesheim.  The  austere  Bernward 
awaliened  in  him  inclinations  to  fanciful  enthusiasm 
which  coloured  his  dreams  of  empire. 

Supported  by  the  spiritual  princes  of  the  Empire, 
he  marched  into  Italy.  Here  he  behaved  as  though 
the  Roman  see  were  a  metropolitan  bishopric  under 
the  Empire.  He  it  was  who  presided  at  synods  and 
dared  to  revoke  papal  decisions,  and  who  selected  the 
popes.  Like  Charlemagne,  he  wa.=  convinced  of  the 
spiritual  character  of  his  imperial  dignity,  and  deduced 
from  this  the  necessity  of  setting  the  empire  over  the 
papacy.  He  raised  a  German,  Bruno,  to  the  Chair 
of  Peter  under  the  name  of  Gregory  V.  The  new  pope 
crowned  Otto  emperor  21  May,  996,  but  he  did  not 
act  counter  to  the  ancient  claims  of  the  Curia,  and  he 
emphasized  the  duties  and  rights  of  the  popes. 

Otto  returned  to  Germany  in  996.  It  was  of  the 
greatest  consequence  that  in  Bruno  the  papal  throne 
contained  a  man  who  encouraged  the  ideas  of  the  reform 
party  for  purihcation  and  spiritualization  within  the 
Church,  and  a  consequent  exaltation  of  the  papacy. 
Harmonizing  with  this  reform  party  was  the  ascetic 
movement  within  the  Church,  whose  principal  ex- 
ponent was  a  native  of  Southern  Italy  called  Nilus. 
Among  his  pupils  was  the  Bohemian,  Adalbert,  second 
Bishop  of  Prague,  who  was  at  that  time  in  Rome  de- 
voting himself  entirely  to  mystical  and  ascetic  en- 
thusiasm. In  996  Otto  met  this  remarkable  man 
whom  he  succeeded  in  sending  back  to  his  see.  As 
he  scrupled  returning  to  Bohemia,  he  went  as  mis- 
sionary to  the  Prussian  country,  where  he  was  put  to 
death  in  999.  The  emperor  was  affected  by  the  gro- 
tesque piety  of  this  man,  and  it  had  aroused  ascetic 
inclinations  in  him  also.  Still  another  person  obtained 
great  influence  over  him:  the  learned  Frenchman, 
Gerbert,  who  came  to  the  Imperial  court  in  997. 

In  Rome,  meanwhile,  Crescentius  had  set  up  an  an- 
tipope  named  John  XVI  and  forced  Gregory  V  to  flee. 
In  998  Otto  went  to  Rome,  where  he  pronounced  se- 
vere judgment  upon  those  who  had  rebelled  against 
his  decisions.  Gregory  died  in  999,  and  the  emperor 
raised  his  friend  Gerbert  to  the  papacy  as  Sylvester  II. 
He  too,  followed  the  ancient  path  of  the  Curia,  and 
advocated  papal  supremacy  over  all  Christendom. 
How  was  this  consistent  and  energetic  policy  of  the 
Curia  to  aff'ect  the  youthful  emperor's  dreams  of  a 
fusion  of  the  ideal  state  with  the  ideal  church  in  an 
Augustan  Theocracy?  The  interference  with  Italian 
affairs  was  now  to  react  bitterly  upon  Germany.  In 
1000  Otto  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  tomb  of  his  friend 
Adelbert  at  Gnesen,  where  he  erected  an  archbishopric 
destined  to  promote  the  emancipation  of  the  Eastern 
Slavonians.  He  practised  mortifications  at  the  tomb 
of  an  ascetic,  and  thrilled  with  the  highest  ideas  of  his 
imperial  dignity,  he  afterwards  caused  the  tomb  of 
Charlemagne  at  Aix  to  be  opened.  Before  long  his 
dreams  of  empire  faded  away.  Everywhere  there  was 
fermentation  throughout  Italy.  Otto,  lingering  in 
Rome,  found  himself,  with  the  pope,  obliged  to  aban- 
don the  city.  In  Germany  the  princes  united  in  a 
national  opposition  to  the  imperialism  of  this  capri- 
cious sovereign.  He  had  few  supporters  in  his  plan  to 
reconquer  the  Eternal  City.  Only  by  recourse  to  arms 
could  his  body  be  brought  to  Aix,  where  recently  his 
tomb  has  been  discovered  in  the  cathedral. 

WiLMANs,  Jahrbilrhtr  dc^  Drulxchen  Reichea  untrr  Ottos  TTI 
(Berlin,  1840);  Bentzinceh.  /;.i<  Leben  der  Kaiserin  Addheid, 
Gemahtin  Oltos  I.,  u;,lir,n<l  ,lrr  li,,}ieruna  Olios  7// (Breslau  Dis- 
sertation. 1SS3);  Ott'i.  P.ipsf  (infjor  V  (Munster  Dissertation, 
1881):  Lux,  Papst  Sih-fslrr  II  Binfluss  au/ die  Polilik  Kaiser 
Olios  ///(Breslau,  1808);  Voigt,  Adalbert  I'ori  Prag  (Berlin,  1898); 
ScHULTTEsa,  Papsl  Silvester  II  als  Lehrer  und  Slaatsmann  (Ham- 


burg, 1891) :  Zharbki,  Die  Slavenkriege  2ur  Zeit  Ottos  III  und  die 
Pilgerfahrt  nach  Gnesen  (Lemberg,  1882). 

F.  Kampers. 

Otto  IV,  German  king  and  Roman  emperor,  b.  at 
Argentau  (Dept.  of  Orne),  c.  1182;  d.  19  May,  1218; 
son  of  Henry  the  Lion  and  of  his  wife  Mathilda,  daugh- 
ter of  King  Henry  II  of  England  and  sister  of  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion.  In  the  latter,  by  whom  he  was  made 
Earl  of  March,  Otto  found  a  constant  support.  This 
connexion  of  the  Guelphs  with  England  encouraged 
Adolf  of  Cologne,  upon  the  death  of  Henry  VI  and  the 
election  of  Philip  of  Swabia  by  the  Hohenstaufens,  to 
proclaim  Otto  king,  which  took  place  in  Cologne,  on  9 
June,  1198.  The  next  aim  of  Otto  was  to  obtain  the 
confirmation  of  his  position  as  head  of  the  kingdom. 
The  power  of  the  Hohenstaufens  was,  however,  too 
great.  Otto  and  his  followers  hoped  that  Pope  Inno- 
cent III,  who  was  hostile  to  the  Hohenstaufens,  would 
espouse  Otto's  cause  in  the  contest  for  the  German 
throne.  Innocent  awaited  developments.  To  him  the 
individual  was  of  little  importance,  his  chief  solicitude 
being  for  the  recognition  of  his  right  to  decide  con- 
tested elections  to  the  German  throne,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, his  suzerainty  over  kingdom  and  empire.  The 
year  1200  was  favourable  to  Philip.  He,  however, 
made  the  mistake  of  taking  possession  of  the  episcopal 
See  of  Mainz  in  defiance  of  canonical  regulations, 
whereupon  Innocent  declared  for  Otto.  The  year  1201 
marked  the  beginning  of  energetic  action  on  the  part  of 
the  Curia  in  Otto's  behalf.  While  the  papal  legate, 
Guido  of  Palestrina,  constantly  gained  new  friends  to 
Otto's  cause,  the  "sweet  youth"  {susse  junge  Mann), 
as  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide  calls  Philip,  remained 
inactive,  protesting  the  while  at  the  attitude  of  the 
pope.  When,  in  1203,  Thuringia  and  Bohemia  also 
deserted  him,  Philip's  affairs  were  nearly  hopeless. 
Otto  had  made  the  broadest  concessions  to  the  Holy 
See,  wishing  "to  become  King  of  the  Romans  through 
the  favour  of  God  and  the  pope".  He  confirmed  the 
papacy  in  its  secular  possessions,  relinquished  the 
property  of  Mathilda  of  Tuscany,  and  even  guaran- 
teed to  the  pope  the  revenues  of  Sicily.  He  resigned  all 
claims  to  dominion  in  Italy,  promising  to  treat  with  the 
Romans  and  with  the  cities  of  Italy  only  in  concur- 
rence with  the  pope.  The  purpose  of  Innocent  to  be- 
come the  overlord  of  Italy  was  thus  all  but  accom- 
plished. The  moral  results  of  this  great  contest  for 
the  throne  were  unfortunate.  Princes  and  bishops 
shamelessly  changed  their  party  allegiance. 

In  1204  the  scale  turned  in  Philip's  favour.  This 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  whole  north-western  part 
of  the  kingdom  became  involved  in  the  war  for  the  suc- 
cession in  Holland,  and  could  therefore  manifest  but 
little  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  Guelphs.  The  year 
120,5  saw  a  general  desertion  from  Otto's  cause,  his  do- 
minion being  finally  limited  to  the  city  of  Cologne  and 
his  possessions  in  Brunswick,  The  Archbishop  of 
Cologne,  Adolf,  had  also  gone  over  to  Philip's  stand- 
ard, upon  which  sentence  of  excommunication  had 
been  pronounced  against  him.  The  Diocese  of  Cologne 
was  then  subjected  to  all  the  confusion  of  a  schism.  In 
addition  the  city  of  Cologne  finally  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Hohenstaufens.  Without  further  delay,  the 
pope  withdrew  his  support  from  the  apparently  lost 
cause  of  the  Guelphs,  and  began  negotiations  with  the 
Hohenstaufens,  in  which  he  was  joined  by  the  other 
cities  of  Italy.  After  mutual  concessions,  the  pope 
promised  to  acknowledge  Philip  and  to  crown  him  em- 
peror. When  about  to  deal  the  last  crushing  blow  to 
the  Guelphs,  Philip  was  murdered  by  the  Count  Pala- 
tine Otto  von  Wittelsbach  at  Bamberg,  on  21  June, 
1208.  The  princes  now  rallied  round  Otto,  who  had 
shown  his  recognition  of  their  right  of  election  by  com- 
ing forward  once  more  as  a  candidate  for  the  crown. 
Otto's  next  step  was  to  take  as  his  wife  the  daughter 
of  his  murdered  enemy,  which  was  an  added  incentive 
to  the  Hohenstaufens  to  yield  themselves  to  his  sway. 


OTTOBEUREN 


358 


OTTO 


On  11  Novcmlior,  I'JOS,  lie  was  once  more  elcctpd,  this 
time  at  Frankfort,  whicli  event  was  followed  by  a  pe- 
riod of  mutual  understanding  and  a  short  term  of  peace 
for  the  kingdom.  To  ensure  the  support  of  the  pope, 
Otto  drew  up  a  charter  at  Speyer  on  22  March,  1209, 
in  which  he  renewed  the  concessions  previo\isly  made, 
and  added  others.  He  now  promised  not  to  pre\ent 
appeals  regarding  ecclesiastical  affairs  being  made  to 
the  Holy  See.  Of  the  greatest  significance  was  his  act 
acknowledging  the  exclusive  right  of  election  of  the 
cathedral  chapter.  In  1209  Otto  journeyed  to  Rome  to 
receive  the  imperial  crown.  On  this  occasion  he  did 
not  come  as  a  humble  petitioner,  but  iis  German  king  to 
order  the  affairs  of  Italy  and  to  bring  about  the  re-es- 
tablishment of  its  relations  with  his  kingdom.  As  soon 
as  the  coronation  was  an  accomplished  fact  (4  Oct., 
1209),  it  was  apparent  that  he  intended  to  make  the 
policy  of  the  Hohenstaufens  his  own.  His  first  step 
was  to  lay  claim  to  Sicily.  The  pope,  who  must  have 
feared  a  re-establishment  of  the  dominion  of  Henry  \1 
in  lower  Italy,  excommunicated  Otto  on  18  October, 
1210,  and  determined  to  place  the  young  Hohenstau- 
fen,  Frederick  II,  upon  the  throne.  The  latter  secured 
the  support  of  France,  and  thus  succeeded  once  more 
in  winning  the  Cierman  princes  to  his  cause.  On  the 
death  of  Otto's  wife,  a  Hohenstaufen  princess,  the 
Hohenstaufen  party  completely  abandoned  his  stand- 
ard for  that  of  Frederick.  The  renewed  conflict  be- 
tween the  Guelphs  and  the  Hohenstaufens  was  not  de- 
cided in  Germany,  but  abroad.  Conditions  in  the 
kingdom  were  so  changed  that  foreign  arms  were  des- 
tined to  decide  the  contest  for  the  German  crown.  So 
crushing  was  the  defeat  inflicted  upon  the  Guelph  and 
English  forces  by  Philip  Augustus  at  Bouvines  (27 
July,  1214),  that  Otto's  cause  was  lost.  Although  he 
endeavoured  in  1217  and  1218  to  make  a  further  effort 
to  secure  the  throne,  he  met  with  no  great  success. 
Absolved  from  his  excommunication,  he  died  on  19 
May,  1218,  and  was  buried  at  St.  Blasien  in  Bruns- 
wick. 

Langerfeldt,  Kaiser  Otto  IV  der  Wetfe  (Hanover,  1872); 
WiNKELMANN,  PhUipp  voH  Schwabsn  und  Otto  IV  von  Braun- 
schweig (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1873-78);  Hohter.  Geschichte  Papst 
Innocem  III  und  seiner  Zeitgenossen  (4  vol8.,  Hamburg,  1834-72) ; 
Grotefend,  Zur  Charakteristik  Philipps  von  tichwaben  und  Ottos 
IV  von  Braunschweig  (Jena,  1886);  ScHWEMER,  Innocem  III 
und  die  deulsche  Kirche  wdhrend  des  Thronstreites  von  1198-1208 
(Strasburg,  1882);  Ldchaire,  Innocent  ///(1904). 

f .  Kampers. 

Ottobeuren  (Ottobura,  Monasterium  Otto- 
bubantm),  formerly  a  Benedictine  abbey,  now  a 
priory,  near  Memmingen  in  the  Bavarian  Allgau.  It 
was  founded  in  764  by  Blessed  Toto,  and  dedicated  to 
St.  Alexander,  the  martyr.  Of  its  early  history  little  is 
known  beyond  the  fact  that  Toto,  its  first  abbot,  died 
about  815  and  that  St.  Ulric  was  its  abbot  in  972.  In 
the  eleventh  century  its  discipline  was  on  the  decline, 
till  Abbot  Adalhalm  (1082-94)  introduced  the  reform 
of  Hirsau.  The  same  abbot  began  to  restore  the  de- 
caying buildings,  which  were  completed,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  a  convent  for  noble  ladies,  by  his  successor, 
Abbot  Rupert  I  (1102-4.5).  Under  the  rule  of  the  lat- 
ter the  newly  founded  abbey  of  Marienberg  was  re- 
cruited with  monks  from  Ottobeuren.  His  successor, 
Abbot  Isengrira  (114.5-80),  wrote  "Annales  minores" 
(Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.,  XVII,  .315  .sq.)  and  "An- 
nales majores"  (ibid.,  312  sq.).  In  11.5.'5,  and  again  in 
1217,  it  was  consumed  by  fire.  In  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  it  declined  so  completely  that  at 
the  accession  of  Abbot  Johann  Schedler  (1416-43)  only 
six  or  eight  monks  were  left,  and  its  annual  revenues 
did  nr)t  exceed  46  silver  marks.  Under  Abbot  Leonard 
Wiedemann  (1.508-46)  it  again  began  to  flourish:  he 
erected  a  printing  establishment  and  a  common  house 
of  studies  for  the  Suabian  Benedictines.  The  latter, 
however,  was  soon  closed,  owing  to  the  ravages  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War. 

The  most  flourishing  period  in  the  history  of  Otto- 


beuren began  with  the  accession  of  Abbot  Rupert 
Ness  (1710-40)  and  lasted  until  its  secularization  in 
1S02.  From  1711-1725  Abbot  Rupert  erected  the 
present  monastery,  the  architectural  grandeur  of 
which  has  merited  for  it  the  name  of  "the  Suabian 
Escorial".  In  1737  he  also  began  the  building  of  the 
present  church,  completed  by  his  successor,  Anselm 
Erb,  in  1766.  In  the  zenith  of  its  glory  Ottobeuren 
fell  a  prey  to  the  greediness  of  the  Bavarian  Govern- 
ment (see  Schleglmann,  "Geschichte  der  Siikularisa- 
tion  im  rechtsrheinischen  Baj'crn",  III,  Ratisbon, 
1906,  611-54).  In  1834  King  Louis  I  of  Bavaria  re- 
stored it  as  a  Benedictine  priory,  dependent  on  the 
abbey  of  St.  Stephen  at  Augsburg.  At  present  (1910) 
the  community  consists  of  five  fathers,  sixteen  lay 
brothers,  and  one  lay  novice,  who  have  under  their 
charge  t  he  jiarish  of  Ottobeuren,  a  district  school,  and 
an  indust  ri:U  school  for  poor  boys.  Noteworthy  among 
monks  of  ( )tt()beuren  are:  Nicolas  Ellenbog,  humanist, 
d.  1543;  Jacob  Molitor,  the  learned  and  saintly  prior, 
d.  1675;  Albert  Krey,  the  hagiographer,  d.  1713;  Fr. 
Schmier,  canonist,  d.  1728;  Augustine  Bayrhamer,  d. 
1782,  and  Maurus  Feyerabend,  d.  1818,  historians; 
the  learned  Abbot  Honoratus  Goehl  (1767-1802),  who 
was  a  promoter  of  true  church  music,  and  founded 
two  schools;  Ulric  Schiegg,  the  mathematician  and 
astronomer,  d.  1810. 

Lindner,  Album  Ottoburanum  in  Zeitschrift  des  hist.  Vereins 
fiir  Schwaben  und  Neuburg,  XXXI  (Augsburg.  1905);  Idem,  Die 
Schri/tsteller  des  Benediktiner-Ordens  in  Bayern,  II  (Ratisbon, 
1880),  69-113;  Feyerabend,  Des  ehemaligen  Reichsstiftes  Otten- 
beuren  Benediktinerordens  in  Schwaben  sdmmtliche  JahrbUcher 
(Ottobeuren,  1813-6);  Behnhard,  Beschreibung  des  Klosters  und 
der  Kirche  zu  Ottobeuren  (Ottobeuren.  1883);  Aufleger,  Die 
Klosterkirche  in  Ottobeuren  (Munich.  1892-4);  Baumann,  Ge- 
schichte des  Allgdus  (Kempten.  1880-95). 

Michael  Ott. 

Ottoboni,  Pietro.    See  Alexander  VIII. 

Otto  of  Freising,  bishop  ;ind  historian,  b.  between 
1111  and  1114,  d.  at  Moriniond,  Champagne,  France, 
22  September,  115s.  He  was  the  .son  of  St.  Leopold  of 
Austria,  and  Agnes,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  Through 
his  mother's  first  marriage  with  the  Hohenstaufen 
Frederick  I,  Duke  of  Swabia,  he  was  half-brother  of 
Conrad  III  and  uncle  of  Emperor  Frederick  Barba- 
rossa.  Like  his  younger  brothers,  he  was  early  des- 
tined for  the  priesthood,  and  when  scarcely  more  than 
a  child  he  was  made  provost  of  the  chapter  of  canons 
aft  Klostemeuburg,  near  Vienna,  founded  in  1 1 14.  For 
his  education  he  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Paris, 
the  centre  of  learning,  philosophical,  theological,  and 
classical.  On  his  journey  home  he  and  fifteen  other 
noblemen  entered  the  Cistercian  Order  at  Morimond. 
It  is  not  known  what  led  him  to  take  this  sudden  step. 
Within  three  years  he  was  elected  abbot  of  the  monas- 
tery, but  shortly  afterwards,  probably  in  the  same 
year  (1137  or  1138),  was  called  to  Freising  as  bishop, 
though  he  did  not  lay  aside  the  habit  of  his  order.  As 
bishop  he  displayed  a  highly  beneficent  acrivity  by 
founding  and  reforming  monasteries,  and  zealously 
furthering  scientific  studies  by  introducing  Aristote- 
lean  philosophy  and  scholastic  disputations  on  the 
model  of  the  University  of  Paris.  As  a  result  the 
school  at  Freising  flourished  anew.  He  removed  many 
of  the  abuses  that  had  crept  in,  in  consequence  of  the 
investiture  strife,  and  demanded  back  the  properties 
of  which  the  Church  had  been  robbed.  In  every  way 
he  raised  the  prestige  of  the  Church  in  Freising  as 
against  the  nobility,  and  after  bitter  struggles  freed  it 
from  the  burdensome  bailiwick  of  the  Wittelsbach 
counts  palatine.  As  prince  of  the  German  Empire  and 
closely  connected  with  the  Hohenstaufen  family,  he 
possessed  great  influence,  and  used  his  high  standing 
to  adjust  differences  within  the  empire.  He  was  es- 
pecially active  in  bringing  about  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween Frederick  and  Hi'nry  the  Lion,  and  in  restoring 
peace  between  the  einiKTor  and  the  pope.  In  1147  he 
accompanied  Conrad  III  on  his  unsuccessful  crusade 


OTTO 


359 


OTTO 


to  the  Holy  Land.  The  part  of  the  army  entrusted  to 
Otto  was  completely  annihilated,  and  he  himself  re- 
turned lioiiic  after  undergoing  the  severest  privations 
and  facins  t  lie  greatest  dangers.  Otto  was  to  have  ac- 
eompanicil  Kmperor  Frederiek  on  his  mareh  into  Italy 
in  n.W,  hut  n-maincd  hrhind  on  acrcmnt  of  ill-licaltli. 
He  went  t(i  Knuirc  to  attrnd  the  general  eliaptcT  iif  his 
oi-der,  antl  died  while  revisiting  the  monastery  of  Mori- 
inonil. 

In  addition  to  a  short  fragment  of  a  history  of  Hilde- 
brand  (edited  by  Goldast,  "Apologia  pro  Henrico  IV  ", 
Hanover,  1611,  ISsqq.),  two  historical  worksbyOttoof 
Freising  are  extant,  the  so-called  "  Chronicle  "  (Chroni- 
con  sen  rerum  ab  initio  mundi  ad  sua  usque  tempora 
1146  libri  VIII)  and  the  "History  of  Emperor  Fred- 
erick "  (Gesta  Friderici  I  imperatoris  usque  ad  11 56  libri 
II).  The  "Chronicle",  dedicated  to  the  cleric  Isin- 
grim  (perhaps  .\bbotofOttobeuren),  is  a  universal  his- 
tory in  eiglit  books  based  in  the  main  on  the  great 
medie\-al  clironicles,  especially  on  Ekkehard,  but  also 
on  the  diurch  histories  of  Rufinus  and  Orosius.  Otto's 
work ,  however,  is  by  no  means  a  chronicle  in  the  sense  of 
its  predecessors.  He  himself  did  not  call  it  a  chronicle, 
but  gave  it  the  title  of  "  De  duabus  civitatibus",  since, 
as  he  asserted,  he  did  not  wish  merely  to  enumerate 
the  different  events  but  to  combine,  as  in  a  tragedy,  a 
picture  of  the  evil  which  abounded  in  his  time.  For 
this  purpose  he  adheres  closely  to  St.  Augustine's 
teaching  of  two  states,  especially  as  elaborated  in  the 
"De  Civitate  Dei",  though  he  also  used  the  ideas  of 
Orosius  concerning  the  misery  of  the  world.  Although 
the  doctrine  of  the  two  states  as  it  appears  in  Otto's 
historical  work  can  be  variously  interpreted,  he  un- 
doubtedly wished  to  represent  the  conflict  between  the 
civitas  Dei  (City  of  God)  and  the  civitas  diaboli  (City 
of  the  Devil),  between  the  children  of  God  and  the 
ciiies  Bahylonur  inimdiijue  amatores  (citizens  of  Baby- 
lon and  lovers  of  the  world).  Evidently  his  belief  is, 
that  after  Christ  the  conflict  between  the  mundane 
state  of  Babel  and  the  Divine  state  of  Israel  changeil 
into  a  conflict  between  Christianity  and  paganism  or 
heresy.  After  the  complete  victory  of  Christianity, 
however,  he  treats  almost  exclusively  of  the  civitas  Dei, 
which  then  merges  into  the  Church.  Nevertheless,  he 
is  compelled  to  represent  it  in  its  earthly  admixture  as 
a  corpus  admixtuni,  in  which  the  chosen  ones  must  live 
and  act  side  by  side  with  the  outcasts.  Guided  by 
these  views,  he  gives  a  narrative  in  the  first  seven 
books  extending  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the 
year  1 146,  while  the  eighth  book  depicts  the  Antichrist, 
the  Second  Coming,  the  Resurrection  of  the  Dead,  the 
Last  .ludgment,  the  end  of  the  mundane  state,  and 
the  beginning  of  the  Divine  state.  Thus,  through  a 
unifying  conception,  he  succeeded  in  repri'senting  tlie 
entire  range  of  history  as  a  connected  wliiile,  l>y  wliich 
he  becuime,  if  not  the  first,  certainly  the  most  impor- 
tant representative  of  the  medieval  philosophy  of  his- 
tory. The  work,  which  was  spread  in  many  manu- 
scripts, was  first  published  in  1515  in  Strasburg  {ex 
adihus  M.  Schureri).  Wilmans  issued  a  critical  edi- 
tion of  it  in  "Monumenta  Germ.  Scriptores",  XX 
(Hanover,  1868),  pp.  115-301,  and  a  German  tran.sla- 
tion  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  books  was  publisheil  in 
Leipzig  (LSSl,  1894). 

Otto  began  his  second  historical  work,  "Gesta  Frifl- 
erici",  almost  ten  years  after  the  completion  of  his 
"Chronicle".  But  he  could  not  finish  it,  and  at  his 
death  entrusted  the  continuation  of  it  to  his  chaplain 
Rahewin.  Of  course  he  had  command  of  excellent,  re- 
liable sources,  and  therefore  could  reproduce  verbatim 
a  number  of  extremely  important  documents.  ."M- 
though  a  unifying  thought  is  not  so  apparent  in  this 
work,  it  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  that  Otto  here  de- 
sired to  prove  that  happiness  in  this  world  depends 
upon  the  harmonious  co-operation  of  Church  and 
State.  Throughout  the  "Gesta"  he  endeavours  to 
show  that  a  happy  state  of  peace  followed  the  termina- 


tion of  the  conflicts  between  the  emperor  and  the  pope 
at  Frederick's  accession  to  the  throne.  And  even 
though  the  feeling  for  the  world's  misery  (the  so-called 
pessimism  of  Otto,  or  rather  of  the  Middle  Ages — ef. 
Hauck,  "Kirchengeschichte",  IV,  479  sqq.),  which 
donunates  his  "Chronicle",  crops  up  repeatedly,  a 
spirit  of  "cheerful  buoyancy"  pervades  the  entire 
work,  and  the  dramatis  personie  are  depicted  more 
freely  and  with  greater  self-confidence.  In  the  first 
book  he  d<'seribes  the  events  from  the  beginning  of  the 
dis]Kites  between  the  empire  and  the  papacy  under 
Henry  IV  to  the  death  of  Conrad  III.  In  the  second 
he  relates  the  history  of  the  years  of  peace  (1152-6). 
The  "Gesta  Friderici",  therefore,  is  an  extremely  im- 
portant work,  despite  the  fact  that  the  author  himself 
could  not  give  it  the  final  polish.  It  is  notable  both  as 
to  form  and  content,  though  it  cannot  be  ex-pected  to 
fulfil  all  the  requirements  of  modern  standards.  The 
first  edition  was  published  at  Strasburg  in  1515;  Wil- 
mans published  a  critical  edition  of  it  in  "  Monumenta 
Germ,  Scrijitores",  XX  (Hanover,  1868),  pp.  347-415, 
and  a  German  translation  of  it  appeared  in  Leipzig 
(1SS3,  1,S94). 

PoTTHAST,  Bibl.  hist.  med.  am,  II  (Berlin,  1896),  885-7,  contains 
many  bibliographical  references:  Wattenbach,  Deutschlands 
Geschichtsquellen  im  Mittdalter,  II  (Berlin,  1S94),  271-9;  Bern- 
HEIM,  Der  CharakttT  Otlo^  iirn!  sriner  Werki'  in  Milleil.des  Instituts 
fiiT  iisierr.  Geschirit'  '■>!  ^i. ,,,:.!  \l  i|ss:,i,  I  •!  Hashaoen,  OHo 
von  Freising  als  <''     '  ■'     -    ■■'         ■  A       ■       r^hliker  (Leipzig, 

1900);   Hauck,  A,'  ■  -    ,  \\     ,|,,.ipzig,   1903), 

476-85;  ScHMiD  LI  N,  ;».'  j.  ''■-.//  ,''.''.'  ";.//,  ,  I,.  ,iiiolit.  Weltan- 
schauung Ottos  von  Frti^iiig  (Freiljurj^.  I'.MKi), 

PaTEICIDS    SCHL.^CiER. 

Otto  of  Passau. — All  we  know  of  him  is  in  the 
ineliii'e  c)l  his  work,  in  which  he  calls  himself  a  member 
of  the  I'raiieiscan  ( )rder,  at  one  time  lector  of  theology 
at  Basle,  antl  says  that  he  finished  his  writing  on  2 
(1)  Feb.,  1386,  dedicating  it  to  all  the  "friends  of 
God ",  both  clerical  and  lay,  male  and  female,  and  begs 
for  their  prayers.  According  to  Sbaralea  ("Suppl. 
Script.  Franciscan!  ordinis",  Rome,  1806,  571)  he  was 
a  native  of  Flanders  and  belonged  to  the  Franciscan 
province  of  Cologne.  His  book  bears  the  title  "Die 
vierundzwanzig  alten  oder  der  guldin  Tron  der  minnen- 
den  seelen".  He  introduces  the  twenty-four  ancients 
of  Apoc,  iv,  4,  and  makes  them  utter  sentences  of 
wisdom  by  which  men  can  obtain  the  golden  throne 
in  eternal  life.  The  sentences  are  taken  from  Holy 
Scripture,  the  Fathers,  Scholastics,  and  from  those 
heathen  authors,  "whom  the  Church  does  not  con- 
demn". He  thus  enumerates  104  "masters",  among 
whom  are  also  some  of  the  mystics,  as  Hugo  and  Rich- 
ard of  St.  Victor.  He  generally  gives  accurate  quota- 
tion of  his  sources  though  he  also  draws  from  some  not 
specified,  e.g..  St.  Elizabeth  of  Schonau.  He  tries  to 
remain  on  strictly  Catholic  ground,  but  sometimes 
loses  himself  in  dogmatical  intricacies  and  quibbles. 
To  be  plain  and  intelligible  he  frequently  uses  trivial 
expressions.  He  writes  on  the  nature  of  God  and  of 
man,  on  their  mutual  relation,  on  the  requisites  for 
perfection:  contrition,  confes.sion,  and  penance;  on 
internal  and  external  life,  purity  of  mf)f  ives,  shunning 
idleness,  love  of  God  and  of  the  neighbour,  the  neces- 
sity of  faith,  and  the  grace  of  God.  He  speaks  of  the 
Scrii)tures  as  the  storehouse  of  Divine  wisdom  and 
urges  the  faithful  to  read  them.  In  speaking  of  con- 
templative life  he  insists  that  none  can  reach  it  with- 
out spending  time  in  the  active  service  of  God  and 
man.  The  term  "friends  of  God"  he  explains  ac- 
cording to  John,  XV,  15,  and  speaks  of  prayer,  humility, 
obedience,  spiritual  life,  virtues  and  vices,  and  shows 
Christ  as  the  model  of  all  virtues.  The  longest  chap- 
ters, eleven  and  twelve,  he  devotes  to  the  Holy 
Eucharist  and  to  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  last  chap- 
ters treat  of  death  and  t+re  future  life.  The  number  of 
•  manuscript  copies  of  the  book  (about  forty)  bears 
evidence  of  the  estimation  in  which  it  was  held.  It 
found  its  way  to  all  "friends  of  God"  in  the  south  of 


OTTO 


360 


OUR  LADT 


Germany,  along  tlio  Lower  Rhine  and  in  the  Nether- 
lands. It  first  appeared  in  print  in  1470,  probably  by 
Pfistcr  in  Bamberg.  A  modernizeil  eclition,  "Die 
Krone  der  Aeltesten",  was  made  in  \S'Mi  at  Landshut 
as  a  tenth  volume  of  "Leitstern  auf  der  Bahn  dca 
Heils". 

AUg.  deulsche  Biogr.,  XXIV,  741,  and  XXV,  794;  Hubter, 
NomenclatoT,  II  (1900),  72r,. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Otto  of  St.  Blasien,  ehronieler,  b.  abovit  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century;  d.  23  July,  122,3,  at 
.St.  Blasien  in  the  Black  Forest,  Baden.  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  events  of  his  life.  It  is  probable  that 
in  his  later  days  he  became  abbot  of  the  renowned 
Benedictine  monastery  of  St.  Blasien.  He  is  known 
as  the  WTiter  who  continued  the  chronicles  of  Otto  of 
Freising,  like  whom  he  possessed  a  great  talent  for 
presenting  a  clear  survey  of  events.  His  language 
was  lofty,  and  followed  the  model  of  the  ancient 
classics.  Like  many  of  his  contemporaries,  he  liked 
to  apply  the  fixed  formulas  of  Justinian  to  the  German 
emperors,  probably  on  the  assumption,  then  wide- 
spread, that  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  was  only  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  Ca?sars.  His 
chronicles,  written  in  the  form  of  annals,  "Ad  librum 
VII  chronici  Ottonis  Frisingensis  episcopi  continuata; 
historian  appendix  sive  Continuatio  Sanblasiana", 
embrace  the  period  from  1146  to  1209,  that  is,  the 
period  from  Conrad  III  to  the  murder  of  Philip  of 
Swabia.  Since  he  was  distant  in  time  from  the  facts 
he  narrates,  his  accounts  are  wholly  objective,  even 
though  he  makes  no  concealment  of  his  prejudice  in 
favour  of  the  Hohcnstaufen,  who  in  1218  received  the 
bailiwick  of  St.  Blasien  from  the  dukes  of  Ziihringen. 
Yet,  after  Otto  IV  of  Wittelsbaeh  was  recognized 
as  German  emperor,  he  writes  of  him  in  the  same 
objective  way  as  of  his  predecessors.  Nevertheless, 
without  any  apparent  cause,  the  narrative  breaks 
off  at  the  coronation  of  Otto  IV.  Perhaps  the  chron- 
icler shrank  from  describing  the  bloody  party  con- 
flicts of  the  times.  His  chief  sources  were  the  "  Gesta 
Friderici"  and  perhaps  Alsatian  chronicles.  On  the 
whole  his  statements  may  be  trusted.  It  is  only  when 
he  has  to  resort  to  oral  reports  that  he  becomes  unre- 
liable; this  is  especially  the  case  in  his  chronology, 
though  he  is  not  to  be  reproached  with  intentional 
misrepresentation  of  facts  for  this  reason.  His  chroni- 
cles were  pubhshed  by  R.  Wilmans  in  "Mon.  Germ. 
Hist.:  Script."  (XX,  pp.  304-34);  they  were  trans- 
lated into  German  by  Horst  Kohl  in  "  Geschichtschrei- 
ber  der  deutschen  Vorzeit"  (12  century,  vol.  VIII, 
Leipzig,  1881,  2nd  ed.,  1894). 

PoTTHAST.  Bibl.  hisl.  medii  a-ui,  II  (Berlin,  1896),  884  sq.; 
Thoile,  Die  Chronik  d.  Otto  von  St.  B.  krilisch  untersucht  (Leipzig, 
1877):  W \TrzsB.\CH,  Deiitschlanda  Geschichtsquelten,  II  (Berlin, 
1894),  284  sq. 

Patricius  Schlager. 

Ouen,  St.  (Owen;  Dadon,  Lat.  Audoenus),  Arch- 
bishop of  Rouen,  b.  at  Sancy,  near  Soissons  about  609 ; 
d.  at  Clichy-la-Garenne,  near  Paris,  24  Aug.,  683.  His 
father,  Autharius,  and  his  mother,  Aiga,  belonged  to  the 
Gallo-Roman  race.  Shortly  after  Ouen's  birth  they 
came  to  Ussy-sur-Marne,  where  he  spent  his  child- 
hood, with  which  tradition  connects  a  series  of  mar- 
vellous events.  Being  afterwards  sent  to  the  Abbey 
of  St.  M(5dard  he  received  an  education  which  caused 
him  to  be  welcomed  at  the  court  of  Clothaire  II  a 
short  time  previous  to  the  death  of  that  prince.  The 
latter's  successor,  Dagobert  I,  made  him  his  referen- 
dary or  chancellor  and  profiled  greatly  by  his  talents 
and  learning.  He  charged  him  with  important  mis- 
sions and,  it  is  believed,  with  compiling  the  Salic  Law. 
St.  Ouen  found  at  the  royal  court  Eloi  (Eligius),  an- 
other holy  person,  whose  life  was  very  similar  to  his 
own,  and  with  whom  he  was  united  in  close  friend- 
ship. Both  of  them,  despite  the  disorders  of  the 
Frankish  king,   served  him  faithfully.      But   when 


Dagobert  was  dead  they  considered  themselves  re- 
leased from  all  secular  duties,  and  leaving  the  court 
they  devotee!  thcm.sclves  in  seclusion  to  the  theologi- 
(^al  studies  which  attrai'ted  them. 

St.  Ouen,  who  in  034  foundeil  (lie  Alibcy  of  Habais, 
was  ordained  priest  by  Dieudoniie,  Hislmp  of  Milcon. 
Some  time  later  his  virtues  and  greal  ability  marked 
him  out  for  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Houen,  left  va- 
cant by  the  ilcath  of  St.  Romain.  Elected  in  639  he 
was  consecrated  at  Rouen,  21  May,  640,  with  his 
friend  St.  Eloi,  who  became  Bishop  of  Moyon.  The 
Diocese  of  Rouen,  in  which  there  were  still  barbarian 
districts  from  which  paganism  had  not  disappeared, 
was  transformed  under  the  administration  of  St. 
Ouen  who  caused  the  worship  of  false  gods  to  cease, 
founded  numerous  monasteries,  and  developed  theo- 
logical studies.  Occasionally  the  statesman  reap- 
peared in  St.  Ouen.  For  instance  he  upheld  Ebroin 
the  mayor  of  the  palace  in  his  strife  against  the  aris- 
tocracy. After  Ebroin's  death,  at  the  invitation  of 
Thierry  I  he  went  to  Cologne  and  succeeded  in  re- 
storing peace  between  Neustria  and  Austrasia. 
Shortly  after  he  was  att.-'.cked  by  the  illness  to  which 
he  succumbed.  His  body,  which  was  brought  to 
Rouen  and  interred  in  the  Abbey  of  St.  Pierre  which 
thenceforth  assumed  his  name,  was  translated  several 
times,  in  842,  918,  and  finally  in  1860.  St.  Ouen,  who 
survived  St.  Eloi,  wrote  the  life  of  his  friend.  This 
biography,  which  is  one  of  the  most  authentic  histori- 
cal monuments  of  the  seventh  century,  contains  a  store 
of  valuable  information  regarding  the  moral  and  reli- 
gious situation  of  that  time.  It  was  published  for 
the  first  time  by  Dom  Luc  d'Achery  in  vol.  V  of  his 
"Spicilegium". 

Ceillier.  Ilial.  gin.  des  aul.  cacr.  el  eccUs..  XVII  (Paris,  1750), 
687-89;  Cheruel  in  Rev.  de  Rouen.  II  (1836),  251-64,  I;  (1837), 
21-36;  Hist.  Litt.  de  la  France  (Paris,  1735-8),  III,  623-28;  IV, 
74;  LANOVirs;  .'i.';.  Frnnciie  cancell.  (1634),  24-79;  Petit,  His- 
toire  de  S.  Ow  i  'lN>ii.  n,  ^.  d.);  Reich,  Ueber  Audoens  Lebensbe- 
schreibd.b.th      I'  1 1  ,lle,  1872) ;  Vac.indard,  iVn/ancede  S. 

Ouen  in  Pr,.  '/.h,™  (Rouen,  1896-97),  129-53;  Idem, 

S.  Ouen  ,i".w  '  "'  '  .'  ^'/„jf  in  Revue  des  questions  historiguea, 
XIX  (Pari.^,.  1.>'.ini.  .:)-..i). 

L£oN  Clognet. 
Our  Father.    See  Lord's  Prayer. 

Our  Lady,  Help  of  Christians,  Feast  of. — The 
invocation  Auxilium  Chrislianorum  (Help  of  Chris- 
tians) originated  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1576 
Bernardino  Cirillo,  archpriest  of  Loreto,  published  at 
Macerreta  two  litanies  of  the  Bl.  Virgin,  which,  he 
contended,  were  used  at  Loreto:  one  a  form  which  is 
entirely  different  from  our  present  text,  and  another 
form  ("  Alia;  litaniiE  B.  M .  V.")  identical  wit h  the  litany 
of  Loreto,  approved  by  Clement  VIII  in  1601,  and 
now  used  throughout  the  entire  Church.  This  second 
form  contains  the  invocation  A  uxilium  ChrisHanorum. 
Possibly  the  warriors,  who  returning  from  Lepanto  (7 
Oct.,  1571)  visited  the  sanctuary  of  Loreto,  saluted 
the  Holy  Virgin  there  for  the  first  time  with  this  new 
title ;  it  is  more  probable,  however,  that  it  is  only  a  vari- 
ation of  the  older  invocation  Advocata  Chrislianorum, 
found  in  a  litany  of  1524.  Torsellini  (1597)  and  the 
Roman  Breviary  (24  May,  Appendix)  say  that  Pius 
V  inserted  the  invocation  in  the  litany  of  Loreto  after 
the  battle  of  Lepanto;  but  the  form  of  the  litany  in 
which  it  is  first  found  was  unknown  at  Rome  at  the 
time  of  Pius  V  (see  Litany  op  Loreto;  Schuetz, 
"Gesch.  des  Rosenkranzgebetes",  Paderborn,  1909, 
243  sq.). 

The  feast  of  Our  Lady,  Help  of  Christians,  was  in- 
stituted by  Pius  VII.  By  order  of  Napoleon,  Pius 
VII  was  arrested,  5  July,  1808,  and  detained  a  prisoner 
for  three  years  at  Savona,  and  then  at  Fontainebleau. 
In  January,  1814,  after  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  he  was 
brought  back  to  Savona  and  set  free,  17  March,  on  the 
eve  of  the  feast  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  the  Patroness 
of  Savona.  The  journey  to  Rome  was  a  veritable 
triumphal  march.   The  pontiff,  attributing  the  victory 


OUR  LADY 


361 


OUR  LADY 


of  the  Church  after  8o  much  agony  and  distress  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  visited  many  of  her  sanctuaries  on  the 
way  and  crowned  her  images  (e.  g.  the  "Madonna  del 
Monte"  at  Cesena,  "della  Misericordia"  at  Treja, 
" della  Colonne "  and  "della Tempest^"  at  Toleutino). 
The  people  crowded  the  streets  to  catch  a  glimpse  of 
t?ie  venerable  pontiff  who  had  so  bravely  withstood 
the  threats  of  Napoleon.  He  entered  Rome,  24  May, 
1814,  and  was  enthusiastically  welcomed  (McCaffrey, 
"History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Nineteenth 
Cent.",  1909,  I,  52).  To  commemorate  his  own  suf- 
ferings and  those  of  the  Church  during  his  exile  he 
extended  the  feast  of  the  Seven  Dolours  of  Mary  (third 
Sunday  in  September)  to  the  universal  Church,  18 
Sept.,  1814.  When  Napoleon  left  Elba  and  returned 
to  Paris,  Murat  was  about  to  march  through  the  Papal 
States  from'  Naples;  Pius  VII  fled  to  Savona  (22 
March,  1815),  where  he  crowned  the  image  of  our 
Lady  of  Mercy,  10  May,  1815.  After  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  and  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he  returned  to 
Rome,  7  July,  1815.  To  give  thanks  to  God  and  Our 
Lady  he  (15  Sept.,  1815)  instituted  for  the  Papal 
States  the  feast  of  Our  Lady,  Help  of  Christians,  to 
be  celebrated,  24  May,  the  anniversary  of  his  first  re- 
turn. The  Dioceses  of  Tuscany  adopted  it,  12  Feb., 
1816;  it  has  spread  nearly  over  the  entire  Latin 
Church,  but  is  not  contained  in  the  universal  calendar. 
The  hymns  of  the  Office  were  composed  by  Brandi- 
marte  (Chevalier,  "Repert.  Hymnolog.",  II,  495). 
This  feast  is  the  patronal  feast  of  Australasia,  a  double 
of  the  first  class  with  an  octave  (Ordo  Australasias, 
1888),  and  in  accordance  with  a  vow  (1891)  is  cele- 
brated with  great  splendour  in  the  churches  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris.  It  has 
attained  special  celebrity  since  the  Ven.  Dora  Bosco, 
founder  of  the  Salesian  Congregation,  9  June,  1868, 
dedicated  to  Our  Lady,  Help  of  Christians,  the  mother 
church  of  his  congregation  at  Turin.  The  Salesian 
Fathers  have  carried  the  devotion  to  their  numerous 
establishments. 

HOLWECK,  Fasti  Mariani  (Freiburg,  1892) ;  Gu^RANGER,  Lit-dT~ 
pirai  !/tar,  24  May.  F.   G.    HoLWECK. 

Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel,  Feast  of. — Records 
dating  from  the  reign  of  Paul  II  (1464-71)  relate  that 
the  picture  of  Our  Lady,  at  first  called  "  La  Madonna 
del  Paradiso"  and  now  better  known  as  "Madonna 
del  Buon  Consiglio",  appeared  at  Genazzano,  a  town 
about  twenty-five  miles  southeast  of  Rome,  on  St. 
Mark's  Day.  25  April,  1467,  in  the  old  church  of  Santa 
Maria,  which  had  been  under  the  care  of  Augustinians 
since  1356.  The  venerated  icon  itself,  which  is  drawn 
on  a  thin  scale  of  wall-plaster  httle  thicker  than  a 
visiting-card,  was  observed  to  hang  suspended  in  the 
air  without  the  slightest  apparent  support ;  thus  early 
tradition,  which  furthermore  tells  how  one  might  have 
passed  a  thread  around  the  image  without  touching 
it.  At  once  devotion  to  Our  Lady  in  Santa  Maria 
sprang  up;  pilgrim-bands  began  to  resort  thither; 
while  miracles  in  ever-increasing  numbers,  of  which  a 
register  was  opened  two  days  after  the  event,  were 
wrought,  as  they  still  continue  to  be,  at  the  shrine. 
In  July  following.  Pope  Paul  deputed  two  bishops  to 
investigate  the  alleged  wonder-working  image.  Their 
report,  however,  is  not  known  to  be  extant.  The  cult 
of  Our  Lady  increased.  In  1630  Urban  VIII  him.self 
went  to  Genazzano  on  a  pilgrimage,  as  did  Pius  IX 
in  1864.  On  17  Nov.,  1682,  Innocent  XI  had  the  pic- 
ture crowned  with  gold  by  the  Vatican  Basilica.  In 
1727  Benedict  XIII  granted  the  clergy  of  Genazzano 
an  Office  and  Mass  of  Our  Lady  for  25  April,  anniver- 
sary of  the  apparition,  elsewhere  the  feast  being  kept 
a  day  later  so  as  not  to  conflict  with  that  of  St.  Mark 
the  Evangelist.  On  2  July,  1753,  Benedict  XIV  ap- 
proved of  the  Pious  Union  of  Our  Lady  of  Good  Coun- 
sel for  the  faithful  at  large,  and  was  himself  enrolled 
therein  as  its  pioneer  member;  Pius  IX  was  a  member, 


and  also  Leo  XIII.  On  18  Dec,  1779,  Pius  VI,  while 
re-approving  the  cult  of  Our  Lady,  granted  all  Augus- 
tinians an  Office  with  hymns,  lessons,  prayer,  and 
Mass  proper  of  double-major  rite;  with  a  plenary  in- 
dulgence also  for  the  faithful,  to  which  Pius  VIII 
added  another  for  visitors  to  the  shrine.  On  18  Dec, 
1884,  Leo  XIII  approved  of  a  new  Office  and  Mass  of 
second-class  rite  for  all  Augustinians,  while  on  17 
March,  1903,  he  elevated  the  church  of  Santa  Maria — • 
one  of  the  four  parish  churches  at  Genazzano — to  the 
rank  of  minor  basilica;  and,  on  22  April  following, 
authorized  the  insertion  in  the  Litany  of  Loreto  of 
the  invocation  "Mater  Boni  Consilii"  to  follow  that 
of  "Mater  Admirabilis".  The  same  pontiff,  ten 
years  earlier  (21  Dec,  1893)  had  sanctioned  the  use  of 
the  White  Scapular  of  Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel  for 
the  faithful.  In  the  United  States  there  are  many 
churches  and  institutions  in  honour  of  Our  Lady  of 
Good  Counsel. 

NoRTHCOTE,  Celebrated  Sanctuaries  (Philadelphia,  1868) ;  Dil- 
lon, The  Virgin  Mother  of  Good  Counsel  (Rome,  1884) ;  Bennett, 
Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel  in  Genazzano  (New  York,  1888) ; 
GouGH,  Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel  (London,  1894) ;  Vanutelh, 
Cenni  Storici  .  .  ,  di  Genazzano  (Roma,  1839) :  Buonanno, 
Delia  Immagine  di  Maria  SSa.  .  .  .  memorie  storiche  (Naples, 
1874);  PiFFERl,  Relatione  .  .  .  del  Saniuario  (Roma.  1903);  De 
Orgio,  Istoriche  notizie  della  prodigiosa  Apparizione  (n.  p.  n.  d.). 

Thomas  C.  Middleton. 

Our  Lady  of  the  Fields,  Brothers  op,  a  Cana- 
dian congregation  founded  in  1902  at  St-Damien  de 
Buckland  in  the  Diocese  of  Quebec  by  Rev.  M.  J.-O. 
Brousseau.  Its  object  is  to  train  orphans  in  industrial 
and  agricultural  pursuits,  and  the  arts  of  colonization. 
The  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  of  Perpetual  Help,  also 
founded  by  Rev.  M.  J.-O.  Brousseau  in  1892,  care 
for  the  orphans  up  to  the  age  of  twelve  years:  they  are 
then  confided  to  the  care  of  the  Brothers  for  the  pur- 
poses above  indicated.  The  mother-house  is  at  St- 
Damien,  Bellechasse  Co.,  Lac  Vert,  P.  Q.,  Canada. 
There  are  at  present  six  brothers  and  four  novices. 

Our  Lady  of  the  Snow,  Feast  of  ("Dedicatio 
Sancta-  Maria;  ad  Nives"),  a  feast  celebrated  on  5 
August  to  commemorate  the  dedication  of  the  church 
of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore  on  the  Esquiline  Hill  in 
Rome.  The  church  was  originally  built  by  Pope  lii- 
berius  (352-366)  and  was  called  after  him  "Basilica 
Liberii"  or  "Liberiana".  It  was  restored  by  Pope 
Sixtus  III  (432-440)  and  dedicated  to  Our  Lady. 
From  that  time  on  it  was  known  as  "Basihca  S.  Ma- 
riae"  or  "Marise  Majoris";  since  the  seventh  century 
it  was  known  also  as  "Maria  ad  Pni'sepe".  The  ap- 
pellation "ad  Nives"  (of  the  snow)  (irJKinated  a  few 
hundred  years  later,  as  did  also  the  Ic^jcnd  wliich  gave 
this  name  to  the  church.  The  legend  runs  thus:  Dur- 
ing the  pontificate  of  Liberius,  the  Roman  patrician 
John  and  his  wife,  who  were  without  heirs,  made  a  vow 
to  donate  their  possessions  to  Our  Lady.  They  prayed 
her  that  she  might  make  known  to  them  in  what  man- 
ner they  were  to  dispose  of  their  property  in  her  hon- 
our. On  5  August,  during  the  night,  snow  fell  on  the 
summit  of  the  Esquiline  Hill  and,  in  obedience  to  a 
vision  which  they  had  the  same  night,  they  built  a 
basilica,  in  honour  of  Our  Lady,  on  the  spot  which  was 
covered  with  snow.  From  the  fact  that  no  mention 
whatever  is  made  of  this  alleged  miracle  until  a  few 
hundred  years  later,  not  even  by  Sixtus  III  in  his 
eight-lined  dedicatory  inscription  (edited  by  de  Rossi, 
"Inscript.  christ.",II,  i  (Rome,  ISS.S),  71 ;  Grisar  (who 
has  failed  to  authenticate  the  alleged  miracle),  "Ana- 
lecta  Romana",  I  (Rome,  1900),  77;  Duchesne,  "Liber 
Pontificalis",  I  (Paris,  1886),  235;  Marucchi,  "Ele- 
ments d'arch^ologiechrdtienne",  III  (Paris  and  Rome, 
1902),  155,  etc]  it  would  sccrii  that  the  legend  has 
no  historical  basis.  Originally  the  feast  was  cele- 
brated only  at  Sta  Maria  Maggiore;  in  the  fourteenth 
century  it  was  extended  to  all  the  churches  of  Rome 
and  finally  it  was  made  a  universal  feast  by  Pius  V. 


OVERBECK 


362 


OVERBERG 


painting  to  the  dominatinp;  sister  art  of  arohit-orture. 
Ovorbpok  was  not  abli-  personally  to  develop  the  ideal 
he  had  formed,  the  adornment  of  northern,  especially 
German  ehurehes  with  frescoes,  but.  his  school, 
largely  as  represented  by  Eduard  von  Steinle,  has 
partially  carried  out  his  wishes. 

The  influence  of  Overbeck's  spirit 
was  by  no  means  limited  to  (ler- 
many.  France,  particularly,  uniler- 
stood  the  graphic  speech  of  this  new 
religious  art;  IJelgiuni,  I'olaiid,  and 
SjKiin  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  the 
master  at  Rome.  The  reputation  of 
the  new  leader  of  art  wxs  spread 
throughout    all    classe-s    of    society, 

largely  by  his  smaller  works,  espe- 

Overbeck,    Friedhich,    convert     HM^^^^^BfL^      '-    ^^^^1     cially  by  his  Biblical  cartoons.     His 
and  painter  of  religious  subjects,  b.     ^^^^^^^^^^^k  /^H     "^^    Pointings    arc    conspicuous    for 

at  Liibeck,  3  July,  17S9;d.  at  Rome,  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^  .^H  their  qualities  but  are  not  numer- 
12  November,  1SG9.  Overbeck  is  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^i^^l  ""s;  the  mo.st  noted  of  them,  "The 
one  of  the  mo.st  fascinating  figures  ^^^^^^^^^^^^Hfe^H  Triumph  of  Religion  in  the  Arts", 
in  the  realm  of  moilern  Christian  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^|  is  the  chief  ornament  of  the  Stadel 
art.  He  was  the  soul  of  that  roman-  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^|  Gallery  at  Frankfort.  If  the  work 
tic  school  of  painters  who,  under  the  IJ^^^H^^^^^^^^Hj^^BI  produced  by  Overbeck  appears 
name  of  "Xazarites",  exerted  great  Fbiedrich  Ovehbeck  meagre,  when  contrasted  with  the 

influence  on  the  formation  of  the  amount  put  forth  by  artists  who  came 

German  religious  art  of  the  nineteenth  century.  When  after  him,  the  reason  is  to  be  found  in  t  he  subt  ility  of  his 
eighteen  years  old,  Overbeck  became  a  pupil  at  the  manner, owingtowhichhecouldexecutemasterly work, 
Academy   of   Fine   Arts   at   Vienna.     After  he   had     even  in  old  age,  as  the  wonderful  cartoons  of  the  "  Seven 


Clement  VI II  raised  it  from  a  feast  of  double  rite  to 
double  major.  The  Mass  is  the  common  one  for 
feasts  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  theOfhce  is  also  the  com- 
mon one  of  the  Bl.  Virgin,  with  the  exception  of  the 
second  Nocturn,  which  is  an  account  of  the  alleged 
miracle.  The  congregation,  which  Benedict  XIV  in- 
stituted for  the  reform  of  the 
Breviarj'  in  1741,  proposed  that  the 
reading  of  the  legend  be  struck  from 
the  Office  and  that  the  feast  sho\ild 
again  receive  its  original  name, 
"Dedicatio  Sancta^  Maria;". 

Analeda  Juris  PoiUificii.  XXIV  (Rome 
1885).  915;  HoLWECK,  Fasti  Mariani  {Frri- 
burg.  1S92),  164-6. 

Michael  Ott. 


attained  proficiency  he  quickly  withdrew  from  the 
compulsion  and  formalism  of  the  academy,  and  went 
with  three  friends  to  Italy  and  above  all  to  Rome 
as  the  great  centre  for  the  exercise  of  art.  In  1810 
he  made  his  home  in  the  monastery  of  the  Irish 
Franciscans  at  Rome,  San  Isidoro,  which  w;is  then 
unoccupied.  He  was  the  first  to  recognize  that  the 
tradition  of   ecclesi- 


Sacraments",  and  the  sketches  for  the  decoration  of 
the  cathedral  of  Diakovdr,  which  were  only  used  in 
part.  Hostility  to  the  art  of  Overbeck  and  his  fol- 
lowers, the  "Nazarite"  school,  did  not  fail  to  appear 
during  Overbeck's  lifetime,  nor  is  it  lacking  now. 
Some  say  that  the  "Nazarites",  most  of  all  Overbeck, 
Veit,  Fuhrich,  and  Steinle,  have  introduced  Italian 
art     into    Northern 


astical  art  had  been  |^ma||^^^^B|^M^H^^HBMa|HHHB|H|^^HM  Europe,     and     have 

suspend-  ^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^^H  ^^'^^ 

by  the  Reforma-  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^'^^^^^^^^^^^^^B 

the   icono-  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^^^^^^| 

clastic  outbreaks,  ^^^^^^^^^^^^       i^             ^^^^^^^^^H  shallow  and  insipidly 

that               the  ^^^^^^Hi^V^              V^                ^^^^^^^^^|  sweet.     Of  the 

stifling  overgrowth  of  ^^^^^H^^^^  ..^    JIT^^  4b     -^^P^^^^^l  '^^  these 

Humansim      is     in-  ^^^^^^T^i  flyJ-l'WMFr^aT'  \  "flBt  'I^^^^B  "orthodox"     artists 

t reduced  elements  ^^^B^ImKl-J^H^^H^HHI^^I^Bb^^H  ^^^  "^^^   "moderns", 

had  ^^^vilHf^lBMK^^Br^R^HM^^SS^^^I  ^^°  assert  that  the 

cast   a  mvthological  ^HV  jS^^K^H^^^B    H^I^I^"'1H^^H  "Nazarite"  canonsof 

garb  over  the  Catho-  ^yiM^M^^Bi^^^MI  ■  M:/ Z.*^  W:  ^^B^M  -'^'^^            outstripped 

lie  ideal  of  art..     His  ^Fv^BfvJo(t^£^^^^H[v'  W'/w^^^H^^f^^l  and  antiquated.    To 

work    was,    by    the  BkaffiuiikL^jHI^^^^Bt- IL.  ^kilB^BM^^H  ^^''^'^     '"''"' 

to  VjSBr^^    ^^^^^^^BI^BBl^^^^^^^^^^I  ^'^^           ^"^  ^"^~ 

throw  a  brirlge  over  B^K       ■  ^<  V    ^^^^^^^^M^T  ^^^^^^^^^|  ^'is 

the  period       stagna-  ^^^f       h^jk..^^P^^^^^^B     ^^l^^^^^^l  fluous, 

depression  ^BH!i    JflBli^B   ^^^^^^H      ^H^^^^^^^M  ^ " '' 

that   had  lasted   for  KfLwaMMM^^^Mfc^ ^J^W^By        -j^i^^^^^^l  0\'erbeck     and     his 

three   centuries.  BK4^^^^^^^B^~^'^B^^^B-  .^H^^^^^^^^^I  companions 

Overbeck  lived  to  see  Bl3raiH^^^^^ilii^^E^^T\te^^^^^B  ^''''"      justified      by 

the  complete  success  Ei|K^^8^^1^^^^^^^^HBiBl^3B^i^BM  ^'^'^"'     (^'^'■''^""''"^''y 

of  his  titanic  labours.  ■^■■■^^^^^Hli^^^^^^^^B^^H^^Bl  success  as  far  a.s  re- 

At  Rome  the  father  Rats,™  op  La.artts  g='.'-d«  ,  .ecclesiastical 

of  the  "Nazantes",  Friedrich  Overbeck,  Karlsruhe  art,  which  must  al- 
as perhaps  he  may  ways  be  a  religious 
now  be  called,  was  joined  by  the  later  masters,  art.  Their  influence  may  be  recognized  also  in 
Cornelius,  Schadow,  and  Philip  Veit,  and  these  the  closely  related  art  of  architecture,  at  least  as 
men  united  together  into  a  school.      It  was  Over-     far  as  the  Germanic  people  are  concerned. 


beck's  art  and  studies  that  brought  him  back  to 
the  Church,  and  the  mystical  power  of  his  piety 
alone  empowered  him  to  produce  his  lofty  crea^ 
tions.  The  series  of  frescoes  of  the  history  of 
Joseph  in  Egypt  in  the  house  called  Casa  Bartholdi, 
those  illustrating  Ta.sso's  ".lerusalem  Delivered"  in 
the  villa  of  Prince  Massimo,  and  above  all  that  won- 
derful composition  "The  Miracle  of  Roses"  in  the 
Portiuncula  chapel  at  Assisi,  astonished  the  world  by 

modem  technic,  completely  independent  grasp  of  the     .._   

subject,  and  most  of  all  by  proper  relation  of  the     Later  (1774)  he  studied  in  Miinster,  and  was  ordained 


HowiTT,  FHedrich  Overbeck,  seiii  Leben  und  Schaft 
Binder  (Freiburg,  1886);  Atkinson,  J.  F.  Overbeck: 
(London,  1882). 

C.  M.  Kaufmann. 

Overberg,  Bernhard  Heinrich,  German  eccle- 
siastic and  educator,  b.  1  May,  1754;  d.  9  November, 
1826.  Of  poor  parents  in  the  peasant  community  of 
Hockel,  near  Osnabriick,  he  became  a  pedlar  like  his 
father.  At  fifteen  a  priest  prepared  him  for  college, 
and   he   studied   with   the    Franciscans   in    Rheine. 


OVIEDO 


363 


OVIEDO 


priest  in  1779.  As  curate  in  Everswinkel,  he  did 
such  good  work  in  teaching  religion  that  the  vicar- 
general,  Freiherr  von  Furstenberg  (q.  v.),  offered  him 
the  position  of  director  of  the  normal  school,  which 
he  was  about  to  found  in  Miinster.  Thenceforth  he 
was  Fiirstenberg's  light  hand  in  the  reorganization 
and  reformation  of  the  schools.  In  1783  he  settled 
in  Miinster,  where  his  first  duty  was  to  conduct  a 
course  of  practical  and  theoretical  study  for  school- 
teachers during  the  autumn  vacation.  This  institu- 
tion was  known  as  the  Normalschule.  The  village 
schools  at  that  time  were  very  poor;  in  Prussia  a 
number  of  discharged  non-commissioned  officers  made 
a  pretence  of  teaching,  while  in  Westphalia,  mere 
day  labourers  wielded  the  "stick".  Of  "method" 
there  was  little,  except  scolding  and  beating;  Over- 
berg  had  had  personal  experience  of  that  in  his  own 
childhood.  Not  even  reading — much  less  writing  and 
arithmetic — was  taught  to  all.  Overberg,  therefore, 
stood  before  a  gigantic  problem.  He  solved  it,  as 
Furstenberg  says,  "earnestly  and  yet  mildly,  without 
ambition,  without  egotL-sm,  without  any  deception  or 
deceit,  untiring  and  with  a  persistency  that  feared  no 
obstacles."  His  aim  was  to  educate  and  instruct 
teachers  and  to  improve  their  wretched  material  cir- 
cumstances. All  the  teachers  were  to  take  part  in  the 
course  at  public  expense.  The  course  closed  with  an 
examination,  and  those  who  passed  it  obtained  an  in- 
crease in  salary.  As  Overberg  considered  it  best  to 
separate  the  sexes  in  his  schools,  he  instructed  a  num- 
ber of  women  teachers  who  eagerly  accepted  the  work. 
He  really  created  the  profession  of  female  lay-teacher. 
At  first,  Overberg  himself  instructed  the  teachers, 
giving  five  lessons  daily  between  21  August  to  No- 
vember, and  teaching  method  as  well  as  the  various 
school  subjects.  Later  he  employed  an  assistant 
teacher.  Soon  his  normal  school  was  attended  by 
young  people  who  wished  to  become  teachers.  This 
normal  school,  therefore,  became  what  is  now  known 
in  Germany  as  a  Seminary,  and  had  more  than  100 
pupils  (at  first  20-30).  Besides  teaching  in  this  school 
he  gave  instruction  in  the  catechism  for  twenty-seven 
years  in  the  Ursuline  convent  without  remuneration. 
Every  Sunday  he  recapitulated  all  that  he  had  lec- 
tured upon  during  the  week  in  a  public  lecture  which 
was  attended  by  people  of  all  classes,  especially  by 
students  of  theology.  In  tliis  work  he  showed  not 
only  his  inborn  faculty  of  teaching,  but  also  his  child- 
like faith  and  simplicity. 

In  1789,  Princess  Gallitzin  chose  him  as  her  con- 
fessor. He  influenced  her  entire  activity,  and  met  in 
her  company  the  most  important  men  of  the  times. 
By  his  tactful  kindness  he  brought  about  the  con- 
version of  Count  Friedrich  Leopold  von  Stolberg. 
Overberg  was  the  chief  author  of  the  Munster 
school  ordinance,  formulated  on  2  Sept.,  1801.  He 
remained  ilirector  of  the  normal  school  even  when  he 
became  regent  of  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  in  1809, 
before  which  he  had  been  for  some  time  synodal  exam- 
iner and  member  of  the  Landschulkommission.  In 
1816  he  was  made  a  consistorial  and  school  counsellor, 
in  1823,  honorary  rector  of  the  cathedral,  and  in  1826, 
shortly  before  his  death,  Oberconsistorialrat.  Over- 
berg was  quite  familiar  with  the  pedagogical  theories 
and  achievements  of  his  time,  and  utilized  many  of 
them.  He  was  especially  well  acquainted  with 
Rochow,  Felbiger  (q.  v.),  and  Francke.  But  his  own 
eystera  is,  on  the  whole,  unique;  for  everywhere  he  al- 
lows for  the  demands  of  life.  He  lays  emphasis  upon 
the  importance  of  habit,  the  power  of  example,  and 
the  telling  of  stories.  As  the  main  support  of  all 
education  and  discipline  he  considers  religion.  Ideal 
thoughts  and  practical  everj'day  considerations  are 
well  combined  in  his  work.  His  basic  idea  is  to  lead 
man  toward  his  eternal  goal,  but  he  lays  emphasis 
upon  the  necessity  of  caring  for  the  temporary  concfi- 
tions  of  life,  of  cultivating  prudence,  and  doing  away 


with  stupidity  and  superstition.  His  instruction  is 
catechetic,  and  he  mentions  as  its  advantages  the 
training  of  reason,  the  formation  of  clear  impressions 
and  ideas,  and  practice  in  the  expression  of  one's  own 
opinions:  "children  should  be  trained  to  think  by 
questioning  them,  and  should  be  guided  in  their 
method  of  thinking  in  such  a  way  that  they  will  find 
out  for  themselves  the  things  which  we  want  to  teach 
them".  Overberg's  writings  contain  much  that  is  in- 
teresting to  teachers  even  to-day.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  them  are:  "Anweisung  zum  zweckmassigen 
Schulunterricht "  (1793);  newly  edited  by  Gansen 
(5th  ed.,  1908);  "Biblische  Geschichte"  (1799), 
which  has  appeared  in  over  thirty  editions  and  is  still 
used  as  a  house  book;  "Christkathnlisrhes  Pieligions- 
buch"  (1804);  "Katechismus  der  c-hrislliiljen  Lehre" 
(1804),  used  in  the  Diocese  of  Miinster  until  1SS7  and 
in  Osnabriick  until  1900;  and  "Seclis  Biicher  vom 
Prie.sterstande "  (posthumous,  1858). 

Reinermann,  Bt-nih.  O.  in  seinem  Leben  u.  Wirken  {Munster, 
1829):Krabbe,  Lehen  O.  (Munster,  1831;  3rd  ed.,  IS04);Reusch 
in  Altg.  deutsche  Biogr.,  XXV  (Leipzig,  1SS7).  14-17;  Knecht  in 
KiTchenUx.  8.  v.;  ZocKLER  in  Reahncykl.  fiir  prot.  TheoL,  s.  v. 
Overberg  u.  de^  Gallitzmsche  Kreis. 

Klemens  Lofpler. 

Oviedo,  Diocese  of  (Ovetensis),  comprises  the 
civil  province  of  the  same  name  (the  ancient  King- 
dom of  Asturias),  besides  certain  rural  deaneries  in 
the  provinces  of  Lugo,  I-e^n,  Zamora,  and  Santander. 
Its  capital,  the  city  of  Oviedo,  has  a  population  of  42,- 
716.  The  ancient  capital  of  the  Asturias  country  was 
Astorga  (Asturiea);  Oviedo  was  founded  by  King 
Fruela  I  (756-68).  In  760  Abbot  Fromistanus  and 
his  nejjhew  Maximus  built  a  monastery  there  and 
dedicated  a  church  to  St.  Vincent  the  Martyr;  Fruela 
had  houses  built  and  the  basilica  of  S.  Salvador.  His 
son,  Alfon.so  II,  the  Chaste,  made  Oviedo  his  capital 
and  restored  the  Church  of  S.  Salvador.  The  same 
king  founded  the  See  of  Oviedo,  in  805,  combining 
with  it  the  ancient  See  of  Britonia.  A  number  of 
bishops,  expelled  from  their  sees  by  the  Saracens,  were 
gathered  at  Oviedo,  where  they  held  two  councils. 
It  was  there  proposed  to  make  Oviedo  a  metropolitan 
see,  and  such  it  was  from  869  until  the  ancient  arch- 
dioceses of  the  Peninsula  were  restored,  when  the 
pope  declared  Oviedo  exempt  (1105);  the  Concordat 
of  1.851  made  it  suffragan  to  Santiago. 

The  Cathedral  of  S.  Salvador  was  restored  in  the 
twelfth  century  by  Archbishop  Pelayo,  the  chronicler. 
Bishop  Fernando  .Alfonso  (1296-1301)  undertook  an- 
other restoration  of  the  chapter-house,  and  his  suc- 
cessor, Fernando  Alvarez  (1302-1.321),  beg;m  the 
cloister.  At  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  Ciutierre 
de  Toledo  began  the  new  Gothic  basilica,  the  princi])al 
chapel  bearing  his  arms,  though  it  was  coniiiletcd  by 
his  successor  Guillen.  Diego  Ramirez  dc  (iuzman 
(1421-41)  built  the  two  chapels  of  the  south  tr;uisept 
(now  replaced  by  the  sacristy),  the  old  entrance  to  the 
church,  and  the  gallery  of  the  cloister  adjoining  the 
chapter-house.  Alonzo  de  Palenzuela  (1470-85)  com- 
pleted the  other  part  of  the  transept.  Juan  .Arias 
(1487-97)  left  his  cognizance,  the  fleur-dc-lys  and  four 
scallops,  on  the  nave.  Juan  Daza  (1497-1503)  erected 
the  grille  of  the  choir;  Valerano  (1.508-12)  added  the 
stained-gla.ss  windows.  Diego  de  Muros,  founder  of 
the  great  college  at  Salamanca  known  as  the  Oviedo, 
had  the  crestings  of  the  porch  wrought  by  Pedro  de 
Bunyeres  and  Juan  de  Cerecedo,  while  Giralte  and 
Valraaseda  completed  the  carving  of  the  precious  re- 
table  in  the  time  of  Francisco  de  Mendoza  (1.52.5-28). 
Crist6bal  de  Rojas  (1546-56)  aflixed  his  coat-of-arms 
to  the  completed  tower,  with  its  octagonal  pyramid, 
one  of  the  marvels  of  Gothic  architecture.  The  chief 
feature  of  the  cathedral  is  the  "Camara  Santa",  with 
its  venerable  relics.  Bishop  Pelayo  relates  that  a 
coffer  made  by  the  disciples  of  the  Apostles,  and  con- 
taining the  most  precious  relics  of  the  Holy  City,  was 


OWEN 


364 


OXENFORD 


taken  from  Jerusalem  to  Africa,  and  after  several 
trauslat  ions  was  finally  deposited  at  Oviedo  by  Alfonso 
II.  In  the  sixteenth  century.  Bishop  Crist6bal  de 
Sandoval  y  Rojas  wished  to  open  it,  but  could  not, 
being  overcome  with  religious  fear.  Many  other 
relics  are  to  be  seen. 

The  most  famous  sanctuary  of  the  diocese  is  at 
Covadonga  (Cava  longn),  dedicated  to  the  Blessed 
N'irgin,  by  whose  hi'li>  tlic  Spaniards,  in  71S,  overcame 
the  Arabs  commanded  by  Alkaman.  The  old  building 
was  consumed  by  fire  17  October,  1777.  The  Canons 
Regular  of  St.  .\ugustine,  who  had  charge  of  it,  had 
been  driven  by  lack  of  revenues  to  live  scattered  about 
in  various  parishes,  when  Philip  IV  compelled  them  to 
return  to  community  life,  increasing  their  endowment, 
and  building  houses  for  them  beside  the  monasterj-. 
Urban  VII  made  an  order  that  the  abbot  should  be  a 
dignitarj'  of  the  cathedral  of  Oviedo.  Charles  III 
wished  to  rebuild  the  chapel  sumptuously,  but  never 
went  beyond  beginning  the  work.  In  recent  times  it 
has  been  completely  restored  by  Bishop  Sanz  y  Fores. 
Also  noteworthy  are  the  two  monasteries  of  S.  Vicente 
andS.  Pelayo  at  Oviedo.  West  of  the  city  is  the  Gothic 
convent  of  S.  Francisco,  now  used  as  a  hospital.  The 
church  of  the  convent  of  S.  Domingo  is  of  the  so-called 
Modern  Gothic  style;  that  of  Sta  Clara  has  a  lofty 
tower;  S.  Isidro,  formerly  a  Jesuit  church,  has  a 
splendid  facade  in  ashlar  stone.  In  the  environs  of 
Oviedo  and  on  the  slope  of  Monte  Xaranco  are  the 
famous  churches  of  Sta  Maria  and  S.  JNIiguel,  two 
art  treasures  of  the  ninth  century  and  worthy  of  end- 
less study.  The  conciliar  seminary  of  Oviedo  was 
founded  in  1S.51  by  Bishop  Ignacio  Diaz  Caneja;  it 
consists  of  a  great  seminary  in  Oviedo,  and  a  little 
seminarj'  at  \'aldedios  de  \'illa\'iciosa,  an  old  Cister- 
cian monastery.  Besides  the  Provincial  Institute  of 
Secondarj-  Education  of  0\'iedo,  there  is  another, 
founded  by  JovcUanos,  at  Gijon. 

Other  bishops  worthy  of  mention  are:  Bishop  Ser- 
rano, venerated  as  a  saint:  Rodrigo.  counsellor  to 
Ferdinand  II  of  Leon;  the  Tuscan  Fredolo,  the  pope's 
envoy  to  Alfonso  the  Wise;  Rodrigo  Sanchez,  who 
executed  important  commissions  for  popes  and  kings 
of  Spain;  Fernando  de  Valdes,  founder  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oviedo,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Se\nlle  and 
inquisitor  general;  Jer6nimo  de  Velasco,  one  of  the 
fathers  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  founder  of  the 
Hospital  of  Santiago  at  Oviedo;  .\lonso  Antonio  de 
San  Martin,  said  to  have  been  a  natural  son  of  Philip 
IV.  The  University  of  Oviedo  celebrated  its  ter- 
centenary in  September,  1908.  Its  building  is  severe 
and  simple,  in  Doric  order  of  the  seventeenth  century; 
the  Ubrarj-  is  very  extensive,  and  there  is  a  good  mu- 
seum of  natural  history  and  meteorological  obser\a- 
torj'.  This  university  is  now  considered  the  least  im- 
portant in  Spain,  ha\-ing  but  one  faculty,  that  of  ci\-il 
law.  Of  recent  years  it  has  been  falling  under  the 
influence  of  the  Spanish  Krausists.  Thissect,  founded 
by  Sanz  del  Rio,  imported  from  Germany  the  Panthe- 
istic doctrines  of  Kraus,  and  seeks  to  extend  its  activ- 
ities bj-  conferences  and  courses  outside  of  the  univer- 
sitj-,  even  in  the  Latin  .\merican  republics.  Among 
the  distinguished  men  of  the  diocese  may  be  mentioned : 
the  Alvarez  of  .V.sturias,  who  were  famous  in  the  Mid- 
dle .Ages;  Ruy  Perez  de  A\iles,  celebrated  in  connexion 
with  the  conquest  of  Se\-ille;  Gutierre  Bernaldode 
Quir6s,  the  hero  of  .\ljubarrota:  Pedro  Mendez,  the 
conqueror  of  Florida;  in  modern  times,  the  Janscnist 
Jovellanos,  the  Regalist  Campomanes,  the  Liberal 
Argiielles  Florez  Estrada,  Pidal,  Posada  Herrera; 
Cardinals  Cienfuegos  Sierra,  Cienfuegos  Jovellanos, 
Inguanzo,  and  many  notable  prelates. 

Risco.  continufltor  of  Florez.  EspaHa  Saffrarla  (Madrid, 
1789),  XXXVII-XXXIX:  Cdadrado,  Espafia.  sus  monumentos 
y  rate*:  Asturia-^  y  Lfi'm  (Barcelona,  18S5):  Guia  ecUsidstica  de 
Enparia  para  ISSS  (Madrid) :  Diccionario  geogrdfico  y  esladtslico  de 
Madoz,  XII  (Madrid.  1S49):  DE  L.4  FuENTE,  f/isforia  cc/«*id«(tca 
dt  BspaHa  (Barcelona,  1S55).  Ram6n  RiTIZ  AmADO. 


Owen,  Nicholas,  a  Jesuit  lay-brother,  martyred  in 
1G06.  There  is  no  record  of  his  parentage,  birthplace, 
date  of  birth,  or  entrance  into  religion.  Probably  a 
carpenter  or  builder  by  trade,  he  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  before  1,5S0,  and  had  previously  been  the  trusty 
servant  of  the  missionary  fathers.  More  (l.")St)-ltil)l) 
associates  him  with  the  tirst  English  lay-brothers.  He 
was  imprisoned  on  the  death  of  Bl.  Edmund  ("amition 
for  openly  declaring  that  martyr's  innocence,  hut 
afterwards  served  Fathers  Henrj-  Garnett  and  .lolin 
Gerard  for  eighteen  years,  was  captured  again  with 
the  latter,  escaped  from  the  Tower,  and  is  said  to  have 
contrived  the  escape  of  Father  Gerard.  He  was  fi- 
nally arrested  at  flindlip  Hall,  Worcestershire,  while 
impersonating  Father  Garnett.  "It  is  incredible", 
writes  Cecil,  "how  great  was  the  joy  caused  by  his  ar- 
rest .  .  .  knowing  the  great  skill  of  Owen  in  construct- 
ing hiding  places,  and  the  innumer.able  quantity  of 
dark  holes  which  he  had  schemed  for  hiding  priests  all 
through  England."  Xot  only  the  Secretary  of  State 
but  Waade,  the  Keeper  of  the  Tower,  appreciated  the 
importance  of  the  disclosures  which  Owen  might  be 
forced  to  make.  After  being  committed  to  the  Mar- 
shalsea  and  thence  removed  to  the  Tower,  he  was  sub- 
mitted to  most  terrible  "examinations"  on  the  Top- 
cliffe  rack,  with  both  arms  held  fast  in  iron  rings  and 
body  hanging,  and  later  on  with  heavy  weights  at- 
tached to  lais  feet,  and  at  last  died  under  torture.  It 
was  given  out  that  he  had  committed  suicide,  a  cal- 
umny refuted  by  Father  Gerard  in  his  narrative.  As 
to  the  day  of  his  death,  a  letter  of  Father  Garnett's 
shows  that  he  was  still  ahve  on  3  March;  the  "Me- 
nology  "  of  the  province  puts  his  martyrdom  as  late  as 
12  Nov.  He  was  of  singularly  innocent  life  and  won- 
derful prudence,  and  his  skill  in  devising  hiding-places 
saved  the  hves  of  many  of  the  missionary  fathers. 

Foley.  Records  of  English  Jesuits  (London,  1875-82),  IV,  245: 
VII.  561:  More,  Hist.  Prov.  Ariglicanir  (St.  Omers,  1660),  322: 
.N'ash.  Mansions  of  England  (London.  1906):  T.m.ntox,  Hist,  of 
JesuUi  in  England  (London,  1901):  Bibl.  Did.  Eng..  Calh.  a.  v.; 
POLL.UU)  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  (London,  1909).  s.  v. 

S.  AXSEL.M  Parker. 

Oxenford,  Johx,  dramatist,  critic,  translator,  and 
song-writer,  b.  in  London,  12  Aug.,  1812;  d.  there  21 
Feb.,  1877.  Mostly  self-educated,  for  a  time  he  was 
under  the  tuition  of  a  brilliant  and  erratic  scholar,  S.  T. 
Friend.  His  master  recognizing  his  faculty  for  phi- 
losophy and  his  versatility  wished  to  divert  liim  from 
the  dramatic  career  towards  which  he  seemed  inclined. 
In  1837  he  was  articled  to  a  solicitor  and  is  said  to 
have  spent  some  time  in  the  London  office  of  a  rela- 
tive and  to  have  written  on  commerce  and  finance. 
He  early  read  the  Uterature  of  Germany,  Italy,  France, 
and  Spain,  and  was  always  "a  devourer  of  books". 
From  the  German  he  translated,  amongst  other  things, 
Fischer's  "Francis  Bacon"  (London,  1857);  Goethe's 
"Autobiography"  (London,  ISSS);  Eekermann's 
"Conversations  with  Goethe"  (London,  1904),  the 
two  last  translations  having  almost  become  English 
classics  and  finding  a  place  in  Bohn's  well-known 
series.  From  the  French  he  translated  Molicre's 
"Tartuffe";  from  the  ItaUan  Boyardo's  "Orlando 
Innamorato"  (in  part),  and  from  the  Spanish  a  play 
of  Calderon.  But  Oxenford's  chief  interest  lay  in  the 
drama  Between  1S3.5,  when  his  first  play  was  writ- 
ten, and  his  death  he  was  producing  dramatic  work. 
Sixtv-eight  plavs,  at  least,  are  attributed  to  him. 
Several  have  been  translated  into  German,  French, 
and  Dutch.  He  also  wrote  hbrcttos  for  operas  etc. 
For  the  last  t wentv  vears  of  his  life  he  was,  in  addition, 
dramatic  critic  to" the  "Times".  He  frequently  con- 
tributed to  newspapers  and  magazines,  among  others 
the  "Athenaeum".  In  April,  18.53,  he  wrote  for  the 
"Westminster  Review"  an  essay  on  Schopenhauer's 
philosophy  which  is  said  to  have  founded  the  fame  of 
that  philosopher  both  in  England  and  abroad.  In 
late  life  Oxenford's  health  weakened.     He  died  of 


CHURCH  OF  SANTA   MARIA  DE   NARANCO,  OVIEDO 

NINTH    CENTURY 


OXENHAM 


365 


OXFORD 


heart  failure  in  1877.     Eighteen  months  earlier  he  had 
been  received  into  the  Church. 

An  appreciative  sketch  of  his  life  appeared  in  the 
"Times"  of  23  Feb.,  1877.  The  writer  extols  his 
originality  and  scholarship:  "As  an  appreciator  of 
others,  and  as  a  quick  discoverer  of  anything  new 
likely  to  exercise  a  future  influence  on  thought  he  had 
few  equals".  The  value  of  Oxenford's  criticism, 
however,  is  somewhat  lowered  by  a  too  great  leniency, 
proceeding  from  his  natural  kindliness.  In  private 
life  he  was  much  beloved.  His  conversational  powers 
were  remarkable;  and  he  possessed  an  "unsurpassed 
sweetness  of  character  and  self-forgetting  nobleness 
and  childlikeness". 

AtheiKEum,  II  (London,  1877),  258;  Annual  Register,  II  (Lon- 
don, 1877),-  Catholic  Standard  and  Weekly  Register  (7  April,  1877). 

K.  M.  Warren. 

Ozenham,  Henry  Nutcombe,  English  controver- 
sialist and  poet,  b.  at  Harrow,  15  Nov.,  1S29;  d.  at 
Kensington,  23  March,  1888;  was  the  son  of  the  Rev. 
William  Oxenham,  second  master  of  Harrow.  He  was 
educated  at  Harrow  School  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford, 
taking  his  degree  in  1850.  After  receiving  Anglican 
orders,  he  became  curate  first  at  Worminghall,  in  Buck- 
inghamshire, then  at  St.  Bartholomew's,  Cripplegate. 
While  at  the  latter  place,  he  was  received  into  the 
Church  by  Monsignor  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Man- 
ning. For  a  time  he  contemplated  becoming  a  priest, 
for  which  purpose  he  entered  St.  Edmund's  College,  Old 
Hall,  but  after  receiving  minor  orders,  he  left :  it  is  said 
that  his  reason  was  that  he  believed  in  the  validity  of 
Anglican  orders,  and  considered  himself  already  a  priest . 
He  continued  to  dress  as  an  ecclesiastic  and  in  this 
anomalous  position  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
His  ambition  was  to  work  for  the  reunion  of  the  Angli- 
can with  the  Catholic  Church,  with  which  end  in 
view,  he  published  a  sympathetic  article,  in  answer  to 
Pusey's  "Eirenicon",  in  the  shape  of  a  letter  to  his 
friend  and  fellow-convert.  Father  Lockhart.  After 
the  Vatican  Council  his  position  became  still  more 
anomalous,  for  his  unwillingness  to  accept  the  doctrine 
of  Papal  Infallibility  was  known.  Though  influenced 
by  the  action  of  Dr.  DoUinger,  with  whom  he  was  on 
intimate  terms,  he  never  outwardly  severed  his  con- 
nexion with  the  Catholic  Church,  and  before  his 
death  received  all  the  sacraments  at  the  hands  of 
Father  Lockhart. 

His  published  works  include:  "The  Sentence  of 
Kaires  and  Poems"  (3rd  ed.,  London,  1871);  Transla- 
tion of  Bollinger's  "First  Age  of  Christianity"  (Lon- 
don, 1866,  2  vols:  two  subsequent  editions)  and 
"Lectures  on  Reunion"  (London,  1872);  "Catholic 
Eschatology"  (1876;  new  edition,  enlarged,  1878); 
"Memoir  of  Lieut.  Rudolph  de  Lisle,  R.  N."  (London, 
1886);  numerous  pamphlets  and  articles,  especially 
in  "The  Saturday  Review",  over  the  initials  X.  Y.  Z. 

RiGO  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.:  Gillow,  Bibl.  Diet,  of  Eng.  Calk.; 
obituarv  notices  in  The  Saturday  Review.  The  Athena-um,  The 
Manchester  Guardian,  etc.  BERNARD  WaRD. 

Oxford,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  England, 
grew  up  under  the  shadow  of  a  convent,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  St.  Frideswide  as  early  as  the  eighth 
century.  Its  authentic  history  begins  in  912,  when  it 
was  occupied  by  Edward  the  Elder,  King  of  the  West 
Saxons.  It  was  strongly  fortified  against  the  Danes, 
and  again  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  the  mas- 
sive keep  of  the  castle,  the  tower  of  St.  Michael's 
Chvirch  (at  the  north  gate),  and  a  large  portion  of  the 
city  walls  still  remain  to  attest  the  importance  of  the 
city  in  the  eleventh  century.  West  of  the  town  rose 
the  splendid  castle,  and,  in  the  meadows  beneath,  the 
no  less  splendid  Augustinian  Abbey  of  Oseney:  in  the 
fields  to  the  north  the  last  of  the  Norman  kings  built 
the  stately  palace  of  Beaumont;  the  great  church  of 
St.  Frideswide  was  erected  by  the  canons-regular  who 
succeeded  the  nuns  of  St.  Frideswide;  and  many  fine 


churches  were  built  by  the  piety  of  the  Norman  earls. 
Oxford  received  a  charter  from  King  Henry  II,  grant- 
ing its  citizens  the  same  privileges  and  exemptions  as 
thoee  enjoyed  by  the  capital  of  the  kingdom;  and  vari- 
ous important  religious  houses  were  founded  in  or  near 
the  city.  A  grandson  of  King  John  estabhshed  Rew- 
ley  Abbey  (of  which  a  single  arch  now  remains)  for  the 
Cistercian  Order;  and  friars  of  various  orders  (Do- 
minicans, Franciscans,  Carmelites,  Augustinians,  and 
Trinitarians),  all  had  houses  at  Oxford  of  varying  im- 
portance. Parliaments  were  often  held  in  the  city  dur- 
ing the  thirteenth  century,  but  this  period  also  saw  the 
beginning  of  the  long  struggle  between  the  town  and 
the  growing  university  which  ended  in  the  subjuga- 
tion of  the  former,  and  the  extinction  for  centuries  of 
the  civic  importance  of  Oxford.  The  accession  of 
thousands  of  students  of  course  brought  it  material 
prosperity,  but  it  was  never,  apart  from  the  univer- 
sity, again  prominent  in  history  until  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  it  became  the  headquarters  of  the  Roy- 
alist party,  and  again  the  meeting-place  of  Parlia- 
ment. The  city  of  Oxford  showed  its  Hanoverian 
sympathies  long  before  the  university,  and  feeling  be- 
tween them  ran  high  in  consequence.  The  area  and 
population  of  the  city  remained  almost  stationary  un- 
til about  1830,  but  since  then  it  has  grown  rapidly. 
The  population  is  now  (1910)  about  50,000;  the  munic- 
ipal life  of  the  city  is  vigorous  and  flourishing,  and  its 
relations  with  the  university  are  more  intimate  and 
cordial  than  they  have  ever  been  during  their  long  his- 
tory. 

Oxford  is  the  cathedral  city  of  the  Anglican  Diocese 
of  Oxford,  erected  by  Henry  VIII.  Formerly  included 
in  the  vast  Diocese  of  Lincoln,  it  is  now  part  of  the 
Catholic  Diocese  of  Birmingham.  The  handsome 
Catholic  church  of  St.  Aloysius  (served  by  the  Jesuits) 
was  opened  in  1875;  the  Catholic  population  numbers 
about  1200,  besides  about  100  resident  members  of  the 
university;  and  there  are  convents  of  the  following 
orders— St.  Ursula's,  Daughters  of  the  Cross,  Sisters 
of  Nazareth,  Sisters  of  the  M .  Holy  Sacrament,  and  Sis- 
ters of  the  Holy  Child.  The  Franciscan  Capuchin  fa- 
thers have  a  church  and  college  in  the  suburb  of  Cow- 
ley, as  well  as  a  small  house  of  studies  in  Oxford;  and 
the  Benedictines  and  Jesuits  have  halls,  with  private 
chapels,  within  the  university. 

Parker,  Early  History  of  Oxford  (Oxford,  1885);  Wood,  Survey 
of  the  ArUiquities  of  the  City  of  Oxford  (1889-99);  Green  and 
Robertson,  Studies  in  Oxford  History  (Oxf.,  1901);  Turner, 
Records  of  City  of  Oxford  (Oxf.,  1880) ;  and  the  publications  of  the 
Oxford  Historical  Society  (Oxford,  various  dates). 

D,  O.  Huntbr-Blair. 

Oxford,  University  of. — I.  Origin  and  History. 
— The  most  extraordinary  myths  have  at  various 
times  prevailed  as  to  the  fabulous  antiquity  of  Oxford 
as  a  seat  of  learning.  It  is  sufficient  to  mention  that 
the  fifteenth  century  chronicler  Rous  assigns  its  origin 
to  the  time  when  "Samuel  the  servant  of  God  was 
judge  in  Judaea";  while  a  writer  of  Edward  Ill's  reign 
asserts  that  the  university  was  founded  by  "certain 
philosophers  when  the  warlike  Trojans,  under  the 
leadership  of  Brutus,  triumphantly  seized  on  the  Is- 
lands of  Albion".  A  much  more  long-lived  fiction — 
one,  indeed,  which,  first  heard  of  in  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  persisted  down  to  the  nineteenth 
— was  that  King  Alfred,  well-known  as  a  patron  of  ed- 
ucation, was  the  real  founder  of  Oxford  University. 
The  truth  is  that  it  is  quite  impossible  to  assign  even 
an  approximate  date  to  the  development  of  the  schools 
which  in  Saxon  times  were  grouped  round  the  monastic 
foundation  of  St.  Frideswide  (on  the  site  of  what  is 
now  Christ  Church)  into  the  corporate  institution 
later  known  as  Oxford  University.  Well-known 
scholars  were,  we  know^  lecturing  in  Oxford  on  the- 
ology and  canon  law  before  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century,  but  these  were  probably  private  teachers  at- 
tached to  St.  Frideswide's  monastery.     It  is  not  im- 


OXFORD 


366 


OXFORD 


til  the  end  of  Henry  II's  reign,  that  is  about  1180,  that 
we  know,  chiefly  on  the  authority  of  Giraldus  Cani- 
brensis,  that  a  large  body  of  scholars  was  in  residence 
at  Oxford,  though  not  probably  yet  living  under  any 
organized  constitution. 

Half  a  century  later  Oxford  was  famous  throughout 
Europe  as  a  home  of  science  and  learning;  popes  and 
kings  were  among  its  patrons  and  benefactors;  the 
stmlents  are  said  to  have  been  numbered  by  thou- 
sands; and  the  climax  of  its  reputation  was  reached 
when,  during  the  fifty  years  between  1220  and  1270, 
the  newly-founded  orders  of  friars — Dominican,  Fran- 
ciscan, Carmelite,  and  Austin — successively  sot  tied  at 
Oxford,  and  threw  all  their  enthusiasm  into  the  work 
of  teaching.  Kindled  by  their  zeal,  the  older  monas- 
tic orders,  encouraged  by  a  decree  of  the  Lateran 
Council  of  1215,  began  to  found  conventual  schools 
at  Oxford  for  their  ow-n  members.  The  colleges  of 
Worcester,  Trinity,  Christ  Church,  and  St.  John's  are 
all  the  immediate  successors  of  these  Benedictine  or 
Cistercian  houses  of  study.  Up  to  this  time  the  secu- 
lar students  had  lived  as  best  they  might  in  scattered 
lodgings  hired  from  the  townsmen;  of  discipline  there 
W!is  absolutely  none,  and  riots  and  disorders  between 
"town  and  gown "  were  of  continual  occurrence.  The 
stimulus  of  the  presence  of  so  many  scholars  living  un- 
der conventual  discipline  incited  Walter  de  Merton, 
in  1264,  to  found  a  residential  college,  properly  or- 
ganized and  supervised,  for  secular  students.  Merton 
College  (to  the  model  of  which  two  institutions  of  some- 
what earlier  date.  University  and  Balliol,  soon  con- 
formed themselves)  was  thus  the  prototype  of  the  self- 
contained  and  autonomous  colleges  which,  grouped 
together,  make  up  the  University  of  Oxford  as  it  exists 
to-day.  The  succeeding  half-century  saw  the  found- 
ation of  ten  additional  colleges:  two  more  were  founded 
during  the  Catholic  revival  under  Queen  Mary;  and 
three  in  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I.  Between 
1625  and  1911 — that  is,  for  nearly  three  centuries, 
there  have  been  only  three  more  added  to  the  list, 
namely  Worcester  (1714),  Keble  (1870),  and  Hertford 
(1874),  the  first  and  last  being,  however,  revivals 
rather  than  new  foundations. 

The  institution  of  "non-collegiate"  students  (i.  e. 
those  unattached  to  any  college  or  hall)  dates  from 
1868;  one  "pubUc  hall"  (St.  Edmund's)  survives,  of 
several  founded  in  very  early  times ;  and  there  are 
several  "private  halls",  under  Ucensed  masters  who 
are  allowed  to  take  a  Umited  number  of  students.  As 
a  corporate  body,  the  university  dates  only  from  the 
reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when,  under  the  influence  of 
the  chancellor,  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester,  an 
Act  of  Parliament  wiis  passed  in  1571,  incorporating 
the  "chancellor,  masters  and  scholars"  of  Oxford.  In 
the  same  reign  were  imposed  upon  the  university  the 
Royal  Supremacy  and  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  sub- 
scription to  which  was  required  from  every  student 
above  the  age  of  sixteen ;  and  from  that  date,  for  a  period 
of  three  centuries,  the  university,  formerly  opened 
to  all  Christendom,  was  narrowed  into  an  exclusively 
Anglican  institution  and  became,  as  it  has  ever  since 
remained,  in  spite  of  subsequent  legislation  abolishing 
religious  tests,  the  chosen  home  and  favourite  arena 
of  Anglican  controversy,  theology,  and  polemics. 
Keble,  however,  is  now  the  only  college  whose  mem- 
bers must  be  Anglicans  by  creed,  although  a  certain 
number  of  scholarships  in  other  colleges  are  restricted 
to  lulherents  of  the  English  Church.  Attendance  at 
the  college  chapels  is  no  longer  compulsory;  and  there 
is  no  kind  of  reUgious  test  required  for  admission  to 
any  college  (except  Keble)  or  for  graduating  in  Arts, 
Science,  or  Civil  Law.  Only  the  faculty  of  Divinity 
(including  the  degrees  of  bachelor  and  doctor)  re- 
mains closed  by  statute  to  all  except  professing  Angli- 
cans; and  the  examiners  in  the  theological  school, 
which  is  open  to  students  of  any  creed  or  none,  are  all 
required  to  be  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England. 


n.  Constitution  and  Government. — Taken  as  a 
whole,  the  university  consists  of  about  14,500  mem- 
bers, graduate  and  undergraduate,  having  their 
names  on  the  registers  of  the  university  as  well  as  of 
the  twenty-six  separate  societies  (colleges,  luills,  pub- 
lic and  private,  and  the  noii-collcgiate  liody)  which 
together  form  the  corporation  of  the  university.  Of 
the  above  number  about  3800  are  undergraduates, 
of  whom  the  great  majority  are  reading  for  the  degree 
of  B.A.,  and  about  a  thousand  are  grachiates,  either 
tutors,  fellows  of  colleges,  ofhcials  of  the  uiii\ersity,  or 
M.A.'s  unofficially  resident  within  its  precincts. 
About  4800  members  of  the  university  are  thus  ac- 
tually living  in  Oxford,  the  remainder  being  those  who, 
while  keeping  their  names  "on  the  books",  reside  in 
other  parts  of  the  kingdom.  All  masters  of  arts  re- 
maining on  the  registers  are  ipso  facto  members  of 
"Convocation",  the  legislative  and  administrative 
body  through  which  the  university  acts;  and  tiiosc 
actually  residing  in  Oxford  for  a  fixed  period  in  each 
year  form  the  smaller  body  called  "Congregation", 
by  which  all  measures  must  be  passed  previous  to  their 
coming  before  "Convocation".  Legislation  in  every 
case,  however,  must  be  initiated  by  the  "Hebdomadal 
Council",  consisting  of  the  vice-chancellor,  proctors, 
and  eighteen  members  elected  by  "  Congregation". 

The  executive  officers  of  the  university  comprise  the 
chancellor,  a  nobleman  of  high  rank,  as  a  rule  non- 
resident, who  delegates  his  authority  to  the  vice- 
chancellor,  the  head  of  one  of  th(>  colleges,  and  the  two 
proctors,  who  are  ele(t<'d  hy  tlie  several  colleges  in 
turn,  and  assist  the  vicc-rhancellor  in  the  enforcement 
of  (lisri])line,  as  well  as  in  the  general  supervision  of 
all  uni\crsit}'  affairs,  including  the  administration  of 
its  jiropcrty  and  the  control  of  its  finances.  The  pecu- 
liar feature  of  the  constitution  of  O.xford  (as  of  Cam- 
bridge), when  compared  with  that  of  every  other 
university  in  the  world,  is  that  the  authority  of  the 
vice-chancellor  and  proctors,  that  is  of  the  central  uni- 
versity body,  while  nonii/uilly  extending  to  every  resi- 
dent member  of  the  univ<'rsity,  is  not  as  a  matter  of  fact 
exercised  within  the  collige  walls,  each  college  being, 
while  u  i-on.stituent  part  of  t  lie  university,  autonomous 
and  .self-governing,  and  claiming  entire  responsibility 
for  the  order  and  well-being  of  its  own  members. 

HI.  The  Collegiate  System. — According  to  the 
combined  university  and  college  system  which  pre- 
vails at  Oxford,  each  college  is  an  organized  corpora- 
tion under  its  own  head,  and  enjoying  the  fullest  pow- 
ers of  managing  its  own  property  and  governing  its 
own  members.  Each  college  is  regulated  not  only 
by  the  general  statutes  of  the  university,  but  by  its 
own  separate  code  of  statutes,  drawn  up  at  its  founda- 
tion (as  a  rule  centuries  ago)  and  added  to  or  amended 
since  as  found  expedient.  Every  college  is  absolutely 
its  own  judge  as  to  the  requirements  for  admission  to 
its  membership,  the  result 'being  that  in  no  two  colleges 
is  the  standard  of  necessary  knowledge,  or  the  mental 
equipment  with  which  a  youth  enters  on  his  university 
career,  identical  or  even  necessarily  similar.  The 
mere  fact  of  a  man  having  matriculated  at  certain 
colleges  stamps  him  as  possessed  of  more  than  average 
attainments,  while  at  others  the  required  standard 
may  be  so  low  as  to  afford  no  guarantee  whatever  that 
their  members  are  in  any  real  sense  educated  at  all. 

The  twenty-one  colleges  and  four  halls,  and  the  del- 
egacy of  non-collegiate  students — that  is  of  students 
not  affiliated  to  any  college  or  hall — have  all  the  same 
privileges  as  to  receiving  undergraduate  members; 
and  no  one  can  be  matriculated,  i.  e.  admitted  to  mem- 
bership of  the  university  by  the  central  authority,  un- 
til he  has  been  accepted  by  one  of  the  above-mentioned 
societies.  The  colleges  provide  a  certain  number  of 
sets  of  rooms  within  their  own  walls  for  students,  the 
remainder  living  in  licensed  lodgings  in  the  city. 
Meals  are  served  either  in  the  college  halls  or  in  the 
students'  rooms;  and  attached  to  every  college  is  a 


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chapel  where  daily  service  is  held  during  term  ac- 
cording to  the  forms  of  the  Church  of  England. 

IV.  Tuition,  Examinations,  and  Degree.s. — The 
university  provides  130  professors,  lecturers,  and 
readers  to  give  instructions  in  the  several  faculties  of 
theology  (9),  law  (8),  medicine  (17),  natural  science, 
including  mathematics  (27),  and  arts,  including  an- 
cient and  modern  languages,  geography,  music,  fine 
arts  etc.  (69).  The  chief  burden  of  tuition,  however, 
does  not  fall  on  this  large  body  of  highly-equipped 
teachers,  whose  lectures  arc  in  many  cases  very 
sparsely  attended,  but  on  the  college  tutors,  whose 
lectures,  formerly  confined  to  members  of  their  own 
colleges,  are  now  practically  open  to  the  whole  univer- 
sity. The  exten.-iion  of,  and  great  improvement  in, 
the  tuition  afforded  hy  the  (•(lUcsc  tutors  has  led  to  the 
practical  dL-iapiJiaianrc  al  ( )xfor(l,  at  least  in  work  for 


losophy ;  the  successful  candidates  in  both  these  exam- 
inations being  divided  into  four  classes.  A  first  class 
in  "Greats"  (or  lilerce  humaniores)  is  still  reckoned  the 
highest  honour  attainable  in  the  Oxford  curriculum; 
but  the  student  has  seven  other  Final  Honour  Schools 
open  to  him,  those  of  modern  history  (which  now  at- 
tracts the  largest  number  of  candidates),  mathematics, 
jurisprudence,  theology,  English  literature,  Oriental 
studies,  and  natural  science. 

Degrees. — A  student  who  has  passed  the  examina- 
tions requisite  for  the  B.A.  degree,  can  further  qualify 
himself  for  the  degree  of  (a)  Bachelor  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery,  by  passing  two  examinations  in  medical  and 
surgical  subjects;  (b)  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law,  by  pass- 
ing an  examination  in  general  jurisprudence,  Roman, 
English,  or  international  law ;  (c)  Bachelor  of  Theology 
(if  in  orders  of  the  Church  of  England)  by  presenting 


honours,  of  the  private  tutor  or  "coach",  who  for- 
merly largely  supplemented  the  official  college  teach- 
ing. What  is  noteworthy  at  Oxford  is  the  trouble 
taken  by  tutors  in  the  work  of  individual  instruction, 
which,  while  involving  a  great,  and  sometimes  dis- 
proportionate, expenditure  of  time  and  talent,  has 
done  much  to  establish  and  consolidate  the  personal 
relations  between  tutor  and  pupil  which  is  a  distinctly 
beneficial  feature  of  the  Oxford  system. 

Examinations. — For  students  aspiring  to  the  B.A. 
degree  are  prescribed  two  strictly-defined  compulsory 
examinations,  and  two  so-called  public  examinations, 
in  which  candidates  may  choose  from  a  wide  range  of 
alternative  subjects.  Responsions,  generally  passed 
before  matriculation,  includes  Latin,  Greek,  and 
mathematics,  all  of  a  pretty  elementary  kind.  The 
second  compulsory  examination,  that  in  Holy  Scrip- 
ture (for  which  a  book  of  Plato  maybe  substituted), 
includes  the  Greek  text  of  two  of  the  Gospels.  In  the 
two  "public  examinations",  i.  e.  Moderations  and  the 
Final  Schools,  either  a  "pass"  or  "honours"  may  be 
aimed  at.  The  passman  must  first  satisfy  the  exam- 
iners in  Moderations  (i.  e.  classics  combined  with  logic 
or  mathematics),  and  then  for  his  Final  School  may 
choose  between  various  subjects,  such  as  classics, 
mathematics,  natural  science,  and  modern  languages. 
The  "honour-man",  if  aiming  at  "greats",  has,  as  a 
rule,  first  a  searching  examination  in  classics,  and 
then  a  final  examination  in  ancient  history  and  phi- 


two  dissertations  on  a  theological  subject.  For  what 
are  known  as  "  research  degrees  "  (Bachelor  of  Letters, 
or  Science)  two  years  of  residence  are  required,  fol- 
lowed by  an  examination,  or  the  submission  of  a  dis- 
sertation showing  original  work.  Candidates  for  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music  are  exempted  from  resi- 
dence, and  need  only  have  passed  the  examination  of 
Responsions.  Bachelors  of  Arts  can  present  themselves 
for  the  degree  of  Master  at  the  end  of  a  stated  period, 
without  further  examination;  but  the  Bachelor  of 
Medicine  must  pass  an  examination  or  submit  a  disser- 
tation before  obtaining  the  degrees  of  M.D.  or  Master 
of  Surgery :  and  there  is  a  similar  qualification  required 
for  proceeding  to  the  degrees  of  Doctor  of  Divinity, 
of  Civil  Law,  of  Music,  and  of  Letters  or  Science. 
There  is  now  no  religious  test  in  the  case  of  any  de- 
grees excepting  those  of  theology;  but  all  candidates 
for  masters'  or  doctors'  degrees  have  to  promise  faith- 
ful observance  of  the  statutes  and  customs  of  the 
university.  Honorary  degrees  in  all  the  faculties  may 
be  granted  to  distinguished  persons,  without  exami- 
nation, by  decree  of  Convocation. 

Diplomas  in  certain  subjects,  as  health,  education, 
geography,  and  political  economy,  are  granted  by 
Convocation  after  a  certain  period  of  study  and  an 
examinational  test.  These  diplomas  are  obtainable 
by  women  students,  who  are  not  eligible  for  any  de- 
grees, although  they  may,  and  do,  enter  for  the  same 
examination  as  men.     The  halls  of  women  students  are 


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entirely  extra-collegiate;  but  women  receive  on  exami- 
nation certificates  testifying  to  the  class  gained  by 
thi'in  in  such  honour-examinations  as  they  choose  to 
undergo. 

V.  Expense  op  the  University  Course. — It  is 
difficult  to  fix  this  even  approximately,  so  much  de- 
pends on  a  student's  tastes,  habits,  and  recreations, 
and  also  on  the  question  whether  the  sum  named  is  to 
include  his  expenses  for  the  whole  year,  or  oidy  for  the 
six  months  of  tlie  uni\ersity  terms.  £120  a  year 
ought  to  ro\('r  the  actual  fees  and  cost  of  board  and 
other  necessary  ctiarges,  which  are  pretty  much  the 
same  at  all  the  colleges;  and  if  another  £100  or  £120 
bo  added  for  the  supplementary  exTJenscs  of  college 
life,  and  vacation  expenses  as  well,  we  arrive  at  what 
is  probably  the  average  annual  sum  expended.  A 
man  witii  expensive  tastes  or  hobbies  may  of  course 
spend  double  or  treble  that  amount,  whereas  members 
of  some  of  the  smaller  colleges  may  do  very  well  on 
much  less;  while  the  emoluments  of  the  numerous 
college  and  university  scholarships  and  exhibitions 
lessen  the  expenses  of  those  who  hold  them  by  a  cor- 
responding amount.  The  Rhodes  Scholarships,  open 
to  Colonial  and  American  students,  are  of  the  an- 
nual value  of  £300  each;  but  it  is  to  be  considered 
that  their  holders  have  as  a  rule  to  make  this  sum 
suffice  for  all  their  wants,  in  vacation  as  well  as  in 
term-time. 

VI.  UNn-ERSITY    AND    COLLEGE    BulLDINGS. — The 

chief  university  buildings  are  grouped  round  the 
quadrangle  of  the  Bodleian  Library,  founded  in  1602 
by  Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  and  first  housed  in  the  room 
(built  in  1480)  known  as  Duke  Humphrey's  Library. 
Since  1610  the  Bodleian  has  received  by  right  a  copy 
of  every  book  published  in  the  kingdom,  and  it  now 
contains  more  than  500,000  books  and  nearly  40,000 
manuscripts.  In  the  galleries  is  an  interesting  col- 
lection of  historical  portraits.  West  of  the  Bodleian 
is  the  beautiful  fifteenth-century  Divinity  School, 
with  its  elaborate  roof,  and  further  west  again  the 
Convocation  House,  built  in  1639.  Close  by  are  the 
the  Sheldonian  Theatre,  built  by  Wren  in  1669,  where 
the  annual  Commemoration  is  held,  and  honorary  de- 
grees are  conferred;  the  Old  Clarendon  Printing-house, 
built  in  1713  out  of  the  profits  of  Lord  Clarendon's 
"  History  of  the  RebeUion  " ;  the  old  Ashmolean  Build- 
ing, and  the  Indian  Institute,  built  in  1882  for  the 
benefit  of  Indian  students  in  the  university.  South 
of  the  Bodleian  rises  the  imposing  dome  of  the  Rad- 
cliffe  Librarj',  founded  in  1749  by  Dr.  William  Rad- 
cliffe  for  books  on  medicine  and  science,  but  now  used 
as  a  reading  room  for  the  Bodleian.  The  Examina- 
tion Schools  (1876-82),  a  fine  Jacobean  pile  which  cost 
£100,000,  are  in  High  Street;  and  the  chief  other  uni- 
versity buildings  are  the  New  Museum  (1855-60),  an 
ugly  building  in  early  French  Gothic,  containing  splen- 
did collections  of  natural  science  and  anthropology,  as 
well  as  a  fine  science  Ubrary;  the  Taylor  Buildings  and 
University  Galleries,  a  stately  classical  edifice  con- 
taining the  Arundel  and  Pomfret  Marbles,  a  priceless 
collection  of  drawings  by  Raphael,  Michelangelo, 
Turner,  and  other  masters,  and  many  valuable  paint- 
ings; the  Ashmolean  Museum,  behind  the  galleries, 
containing  one  of  the  mo.st  complete  archEeological 
collections  in  England;  the  new  Clarendon  Press 
(1830),  and  the  Observatory,  founded  in  1772  by  the 
Radcliffe  trustees. 

Taking  the  different  colleges  in  alphabetical  order, 
we  have:  All  Souls,  founded  by  Archbishop  Chichele  in 
1437,  in  memory  of  those  who  fell  in  the  French  wars. 
Its  features  are  the  absence  of  undergraduate  mem- 
bers, the  magnificent  reredos  in  the  chapel,  re-dis- 
covered and  restored  in  1872,  after  being  lost  sight 
of  for  three  centuries,  and  the  splendid  library,  es- 
pecially of  works  on  law. 

Balliol,  founded  by  Devorgilla,  widow  of  John 
Balliol,  about  1262,  and  distinguished  for  the  brilliant 


scholarship  of  its  members,  and  the  liberality  and 
tolerance  of  its  views.  The  buildings  arc  mostly  mod- 
ern and  of  little  interest;  in  the  fini'  hull  (1S77)  is  a 
striking  portrait  of  Cardinal  Manning  (a  scholar  here 
1827-30).  Opposite  the  Master  of  Balliol's  house 
a  cross  in  the  roadway  marks  the  spot  where 
Cranmer,  Ridley,  and  Latimer  were  burned  in  1555 
and  1556;  and  the  so-called  Martyrs'  Memorial  (by 
Gilbert  Scott,  1841),  opposite  the  west  front  of  the 
college,  commemorates  the  same  event;  it  was  erected 
chiefly  as  a  protest  against  the  Tractarian  movement 
headed  by  Newman. 

Braaenone.  founded  in  1509  by  Bishop  Smyth  of 
Lincoln  and  Sir  Richard  Sutton,  as  an  amplification 
of  the  much  older  Brasenose  Hall,  a  knocker  on  the 
door  of  which,  in  the  shape  of  a  nose,  is  the  origin  of 
the  curious  name.  In  the  chapel,  a  singular  mixture 
of  classical  and  Gothic  design,  are  preserved  two  pre- 
Reformation  chalices.  A  magnificent  new  south  front 
in  High  Street  (by  Jackson)  was  completed  in  1910. 

Christ  Church,  the  largest  and  wealthiest  college  in 
Oxford,  founded  as  "Cardinal  College"  by  Thomas 
Wolsey  in  1525,  on  the  site  of  St.  Frideswide's  sup- 
pressed priory,  and  re-established  by  Henry  VIII  as 
Christ  Church  in  1546.  Wolsey  built  the  hall  and 
kitchen  (1529),  the  finest  in  England,  and  began  the 
great  ("Tom")  quadrangle,  which  was  finished  in 
1668.  The  old  monastic  church,  dating  from  1120, 
serves  both  as  the  college  chapel  and  as  the  cathedral 
of  the  Anglican  Diocese  of  Oxford,  erected  by  Henry 
yill;  in  Cathohc  times  Oxford  formed  part  of  the 
immense  Diocese  of  Lincoln.  Peckwater  Quad  was 
built  1705-60,  and  Canterbury  Quad  (on  the  site  of 
Canterbury  Hall,  a  Benedictine  foundation),  in  1770. 
The  hall  and  library  contain  many  valuable  portraits 
and  other  paintings. 

Corpus  Chrisli,  founded  in  1516  by  Bishop  Richard 
Foxe  of  Winchester,  and  dedicated  to  Sts.  Peter,  An- 
drew, Cuthbert,  and  Swithin,  patrons  of  the  four  sees, 
(Exeter,  Bath,  Durham,  and  Winchester),  which  he 
had  held  in  turn.  The  buildings,  though  not  exten- 
sive, are  of  great  interest,  mostly  coeval  with  the 
founder;  and  the  college  possesses  some  valuable  old 
plate.  Angels  bearing  the  Sacred  Host  are  depicted 
in  an  oriel  window  over  the  great  gateway.  Corpus 
Christi  has  always  maintained  a  high  reputation  for 
sound  classical  learning. 

Exeler,  founded  in  1314  by  Bishop  de  Stapledon  of 
Exeter.  Most  of  the  buildings  are  modern ;  the  chapel 
(1857)  being  an  elaborate  copy  by  Gilbert  Scott  of  the 
Sainte  Chapelle  at  Paris.  There  is  a  charming  little 
garden.  Exeter  has  of  recent  years  been  more  fre- 
quented by  Cathohc  students  than  any  other  college. 

Hertford,  revived  in  1874,  having  been  originally 
founded  in  1740  but  dissolved  in  1818  and  occupied 
by  Magdalen  Hall.  A  handsome  new  chapel  by 
Jackson  was  opened  in  1909. 

Jesus,  frequented  almost  exclusively  by  Welsh  stu- 
dents, was  founded  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1571;  and 
more  than  half  the  scholarships  and  exhibitions  are 
restricted  to  persons  of  Welsh  birth  or  education.  Sir 
John  Rhys,  the  eminent  Celtic  scholar,  is  the  present 
principal.  The  buildings  are  modern,  or  much  re- 
stored. 

Keble,  founded  by  subscription  in  1870  in  memory  of 
John  Keble,  and  now  the  only  college  whose  members 
must,  by  the  terms  of  its  charter,  all  be  members  of 
the  Anglican  Church.  It  is  governed  by  a  warden 
and  council  (there  are  no  fellows),  and  one  of  its  prin- 
ciples is  supposed  to  be  special  economy  and  sobriety 
of  hving.  The  buildings  of  variegated  brick  are  quite 
foreign  to  the  prevailing  architecture  of  Oxford,  but 
the  chapel  is  spacious  and  sumptuously  decorated. 

Lincoln,  founded  by  Bishop  Richard  Fleming  and 
Thomas  Rotherham,  both  of  Lincoln,  in  honour  of  the 
B.V.M.  and  All  Saints,  specially  to  educate  divines  to 
preach  against  the  WycUffian  heresies.    The  buildings 


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are  of  little  interest,  but  the  chapel  contains  some  very 
good  seventeenth-century  Italian  stained  glass. 

Magdalen,  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  college  in  Ox- 
ford, if  not  in  Christendom,  was  founded  in  1458  by 
Bishop  Waynflete  of  Winchester.  The  chapel,  hall, 
cloisters,  tower,  and  other  buildings,  all  erected  in  the 
founder's  lifetime,  are  of  unique  beauty  and  interest. 
The  extensive  and  charming  grounds  include  the 
famous  "Addison's  Walk",  and  a  deer-park  with  fine 
timber.  The  musical  services  in  the  chapel  are  fa- 
mous throughout  England.  Magdalen  possesses  much 
landed  property,  and  is  one  of  the  wealthiest  colleges 
in  the  university. 

Merlon,  founded  in  1264  by  Walter  de  Merton,  in 
Surrey,  and  transferred  to  Oxford  in  1274,  was  the  first 
organized  college,  and  the  prototype  of  all  succeeding 
ones.  The  library  (1349)  is  the  oldest  in  England,  and 
the  so-called  "Mob"  quad  is  of  the  same  date.  The 
chapel,  of  exquisite  Decorated  Gothic,  contains  some 
beautiful  old  stained  glass.  Merton  was  specially  in- 
tended by  its  founder  for  the  education  of  the  secular 
clergy. 

New,  founded  in  1379  on  a  magnificent  scale  by 
Bishop  William  de  Wykeham,  of  Winchester  (founder 
also  of  Winchester  College).  The  splendid  chapel, 
with  its  elaborate  reredos,  was  restored  in  1879;  the 
ante-chapel  windows  contain  the  original  pre-Refor- 
mation  glass,  and  there  are  many  fine  brasses.  Other 
features  of  the  college  are  the  picturesque  cloisters 
(used  during  the  Civil  War  as  a  depot  for  military 
stores),  the  great  hall,  with  its  rich  panelling,  the  val- 
uable collection  of  old  plate,  and  the  lovely  gardens, 
enclosed  on  three  sides  by  the  ancient  city  walls.  New 
College  vies  with  Magdalen  in  the  excellence  of  its 
chapel  choir. 

Oriel,  founded  by  Edward  II  in  1326  on  the  sugges- 
tion of  his  almoner,  Adam  de  Brome;  but  none  of  the 
buildings  are  older  than  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  college  is  identified  with  the  rise  of  the  Oxford 
Movement,  led  by  Newman,  who  was  a  fellow  here 
from  1822  to  1845.  There  are  two  portraits  of  him 
(by  Ross  and  Richmond  respectively)  in  the  college 
common-room. 

Pembroke,  second  of  the  four  colleges  of  Protestant 
foundation,  erected  in  1624  out  of  the  ancient  Broad- 
gates  Hall,  and  chiefly  notable  for  the  membership  of 
Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  of  whom  there  is  a  fine  portrait 
and  various  relics. 

Queen's,  founded  in  1340  by  Robert  de  Eglesfield, 
chaplain  to  Queen  Philippa,  in  honour  of  whom  it  was 
named.  The  buildings  are  mostly  late  seventeenth- 
century;  there  is  some  good  Dutch  glass  in  the  chapel, 
and  a  very  valuable  library,  chiefly  historical.  The 
hall  is  hung  with  (mostly  fictitious)  portraits  of  Eng- 
lish kings,  queens,  and  princes. 

Si.  John's,  formerly  St.  Bernard's,  a  house  of  studies 
for  Cistercian  monks,  was  refounded  in  1555  by  Sir 
John  White,  in  honour  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.  The 
chapel,  hall,  and  other  parts  of  the  outer  quad  belong 
to  the  monastic  foundation;  the  inner  quad,  with  its 
beautiful  garden  front,  was  built  by  Archbishop  Laud, 
president  of  the  college  1611-21.  The  gardens  are 
among  the  most  beautiful  in  O.xford. 

Trinity,  originally  Durham  College,  a  house  of 
studies  for  the  Durham  Benedictines,  was  refounded 
by  Sir  Thomas  Pope  in  1554.  The  old  monastic  li- 
brary, and  other  fragments  of  the  buildings  of  Durham, 
remain;  the  chapel,  with  its  fine  wood-carving  by 
Grinling  Gibbons,  is  from  designs  by  Wren.  Newman 
became  a  scholar  of  Trinity  in  1819;  he  was  elected 
an  honorary  fellow  in  1878,  and  visited  the  college  as 
cardinal  in  1880.  A  fine  portrait  of  him,  by  Ouless, 
hangs  in  the  hall. 

University,  which  ranks  as  the  oldest  college,  though 

its  connexion  with  King  Alfred,  said  to  have  founded  it 

in  872,  is  absolutely  legendary.     It  was  really  founded 

by  Archdeacon  WilUam  of  Durham  in  1249,  and  ac- 

XI.— 24 


quired  its  present  site  a  century  later.  None  of  the 
buildings  are  more  than  two  hundred  years  old.  Fred- 
erick Wilham  Faber,  the  famous  Oratorian,  was  a 
member  of  this  college,  which  was  much  identified 
with  the  Catholic  revival  in  James  II's  reign. 

Wadham,  founded  in  1610  by  Dorothy  Wadham,  in 
completion  of  her  husband's  designs;  it  occupies  the 
site  of  a  house  of  Austin  Friars,  who  probably  laid  out 
the  beautiful  garden.  Wadham  is  interesting  as  a 
fine  specimen  of  Jacobean  work,  and  as  the  only  col- 
lege whose  buildings  remain  practically  as  left  by  their 
founder. 

Worcester,  established  in  1283,  under  the  name  of 
Gloucester  College,  as  a  house  of  studies  for  Benedic- 
tines from  Gloucester  and  other  great  English  abbeys, 
survived  as  Gloucester  Hall  for  a  century  and  a  half 
after  the  Reformation,  and  was  re-founded  and  en- 
dowed by  Sir  Thomas  Cookes,  under  its  present  name, 
in  1714.  There  still  remain  the  ancient  lodgings 
used  by  the  students  of  the  several  abbeys,  overlook- 
ing the  finely-timbered  grounds  and  lake.  The  in- 
terior decoration  of  the  eighteenth-century  chapel  is 
very  sumptuous. 

The  only  survivor  of  the  once  numerous  "public 
halls"  is  "St.  Edmund's",  founded  in  the  thirteenth 
century  in  honour  of  St.  Edmund  Rich,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  canonized  by  Innocent  III  in  1247.  'The 
buildings  are  all  of  the  seventeenth  century.  This 
hall  is  closely  connected  with  Queen's  College,  the  pro- 
vost of  which  appoints  the  principal. 

VII.  Catholics  at  the  University. — Besides  the 
colleges  and  single  public  hall,  there  are  at  present 
three  "private  halls"  conducted  by  licensed  masters 
(i.  e.  M.A.'s  authorized  and  approved  by  the  Vice- 
Chancellor)  and  receiving  a  limited  number  of  un- 
dergraduate students.  Two  of  these  halls  are  in 
CathoUc  hands,  one  (Pope's  Hall)  founded  for  students 
belonging  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  the  other  (Par- 
ker's Hall)  estabUshed  by  Ampleforth  Abbey,  in  York- 
shire, for  Benedictine  students  belonging  to  that 
monastery.  Good  work  is  done  in  both  of  these  insti- 
tutions, the  members  of  which,  for  the  most  part,  are 
preparing  to  take  part  in  tuition  at  the  English  Jesuit 
and  Benedictine  colleges;  and  many  of  their  members 
have  obtained  the  highest  academical  honours  in  the 
various  university  examinations.  The  Franciscan 
Capuchin  Fathers  have  recently  (1910)  opened  a  small 
house  of  studies  for  junior  members  of  their  Order; 
they  have  at  present  the  status  of  non-collegiate  stu- 
dents. The  lay  Catholics  who  enter  the  university  as 
undergraduates  have  no  college  or  hall  of  their  own 
under  CathoUc  direction,  but  become  members  of  any 
one  of  the  colleges  which  they  desire  to  join,  or  of  the 
non-collegiate  body  which,  since  1868,  has  been  au- 
thorized to  receive  students  who  are  not  members  of 
any  college  or  hall. 

Catholics  are,  of  course,  exempt  from  attending  the 
college  chapels,  and  they  have  a  central  chapel  of  their 
own,  with  a  resident  chaplain  appointed  by  the  Uni- 
versities Catholic  Board  (of  which  one  of  the  English 
bishops  is  chairman),  who  says  Mass  daily  for  the 
Catholic  students.  The  Board  also  appoints  every 
term  a  special  preacher  or  lecturer,  who  gives,  by  the 
special  injunction  of  the  Holy  See,  weekly  conferences 
to  the  students  on  some  historical,  theological,  or 
philosophical  subject.  There  are  two  or  three  resi- 
dent CathoUc  fellows  and  tutors  in  the  university;  but 
the  general  tone  and  spirit  of  the  instruction  given  in 
the  lecture-rooms,  though  not  on  the  whole  anti- 
Catholic,  may  be  described  as  generally  non-religious. 
The  mission  church  of  St.  Aloysius  is  served  by  several 
Jesuit  fathers,  and  good  preachers  are  often  heard 
there;  and  several  religious  communities  have  re- 
cently been  established  in_the  city.  The  number  of 
Catholic  members  of  the  University,  graduate  and 
undergraduate,  resident  in  Oxford  does  not  exceed  a 
hundred. 


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RaBHSall,  The  Unirersides  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Agra  (Ox- 
ford. 1895).  II,  good  bibliography:  Ayliffe,  .-Incieni  and  Present 
Stale  0/  the  Unirersiti/  of  Oxford  (2  vols.,  London,  1714);  Oxford 
Univ.  Commission,  Sfinutes  of  Evidence,  etc.  (Ixjndon.  ISSl); 
BOABE.  Register  of  the  University  of  Oxford  (Oxford,  1885); 
LYTE.Wisf.  of  the  Uniiersity  of  Oxford  (London.  1886);  Clakk. 
The  ColUges  of  Oxford  (London.  1891);  Oxford  Colhge  Histories 
(Lon<lon,  s.  d.);  Fostkb.  Alumni  Oxonienses  1715-1886  (London. 
18S7);  HUBST.  Oxford  Topography  (Oxford.  1899);  PxMicalions  of 
the  Oxford  Historical  Society  (Oxford,  s.  d.);  Statula  et  Decrcta 
Unit.  Oxon.  (Oxford.  1909);  Oxford  Unirrrsity  Calendar  (Oxford. 
1910-11);  GOI.DIE.  A  Bygone  Oxford  in  The  Month  (Sept.,  18S0); 
Camm,  The  University  of  Oxford  and  the  Reformation  in  The  Month 
(July  and  August,  1907). 

D.  0.  Hunter-Blair. 

Oxford  Movement,  The  (1833-1845),  may  be 
looked  upon  in  two  distinrt  lifchts.  "The  conception 
which  lay  at  its  li:Lse".  lu-cordinp;  to  the  Royal  Com- 
mission on  Eccl(si:i.-ilic;il  Discipline,  1906,  "was  that 
of  the  Holy  Catliolic  Cliurch  as  a  visible  body  upon 
earth,  bound  together  by  a  spiritual  but  absolute 
unity,  though  divided  .  .  .  into  national  and  other 
sections.  This  conception  drew  with  it  the  sense  of 
ecclesiastical  continuity,  of  the  intimate  and  unbroken 
connexion  between  the  primitive  Church  and  the 
Church  of  England,  and  of  the  importance  of  the 
Fathers  a-s  guides  and  teachers  ...  It  also  tended 
to  empha,size  points  of  communion  between  those 
different  branches  of  the  Church,  which  recognize  the 
doctrine  or  fact  of  Apostolic  Succession"  (Report,  p. 
64).  That  is  the  point  of  view  maintained  in  the 
"Tracts  for  the  Times"  from  1833  to  1841,  which  gave 
its  familiar  name  to  the  "Tractarian"  Movement. 
They  originated  and  ended  with  J.  H.  Newman. 

But  a  second,  very  unlike,  account  of  the  matter 
was  put  forward  by  Newman  himself  in  his  "Lectures 
on  Anglican  Difficulties"  of  18.50.  There  he  con- 
siders that  the  drift  or  tendency  of  this  remarkable 
change  was  not  towards  a  party  in  the  Establishment, 
or  even  towards  the  first  place  in  it,  but  away  from 
national  divisions  altogether.  It  was  meant  ulti- 
mately to  absorb  "the  various  English  denominations 
and  parties"  into  the  Roman  Church,  whence  their 
ancestors  had  come  out  at  the  Reformation.  And  as 
Newman  had  been  leader  in  the  Anglican  phase  of  the 
movement,  so  he  opened  the  way  towards  Rome,  sub- 
mitted to  it  in  1845,  and  made  popular  the  reasoning 
on  which  thousands  followed  his  example.  There 
seems  no  other  instance  adducible  from  history  of  a 
reUgious  thinker  who  ha,s  moulded  on  permanent  lines 
the  institution  which  he  quitted,  while  assigning 
causes  for  its  abandonment.  But  this  result  was  in 
some  measure  a  consequence  of  the  "anomalous  and 
singular  position",  as  Dean  Church  allows,  held  by 
the  English  Establishment,  since  it  was  legally  set  up 
under  Elizabeth  (Acts  of  Supremacy  and  Uniformity, 
8  May,  1559) 

Lord  Chatham  brought  out  these  anomalies  in  a 
famous  epigram.  "We  have",  he  remarked,  "a 
Popish  Liturgy,  Calvinistio  articles,  and  an  Arminian 
clergy."  Such  differences  were  visible  from  the  first. 
"It  is  historically  certain",  says  J.  A.  Froudc,  "that 
Elizabeth  and  her  ministers  intentionally  framed  the 
Church  formulas  so  as  to  enable  every  one  to  use  them 
who  would  disclaim  allegiance  to  the  Pope."  When 
the  Armada  was  scattered  and  broken,  many  adher- 
ents of  the  old  faith  appear  to  have  conformed;  and 
their  impetus  accounts  for  the  rise  of  a  High  Anglican 
party,  whose  chief  representative  was  Launcelot 
Andrewes,  Bishop  of  Winchester  (1.555-1626).  The 
Anglo-Catholic  school  was  continued  by  Laud,  and 
triumphed  after  the  Restoration.  In  1662  it  expelled 
from  the  Church,  Baxter  and  the  Presbyterians.  But 
from  the  Revolution  in  1688  it  steadily  declined.  The 
non-juring  bishops  were  wholly  in  its  tradition,  which, 
through  obscure  by-ways,  was  handed  on  from  his 
father  to  John  Keble  and  so  to  Hurrell  Froude  and 
Newman . 

However,  the  Laudian  or  Carolinian  divines  must 
not  be  supposed  to  have  ever  succeeded  in  driving  out 


their  Calvinistic  rivals,  so  [lowcrful  when  (he  Thirty- 
Nine  Articles  were  drawn  up,  ;u)d  known  froni  Sliake- 
sprare's  time  :is  I'iu'it;[ns  (.see  M;ilvolio  in  "Twelfth 
Night").  Andrewes  liimself,  (hough  (:ikiiig  St. 
Augustine  ;ind  St.  Thonuis  for  his  m:islcrs,  ilid  not 
admit  the  s:icTr(lo(:d  doctriiie  of  the  Eiicliarist.  At 
every  period  Ha]itism:d  l{cgcMci':ilion,  .\postolic  Suc- 
cession, and  the  Real  Presence  were  open  (|ucslions, 
not  decided  one  way  or  another  by  "the  sl;nniiH'iing 
lips  of  ambiguous  Formularies".  If  there  was  ;i  High 
Church  in  power,  and  if  wh;il  the  .-Xiiiuiiiaiis  lield,  :is 
it  was  wiltilv  s:iid.  were  ;dl  the  best  livings  in  Ijiglaiid, 
yet  C;dviii's  theology,  wlictljcr  :i  litde  softened  by 
Archbisho|)  VVhitgift  or  according  to  the  text  of  the 
"In.stitutes",  never  did  involve  deprivation.  It  was 
sheltered  by  the  Articles,  as  Catholic  tradition  was  by 
the  Prayer  Book;  and  the  balance  was  kept  between 
conlnidiiig  schools  of  opinion  by  means  of  the  Royal 
SupiciiKicy. 

Siiggcsti'd  by  Thomas  Cromwell,  .a.sserted  in  Par- 
lianieiilary  legisl;i(ion  under  Henry  VllI  (b'lIU).  (his 
prime  :irticle  of  .\nglieanism  made  the  king  supreme 
lieail  of  the  English  Church  on  earth,  and  his  tribunal 
the  last  court  of  appeal  in  all  cases,  spiritual  no  less 
than  .secular.  It  has  been  said  of  Henry,  and  is 
equally  true  of  Edward  VI,  that  he  claimed  the  whole 
power  of  the  keys.  Elizabeth,  while  riliii(|uisliing  (he 
title  of  Head  and  the  adniinistr;ition  of  holy  rites,  cer- 
tainly retained  and  excrciscil  lull  juri.sdietion  over  "all 
persons  and  all  eausrs"  within  the  realm.  She  ex- 
tinguished the  ani'iriii  luir:ni'liy  "without  any  pro- 
ceeding in  any  spirit  u.il  couii  ".  ,is  Macaulay  ob.serves, 
and  sill'  appointed  the  urw  one.  She  "tuned  (he 
pulpit",  adnionislicd  .irrliliishops,  and  even  supplied 
by  her  own  legal  authority  defects  in  the  process  of 
episcopal  consecration.  The  Prayer  Book  itself  is 
an  Act  of  Parliament.  "The  supreme  tribunal  of  ap- 
peal, in  ecclesia.stical  causes,  from  15.59  to  l.S;i2",  we 
are  told,  "was  that  created  by  25  Hen.  VIII,  c.  19, 
which  gave  an  appeal  from  the  Church  Courts  to  the 
King  in  Chancery  for  lack  of  justice"  (Dodd,  Hist. 
Canon  Law,  232).  These  powers  were  exercised  Ijy 
the  court  of  delegates;  in  1832  they  were  transferred 
to  the  judicial  committee  of  the  privy  council,  whose 
members  may  all  be  laymen;  and,  if  bishops,  they  do 
not  sit  by  virtue  of  their  episcopal  office  but  .as  the 
king's  advisers.  Contrast  will  drive  the  matter  home. 
The  constituent  form  of  the  Catholic  Church  is  the 
pope's  universal  jurisdiction  (see  Florence,  Council 
of;  Vatican  Council).  But  the  constituent  form 
of  the  English  Church,  as  establi-shed  by  Parliament, 
is  the  universal  jurisdiction  of  the  Crown.  In  either 
case  there  is  no  appeal  from  the  papal  or  the  royal 
decision.  When  Elizabeth  broke  with  the  Catholic 
bishops  who  would  not  acknowledge  her  spiritual 
headship,  and  when  William  III  deprived  Sancroft 
and  his  suffragans  who  refused  the  oath  of  allegiance, 
a  test  was  applied,  dogmatic  in  1559,  perhaps  not  less 
so  in  1690,  wdiich  proves  that  no  cause  of  exemption 
can  be  pleaded  against  the  king  when  he  acts  as 
supreme  governor  of  the  Church. 

Such  is  the  doctrine  often  called  Erastian,  from 
Erastus,  a  Swiss  theologian  (1524-83),  who  denied  to 
the  clergy  all  power  of  excommunication.  In  Eng- 
land the  course  of  events  had  run  on  before  Erastus 
eoidd  publish  its  philosophy.  Politicians  like  Burgh- 
ley  and  Walsingham  acted  on  no  theory,  but  drew 
tlieir  inspiration  from  Henry  VIII.  The  abstract 
statement  of  a  view  which  identifies  the  Church  with 
the  nation  and  subjects  both  equally  to  the  king,  may 
be  found  in  Hooker,  "The  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical 
Polity"  (1.594-97).  It  was  vigorously  asserted  by 
Selden  and  the  lawyers  at  all  times.  During  (he  cri(  i- 
cal  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  Arnold,  Stanley, 
and  Kingsley  were  its  best  known  defenders  among 
clergymen.  Stanley  declared  that  the  Church  of 
England  "is  by  the  very  conditions  of  its  being  neither 


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High  nor  Low,  but  Broad"("Ed.  Rev.",  July,  1850). 
In  coarser  but  equally  practical  terms  men  said,  "The 
Church  was  grafted  upon  the  State,  and  the  State 
would  remain  master."  No  ruling,  in  fact,  of  bishop 
or  convocation  need  be  regarded  by  Anglicans,  lay 
or  clerical,  unless  it  implies,  at  all  events  tacitly,  the 
consent  of  the  Crown,  i.  e.,  of  Parliament. 

So  long  as  the  State  excluded  Dissenters  and  Cath- 
olics from  its  offices,  the  system,  in  spite  of  the  Great 
Rebellion,  nay  after  the  more  truly  disastrous  Revolu- 
tion of  1(388,  worked  as  well  as  could  be  expected.  But 
in  1828  the  Test  Act  was  repealed;  next  year  Catholic 
Emanciijation  passed  into  law.  In  1830  the  French 
drove  out  their  Bourbon  dyna.sty ;  Belgium  threw  off 
the  yoke  of  Holland.  In  1832  came  the  Reform  Bill, 
which  Tories  construed  into  an  attack  on  the  Church. 
What  would  the  Royal  Supremacy  mean  if  Parliament 
was  no  longer  to  be  exclusively  .Anglican?  Lord  Grey 
told  the  bishops  to  set  their  house  in  order;  ten  Irish 
bishoprics  were  suppressed.  Arnold  wrote  in  1832, 
"The  Church,  as  it  now  stands,  no  human  power  can 
save."  Whateley  thought  it  difficult  to  "preserve 
the  Establishment  from  utter  overthrow".  Alexan- 
der Knox,  a  far-seeing  Irish  writer,  said,  "The  old 
High  Church  race  is  worn  out."  The  "Clapham 
sect"  of  Evangelicals,  who  came  down  from  Calvin, 
and  the  "Clapton  sect ",  otherwise  called  High  and 
Dry,  who  had  no  theology  at  all,  divided  "serious" 
people  among  them.  Bishops  were  great  persons  who 
amassed  wealth  for  their  families,  and  who  had  at- 
tained to  place  and  influence  by  servile  offices  or  by 
editing  Greek  plays.  In  the  presence  of  threatened 
revolution  they  sat  helpless  and  bewildered.  From 
them  neither  counsel  nor  aid  was  to  be  expected  by 
earnest  churchmen.  Arnold  would  have  brought  in 
Dissenters  by  a  "comprehension"  which  sacrificed 
dogma  to  individual  judgment.  Whateley  protested 
against  "that  double  usurpation,  the  interference  of 
the  Church  in  temporals,  of  the  State  in  spirituals". 
A  notable  preacher  and  organizer.  Dr.  Hook,  "first 
gave  body  and  force  to  Church  theology,  not  to  be 
mistaken  or  ignored".  But  it  was  from  Oxford, 
"the  home  of  lost  causes",  always  Cavalier  at  heart, 
still  "debating  its  eternal  Church  question  as  in  the 
days  of  Henry  IV",  that  salvation  came. 

Oriel,  once  illustrated  by  Raleigh  and  Butler,  was 
now  the  most  distinguished  college  in  the  university. 
For  some  thirty  years  it  had  welcomed  original  think- 
ers, and  among  its  fellows  were,  or  had  been,  Cople- 
ston,  Whateley,  Hawkins,  Davison,  Keble,  Arnold, 
Pusey,  and  Hurrell  Froude.  "This  knot  of  Oriel 
men",  says  Pattison,  "was  distinctly  the  product  of 
the  French  Revolution."  Those  among  them  who 
indulged  in  "free  inquiry"  were  termed  "Noetics"; 
they  "called  everything  in  question;  they  appealed 
to  first  principles,  and  disallowed  authority  in  intel- 
lectual matters."  The  university,  which  Pattison 
describes  as  "a  close  clerical  corporation",  where  all 
alike  had  sworn  to  the  Prayer  Book  and  Articles,  had 
thus  in  its  bosom  a  seed  of  "Liberalism",  and  was 
menaced  by  changes  analogous  to  the  greater  revolu- 
tions in  the  State  itself.  Reaction  came,  as  was  to 
be  expected,  in  the  very  college  that  had  witnessed 
the  provocation.  Oxford,  of  all  places,  would  surely 
be  the  last  to  accept  French  and  democratic  ideas. 

John  Keble  (1792-186.5)  was  the  leading  fellow  of 
Oriel.  As  a  mere  boy,  he  had  carried  off  the  highest 
honours  of  the  university.  In  1823  he  became  his 
father's  curate  at  Fairford,  and  in  1827  he  published 
"The  Christian  Year",  a  cycle  of  poems  or  meditations 
in  verse,  refined,  soothing,  and  akin  to  George  Her- 
bert's "The  Temple",  by  their  spiritual  depth  and 
devout  attachment  to  the  English  Church.  They 
have  gone  through  innumerable  editions.  Keble, 
though  a  scholarly  mind,  had  no  grasp  of  metaphysics.  ■ 
An  ingrained  conservative,  he  took  over  the  doctrines, 
and  lived  on  the  recollection  of  the  Laudian  school. 


Without  ambition,  he  was  inflexible,  never  open  to 
development,  but  gentle,  shrewd,  and  saintly.  His 
convictions  needed  an  Aaron  to  make  them  widely 
effective;  and  he  found  a  voice  in  his  pupil,  the 
"bright  and  beautiful"  Froude,  whose  short  life 
(1802-36)  counts  for  much  in  the  Oxford  Movement. 
Froude  was  the  connecting  link  between  Keble  and 
Newman.  His  friendship,  at  the  moment  when  New- 
man's Evangelical  prejudices  were  fading  and  his  in- 
clination towards  Liberalism  had  receiveil  a  sharp 
check  by  "illness  and  bereavement",  proved  to  be 
the  one  thing  needful  to  a  temper  which  always 
leaned  on  its  associates,  and  which  absorbed  ideas 
with  the  vivacity  of  genius.  So  the  fusion  came 
about.  Elsewhere  (see  Newman,  John  Henry)  is 
related  the  story  of  those  earlier  years  in  which,  from 
various  sources,  the  future  Tractarian  leader  gained 
his  knowledge  of  certain  Catholic  truths,  one  by  one. 
But  their  living  unity  and  paramount  authority  were 
borne  in  upon  him  by  discu.ssions  with  Froude,  whose 
teacher  was  Keble.  Froude,  says  Newman,  "pro- 
fessed openly  his  admiration  for  the  Church  of  Rome, 
and  his  hatred  of  the  Reformers.  He  delighted  in  the 
notion  of  an  hierarchical  system,  of  sacerdijl:il  power, 
and  of  full  ecclesiastical  liberty.  He  felt  sccirn  of  the 
maxim,  'the  Bible  and  the  Bible  only  is  the  religion 
of  Protestants' ;  and  he  gloried  in  accepting  tradition 
as  a  main  instrument  of  religious  teaching.  He  had 
a  high  severe  idea  of  the  intrinsic  excellence  of  virgin- 
ity. .  .  He  delighted  in  thinking  of  the  saints.  .  . 
He  embraced  the  principle  of  penance  and  mortifica- 
tion. He  had  a  deep  devotion  to  the  Real  Presence 
in  which  he  had  a  firm  faith.  He  was  powerfully 
drawn  to  the  Medieval  Church,  but  not  to  the  Primi- 
tive."    ("Apol.",  p.  24.) 

These,  remarkably  enough,  are  characteristics  of 
the  later  phases  of  the  Movement,  known  as  Ritual- 
ism, rather  than  of  its  beginning.  Yet  Newman's 
friendship  with  Froude  goes  back  to  1826;  they  be- 
came very  intimate  after  the  rejection  of  Peel  by  the 
university  in  1829;  and  the  Roman  tendencies,  of 
which  mention  is  made  above,  cannot  but  have  told 
powerfully  on  the  leader,  when  his  hopes  for  Anglican- 
ism were  shattered  by  the  misfortunes  of  "Tract  90". 
Keble,  on  the  other  hand,  had  "a  great  dislike  of 
Rome",  as  well  as  of  "Dissent  and  Methodism". 
The  first  years  of  the  revival  were  disfigured  by  a 
strong  anti-Roman  polemic,  which  Froude,  on  his 
death-bed,  condemned  as  so  much  "cursing  and 
swearing ' ' .  But  Newman  had  been  as  a  youth  ' '  most 
firmly  convinced  that  the  Pope  was  the  Antichrist 
predicted  by  Daniel,  St.  Paul,  and  St.  John."  His 
imagination  was  stained  by  the  effects  of  this  doctrine 
as  late  as  the  year  1843.  In  consequence,  his  lan- 
guage towards  the  ancient  Church  only  just  fell  short 
of  the  vituperation  lavished  on  it  by  the  Puritans 
themselves.  The  movement,  therefore,  started,  not 
on  Roman  ground,  but  in  a  panic  provoked  by  the 
alliance  of  O'Connell  with  the  Whigs,  of  Dissenters 
with  Benthamites,  intent  on  destroying  all  religious 
establishments.  How  could  they  be  resisted?  New- 
man answers  in  his  opening  tract,  adilressed  to  the 
clergy  by  one  of  themselves,  a  fellow-i)reshyter.  "I 
fear",  he  tells  them,  "we  have  ncglrrtcd  the  real 
ground  on  which  our  authority  is  built ,  our  Apo.stolical 
descent."  And  he  made  his  appeal  to  the  ordination 
service — in  other  words,  to  the  Prayer  Book  and  the 
sacramental  system,  of  which  the  clergy  were  the 
Divinelv  appointed  ministers. 

The  first  t hrce  t  racts  are  dated  9  Sept.,  1833.  New- 
man and  I'Voude,  after  their  voyage  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean in  Dec,  1832,  had  returned  in  the  midst  of  an 
agitation  in  which  they  were  speedily  caught  up. 
Keble's  sermon — in  itself  not  very  striking — on  "Na- 
tional Apo.stasy",  had  marked  14  July,  1833,  as  the 
birthday  of  a  ".second  Reformation".  At  Hadleigh, 
H.  J.  Rose  and  three  other  clergymen  had  met  in  con- 


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ference,  25-29  July,  ;iiiil  wore  ondeavourinp  to  start  a 
society  of  Cliurcli  ilffi'iici-,  with  machinery  and  sal'c- 
guards,  iis  bolillcd  ri'sponsiblo  jJiTsons.  But  Xcwnian 
would  not  be  swamiHil  by  committops.  "  Lutlifr",  lie 
wrote,  "Wius  an  individual".  He  proposed  to  be  an 
Apostolical  Luther.  He  was  not  now  tutor  of  Oriel. 
Hawkins  had  turned  him  out  of  offire — a  curious  ac- 
knowli'dfiement  of  the  vote  by  which  he  had  made 
Hawkins  jjrovost  instead  of  Keblo.  But  he  was  Vicar 
of  St.  Mary'.s — a  parish  dependent  on  Oriel,  and  the 
university  church.  His  jjuljiit  was  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous in  England.  He  knew  the  secret  of  journalism, 
and  had  at  his  command  a  stern  eloquence,  barbed  by 
convictions,  which  his  reading  of  the  Fathers  and  the 
Anglican  folios  daily  strengthened.  He  felt  supreme 
confidence  in  his  position.  But  he  was  not  well  read 
in  the  history  of  the  Anglican  origins  or  of  the  Royal 
Supremacy.  His  Church  was  an  ideal;  never,  cer- 
tainly, since  the  legislation  of  Henry  and  Elizabeth 
had  the  English  Establishment  enjoyed  the  freedom  he 
sought.  It  had  issued  articles  of  faith  imposed  by  po- 
litical expediency;  it  had  tolerated  among  its  communi- 
cants Lutherans,  Calvinists,  Erastians,  and  in  the 
persons  of  high  dignitaries  like  Bishop  Hoadley  even 
Socinians.  It  had  never  been  self-governing  in  the  past 
any  more  than  it  was  now.  If  the  "idea  or  first  princi- 
ple" of  the  movement  was  "ecclesiastical  liberty",  it 
must  be  pronounced  a  failure;  for  the  Royal  Suprem- 
acy as  understood  by  lawyers  and  lamented  over  by 
High  Church  divines  is  still  intact. 

On  that  side,  therefore,  not  a  shadow  of  victory  ap- 
pears. Anyone  may  believe  the  doctrines  peculiar  to 
Tractarian  theology,  and  any  one  may  reject  them, 
without  incurring  penalties  in  the  Church  Establish- 
ment. They  are  opinions,  not  dogmas,  not  the  exclu- 
sive teaching  that  alone  constitutes  a  creed.  Fresh 
from  Aristotle's  "Ethics",  where  virtue  is  said  to  he  in 
a  mean,  the  Oriel  scholar  termed  his  position  the  Via 
Media;  it  was  the  golden  mean  which  avoided  papal 
corruptions  and  Protestant  heresies.  But  did  it  exist 
an>-where  except  in  books?  Was  it  not  "as  a  doctrine, 
wanting  in  simplicity,  hard  to  master,  indeterminate 
in  its  provisons,  and  without  a  substantive  existence 
in  any  age  or  country"?  Newman  did  not  deny  that 
"it  still  remains  to  be  tried  whether  what  is  called 
Anglo-Catholicism,  the  religion  of  Andrewes,  Laud, 
Hammond,  Butler,  and  Wilson,  is  capable  of  being 
professed,  acted  on,  and  maintained  ...  or  whether 
it  be  a  mere  modification  or  transition-state  of  Roman- 
ism or  of  popular  Protestantism."  The  Via  Media 
was  an  experiment.  Perhaps  the  Established  Church 
"never  represented  a  doctrine  at  all  .  .  .  never  had 
had  an  Intellectual  ba.sis";  perhaps  it  has  "been  but  a 
name,  or  a  department  of  State"  (Proph.  Office,  In- 
trod.).  To  this  second  conclusion  the  author  finally 
came;  but  not  until  during  eight  years  he  had  made 
trial  of  his  "middle  way"  and  had  won  to  it  a  crowd  of 
disciples.  The  Tractarian  Movement  succeeded  after 
his  time  in  planting  among  the  varieties  of  Anglican 
religious  life  a  Catholic  party.  It  failed  altogether  in 
making  of  the  Establishment  a  Catholic  Church. 

Palmer,  of  Worcester  College,  and  his  clerical  asso- 
ciates presented  an  athlress  in  1834,  signed  with  10,000 
names,  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  defending 
the  imperilled  interests.  Joshua  Watson,  a  leading 
layman,  brought,  up  one  more  emphatic,  to  which  230,- 
000  heads  of  families  gave  their  adhesion.  But  of  these 
collective  efforts  no  Ixsting  result  came,  although  they 
frightened  the  Government  and  damped  its  revolu- 
tionary zeal.  Mr.  Rose,  a  man  of  hifrh  character  and 
distinction,  had  started  the  "British  Magazine"  as  a 
Church  organ;  the  conference  at  Hadleigh  was  due  to 
him;  and  he  seemed  to  be  marked  out  as  chief  over 
"nobodies"  like  Froude  and  Newman.  His  friends 
objected  to  the  "Tracts"  which  were  the  doing  of 
these  free  lances.  Newman,  however,  would  not  give 
way.    His  language  about  the  Reformation  offended 


Mr.  Rose,  who  held  it  to  be  a  "deliverance";  and 
while  Froude  was  eager  to  dissolve  the  union  of  Church 
and  State,  which  he  considered  to  be  the  parent  or  the 
tool  of  "Liberalism"  in  docrtrine,  he  called  Hose  a 
"conservative".  Between  minds  thus  drawing  in  op- 
posite directions  any  real  fellowshl))  wius  not  likely  to 
endure.  Rose  may  be  termed  an  auxiliary  in  th<'  first 
stage  of  Church  defence;  he  never  was  a'Praeturian; 
and  he  died  in  1839.  His  ally,  William  I'ahiier,  long 
survived  him.  Palmer,  an  Irish  Protestant,  learneil 
and  pompous,  had  printed  his  "Origines  Liturgica-" 
in  1832,  a  volume  now  obsolete,  but  the  best  book  for 
that  period  on  the  Offices  of  the  Church  of  England. 
His  later  "Treatise  on  the  Church",  of  1838,  was 
purely  Anglican  and  therefore  anti-Roman;  it  so  far 
won  the  respect  of  Father  Perrone,  S.J.,  that  he  replied 
to  it. 

Palmer  was  no  Tractarian  either,  as  his  "Narrative 
of  Events",  pubhshed  in  1843,  sufficiently  proves. 
The  (lifTcrence  may  be  sharply  stated.  (Jenuine  .Angli- 
cans idem  if  led  the  Catholic  Church  once  for  all  with  the 
local  bo(  ly  c  if  which  they  were  members,  and  infeqireted 
the  phenomena  whether  of  medieval  or  reformed 
Christianity  on  this  principle;  they  were  Englishmen 
first  and  Catholics  after.  Not  so  with  Newman, 
who  tells  us,  "I  felt  affection  for  my  own  Church, 
but  not  tenderness  ...  if  Liberalism  once  got  a  foot- 
ing within  her,  it  was  sure  of  the  victory  in  the  event. 
I  saw  that  Reformation  principles  were  powerless  to 
rescue  her.  As  to  leaving  her,  the  thought  never 
crossed  my  imagination;  still  I  ever  kept  before  me 
that  there  was  something  greater  than  the  Established 
Church,  and  that  was  the  Church  Catholic  and  Apos- 
tolic, set  up  from  the  beginning,  of  which  she  was  but 
the  local  presence  and  the  organ."  These  divergent 
views  went  at  last  asunder  in  1845. 

"The  new  Tracts",  says  Dean  Church,  "were  re- 
ceived with  surprise,  dismay,  ridicule,  and  indigna- 
tion. But  they  also  at  once  called  forth  a  response  of 
eager  sympathy  from  numbers. ' '  An  active  propa- 
ganda was  started  all  over  the  country.  Bishops  were 
perplexed  at  so  bold  a  restatement  of  the  Apostolic 
Succession,  in  which  they  hardly  believed.  Newman 
affirmed  the  principle  of  dogma;  a  visible  Church  with 
sacraments  and  rites  as  the  channels  of  invisible  grace; 
a  Divinely  ordained  episcopal  system  as  inculcaleil  by 
the  Epistles  of  St.  Ignatius.  But  the  Erastian  or  Lib- 
eral did  not  set  store  by  dogma;  and  the  Evangelical 
found  no  grace  ex  opcre  operato  in  the  sacraments. 
Episcopacy  to  both  of  them  was  but  a  convenient 
form  of  Church  government,  and  the  Church  itself  a 
voluntary  association.  Now  the  English  bishops,  who 
were  appointed  by  Erastians  ("an  infidel  govern- 
ment" is  Keble's  expression),  dreaded  the  jiower  of 
EvangcUcals.  At  no  time  could  they  dare  to  sui)[)ort 
the  "Tracts".  Moreover,  to  quote  Newman,  "All  the 
world  was  astounded  at  what  Froude  and  I  were  say- 
ing; men  said  that  it  was  sheer  Popery."  There  were 
searchings  of  heart  in  England,  the  like  of  which  had 
not  been  felt  since  the  non-jurors  went  out.  Catholics 
had  been  emancipated;  and  "those  that  sat  in  the  re- 
formers' seats  were  traducing  the  Reformation".  To 
add  to  the  confusion,  the  Liberalizing  attack  on  the 
university  had  now  begun.  In  1834  Dr.  Hampden 
wrote  and  sent  to  Newman  his  pamphlet,  in  which  he 
recommended  the  abolition  of  tests  for  Dissenters,  or, 
technically,  of  subscription  to  the  Articles  by  under- 
graduates. On  what  grounds?  Because,  he  said,  re- 
ligion was  one  thing,  theological  opinion  another.  The 
Trinitarian  and  Unitarian  doctrines  were  merely  opin- 
ions, and  the  spirit  of  the  English  Church  was  not  the 
spirit  of  dogma.  Hampden  did  little  more  than  repeat 
the  well-known  arguments  of  Locke  and  Chilling- 
worth;  but  he  was  breaking  open  the  gates  of  Oxford 
to  unbelief,  as  Newman  foresaw,  and  the  latter  an- 
swered wrathfully  that  Hampden's  views  made  ship- 
wreck of  the  Christian  faith.    "Since  that  time",  says 


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the  "Apologia",  "Phaethon  has  got  into  the  chariot 
of  the  sun;  we,  alas,  can  only  look  on,  and  watch  him 
down  the  steep  of  heaven."  In  Mark  Pattison's 
phrase,  "the  University  has  been  secularized."  The 
Noetics  of  Oriel  were  followed  by  the  Broad  Church- 
men of  Balliol,  and  these  by  the  agnostics  of  a  more  re- 
cent period.  From  Whateley  and  Arnold,  through  the 
stormy  days  of  "Tract  90"  and  Ward's  "degrada- 
tion", we  come  down  to  the  Roj'al  Commission  of 
1854,  which  created  modern  Oxford.  Subscription  to 
the  Articles  was  done  away;  fellowships  ceased  to  be 
what  some  one  has  styled  "clerical  preserves";  there 
was  an  "outbreak  of  infidelity",  says  Pattison  with  a 
sneer,  and  names  like  Arthur  Clough,  Matthew  Ar- 
nold, J.  A.  Froude,  Jowett,  and  Max  Miiller  trium- 
phantly declare  that  the  Liberals  had  conquered. 

Newman  lost  the  university,  but  he  held  it  entranced 
for  years  by  his  \isible  greatness,  by  his  preaching,  and 
by  his  friendships.  The  sermons,  of  which  eight  vol- 
umes are  extant,  afforded  a  severe  yet  most  persuasive 
commentary  upon  tracts  and  treatises,  in  themselves 
always  of  large  outlook  and  of  nervous  though  formal 
style.  These,  annotated  after  1870  from  the  Catholic 
point  of  view,  were  reprinted  in  "Via  Media",  "His- 
torical Sketches",  "  Discu.ssions  and  Arguments",  and 
two  volumes  of  "Essays"  (see  popular  edition  of  his 
Works,  1895).  Keble  republished  Hooker  as  if  an 
Anglo-Catholic  Aquinas  (finished  1836);  and  from 
the  chair  of  poetry  were  delivered  his  graceful  Latin 
"  Praelections",  deeply  imbued  with  the  same  religious 
colouring.  Hurrell  Froude  attempted  a  sketch  of  his 
own  hero,  St.  Thomas  k  Becket,  pattern  of  all  anti- 
Erastians.  Bowden  compiled  the  life  of  Pope  Gregory 
Vn,  evidently  for  the  like  motive.  Nor  were  poetical 
manifestos  wanting.  To  the  "Lyra  Apostolica"  we 
may  attribute  a  strong  influence  over  many  who  could 
not  grasp  the  subtle  reasoning  which  filled  Newman's 
"Prophetic  Office".  Concerning  the  verses  from  his 
pen.  A.  J.  Froude  observ'es  that,  in  spite  of  their  some- 
what rude  form,  "they  had  pierced  into  the  heart  and 
mind  and  there  remained".  "Lead,  Kindly  Light", 
he  adds,  "is  perhaps  the  most  popular  hvmn  in  the 
language."  Here,  indeed,  "were  thoughts  like  no 
other  man's  thoughts,  and  emotions  like  no  other 
man's  emotions".  To  the  "Lyra"  Keble  and  others 
also  contributed  poems.  And  High  Anglican  stories 
began  to  appear  in  print. 

But  inspiration  needed  a  constant  power  behind  it,  if 
the  tracts  were  not  to  be  a  flash  in  the  pan.  It  was 
given  in  1834  and  1835  by  the  accession  to  the  move- 
ment of  E.  B.  Pusey,  Canon  of  Christ  Church  and 
Hebrew  professor.  Pusey  had  enormous  erudition, 
gained  in  part  at  German  universities;  he  was  of  high 
social  standing  (always  impressive  to  Englishmen), 
and  revered  as  a  saint  for  his  devout  life,  his  munifi- 
cence, his  gravity.  Though  a  "dull  and  tedious 
preacher",  most  confused  and  unrhetorical,  the 
weight  of  his  learning  was  felt.  He  took  the  place  that 
Mr.  Rose  could  not  have  occupied  long.  At  once  the 
world  out  of  doors  looked  up  to  him  as  official  head  of 
the  movement.  It  came  to  be  known  as  "Puseyism" 
at  home  and  abroad.  University  wits  had  jested  about 
"Newmaniacs"  and  likened  the  Vicar  of  St.  Mary's  to 
the  conforming  Jew,  Neander;  but  "Puseyite"  was  a 
serious  term  even  in  rebuke.  The  Tractarian  leader 
showed  a  deference  to  this  "great  man"  which  was  al- 
ways touching ;  yet  they  agreed  less  than  Pusey  under- 
stood. Towards  Rome  itself  the  latter  felt  no  draw- 
ing; Newman's  fierceness  betrayed  the  impatience  of  a 
thwarted  affection.  "O  that  thy  creed  were  sound, 
thou  Church  of  Rome!"  he  exclaimed  in  the  bitterness 
of  his  heart.  Pusey,  always  mild,  had  none  of  that 
' '  hysterical  passion ' ' .  Neither  did  he  regard  the  j  udg- 
ment  of  bishops  as  decisive,  nor  was  he  troubled  by 
them  if  they  ran  counter  to  the  Fathers'  teaching,  so 
intimately  known  to  this  unwearied  student. 

He  was  "a  man  of  large  designs",  confident  in  his 


position,  "haunted  by  no  intellectual  perplexities". 
He  welcomed  responsibility,  a  little  too  much  some- 
times; and  now  he  gave  the  tracts  a  more  important 
character.  His  own  in  1S35  on  Holy  Baptism  was  an 
elaborate  treatise,  which  led  to  others  on  a  similar 
model.  In  1836  he  advertised  his  great  project  for  a 
translation  or  "library"  of  the  Fathers,  which  was  exe- 
cuted mainly  in  conjunction  with  the  pious  and  eccen- 
tric Charles  Marriot.  The  republication  of  Anglican 
divines,  from  Andrewes  onwards,  likewise  owed  its  in- 
ception to  Pusey.  The  instauratio  magna  of  theology 
and  devotion,  intended  to  be  purely  Catholic,  thus 
made  a  beginning.  It  has  taken  on  it  since  the  largest 
dimensions,  and  become  not  only  learned  but  popular; 
Anglican  experts  have  treated  the  liturgy,  church  his- 
tory, books  for  guidance  in  the  spiritual  life,  hymnol- 
ogy,  architecture,  and  ritual  with  a  copious  knowledge 
and  remarkable  success.  Of  these  enterprises  Dr. 
Pusey  was  the  source  and  for  many  years  the  standard. 

In  1836  Hurrell  Froude,  returning  from  Barbadoea 
in  the  last  stage  of  weakness,  died  at  his  father's  house 
in  Devonshire.  His  "Remains",  of  which  we  shall 
speak  presently,  were  published  in  1837.  Newman's 
dearest  friend  was  taken  from  him  just  as  a  fresh  scene 
opened,  with  alarums  and  excursions  to  be  repeated 
during  half  a  century — legal  "persecutions",  acts  of 
reprisals,  fallings  away  on  the  right  hand  and  the  left. 
Froude  died  on  28  Feb.,  1836.  In  May  Dr.  Hampden 
— who  had  been  appointed,  thanks  to  Whateley,  Re- 
gius Professor  of  Divinity  on  7  Feb. — was  censured  by 
the  heads  of  houses,  the  governing  board  of  the  uni- 
versity, for  the  unsound  doctrine  taught  in  his  "  Bamp- 
ton  Lectures".  All  the  Oxford  residents  at  this  time, 
except  a  handful,  were  incensed  by  what  they  consid- 
ered the  perils  to  faith  which  Dr.  Hampden's  free- 
thought  was  provoking.  But  it  was  Newman  who,  by 
his  "Elucidations",  pointed  the  charge,  and  gave  to 
less  learned  combatants  an  excuse  for  condemning 
what  they  had  not  read.  Nemesis  lay  in  wait  on  his 
threshold.  The  Evangelicals  who  trooped  into  Con- 
vocation to  vote  against  Hampden  "avowed  their 
desire  that  the  next  time  they  were  brought  up  to 
Oxford,  it  might  be  to  put  down  the  Popery  of  the 
Movement". 

At  this  date  even  Pusey  celebrated  the  Reformers 
as  "the  founders  of  our  Church";  and  that  largely 
fabulous  account  of  the  past  which  Newman  calls  "the 
Protestant  tradition"  was  believed  on  all  sides.  Im- 
agine, then,  how  shocked  and  alarmed  were  old-fash- 
ioned parsons  of  everj-  type  when  Froude's  letters  and 
diaries  upset  "with  amazing  audacity"  the.se  "popu- 
lar and  conventional  estimates";  when  the  Reforma- 
tion was  described  as  "a  limb  badly  set",  its  apologist 
Jewel  flung  aside  as  "an  irreverent  Dis.senter",  its 
reasoning  against  the  CathoUc  mysteries  denounced  as 
the  fruit  of  a  proud  spirit  which  would  make  short 
work  of  Christianity  itself.  Froude,  in  his  graphic  cor- 
respondence, appeared  to  be  the  enfant  terrible  who 
had  no  reserves  and  no  respect  for  "idols"  whether  of 
the  market-place  or  the  theatre.  Friends  were  pained, 
foes  exultant;  "sermons  and  newspapers",  says  Dean 
Church,  "drew  attention  to  Froude's  extravagances 
with  horror  and  disgust".  The  editors,  Keble  no  less 
than  Newman,  had  miscalculated  the  effect,  which 
was  widely  irritating  and  which  increased  the  suspi- 
cion their  own  writings  had  excited  of  some  deep-laid 
plot  in  favourof  Rome  (Letter to  Faussett,  June,  1835). 
To  be  at  once  imprudent  and  insidious  might  seem  be- 
yond man's  power;  but  such  was  the  reputation  Trac- 
tarians  bore  from  that  day.  Froude's  outspoken  judg- 
ments, however,  marked  the  turning  of  the  tide  in 
eccle.sia.stical  history.  "  The  divines  of  the  Reforma- 
tion", continues  DeanJZJhurch,  "never  can  be  again, 
with  their  confused  Calvinism,  with  their  shifting  opin- 
ions, their  extravagant  deference  to  the  foreign  oracles 
of  Geneva  and  Zurich,  their  subservience  to  bad  men 
in  power,  the  heroes  and  saints  of  Churchmen."    Since 


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374 


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Gobbet's  indictinont  of  the  Reformation  no  lanRuaKe 
had  so  stirred  the  ra^e  of  "general  ignorance",  long 
content  to  talic  its  lenoiuls  on  trust.  Kroude's  "  Ke- 
mains"  were  a  challenge  to  it  in  one  way,  as  the  "  Li- 
brary of  the  Fathers"  was  in  another,  and  yet  again 
the  ponderous  "Catenas"  of  High  Church  authorities, 
to  which  by  and  by  the  "Parker  Society"  answered 
with  its  sixty-six  voluriies.  mostly  unreadable,  of  the 
Cranmer,  Hullinger,  uiul  Zurich  pattern.  The  Refor- 
mation theology  wa,s  doomed.  What  the  ".\nglican 
regiment"  has  accomplished,  J.  A.  Froude  proclaims, 
"is  the  destruction  of  the  Evangelical  party  in  the 
Church  of  England". 

When  Samson  ])ulled  down  the  temple  of  the  Phil- 
istines, he  wa.-i  buried  in  its  ruins.  Newman  did 
not  shrink  from  that  sacritice;  he  was  ready  to  strike 
and  be  stricken.  Though  Hampden's  condemnation 
would  never  have  been  carried  by  the  Tractarians 
alone,  they  gave  it  a  force  and  an  edge  in  the  very 
spirit  of  Laud.  To  put  down  false  teachers  by  author- 
ity, to  visit  them  with  penalties  of  censure  and  de|)ri- 
vation,  they  held  wius  theduty  of  the  Church  and  of  the 
Slate  as  Cod's  minister.  They  would  have  repealed 
Catholic  Kmani'ipation.  Thev  nvsisted  the  grant  to 
the  College  of  Maynool  h.  They  had  .faved  the  Prayer 
Book  from  amendments,  and  frightened  politicians, 
who  would  have  distribiileil  the  spoils  of  the  Church 
among  more  or  less  "  Liberal "  schemes.  By  the  year 
1S38  they  had  won  their  place  in  Oxford;  the  "Times" 
was  coming  over  to  their  side;  Bampton  Lectures  were 
beginning  to  talk  of  Catholic  tradition  as  the  practical 
rule  of  faith;  and  Evangelicals,  infuriated  if  not  dis- 
mayed, were  put  on  their  defence.  Whateley  from 
Dublin,  Hawkins,  Faussett,  Hampden,  Golightly,  in 
Oxford,  were  calling  up  a  motley  array,  united  on  one 
point  only,  that  Tractarians  must  be  handled  as  the 
emissaries  of  Rome.  Dr.  Arnold  in  the  "Edinburgh" 
launched  an  invective  against  the  "Oxford  Malig- 
nants",  accusing  them  of  "moral  dishonesty".  New- 
man's former  friend,  Whateley,  shrieked  over  "this 
rapidly  increasing  pestilence",  and  transfixed  its  lead- 
ers with  epithets;  they  were  "veiled  prophets";  their 
religion  was  "Thuggee";  they  were  working  out  "in- 
fidel designs".  Lord  Morpeth  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons trampled  on  "a  sect  of  damnable  and  detestable 
heretics  lately  sprung  up  at  Oxford",  and  mentioned 
Newman  by  name.  From  every  quarter  of  the  com- 
pass a  storm  was  blowing  up;  but  it  moved  round  a 
thunder  cloud  called  "Rome". 

"Just  at  this  time,  June,  1838",  saysNewman,  "was 
the  zenith  of  the  Tract  Movement."  A  change  of  for- 
tune began  with  his  bishop's  charge,  animadverting 
lightly  on  its  Roman  tendencies,  to  which  the  answer 
came  at  once  from  Newman,  that  if  it  was  desired  he 
would  sui)press  the  tracts.  It  was  not  asked  of  him; 
but  he  had  written  to  Bowden  the  significant  words, 
"  1  do  not  see  how  the  bishop  can  materially  alter  his 
charge  or  how  I  can  bear  any  blow  whatever".  Some 
of  his  friends  objected  to  publishing  the  tract  on  the 
Roman  Breviary;  for  it  was  not  then  realized  how 
much  the  .\nglican  Prayer  Book  owes  to  Catholic,  i.  e. 
to  Latin  and  papal  sources.  Newman  impatiently  re- 
joined that  they  must  have  confidence  in  him.  To 
Keble  he  disclosed  his  idea  of  giving  up  the  tracts,  the 
"  British  Critic  ",  and  St.  Mary's.  For  while  preaching 
high  Anglican  doctrine,  he  said,  "one  cannot  stop  still. 
Shrewd  minds  anticipate  conclusions,  oblige  one  to  say 
yes  or  no."  He  collected  in  January,  1839,  "all  the 
strong  things"  which  he  and  others  had  flung  out 
against  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  made  of  them  "ad- 
vertisements" to  the  Puseyite  publications.  By  way 
of  protest  on  the  I>ow  Church  side,  bishops,  clergy,  and 
laity  united  in  the  Martyrs'  Memorial  to  Cranmer  and 
Latimer,  set  up  near  the  spot  where  they  suffered,  in 
front  of  Balliol  College.  But  the  tracts  were  selling 
fa.ster  than  the  printers  could  meet  the  demand.  In 
July,  Newman,  taking  up  again  his  always  projected 


and  never  issued  edition  of  Dionysius  of  Alexandria, 
l)lunged  into  the  record  of  the  Monophysites  and  the 
Coimcil  of  Chaleedon.  In  September  he  wrote  to  F. 
Rogers,  "I  have  had  the  first  real  hit  from  Roman- 
ism"; an  allusion  to  Wiseman's  telling  article  on  the 
Donatist  .schism  in  the  "Dublin"  for  August.  Walk- 
ing with  II.  Wilberforce  in  the  New  Forest  he  made  to 
him  the  "astounding  confidence"  that  doubt  was  upon 
him,  thanks  to  "the  position  of  St.  Leo  in  the  Mono- 
physite  controversy,  and  thi'  principle  'Sei-urus  judi- 
cal' orbis  terrarum'  in  that  of  the  Donatisls."  A  vista 
had  opened  to  the  end  of  which  he  did  not  .see.  His 
mind  was  never  settled  again  in  .Vnglicanism.  "He 
has  told  the  story  .  .  .  with  so  keen  a  feeling  of  its 
tragic  and  pathetic  character",  as  Dean  Church  truly 
says,  "that  it  will  never  cease  to  be  read  where  the 
English  language  is  spoken."  It  was  the  story  of  a  de- 
liverance. But  still  Samson  paid  for  it  with  all  he  held 
dear. 

Parallels  from  antiquity  might  affect  a  student  like 
Newman.  To  the  many,  inside  cjr  beyond  ( )xford,  they 
meant  nothing.  Thi'  live  question  .ihvays  was,  how  to 
combat  Rome,  which  appeared  at  the  end  of  every 
vista  :is  the  goal  of  Tractarian  reasoning.  The 
".shrewd  minds"  which  now  harried  and  drove  on 
their  leader  did  not  take  to  any  "middle  way";  these 
men  cut  into  tlie  movement  at  right  angles  and  sang 
loudly  Tciiihinii.s  in  Laliuin,  they  were  pilgrims  to  St. 
Peter's  shrine.  J.  B.  Morris,  Dalgairns,  Oakeley, 
Macmullen  (converts  in  the  sequel ),  came  round  New- 
man while  his  older  associates  had  not  advanced.  But 
the  captain  of  the  band  was  W.  G.  Ward,  lecturer  at 
Balliol,  a  friend  of  Stanley's  and  for  a  time  attracted 
by  Arnold,  then  suddenly  changed  for  good  by  the  .ser- 
mons at  St.  Mary's,  with  his  one  sole  article  of  faith, 
Credo  in  Newmannum.  Ward,  a  strange,  joyous,  pro- 
voking figure,  pervading  the  university  with  his  logic 
and  liis  jokes,  was  the  enfant  lerrihle  of  this  critical 
time,  as  Froude  had  been  previously.  They  differed 
in  a  hundred  ways;  but  both  certainly  urged  Newman 
forward  at  a  pace  he  would  not  have  chosen.  Froude 
"did  not  seem  to  be  afraid  of  inferences";  Ward  rev- 
elled in  them.  It  was  Froude  who  first  taught  New- 
man "to  look  with  admiration  towards  the  Church  of 
Rome".  Ward,  of  all  men  the  least  inclined  to  com- 
promise, did  not  care  one  jot  for  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, except  in  so  far  as  it  could  be  proved  Catholic,  by 
which  he  understood,  as  Protestants  and  Liberals  did 
before  him,  the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  the  [xipal 
communion.  He  had  "the  intellect  of  an  archangel", 
as  he  said  ingenuously;  his  acuteness  and  audacity 
were  a  continual  challenge  to  Newman,  who  partly  re- 
sented but  still  more  yielded  to  them;  and  so  the  prob- 
lem took  a  formidable  shape:— how  much  of  "infused 
Catholicism"  would  the  Establishment  bear.  It  ^va8 
"like  proving  cannon".  The  crucial  test  was  applied 
in  "Tract  90",  which  came  out  on  27  February,  1841. 

Once  more,  as  in  the  case  of  Fronde's  "Remains", 
Newman  miscalculated.  He  had  drifted  so  far  that  he 
lost  sight  of  the  ever-enduring  Protestantism  which, 
to  this  day,  is  the  bulwark  of  the  national  feeling 
against  Rome.  He  thought  his  peace-offering  would 
not  cause  offence.  But  Ward  prophesied,  and  his  in- 
stinct proved  true,  that  it  would  "be  hotly  received  . 
A  lively  epistle  from  Church  (afterwards  Dean  of  St. 
Paul's)  to  F.  Rogers  at  Naples  shows  the  storm  raging 
eariy  in  March.  What  "Tract  90"  affirmed  was  that 
the  "Thirty-Nine  Articles  might  be  signed  in  a  Catho- 
lic, though  not  in  a  Roman  sense;  that  they  did  not 
condemn  the  Council  of  Trent,  which  in  1562,  the  (late 
of  their  publication,  was  not  ended;  and  that  a  distinc- 
tion must  be  drawn  between  the  corruptions  of  P"PU''"" 
religion  and  the  formal  decrees  approved  by  the  Holy 
See.  It  is  now  admitted,  in  the  language  of  J.  A. 
Froude,  that  "Newman  was  only  claiming  a  position 
for  himself  and  his  friends  which  had  been  purposely 
left   open   when   the   constitution   of   the   Anglican 


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375 


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Church  was  framed".  But  he  appeared  to  be  an  in- 
novator and,  in  that  excited  season,  a  traitor.  The 
Pliilistinos  held  hini  bound  by  his  own  cords;  Eras- 
tians  or  Evangelicals,  they  well  knew  that  his  bishop 
would  not  shield  him  from  attack.  Four  leading  tu- 
tors, egged  on  by  the  fanatical  Golightly,  and  includ- 
ing A.  C.  Tait,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
demanded  the  writer's  name  and  charged  him  with 
dangerous  tendencies.  The  hebdomadal  board  now 
retorted  on  Newman  the  "persecution"  dealt  out  to 
Hampden.  They  would  not  wait  even  twelve  hours 
for  his  defence.  They  resolved  on  15  March,  that 
"modes  of  interpretation  such  as  are  suggested  in  the 
said  Tract,  evading  rather  than  explaining  the  sense  of 
the  Thirty-nine  .Vrticles,  and  reconciling  subscription 
to  them  with  the  adoption  of  cri'ors,  wliich  they  were 
designed  to  coimtcract,  defeat  the  object,  and  are  in- 
consistent with  the  due  observance  of  the  above  men- 
tioni>d  Statutes." 

This  anathema  was  posted  up  on  every  buttery 
hatrli,  or  public  board,  of  the  colleges,  as  a  warning  to 
imdiTgrailuates.  Newman  acknowledged  his  author- 
ship ill  a  touching  letter,  perhaps  too  humble;  and  a 
war  of  pamphlets  broke  out.  Keble,  Palmer,  and 
Pusey  stood  up  for  the  tract,  though  Pusey  could  not 
bring  himself  to  approve  of  its  method  uncondition- 
ally. But  Ward,  with  great  effect,  hurled  back  the 
charge  of  "insincerity"  on  those  who  made  it.  How 
could  Whateley  and  Hampden  use  the  services  for  bap- 
tism, visitation  of  the  sick,  or  ordination,  all  dead 
against  their  acknowledged  principles?  But  neither 
did  Ward  follow  Newman.  Later  on,  he  described  the 
articles  as  "patient  of  a  Catholic  but  ambitious 
of  a  Protestant  meaning".  Whatever  their  logic, 
their  rhetoric  was  undoubtedly  Protestant.  For 
himself,  in  subscribing  them,  he  renounced  no  Roman 
doctrine.  This,  like  all  Ward's  proceedings,  was 
pouring  oil  on  fire.  Newman  had  made  the  mis- 
take of  handling  an  explosive  matter  without 
precaution,  in  the  dry  legal  fashion  of  an  ad- 
vocate, instead  of  using  his  incomparable  gift  of  lan- 
guage to  persuade  and  convince.  His  refinements 
were  pilloried  as  "Jesuitism",  and  his  motive  was  de- 
clared to  be  treason.  An  "immense  commotion"  fol- 
lowed. The  "Apologia"  describes  it,  "In  every  part 
of  the  country,  and  every  class  of  society,  through 
every  organ  and  opportunity  of  opinion,  in  newspapers, 
in  periodicals,  at  meetings,  in  pulpits,  at  dinner-tables, 
in  coffee-rooms,  in  railway-carriages,  I  was  denounced 
as  a  traitor  who  had  laid  his  train,  and  was  detected  in 
the  \-ery  act  of  firing  it  against  the  time-honoured  Es- 
tal)lishnicnt."    His  place  in  the  movement  was  gone. 

He  would  not  withdraw  the  tract;  he  reiterated  its 
arguments  in  a  Letter  to  Dr.  Jelf ;  but  at  his  bishop's 
request  he  brought  the  series  to  an  end,  addressmg 
him  in  a  strikingly  beautiful  pamphlet,  which  severed 
Ins  own  connexion  with  the  party  he  had  led.  He  re- 
tired to  Littlemore;  and  there,  he  says,  "between  July 
and  November  I  received  three  blows  that  broke  me". 
First,  in  translating  St.  Athana.sius,  he  came  on  the 
Via  Media  once  more;  but  it  was  that  of  the  heretical 
Semi-Arians.  Second,  the  bishops,  contrary  to  an 
•  "understanding"  given  him,  began  to  charge  vio- 
lently, as  of  set  purpose,  against  "Tract  90",  which 
they  accused  of  Romanizing  and  dishonesty.  Last 
came  the  unholy  alliance  between  England  and  Prus- 
sia by  which  an  .\nglican  Bishop  was  appointed  at 
Jerusalem  over  a  flock  comprising,  it  would  appear, 
not  only  Lutherans  but  Dru.ses  and  other  heretics. 
The  "Confession  of  Augsburg"  was  to  be  their  stand- 
ard. Now,  "if  England  could  be  in  Palestine,  Rome 
might  be  in  England."  The  Anglican  Church  might 
have  the  Apostolical  Succession;  so  had  the  Monophy- 
sites;  but  such  acts  led  Newman  to  suspect  that  since 
the  sixteenth  century  it  had  never  been  a  Church  at 
all. 

Now  then  he  was  a  "pure  Protestant",  held  baok 


from  Rome  simply  by  its  apparent  errors  and  idola- 
tries. Or  were  these  but  developments,  after  all,  of 
the  primitive  type  and  really  true  to  it?  He  had  con- 
verted Ward  by  saying  that  "the  Church  of  the  Fa- 
thers might  be  corrupted  into  Popery,  never  into 
Protestantism".  Did  not  living  institutions  unflergo 
changes  by  a  law  of  their  being  that  realized  their  na- 
ture more  perfectly?  and  was  the  Roman  Church  an  in- 
stance? At  Littlemore  the  great  book  was  to  be  com- 
posed "On  the  Development  of  Christian  Doctrine", 
which  viewed  this  problem  in  the  light  of  history  and 
philosophy.  Newman  resigned  St.  Mary's  in  Sept., 
1843.  He  waited  two  years  in  lay  communion  before 
submitting  to  Rome,  and  fought  every  step  of  the 
journey.  Meanwhile  the  movement  went  on.  Its 
"acknowledged  leader"  according  to  Dean  Stanley 
was  now  W.  G.  Ward.  On  pure  Anglicans  a  strong  in- 
fluence was  exerted  by  J.  B.  Mozley,  Newman's 
brother-in-law.  Keble,  who  was  at  odds  with  his 
bishop,  vacated  the  chair  of  poetry;  and  the  Tracta- 
rian  candidate,  Isaac  Williams,  was  defeated  in  Jan., 
1842.  Williams  had  innocently  roused  slumbering 
animosities  by  his  "Tract  SO",  on  "Reserve  in  com- 
municating religious  knowledge",  a  wariiiii;;,  .is  (■\(t 
since.  Low  Church  partisans  have  maintained,  ili:i(  the 
Establishment  was  to  be  secretly  indoctnnateil  with 
"Romish  errors".  The  heads  of  houses  now  pro])osed 
to  repeal  their  censure  of  1836  on  Hampden,  though  he 
withdrew  not  a  line  of  his  Hampton  Lectures.  It  was 
too  much.  Convocation  threw  out  the  measure  by  a 
majority  of  three  to  two.  Hampden,  by  way  of  re- 
venge, turned  the  formal  examination  of  a  Puseyite, 
MacmuUen  of  Corpus,  for  the  B.D.  into  a  deinaiul  for 
assent  to  propositions  which,  as  he  well  knew.  Mac- 
muUen could  not  sign.  The  vice-chancellor  backed  up 
Hampden;  but  the  Delegates  reverserl  that  iniquitous 
judgment  and  gave  the  candidate  his  degree.  The 
spirit  of  faction  was  mounting  high.  Young  men's  tes- 
timonials for  orders  were  refused  by  their  colleges.  A 
statute  was  brought  up  in  Feb.,  1844,  to  place  the 
granting  of  all  divinity  degrees  under  a  board  in  con- 
junction with  the  vice-chancellor,  which  would  mean 
the  exclusion  from  them  of  Tractarians.  This,  indeed, 
was  rejected  by  341  votes  to  21.  But  Newman  had 
said  a  year  earlier,  that  the  authorities  were  bent  on 
exerting  their  "more  than  military  power"  to  put 
down  Catholicism.  R.  W.  Church  calls  them  "an  ir- 
responsible and  incompetent  oligarchy ' ' .  Their  chiefs 
were  such  as  Hawkins,  Symons,  and  Cardwell,  bitterly 
opposed  to  the  movement  all  through.  As  Newman 
had  retired,  they  struck  at  Pusey;  and  by  a  scandalous 
inquisition  of  "the  six  doctors"  they  suspended  him, 
without  hearing  a  word  of  his  defence,  from  preaching 
for  two  years,  2  June,  1843.  His  crime  consisted  in  a 
moderate  Anglican  sermon  on  the  Holy  Eucharist. 

Espionage,  delation,  quarrels  between  heads  and 
tutors,  rejection  of  Puseyites  standing  for  fellowships, 
and  a  heated  suspicion  as  though  a  second  Popish  Plot 
were  in  the  air,  made  of  this  time  at  O.xford  a  drama 
which  Dean  Church  likens  to  the  Greek  faction-fights 
described  by  Thucydides.  The  situation  could  not 
last.  A  crisis  might  have  been  avoided  by  good  sense 
on  the  part  of  the  bishops  outside,  and  the  ruling  pow- 
ers within  the  university.  It  was  precipitated  by  W. 
G.  Ward.  Ejected  from  his  lectureship  at  Balliol,  he 
wrote  violent  articles  between  1841  and  1843  in  the 
"British  Critic",  no  longer  in  Newman's  hands.  His 
conversation  was  a  combat;  his  words  of  scorn  for 
Anglican  doctrines  and  dignitaries  flew  round  the  col- 
leges. In  1843  Palmer  of  Worcester  in  his  dreary 
"Narrative  of  Events"  objected  strongly  to  Ward's 
"Romanizing"  tendencies.  The  "British  Critic"  just 
then  came  to  an  end.  Ward  began  a  pamphlet  in  re- 
ply; it  swelled  to  600  pages,  and  in  the  summer  of  1844 
burst  on  an  irritated  public  as  "The  Ideal  of  a  Chris- 
tian Church." 

Its  method  was  simple.     The  writer  identified  all 


OXFORD 


37G 


OXFORD 


tfiat  was  Roman  with  all  that  was  Cathohc;  and  pro- 
ceeded to  apply  this  test  to  the  Church  of  I'ji^laiid, 
which  coukl  ill  bear  it.  Rome  satisfied  the  coiiditidiis 
of  what  a  Church  ought  to  be;  the  EstaMishnieut 
shamefully  neglected  its  duties  as  a  "guardian  of  mo- 
rality" and  a  "teacher of  orthodoxy".  It  ignored  the 
supernatural ;  it  allowed  ethics  to  be  thrown  over- 
board by  it.i  doctrine  of  justification  without  works;  it 
had  no  real  Saints  because  it  neither  commended  nor 
practised  the  counsels  of  perfection;  it  was  a  schis- 
matic body  which  ought  humbly  to  sue  for  pardon  at  the 
feet  of  the  true  Bride  of  Christ.  To  evade  the  spirit  of 
the  Articles  while  subscribing  them,  where  necessary, 
in  a  "non-natural"  sense,  was  the  only  alternative 
Ward  could  allow  to  breaking  with  Anghcanism  alto- 
gether. Unlike  Newman,  who  aimed  at  reconciling 
differences,  and  to  whom  the  Lutheran  formula  was 
but  "a  paradox  or  a  truism",  Ward  repudiated  the 
"solifidian"  view  as  an  outrageon  the  Divine  sanctity; 
it  was  "a  type  of  .-Vntichrist",  and  in  sound  reason  no 
better  than  Atheism.  So  his  "relentless  and  dissolv- 
ing logic"  made  any  Via  Media  between  Cathohcs  and 
Protestants  impossible.  The  very  heart  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan compromise  he  phicked  out.  His  language  was 
diffuse,  his  st3'le  hea\'j',  his  manner  to  the  last  degree 
provoking.  But  whereas  "Tract  90"  did  not  really 
state,  and  made  no  attempt  to  resolve,  the  question  at 
issue,  Ward's  "Ideal"  swept  away  ambiguous  terms 
and  hollow  reconcilements;  it  contrasted,  however 
clumsily,  the  types  of  saintliness  which  were  in  dis- 
pute; it  claimed  for  the  Catholic  standard  not  tolera- 
tion but  supremacy;  and  it  put  the  Church  of  England 
on  its  knees  before  Rome. 

How  could  Oxford  or  the  clergy  endure  such  a  les- 
son? So  complete  a  change  of  attitude  on  the  part,  of 
Englishmen,  haughtily  erect  on  the  ruins  of  the  old 
religion,  was  not  to  be  dreamt  of.  This,  then,  was 
what  "Tract  90"  had  in  view  with  its  subtleties  and 
subterfuges — a  second  Cardinal  Pole  absolving  the 
nation  as  it  lay  in  the  dust,  penitent.  The  result,  says 
Dean  Stanley,  was  "the  greatest  explosion  of  theologi- 
cal apprehension  and  animosity"  known  to  his  time. 
Not  even  the  tract  had  excited  a  more  immediate  or  a 
more  powerful  sensation.  Ward's  challenge  must  be 
taken  up.  He  claimed,  as  a  priest  in  the  Church  of 
England,  to  hold  (though  not  as  yet  to  teach)  the 
"whole  cycle  of  Roman  doctrine".  Newman  had 
never  done  so;  even  in  1S44  he  was  not  fully  acquies- 
cent on  all  the  points  he  had  once  controverted.  He 
would  never  have  written  the  "Ideal";  much  of  it  to 
him  read  like  a  theory.  But  in  Oxford  the  authorities, 
who  were  acting  as  if  with  synodical  powers,  submitted 
to  Convocation  in  Dec,  1844,  three  measures:  (1)  to 
condemn  Ward's  book;  (2)  to  degrade  the  author  by 
taking  away  his  university  degrees;  and  (3)  to  compel 
under  pain  of  ex-pulsion,  everj*  one  who  subscribed  the 
Articles  to  declare  that  he  held  them  in  the  sense  in 
which  "they  were  both  first  published  and  were  now 
imposed  by  the  university". 

Had  the  penalty  on  Ward,  vindictive  and  childish 
as  it  now  appears,  stood  alone,  few  would  have  minded 
it.  Even  Newman  wrote  in  Jan.,  1845,  to  J.  B.  Moz- 
ley,  "Before  the  Test  was  sure  of  rejection,  Ward  had 
no  claims  on  anyone".  But  over  that  "Test"  a  wild 
shriek  arose.  Liberals  would  be  affected  by  it  as 
surely  as  Tractarians.  Tait,  one  of  the  "Four  Tu- 
tors' ,  Maurice,  the  broadest  of  Broad  Churchmen, 
Professor  Donkin,  most  intellectual  of  writers  belong- 
ing to  the  same  school,  came  forward  to  resist  the  im- 
position and  to  .shield  "Tract  90",  on  the  principle  of 
"Latitude."  Stanley  and  another  obtained  counsel's 
opinion  from  a  future  lord  chancellor  that  the  Test 
was  illegal.  On  2.3  Jan.,  they  i)ubli.«hed  his  conclusion, 
and  that  very  day  the  proposal  wa,s  withdrawn.  But 
on  25  Jan.,  the  date  in  1841  of  "Tract  00"  it.self,  a  for- 
mal censure  on  the  tract,  to  be  brought  up  in  the  ap- 
proaching Convocation,  was  recommended  to  voters 


by  a  circular  emanating  from  Faussett  and  Ellerton. 
This  anathema  received  between  four  and  live  hundred 
signatures  in  private,  but  was  kcpl  behind  the  scenes 
mitil  4  Feb.  The  hebdomadal  board,  in  u  frenzy  of 
excitement,  ado]5ted  it  amid  i)rotests  from  the  Pusey- 
ites  and  from  Liberals  of  Stanley's  tyi)e.  Stanley's 
words  during  the  ttmmlt  made  a  famous  hit.  In  a 
broadside  he  exclaimed,  "  The  wheel  is  come  full  circle. 
The  victors  of  1836  are  the  victims  of  1845.  The  vic- 
tims of  1845  are  the  victors  of  1836.  The  assailants 
are  the  assailed.  The  assailed  are  the  assailants.  The 
condemned  are  the  condemnors.  The  condemners 
are  the  condemned.  The  wheel  is  come  full  circle. 
How  soon  may  it  come  round  again?  "  A  comment  on 
this  "fugitive  prophecy"  was  to  be  afforded  in  the 
Gorham  case,  in  that  of  "Essays  and  Reviews",  in  the 
dispute  over  Colenso,  and  in  the  long  and  vexatious 
lawsuits  arising  out  of  Ritualism.  The  endeavour 
was  made  to  break  every  school  of  doctrine  in  succes- 
sion on  this  wheel,  but  always  at  length  in  vain. 

Convocation  met  in  a  snowstorm  on  13  Feb.,  1845. 
It  was  the  last  day  of  the  Oxford  Movement.  Ward 
asked  to  defend  himself  in  English  before  the  vast 
assembly  which  crowded  into  the  Sheldonian  Theatre. 
He  spoke  with  vigour  and  ability,  declaring  "twenty 
times  over"  that  he  held  all  the  articles  of  the  Roman 
Church.  Amid  cries  and  counter-cries  the  votes  were 
taken.  The  first,  which  condemned  his  "Ideal",  was 
carried  by  777  to  386.  The  second,  which  deprived 
him  of  university  standing,  by  569  to  511.  When  the 
vice-chancellor  put  the  third,  which  was  to  annihilate 
Newman  and  "Tract  90",  the  proctors  rose,  and  in 
a  voice  that  rang  like  a  trumpet  Mr.  Guillemard 
of  Trinity,  the  senior,  uttered  their  "Non  placet". 
This  was  fatal  to  the  decree,  and  in  the  event  to  that 
oligarchy  which  had  long  ruled  over  O.xford.  New- 
man gave  no  sign.  But  his  reticence  boded  nothing 
good  to  the  Anglican  cause.  The  University  repu- 
diated his  followers  and  they  broke  into  detachments, 
the  many  lingering  behind  with  Keble  or  Pusey ;  others, 
and  among  them  Mark  Pattison,  a  tragic  instance, 
lapsing  into  various  forms  of  modern  unbelief;  while 
the  genuine  Roman  group,  Faber,  Dalgairns,  Oakeley, 
Northcote,  Seager,  Morris,  and  a  long  stream  of  suc- 
cessors, became  Catholics.  They  left  the  Liberal 
party  to  triumph  in  Oxford  and  to  remould  the  Univer- 
sity. If  13  Feb.,  1845,  was  the  "Dies  Ira;"  of  Tracta- 
rian  hopes,  it  saw  the  final  discomfiture  of  the  Evangeli- 
cals. Henceforth,  all  parties  in  the  National  Church 
were  compelled  to  "revise  the  very  foundations  of  their 
religion".     Dogma  had  taken  refuge  in  Rome. 

In  April,  1845,  the  country  was  excited  by  Sir 
R.  Peel's  proposals  for  the  larger  endowment  of  May- 
nooth  (see  Macaulay's  admirable  speech  on  the  oc- 
casion). In  June,  Sir  H.  Jenner  Fust,  Dean  of  Arches, 
condemned  Oakeley  of  Margaret  Street  chapel  for 
holding  the  like  doctrines  with  Ward,  who  was  already 
married  and  early  in  September  was  received  into  the 
Church.  Newman  resigned  his  Oriel  fellowship,  held 
since  1822,  at  the  beginning  of  October.  He  did  not 
wait  to  finish  the  "Development";  but  on  the  feast  of 
St.  Denys,  9  Oct.,  made  his  profession  of  the  Catholic 
Faith  to  Father  Dominic  at  Littlemore.  The  Church 
of  England  "reeled  under  the  shock".  Deep  silence, 
as  of  stupor,  followed  the  clamours  and  long  agonies  of 
the  past  twelve  years.  The  Via  Media  swerved  aside, 
becoming  less  theoretical  and  less  learned,  always  wa- 
vering between  the  old  Anglican  and  the  new  Roman 
road,  but  gradually  drawing  nearer  to  the  Roman. 
Its  headquarters  were  in  London,  Leeds,  and  Brighton, 
no  longer  in  Oxford. 

But  an  "aftermath"  of  disputes,  and  of  conver.sions 
in  the  year  1851,  remains  to  be  noticed.  On  15  Nov., 
1847,  the  Prime  Minister,  Lord  John  Russell,  nomi- 
nated to  the  See  of  Hereford  the  "stormy  petrel" 
of  those  controversies.  Dr.  Hampden.  He  did  so 
"to    strengthen    the    Protestant    character    of    our 


OXYRTNCHUS 


377 


OXYRYNCHUS 


Church,  threatened  of  late  by  many  defections  to  the 
Church  of  Rome".  The  "Times"  expressed  amaze- 
ment; Archbishop  Howley  and  thirteen  other  bishops 
remonstrated;  but  Dr.  Pusey  was  "the  leader  and 
oracle  of  Hampden's  opponents."  At  Oxford  the 
Heads  of  Houses  were  mostly  in  favour  of  the  nominee, 
though  lying  under  censure  since  1836.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  object  at  Bow  Church  when  the  election 
was  to  be  confirmed;  but  the  Archbishop  had  no  free- 
dom, and  by  conge  d'elire  and  exercise  of  the  Royal 
Supremacy  a  notoriously  unsound  teacher  became 
Bishop  of  Hereford.  It  was  the  case  of  Hoadley  in  a 
modern  form. 

Almost  at  the  same  date  (2  Nov.,  1847)  the  Rev. 
G.  C.  Gorham,  "an  aged  Calvinist",  was  presented 
to  the  living  of  Brampton  Speke  in  Devonshire. 
"Henry  of  Exeter",  the  bishop,  holding  High  Anglican 
views,  examined  him  at  length  on  the  subject  of  bap- 
tismal regeneration,  and  finding  that  he  did  not  be- 
lieve in  it,  refused  to  induct  Mr.  Gorham.  The  case 
went  to  the  Court  of  Arches — a  spiritual  court — where 
Sir  H.  Jenner  Fust  decided  against  the  appellant,  2 
Aug.,  1849.  Mr.  Gorham  carried  a  further  appeal  to 
the  judicial  committee,  the  lay  royal  tribunal,  which 
reversed  the  decision  of  the  spiritual  court  below. 
Dr.  Philpotts,  the  Bishop  of  Exeter,  refused  to  insti- 
tute; and  the  dean  of  arches  was  compelled  to  do  so 
instead.  The  bishop  tried  every  other  court  in  vain; 
for  a  while  he  broke  off  communion,  so  far  as  he  dared, 
with  Canterbury.  As  Liberalism  had  won  at  Hereford, 
so  Calvinism  won  at  Brampton  Speke. 

These  decisions  of  the  Crown  in  Council  affected 
matters  of  doctrine  most  intimately.  Newman's  lec- 
tures on  "Anglican  Difficulties"  were  drawn  forth  by 
the  Gorham  judgment.  But  Pusey,  Keble,  Gladstone, 
and  Anglo-Catholics  at  large  were  dumbfounded. 
Manning,  Archdeacon  of  Chichester,  had  neither 
written  tracts  nor  joined  in  Newman's  proceedings. 
He  did  not  scruple  to  take  part  with  the  general  public 
though  in  measured  terms,  against  "Tract  90".  He 
had  gone  so  far  as  to  preach  an  out-and-out  Protest- 
ant sermon  in  St.  Mary's  on  Guy  Fawkes'  day,  1843. 
In  1845  he  "attacked  the  Romanizing  party  so  fiercely 
as  to  call  forth  a  remonstrance  from  Pusey".  And 
then  came  a  change.  He  read  Newman's  "Develop- 
ment", had  a  serious  illness,  travelled  in  Italy,  spent 
a  season  in  Rome,  and  lost  his  Anglican  defences.  The 
Gorham  judgment  was  a  demonstration  that  lawyers 
could  override  spiritual  authority,  and  that  the  Eng- 
lish Church  neither  held  nor  condemned  baptismal 
regeneration.  This  gave  him  the  finishing  stroke.  In 
the  summer  of  1850,  a  solemn  declaration,  calling  on 
the  Church  to  repudiate  the  erroneous  doctrine  thus 
implied,  was  signed  by  Manning,  Pusey,  Keble,  and 
other  leading  High  Anglicans;  but  with  no  result,  save 
only  that  a  secession  followed  on  the  part  of  those  who 
could  not  imagine  Christ's  Church  as  tolerating  her- 
esy. On  6  April,  1851,  Manning  and  J.  R.  Hope 
Scott  came  over.  Allies,  a  scholar  of  repute,  had  sub- 
mitted in  1849,  distinctly  on  the  question  now  agitated 
of  the  royal  headship.  Maskell,  Dodsworth,  Badeley, 
the  two  Wilberforces,  did  in  like  manner.  Pusey 
cried  out  for  freedom  from  the  State;  Keble  took  a 
non-juring  position,  "if  the  Church  of  England  were 
to  fail,  it  should  be  found  in  my  parish".  Gladstone 
would  not  sign  the  declaration;  and  he  lived  to  write 
against  the  Vatican  decrees. 

Surveying  the  movement  aa  a  whole,  we  perceive 
that  it  was  part  of  the  general  Christian  uprising  which 
the  French  Revolution  called  forth.  It  had  many  fea- 
tures in  common  with  German  Romanticism;  and,  like 
the  policy  of  a  Free  Church  eloquently  advocated  by 
Lamennais,  it  made  war  on  the  old  servitude  to  the 
State  and  looked  for  support  to  the  people.  Against 
free-thought,  speculative  and  anarchic,  it  pleaded  for 
Christianity  as  a  sacred  fact,  a  revelation  from  on  high, 
and  a  present  supernatural  power.     Its  especial  task 


was  to  restore  the  idea  of  the  Church,  and  the  dignity 
of  the  sacraments,  above  all,  of  the  Holy  Eucharist. 
In  the  Laudian  tradition,  though  fearfully  weakened, 
it  sought  a  fulcrum  and  a  precedent  for  these  happier 
changes. 

Joseph  de  Maistre,  in  the  year  1816,  had  called  at- 
tention to  the  English  Church,  designating  it  as  a  mid- 
dle term  between  Catholic  unity  and  Protestant  dis- 
sent; with  an  augury  of  its  future  as  perhaps  one  day 
serving  towards  the  reunion  of  Christendom.  Alex- 
ander Knox  foretold  a  like  destiny,  but  the  Establish- 
ment must  be  purged  by  suffering.  Bishop  Horsley, 
too,  had  anticipated  such  a  time  in  remarkable  words. 
But  the  most  striking  prophecy  was  uttered  by  an  aged 
clergyman,  Mr.  Sikes  of  Guilsborough,  who  predicted 
that,  whereas  "the  Holy  Catholic  Church"  had  long 
been  a  dropped  article  of  the  Creed,  it  would  by  and 
by  seem  to  swallow  up  the  rest,  and  there  would  be 
an  outcry  of  "Popery"  from  one  end  of  the  country 
to  another  (Newman's  "Correspondence",  II,  484). 
When  the  tracts  began,  Phillips  de  Lisle  saw  in  them  an 
assurance  that  England  would  return  to  the  Holy  See. 
And  J.  A.  Froude  sums  it  all  up  in  these  words,  "  New- 
man has  been  the  voice  of  the  intellectual  reaction  of 
Europe",  he  says,  "which  was  alarmed  by  an  era 
of  revolutions,  and  is  looking  for  safety  in  the  for- 
saken beliefs  of  ages  which  it  had  been  tempted  to 


Later  witnesses.  Cardinal  Vaughan  or  W.  E.  Glad- 
stone, affirm  that  the  Church  of  England  is  trans- 
formed. Catholic  beliefs,  devotions,  rites,  and  institu- 
tions flourish  within  it.  But  its  law  of  public  worship 
is  too  narrow  for  its  religious  life,  and  the  machinery 
for  discipline  has  broken  down  (Royal  Commission 
on  Discipline,  concluding  words).  The  condemnation 
of  Anglican  Orders  by  Pope  Leo  XIII  in  the  Bull 
"Apostolica!  Cura;",  13  Sept.,  1896,  shuts  out  the  hope 
entertained  by  some  of  what  was  termed  "corporate 
reunion",  even  if  it  had  ever  been  possible,  which 
Newman  did  not  believe.  But  he  never  doubted  that 
the  movement  of  1833  was  a  work  of  Providence;  or 
that  its  leaders,  long  after  his  own  departure  from 
them,  were  "leavening  the  various  English  denomina- 
tions and  parties  (far  beyond  their  ovra  range)  with 
principles  and  sentiments  tending  towards  their  ulti- 
mate absorption  into  the  CathoUc  Church". 

Lives  of  Newman,  Manning,  Faber,  Pusey.  Ward,  Wiseman, 
include  contemporary'  letters.  Besides  works  under  these  names 
see:  Church,  Hist,  of  the  0.  M.  (1891);  Overton,  The  Anglican 
Revival  (1897) ;  Palmer,  Narrative  of  Events  (1843-18S3) ;  M.  Pat- 
TI80N,  Memoirs  (1885) ;  T.  W.  Allies,  A  Lifr's  Decision;  Blatch- 
FORD.  Letters;  Burgon,  Lives  <if  h' ,  '■  >  ' ,.:,:j  M,  „;  .\.  J.  Froude  in 
SAort  Studies,  Vols.  Ill  and  IV.  /;  /,        M.isjn,- H.  Froude, 

Remains  (1837);  Gladstone,   /  /.      i:ous  Subjects,  ed, 

Lathburt  (1910);  Guinet,  //n,,../  A ,.    il907);  Hampden's 

Life,  by  his  daughter;  A.  Knox,  Remain.^  ( l.s;j7) ;  Stephens,  Life 
of  Hook;  Life  of  Keble,  by  J.  T.  Coleridge,  also  by  Lock;  J,  B. 
MozLEY.  Letters,  ed.  A.  Mozley;  Oakeley,  Notes  on  the  T.  M.; 
J.  R.  HopE-ScoTT,  Reminiscences  (includes  correspondence) ; 
Stanley,  Life  of  Arnold;  Idem,  Essays  on  Church  and  State;  Pro- 
THERO,  Life  of  Stanley:  Whateley,  Tracts;  Life  of  Whateley,  by 
his  daughter;  Blanco  White,  Autobiography  (1845);  Life  of 
Bishop  WilherfoTce,  by  bis  son;  Isaac  Williams,  Autobiography: 
also.  Ecclesiastical  Courts  Commission,  1883,  summary  of  report 
by  Holland;  Corn-mission  on  Eccles.  Discipline,  Evidence  and  Rc' 
port. 

William  Barry. 

Oxyrynchus,  titular  archdiocese  of  Heptanomos 
in  Egypt.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  district  of  its 
name,  the  nineteenth  of  Upper  Egypt,  whose  god  was 
Sit,  incarnated  in  a  sacred  fish  of  the  Nile,  the  Mormy- 
rus.  Thence  comes  its  Greek  name,  for  in  Egyptian 
it  is  called  Pemdje.  It  has  been  mentioned  by 
Strabo,  Pliny,  Ptolemy,  etc.  Its  inhabitants  early 
embraced  Christianity,  and  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  ("Vitae  Patrum"  of  Rufinus  of  Aquileia)  it 
possessed  neither  pagan  nor  heretic.  It  had  then 
twelve  churches,  and  its  monastic  huts  exceeded  in 
number  its  ordinary  dwellings.  Surrounding  the  city 
were  many  convents  to  which  reference  is  made  in 
Palladius,  the  " Apophthegmata  Patrum",  Johannes 


OZANAM 


378 


OZANAM 


Mosohus,  ctp.  In  1S'.17,  in  I'.K).')  anil  tho  years  folkiw- 
inp,  Oronfel  ami  Hunt  found  papyri  containing  four- 
teen sentcnees  or  frasmenis  of  sentences  (XAyia) 
attributed  to  Jesus  ami  which  seoin  to  belong  to  the 
first  half  of  the  second  century,  also  fragments  of 
(Sospels,  now  lost,  besides  Christian  documents  of  the 
third  century,  etc.  A  letter,  recently  discovered, 
written  by  Peter  the  martyr.  Bishop  of  Alexanilria,  in 
312,  gives  an  interesting  piclure  i>(  this  Church  at 
that  time.  Le  Quien  (( )riens  christ  ianus,  11,  .'iTT-.'iOO) 
mentions  7  metropolitans  of  this  city,  marly  all  Mele- 
tians  or  Monophysistes.  In  the  Middle  .\ges  under 
the  dynasty  of  the  Mamelukes,  it  was  the  leaiiing  city 
of  a  province.  To-day  under  the  name  of  Behneseh, 
it  is  entirely  dismantled.  Mounds  of  debris  alone 
make  it  possible  to  recognize  its  circuit. 

Grenfel  axd  Hunt,  The  Oxyrynchus  Papyri,  in  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Egypt  Exploratiox  Fu.vd  (London);  Wessely,  Les 
plus  ancif'ns  monuments  du  christianii^me  Merits  sur  papyrus  (Paris, 
1906):  Schmidt.  Fragmente  einer  Schrift  des  Mdrtyerbischo/s  Pe- 
trus  von  Alexandrien  (Leipzig,  1901). 

S.  VAILHfi. 

Ozanam,  .\ntoine-Fr£d6ric,  great  grand-nephew 
of  ,Jac(iues  Ozanam,  b.  at  Milan,  23  April,  1813;  d. 
at  Marseilles,  8  Sept.,  1853.  His  father,  settled  at 
first  in  Lyons  as  a  merchant,  after  reverses  of  fortune 
decided  to  go  to  Milan.  Later  he  returned  to  Lyons 
and  became  a  physician.  At  eighteen  Fr(5d(''ric,  in  de- 
fence of  the  Faith,  wrote  "  Reflexions  sur  la  doctrine  de 
Saint-Simon".  Later  he  studied  law  in  Paris,  and 
lived  for  eighteen  months  with  the  illustrious  physi- 
cian Ampere.  He  formed  an  intimate  friendship  with 
the  hitter's  son,  Jean-Jacques  Ampere,  well  known 
later  for  his  works  on  literature  and  history.  Mean- 
while he  became  a  prey  of  doubt.  "God",  he  said, 
"gave  me  the  grace  to  be  born  in  the  Faith.  Later  the 
confusion  of  an  unbelieving  world  surrounded  me.  I 
knew  all  the  horror  of  the  doubts  that  torment  the 
soul.  It  was  then  that  the  instructions  of  a  priest  and 
philosopher  (Abbe  Noirot)  saved  me.  I  believed 
thenceforth  with  an  assured  faith,  and  touched  by  so 
rare  a  goodness,  I  promised  God  to  devote  my  life  to 
the  services  of  the  truth  which  had  given  me  peace". 
Rarely  was  a  promise  more  faithfully  fulfilled. 

In  1836  he  left  Paris,  where  he  had  known  Chateau- 
briand, Ballanche,  Montalembert,  and  Lacordaire, 
and  was  appointed  to  the  bench  at  Lyons,  but  two 
years  later  returned  to  Paris  to  submit  his  thesis  on 
Dante  for  his  doctorate  in  letters.  His  defence  was  a 
triumph.  "Monsieur  Ozanam",  Cousin  said  to  the 
candidate,  "there  is  no  one  more  eloquent  than  you 
have  just  proved  yourself."  He  was  given  the  chair  of 
commercial  law,  just  created  at  Lyons.  The  following 
yi'ar  lu-  competed  for  admission  to  the  P^aculties  at 
Paris,  and  was  appointed  to  substitute  for  one  of  the 
judges  of  the  Sorbonne,  Fauriel,  philosopher  and  pro- 
fes.sor  of  foreign  literature.  At  the  same  time  he 
taught  at  Stanislas  College,  where  he  had  been  called 
by  Abbe  Gratry.  On  P^auricl's  death  in  1844,  the 
Faculty  unanimously  elected  Ozanam  his  successor. 
Like  his  friend  Lacordaire  he  believed  that  a  Christian 
democracy  was  the  end  towards  which  Providence  was 
leading  the  world,  and  after  the  Revolution  of  1848 
aided  him  by  his  waitings  in  the  "Ere  Nouvelle".  In 
1846  he  visited  Italy  to  regain  hisstrength,  undermined 
by  a  fever.  On  his  return  he  published  "Etudes  ger- 
manique.s"  (1S47);  "Poites  franciscains  en  Italic  au 
Xllle  sieele";  finally,  in  1849,  the  greatest  of  his 
works:  "La  civilisation  chrC'tienne  chez  les  Francs". 
The  Academy  of  Inscriptions  awarded  him  the 
"Grand  Prix  Gobert"  for  two  successive  years.  In 
1852  he  made  a  short  journey  to  Spain  an  account  of 
which  is  found  in  the  posthumous  work:  "Un  pC'ldri- 
nage  au  pays  du  Cid".  In  the  beginning  of  the  ne.vt 
year,  his  doctors  again  sent  him  to  Italy,  hut  he  re- 
turned to  Marseilles  to  die.  When  the  priest  exhorted 
him  to  have  confidence  in  God,  he  rephed  "Oh  why 


should  1  fi';ir  God,  whom  I  love  so  much?"  Comply- 
ing with  his  desire  the  Govermncnt  allowed  him  to  be 
interred  in  the  cryiit  of  the  "Carnics". 

,\  brilliant  apologist,  inipri'.ssed  by  theb<'nefitsof  the 
Christian  religion,  he  desireil  that  they  should  be  made 
known  to  all  ulio  might  rea<l  his  works  or  hoar  his 
words.  To  him  the  Gospel  had  renewed  or  revivified 
all  the  germs  of  good  to  be  found  in  the  ancient  and  in 
the  barbarian  world.  In  his  many  miscellaneous 
studies  he  endeavored  to  develop  this  idea,  but  was 
unable  to  fully  realize  his  plan.  In  the  two  volumes  of 
the  "  ICtudcs  gcrmaniques"  he  did  for  oiie  nation  wli.-it 
he  desired  to  do  for  all.  He  also  ]nihlished,  with  the 
same  view,  a  valuable  collection  of  hitherto  unpub- 
lished material:  "Documents  inedits  pour  servir  k 
I'histoire  de  I'ltalie,  depuis  le  Vllle  sieele  jusqu'au 
Xlle"  (Paris,  1850).  Ozanam  was  untiring  in  energy, 
had  a  rare  gift  for  precision  and  historical  insight,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  naturalness  in  his  verse  and  a  spon- 
taneous, pleasing  eloquence,  all  the  more  charming  be- 
cause of  his  frankness.  "Those,  who  wish  no  religion 
introduced  into  a  scientific  work,"  he  wrote,  "accuse 
me  of  a  lack  of  independence.  But  I  pride  myself  on 
such  an  accusation.  ...  I  do  not  aspire  to  an  inde- 
pendence, the  result  of  which  is  to  love  and  to  believe 
nothing."  His  daily  life  was  animated  by  an  apostolic 
zeal.  He  was  one  of  those  who  signed  the  petition  ad- 
dressed to  the  .Vrchbishop  of  Paris  to  obtain  a  large 
body  of  religious  teachers  for  the  Catholic  school  chil- 
dren, whose  faith  was  ciidangcrc-d  by  the  cunciit  unbe- 
lief. Asaresult  of  thispetition  MonscigneurdcQuelen 
created  the  famous  "Conferences  de  Xotre  Dame", 
which  Lacordaire  (q.  v.)  inaugurated  in  1835.  When 
but  twenty,  Ozanam  with  seven  companions  had  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
in  order,  as  he  said  to  "insure  my  faith  by  works  of 
charity".  During  his  life  he  was  an  active  member 
and  a  zealous  propagator  of  the  society  (see  Saint 
Vincent  de  Paul,  Society  of).  With  all  his  zeal,  he 
was,  however,  tolerant.  His  strong,  sincere  books  ex- 
hibit a  brilliant  and  animated  style,  enthusiasm  and 
erudition,  eloquence  and  exactness,  and  are  yet  very 
useful  introductions  to  the  subjects  of  which  they 
treat. 

(Euvres  compliles  d'A.-F.  Ozanam  (2nd  cd.,  in  11  vols.,  Paris, 
1862) ;  Lacordaire,  Frederic  Ozanam,  in  the  V  vol.  of  the  com- 
plete edition  of  his  works;  O'Meara,  F.  Ozanam  (London.  1879); 
C.-A.  Ozanam  (a  brother  of  FrM6ric),  Vie  de  Frederic  Ozanam 
(2nd  ed..  1882);  HuiT.  Frldiric  Ozanam  (1888);  Bacdrillart. 
VapologHique  de  Fridiric  Ozanam  in  Revue  pratique  d" apologitique 
(15  May,  1909). 

Georges  Bertrin. 

Ozanam,  Jacques,  French  mathematician,  b.  at 
Bouligneux  (Ain),  1640;  d.  in  Paris,  3  April,  1717.  He 
came  of  a  rich  family  which  had  renounced  the  Jewish 
for  the  Catholic  religion.  From  the  same  family 
sprang  the  better  known  Antoine-FrC'd^ric  Ozanam 
(q.  v.).  Though  he  began  the  study  of  theology  to 
please  his  father,  he  was  more  strongly  attracted  to 
mathematics,  which  he  mastered  without  the  aid  of  a 
teacher.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  produced  a  mathe- 
matical treatise.  Upon  the  death  of  his  father,  he 
gave  up  theology  after  four  years  of  study  and  began, 
at  Lyons,  to  give  free  ])rivate  instruction  in  mathemat- 
ics. Later,  as  the  family  property  passed  entirely  to 
his  elder  brother,  he  was  reluctantly  driven  to  acceiit 
fees  for  his  lessons.  In  1670,  he  published  trigonomet- 
ric and  logarithmic  tables  more  accurate  than  the 
then  existing  ones  of  Ulacq,  Pitiscus,  and  Briggs.  An 
act  of  kindness  in  lending  money  to  two  strangers  se- 
cured for  him  the  notice  of  M.  d'Aguesseau,  father  of 
the  chancellor,  and  an  invitation  to  settle  in  Pans. 
There  he  enjoyed  prosperity  and  contentment  for  iijany 
years.  He  married,  had  a  large  family,  and  derived  an 
ample  income  from  teaching  m;ithematics  to  private 
pupils,  chiefly  foreigners.  His  niathemuticid  publica- 
tions were  numerous  and  well  rec(iv<ii.  The  manu- 
script entitled  "Les  six  livres  de  rArithm(;tique  de 


OZIAS 


379 


OZIAS 


Diophante  augment^s  et  reduits  k  la  sp^cieuse"  re- 
ceived the  praise  of  Leibnitz.  "Recreations",  trans- 
lated later  into  English  and  well  known  to-day,  was 
published  in  1694.  He  was  elected  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1701.  The  death  of  his  wife 
plunged  him  into  deepest  sorrow,  and  the  loss  of  his 
foreign  pupils  through  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession, reduced  him  to  poverty. 

Ozanam  was  honoured  more  abroad  than  at  home. 
He  was  devout,  charitable,  courageous,  and  of  simple 
faith.  As  a  young  man  he  had  overcome  a  passion  for 
gaming.  He  was  wont  to  say  that  it  was  for  the  doc- 
tors of  the  Sorbonne  to  dispute,  for  the  pope  to  decide, 
and  for  a  mathematician  to  go  to  heaven  in  a  perpen- 
dicular line.  Among  his  chief  works  are:  "Table  des 
sinus,  tangentes,  et  .secantes"  (Lyons,  1670);  "Me- 
thode  generale  pour  tracer  des  cadi-ans"  (Paris,  1673) ; 
"Geometric  pratique"  (Paris,  1684);  "Traite  des 
lignesdu  premier  genre"  (Paris,  1687);  "Del'usagedu 
compas"  (Paris,  1688);  "Dictionnairemathematique" 
(Paris,  1691);  "Cours  de  mathematiques"  (Paris, 
1693,  5  vols.,  tr.  into  English,  London,  1712);  "Traite 
de  la  fortification  "  (Paris,  1694);  "  Recreations  mathe- 
matiques et  physiques"  (Paris,  1694,  2  vols.,  revised 
by  Montucla,  Paris,  1778,  4  vols.,  tr.  by  Hutton,  Lon- 
don, 1803,  4  vols.,  revised  by  Riddle,  London,  1844); 
"Nouvelle  Trigonometrie"  (Paris,  1698);  "Methode 
facile  pour  arpenter"  (Paris,  1699);  "Nouveaux  Ele- 
ments d'Algebre"  (Amsterdam,  1702);  "La  Geogra- 
phic et  Cosmographie"  (Paris,  1711);  "La  Perspec- 
tive" (Paris,  1711). 


FoNTENELLE,  EloQC  d'Ozatiam  in  (EuvreSt  I,  401-408  (Paris, 
1825)  or  in  MSm.  de  V Acad,  des  sc,  de  Paris  (HisL),  ann.  1717. 

Paul.  H.  Linehan. 


Ozias  in"U%  '"fp,  i-  e.,  "Yahweh  is  my  strength"; 
name  of  six  Israelites  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  (1) 
Ozias,  King  of  Juda  (809-759  B.  c),  son  and  successor 
of  Amazias  On  the  latter's  death  he  was  chosen  king 
though  he  was  only  sixteen  years  of  age  (IV  Kings,  xiv, 
21,  where,  as  in  ch.  xv  also,  the  name  Azarias  appears 
instead  of  Ozias,  probably  through  a  copyist's  error; 
cf.  II  Par.,  xxvi,  1).  His  long  reign  of  fifty-two  years 
is  described  as  pleasing  to  God,  though  he  incurs  the 
reproach  of  having  tolerated  the  "high  places".  This 
stricture  is  omitted  by  the  chronicler,  who,  however, 
relates  that  Ozias  was  stricken  with  leprosy  for  having 
presumed  to  usurp  the  priestly  function  of  burning  in- 
cense in  the  Temple.  Ozias  is  mentioned  among  the 
lineal  ancestors  of  the  Saviour  (Matt.,  i,  S,  9).  (2) 
Ozias,  son  of  Uriel,  and  father  of  Saul  of  the  branch  of 
Caath  (I  Par.,  vi,  24).  (3)  Ozias,  whose  son  Jonathan 
was  custodian  of  the  treasures  possessed  by  King 
David  outside  of  Jerusalem  (I  Par.,  xxvii,  25).  (4) 
Ozias,  son  of  Harim,  one  of  the  priests  who  having 
taken  "strange  wives",  were  forced  to  give  them  up 
during  the  reform  of  Esdras  (I  Esdr.,  x,  21).  (5) 
Ozias,  s(in  of  Misha,  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  a  ruler  of 
Bethuliu  (.luilitli,  vii,  12K  (6)  Ozias,  one  of  the  ances- 
tors of  Judith,  of  the  tribe  of  Ruben  (Judith,  viii,  1). 

Lesetre  in  ViGOUROux,  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v. 

James  F.  Dhiscoll. 


Pacandus,  titular  see,  recorded  under  "Pacanden." 
among  the  titular  sees  in  the  official  list  of  the  Curia 
Romana  as  late  as  1884,  when  it  was  suppressed  as 
never  having  existed  as  a  residential  see.  Its  present 
titular  is  Mgr  L(5on  Livinhac,  superior  general  of  the 
White  Fathers.  The  name  of  "Pacanden."  owes  its 
origin,  without  doubt,  to  the  See  of  Acanda  in  Lycia, 
whose  bishop,  Pana'tius,  signed  in  458  the  letter  of  the 
bishops  of  Lycia  to  Emperor  Leo,  and  which  is  men- 
tioned in  the  "Notitiie  Episcopatuum "  from  the 
seventh  to  the  thirteenth  century  among  the  suffra- 
gans of  Myra.    Its  exact  site  is  unknown. 

Le  QniEN,  Oriens  christianus,  I,  985;  Petrides,  Acanda  in 
Did.  d'hist,  etdegeog,  eccL,  1,253.  g,   P^TRID^iS. 

Pacca,  Bartolommeo,  cardinal,  scholar,  and  states- 
man, b.  at  Benevento,  27  Dec,  1756;  d.  at  Rome,  19 
Feb.,  1844;  son  of  Orazio  Pacca,  Marehese  di  Matrice, 
and  Crispina  Malaspina.  He  was  educated  by  the 
Jesuits  at  Naples,  by  the  Somaschans  in  the  Clemen- 
tine College  at  Rome,  and  at  the  Accademia  de'  No- 
bili  Ecclesias- 
tici.  In  1785 
Pius  VI  ap- 
pointed him 
nuncio  at  Co- 
logne, the  cen- 
tre of  anti-Ro- 
man agitation. 
He  was  conse- 
crated titular 
Archbishop  of 
Damiata  and 
arrived  at  Co- 
logne in  June, 
1786.  TheArch- 
bishop  of  Co- 
1  o  g  n  e ,  Arch- 
duke Maximil- 
ian of  Austria, 
who  had  written  a  courteous  letter  to  Pacca  at  Rome, 
told  him  he  would  not  be  recognized  unless  he  formally 
promised  not  to  exercise  any  act  of  jurisdiction  in  the 
archdiocese.  The  same  attitude  was  taken  by  the 
Archbishops  of  Trier  and  Mainz.  Hostility  to  Rome, 
incited  chiefly  by  the  work  of  Febronius  (see  Febroni- 
anism)  was  then  at  a  high  pitch  on  account  of  the 
establishment  of  the  new  nunciature  of  Munich.  The 
other  bishops,  however,  and  the  magistrates  of  Cologne 
received  Pacca  with  all  due  respect.  Even  Prussia 
made  no  difficulty,  and  its  monarch,  in  recognition  of 
his  friendly  attitude,  was  accorded  at  Rome  the  title  of 
king,  against  which  Clement  XI  (1701)  had  protested 
when  the  emperor  would  have  granted  it.  On  his  jour- 
ney through  his  dominions  on  the  Rhine  Frederick  Wil- 
liam received  the  nuncio  with  great  honour. 

Pacca's  position  with  respect  to  the  three  ecclesias- 
tical electors  was  difficult.  When  the  Archbishop  of 
Cologne,  in  1786,  opened  the  University  of  Bonn,  that  of 
Cologne  being  still  loyal  to  the  Holy  See,  the  discourses 
given  were  a  declaration  of  war  against  the  Holy  See. 
At  Cologne,  too,  an  attempt  was  made  to  support  Fe- 
bronian  propositions,  but  was  frustrated  by  the  nun- 
cio, against  whom  innumerable  pamphlets  were  di- 
rected. But  Pacca  induced  some  prominent  German 
writers  to  uphold  the  rights  of  the  Holy  See.  He  soon 
had  a  dispute  with  the  Elector  of  Cologne.  Conform- 
ably to  the  Punctuation  of  Ems,  agreed  on  by  the 
three  archbishop  electors  and  the  Archbishop  of  Salz- 
burg in  1786,  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne  protested 


against  a  matrimonial  dispensation  given  by  the  nim- 
cio  in  virtue  of  his  faculties,  and  went  so  far  as  to  grant 
dispensations  not  contained  in  his  quinquennial  facul- 
ties, instructing  the  pastors  to  have  no  further  re- 
course to  the  nuncio  for  similar  dispensations.  The 
nuncio,  in  accordance  with  instructions  from  Rome, 
directed  a  circular  to  all  the  pastors  in  his  jurisdiction 
apprising  them  of  the  invalidity  of  such  dispensations. 
The  four  archbishops  thereupon  appealed  to  Joseph  II 
to  entirely  abolish  the  jurisdiction  of  the  nuncios,  and 
the  emperor  referred  the  matter  to  the  Diet  of  Ratis- 
bon,  where  it  was  quashed.  Pacca  also  opposed  free- 
dom of  worship  for  the  Protestants  of  Cologne,  but  so 
tactfully  that  his  intervention  was  not  apparent,  and 
did  not  offend  the  King  of  Prussia.  In  1790  he  went 
on  a  secret  mission  to  the  Diet  of  Frankfort  to  safe- 
guard the  interests  of  the  Holy  See,  and  prevented  the 
adoption  of  a  new  concordat. 

When  the  French  invaded  the  Rhine  Provinces,  he 
was  ordered  to  leave  Cologne,  but  he  had  the  satisfac- 
tion of  being  finally  recognized  as  nuncio  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Trier.  In  1794  he  was  appointed  nuncio  in 
Portugal,  but  accomplished  nothing  of  importance 
there.  Of  both  nunciatures,  he  wrote  memoirs,  con- 
taining observations  on  the  character  of  the  countries 
and  their  governments.  While  still  at  Lisbon,  he  was 
created  cardinal  of  the  title  of  S.  Silvestro  in  Capite 
(23  February,  1801),  and  assigned  to  various  congre- 
gations. In  1808  French  troops  were  stationed  in 
Rome.  Yielding  to  the  insistence  of  Napoleon,  Pius 
VII  sacrificed  Cardinal  Consalvi,  his  faithful  secretary 
of  State,  and  the  pro-secretaries,  Casoni,  Doria,  and 
Gabrielli.  The  last-named  was  surprised  in  his  apart- 
ments by  the  soldiers,  placed  under  arrest,  and  ordered 
to  leave  papal  territory.  Two  days  later  (18  June, 
1808)  the  pope  appointed  Pacca  pro-secretary. 

In  his  new  position  Pacca  carefully  avoided  every- 
thing that  might  provoke  the  emperor's  anger,  even 
ignoring  the  excesses  of  the  French  soldiery  in  and 
about  Rome.  But  in  August  he  felt  obliged  to  publish 
in  every  province  a  decree  forbidding  subjects  of  the 
Holy  See  to  enlist  in  the  new  "Civic  Guard"  (see 
Napoleo.ni  I)  and,  in  general,  under  any  foreign  com- 
mand. The  "Civic  Guard"  was  a  hotbed  of  turbu- 
lence that  might  easily  produce  a  rebellion  in  the  Pon- 
tifical States.  But  Miollis,  the  French  commandant, 
was  furious,  and  threatened  Pacca  with  dismissal  from 
Rome.  The  pro-secretary  replied  that  he  took  orders 
from  the  pope  alone.  Realizing  that  the  annexation  of 
Rome  was  inevitable,  Pacca  took  precautions  to  pre- 
vent a  sudden  attack  on  the  Quirinal;  at  the  same  time 
advising  calm  and  quiet.  The  Bull  of  excommunica- 
tion against  Napoleon  had  been  prepared  in  1806,  to 
be  published  in  the  event  of  annexation.  On  10  June, 
1809,  when  the  change  of  government  actually  took 
place,  the  Bull  was  promulgated;  on  6  July,  the  Quiri- 
nal was  attacked,  the  pope  arrested  and  taken  to 
France  and  thence  to  Savona.  Pacca  was  among  those 
who  accompanied  him.  As  far  as  Florence,  he  tried  to 
cheer  Pius  VII;  at  Florence  he  was  torn  from  the  pon- 
tiff's side,  much  to  his  sorrow,  and  saw  him  again  only 
at  Rivoli  and  Grenoble.  From  Grenoble  he  was  con- 
ducted (6  Aug.,  1809)  to  Fenestrelle,  where  he  was 
confined  with  great  severity,  and  could  hardly  find  op- 
portunities for  confession  and  communion.  Later, 
however,  this  restriction  was  removed.  During  this 
period  the  captive  minister  found  time  to  write  those 
records  which  formed  the  substance  of  his  "Memorie 
storiche  del  ministero"  etc. 


380 


PACCANARISTS 


381 


PACHOMIUS 


Finally,  on  30  January,  1813,  he  was  told  that  in 
view  of  the  concordat  concluded  between  the  pope  and 
Napoleon  at  Fontainebleau  (25  January)  he  was  free 
to  join  the  pope.  Napoleon  had  long  objected  to 
his  liberation,  declaring:  "Pacca  is  my  enemy".  At 
Fontainebleau  he  and  the  other  liberated  cardinals  in- 
sisted that  Pius  VII  should  retract  the  last  concordat 
and  refuse  further  negotiations  until  he  was  back  in 
Rome  with  full  freedom.  Pacca  also  suggested  the 
re-establishment  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  although 
both  the  pope  and  he  himself  had  been  educated  in 
prejudices  against  the  society.  When  Pius  VII  was 
conducted  to  Savona  the  second  time,  Pacca  was  de- 
ported to  Uzes  (January,  1814),  leaving  that  place  on 
22  April.  He  joined  the  pope  at  Sinigaglia  whence  he 
accompanied  him  to  Rome.  Appointed  cardinal 
camerlengo  in  the  same  year,  he  exerted  himself  to  re- 
establish the  religious  orders  from  the  foundations  not 
already  sold. 

During  the  absence  of  Consalvi  at  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  Pacca  again  became  pro-rsecrctary  of  State, 
the  restoration  of  the  pontifical  Government  thus  de- 
volving on  him.  He  was  reproved  by  Consalvi,  from 
Vienna,  for  his  severity  towards  the  supporters  of  the 
Napoleonic  regime,  and  vainly  tried  to  justify  his  con- 
duct. When  Murat,  King  of  Naples,  sent  his  troops 
through  the  Pontifical  States  to  meet  the  Austrians, 
Pacca  advLsed  Pius  VII  to  seek  temporary  refuge  at 
Genoa,  fearing  that  Murat  would  attempt  to  ravage 
the  domains  of  the  Holy  See.  During  the  pope's  ab- 
sence, the  provisional  Government  caused  the  arrest  of 
Cardinal  Maury  on  a  charge  of  having  secret  intelU- 
gence  with  Murat,  and  his  trial  was  continued  even 
after  the  pope's  return.  But  Consalvi,  immediately  on 
his  arrival,  stopped  the  proceedings.  The  rest  of 
Pacca's  life  was  occupied  in  the  affairs  of  the  different 
congregations  to  which  he  was  assigned,  and  in  the 
administration  of  the  suburbicarian  sees.  Leo  XII 
appointed  him  pro-datary,  he  was  the  first  to  hold 
the  post  of  cardinal  legate  of  Velletri,  and  he  was 
active  against  the  Carbonari. 

Cardinal  Pacca's  house  was  frequented  by  the  most 
illustrious  scientists,  men  of  letters,  and  artists,  both 
Roman  and  foreign.  He  had  excavations  made  at 
Ostia  at  his  own  expense,  and  with  the  objects  dis- 
covered formed  a  small  museum  in  his  vineyard  on 
the  Via  Aurelia  (Casino  of  Pius  V). 

Acute  observations  on  politics  and  the  philosophy 
of  history  are  found  in  his  "Memorie  storiche  della 
nunziatura  di  Colonia";  "Dei  grandi  meriti  verso 
la  Chiesa  Cattolica  del  clero  dcU'  University  e  de' 
Magistrati  di  Colonia  nel  secolo  XVI";  "Notizie  sul 
Portogallo  e  suUa  nunziatura  di  Lisbona";  "Memorie 
storiche  per  servire  alia  storia  ecclesiastica  del  secolo 
XIX"  (1809-14);  "Notizie  storiche  intorno  alia  vita 
e  gli  scritti  di  Mons.  Franc.  Pacca,  arcivescovo  di 
Benevento  (1752-75)".  (See  also  Consalvi;  Pius 
VII.) 

Diario  di  Roma  (1844),  n.  39;  Album  di  Roma  (1844),  n.  16; 
RiNlERl,  Corrispondenza  inedita  de'  cardinali  Consalvi  e  Pacca  nel 
tempo  del  CongresM  di  Vienna  in  Diplomazia  ponlificia,  V  (Turin, 
1903) ;  Wiseman,  Recollections  of  the  Last  Four  Popes  (London, 
1858). 

IJ.  Benigni. 
Paccanarists.     See  Sacred  Heart  op  Jesds,  So- 
ciety OF. 
Pace,  Peter.    See  Gozo,  Diocese  of. 

Pachomius,  Saint,  d.  about  346.  The  main  facts 
of  his  life  will  be  found  in  Monasticism.  II.  Eastern 
Monasticism  before  Chalcedon.  Having  spent  some 
time  with  Palemon,  he  went  to  a  deserted  village 
named  Tabennisi,  not  necessarily  with  the  intention 
of  remaining  there  permanently.  A  hermit  would 
often  withdraw  for  a  time  to  some  more  remote  spot  in 
the  desert,  and  afterwards  return  to  his  old  abode. 
But  Pachomius  never  returned;  a  vision  bade  him 
stay  and  erect  a  monastery;  "very  many  eager  to  em- 


brace the  monastic  life  will  come  hither  to  thee". 
Although  from  the  first  Pachomius  seems  to  have  re- 
alized his  mission  to  substitute  the  cenobitical  for  the 
eremitical  life,  some  time  elapsed  before  he  could 
realize  his  idea.  First  his  elder  brother  joined  him, 
then  others,  but  all  were  bent  upon  pursuing  the  ere- 
mitical life  with  some  modifications  proposed  by 
Pachomius  (e.  g.,  meals  in  common).  Soon,  however, 
disciples  came  who  were  able  to  enter  into  his  plans. 
In  his  treatment  of  these  earliest  recruits  Pachomius 
displayed  great  wisdom.  He  realized  that  men,  ac- 
quainted only  with  the  eremitical  life,  might  speedily 
become  disgusted,  if  the  distracting  cares  of  the 
cenobitical  life  were  thrust  too  abruptly  upon  them. 
He  therefore  allowed  them  to  devote  their  whole 
time  to  spiritual  exercises,  undertaking  himself  all 
the  burdensome  work  which  community  fife  entails. 
The  monastery  at  Tabennisi,  though  several  times 
enlarged,  soon  became  too  small  and  a  second  was 
founded  at  Pabau  (Faou).  A  monastery  at  Cheno- 
boskion  (Schenisit)  next  joined  the  order,  and,  before 
Pachomius  died,  there  were  nine  monasteries  of  his 
order  for  men,  and  two  for  women. 

How  did  Pachomius  get  his  idea  of  the  cenobitical 
life?  Weingarten  (Der  Ursprung  des  Moncthums, 
Gotha,  1877)  held  that  Pachomius  was  once  a  pagan 
monk,  on  the  ground  that  Pachomius  after  his  baptism 
took  up  his  abode  in  a  building  which  old  people  said 
had  once  been  a  temple  of  Serapis.  In  1898  Ladeuze 
(Le  C^nobitisme  pakhomien,  156)  declared  this 
theory  rejected  by  Catholics  and  Protestants  alike. 
In  1903  Preuschen  published  a  monograph  (Monc- 
thum  und  Serapiskult,  Giessen,  1903),  which  his 
reviewer  in  the  "Theologische  Literaturzeitung" 
(1904,  col.  79),  and  Abbot  Butler  in  the  "Journal  of 
Theological  Studies"  (V,  152)  hoped  would  put  an 
end  to  this  theory.  Preuschen  showed  that  the  sup- 
posed monks  of  Serapis  were  not  monks  in  any  sense 
whatever.  They  were  dwellers  in  the  temple  who 
practised  "incubation",  i.  e.  sleeping  in  the  temple  to 
obtain  oracular  dreams.  But  theories  of  this  kind 
die  hard.  Mr.  Flinders  Petrie  in  his  "Egypt  in 
Israel"  (published  by  the  Soc.  for  the  Prop,  of  Christ. 
Knowl.,  1911)  proclaims  Pachomius  simply  a  monk 
of  Serapis.  Another  theory  is  that  Pachomius's  re- 
lations with  the  hermits  became  strained,  and  that  he 
recoiled  from  their  extreme  austerities.  This  theory 
also  topples  over  when  confronted  with  facts.  Pacho- 
mius's relations  were  always  affectionate  with  the  old 
hermit  Palemon,  who  helped  him  to  build  his  monas- 
tery. There  was  never  any  rivalry  between  the  her- 
mits and  the  cenobitcs.  Pachomius  wished  his  monks 
to  emulate  the  austerities  of  the  hermits;  he  drew  up 
a  rule  which  made  things  easier  for  the  less  proficient, 
but  did  not  check  the  most  extreme  asceticism  in 
the  more  proficient.  Common  meals  were  provided, 
but  those  who  wished  to  absent  themselves  from 
them  were  encouraged  to  do  so,  and  bread,  salt,  and 
water  were  placed  in  their  cells.  It  seems  that 
Pachomius  found  the  solitude  of  the  eremitical  life 
a  bar  to  vocations,  and  held  the  cenobitical  life  to  be 
in  itself  the  higher  (Ladeuze,  op.  cit.,  168)  The  main 
features  of  Pachomius's  rule  are  described  in  the 
article  already  referred  to,  but  a  few  words  may 
be  said  about  the  rule  supposed  to  have  been 
dictated  by  an  angel  (Palladius,  "Hist.  Lausiaca", 
ed.  Butler,  pp.  88  sqq.),  of  which  use  is  often  made 
in  describing  a  Pachomian  monastery.  According 
to  Ladeuze  (263  sqq.),  all  accounts  of  this  rule 
go  back  to  Palladius;  and  in  some  most  important 
points  it  can  be  shown  that  it  was  never  followed 
by  either  Pachomius  or  his  monks.  It  is  unneces- 
sary to  discuss  the  charges  brought  by  Am(^lineau 
on  the  flimsiest  grounds  against  the  morality  of 
the  Pachomian  monks.  They  have  been  amply 
refuted  by  Ladeuze  and  Schiwietz  (cf.  also  Leipoldt, 
"Schneute  von  Atripe",  147). 


PACHTI.E& 


382 


PAcincus 


In  additioo  to  the  biblioRrapby  alreftdy  sxT-en  (Eastern  Mo- 
nasticism  before  Chalcedon)  consult  Cabrol,  />v^.  d'archioL 
chrH..  3-  V.  CinabUismt:  BoL'SOUirr  and  Nac.  Hist.  tU  S.  Pacomxu 
in  Atatica  .  .  .  patrologui  orient.,  IV  (Paris.  190S). 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 

Pachtler,  George  Michael,  controversial  and 
educational  writer,  b.  at  Mergenthcim.  Wvirtembcrg, 
14  Sept..  1S25;  d.  at  Exaten.  Holland.  12  Aug.,  1SS9. 
He  studied  in  the  University  of  Tubingen  and  was 
ordaiticd  priest  in  1S4S:  he  then  took  a  course  of 
philology  in  the  University  of  Munich  and  became 
professor  in  the  GjTnnasium  at  EUwangen.  In  1856 
Father  Pachtler  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  some 
years  later  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Jesuit  Col- 
lege of  Feldkirch,  Austria.  His  educational  labours 
were  interrupted  twice,  when  he  acted  as  militarj' 
chaplain  to  the  TjTolese  troops  during  the  Italian 
campaign  (1S66),  and  to  German  volunteers  in  the 
papal  army  (1869-70).  After  the  expulsion  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus  from  the  German  Empire  (1S72), 
Pachtler  lived  mostly  in  Holland  and  Austria,  devot- 
ing himself  to  literan.-  work.  He  was  the  first  editor 
of  the  "Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach",  published  by 
the  German  Jesuits,  one  of  the  leading  Catholic  peri- 
odicals in  Germany.  He  was  an  able  and  fertile 
writer  on  questions  of  the  day:  the  Vatican  Council, 
the  Roman  question,  the  labour  movement,  Free- 
masonrj-,  and  Liberalism. 

Among  his  works  are:  "Actaet  Decreta  Sacrosancti 
et  (Ecumenici  Concilii  Vaticani"  (1871),  "Die  Inter- 
nationale .Ajbeiterverbindung"  (1871),  "Der  Gotzc 
der  Humanitat  oder  das  Positive  der  Freimaurerci" 
(1875),  "Der  stille  Kricg  gegen  Thron  und  .\ltar.  oder 
das  Negative  der  Froimaurerei"  (187.3),  "DerEuro- 
paische  Militarismus"  (1876),  "Die  Geistige  Knech- 
tung  der  Volker  durch  das  Schulmonopol  des  mod- 
emen  Staates"  (1876),  "Das  gottliche  Recht  der 
Familie  und  der  Kirche  auf  die  Schule"  (1879).  His 
book  on  the  reform  of  higher  education :  "  Die  Reform 
unserer  G\Tnnasien"  (1883),  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  foremost  German  educationists,  and  he  was 
invited  to  become  a  contributor  to  the  "Monumenta 
Germaniie  Paedagogica",  published  in  Berlin  under 
the  editorship  of  Karl  Kehrbach.  He  contributed 
four  volumes  (II,  V,  IX,  and  XVI  of  the  series,  18S7- 
94),  the  last  being  edited  by  Father  Duhr,  S.J.,  after 
the  author's  death.  Pachtlor's  volumes  form  the 
standard  work  on  the  edueational  sjstem  of  the  Jes- 
uits; it  is  entitled:  "Ratio  Studiorum  et  Institutiones 
Scholastice  Societatis  Jesu,  per  Germaniam  olim 
Vigent.es".  The  work  contains  the  official  documents 
of  the  society  which  have  reference  to  education,  parts 
of  the  constitutions,  decrees  of  the  legi.slative  assem- 
blies of  the  order,  ordinances  of  generals,  reports  of 
official  visitations,  the  various  revisions  of  the  "Ratio 
Studiorum",  schedules  of  study,  discipUnarj'  regui.t- 
tions,  directions  for  the  training  of  teachers,  and 
treatises  of  private  indi\ndual3  which  explain  the 
practical  working  of  the  system.  Much  of  the  mate- 
rial had  never  been  published.  Through  the  pub- 
lication of  these  valuable  documents,  certain  erro- 
neous conceptions  entertained  by  many  concerning 
the  Jrsuit  sy.stem  of  education,  its  aims,  and  meth- 
ods, have  forever  been  removed,  .although  the  work 
deals  particularly  nnth  the  Jesuit  schools  in  Germany, 
.\ustria,  Switzerland,  and  the  Netherlands,  it  con- 
tains much  that  is  of  general  interest,  and  consti- 
tutes the  most  important  source  of  information  on  the 
educational  labours  of  the  Societv  of  Jesus. 

Stimmen  aut  ihrin-Jyniich.  XXXVII'dSSO);  Sfmumenta  Cer- 
manvz  Ptzda^ogica,  XVI.  introdurtion. 

Robert  Schwickerath. 

Pacianus,  Sahtt.    See  Barcelona,  Diocese  of. 

Pacificus,  a  disciple  of  St.  Francis  of  .\ssisi.  b. 
probably  near  .Ascoli,  Italy,  in  the  second  half  of 
the  twelfth  century;  d.  probably  at  Lens,  France, 


c.  12.'?4.  Local  authors  identify  him  with  a  certain 
William  of  Lisciano.  Before  becoming  a  Friar  ^Iinor 
he  had  been  poet  laureate  at  the  Court  of  Frede- 
rick II  of  Sicily.  When  St.  Francis,  towards  1212, 
preached  at  San  Severino.  in  the  Marches,  the  poet 
saw  two  resplendent  swords  crossed  on  the  saint's 
breast.  Deeply  impressed  by  this  \Tsion,  he  asked 
to  be  received  into  the  new  order,  and  St.  Francia 
gladly  j'ompUed.  giving  him  the  name  of  Pacificus. 
In  1217  he  was  sent  to  France,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
become  the  founder  and  first  pro\-incial  of  the  Friars 
Minor.  In  the  Spring  of  1226  Pacificus  witnessed  the 
holy  "Stigmata  of  St.  Francis"  (II  Cel.,  11,  99). 
When  the  saint  composed  the  "Canticle  of  the  Svm" 
he  wished  to  summon  Brother  Pacificus  and  send  him 
with  other  friars  through  the  world,  preaching  the 
praises  of  Ck>d  (Spec.  Perfect.,  c.  100).  The  last  cer- 
tain date  in  the  life  of  Brother  Pacificus  is  that  of  the 
Bull  "Magna  sicut",  12  April.  1227  (Bull.  Franc,  I, 
3.3-34;  Raynaldus,  ad  an.  1227,  64,  65),  in  which 
Gregory  IX  recommends  the  Poor  Clares  of  Siena  to 
his  care.  Later  authors  who  say  he  died  at  Suffiano, 
in  the  Marches,  confoimded  him  with  another  friar 
of  the  same  name.  According  to  Gonzaga,  he  was 
sent  by  Brother  Ehas  back  to  France,  where  he  died. 
Pacificus  was  long  credited  with  having  put  the  songs 
of  St.  Francis  into  verse.  But  for  the  simple  construc- 
tion of  the  "Canticle  of  the  Sun",  the  saint  needed  no 
help,  whilst  the  other  two  do  not  belong  to  him  at  all. 
Some  Italian  verses  said  to  have  been  composed  by 
Pacificus  are  given  bv  Italian  authors. 

THOM3  aCeu.no.  Vita's.  Francirn  (Rome.  1906);  Speculum 
perfectionis,  ed.  S.vbatier  (Paris,  189S);  St.  Bonatevtube,  Leo. 
dua  (Quaracchi.  1S9S).  iv;  .\naUcta  Franci-'cana.  Ill  (Quaraccbi. 
1897),  7-8;  10;  IV  (Quaracchi.  1906),  285-86;  Thomas  Ttsccs. 
Gesta  Imperatorum  et  Pontificum  in  Mon.  Germ.  Bist.:  Script., 
XXII  (Hanover,  1S72).  492;  Goniaga.  De  origine  SerapL  Re- 
ligionis  (Rome.  1587);  Wadding.  .Annates  ilinarum,  ad  an.  1212, 
39-J2:  Acta  SS..  Jul..  III.  170-74;  Lancetti,  Memaric  inlomo  ai 
poeti  laureali  (Milan.  1S39),  82-86:  Cosmo.  Frale  Pacifico.  Rez 
Versuum  in  Giomale  storico  dfUa  htteratura  Italiana,  XXXVIII 
(Turin.  1901).  1-40;  Makiotti.  I  primordi  glorioti  delT  Ordint 
minoritico  nclU  Marche  (Castelplanio.  1903).  124. 

LlVARlCS   OUGER. 

Pacificus  of  Ceredano  (Cer.ino),  also  known  as 
P.\ciFicrs  OF  Nov.vra  (NovARiENsis),  Blessed,  b. 
1420  at  Cerano,  in  the  Diocese  of  Novara  in  Lombardy, 
supposedly  of  the  much  respected  family  of  Ramati; 

d.  14  June,  1482.  He  entered  the  Franciscan  Order 
of  Observants  at  Novara  in  1445.  After  his  ordina- 
tion, he  was  employed  in  preaching,  in  which  field 
the  Italian  Observants  of  that  time  were  especially 
prominent.  Pacificus  also  had  a  share  in  the  preach- 
ing of  the  crusade  agaimit  the  Turks  undertaken  by  his 
order.  The  general  chapter  of  the  Observants,  held  in 
Ferrara,  15  ^lay,  1481,  sent  him  as  commissioner  to 
Sardinia  to  administer  and  inspect  the  Franciscan 
monasteries  in  that  countrj',  where  he  died.  Accord- 
ing to  his  wish,  his  body  was  brought  to  Cerano  and 
buried  in  the  church  attached  to  the  Franciscan  mon- 
asfen.'.  His  head  was  given  to  the  parish  church  of 
that  place.  He  was  at  once  honoured  as  a  saint,  and, 
in  1745,  Benedict  XFV  approved  his  veneration  for 
the  Franciscan  Order  and  the  Diocese  of  Novara.  His 
feast  is  celebrated  on  5  June.  Bl.  Pacificus  is  famous 
as  the  author  of  a  di.«sertation,  written  in  Italian  and 
named  after  him  the  "Summa  Pacifica",  which  treats 
of  the  proper  method  of  hearing  confessions.  It  was 
first  printed  at  Milan  in  1479  under  the  title;  "Somma 
Pacifica  o  sia  Trattato  della  Scienza  di  confessare" 
(Hain,  "Rcpert.  t\TX)gr.",n.  122.59;  Copinger,  "ASup- 
plement  to  Hain",  n.  122.59;  II,  4573-5).  The  work 
was  al.so  published  in  Latin  at  Venice  (1501  and  1513). 

Wadding,  AnnaUt  Ord.  Min..  XIV  (Rome.  1735).  165.  266. 
328:  (16.50).  271:  nS06),  184:  (1906).  181;  Sbab.4LEa.  Suppfem 
ad  Script.  O.  SI.  (Rome.  1806).  571;  (Anonj-mous)  Vila  del  B. 
Pacifico  da  Cerano  (Novara.  1878);  B.ieiuo  da  NEraoNE.  Sul.  b. 
Pacifico  dn  Crrano  (Genoa.  1882);  Caizou.  //  h.  Pacifico  Ramalt 
(Novara.  1882):  Acta  SS.,  Jun.,  I,  802-3  (2nd  ed..  789-90); 
jeiLxa  in  Kirchentex.,  e.  v.  MiCHAEL  BiHL. 


PACIFICUS 


383 


PADERBORN 


Paciflcus  of  San  Severino,  Saint,  b.  at  San  Sev- 
erino,  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  1  March,  1653;  d. 
there  24  Sept.,  1721;  the  son  of  Antonio  M.  Divini 
and  Mariangela  Bruni.  His  parents  died  soon  after 
his  confirmation  when  three  years  old  ;  he  suffered 
many  hartlships  until  in  December,  1670,  he  took  the 
Franciscan  habit  in  the  Order  of  the  Reformati,  at 
Forano,  in  the  March  of  Ancona,  and  was  ordained  on 
4  June,  167S,  subsequently  becoming  Lector  or  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy  (1680-83)  for  the  younger  mem- 
bers of  the  order,  after  which,  for  five  or  six  years,  he 
laboured  as  a  missionary  among  the  people  of  the 
surrounding  country.  He  then  suffered  lameness, 
deafness,  and  blindness  for  nearly  twenty-nine  years. 
Unable  to  give  missions,  he  cultivated  more  the  con- 
temjilative  life.  He  bore  his  ills  with  angelic  patience, 
worked  several  miracles,  and  was  favoured  by  God 
with  ecstasies.  Though  a  constant  sufferer,  he  held 
the  post  of  guardian  in  the  monastery  of  Maria  delle 
Grazie  in  San  Severino  (1692-3),  where  he  died.  His 
cause  for  beatification  was  begun  in  1740;  he  was 
beatified  by  Pius  VI,  4  August,  1786,  and  solemnly 
canonized  by  Gregory  IX,  26  May,  1839.  His  feast 
is  celebrated  on  24  September. 

Melchiorri,  Vita  di  S.  Pacifico  da  San  Severino  (Rome,  1839), 
compiled  from  the  Acts  of  Canonization;  Sderci  da  Gajole, 
Vita  di  S.  Pacifico  da  Sanseverino  (Prato,  1898);  Diotallevi, 
Vita  di  S.  Pacifico  Dinini  dei  Minori  da  Sanseverino  (Quaracchi, 
1910). 

Michael  Bihl. 

Pacioli  (Pacidolo),  Lucas,  mathematician,  b. 
at  Borgo  San  Sepolco,  Tuscany,  towards  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century;  died  probably  soon  after  1.509. 
Little  is  known  concerning  his  life.  He  became  a 
Franciscan  friar  and  was  successively  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Perugia,  Rome,  Naples,  Pisa,  and 
Venice.  With  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  he  was  in  Milan 
at  the  court  of  Louis  the  Moor,  until  tlie  invasion  of 
the  French.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
Florence  and  Venice.  His  scientific  writings,  though 
poor  in  style,  were  the  basis  for  the  works  of  the  six- 
teenth-century mathematicians,  including  Cardan  and 
Tartaglia.  In  his  first  work,  "Summa  de  Arith- 
metica,  Geometria,  Proportioni,  et  Proportionalita", 
Venice,  1494,  he  drew  freely  upon  the  writings  of 
Leonardo  da  Pisa  (Fibonacci)  on  the  theory  of  num- 
bers. Indeed  he  has  thus  preserved  fragments  of  some 
of  the  lost  works  of  that  mathematician.  The  apph- 
cation  of  algebra  to  geometry,  and  the  treatment,  for 
the  first  time,  of  double-entry  book-keeping  and  of 
the  theory  of  probability  also  help  to  make  this 
treatise  noteworthy.  The  "  Divina  Proportioni" 
(Venice,  1509),  was  written  with  some  co-operation  on 
the  part  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  It  is  of  interest  chiefly 
for  some  theorems  on  the  inscription  of  polyhedrons  in 
polyhedrons  and  for  the  use  of  letters  to  indicate 
numerical  quantities.  His  edition  of  Euclid  was  pub- 
lished in  1509  in  Venice. 

CHABLE9,  Apert;u  historique  sur  t'Origine  et  le  DHeloppement 
dea  Melhodes  en  Giomitrie  C3rcl  ed.,  Paris,  1889);  Libri,  Histoire 
dea  .Sciences  Mathematiques  en  Ilalie,  III  (2nd  ed..  Halle.  186.5). 

Paul  H.  Linehan. 
Pactum  Calixtinum.     See  Callistus  II,  Pope; 

CoNCORD.'iT. 

Paderbom,  Diocese  of  (Paderbornensis),  suffra- 
gan of  Cologne,  includes:  the  District  of  Mindon. 
Westphalia,  except  the  parish  of  Lette;  the  District  of 
Arnsberg,  Westphalia,  except  a  few  parishes;  Pru.ssi an 
Saxony;  five  districts  in  the  Rhine  Province;  the  Prin- 
cipality of  Lippp;  the  Principality  of  Waldeck;  the 
Duchy  of  Gotha;  the  Principalities  of  Schwarzburg- 
Rudolstadt  and  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen;  and 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Anhalt  (see  Germany,  map). 
The  diocese  is  divided  into  53  deaneries.  There  are 
547  parishes  (20  missionary,  266  succursal);  1403 
secular  and  93  regular  priests;  1,508,000  Catholics, 
and  5,250,000  non-Catholics.     The  part  of  the  diocese 


in  Thuringia  is  also  divided  among  three  other  eccle- 
siastical administrative  districts:  the  episcopal  com- 
missaries of  Magdeburg  and  Heiligenstadt,  and  the 
"Ecclesiastical  Court"  (Geistliches  Gericht)  of  Erfurt. 
The  cathedral  chapter  has  the  right  to  elect  the 
bishop;  it  consists  of  a  provost,  a  dean,  8  capitular  and 
4  honorary  canons;  6  cathedral  vicars  are  stationed  at 
the  cathedral.  The  diocesan  institutions  are:  the 
seminary  for  priests,  the  diocesan  institute  of  phi- 
losophy and  theology  with  8  professors,  the  theological 
college  {Collegium  Leoninum),  the  seminary  for  boys 
{Collegium  Liborianum)  at  Paderborn,  the  scniiuary 
for  boys  (Collegium.  Bonifatianum)  at  Hcilin<'iisl:i<lt, 
and  the  orphans'  home  of  Lippe  at  Paderborn.  Under 
religious  direction  also  are  the  boys'  colleges  of  War- 
burg, Attendorn,  and  Brilon. 

The  orders  existing  in  the  diocese  are :  Franciscans,  8 
monasteries,  69  fathers,  21  clerics,  68  brothers ;  Domini- 
cans, 1  monastery,  5  fathers,  4  brothers;  Redemptor- 
ists,  1  monastery,  8  fathers,  7  brothers;  Mission- 
aries of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  1  community,  11 
fathers,  51  clerics,  21  brothers;  Brothers  of  Charity,  4 
monasteries,  82  brothers.  The  female  orders  and  con- 
gregations, which  have  256  institutions  with  3320 
sisters,  include:  the  Benedictine  Sisters  of  Perpetual 
Adoration,  2  priorates;  Canonesses  of  St.  Augustine, 
1  convent;  Poor  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  3  in- 
stitutions; Ursulines,  3  houses;  Sisters  of  Christian 
Charity;  Daughters  of  the  Bles.sed  Virgin  Mary  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  mother-house  at  Paderborn 
and  15  institutions;  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  mother-house  at  Heiligenstadt,  and  6  institu- 
tions; Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  mother-house  at 
Paderborn  and  99  houses;  Poor  Franciscan  Sisters  of 
Perpetual  Adoration,  mother-house  at  Olpe,  39  insti- 
tutions; Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of 
Jesus  and  Mary,  mother-house  at  Salzkotten,  23 
houses;  Grey  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth  from  Breslau, 
provincial  house  at  Halle,  20  institutions;  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  St.  Vincent,  from  Fulda,  5  houses;  Poor 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  from  Aachen,  4  institutions; 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Francis,  from  Miinster,  3 
convents;  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  from  Thuine,  near 
Freren,  5  institutions;  Poor  Franciscan  Sisters,  from 
Waldbreitach,  2  institutions;  Poor  Servants  of  Jesus 
Christ,  from  Dernbach,  18  institutions;  Sisters  of 
Clement,  from  Miinster,  3  houses;  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
St.  Elizabeth,  from  Essen,  1  house;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross  from  Strasburg,  2  institutions;  DauKhicrs  of 
Christian  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  from  Cologuf-Nippes, 
1  house;  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  from  Miilhausen  (Rliine- 
land),  1  institution. 

The  city  of  Paderborn  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
Boniface  Association  (q.  v.);  among  others  arc  (lie 
Society  of  St.  Vincent,  the  Society  of  St.  l';iiz:iliclli, 
the  Mothers'  Society,  the  Young  Men's  Society,  the 
Young  Women's  Sodalities,  the  Society  of  Catholic 
Germany,  etc.  The  Catholic  institutions  include  120 
institutions  for  the  protection  of  children;  .50  orphan 
asylums;  100  schools  for  handicrafts  an<l  domestic 
science;  135  sanatoria  and  hosjjitals;  6.')  st;itions  for 
visiting  nurses;  and  300  religious  homes  for  the  poor. 
Among  the  newspapers  are:  the  "  Westfalisches  Volks- 
blatt",  the  "Sonntagsblatt  Leo",  the  "Bonifatius- 
blatt",  and  the  scientific  magazine,  "Theologie  und 
Glaube".  The  most  import.ant  churches  are:  the 
cathedral  at  Paderborn,  which  in  its  [>resent  form 
dates  from  the  twelfth  and  fourteenth  centuries;  a 
church  with  three  naves  of  equal  height  in  the  .style 
of  the  Romanesque  and  Transition  periods;  the 
Romanesque  cathedral  of  St.  Patroclus  at  Soest, 
built  in  954;  the  cathedral  at  Erfurt,  dates  back  to 
1153;  and  the  Gothic  cathedral  at  Minden,  built  be- 
tween the  eleventh  and  the  fifteenth  centuries. 

The  first  church  at  Paderborn  was  founded  in  777, 
when  Charlemagne  held  a  diet  there.  It  is  certain 
that  Paderbom  was  a  bishopric  in  805  or  806;  the 


PADERBORN 


a84 


PADERBORN 


bishop  was  Hathumar,  a  Saxon  (d.  815).  Before  this 
Paderborn  Wiis  under  the  Diocese  of  Wiirzburg.  The 
Diocese  of  Paderborn  then  included  the  larRcr  part 
of  Lippe,  Waldcck,  and  nearly  half  of  the  former 
Countship  of  Uavensberg. 

St.  Badurad  (Slfi-ti'i)  completed  the  cathedral, 
encouraged  the  building  of  the  cathedral  school,  and 
the  establishment  of  several  monasteries.  He  received 
from  Louis  the  Pious  s[)eci:d  pnilcction  for  his  diocese, 
which  was  benefited  financially,  in  that  henceforward 
it  received  all  the  court  fees.  When  the  bishops  re- 
ceived the  countship  is  unknown,  but  this  was  con- 
firmed to  Bishop  Liuthard  (S02-S6)  in  881  by  King 
Louis.  Otto  II  bestowed  the  right  to  a  free  election  of 
bishops  upon  Bishop  Folkmar  in  974  (d.  981).  In 
1000  the  cathedral  was  burnt;  Rethgar  (d.  1009)  began 
a  new  cathedral,  completed  by  his  successor,  Mein- 
werk.  The  latter  established  the  Benedictine  Mon- 
astery of  Abdinghof 
at  Paderborn,  found- 
ed a  diocesan  college 
at  Busdorf,  and  im- 
proved the  cathedral 
school.  During  the 
Strifeof  Investitures, 
Poppo(  1076-83)  was 
first  an  adherent  of 
the  emperor,  later  of 
the  pope.  Heinrich 
I,  Count  of  Asspl, 
elected  bishop  under 
the  protection  of  the 
opposing  King  Her- 
mann, in  1090  was 
exiled  by  the  Em- 
peror Henry  IV,  and 
fled  to  Magdeburg, 
where  in  1102  he  was 
elected  archbishop. 
The  See  of  Paderborn 
was  occupied  by 
Heinrich  II,  Count  of  Werl-Arnsberg,  who  had  had 
himself  installed  in  1084  at  Rome  as  bishop  by  Henry 
IV,  and  who  had  helped  in  the  expulsion  of  Heinrich 
I.  He  received  the  papal  sanction  in  1106.  Bern- 
hard  II.  Lord  of  Oesede  (1127-60),  restored  the  cathe- 
dral (burnt  in  1133). 

Siegfried  (1178-80)  lived  to  see  the  downfall  of 
Henry  the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony.  The  rights  which 
the  old  dukedom  had  exercised  over  Paderborn  were 
transferred  to  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  The 
claims  of  the  archbishops  of  Cologne  were  settled  in 
the  thirteenth  century,  almost  wholly  in  favour  of 
Paderborn.  Under  Bernhard  II  of  Ibbenbijren  (1 198- 
1204)  the  bailiwick  over  the  diocese,  which  since  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century  had  been  held  as  a 
fief  bj'  the  Counts  of  Arnsberg,  returned  to  the  bishops. 
This  was  an  important  advance  in  the  development 
of  the  bishops'  position  as  temporal  sovereigns.  From 
this  time  on  the  bishops  did  not  grant  the  bailiwick  as 
a  fief,  but  managed  it  themselves,  and  had  themselves 
represented  in  the  government  by  one  of  their  clergy. 
They  strove  successfully  to  obtain  the  bailiwicks  over 
the  abbeys  and  monasteries  situated  in  their  diocese. 
During  the  reign  of  Bernhard  IV  (1228-47)  the  Minor- 
ites settled  in  the  diocese.  Under  him  the  community 
life  of  the  cathedral  canons  ceased  completely,  and 
the  canons,  twenty-four  in  number,  shared  with  the 
bishop  the  property,  archdiaconates,  and  obediences 
(1231). 

Simon  I,  Lord  of  Lippe  (1247-77),  was  engaged  in 
struggles  with  Cologne;  Otto  von  Rietbcrg  had  also  to 
contend  with  Cologne;  in  1281,  when  only  bishop- 
elect,  he  received  the  regalia  from  Rudolph  of 
Habsburg,  and  full  judicial  power  (except  penal  judi- 
cature) ;  hencf'forward  the  bishops  were  actual  sove- 
reigns, though  not  over  the  whole  of  their  diocese. 


Church  at  H.^lberst. 


Bernhard  V  of  Lippe  (1321-41)  had  to  acknowledge 
the  city  of  Paderborn  as  free  from  his  judicial  suprem- 
acy. Heinrich  III  Spiegel  zum  Dcsenberg  (1301- 
80),  also  Abbot  of  Corvey,  left  his  spiritual  functions 
to  a  suffragan;  in  1371  he" rebuilt  Ihe  Burg  Neuhaus  at 
Paderborn.  Simon  II,  Count  of  Sternberg  (1380-89), 
involved  the  bishopric  in  feuds  with  the  nobility,  who 
after  his  death  devastated  the  country.  Wilhelm 
Heinrich  von  Berg,  elected  1399,  sought  to  remedy  the 
evils  which  had  crept  in  during  the  foregoing  feuds, 
but  when  in  1414  he  interested  himself  in  the  vacancy 
in  the  Archbishopric  of  Cologne,  the  cathedral  chapter 
in  his  absence  chose  Dietrich  von  Mors  (1415-63). 
The  wars  of  Dietrich,  also  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
brought  heavy  debts  upon  the  bishopric;  during  the 
feuds  of  the  bishop  with  the  City  of  Soest  (1444-49) 
Paderborn  was  devastated.  The  reign  of  Simon  III  of 
Lippe  (1463-89)  was  occupied  with  the  correction 
of  Church  discipline. 
Hermann  I,  Land- 
grave of  Hesse  (1495- 
1508),  was  an  excel- 
lent ruler. 

Under  Erich,  Duke 
of  Brunswick -Gru- 
benhagen  (1502-32), 
the  Reformation  ob- 
tained a  foothold  in 
I  he  diocese,  although 
I  lie  bishop  remained 
ln\al  to  the  Church, 
lii'imann  von  Wied 
(l.')32-47),  also  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne, 
SI  night  to  introduce 
t  lie  new  teaching  at 
i':i(lerborn  as  well  as 
C'cilugne,  but  he  was 
o  [)  p  o  s  e  d  by  all 
chi.sses.  The  count- 
ships  of  Lippe,  Wal- 
deck,  and  Pyrmont,  the  part  of  the  diocese  in  the 
Countship  of  Ravensberg,  and  most  of  the  parishes  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Weser  became  Protestant.  After 
the  removal  of  Hermann  von  Wied,  Paderborn  had 
three  active  Catholic  bishops:  Rembert  von  Kerrsen- 
brock  (1547-68),  Johann  II  von  Hoya  (1568-1574) 
pubhshed  the  Tridentine  Decrees,  and  Salentin,  Count 
of  Isenburg  (1574-77),  also  Archbishop  of  Cologne. 
Heinrich  IV,  Duke  of  Saxe-Lauenburg  (1577-85),  was 
a  Lutheran;  he  permitted  the  adoption  of  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  by  his  subjects.  Apostasy  from  the 
Church  made  such  advances  that  in  the  city  of  Pader- 
born only  the  cathedral  and  the  Monastery  of  Abding- 
hof remained  faithful.  To  save  the  Catholic  cause,  the 
cathedral  chapter  summoned  the  Jesuits  to  Paderborn 
in  1580.  Theodor  von  Furstenberg  (1585-1618)  re- 
stored the  practice  of  the  Catholic  religion,  built  a 
gymnasium  for  the  Jesuits,  and  founded  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paderborn  in  1614. 

Ferdinand  I  of  Bavaria  (1618-50)  was  not  able  to 
save  the  bishopric  from  the  horrors  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  Theodor  Adolf  von  der  Reck  (1650-91) 
tried  to  repair  the  damages  of  the  war.  Ferdinand  It 
von  Filrstenberg  (1661-83),  poet,  historian,  scholar, 
and  promoter  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  founded  the 
"Ferdinandea",  for  the  support  of  thirteen  mission- 
aries for  the  northern  Vicariate.  Hermann  Werner 
(1683-1704)  and  his  nephew  Franz_ Arnold  (1704-18) 
were  admirable  prelates.  Under  Klemens  August  of 
Bavaria  (1719-61),  the  Seven  Years'  War  wrought 
great  damage.  W'ilhelm  Anton  von  der  Asseburg 
(1763-82)  founded  a. seminary  for  priests  in  1777.  Franz 
Egon  von  Filrstenberg  (17,89-1825)  lived  to  see  the 
secularization  of  nearly  all  the  chapters  and  monas- 
teries in  his  diocese.  The  territory  of  the  diocese  went 
to  Prussia,  the  bishop  became  a  prince  of  the  empire; 


PADILLA 


385 


PADUA 


but  his  spiritual  jurisdiction  was  untouched.  He  saw 
the  enlargement  of  his  diocese,  resulting  from  the  Bull 
"De  Salute  Animarum",  16  July,  1821,  which  ex- 
tended Paderborn,  and  placed  it  under  Cologne. 

Friedrich  Klemens  von  Ledebur-Wicheln  (1826- 
41)  divided  the  diocese  into  deaneries.  Konrad  Mar- 
tin (1S56-79)  held  a  diocesan  synod  in  1867,  and 
took  part  in  the  Vatican  Council.  In  the  Kultur- 
kampf  he  stood  firmly  for  the  freedom  of  the  Church, 
suffered  many  penalties,  and  died  an  exile  in  Belgium. 
Franz  Kaspar  Drobe  (1SS2-91)  revived  the  institu- 
tions for  the  education  of  priests.  Hubcrtus  Simar 
(1891-1900)  rebuilt  the  theological  seminary  in  1895 
and  became  Archbishop  of  Cologne  in  1900;  Wilhelm 
Schneider  (1900-1909)  was  a  philosopher  and  theo- 
logian; Karl  Joseph  Schulte,  formerly  Professor  of 
Apologetics  and  Caiion  Law  in  Paderborn,  was  elected 
in  1909,  and  con.sccratcd  19  March,  1910. 

FChstkn-bebg,  M'.numenta  PaderbijTnensia  (Paderborn,  1672-, 
4th  i-a.,  I.emgo,  17.>n  ;  .^■■haten,  Annates  Paderbornenses  (3  vols., 
2nd  ed.,  Miinster,  1774-75) ;  Bessen.  Geschichte  des  Bistums  Pader- 
born (2  vols.,  Paderborn,  1S20);  Giefers,  Die  AnfUnge  des  Bis- 
tums Paderborn  (Paderborn,  1860);  EvELT,  Die  Weihbischofe  ton 
Paderborn  (Paderborn,  1869,  1S79) ;  LoHER,  Geschichte  des  Kamp- 
Jes  um  Paderborn  l.'>97-IIJ0i  (Berlin,  1874) ;  Wilmans  and  Finke, 
Die  Urkunden  des  Bislums  Paderborn  (Miinster,  1874-94);  West- 
fdtisches  Urkundenbiirli .  IV;  HiU.HcnEn,  Die  ditere  Diozese  Pader- 
born (Paderborn,  18S6);  Hichter.  Geschichte  der  Paderborner 
Jesuiten  (Paderborn,  1892),  I;  Idem,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Pader- 
born, I,  II  (Paderborn,  1899-1903):  Idem,  Studien  und  Quellen 
zur  Geschichte  Paderborns,  I  (Paderborn.  1893);  Idem.  Preus- 
sen  und  die  Paderborner]  Kloster  und  Stifter  ISOS-lSOe  (Pader- 
born, 1905);  Treisen,  Die  Universitdt  Paderborn  (Paderborn, 
1898);  Tenckhoff,  Die  Bischofe  von  Paderborn  von  Hatsumar  bis 
Relhar  (Paderborn.  1900);  Schultz,  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der 
Landeshoheil  irn  Bislinn  Paderborn  (Munster,  1903);  Liese,  Die 
katholischen  Wohlt<i:: ;' ■  ','  ■■■  l-rl.  ,:  und  sozialen  Vereine  in  der 
Diozese  Paderborn  >i  ,'-  i  _  ,  I'mr,);  Freisen,  Staat  und  katho- 
lische  Kirche  in  den  '■  '  ■  !:.■'!<  sstaaten  Lippe,  Waldeck-Pyr- 
moiit.  Anlnilt  usir.  J  ..;.  ,  .-lnll-:irt.  1906);  LeiNEWEBER,  Die 
Pad' ■■'">'■  F'l  '/  '  ' a  der  Zeil  der  Gtaubensneuerung  (Miin- 
st' r,   I  'ii        M  /       "T  durch  Paderborn  (Paderborn,  1910); 

Z'/'  ' ^  ('  Geschichte  und  Altertumskunde,  eec- 

tiiiii    /  .   .     .  li^i      .  r.    1839—);    Schemalismus  des   Bistums 

Pad.rtjarn  U  ud(;rbuiu.  i'JU9;  supplement,  1911). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Padilla,  Juan  de,  Friar  Minor,  protomartyr  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  member  of  the  Andalu- 
sian  province,  came  to  Mexico  probably  in  1528,  join- 
ing the  province  of  the  Holy  Gospel.  During  1529- 
1531  he,  with  an  unnamed  friar,  accompanied  Nuno 
de  Guzmdn  to  Nueva  Galicia  and  Culiaciin,  and  pre- 
vented the  oppression  of  the  natives  while  acting 
as  military  chaplain.  From  15.31  to  1540  he  made  mis- 
sionary tours  among  the  Indians  of  Tlamatzoldn,  Tuch- 
pan,  Tzapotitldn,  Totlamdn,  Amula,  Cauldn,  Xicotldn, 
Avalos  or  Zaoh'in,  Amacuecdn,  Atoyac,  Tzacoalco, 
and  Colima.  He  founded  the  convent  of  Tzapotldn, 
becoming  its  first  superior,  and  erected  another  at 
Tuchpiin,  making  it  the  headquarters  for  the  mission- 
ary friars.  He  established  the  monastery  of  Tulant- 
cingo,  governing  it  until  1540,  when  he  resigned  to 
follow  Fr.  Marcos  de  Niza,  the  discoverer  of  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico,  with  Francisco  Viisquez  de  Coronado, 
on  the  memorable  march  to  the  fabled  Seven  Cities, 
and  thus  reached  the  Upper  Rio  Grande  near  the 
present  Bernalillo  about  the  end  of  1540.  He  aLso 
accompanied  Coronado  in  his  search  to  Quivira, 
probably  as  far  as  central  Kansas.  When  the  dis- 
appointed general  and  his  army  in  1542  abandoned 
New  Mexico,  Fr.  de  Padilla,  Fr.  Juan  de  la  Cruz, 
Brother  Luis  de  Ubeda  or  Escalona,  resolved  to  stay 
behind  to  evangelize  the  Indians.  A  Portuguese 
soldier,  Andres  da  Campo,  two  Mexican  tertiaries, 
Lucas  and  Sebastian,  two  other  Mexican  Indians,  and 
a  half-breed  boy  also  remained  with  the  zealous  friars. 

After  working  with  success  among  the  Tlguez  on 
the  Rio  Grande  for  some  time,  Fr.  de  Padilla's  zeal 
urged  him  to  afford  other  tribes  an  opportunity  of 
knowing  and  serving  Christ.  Accompanied  by  Da 
Campo,  Lucas,  Sebastian,  and  the  two  Mexican  In- 
dians, he  set  out  for  the  north-east.  When  the  little 
party  reached  the  plains,  they  encountered  a  band 
XL— 25 


of  savages,  who  attacked  them  and  slew  Fr.  de  Padilla 
as  he  calmly  knelt  in  prayer.  The  savages  threw  the 
body  into  a  pit.  The  date  and  locality  of  his  martyr- 
dom are  uncertain,  Fr.  Vetancurt  in  his  Menologio 
assigning  30  November,  1544.  Some  believe  he  per- 
ished in  eastern  Colorado,  or  western  Kansas,  but  this 
is  conjecture.  The  story,  believed  in  New  Mexico, 
that  his  body  was  discovered  by  Pueblo  Indians, 
brought  to  Isleta,  interred  beneath  the  sanctuary  of 
the  church,  and  that  it  rises  and  falls  at  stated  periods 
is  a  myth.  The  remains  of  the  Franciscan  buried 
there  are  doubtless  those  of  Fr.  Juan  Jose  de  Padilla, 
who  died  a  peaceful  death  there  two  centuries  later. 
Fr.  de  la  Cruz  and  Brother  de  Ubeda  were  likewise 
put  to  death  at  the  instigation  of  Indian  sorcerers  at 
the  missions  on  the  Rio  Grande. 

Mendieta,  Historia  eclesidstica  indiana  (reprint,  Mexico, 
1870);  Tello,  Cronica  de  la  Santa  Provincia  de  Xalisco  (reprint, 
Guadalajara,  1891);  Mota  Padilla,  Historia  de  la  Conquisia  de 
la  Nueva  Galicia  (Mexico,  1870);  Vetancurt,  Menologio  Francis- 
cano  (Mexico,  1697);  Tohquemada,  Monarquia  indiana  (Madrid, 
1723) ;  Beaumont,  Crdnica  de  la  prov.  de  Michoacan  (reprint, 
Mexico,  1874) ;  Fourteenth  Ann.  Rept.  of  the  Bur.  of  Ethnol.  (Wash- 
ington); Shea,  The  Catholic  Church  in  Colonial  Days  (New  York, 
1886) ;  Bandelier,  American  Catholic  Quarterly  Review  (Philadel- 
phia, July,  1890) :  LuMMis,  Spanish  Pioneers  (Chicago,  1893) ; 
Bancroft,  History  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  (San  Francisco, 
1889);  Defouri,  The  Martyrs  of  New  Mexico  (Las  Vegas,  1893); 
Engelhardt,  The  Franciscans  in  Arizona  (Harbor  Springs,  1899). 

Zephyrin  Engelhardt. 

Padroado,  The.  See  Goa,  Archdiocese  op;  Pro- 
tectorate OF  Mission.?. 

Padua,  Diocese  of  (Patavina),  Northern  Italy. 
The  city  is  situated  on  a  fertile  plain,  and  is  sur- 
rounded and  traversed  by  the  Bachiglione  River.  Its 
streets  are  almost  all  flanked  with  colonnades.  The  most 
splendid  of  its  churches  is  "  il  Santo  ",  that  is,  the  basil- 
ica of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua,  begun  in  1232;  its  style  is 
mixed  Romanesque  and  Byzantine,  irrespective  of  later 
modifications;  it  has  seven  cupolas,  and  is  divided  into 
three  naves.  On  the  high  altar  is  a  crucifix  in  bronze 
by  Donatello,  the  author  also  of  the  bronze  bas-reliefs 
on  the  walls  of  the  apse;  the  bronze  candelabra 
are  by  Andrea  Riccio;  the  chapel,  called  "Capella 
del  Santo"  (1500-33),  is  filled  with  ex-voto  offerings, 
and  contains  nine  bas-reliefs  by  Lombard!,  represent- 
ing miracles  of  the  saint;  the  chapel  of  the  relics  and 
that  of  San  Felice  are  also  full  of  works  of  art.  The 
paintings  in  this  church  are  by  Mantegna,  Paolo 
Veronese,  and  Tiepolo,  while  the  frescoes  are  by 
Giotto  and  Altichiero  da  Zevia.  The  Church  of  Santa 
Giustina,  rebuilt  in  1502,  is  crowned  by  eight  cupolas, 
and  has  fourteen  side  chapels;  there  arc  paintings  by 
Paolo  Veronese,  Luca  Giordano,  and  Parodio.  Be- 
side this  church  is  a  famous  monasterj-  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, which  dates  from  the  ninth  century;  in  the 
fifteenth  century  a  reform  of  the  order  began  in  this 
convent  of  Santa  Giustina,  now  used  as  barracks. 
The  cathedral  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
1117,  and  was  rebuilt  by  Michelangelo,  who,  however, 
finished  only  the  choir  and  the  sacristy.  The  church, 
called  "degh  Eremitani"  (1264  and  1309),  contains 
frescoes  by  Mantegna.  The  seminary  was  founded  by 
Bishop  Federico  Cornaro  in  1577,  and  was  greatly 
enlarged  by  Blessed  Cardinal  Gregorio  Barberigo  in 
1671 ;  connected  with  it  are  a  printing  press  and  a  rich 
library. 

Among  the  secular  buildings  are  the  Palazzo  della 
Ragionc,  dating  from  1166,  restored  in  1218,  1420, 
and  1756;  the  Loggia  del  Consiglio  (the  palace  of  the 
"Capitano");  and  the  university  (1493),  by  Palladio 
or  Sansovino;  annexed  to  it  are  a  library,  with  2500 
MSS.,  an  anatomical  amphitheatre,  founded  in  1594 
by  Fabrizio  d'Acquapendente,  a  museum  of  natural 
history,  a  large  collection  of  ancient  physical  instru- 
ments, a  collection  of  petrified  objects,  a  botanical 
garden  (1545,  the  first  in  Europe),  and  an  observatory, 
erected  on  a  tower  of  the  castle  of  Ezzelino.  Among 
the  public  monuments  are:  the  equestrian  statue  of 


iPADUA 


386 


PADUA 


Gattamelata  by  Donatello  on  the  piazza  del  Santo;  the 
statue  of  Petrarch;  and  the  tomb  of  Antenor,  the 
legendary  founder  of  the  city. 

Padua  (l'alat<ium)  was  the  chief  city  of  the  Veneti, 
who  were  continually  at  war  with  the  Gauls;  the 
Veneti,  therefore,  were  naturally  friends  of  Rome.  In 
302  B.  c.  Cloonymus,  King  of  Sparta,  sailed  up  the  Po 
with  a  part  of  his  fleet;  but  the  Patavians  drove  him 
bai'k  with  severe  loss.  The  city  long  enjoyed  inde- 
pendence, and  obtained  Roman  citizenship  only  in 
49  B.  c.  I'mlcr  the  first  emperors,  Padua  was  one  of 
the  most  heavily-taxed  cities.  It  had  a  flourishing 
wool  industry,  and  its  people  were  famous  for  their 
orderly  conduct.  Latin  literature  also  flourished 
among  them  (Livy,  Ascanius  Pedanius,  Thrasea 
Paetus).  With  the  growth  of  Aquileia  the  importance 
of  Padua  waned;  it  was  destroyed  in  408  by  Alaric, 
in  452  by  Attila,  and 
in  601  by  Agilulfus, 
King  of  the  Lom- 
bards. In  the  tenth 
century  it  was  har- 
assed by  the  Hunga- 
rians, especially  in 
903.  In  1087,  with 
the  consent  of  Henry 
IV,  Padua  made  it- 
self a  free  commune; 
and  in  the  time  of 
Barbarossa  it  was 
among  the  first  cities 
to  establish  the  Lom- 
bard League.  It  was 
at  war  with  \'enice  in 
1110  and  1214;  with 
Vicenza  in  1140,1188, 
and  1201 ;  and  with 
the  Ezzelini.  Ezze- 
lino  IV  succeeded  in 
obtaining  the  sover- 
eignty in  1237.  For 
eighteen  years  he  ex- 
ercised a  most  inhuman  tyranny;  among  his  victims 
was  the  prior  of  Santa  Giustina,  Arnaldus,  who  died 
after  an  imprisonment  of  eight  years.  In  1256  an 
army  of  crusaders,  sent  by  Alexander  IV,  captured  the 
city,  which  Ezzclino  attempted  in  vain  to  recapture. 

The  city  once  more  flourished;  but  internal  discord 
developed  anew,  and  wars  with  neighbours  began 
again,  with  the  result  that  Padua,  following  the  ex- 
ample of  other  cities,  offered  the  lordship  to  Jacopo 
Carrara  in  1318.  In  1320,  however,  Padua  was  com- 
pelled to  receive  an  imperial  vicar;  and  the  attempt  of 
Marsilio  I  of  Carrara,  son  of  Jacopo  (1328),  to  rid  him- 
self of  that  functionary,  turned  only  to  the  advantage  of 
the  Scaligeri  (Alberto  and  Mastino),  which  family  were 
driven  from  Padua  in  1337  by  Marsilio,  succeeded  by 
Ubertino.  The  latter  greatly  increased  the  territory 
of  the  state,  and  was  succeeded  by  Marsilio  II  Papa- 
fava,  and  by  Jacopo  II  (1345)  a  protector  of  letters 
and  of  the  arts,  assassinated  in  1350  by  Gulielmo, 
natural  son  of  Giacomo  I.  Francesco  I,  captain  of 
the  league  against  the  Visconti,  succeeded,  but  was  un- 
successful against  Venice  and  was  compelled  to  accept 
a  humiliating  peace;  in  1378  he  assisted  the  Genoese 
in  the  war  of  Chioggia.  He  was  more  successful, 
however,  against  the  Scaligeri,  from  whom  he  took 
Feltre,  Bclluno,  Treviso,  and  Ceneda  (1384).  His 
son  Francesco  Novello  (1388)  voluntarily  submitted 
to  the  Visconti  of  Milan;  but  was  imprisoned,  to- 
gether with  his  father,  who  had  withdrawn  from  the 
government.  Francesco  Novello  escaped  from  prison, 
and  in  1390  reconquered  Padua;  and  in  1403  he  waged 
war  against  the  Visconti  and  took  Brescia  and  Verona. 
In  1404  he  made  an  attempt  against  Vicenza  that 
brought  upon  him  a  war  with  Venice.  After  a  long 
Biege,  father  and  son  went  to  Venice,  to  obtain  favour- 


able conditions  of  peace,  were  detained  and  put  to  death 
(1405);  the  rule  of  the  Carrara  thus  came  to  an  end, 
and  Padua  fell  to  Venice.  In  1509  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  I  took  the  city  from  the  Venetians;  the 
Venetians  having  retaken  it,  the  town  was  besieged 
again  by  the  imperialists,  who  had  already  taken  a 
bastion,  when  the  explosion  of  a  mine  drove  them 
back;  thenceforth  Padua  followed  the  fortunes  of 
Venice. 

Padua  is  the  birthplace  of:  the  poetess  Isabella  An- 
dreini;  another  poetess  Gaspera  Stampa;  the  jurist 
Jacopo  Zabarella,  his  son  Cardinal  Francesco  Za- 
barella,  and  his  nephew  Bartolommeo;  Ottonello  Des- 
calzo;  the  man  of  letters  Cesarotti;  the  naturalist 
Donati;  the  mechanician  Giacomo  dell'  Orologio;  the 
painters  Francesco  Squarcione  (Paduan  school), 
Stefano  dall'  Arzere;  G.  B.  Bissoni;  Campagnola, 
Girolamo  Padovano; 
Mantegna;  Alessio 
V'arotari  (II  Pado- 
vanino);  the  female 
painter  .  Domenica 
Scanferla;  the  sculp- 
tor Tiziano  Aspetti; 
Blessed  Pellegrino 
Manzoni  (d.  1267); 
Blessed  Compagno 
(d.  1264),  and  of 
Blessed  Cardinal 
Bonaventura  da  Pa- 
duva  (d.  1385). 

P  a  d  u  a  gave  a 
number  of  martyrs 
to  the  Church:  St. 
Ciiustina,  Virgin;  St. 
Da  niel ;  and  the  Bish- 
op Maximus.  The 
first  bishop  is  said 
to  have  been  St. 
Prosdocimus,  who 
cannot  have  gov- 
erned the  diocese 
earlier  than  the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  when 
the  See  of  Milan  was  created,  even  if  Crispinus,  at  the 
Council  of  Sardica  in  347,  was  the  twelfth  Bishop 
of  Padua.  After  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  Attila, 
the  bishops  resided  on  the  island  of  Melamocco, 
and  took  part  in  the  schism  of  The  Three  Chapters; 
Tricidius  (620)  returned  to  Padua,  which  had  again 
grown  up.  Among  the  other  bishops  were  Gauslinus, 
who,  in  964,  found  the  relics  of  the  third  bishop  St. 
Fidentius;  Blessed  Bernardo  Maltraverso  (1031); 
Pietro  (1096),  deposed  by  the  Council  of  Guastalla; 
St.  Bellino  Bertaldo,  killed  in  1147  by  Tommaso 
Capodivacca;  Gerardo  Marostica  (1169),  a  pacifier. 
On  account  of  the  tyranny  of  Ezzclino  IV,  the  see  was 
vacant  from  1239;  Pagano  della  Torre  (11302)  built 
the  episcopal  palace;  Ildebrandino  (1319),  Pontifical 
legate  on  various  occasions;  Pileo  da  Prata  (1359), 
founder  of  the  Collegio  Pratense;  Pietro  Barba  (1448), 
Pope  Paul  II;  Fantino  Dandolo  (1449),  formerly  a 
high  functionary  of  Venice;  Jacopo  Zeno  (1460),  the 
biographer  of  his  uncle  Carlo,  who  commanded  in  the 
war  against  Genoa;  Nicol6  Ormanetto  (1570) ;  Giorgio 
Cornaro  (1697)  held  important  charges  under  the  re- 
public; Carlo  Rezzonico  (1743),  Pope  Clement  XIII; 
Francesco  Scipione  Doni  dall'  Orologio  (1807).  The 
provincial  Synod  of  1350  was  important. 

The  diocese  is  suffragan  of  Venice;  it  has  321 
parishes,  570,200  inhabitants,  1  Catholic  daily  paper, 
and  1  weekly  Catholic  publication. 

Cappelleiti,  Le  Chiese  d'llalia,  X;  Idem.  Sloria  di  Padua  (2 
vols..  1S75-76);  dall'  Orologio,  Dissert,  sopra  Visloria  di  Paaom 
(9  vols.,  I'adua.  Ib02-lsl;i);  Sabtori,  (iuida  star.  ddU  Chiese  di 
Padom  (Padua.  1SS4);  Vehci,  Sloria  deali  Ecelini  (Bassano, 
1779) ;  CiTADELLA.  Sloria  della  dominarione  carrarese  in  Padom  (2 
vols.,  Padua,  1842);  Volkmann,  Padua  ala  Kunststatte  (Leipzig, 
1904).  U.  BeNIONI. 


PADUA 


387 


PADUA 


Universitt  of  Padua  dates,  according  to  some  Jacopo  da  Piacenza,  Lapoda  Castiglionchio,  and  the 

anonymous  chronicles  (Muratori,  "Rer.  Ital.  Script.",  canonist  and  theologian,  Francesco  Zabarella,  after- 

VIII,  371,  421,  4.59,  736),  from  1222,  when  a  part  of  wards  cardinal;   in  medicine,    Bruno  da  Longoburgo, 

the  Studium  of   Bologna,   including  professors  and  Pietro  d'Albano,  Dino  del  Garbo,  Jacopo  and  Gio- 

students,    withdrew    to    Padua.     The    opinion    that  vanni  Dondi  (also  excellent  mechanicians),  Marcilio, 


Frederick  II  transferred  the 
Studium  of  Bologna  to  Padua 
in  1241  is  groundless.  But 
even  before  this  emigration 
there  were  professors  of  law 
at  Padua,  as  Gerardus  Poma- 
dellus  (c.  1165),  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Padua;  further- 
more, his  predecessor,  Bishop 
Carzo,  was  called  sacrorum 
canonum  doctor.  The  con- 
tract proposed  by  the  com- 
mune of  Vercelli  to  the  Hec- 
tors of  the  students  of  Padua 
in  1228  shows  that  besides 
both  laws  and  dialectics,  med- 
icine and  grammar  were  taugh  t 
there.  The  students  were 
divided  into  four  national- 
ities: French,  Italian,  Ger- 
man, and  Provencal.  This 
contract  stipulated  that  all 
or  part  of  the  university  (14 
professors  and  sufficient  stu- 
dents to  occupy  500  houses) 
should  be  transferred  to  Ver- 
celli for  at  least  eight  years. 
The  university,  however,  was 
not  suspended  on  that  account, 
as  is  evident  from  the  Life  of 
St.  Antonio.  But  the  tyranny 
of  Ezzelino   (1237-56)   caused  its  decadence 


Giovanni  and  Guglielmo 
Santa  Sofia,  Jacopo  da  Forle, 
and  Biagio  Pelacani.  Phil- 
osophy was  often  taught,  as 
I'lsewhere,  by  professors  of 
medicine,  mostly  averroists, 
like  Petrus  Aponensis  and 
Mundinus.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished philosophers  who 
were  not  physicians  were 
Pier  Paolo  Vergerio  (1349- 
1414),  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Capo  d'lstria,  a  learned  hu- 
manist and  student  of  antiq- 
uity; the  Franciscan,  An- 
tonio Trombetta,  a  famous 
Scotist.  From  the  fifteenth 
'  I '  1 1 1 1 1  r\-  f  1 11  ■ri  ■  were  in  theology 
111 II I  iiii'i:i|ili\-^ii;-s  two  courses, 
iiiir  'riiiiiiiiviic,  with  profes- 
sors pri'lcrabiy  Dominican, 
and  the  other  Scotist,  with 
professors  chiefly  from  the 
Friars  Minor.  Famous  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  were  the  controver- 
sies between  the  averroist 
Iihilosopher,  Achillini,  and 
the  Alexandrist,  Pietro  Pom- 
ponazzi  (q.  v.).  The  doc- 
^■"•o*  trines  of  the  latter  (who  had 

From     gone  to  Bologna),  especially  on  the  soul  were  opposed, 


1260  it  revived  under  the  commune  which  established  among  others,  by  Agostino  Nifo,  another  professor  of 

the  rights  of  the  professors  and  students,  and  the  philosophy  at  Padua.     The  humanist  Girolamo  Fra- 

salaries  (300  lire  for  legists  and  200  for  canonists) ;  the  castoro  taught  philosophy  there. 

examinations  were  held  before  the  bishop,  who  also  Among  the  professors  of  letters  were:    Rolandino, 

granted  the  teachers'  licences.     In  1274  Padua  had  the  historian  of  Padua  (thirteenth  century),  and  Giovanni 

decrees  of  the  Coun-    ,^^^^^,^^^^     -— ^^^^^^^^    ''''    Ravenna,    friend 

cil    of    Lyons,    equal    ^^^^^^^||^?^W,  ^^Hi^^HI    °^  Petrarch;  the  hu- 

with  the  Universities    '  ^^^^Kb^PSks.  ^V  *     r^^^^^Sfl    m a n  i s t s   Gosparino 

of  Paris  and  Bologna.       ^^^V  ^ft^^i^k^^^  \^^^:M^J^SStKM    Barzizi,    Francisco 

Nicholas  IV  threat-  M^jgfF^^H  ^B  H  fc^'^^tf^B^B  ^^B  ^^BJ  Quirino;  the' Greeks 
ened  to  deprive  Padua  HB^^^^^^'^^M  H  H  ^H  ^H  ^H  ^^Bj^Bl  Demetrio  Chalcocon- 
of  its  Studium,  but  ^PHIB^^^^^^  I  ^H  BL^Rf^^^K^^^H  (lyl^s,  Alessandro 
the  commune  re-  ^^^^^^BB^gjg^;:-?' W  ,**^^^ffl|aMH8BB'"'"^S^^3M  Zenos,  Nicolas  Leo- 
lented,  and  the  Stu-  ^^^fe|^^^^PlH^^^Lli-^^^^S^B^|^|^H  nicos,  Marino  Be- 
dium  acquired  great  ^^^^T^^^^^i^^^^^HflHiBI^^^^^^^^^B  <'''''^'''"<  Pomolo  Am- 
renown,  rivalling  Bo-    ^^^^H    ^^m  j^f^^^^-^V^^Hf^HrBB^^^^I    a.sai'iis,  Nicolo 

in    ^^^^H^  ^^B   ^M  H  ■   ^H'^B^^B  ^^B^^^^l     ('>>l<'"'li>us;  Giovanni 
From    ^^^^H^^^l   ^1  B  I    ^B  ^B  ^B^^^H^^^B 

the    ^^^^^B^^L  IB' B  1 1  ^H  ^H  ^B^^^l^^^^l  ^'''^ 

century    ^^^^^^^^K  ^fr  B  P-r^^V-SK^^^^^^^^^^^I     ^"''''■^"  the 

the  school  of  medicine  H^^^^B?^^^^^  '  ~  ^^^^^^BB^^^B  !i''<-'at  French  Latinist 
was         famous.  The    ^^HSH^&^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H     Marc.  Ant.  Muretus, 

fac-    ^^H^^^H^^^^^^^^M^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B    Justus 
ulty  introduced  Aver-  '^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Bf^^^BI    the  great  Latin  lexi- 
roism   in   philosophy.  Connr  of  the  Universitt,  Padca  cographers      of      the 

The  theological  faculty  was  instituted  by  Urban  V  in  eighteenth  century,  Jacopus  Faciolatus,  and  Egidio 
1363.  In  the  same  year  the  Collegium  Tornaeen.se  Forcellini.  Astronomy,  or  astrology,  was  taught  already 
wasfounded,  the  finst  of  its  kind  in  Padua.  There  were  in  the  fourtnent  li  cent  ury.  The  nio.st  noted  professors 
other  institutes  from  1390,  as  the  college  of  St.  Marco  were,  in  the  fiftei'nih  century,  (Icorg  I'earbach,  and  his 
for  six  medical  students,  the  college  of  Cardinal  Pileo  disciple  .lohann  Miillir,  calliil  Hcgiomontanus;  in  the 
(1420)  for  twenty  (afterwards  twelve)  students.  sixteenth  century,  (Mi.'aiiiii    r.aKisf.'i  Capuano  and 

The  professors  of  this  first  period  included  the  juris-  Gahleo  Galilei,  who  al.^n  i  mulii  Tiicclianics  and  other 
consults,  Alberto  Galeotto,  Guido  Suzzara,  Jacopo  physical  sciences.  Chul  aniun^;  llie  theologians  was 
d'Arena,  Riccardo  Malombra,  Albrado  Ponte,  Ro-  the  French  Dominican  Hyacintlie  Serry  (1698),  who 
lando  Piazzola,  Jacopo  Belvi.sio,  Bartol  Saliceti,  and  introduced  there  the  new  method  of  basing  theology 
the   celebrated    Baldo;    the   canonists,  Ruffino   and     more  on  Scriptural  and  patristic  arguments  than  on 


PAGANISM 


388 


PAGANISM 


philosophical  speculations,  in  which  he  encountered 
much  opposition  from  the  Conventual  Fra  Nicola 
Buico.  Among  the  jurisconsults,  after  the  closing  of 
the  university  (1509-17),  were  the  canonist  Meno- 
chius,  Alciatus,  Lancelotti,  and  Pancirolo,  famous  also 
for  his  knowledge  of  Koman  antiquities. 

A  characteristic  of  the  University  of  Padua,  even  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  was  its  internationalism,  as 
seen  from  t  he  list  of  professors  about  Facciolati ;  it 
was  attended  especially  by  Germans.  When  Venice 
passed  under  Austrian  domination  (1814)  the  univer- 
sity was  tran.sformed,  like  that  of  Pav-ia.  At  present 
it  has  the  ordinary  four  faculties,  besides  a  school  of 
applied  engineering  and  a  school  of  pharmacy  and 
obstetrics.  Various  astronomical  institutes,  bacteri- 
ological, physiological,  hygienic,  and  pathological; 
chemical,  physical,  and  geodetic  laboratories;  an 
anthropological  museum;  a  botanical  garden;  and  an 
astronomical  observatory  complete  the  equipment  of 
the  university.  It  has  128  chairs,  68  professors,  20 
paid,  and  1()7  private,  tutors.  In  1906,  there  was 
established  near  the  university  an  institution  for  the 
education  of  Catholic  young  men.  University  educa- 
tion in  Italy  is  strictly  governmental,  and  without  it 
all  professional  possibilities  are  closed  to  young  men. 
At  some  seats  of  learning.  Catholic  Clubs  were  started 
to  help  them  against  the  peril  to  their  faith  and 
morals,  but  they  failed.  The  small  Pensionata,  situ- 
ated in  the  neighbourhood  of  Padua,  between  the 
Basilica  and  the  church  of  Sta.  Juliana,  was  trans- 
formed into  a  large  estabhshment.  The  students  at- 
tend a  weekly  conference  which  treats  of  points  of 
faith  affecting  modern  conditions  of  life  and  science. 

CoLLE,  Storia  scientifico  IMeraria  dello  Studio  di  Padava  (Padua. 
1824):  Facciolatus,  Fasti  gymnasii  Patavini  (Padua.  1757); 
Favaro.  Lo  Stitdio  di  Padova  e  la  Republica  Veneta  (Venice, 
1889);  Cereni  starici  sulla  R.   Universili  di  Padova  (Padua,  1873). 

U.  Benigni. 

Paganism,  in  the  broadest  sense,  includes  all  re- 
ligions other  than  the  true  one  revealed  by  God,  and, 
in  a  narrower  sense,  all  except  Christianity,  Judaism, 
and  Mohammedanism.  The  term  is  also  used  as  the 
equivalent  of  Polytheism  (q.  v.).  It  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  pagus,  whence  pagani  (i.  e.  those  who  live 
in  the  country),  a  name  given  to  the  country  folk  who 
remained  heathen  after  the  cities  had  become  Chris- 
tian. Various  forms  of  Paganism  are  described  in 
special  articles  (e.  g.  Brahminism,  Buddhism,  Mith- 
raism);  the  present  article  deals  only  w^th  certain  as- 
pects of  Paganism  in  general  which  will  be  helpful 
in  studying  its  details  and  in  judging  its  value. 

I.  Claims  of  Paganism  to  the  Name  of  Religion. 
Influence  on  Public  and  Private  Life. — Histo- 
rians of  religion  usually  as.sume  that  religions  developed 
upwards  from  some  common  germ  which  they  call 
Totemism,  Animism,  Solar  or  Astral  Myth,  Nature 
Worship  in  general  or  Agrarian  in  particular,  or  some 
other  name  implying  a  systematic  interpretation  of  the 
facts.  We  do  not  propose  to  discuss,  theologically, 
philosophically,  or  even  historically,  the  underlying 
unity,  or  universal  originating  cause,  of  all  religions,  if 
any  such  there  be.  History  as  a  matter  of  fact  presents 
us  in  each  case  with  a  religion  already  existing,  and  in 
a  more  or  le.ss  complicated  form.  Somewhere  or  other, 
some  one  of  the  human  elements  offered  as  universal, 
necessary,  and  sufficient  germ  of  the  developed  religion, 
can,  of  course,  be  found.  But  we  would  point  out  that, 
in  the  long  run,  this  element  was  not  rarely  a  cause  of 
degeneration,  not  progress;  of  lower  forms  of  cult  and 
creed,  not  pure  Monotheism.  Thus  it  is  almost  cer- 
tain that  Totemism  went  for  much  in  the  formation 
of  the  Egyptian  religion.  The  animal-standards  of 
the  tribesj  gradually  and  partially  anthropomorphized, 
created  the  jackal-,  ibia-,  hawk-headed  gods  familiar 
to  us.  But  there  is  no  real  trace  of  the  evolution  from 
Zoolatry  to  Polytheism,  and  thence  to  Monotheism. 
The  monotheistic  records  are  more  sublime,   more 


definite  in  the  earlier  dynasties.  Atum,  the  object  of  a 
superb  worship,  has  no  animal  equivalent.  lOvcn  the 
repression  of  popular  follies  by  a  learned  ofTicial  c:uste 
failed  to  check  the  tendency  towards  gro.ss  and  un- 
paralleled Zoolatry,  which  was  food  for  Roman  ridi- 
cule and  Greek  bewilderment,  and  stirred  the  author 
of  Wisdom  (xi,  16)  to  indignation  (Lorct,  "L'Kgypte 
au  temps  du  totemisme",  Paris,  1906;  Cappart  in 
"Rev.  d'hist.  relig.",  LI,  190.5,  p.  192;  Clement  Alex., 
"Pird.",  Ill,  ii,  4;  Diodorus  Siculus,  I,  Ixxxiv;  Juvenal, 
"Satires",  xv). 

Animism  also  entered  largely  into  the  religions  of 
the  Semites.  Hence,  we  are  taught,  came  Polydx- 
monism.  Polytheism,  Monotheism.  This  is  not  cor- 
rect. Polyda;monism  is  undoubtedly  a  system  born 
of  belief  in  spirits,  be  these  the  souls  of  the  dead  or  the 
hidden  forces  of  nature.  It  "never  exists  alone  and 
is  not  a  'religious'  sentiment  at  all":  it  is  not  a  degen- 
erate form  of  Polytheism  any  more  than  its  undevel- 
oped antecedent.  Animism,  which  is  really  a  naive 
philosophy,  played  an  immense  part  in  the  formation 
of  mythologies,  and,  combined  with  an  already  con- 
scious monotheistic  belief,  undoubtedly  gave  rise  to 
the  complex  forms  of  both  Polyda-monism  and  Poly- 
theism. And  these,  in  every  Semitic  nation  save 
among  the  Hebrews,  defeated  even  such  efforts  as 
were  made  (e.  g.  in  Babylon  and  Assyria)  to  reconsti- 
tute or  achieve  that  Monotheism  of  which  Animism 
is  offered  as  the  embryo.  These  facts  are  clearly  indi- 
cated and  summed  up  in  Lagrange's  "Etudes  sur  les 
Religions  sfimitiques"  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1904). 

Nature  Worship  generally,  and  Agrarian  in  particu- 
lar, were  unable  to  fulfil  the  promise  they  appeared  to 
make.  The  latter  was  to  a  large  extent  responsible  for 
the  Tammuz  cult  of  Babylon,  with  which  the  worships 
of  Adonis  and  Attis,  and  even  of  Dionysus,  are  so 
unmistakably  allied.  Much  might  have  been  hoped 
from  these  religions  with  their  yearly  festival  of  the 
dying  and  rising  god,  and  his  sorrowful  .sister  or 
spouse:  yet  it  was  precisely  in  these  cults  that  the 
worst  perversions  existed.  Ishtar,  Astarte,  and  Cy- 
bele  had  their  male  and  female  prostitutes,  their 
Galli:  Josiah  had  to  cleanse  the  temple  of  Yahweh  of 
their  booths  (cf.  the  Qedishim  and  Kelabim,  Deut., 
xxiii,  17;  II  Kings,  xxiii,  7;  cf.  I  Kings,  xiv,  24;  xv,  12), 
and  even  in  the  Greek  world,  where  prostitution  was 
not  else  regarded  as  religious,  Eryx  and  Corinth  at 
least  were  contaminated  by  Semitic  influence,  which 
Greece  could  not  correct.  "Although  the  story  of 
Aphrodite's  love",  says  Dr.  Farnell,  "is  human  in 
tone  and  very  winning,  yet  there  are  no  moral  or 
spiritual  ideas  in  the  worship  at  all,  no  conception  of  a 
resurrection  that  might  stir  human  hojies.  Adonis 
personifies  merely  the  life  of  the  fields  and  gardens 
that  passes  away  and  blooms  again.  .\11  tliat  Hellen- 
ism could  do  for  this  Eastern  god  was  to  invest  him 
with  the  grace  of  idyUic  poetrv"  ("Cults  of  the  Greek 
States",  II,  649,  1896-1909;  cf.  Lagrange,  op.  cit., 
220,  444  etc.) 

Mithraism  (q.  v.)  is  usually  regarded  as  a  rival  to 
nascent  Christianity;  but  Nature  Worship  ruined  its 
hopes  of  perpetuity.  "Mithra  remained",  .says  S. 
Dill,  "inextricably  linked  with  the  nature-worship 
of  the  past."  This  connexion  cleft  between  it  and 
purer  faiths  "an  impassable  gulf  "  which  meant  its  "in- 
evitable defeat"  ("Roman  Soc.  from  Nero  to  Aurel.", 
London,  1904,  pp.  622  sqq.),  and,  "in  place  of  a  di- 
vine life  instinct  with  human  sympathy,  it  had  only 
to  offer  the  coUl  svmbolism  of  a  cosmic  legend  "  (ibid.). 
Its  very  ada])t:ibility,  M.  Cumont  reminds  us,  "pre- 
vented it  from  shaking  itself  free  from  the  gross  or 
ridiculous  superstitions  which  complicated  its  ritual 
and  theology;  it  was  involved,  in  spite  of  its  austerity, 
in  a  questionable  alliance  with  the  orgiastic  cult  of 
the  mistress  of  Attis,  and  was  obliged  to  drag  behind  it 
all  the  weight  of  a  chimerical  or  hateful  past .  The  tri- 
umph oi  Roman  Mazdeism  would  not  only  have  en- 


PAGANISM 


389 


PAGANISM 


sured  the  perpetuity  of  all  the  aberrations  of  pagan 
mysticism,  but  of  the  erroneous  physical  science  on 
which  its  dogma  rested."  We  have  here  an  indica- 
tion why  religions,  into  wliich  the  astral  element 
entered  largely,  were  intrinsically  doomed.  The  di- 
vine stars  that  ruled  life  were  themselves  subject 
to  absolute  law.  Hence  relentless  Fatalism  or  final 
Scepticism  for  those  sufficiently  educated  to  see  the 
logical  results  of  their  mechanical  interpretation  of 
the  universe;  hence  the  discrediting  of  myth,  the  aban- 
donment of  cult,  as  mendacious  and  useless;  hence  the 
silencing  of  oracle,  ecstasy,  and  prayer;  but,  for  the 
vulgar,  a  riot  of  superstition,  the  door  new  opened  to 
magic  which  shoukl  coerce  the  stars,  the  cult  of  hell, 
and  honour  for  its  ministers — things  all  descending 
into  the  Satanism  and  witchcraft  of  not  unrecent  days. 
Even  the  supreme  and  solar  cult  reached,  not  Mono- 
theism, but  a  splendid  Pantheism.  A  sublime  phil- 
osophy, a  gorgeous  ritual,  the  support  of  the  earthly 
Monocracy  which  mirrored  that  of  heaven,  a  liturgy 
of  incomparable  solemnity  and  passionate  mysticism, 
a  symbolism  so  pure  and  high  as  to  cause  endless  con- 
fusion in  the  troubled  mind  of  the  dying  Roman  Em- 
pire between  Sun-worship  and  the  adorers  of  the  Sun 
of  Righteousness — all  this  failed  to  counteract  the 
aboriginal  lie  which  left  God  still  linked  essentially  to 
creation.  (See  F.  Cumont,  "Les  rehgions  orientales 
dans  le  paganisme  romain",  2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1909,  es- 
pecially cc.  V,  vii-viii;  "Le  mysticisms  astral",  Brus- 
sels, 1909,  invaluable  for  references  and  bibliography; 
"Textes  et  Monuments  .  .  .  relatifs  aux  Mysteres  de 
Mithra",  1, 1899,  II,  1896 ; "  Th^ol.  solaire  du  paganLsme 
rom.",  Paris,  1909.)  We  do  not  hint  that  these  ele- 
ments which  have  been  assigned  as  the  origin  of  an 
upward  revolution  have  always,  or  only,  been  a  cause 
of  degeneration:  it  is  important  to  note,  however,  that 
they  have  been  at  times  a  germ  of  death  as  truly  as  of 
life. 

II.  Social  Aspect. — Christianity  first  and  alone 
of  religions  has  preached,  as  one  of  its  central  doc- 
trines, the  value  of  the  individual  soul.  What  natural 
religion  already,  but  ineffectually  implied,  Christian- 
ity asserted,  reinforced,  and  transmuted.  The  same 
human  nature  is  responsible  at  once  for  the  admirable 
kindnesses  of  the  pagan,  and  for  the  deplorable 
cruelties  of  Christian  men,  or  groups,  or  epochs;  the 
pagan  religions  did  little,  if  anything,  to  preserve  or 
develop  the  former,  Christianity  waged  ceaseless  battle 
against  the  latter.  As  for  woman,  the  promiscuity 
which  is  the  surest  sign  of  her  degradation  never  ex- 
isted as  a  general  or  stable  characteristic  of  primitive 
folk.  In  China  and  Japan,  Buddhism  and  Confucian- 
ism depressed,  not  succoured  her;  in  ancient  Egypt, 
her  position  was  far  higher  than  in  late;  it  was  high 
too  among  the  Teutons.  Even  in  historic  Greece  as  in 
Rome,  divorce  was  difficult  and  disgraceful,  and  mar- 
riage was  hedged  about  with  an  elaborate  legislation 
anil  the  sanctions  of  religion.  The  glimpses  we  have 
of  ancient  matriarchates  speak  much  for  the  older, 
honourable  position  of  women;  their  peculiar  festivals 
(as  in  Greece,  of  the  Thesmophoria  and  Arrephoria; 
in  Rome,  of  the  Bona  Dea)  and  certain  worships,  as  of 
the  local  K6pai  or  of  Isis,  kept  their  sex  within  the 
sphere  of  religion.  As  long,  however,  as  their  intrinsic 
value  before  God  was  not  realized,  the  brute  strength 
of  the  male  inevitably  asserted  itself  against  their 
weakness;  even  Plato  and  Aristotle  regarded  them 
more  as  living  instruments  than  as  human  souls;  in 
high  tragedy  (an  Alcestis,  an  Antigone)  or  history  (a 
Cloelia,  a  Camilla),  there  is  no  figure  which  can  at  all 
compare,  for  religious  and  moral  influence,  with  a  Sara, 
a  Rachel,  an  Estlier,  or  a  Deborah.  It  is  love  for 
mother,  rather  than  for  wife,  that  Paganism  acknowl- 
edges (see  J.  Donald.son,  "Woman  in  anc.  Greece  and 
Rome,  etc.  .  .  .  among  the  early  Christians",  London,  ■ 
1907;  C.  S.  Devas,  "Studiesof  Family  Life",  London, 
1886;  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  "Gynaceum",  etc.). 


Essentially  connected  with  the  fate  of  women  is 
that  of  children.  Their  charm,  pathos,  possibilities 
had  touched  the  pagan  (Homer,  Euripides,  Vergil, 
Horace,  Statins),  even  the  claim  of  their  innocence 
to  respect  (Juvenal).  Yet  too  often  they  were  con- 
sidered merely  as  toys  or  the  destined  support  of  their 
parents,  or  as  the  hope  of  the  State.  With  Christian- 
ity, each  becomes  a  soul,  infinitely  precious  for  God's 
sake  and  its  own.  Each  has  its  heavenly  guardian, 
and  for  each  death  is  better  than  loss  of  innocence. 
Education,  in  the  fullest  sense,  was  created  by  Chris- 
tianity. The  elaborate  schemes  of  Aristotle  and 
Plato  are  subordinated  to  state  interest.  Though 
based  upon  "sacred"  books,  education  in  ancient 
times,  when  organized,  found  these  highly  mythologi- 
cal, as  in  Greece  or  Rome,  or  rationalized,  as  in  Confu- 
cian spheres  of  influence.  Both  Greeks  and  Romans 
attached  great  importance  to  a  complete  education, 
supported  it  with  state  patronage  (the  Ptolemies), 
state  initiative  and  direction  (the  Antonines),  and 
conceived  for  it  high  ideals  (the  "turning  of  the  soul's 
eye  towards  the  Hght",  Plato,  "Republic",  515  b); 
yet,  failing  to  appreciate  the  value  of  the  individual 
soul,  they  made  education  in  fact  merely  utilitarian, 
the  formation  of  a  citizen  being  barely  more  complete 
than  under  the  narrow  and  rigid  systems  of  Sparta 
and  Crete.  The  restriction,  in  classical  Greece,  of  ed- 
ucation among  women  to  the  Hetairai  is  a  fact  signifi- 
cant of  false  ideal  and  disastrous  in  results  (J.  B. 
Mahaffy,  "Old  Gk.  Educ",  London,  1881;  S.  S. 
Laurie,  "Historical  Survey  of  Pre-Christian  Educ", 
London,  1900;  L.  Grasberger,  "Erziehung  u.  Unter- 
richt  im  klass.  Alterum",  Wiirzburg,  1864-81;  G. 
Boissier,  "L'instruct.  publiquc  dans  I'cmpire  romain." 
in  "Rev.  de  Deux  Mondes",  March,  1884;  J.  P. 
Rossignol,  "De  I'educ.  des  hommes  et  des  femmes 
chez  les  anciens",  Paris,  1888). 

Error  in  education  was  conditioned,  we  saw,  by  er- 
ror of  political  ideal.  No  doubt,  all  the  older  polities 
were  sanctioned  directly  by  religion.  The  local  god 
and  the  local  ruler  were,  for  the  Semites,  each  a  nielek 
(king),  a  baal  (proprietor),  and  their  attributes  and 
qualification  almost  fused.  Or,  the  ruling  dynasty 
descended  remotely,  or  immediately,  from  a  god  or 
hero,  making  the  king  divine;  so  tlie  Mikado,  the 
Ionian  and  Doric  overlords.  Especially  the  Orient 
went  this  way,  most  notably  Egypt.  The  Chinese 
emperor  alone  might  pray  to  the  Sublime  Ruler  whose 
son  he  was.  Rome  deifies  herself  and  her  governors, 
and  the  emperor-cult  dominates  army  and  province, 
and  welds  together  aristocracy  and  the  masses  (J.  G. 
Frazer,  "Early  Hist,  of  the  Kingship",  London,  1905; 
Maspero,  "Comment  Alex,  devint  Dieu  en  Egyptc"; 
Cumont,  "Textes  et  Monuments  de  Mithra",  I,  p.  ii,  c. 
iii;  J.Toutain,  "Cultespaiens  dans  I'emp. rom.",  I,  Pa- 
ris, 1907).  It  is  hard  to  judge  of  the  practical  effects; 
obviously  autocracy  profited,  the  development  of  obe- 
dience, loyalty,  courage  in  the  governed  (Rome; 
Japan)  being  undoubted.  Yet  the  system  reposed 
upon  a  lie.  The  scandals  of  the  court,  the  familiari- 
ties of  the  camp,  the  inevitable  accidents  of  human 
life,  dulled  the  halo  of  the  god-king.  Far  more  stable 
were  the  organizations  resulting  from  the  subtle 
polities  devised  by  Greek  experiment  and  speculation, 
and  embodied  in  Roman  law.  Aristotle's  political 
philosophy,  almost  designed — as  Plato's  frankly  was — 
for  the  city  state,  was  carried  on  through  the  Stoic 
vision  of  the  City  of  Zeus,  of  world- empire,  into  the 
concrete  majesty  of  Rome,  which  was  itself  to  ,oass, 
when  confronted  in  Christianity  with  that  individual 
conscience  it  would  not  recognize,  into  the  Civilas  Dei 
of  an  Augustine.  Aristotle  and  Plato  survived  in 
Aquinas,  the  Stoic  \'ision  in  Dante;  Gregory  VII  re- 
produced, in  his  age  and  manner,  the  effective  work 
of  an  Augustus.  And  of  it  all  the  .soiil  was  that  King- 
dom, Hebrew-horn,  which,  siiiritualizcd  by  Christ  and 
preached  by  Paul,  has  been  a  far  mightier  force  for  civ- 


PAGANISM 


390 


PAGANISM 


ilization  than  ever  was  the  iriXis  of  the  Greeks.  As 
long  as  the  ultimate  source  of  authority,  the  inalien- 
able rights  of  conscience,  and  the  equality  of  all  in  a 
Divine  sonship  were  unrealized,  no  true  solution  of  the 
antinomy  of  state  and  individual,  such  as  Paul  could 
offer  (Rom.,  xiii  etc.)  was  possible.  [Cf.  E.  Barker, 
"Polit.  Thought  of  Plato  and  Aristotle",  London, 
1906,  esp.  pp.  237-50,  281-91,  119-61,  497-515;  G. 
^lurray,  "Rise  of  the  Gk.  Epic",  Cambridge,  1907; 
P.  Allard,  "Ten  Lectures  on  the  Martyrs",  tr.  (Lon- 
don, 1907);  Idem,  "Les  Persecutions"  (Paris,  1885- 
90);  Sir  W.  Ramsay's  books  on  St.  Paul,  esp.  "Pauline 
Studies"  (London,  1906);  "Paul  the  Traveller" 
(1897);  "Ancient  Iving  Worship",  C.  C.  Lattey,  S.J., 
English  C.T.S.] 

In  these  systems,  the  weakest  necessarily  went  to 
the  wall.  Even  the  good  Greek  legislation  on  behalf 
of  orphans,  wards,  the  aged,  parents,  and  the  like;  even 
the  admirable  instinct  of  aidus  which  shielded  the  de- 
fenceless, the  suppliant,  the  stranger,  the  "stricken  of 
God  and  afflicted",  could  not  (c.  g.)  stop  the  exposi- 
tion of  sickly  or  deformed  infants  (defended  even  by 
Plato),  or  render  poverty  not  ridiculous,  suffering  not 
merely  ugly,  death  not  defiling.  Yet  the  sober  re- 
ligion of  the  Avesta  preaches  charity  and  hospitality, 
and  these,  the  latter  especially,  were  recognized  Greek 
virtues.  In  proportion  as  travel  widened  minds,  and 
ideals  became  cosmopolitan,  the  barbarian  became  a 
brother;  under  the  Antonines  charity  became  official 
and  organized.  Always,  in  the  Greek  world,  the 
temples  of  jEsculapius  were  hospices  for  the  sick.  Yet 
all  this  is  as  different  in  motive,  and  therefore  in  prac- 
tical effect,  from  the  "mutual  ministry  of  love"  oblig- 
atory within  the  great  family  of  God's  children,  as 
is  the  counterpart  of  Christian  self-sacrifice,  Buddhist 
Altruism.  (Cf.  L.  de  la  V.  Poussin,  "Bouddhisme", 
Paris,  1909,  especially  pp.  7-8,  where  he  quotes  Olden- 
berg,  "Buddhismusu.christlicheLiebe"  in  "Deutsche 
Rundschau",  1908,  and  "Orientalischen  Relig.",  pp. 
58,  266  sqq.,  275  sqq.)  In  slavery,  of  course,  a  chasm 
is  cleft  between  Paganism  and  Christianity.  By  pro- 
claiming the  rights  of  conscience  and  the  brotherhood 
of  men,  Christianity  did  for  the  slave  what  could 
never  have  been  accomplished  by  demanding  the  in- 
stant and  universal  abolition  of  slavery,  thereby  risk- 
ing the  dislocation  of  society.  In  Christ,  a  new  rela- 
tion of  master  to  man  springs  up  (I  Cor.,  vii,  21;  I 
Tim.,  vi,  2) :  the  Epistle  to  Philemon  becomes  possible. 
Yet  w'hile  it  is  true  that  in  many  ways  the  slave's  lot 
might  be  miserable  (the  ergaslulum),  and  inhuman 
(the  Roman  slave  might  technically  not  marry),  and 
immoral  (Petronius:  "nil  turpe  quod  dominus  jubet"), 
yet  here  too,  human  nature  has  risen  above  its  own  phi- 
losophies, laws,  and  conventions.  Kindness  increases 
steadily :  even  Cato  was  kind ;  social  motives  ( Horace) , 
philosophical  considerations  (Seneca),  sheer  legisla- 
tion (already  under  Augustus),  devotion  (at  Delphi, 
slaves  are  manumitted  to  Apollo:  contrast  the  beauti- 
ful Christian  emancipation  in  Ennodius,  P.  L.,  LXIII, 
257;  sentiment,  and  even  law  protected  the  slaves' 
tomb  or  loculus)  answered  the  promptings  of  gentle 
hearts.  The  contubernium  became  parallel  to  mar- 
riage; nationality  never  of  itself  meant  slavery;  edu- 
cation could  make  friends  of  master  and  man  ("loco 
filii  habitus",  says  one  in.scription) ;  Seneca  general- 
izes: "homo  res  sacra  homini;  servi,  humiles  amici." 
But  not  all  the  sense  of  the  "dignity  of  man",  taught 
by  the  Roman  comedians  and  philosophers,  could  sup- 
ply even  the  emancipating  priuciplfs,  far  less  the  force, 
of  Christian  equality  in  the  service  of  God  and  the 
fellowship  of  Christ  (H.  A.  Wallon,  "Hist,  de  I'Esclav- 
age  de  l'.\ntiq.",  Paris,  1847;  Bocckh,  "Staatshaus- 
haltung  d.  Athener.",  I,  13;  C.  S.  Devas,  "Key  en." 
(1906),  143-150  and  c.  v;  P.  Allard,  "Les  Esclaves 
chr6t.",  Paris,  1876;  G.  Boissier,  "Relig.  romaine", 
II,  Paris,  1892). 

III.   Abt   and   Ritdal.  —  Omnia  plena  dco:    the 


nearer  God  is  realized  to  be,  the  richer  the  efflores- 
cence of  religious  art  and  ritual;  and  the  purer  the 
concept  of  His  nature,  the  nobler  the  sense-worship 
that  greets  it.  Hence  the  world's  grandest  art  has 
grown  round  Christ's  Real  Presence,  though  Christ 
said  no  word  of  art.  Thus,  heresy  has  always  been 
iconoclastic;  the  distant  God  of  Puritanism,  the  dis- 
incarnate  Allah  of  Islam  must  be  worshipped,  but 
not  in  beauty.  To  Hindus,  gods  were  near,  but 
vile;  and  their  art  went  mad.  To  the  Greeks,  save 
to  a  smaller  band  of  mystics,  whose  enthusiasm 
annihilated  external  beauty  in  the  effort  after  spirit- 
ual loveliness,  all  comeliness  was  bodily;  hence  the 
splendid  soulless  statues  of  gods  (though  for  a  few 
choice  perceptions — Pausanias,  Plutarch — the  Olym- 
pian Zeus  had  "expression",  and  conveyed  divine 
significance);  hence  their  treatment  of  the  inanimate 
beauty  of  Nature  was  far  less  successful  and  profound 
than  was  that  of  the  austere  Hebrew,  to  whom,  in  his 
struggle  against  nature  worship  and  idolatry,  plastic 
art  was  forbidden,  but  whose  nature-psalms  rise  higher 
than  anything  in  Greek  literature.  The  pure  new 
spirit  breathing  in  the  art  of  the  Catacombs  disguises 
from  us,  at  first,  that  its  categories  are  all  pagan — 
though  in  human  models  little  was  directly  borrowed, 
the  Orpheus,  Hercules,  Aristeas  type  are  given  to 
Christ;  strange  symbols  (the  disguised  cross,  the  dol- 
phin speared  on  trident)  occur  sporadically;  "pagan" 
sarcophagi  were  doubtless  bought  direct  from  pa- 
gan warehouses;  most  startlingly  is  the  difference 
felt  in  the  spiritual  treatment  by  early  Christian 
Art  of  the  nude  (E.  Muntz,  "Etudes  s.  I'hist.  de  la 
peinture  et  de  I'iconographie  chretienne",  Paris,  1886; 
A.  Pirate,  " L'archeologie  chret.",  Paris,  1892;  Wil- 
pert," Roma  Sotteranea:lepitture,  etc.",  Rome,  1903). 
Christian  ritual  developed  when,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, the  Church  left  the  Catacombs.  Many  forms 
of  self-expression  must  needs  be  identical,  in  varying 
times,  places,  cults,  as  long  as  human  nature  is  the 
same.  Water,  oil,  light,  incense,  singmg,  procession, 
prostration,  decoration  of  altars,  vestments  of  priests, 
are  naturally  at  the  service  of  universal  religious  in- 
stinct. Little  enough,  however,  was  directly  bor- 
rowed by  the  Church — nothing,  without  being  "bap- 
tized", as  was  the  Pantheon.  In  all  these  things,  the 
spirit  is  the  essential:  the  Church  assimilates  to  her- 
self what  she  takes,  or,  if  she  cannot  adapt,  she  rejects 
it  (cf.  Augustine,  Epp.,  xlvii,  3,  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII, 
185;  "Contra  Fau.st.",  XX,  xxiii,  ibid.,  XLII,  387; 
Jerome,  "Epp.",  cix,  ibid.,  XXII,  907).  Even  pagan 
feasts  may  be  "baptized":  certainly  our  processions  of 
25  April  are  the  Robigalia;  the  Rogation  days  may  re- 
place the  Ambarualia;  the  date  of  Christmas  Day  may 
be  due  to  the  same  instinct  which  placed  on  25  Dec., 
the  Natalis  Invicti  of  the  solar  cult.  But  there  is  little 
of  this ;  our  wonder  is,  that  there  is  not  far  more  [see  Kell- 
ner,  "Heortologie"  (Freiburg,  1906).  See  Christmas; 
Epiphany.  Also  Thurston,  "Influence  of  Paganism 
on  theChristian  Calendar  "in  "Month"  (1907),  pp.  225 
sqq. ; Duchesne,  "Orig.  du  Culte  chr(5tien",tr.  (London, 
1910)passim;  Braun,  "Die  priestlichen  Gewiinder  " 
(Freiburg,  1897);  Idem,  "DiepontificalenGewander" 
(Freiburg,  1898);  Rouse,  "Greek  Votive  OfTerings  " 
(Cambridge,  1902),  esp.  e.  v].  The  cult  of  saints  and 
relics  is  based  on  natural  instinct  and  sanctioned  by 
the  lives,  death,  and  tombs  (in  the  first  instance)  of 
martyrs,  and  by  the  dogma  of  the  Communion  of 
Saints;  it  is  not  developed  from  definite  instances  of 
hero-worship  as  a  general  rule,  tlujugh  often  a  local 
martyr-cult  was  purposely  instituted  to  defeat  (e.  g.) 
an  oracle  tenacious  of  pagan  life  (P.  (!.,  L,  551 ;  P.  L., 
LXXI,  831;  Newman,  "E.s.sayon  Development,  etc.", 
II, cc.  ix,xii.,  etc.;  Anrich,  "Anfangdcs  Heiligenkults, 
etc.",  Tubingen,  1904;  especially  Delehaye,  "h6- 
gendeshagiographiques,"  Brussels,  1906).  Augustine 
and  Jerome  (Ep.  cii,  8,  in  P.  L.,  XXXIII,  377;  "C. 
Vigil.",  vii,  ibid.,  XXXIII,  361)  mark  wise  tolerance' 


PAGANISM 


391 


PAGANISM 


Duchesne  ["Hist,  anpicnne  do  \'6g\\se",  I  (Rome, 
1908),  640;  ef .  Sozomen,  "  Hist,  eccl."  VII,  xx,  in  P.  G., 
LXVII,  1480]  reminds  us  of  the  occasional  necessary 
repression:  Gregory,  writing  for  Augustine  of  Canter- 
bury, fixes  the  Church's  principle  and  practice  (Bede, 
"Hist,  eccl.",  I,  XXX,  xxxii,  in  P.  L.,  XCV,  70,  72). 
Reciprocal  influence  there  may  to  some  small  extent 
have  been;  it  must  have  been  slight,  and  quite  possibly 
felt  upon  the  pagan  side  not  least.  All  know  how 
Julian  tried  to  remodel  a  pagan  hierarchy  on  the 
Christian  (P.  AUard,  "  Julien  I'Apostat",  Paris,  1900). 

IV.  Morality,  Ascesis,  My.sticism. — For  an  ap- 
preciation of  pagan  religions  in  themselves,  and  for  an 
estimate  of  their  pragmatic  value  in  life,  it  should  be 
noted  that,  in  proportion  as  a  pagan  religion  caught 
glimpses  of  high  spiritual  flights,  of  ecstacy,  penance, 
otherworldliness,  the  "heroic",  it  opened  the  gates 
of  all  sorts  of  moral  cataclysms.  A  frugi  retigio  was 
that  of  Numa:  the  old  Roman  in  his  worship  was 
cautissimus  el  castissimus.  For  him,  Servus  says,  re- 
ligion and  fear  {  =  awe)  went  close  together.  Pieias 
was  a  species  of  justice  (filial,  no  doubt),  but  never 
superslUio.  The  ordinary  man  "put  the  whole  of  re- 
ligion in  doing  thi7igs",  veiling  his  head  in  presence  of 
the  mode.st,  featureless  numinn,  who  filled  his  world 
and  (as  their  adjective-names  show — Vaticanus,  Ar- 
gentarius,  Domiduca)  presided  over  each  sub-section 
of  his  life.  Later  the  Roman  virtues,  Fides,  Castilas, 
Virtus  (manliness),  were  canonized,  but  religion  was 
already  becoming  stereotyped,  and  therefore  doomed 
to  crumble,  though  to  the  end  the  volatile  Greeks 
(rraiSes  dti)  marvelled  at  its  stability,  dignity,  and 
decency.  So  too  the  high  abstractions  of  the  Gath&s 
(Moral  Law,  Good  Spirit,  Prudent  Piety  etc.,  the 
Amesha-spentas  of  the  Avesta  to  be — Obedience, 
Silent  Submission,  and  the  rest),  especially  the  enor- 
mous value  set  by  Persian  ethic  upon  Truth  (a  virtue 
dear  to  Old  Rome),  witness  to  lives  of  sober,  quiet 
citizenship,  generous,  laborious,  unimaginative,  just 
to  God  and  man.  Exactly  opposite,  and  disastrous, 
were  the  tendencies  of  the  idealistic  Hindu,  losing 
himself  in  dreams  of  Pantheism,  self-annihilation,  and 
divine  union.  Especially  the  worship  of  Vishnu  (god 
of  divine  grace  and  devotion),  of  Krishna  (the  god 
so  strangely  assimilated  by  modern  tendency  to 
Christ),  and  of  Siva  (whence  Saktism  and  Tantrism) 
ran  riot  into  a  helpless  licence,  which  must  modify,  one 
feels,  the  whole  national  destiny.  We  cannot  pass 
conventional  judgments  on  these  aberrations.  It  is 
easily  conceded  that  pagans  constantly  lived  better 
than  their  creed,  or,  anyhow,  than  their  myth;  blind 
terrors,  faulty  premisses,  warped  traditions  originated, 
preserved,  or  distorted  customs  pardonable  when  we 
know  their  history:  astounding  contradictions  co- 
exist (the  ritual  murders  and  prostitution  of  Assyria, 
together  with  the  high  moral  sense  revealed  in  the  self- 
examination  of  the  second  Shurpii  tablet;  the  sancti- 
fied incest  and  gross  myth  of  Egypt,  with  the  superb 
negative  Confession  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead).  Even 
in  Greece,  the  terrifying  survivals  of  the  old  clithonic 
cults,  the  unmoral  influence  (for  the  most  part)  of  the 
Olympian  deities,  the  unexacting  and  far  more  popu- 
lar cult  of  local  or  favourite  hero  (Herakles,  Asklepios), 
are  subordinate  to  the  essential  instincts  of  aldus,  Situs, 
i>i/x«ns  (so  well  analysed  by  G.  Murray,  op.  cit.),  with 
their  taboos  and  categorical  imperatives,  reflected 
back,  as  by  necessity,  to  the  expressed  will  of  God. 
The  religion  of  the  ordinary  man  is  perfectly  and  fi- 
nally expressed  in  Plato's  sketch  of  Cephalus  (Re- 
public, init.),  whose  instincts  and  traditions  had  car- 
ried him,  at  life's  close,  to  a  goal  practically  identical 
with  that  achieved  by  the  philosophers  at  the  end  of 
their  laborious  inquiry. 

All  asceticism  is,  however,  founded  on  a  certain 
Dualism.  In  Persia,  beyond  all  others  dualist,  the 
fight  between  Light  and  Darkness  was  noble  and  fruit- 
ful till  it  ran  out  into  Manichajism  and  its  debased 


allies.  Certainly,  from  the  East  came  much  of  the 
mystic  Dualism,  enjoining  penance,  focusing  atten- 
tion beyond  the  grave,  preconizing  purity  of  all  sorts 
(even  that  abstention  from  thought  which  leads  to 
ecstacy),  which  inspired  Orphism,  Pythagoreanism 
etc.,  and  transfused  the  Mysteries.  Till  Plato,  these 
notions  achieved  no  high  literary  success.  jEschylus 
preaches  a  sublime  gospel:  his  austere  series — Wealth, 
Self-sufficiency,  Insolence,  God-sent  Infatuation,  Ruin 
— has  echoes  of  Hebrew  prophecy  and  anticipates 
the  "Exercises";  yet  even  his  stern  Spd^avTi  TaSeTi' \s 
calmed  into  the  TraBttv  ij.a6oi — a  true  wisdom,  repose, 
reconciliation.  Even  in  this  life  Sophocles  sees  high 
laws  living  eternally  in  serene  heaven,  a  joy  for  men  of 
obedience.  Euripides,  in  the  chaos  of  his  scepticism, 
lives  in  angry  bewilderment,  not  knowing  where  to 
place  his  ideal,  since  Aphrodite  and  Artemis  and  the 
other  world-forces  are,  for  him,  essentially  at  war. 
It  is  in  Plato,  far  better  than  in  the  nihilist  asceticisms 
of  the  East,  that  the  note — not  even  yet  quite  true — 
of  asceticism  is  struck.  The  body  is  our  tomb  (a-urfia, 
ir^fia);  we  must  strip  ourselves  of  the  leaden  weights, 
the  earthy  incrustations  of  life:  the  true  life  is  an  exer- 
cise in  death,  a  ofiotoKns  t(?  fle^!,  as  far  as  may  be;  like 
the  swans  we  sing  when  dying,  "going  away  to  God", 
whose  servants  we  are;  "death  dawns",  and  we  owe 
sacrifice  to  the  Healer-hero  for  the  cure  of  life's 
fitful  fever;  "I  have  flown  away",  (the  Orphic  magic 
tablets  will  cry)  "from  the  sorrowful  weary  wheel"  of 
existences. 

Directly  after  Plato,  the  schools  are  coloured  by  his 
thought,  if  not  its  immediate  heirs.  Stoic  and  Epicu- 
rean really  aimed  at  one  thing  when  they  preached  their 
dwddeia  and  arapa^la,  respectively  'Ai'^x""  ™'  ajr^x"":  be 
the  a.vTdpxvi,  master  of  your  self  and  fate.  In  Roman 
days  of  imperial  persecution,  this  Stoicism,  "touched 
with  emotion",  pa:ssed  into  the  beautiful,  though  ill- 
founded  religion  of  Seneca:  all  philosophy  became 
practical,  an  ars  vivendi:  Life  is  our  ingens  negotium, 
yet  not  to  be  despaired  of.  Heaven  is  not  proud: 
a^cendentihus di  manum  porrigent.  'Avu  (ppoveiv,  ,St.  Paul 
was  even  then  enjoining  (Col.,  iii,  1,2),  echoing  Plato's 
rjipovtlv  dSdva.Ta  Kal  Bela  (Tim.,  90  c),  his  t^s  ivui  oSoC  ad 
e^dpxffa  (Rep.,  621  c),  his  "life  must  be  a  flight"  dTrA 
Tiii-  IvBivht  fKeicre  (.520  A),  and  Aristotle's  doctrine  that 
a  man  must  dBoLvaTetv  itj!  Saov  ivSix^^ai.  (Eth.  N.,  X, 
vii),  written  so  long  ago.  The  more  acute  expressions 
of  this  mystical  asceticism  were  much  occupied  with  the 
future  life  and  much  fostered  or  provoked  by  the 
developed  Mysteries.  Impossible  as  it  seems  to  find 
a  race  which  believed  in  the  extinction  of  the  soul  by 
death,  survival  was  often  a  vague  and  dismal  affair, 
prolonged  in  cavernous  darkness,  dust,  and  uncon- 
sciousness. So  Babylon,  Assyria,  the  Hebrews,  earlier 
Greece.  Odysseus  must  make  the  witless  ghosts 
drink  the  hot  blood  before  they  can  think  and  speak. 
At  best,  they  depend  on  human  attendance  and  even 
companionship;  hence  certain  offerings  and  human 
sacrifice  on  the  grave.  Or  they  can,  on  fixed  days, 
return,  harry  the  living,  seek  food  and  blood.  Hence 
expulsion-ceremonies,  the  Anthesteria,  Lemuria,  and 
the  like.  Kindlier  creeds,  however,  are  created,  and, 
at  the  Cara  Cognatio,  the  souls  are  welcomed  to  the 
places  set  for  them,  as  for  the  gods,  at  the  hearth  and 
table,  and  the  family  is  reconstituted  in  affection. 
Hopes  and  intuitions  gather  into  a  full  and  steady 
light,  even  before  the  inscriptions  of  the  catacombs 
show  that  death  was  by  now  scarcely  reason  for  tears 
at  all.  The  "surer  bark  of  a  divine  doctrine",  for 
which  the  anxious  lad  in  the  "Pha;do"  had  sighed, 
had  been  given  to  carry  souls  to  that  "further  shore" 
to  which  Vergil  saw  them  reaching  yearning  hands. 

But  the  Mysteries  had  already  fostered,  though  not 
created,  the  conviction  of  immortality.  They  gave 
no  revelations,  no  new  and  .secret  doctrine,  but  power- 
fully and  vividly  impressed  ccitiiiri  notions  (one  of 
them,  immortahty)  upon  the  imagination.     Gradu- 


PAQANISM 


392 


PAQANISM 


ally,  however,  it  was  thouglu  tliat  initiation  ensured  a 
happy  after-life,  and  atoned  for  sins  that  else  had  been 
punished,  if  not  in  this  life,  in  some  place  of  expiation 
(Plato,  "Rep.",  366;  of.  Pindar,  Sophocles,  Plutarch). 
These  mysteries  usually  began  with  the  selection  of 
initiandi,  their  preliminary  "baptism",  fasting,  and 
(Samothrace)  confession.  After  many  sacrifices  the 
RIysteries  proper  were  celebrated,  including  nearly  al- 
ways a  mimetic  dance,  or  "tableaux",  showing  heaven, 
hell,  purgatory;  the  soul's  destiny;  the  gods  (so  in 
the  Isis  mysteries.  Appuleius  (Metamorphoses)  tells 
us  his  thrilling  and  profoundly  religious  experiences]. 
There  was  often  seen  the  "passion  "  of  the  god  (Osiris) : 
the  rape  and  return  of  Kore  and  the  sorrows  of  Demc- 
ter  (Eleusis),  the  sacred  marriage  (Here  at  Cnossus), 
or  divine  births  (Zeus:  Brimos),  or  renowned  inci- 
dents of  the  local  myth.  There  was  also  the  "exhibi- 
tion" of  symbolical  objects — statues  usually  kept 
veiled,  mysterious  fruits  or  emblems  (Dionysus),  an 
ear  of  corn  (ui)held  when  Brimos  was  born).  Fi- 
nally there  was  usually  the  meal  of  mystic  foods — 
grains  of  all  sorts  at  Eleusis,  bread  and  water  in  the  cult 
of  Mithra,  wine  (Dionysus),  milk  and  honey  (Attis), 
raw  bull's  flesh  in  the  Orphic  Dionysus-zagreus  cult. 
Sacred  formulae  were  certainly  imparted,  of  magical 
value. 

There  is  not  much  reason  to  think  these  mysteries 
had  a  directly  moral  influence  on  their  adepts;  but 
their  popularity  and  impressiveness  were  enormous, 
and  indirectly  reinforced  whatever  aspiration  and 
belief  they  found  to  work  on.  Naturally,  it  has  been 
sought  to  trace  a  close  connexion  between  these  rites 
and  Christianity  (.\nrich,  Pfleiderer).  This  is  inad- 
missible. Not  only  was  Christianity  ruthlessly  ex- 
clusive, but  its  apologists  (Justin,  Tertullian,  Clement) 
inveigh  loudest  against  the  mysteries  and  the  myths 
they  enshrine.  Moreo^'er,  the  origin  of  the  Christian 
rites  is  historically  ccrl;iiii  fidm  our  documents.  Chris- 
tian baptism  (essentially  uniiiue)  is  alien  to  the  re- 
peated dippings  of  the  iHiluindi,  even  to  the  Taurobo- 
lium,  that  bath  of  bull's  blood,  whence  the  dipped 
emerged  renatus  in  CBlerniim.  The  totemistic  origin 
and  meaning  of  the  sacred  meal  (which  was  not  a  sacri- 
fice) wherein  worshippers  communicated  in  the  god 
and  with  one  another  (Robertson  Smith,  Frazer)  is  too 
obscure  to  be  discu.ssed  here  (cf.  Lagrange,  "Etudes, 
etc.",  pp.  257,  etc.).  The  sacred  fish  of  Atergatis  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  origin  of  the  Eucharist,  nor, 
even  probably,  with  the  Ichthys  anagram  of  the  cata- 
combs. (See  Fr.  J.  Dtilger:  IXGTS,  das  Fischsymbol, 
etc.,  Rome,  1910.  The  anagram  does  indeed  repre- 
sent' l7)iroDs  Xpurrbs  Qeov  'Ti6s  -wT^p,  the  usual  order  of  the 
third  and  fourth  words  being  inverted  owing  to  the 
familiar  formula  of  the  imperial  cult;  the  propagation 
of  thesymbol  was  often  facihtated  owing  to  the  popular 
Syrian  fish-cult.)  That  the  terminology  of  the  mys- 
teries was  largely  transported  into  Christian  use 
(Paul,  Ignatius,  Origen,  Clement  etc.),  is  certain;  that 
liturgy  (especially  of  baptism),  organization  (of  the 
catechumenate),  disciplina  arcani  were  affected  by 
them,  is  highly  probable.  Always  the  Church  has 
forcefully  moulded  words,  and  even  concepts  (coittip, 
i-KKpoivi}^^  ^aiTTttr^s,  0a)Tt(r/x6s,  tcX^t-tjs,  X670S)  to  suit  her 
own  dogma  and  its  expression.  But  it  were  contrary 
to  all  likelihood,  as  well  as  to  positive  fact,  to  suppose 
that  the  adogmatic,  mythic,  codeless  practices  and 
traditions  of  Paganism  could  subdue  the  rigid  ethic 
and  creed  of  Christianity.  [Consult  Cumont,  opp.  cit. ; 
Anrich,  "Das  antike  Mysterienwesen,  etc."  (Gcit- 
tingen,  1894);  O.  Pfleiderer,  "Das  Christenbild,  etc." 
(Berlin,  1903),  tr.  (London,  190.5).  Especially  Cabrol, 
"Orig.  liturgiques"  (Paris,  1906);  Duchesne,  "Chris- 
tian Worship  ,  passim;  Blotzer  in  "Stimmen  aus 
Maria  Laach",  LXXI,  (1900),  LXXII,  (1907);  G. 
Boissier,  "Fin  du  Paganisme"  (Paris,  1907),  especially 
1,  117  sqq.;  "Religion  Romaine",  passim;  Sir  S.  Dill, 
op.  cit.;  C.  A.  Lobeck,  "  Aglaophamus "  (1829);  E. 


Rohde,  "Psyche"  (Tubingen,  1907);  J.  Reville,  "Re- 
lig.  h.  Rome,  s.  1.  Severes"  (Paris,  1886);  J.  E.  Harri- 
son, "Prolegomena"  (Cambridge,  1908),  especially 
the  appendix;  L.  R.  P'arnell,  op.  cit.,  and  the  lexicons.] 

As  strange  historical  phenomena,  we  note  therefore 
(he  coexistence  of  the  highest  with  the  lowest;  the 
sublime  tendency,  the  cxiguum  cHnamcn,  and  the  ter- 
rific catastrophe:  human  nature  buffeted  by  the  crav- 
ing for  divine  union,  prayer,  and  purity,  and  Ijy  the 
sense  of  sin,  the  need  of  penance,  and  liclplessne.ss  of 
its  own  powers.  Hence,  savagery  and  blood  attend 
the  communion-feasts,  grotesque  myths  accompany 
the  loftiest  ideals,  sensual  reaction  follows  flagellation 
and  fasting.  And  we  admire  how,  in  the  Hebrew 
nation  alone,  the  teleological  ascent  was  constant;  so- 
briety meant  no  lowered  aim;  passion  implied  no 
frenzy.  In  the  strong  grasp  of  the  Christian  disci- 
pline alone,  the  further  antimony  of  self-abnegation 
and  self-realization  was  practically  and  spiritually 
solved,  though  theoretically  no  adequate  expression 
may  ever  be  discovered  for  that  solution.  As  his- 
torical problems  remain  certain  connexions  yet  to  be 
more  accurately  defined  between  the  "dress"  of 
Christian  dogma  and  rite  (whether  liturgical,  or 
of  formula,  or  of  philosophic  category)  and  the  cir- 
cumambient religions.  As  historical  certainty  stands 
out  the  impassable  gulf,  in  essence  and  origin,  be- 
tween the  moral  and  religious  systems  of  contempo- 
rary Paganism,  especially  of  the  Mysteries,  and  the 
Christian  dogma  and  rite,  formed  on  Palestinian  soil 
with  extraordinary  rapidity,  and  rigidly  exclusive  of 
infection  from  alien  sources.  [Cf.  L.  Friedlander, 
"Roman  Life  and  Manners,  etc."  (1909-10),  espec. 
Ill,  84-313;  O.  Seeck,  "Gesch.  des  Unterganges  der 
antiken  Welt",  I  (Berlin,  1910),  H  (1901),  111  (1909), 
and  appendices,  B.  Alio,  "L'Evangile  en  face  du 
syncretisme  paien "  (Paris,  1910).  ] 

V.  Religious  PHiLosornY. — This,  we  suppose,  is 
the  highest  form  of  human  reaction  upon  the  religious 
datum  of  which  the  soul  finds  itself  in  possession,  or  at 
least  may  provide  it  with  the  purest,  if  not  the  most 
imperative,  mode  of  worship.  From  this  point  of  view 
the  older  rationalizing  cosmogonies  (as  of  Greece)  are 
of  little  interest  to  us,  save  in  so  far  as  they  witness 
already  to  that  distinction  between  Zeus,  supreme,  and 
Fate,  to  which  he  yet  is  subject,  an  earlier  unconscious 
attempt,  perhaps,  to  reconcile  the  antinomies  easily 
seized  by  true  religious  instinct  in  the  popular  tradi- 
tions as  to  the  gods.  The  mythological  cosmogonies 
of  Babylon  and  Assyria  will,  how'ever,  be  of  surpassing 
interest  to  the  "comparative"  student  of  Semitic 
religions.  Noteworthy  is  the  curve  of  Greek  tendency 
— starting  in  Ionia,  monistic,  static,  and  anti-religious; 
grown  dynamic  in  Heraclitus,  whose  Fire  will  pass,  as 
Logos,  into  the  Stoic  system;  transferred  after  the 
Persian  wars  to  Attica,  and  profoundly  dualized  in 
Plato  and  Aristotle,  whose  concepts,  however,  of 
World-soul  and  of  the  Immanent  Nature-force  were 
powerful  for  all  time.  Through  the  Stoics,  ex- 
pressed in  terms  borrowed  consistently  from  the  ex- 
quisite Egyptian  mythology,  of  Thot,  of  Osiris,  and  of 
Isis,  this  elaborate  system  of  converging  currents  is 
synthesized  in  Plutarch,  while  from  Plutarch's  sources 
Philo  had  draw-n  the  philosophy  in  which  he  strove  to 
see  the  doctrines  of  Moses,  anfl  in  terms  of  which  he 
struggled  to  express  the  Hebrew  books. 

Thus  was  it  that  the  Logos,  in  theory,  impersonal, 
immanent,  blindly  evolving  in  the  world,  became 
(transfigured  on  the  one  hand  by  pagan  myth,  and  by 
too  close  contact,  on  the  other,  with  the  Angelof 
Yahweh  and  the  ideals  of  the  Alexandrian  sapiential 
literature)  so  near  to  personification,  that  John  could 
take  the  expression,  mould  it  to  his  dogma,  cut  short 
all  perilous  speculation  among  Christians,  and  assert 
once  and  for  all  that  the  Word  was  made  flesh  and  was 
Jesus  Christ.  Yet  many  of  the  earlier  apologists  were 
to  make  great  trouble  with  their  use  of  Platonic  formu- 


PAGANISM 


393 


PAGANISM 


lae,  and  with  the  Logos.  Two  principles  emerge  as 
governing  Greek  thought — God  must  have  the  first 
place,  oi  yap  wdpepyov  Su  irouio-ffat  rdv  Si6v, — and  yet 
the  nearer  we  ap]5roach  Him,  the  less  can  we  express 
Him,  ^tdf  evpetp  T^  epyov^  evpbvra  5^  iKcp^pav  ii>  iroWoh 
aduvaTov  (Pythagoras,  Plato).  To  how  many  answers 
tentatively  given  does  Euripides's  sad  prayer  witness: 
"O  Thou  that  upholdest  earth,  and  on  earth  hast  Thy 
Throne,  whoe'er  Thou  be,  hard  to  guess,  hard  to  know 
— Zeus,  be  Thou  law  of  nature,  or  human  thought  of 
man,  to  Thee  I  pray:  for  Thou,  moving  in  silent  path, 
in  justice  guidest  all  things  mortal."  To  the  im- 
manent, supreme  Force,  consciously  exacting  service, 
or,  at  least,  blindly  imposing  obedience,  Greek  phi- 
losophy almost  inevitably  came,  and,  in  spite  of  itself 
and  its  sceptical  and  mechanical  premises,  amounted 
to  a  religion.  In  the  mouth  of  Epictetus  God  is  still 
sung  triumphantly — "What  can  I  do,  I,  a  lame  old 
man,  save  sing  God's  praises,  and  call  on  all  men  to 
join  me  in  my  song'?" — till  the  Stoic  current  died  out 
in  Aurelius,  .stunned  to  acquiescence,  no  more  enthu- 
siastically uniting  himself  to  the  great  law  of  God  in 
the  world. 

But  into  neo-Platonism,  coloured  with  Persian, 
Jewish,  and  even  Christian  language,  the  movement 
passed;  already,  in  the  "Isis  and  O.siris"  of  Plutarch, 
a  pure  mysticism  and  sublimity  of  emotion  barely  to 
be  siu'passed  had  been  achieved;  in  the  "Metamor- 
lihnses"  of  Apuleius  the  syncretistic  cult  of  the  Egyp- 
tian goddess  expresses  itself  in  terms  of  tenderness 
and  majesty  that  would  fit  the  highest  worship,  and, 
in  the  concluding  prayer  of  the  Apuleian  Hermes,  an 
ecstatic  adoration  of  God  is  manifested  in  language 
and  thought  never  equalled,  still  less  surpassed,  save 
in  the  inspired  writers  of  the  Church.  But  all  these 
efforts  of  pagan  religious  philosophy,  committed 
nearly  always  to  a  rigid  Dualism,  entangled  accord- 
ingly in  mechanical  and  magic  practices,  tricked  out 
in  false  mj-thology,  risking  and  losing  psychical  bal- 
ance by  the  use  of  a  nihilist  asceticism  of  sense  and 
thought,  died  into  the  miserable  systems  of  Gnosti- 
cism, Manichieism,  and  the  later  neo-Platonism;  and 
the  current  of  true  hfe,  renewed  and  redirected  by 
Paul  and  John,  passed  into  the  writings  of  Augus- 
tine. [Consult  Zeller,  "Phil,  der  Griechen"  (Leipzig, 
1879),  tr.  (London,  1881);  Idem,  "Grundriss,  etc." 
(4th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1908),  tr.  (London,  1892) ;  Gomperz, 
"Gr.  Denken"  (Leipzig,  1903),  tr.  (London,  1901); 
of.  Flinders  Petrie,  "Personal  Relig.  in  Egypt  before 
Christianity"  (New  York,  1909),  unsatisfactory;  J. 
Adam,  "Religious  Teachers  of  Greece"  (Edinburgh, 
1908);  Dill,  op.  cit.;  Idem,  "Roman  Society  in  the 
last  century  of  the  Western  Empire",  especially  val- 
uable as  a  picture  of  the  tenacity  of  the  dying  pagan 
cult  and  thought;  Spence,  "Early  Christianity  and  Pa- 
ganism" (London,  1904);  L.  Habert,  "Doctr.  Relig. 
d.  Philosophes  Grecs"  (Paris,  1909);  L.  Campbell, 
"Rehgion  in  Greek  Literature"  (London,  1898);  E. 
Caird,  "Evolution  of  Theology  in  Greek  Philoso- 
phies" (Glasgow,  1904),  "Evolution  of  Religion" 
(Glasgow,  1907);  H.  Pinardin  "Revue  Apolog^tique" 
(1909);  J.  Lebreton,  "Origines  du  Dogme  de  la 
'  Trinite",  I  (Paris,  1910),  where  the  summits  reached 
by  Greek  and  Hellenized  Jewish  rehgious  endeavour 
are  appreciated.  On  the  general  question :  de  Broglie, 
"Problemcs  ct  Conclusions  de  I'hist.  des  Religions", 
Paris,  1889.) 

VI.  Relations  between  Paganism  and  Revela- 
tion.— Ethnology  and  the  comparative  history  of 
jjagan  religions  do  not  impose  upon  us  as  an  hypothe- 
sis that  primitive  Revelation  which  Faith  ascertains 
to  us.  As  a  hypothesis  it  would,  however,  solve  many  a 
problem;  it  was  the  easier  therefore  for  the  Tradition- 
alist of  a  century  ago  to  detect  its  traces  everj'where, 
and  for  Bishop  Huet  ("  Demonstr.  evangelica",  Paris, 
1690,  pp.  68,  l.')3,  etc.).  following  Aristobulus,  Philo, 
Josephus,  Justin,  Tertullian,  and  many  another  dis- 


ciple of  the  Alexandrians,  to  see  in  all  pagan  law  and 
ritual  an  immense  pillage  of  Jewish  tradition,  and,  in 
all  the  gods,  Moses.  I'he  opposite  school  has,  in  all 
ages,  fallen  into  worse  follies.  Celsus  saw  in  Judaism 
an  "Egyptian  heresy",  and  in  Christianity  a  Jewish 
heresy,  on  an  equality  with  the  cults  of  Antinous,  Tro- 
phonius  etc.  (C.  Cels.,  Ill,  xxi);  Calvin  (Instit.,  IV,  x, 
12)  and  Middleton  (A  letter  from  Rome,  etc.,  1729) 
saw  an  exact  conformity  between  popery  and  pagan- 
ism. Dupuis  and  Creuze  herald  the  modern  race  of 
comparative  religionists,  who  deduce  Christianity 
from  pagan  rites,  or  assign  to  both  systems  a  common 
source  in  the  human  spirit.  Far  wiser  in  their  genera- 
tion were  those  ancient  Fathers,  who,  not  always  see- 
ing in  pagan  analogies  the  trickery  of  devils  (Justin  in 
P.  G.,  VI,  364,  408,  660;  Tertulhan  in  P.  L.,  I,  519, 
660;  II,  66;  Firmicus  Maternus,  ibid.,  XII,  1026, 1030), 
disentangle,  with  a  true  historic  and  religious  sense,  the 
reasons  for  wliich  God  permitted,  or  directed,  the 
Chosen  People  to  retain  or  adapt  the  rites  of  their  pagan 
ancestry  or  environment,  or  at  least,  reproaching  them 
with  this,  recognize  the  facts  (Justin,  loc.  cit.,  VI,  517; 
Tertulhan,  P.  L.,  II,  333;  Jerome,  ibid.,  XXV,  194, 
XXIV,  733,  XXII,  677,  is  striking;  Eusebius,  P.  G., 
XXII,  521;  especially  Chrysostom,  ibid.,  LVII,  66, 
and  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  ibid.,  XXXVI,  161,  who 
are  remarkable.  Cf.  St.  Thomas,  I-II,  Q.  cii,  a.  2). 
The  relation  of  the  Hebrew  code  and  ritual  to  those  of 
pagan  systems  need  not  be  discussed  here :  the  facts, 
and,  a  fortiori,  the  comparison  and  construction  of  the 
facts,  are  not  yet  satisfactorily  determined:  the  ad- 
mirable work  of  the  Dominican  school  (especially  the 
" Religions  semitiques"  of  M.  J.  Lagrange;  cf.  F.  Prat, 
S.J.,  "Le  Code  de  Sinai",  Paris,  1904)  is  preparing 
the  way  for  more  adequate  considerations  than  are  at 
present  possible. 

Whether  Paganism  made  straight  a  path  for  Chris- 
tianity may  be  considered  from  two  points  of  view. 
Speaking  from  the  standpoint  of  pure  history,  no  one 
will  deny  that  much  in  the  antecedent  or  environing 
aspirations  and  ideals  formed  a  prcFparatio  evangelica 
of  high  value.  "Christo  jam  tum  venienti",  sang 
Prudentius,  "crede,  parata  via  est".  The  pagan 
world  "saw  the  road",  Augustine  could  say,  from  its 
hilltop.  "Et  ipse  Pileatus  Christianus  est",  said  the 
priest  of  Attis;  while,  of  Heraclitus  and  the  old  philos- 
ophers, Justin  avers  that  they  were  Christians  before 
Christ.  Indeed,  in  their  panegyric  of  the  Platonic 
philosophy,  the  earlier  Apologists  go  far  beyond  any- 
thing we  should  wish  to  say,  and  indeed  made  difficul- 
ties for  their  successors.  Attention  is  nowadays  di- 
rected, not  only  to  the  ideas  of  the  Divine  nature,  the 
logos-philosophies,  popular  at  the  Christian  era,  but 
e.specially  to  those  oriental  cults,  which,  flooding  down 
upon  the  shrivelled,  officialized,  and  dying  wor.'^liip  of 
the  Roman  or  Hellenic-Roman  world,  fertilized  within 
it  whatever  potentialities  it  yet  contained  of  purity, 
prayer,  emotional  rehgion,  other-worldliness  generally. 
A  whole  new  religious  language  was  evolved,  betoken- 
ing a  new  tendency,  ideal,  and  attitude;  here  too 
Christianity  did  not  disdain  to  use,  to  transcend,  and 
to  transform. 

Theologically,  moreover,  we  know  that  God  from 
the  very  outset  destined  man  to  a  supernatural  union 
with  Him.self.  "Pure  nature",  historically,  has  never 
existed.  The  soul  is  naluralUer  Chrisliann.  The 
truest  man  is  the  Christian.  Thus  the  "human  spirit " 
we  have  so  often  mentioned,  is  no  human  spirit  left  to 
itself,  but  solicited  by,  yielding  to  a  resisting  grace. 
Better  than  Aristotle  guessed,  mankind  exei  xi  0eToi'. 
For  Chritstu/s  cogilabatur.  'Aei  irow?  ri  ^Qov,  said  the 
same  philosopher:  and  all  creation  groans  and  travails 
together  until  the  full  redemption;  "all  nations  of 
men  "  were  by  God  "  made  of  one  blood  for  to  dwell  on 
all  the  face  of  the  earth  .  .  .  that  they  should  seek  the 
Lord,  if  haply  they  might  grope  after  Him  and  find 
Him."     They  failed,  alas,  though  they  had  the  irl- 


PAGANO 


394 


FAGNINO 


yywtrit  of  God  (Rom.,  i,  32;  cf.  i,  19):  tho  higher  they 
went,  the  more  terribly  they  fell:  but,  alongside  of  the 
tragic  tirst  chapter  of  I'aul's  Kpistlc,  is  the  second,  and 
we  dare  not  forget  that  the  elect  people,  the  Eldest 
Son,  the  heir  of  oracles  and  law,  fell  equally  or  worse, 
and  made  the  name  of  God  to  be  blasphemed  among 
the  Gentiles  it  contemned  (Horn.,  ii,  24).  Yet  for  all 
that,  God  used  the  Jews  in  his  plan,  and  none  will  dare 
to  say  He  did  not  use  the  Gentiles.  They  reveal  them- 
selves in  history  as  made  for  God,  and  restless  till  they 
rest  in  him.  History  shows  us  their  effort,  and  their 
failure;  we  thank  God  for  the  one,  and  dare  not  scorn 
the  other.  God's  revelation  has  been  in  many  frag- 
ments and  in  many  modes;  and  to  the  pagan  king, 
whose  right  hand  He  had  holden,  He  declared:  "For 
Jacob  my  servant's  sake,  and  Israel  my  chosen,  I  have 
called  thee  by  thy  name:  I  have  surnamed  thee, 
though  thou,  thou  hast  not  known  Me:  I  am  Yahweh, 
and  there  is  none  else;  beside  Me  there  is  no  God:  (yet) 
will  I  guide  thee,  though  Me  thou  hast  not  known" 
(Is.,  xlv,  4  sq.).  For  still  Cyrus  worshipped  at  the 
shrine  of  Ahura. 

C.  C.  Martindale. 

Pagano,  Mario,  jurisconsult  and  man  of  letters,  b. 
in  Brienza,  Province  of  Salerno,  8  Dec,  1748;  d.  at 
Naples,  29  Oct.,  1799.  At  twenty  he  became  special 
lecturer  in  moral  philosophy  at  the  University  of  Na- 
ples, at  the  same  time  practising  law.  He  published 
various  works  on  criminal  juri.sprudence,  e.  g.,  "Con- 
siderazioni  sulla  procedura  criminale".  He  became 
professor  of  law  in  1787.  He  hkewise  published  in 
1792  some  political  essays  on  barbarian  peoples,  and  the 
origin  and  decadence  of  civilized  society  and  of  nations, 
revealing  the  idea  of  \'ico.  As  early  as  1768  he  had 
written  a  political  review  of  the  entire  Roman  legisla- 
tion, which  was  much  applauded.  In  this  is  discerned 
the  influence  of  Montesquieu  and  in  general  of  the 
philosophy  then  in  vogue.  The  novelty,  and  in  part 
the  audacity,  of  these  theories  created  some  enemies, 
and,  although  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the  Court,  he 
was  imprisoned.  His  writings,  accused  of  irreligion, 
were  subjected  to  theological  examinations,  which  re- 
sulted in  his  favour.  When  in  1799  the  PVench  estab- 
lished the  republic  at  Naples,  Pagano  was  one  of  the 
most  active.  He  wrote  the  constitution,  built  up  on 
the  remains  of  the  French  Constitution  of  1793.  On 
the  restoration  of  the  monarchy,  Pagano  was  on  the 
side  of  those  republicans  who  made  the  last  resistance 
at  the  Castel  Nuovo.  Contrary  to  the  agreement  of 
capitulation,  he  was  imprisoned  and  condemned.  In 
prison  he  composed  aesthetic  discourses  and  produced 
a  number  of  lyric  and  dramatic  compositions,  of  which 
only  two  were  printed,  the  tragedy  "Gerbino",  and 
the  melodrama  "Agamemnon". 

GIUSTINI.VNI.  Memorie  degli  scrittori  legati  del  regno  di  Napoli 
(Naples,  1787-88) ;  Massa,  Elogio  di  Pagano. 

U.  Benigni. 

Page,  Anthony,  Venerable,  English  martyr,  b.  at 
Harrow-on-the-Hill,  Middlesex,  1.571;  d.  at  York, 
20  or  30  April,  1.593.  He  was  of  gentle  birth  and 
matriculated  at  Oxford  from  Christ  Church,  23  No- 
vember, 1581,  being  described  as  "scholaris  Mri- 
Wodson".  He  entered  the  English  College,  Reims, 
30  September,  1584,  and  received  minor  orders, 
April,  1.585.  He  was  ordained  deacon  at  Laon,  22 
September,  1590,  and  prie.st  at  Reims,  21  Septem- 
ber 1591.  Dr.  .■\nthon}'  Champney,  who  was  his  con- 
temporary at  Reims,  in  his  M.S.  (q.  v.)  history  of  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  as  quoted  by  Bishop  Challoner, 
describes  him,  as  being  of  wonderful  meekness,  of  a 
^^rginal  modesty  and  purity,  and  of  more  than  com- 
mon learning  and  piety,  and  as  liaving  endeared  him- 
self to  all  by  his  singular  candour  of  mind  and  sweet- 
ness of  behaviour.  He  was  condemned  for  being  a 
priest,  under  27  EUz.,  c.  2.,  and  was  hanged,  disem- 
bowelled, and  quartered. 


Challoner,  Missionary  Priests,  I,  no.  98;  Clark,  Register  of 
Oxford  University,  U  (Oxford,  1887-9),  105;  Knox,  Douay  Diaries 
(London,  1878),  202,  205,  234.  241. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Page,  Francis,  Venerable.  See  Tichboknb, 
Thomas,  Venerable. 

Pagi,  Antoine,  and  his  nephew  Francois,  two 
French  ecclesiastical  historians.  Antoine,  b.  31  March, 
1624,  at  Rognes  in  the  Department  of  Houches- 
du-Rhone;  d.  5  June,  1699  at  Aix.  After  studying 
with  the  Jesuits  at  Aix.  he  entered  the  monastery 
of  the  Conventual  Franciscans  at  Aries,  and  made 
solemn  profession  on  31  January,  1641.  For  some 
time  he  devoted  himself  to  preaching,  but  at  tlie  age  of 
twenty-iiiiie  years  he  was  elected  provincial,  an  office 
which  he  held  four  times.  He  devoted  his  spare  time 
to  the  study  of  history.  Discerning  numerous  chrono- 
logical errors,  and  frequently  misstatements  of  facts  in 
the  "  Annales  ecclesiastici "  of  Baronius,  he  made  it  his 
life-work  to  correct  them  and  otherwise  elucidate  the 
valuable  work.  Pagi's  first  volume  was  printed  dur- 
ing his  lifetime  (Paris,  1689) ;  the  remaining  three  vol- 
umes, reaching  till  the  year  1198,  the  last  year  in 
the  work  of  Baronius,  were  completed  in  manuscript 
shortly  before  his  death.  The  whole  work  was  edited 
in  four  volumes  by  his  nephew  Francois  Pagi:  "Crit- 
ica  historico-chronologica  in  universos  annales  ecclesi- 
asticos  em.  et  rev.  Ca-saris  Card.  Baronii"  (Geneva, 
1705;  second  ed.,  1727).  Mansi  embodied  it  in  his 
edition  of  the  "Annales"  of  Baronius  (Lucca,  1736- 
59).  Though,  on  the  whole,  the  "Critica"  manifests 
great  care  and  an  unusual  knowledge  of  history,  it 
is  not  entirely  free  of  errors.  His  other  works  are: 
"Dissertatio  hj^patica  seu  de  consulibus  caesareis" 
(Lyons,  1682),  printed  also  in  "Apparatus  in  Annales 
ecclesiasticos"  (Lucca,  1740),  pp.  1-136;  "Disser- 
tatio de  die  et  anno  mortis  S.  Martini  cp.  turonensis", 
and  a  few  minor  treatises  in  defense  of  his  "Disserta- 
tio hypatica",  in  which  he  had  set  down  various  rules 
for  determining  the  consulship  of  the  Roman  empe- 
rors, and  which  had  been  attacked  by  Cardinal  Noris 
and  others.  He  also  edited:  "D.  Antonii  Paduani  O. 
Min.  sermones  hactenus  inediti"  (Avignon,  1685). 

Francois,  b.  7  September,  1654,  at  Lambesc  in 
Provence;  d.  21  January,  1721,  at  Orange.  After 
studying  with  the  Oratorians  at  "Toulon,  he  became  a 
Conventual  Franciscan,  was  three  times  provincial, 
and  assisted  his  uncle  in  the  correction  of  the  "An- 
nales" of  Baronius.  Besides  editing  the  "Critica" 
of  his  uncle  he  wrote  a  history  of  the  popes  up  to  the 
year  1447:  "Breviarium  historico-chronologico-criti- 
cum  illustriora  Pontificum  romanorum  gesta,  con- 
ciliorum  generalium  acta  .  .  .  complectens"  (4  vols., 
Antwerp,  1717-27).  The  history  was  continued  in 
two  volumes  by  his  nephew,  Antoine  Pagi,  the 
Younger  (Antwerp,  1748-53). 

Mimoires  de  Trevoux  (Trdvouj,  1711).  1512-39,  1903-31; 
(1712)  273-291;  (1717),  1939-67;  Apparatus  in  Annales  Baronii, 
p.  xvii;  Bihliolheque  ancienne  et  moderne,  VII,  119-200;  XXVIH, 
211-228;  Journal  des  Savants,  LXII,  189-198;  LXV.  274-280. 

Michael   Ott. 

Pagnani,  Clement.    See  Kandy,  Diocese  of. 

Pagnino,  Santes  (or  XantbsI,  Dominican,  b.  1470 
at  Lucca,  Tu.scany;  d.  24  Aug.,  1541,  at  Lyons,  one  of 
the  leading  philologists  and  Biblicists  of  his  day.  At 
sixteen  he  took  the  religious  habit  at  Fiesole,  where  he 
studied  under  the  direction  of  Savonarola  and  other 
eminent  profes.sors.  In  acquiring  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages, then  cultivateil  ,at  Florence,  he  displayed  uii- 
wonted  quicksightediiess,  ea.se,  and  penetration.  His 
genius,  industry,  and  erudition  won  him  influential 
friends,  among  them  the  Cardinals  de'.Medici,  subse- 
quently Leo  X  and  Clement  VII.  As  a  sacred  oi;ator 
his  zeal  and  eloquence  kept  abreast  with  his  erudition 
and  were  as  fruitful.  Summoned  to  Rome  by  Leo  X, 
he  taught  at  the  recently  opened  free  school  for  Orien- 
tal languages  until  his  patron's  death  (1521).    He  then 


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spent  three  years  at  Avignon  and  the  last  seven  years 
of  his  Hfe  at  Lyons.  Here  he  was  instrumental  in  es- 
tabhshing  a  liospital  for  the  plague-striclven,  and,  by 
his  zeal  and  eloquence,  diverted  an  irruption  of  Wal- 
densianism  and  Lutheranism  from  the  city,  receiving 
in  acknowledgement  the  much  coveted  rights  and 
privileges  of  citizenship.  The  epitaph,  originally 
adorning  his  tomb  in  the  Dominican  church  at  Lyons, 
fixes  the  date  of  his  death  beyond  dispute.  The  merit 
of  his  "Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti  nova  translatio" 
(Lyons,  1527)  lies  in  its  literal  adherence  to  the  He- 
brew, which  won  for  it  the  preference  of  contempo- 
rary rabbis  and  induced  Leo  X  to  assume  the  expenses 
of  publication.  After  the  pontiff's  death  these  de- 
volved on  the  author's  relatives  and  friends.  Several 
editions  of  it,  as  well  as  of  the  monumental  "Thesau- 
rus linguae  sancta;"  (Lyons,  1529),  were  brought  out 
by  Protestants  as  well  as  Catholics.  Among  other 
productions,  all  of  which  treat  of  Sacred  Scripture, 
Greek,  or  Hebrew,  were  "Isagoges  seu  introductionis 
ad  sacras  literas  liber  unus"  (Lyons,  1528,  etc.),  and 
"Catena  argentea  in  Pentateuchum"  in  six  volumes 
(Lyons,  15.36). 

See  Versions  of  the  Bible;  Qu^tip-Echard,  Scriptores  0.  P., 
II  (Paris,  1721):  TODRON,  Hist,  des  hommes  iilustres  de  Vordre  de 
St.  Dominique,  IV  (Paris.  1747);  Tiraboschi,  Storia  delta  letter, 
ital.,  VII  (Venice,  14.51);  Mandonnet.  s.  v.  DominicainSt  and 
ViGOOBOUX,  Did.  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.  (Paris,  1910). 

Thos.  a  K.  Reillt. 

Painting:,  Religious. — Painting  has  always  been 
associated  with  the  life  of  the  Church.  From  the  time 
of  the  Catacombs  it  has  been  used  in  ecclesiastical 
ornamentation,  and  for  centuries  after  Constantine 
reUgious  art  was  the  only  form  of  living  art  in  the 
Christian  world.  Its  fecundity  has  been  wonderful, 
and  even  now,  although  much  diminished,  is  still  im- 
portant. Until  the  Renaissance  the  Church  exercised 
a  veritable  monopoly  over  this  sphere.  Profane  paint- 
ing in  Europe  dates  only  from  the  last  three  centuries, 
and  it  took  the  lead  only  in  the  last  century.  It  may 
therefore  be  said  that  throughout  the  Christian  Era 
the  history  of  painting  has  been  that  of  religious 
painting. 

It  would  be  absurd  to  seek  to  place  the  Church  in 
contradiction  to  the  Gospel  on  this  point,  as  difl  the 
Iconoclasts  in  the  eighth  century  and  the  Protestants 
in  the  sixteenth.  The  doctrine  of  the  Church  has  been 
clearly  enunciated  by  Molanus  in  his  "Historia  SS. 
Imaginum"  (Louvain,  1.568;  the  best  edition  is  that 
of  Paquot,  Louvain,  1771;  an  ample  bibliography  is 
found  on  pp.  212-24).  It  is  truly  remarkable  that 
such  a  magnificent  development  of  artistic  thought 
should  proceed  from  a  purely  spiritual  doctrine 
preached  by  humble  Galilean  fishermen  who  were 
ignorant  of  art  and  filled  with  the  horror  of  idol- 
atry characteristic  of  the  Semitic  races.  Far  from 
reproaching  the  Church  with  infidelity  to  the  teach- 
ings of  her  Founder,  we  should  rather  acknowledge  her 
wisdom  in  rejecting  no  natural  form  of  human  activity, 
and  thus  furthering  the  work  of  civilization. 

The  very  fact  that  the  Church  permitted  painting 
obliged  her  to  assign  it  a  definite  object  and  to  pre- 
scribe certain  rules;  art  never  seemed  to  her  an  end  in 
itself;  as  soon  as  she  adopted  it  she  made  it  a  means  of 
instruction  and  edification.  "The  picture",  says  the 
Patriarch  Nicephorus,  "conceals  the  strength  of  the 
Gospel  under  a  coarser,  but  more  expressive  form." 
"The  picture  is  to  the  illiterate",  says  Pope  St.  Greg- 
ory, "what  the  written  word  is  to  the  educated."  In 
like  manner  St.  Basil:  "  What  speech  presents  to  the 
ear  painting  portrays  by  amute  imitation."  And  Peter 
Comestor  says,  in  a  famous  text :  "The  paintings  of  the 
churches  are  in  place  of  books  to  the  uneducated" 
(quasi  libri  laicorum).  "We  are,  by  the  grace  of  God, 
those  who  manifest  to  the  faithful  the  miracles  wrought 
by  faith" — thus  the  painters  of  Siena  express  them- 
selves in  the  statutes  of  their  guild  (1355).    The  same 


ideas  are  contained  in  the  "Treatise  on  Painting"  of 
Cennino  Cennini,  and  in  France  in  the  "  Livre  des  M6- 
tiers"  of  the  Parisian  Etienne  Boileau  (1254).  In 
1513,  at  the  height  of  the  Renaissance,  Albrecht  Diirer 
wrote:  "The  art  of  painting  is  used  in  the  service  of 
the  Church  to  depict  the  sufferings  of  Christ  and  of 
many  other  models;  it  also  preserves  the  countenances 
of  men  after  their  death."  Almost  the  same  definition 
is  given  by  Pacheco,  father-in-law  of  Velasquez,  in  his 
"Arte  de  la  Pintura",  printed  at  Seville  in  1649. 

The  constant  doctrine  of  the  Church  was  defined  at 
the  Second  Council  of  Xicsea  (787),  and  is  summed  up 
in  the  often  quoted  formula:  "The  composition  of  the 
image  is  not  the  invention  of  the  painters,  but  the 
result  of  the  legislation  and  approved  tradition  of  the 
Church"  (Labbe,  "Concil.",  VII,  "Synod.  Nica>na", 
II,  Actio  VI,  831,  832).  It  would  be  impossible  to 
define  more  clearly  the  importance  of  art  in  the  life  of 
the  Church,  and  at  the  same  time  its  subordinate  posi- 
tion. Thence,  obviously,  results  one  of  the  chief  char- 
acteristics of  religious  painting,  its  conservative  in- 
stinct and  its  tendency  to  hieratic  formalism.  Art 
being  regarded  as  didactic,  necessarily  partook  of  the 
severe  nature  of  dogma.  The  slightest  error  bordered 
on  heresy.  To  alter  anything  in  the  garments  of  the 
saints  or  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  to  depict  the  former 
shod  or  the  latter  barefooted,  to  confuse  the  piety  of 
the  simple  by  innovations  and  individual  whims,  were 
all  serious  matters.  The  Christian  artist  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  strict  network  of  prohibitions  and  pre- 
scriptions. From  this  resulted  the  artistic  danger  of 
soulless,  mechanical  repetition,  which  religious  paint- 
ing did  not  always  escape.  The  responsibility  for  this, 
however,  must  not  be  ascribed  to  the  Church,  but 
rather  to  human  slothfulness  of  mind,  for,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  there  is  an  element  of  mobility  in  art  as  it  is 
understood  by  the  Church.  Religious  art  may  be 
called  a  realistic  art.  Its  appeal  to  the  emotions  by  the 
representation  of  facts  obliges  it  to  be  more  and  more 
exactly  imitative,  and  it  must  adopt  the  progressive 
stages  of  technic  to  express  all  the  phases  of  human 
feeling.  Even  the  most  immobile  of  the  great  Chris- 
tian schools,  the  Byzantine,  has  only  an  apparent  im- 
mobility; more  intimate  knowledge  inspires  increasing 
admiration  for  its  vitality  and  elasticity.  The  inno- 
vating and  creative  faculty  has  never  been  denied  to 
the  religious  painters.  In  the  twelfth  century  Guil- 
laume  Durand,  the  famous  Bishop  of  ISIende,  wrote  in 
his  "Rationale"  (I,  3):  "The  various  histories  as  well 
of  the  New  as  of  the  Old  Testament  are  depicted  ac- 
cording to  the  inclination  of  the  painters.  For  to 
painters  as  to  poets  a  license  has  ever  been  conceded  to 
dare  whatever  they  pleased." 

I.  The  Catacombs. — The  monuments  of  religious 
painting  for  the  first  four  centuries  are  to  be  sought 
only  at  Rome  (.see  Catacombs,  Roman;  Ecclesias- 
tical Art,  Origin)  .  But  this  peculiar  art  must  not  be 
taken  as  typical  of  what  was  in  vogue  elsewhere.  It  is 
a  great  mistake  to  look  in  the  Roman  cemeteries  for 
the  origin  or  the  cradle  of  Christian  painting:  as  has 
been  conclusively  proved  by  the  learned  researches  of 
Strzygowski  and  .\jiialof,  an  art,  which  seems  to  have 
been  fully  ilcveluped  by  the  end  of  the  fifth  century, 
grew  up  in  Syria,  Egypt,  or  Asia  Minor,  and  com- 
pletely supplanted  that  of  the  Catacombs.  The  latter 
did  notsurvivethe  very  special  conditions  under  which 
it  arose,  and  was  but  an  isolated  and  local  school  with- 
out development  or  future,  but  none  the  less  valuable, 
venerable,  and  pleasing. 

II.  Byzantine  Painting. — A.  The  New  Iconogra- 
phy.— By  the  edict  of  313  Christianity  was  recog- 
nized as  the  official  religion  of  the  Empire.  The 
Church  left  its  hiding-places  and  breathed  freely,  and 
the  period  of  the  basilicas^began.  A  profound  trans- 
formation of  religious  painting  was  the  result  of  this 
triumph.  The  time  had  come  to  display  the  insignia 
of  Christ's  victory  with  the  same  material  splendour 


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which  the  State  attmlu'il  to  the  imporial  majcsly 
of  Csesar.  The  Good  Sliopherd  of  the  C'atacoinhs 
and  the  pastoral  scenes  gradually  disappeared;  the 
last  traces  of  them  are  found  in  the  rotunda  of  .St. 
Constantia  and  in  the  mausoleum  of  Galla  Placidia 
at  Ravenna  (c.  4.50).  In  the  magnificent  mosaic  of 
S.  Pudenziana  at  Rome  (before  410),  the  Cross,  which 
stands  in  mid-heaven  above  a  Senate  of  Apostles 
wearing  the  laticlavc,  is  already  a  symbol  of  triumph. 
Christ  appears  as  a  celestial  imperalor  invested  witli 
awe-inspiring  glory.  "The  arches  of  the  world", 
writes  Eusebius,  "are  His  throne,  the  earth  is  His 
footstool.  The  celestial  armies  are  His  guard." — 
Thus  formidably  is  the  God  of  the  Gospel  portrayed 
on  the  porch  of  the  ancient  Vatican. 

Rome  still  preserves  the  oldest  remains  of  the  new 
art,  but  the  East  has  claims  to  priority.  Such  recent 
discoveries  as  those  of  M.  Cledat  in  the  necropolis 
of  El  Bagaout  (fourth  century)  and  in  the  convent  of 
Baouit  (sixth  century),  the  excavations  of  M.  Gayet 
in  the  tombs  of  .\ntinoe  and  the  funeral  portraits 
unearthed  at  Fayum  form  an  accumulation  of  evi- 
dence which  leaves  no  doubt  on  this  point.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  famous  miniatures  of  Cosmas 
Indicopleustes  and  of  the  "Roll  of  Josue"  (preserved 
at  the  Vatican),  the  originals  of  which  date  from  the 
sixth  century,  or  those  of  the  Mesopotamian  Evangel- 
iary,  illustrated  in  586  by  the  monk  Rabula  (Lauren- 
tian  Library,  Florence),  and,  although  of  somewhat 
later  date,  the  paintings  of  the  Evangeliaries  of  Etsch- 
miadzin  (Armenian,  dated  989)  and  Rossano,  repro- 
duced from  obviously  earlier  models,  either  Alexan- 
drian or  Syriac.  These  paintings  are  chiefly  narrative 
and  historical  in  character.  The  Church,  having  con- 
quered paganism,  must  now  face  the  task  of  supplying 
its  place.  And  the  Church  quickly  recognized  in  her 
own  experience  with  paganism  the  efficacy  of  images 
as  means  of  instruction.  This  is  testified  by  a  letter 
(end  of  the  fourth  century)  from  St.  Nilus  to  the  pre- 
fect Olympiodorus,  who  had  built  a  church  and  wished 
to  know  if  it  were  fitting  that  he  should  adorn  it  only 
with  scenes  of  the  chase  and  angling,  with  foliage,  etc., 
having  in  view  only  the  pleasure  of  the  eye.  St.  Nilus 
replied  that  this  was  mere  childish  nonsense,  that  the 
fitting  thing  in  the  sanctuary  was  the  image  of  the 
Cross,  and  on  the  walls  scenes  from  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  Gospel,  so  that  those  who,  being  unable  to 
read  the  Scriptures,  might  by  these  pictures  be  re- 
minded of  the  beautiful  deeds  of  the  followers  of  the 
true  God,  and  thereh\'  impelled  to  do  in  like  manner. 
Obviously,  the  holy  anchorite  here  recommended  gen- 
uine historical  compositions.  The  Church,  replacing 
the  vast  pagan  repertory  of  legend  and  fable,  created 
for  the  imagination  a  new  basis,  likewise  derived  from 
the  past.  At  that  date  the  best  apology  for  the  Church 
was  the  story  of  its  life  and  its  genealogy,  and  this  was 
perseveringly  set  forth  during  the  early  centuries  after 
Constantine.  This  historical  tendency  is  clearly  evi- 
dent at  St.  Mary  Major's  in  the  forty  mosaics,  exe- 
cuted in  the  time  of  Pope  Sixtus  HI  (432-40),  which 
relate  the  fives  of  the  Patriarchs  Abraham,  Isaac, 
Jacob,  Moses,  and  Josue.  Christ's  victory  and  His 
glorious  Advent  also  find  expression  in  the  "triumphal 
arches"  of  St.  Paul's  Without  the  Walls  (under 
Leo  I,  440-61)  and  of  the  Lateran  (under  Hilary  I, 
461-68). 

But  Rome,  conquered  by  the  hordes  of  Alaric,  had 
fallen  from  her  political  rank,  and  henceforth  the 
evolution  of  Byzantine  painting  must  be  followed  at 
Ravenna  and  Constantinople. 

B.  Monumental  Painting  to  the  Iconoclastic  Contro- 
versy.— Representing  deeds  rather  than  ideals,  events 
rather  than  symbols,  the  Byzantine  School  endowed 
Christianity  with  a  complete  system  of  representation 
of  all  types,  some  of  which  are  still  used,  and  once  for 
all  formulated  the  essential  traits  of  the  great  scenes 
of  religious  history.     (See  Byzantine  Abt.) 


In  its  early  period  Byzantine  painting  was  strictly 
realistic.  The  mosaics,  e.  g.,  on  either  sifle  of  the 
(^hoir  of  S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna,  show  the  Court  of 
Justinian  and  Theodora — sickly,  dissolute  figures;  the 
men,  coarse;  the  women,  bleached  and  bedizened, 
overladen  with  jewels  and  dressed  in  the  extreme  of 
luxury — unforgettable  personifications  of  a  cori-ui)t 
and  dazzling  life.  This  care  for  documentary  exacti- 
tude was  applied  also  to  the  past:  historic  characters 
were  treated  as  contemporary.  The  Christians  of  the 
first  three  centuries  had  been  obliged  to  content  them- 
selves with  conventional  types,  without  individual 
character,  for  their  figures  of  Christ;  liiit  here  B>-zan- 
tine  art  raised  new  questions.  The  Christ olofjicid  clis- 
putes  of  the  time  necessitated  new  dogmatic  dclini- 
tions.  In  painting  a  certain  school,  appealing  to  a 
text  of  Isaias,  maintained  that  Christ  was  hideous. 
In  answer  to  these,  appeal  was  made,  in  the  fourth 
century,  to  the  so-called  "Letter  of  Lentulus  to  the 
Senate".  Christ,  according  to  this  document,  had 
blue  eyes  and  light  hair  falling  smooth  to  His  ears, 
then  in  curls  over  his  shoulders.  One  recognizes  here 
the  desire  to  give  to  the  figure  of  the  Sax'iour  a  certain 
majestic  beauty  embodied  in  the  stereotyped  traits 
of  a  portrait  which  leaves  no  room  for  the  play  of 
fancy. 

The  same  process  of  determination  went  on  at  the 
same  time  for  the  principal  characters  of  sacred  his- 
tory, for  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Patriarchs,  and  the 
Apostles,  and  each  of  these  pictorial  types  acquired 
the  force  of  a  law.  The  Council  of  692,  for  example, 
decreed  that  Christ  should  be  represented  as  the 
Lamb.  This  scrupulosity  extends  to  accessories  and 
embellishments:  at  San  Vitale,  Ravenna,  the  "Hospi- 
tality of  Abraham"  has  for  its  setting  a  vast  verdant 
landscape;  at  San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  the  city  of 
Classis  and  the  palace  of  Theodoric  are  accurately 
represented.  In  Gospel  scenes  veritable  reproduc- 
tions of  Jerusalem  were  aimed  at.  The  care  for  exact 
representation  was,  at  the  same  time,  counteracted 
by  the  passion  for  grandeur  and  splendour  of  effect 
which  dominated  all  Byzantine  painting.  The  latter 
tendency  arose  partly  from  the  exigencies  of  decora- 
tive work  and  the  inexorable  laws  governing  monu- 
mental style.  Decoration  implies  work  intended  to  be 
viewed  from  a  distance,  and  therefore  simple  in  out- 
line and  colossal  in  scale,  reduced  to  absolute  essentials 
strikingly  displayed  on  a  wall-surface.  Hence  certain 
conventions,  the  result  of  optical  laws:  few  gestures, 
little  action,  no  agitation  or  confusion.  The  counte- 
nances have  an  impassive  and  fixed  expression,  as  the 
tragic  actor,  in  the  Greek  theatre,  assumed  mask  and 
cothurnus,  and  chanted  the  solemn  lines  to  a  slow 
recitative. 

This  theatrical  and  imposing  style  was,  however, 
less  artificial  than  might  be  supposed.  It  naturally 
ascribed  to  the  personages  of  the  sacred  drama  the 
ceremonious  dignity  of  the  Byzantine  world,  modelling 
the  past  on  the  present.  One  of  the  most  marked 
effects  of  these  ideas  is  the  repugnance  to  representing 
suffering  and  death.  At  San  Apollinare  Nuovo,  in 
the  portrayal  of  the  Passion,  not  Christ,  but  his  execu- 
tioner, carries  His  Cross.  The  artist  reverently  omits 
the  scene  on  Calvary,  and  indeed  Christian  art  for  a 
long  time  observed  the  same  reticence  (cf.  Br6hier, 
"Origines  du  Crucifix",  Paris,  1904).  But  on  the 
other  hand  there  is  the  taste  for  noble  composition, 
the  love  of  symmetry,  the  striving  after  grandiose  and 
solemn  efTects.  From  these  same  ideals  of  pomp  and 
grandeur  resulted  a  type  of  expression  in  harmony 
with  them,  monumental  painting  in  the  more  solid, 
more  luxurious  style  of  mosaic.  This  was  already  an 
ancient  art,  well  known  to  the  Alexandrians,  practised 
also  by  the  Romans,  who  used  it  chiefly  for  the  pave- 
ments of  their  villas.  But  it  was  reserved  for  the 
Byzantines,  who  applied  it  to  mural  decoration,  to  dis- 
cover its  true  resources.    (See  Mosaics.) 


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C.  From  the  Iconoclast  Conlronersy  to  the  School  of 
Mount  Athos. — The  Iconoclast  controversy  (725-850) 
arrested  the  development  of  this  powerful  school  at  its 
height.  The  mo\'ement  originated  in  Islam  as  a  fierce 
outburst  of  the  Semitic  idealism  of  the  desert.  The 
Iconoclast  emperors  were  by  no  means  barbarians,  but 
enUghtened  princes,  dilettanti  in  their  way,  very  often 
devotees  and  theologians;  such  in  particular  were  Leo 
the  Isaurian  and  Theophilus.  These  emperors  prided 
themselves  on  being  worshippers  "in  spirit  and  in 
truth",  and  proscribed  art  only  in  its  "idolatrous",  or 
religious,  applications.  Feminine  devotion  in  the  end 
triumphed  over  these  scruples.  Meanwhile  there  had 
been  wide  devastation;  the  convents  had  suffered 
especially ;  and  when  the  veneration  of  images  was  re- 
established, nearly  all  the  churches  had  lost  their 
ornaments,  the  mosaics  had  been  torn  down,  and  the 
frescoes  whitewashed.  As  often  happens,  however, 
the  Church  came  out  of  the  conflict  more  vigorous 
than  ever.  A  new  Byzantine  School,  very  different 
from  the  first,  and  a  second  golden  age  were  to  com- 
mence. The  first  Byzantine  School  was  an  historical 
one,  the  second  was  wholly  liturgical  and  didactic. 
Each  decorative  element  assumed  a  symbolical  value. 
Christ  the  king,  surrounded  by  the  celestial  hierarchy, 
looks  down  from  the  vaults;  in  the  sanctuary,  behind 
the  altar,  reigns  the  Virgin,  seated,  holding  the  Child 
in  her  lap  as  a  figure  of  the  Church,  the  "living  throne 
of  the  Almighty";  the  rest  of  the  apse  presents  the 
precursorsof  Christ,  the  bishops,  doctors,  and  two  great 
Eucharistic  scenes,  the  "Communion  of  the  Apostles" 
and  the  "Divine  Liturgy  " ;  on  the  walls  are  developed 
the  lives  of  the  saints  and  martyrs  and  that  of  Christ. 
In  the  story  of  the  Gospel  the  order  of  time  is  broken 
and  from  the  mass  of  miracles  a  few  great  scenes  are 
detached  which  the  Church  celebrates  at  the  twelve 
principal  feasts.  Two  essential  ideas  are  brought  into 
prominence:  the  Redemption  and  the  Resurrection — • 
the  scene  of  Calvary  and  the  Descent  into  Limbo.  In 
the  narthex,  the  Life  of  the  Virgin  assumes  a  novel 
importance,  while  the  Old  Testament,  on  the  contrary, 
tends  to  disappear. 

Four  important  monuments  in  the  East  mark  the 
apogee  of  the  new  style;  these  are:  St.  Luke  in  Phocis, 
the  Nea  Moni  of  Chios,  the  beautiful  church  of 
Daphni  near  Athens,  and,  in  Russia,  that  of  St.  Sophia 
at  Kiev.  All  four  elate  from  the  tenth  century,  but 
show  none  of  the  perfection  of  tletail  and  precision  of 
execution  which  make  the  mosaics  of  S.  Vitale  a  fin- 
ished type  of  painting;  but  the  decorative  effect  is 
beyond  compare.  Nothing  in  the  art  of  painting  can 
surpass  these  cliurches  encased  in  golden  shells  and 
peopled  by  a  host  of  gaunt,  colossal  figures.  At  this 
date  most  of  the  Gospel  compositions  were  virtually 
stamped  with  a  iVe  varietur;  for  each  of  them  a 
group  of  artistic  geniuses  had  provided  a  permanent 
type. 

A  more  important  fact  is  that  at  this  time  the 
Byzantine  style  conquered  the  West  and  became 
truly  universal.  At  about  the  same  time  the  West 
was  undergoing  a  singular  upheaval:  the  old  feudal- 
ism was  separating  itself  from  the  soil  and  setting 
itself  in  motion.  For  two  centuries  the  exodus  of 
the  Crusades  was  to  continue,  marking  the  beginning 
of  a  new  civilization  for  Europe.  Byzantine  colonics 
appeared  in  Italy,  notably  those  of  Venice,  in  the 
North,  and  of  Sicily,  in  the  South,  forming  hotbeds  of 
Byzantism  at  the  two  ends  of  the  Peninsula.  Within 
thirty  years  (1063-95)  Venice  accompUshed  the  marvel 
of  St.  Mark's  which  she  was  to  go  on  decorating  and 
perfecting  for  three  centuries  (the  narthex  is  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  the  baptistry  of  the  fourteenth 
century).  In  the  neighbourhood  of  \'enice  there  are 
examples  at  Torcello,  Murano,  and  Trieste,  while  the 
twelfth  century  witnesses  in  Sicily,  under  the  Norman 
princes,  the  appearance  of  four  incomparable  churches: 
that  of  Martorana  (1143),  that  of  Cefalil  (1148),  the 


palace  church  at  Palermo  (c.  1160),  and  the  Cathedral 
of  Monreale  (c.  1180).  Of  all  these  masterpieces  St. 
Mark's  is  the  best  known,  but  only  from  the  Pantocra- 
tor  in  the  apse  at  Cefalil  is  it  possible  to  realize  to 
what  beauties  of  nobility  and  melancholy,  and  to 
what  majesty  of  style,  the  art  attained. 

For  the  sake  of  completeness,  mention  must  be 
made  of  the  numerous  icons,  the  various  types  of  the 
Madonna  (Panagia,  Nicopceia,  Hodegetria),  of  the 
miniature  paintings  in  manuscripts  (which  were  im- 
portant for  the  diffusion  of  motives),  of  enamels  such 
as  those  in  the  Pala  d'Oro  of  St.  Mark's,  and  of 
the  small  portable  mosaic  pictures,  Uke  the  valuable 
diptych  preserved  at  the  Opera  del  Duomo,  at  Flor- 
ence. The  task  of  the  Byzantine  School  was  accom- 
plished, but  it  did  not  at  once  disappear.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  it  produced  the  fine  mosaic  cycle  of 
Kahrie-djami  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  within  the  solitude  of  Athos,  shut  in  by 
the  Mussulman  world,  it  continued  to  produce  and 
covered  all  Eastern  Europe  with  countless  paint- 
ings of  the  school  of  Panselinos.  With  the  twelfth 
century,  however,  it  had  fulfilled  its  purpose,  and 
the  further  development  of  religious  painting  was  in 
the  West. 

III.  Religious  Painting  in  the  West,  to  the 
Cinque  Cento. — A.  North  of  the  Alps. — Through  the 
medium  of  the  monks  and  the  Crusades  all  Europe  was 
rendered  fruitful  by  the  Byzantine  School.  From  the 
Byzantine  a  Western  art  was  to  develop,  in  which  the 
loss  in  external  luxury  was  gradually  supplied  by 
pliancy  and  power  of  expression.  A  distinction  must 
here  be  made  between  the  art  of  the  countries  north  of 
the  Alps,  and  that  of  the  southern  countries.  Little 
need  be  said  of  the  former:  the  Romanesque  churches 
seem  to  have  been  very  rich  in  paintings,  but  most  of 
them  are  lost,  and  in  the  Gothic  churches,  which  soon 
after  began  to  be  erected,  there  was  little  room  for 
mural  painting;  stained  glass  took  its  place.  But 
the  personality  of  the  artist  was  scarcely  felt  in  this 
art,  and  as  to  drawing  and  subjects,  stained  glass 
is  scarcely  more  than  a  reflexion  of  miniature  painting. 
Its  study,  therefore,  has  but  a  purely  iconographic 
interest.  It  began  in  France  with  the  ^^^ndows  of  St- 
Denis  (1140-44),  and  the  school  of  St-Denis  spread 
throughout  the  North,  to  Chartres  (c.  1145),  York,  Le 
Mans  (c.  1155),  Angers,  and  Poitiers.  During  the  fol- 
lowing century  the  school  of  Notre-Dame-de-Paris 
played  the  same  part. 

The  iconography  of  these  windows  is  essentially 
symbolic,  and  the  allegorical  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages 
is  nowhere  more  apparent.  It  was  an  old  Christian 
idea  that  each  person  and  fact  of  the  Old  Testament 
was  an  image  prefiguring  a  person  of  the  New.  This 
idea  only  expanded  with  full  wealth  of  detail  in  the 
Gothic  art  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 
With  wonderful  subtlety  of  interpretation  the  attempt 
was  made  to  discover  the  most  unforeseen,  and  some- 
times the  oldest,  relations.  Books  such  as  those  of 
Rabanus  Maurus,  or  the  "Speculum  ecclesiae"  of  Ho- 
norius  of  Autun,  or  the  "Glossa  ordinaria"  of  Wal- 
afrid  Strabo,  must  be  read  to  obtain  an  idea  of  the 
spirit  in  which  the  Middle  Age  read  its  Bible  and  pic- 
tured it.  In  the  "Be.stiaries",  too,  which  supplied 
material  for  this  art,  there  is  a  fantastic  natural  his- 
tory, a  singular  menagerie,  each  curiosity  of  which 
conceals  some  pious  allegory.  The  material  universe 
was  transformed  into  a  sort  of  vast  psychomachia,  an 
immense  system  of  metaphors.  No  other  school  ever 
equalled  this  astounding  idealism. 

B.  In  Italy. — (1)  Giotto  and  the  Giottesques. — 
After  the  fall  of  Rome  and  the  Empire,  Italy  was  for 
centuries  in  a  most  miserable  condition.  In  the  sixth 
and  seventh  centuries  the  Iconoclast  reaction  sent  in 
the  direction  of  Rome  a  host  of  Orientals,  principally 
monks,  who  were  the  chief  victims  of  the  persecution. 
It  it  probably  to  these  Greeks  that  we  owe  the  frescoes, 


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doubtless  (iatinn  from  tlio  .seventh  century,  wlueh 
were  Jiseovered.  in  1S9S,  at  8ta  Maria  Antiqua. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  great  Abbot  Desiderius, 
the  school  of  Monte  Cassino  assumed  tlic  leadership 
in  an  artistic  movement  which  was  to  extend  as  far  as 
Cluny.  Some  eleventh-century  monuments,  such  as 
the  church  of  S.  Angelo  in  Formis,  have  preserved 
frescoes  which  attest  tlic  importance  of  this  Benedic- 
tine school;  but  its  traces  are  to  be  found  chiefly  in 
miniatures,  and  especially  in  volumes  of  a  particu- 
lar kind,  such  as  the  "Exultet-rolls"  (see  Exultet). 
This  style  spread  throughout  Italy  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, hilt  soon  declined.  In  thechurches  and  museums 
of  Tuscany  arc  to  be  found  a  great  number  of  icons, 
madonnas'  and  crucifixes,  such  as  the  miraculoiis 
Christ  preserved  at  St.  Clare  of  Assisi,  and  which  is 
said  to  have  spoken  to  St.  Francis.  These  works  show 
to  what  a  depth  of  barbarism  the  Byzantine  school 
had  fallen  about  1200.  Nevertheless,  it  was  still  cap- 
able of  producing  beautiful  work.  The  Madonna  of 
Guido  of  Siena,  for  instance,  preserved  in  the  Public 
Palace,  and  dated  1221  (not  1281,  as  according  to 
Milanesi),  proclaims  a  veritable  renewal  of  the  ancient 
formula,  tempered  by  the  grave  and  gentle  Siennesc 
mysticism.  This  is  still  more  obvious  in  the  works 
of  the  great  Duccio  (see  Duccio  Di  Buoninsegn.\), 
the  Rucellai  Madonna  (1285)  or  the  "Madonna 
Maesta"  (1311). 

Such  was  the  persistency  of  the  Byzantine  move- 
ment at  Siena,  but  a  movement  in  another  direction 
issued  from  Rome  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Recent  excavations  have  brought  to  light  at 
S.  Maria  in  Trastevere  a  cycle  of  very  important 
frescoes  of  which  Ghiberti,  in  his  "Commentary", 
gives  Pietro  Cavallini  as  the  author.  The  chief  scene 
represents  the  Last  Judgment.  It  is  impossible  to 
praise  excessively  the  beauty  of  this  composition,  the 
nobility  of  the  draperies,  the  majesty  of  the  types. 
Ancient  art  undoubtedly  exercised  a  powerful  influ- 
ence on  Cavallini,  as  on  his  contemporary,  the  sculptor 
Nicholas  of  Pisa.  In  the  thirteenth  century  a  revival 
took  place  at  Rome  which  foreshadowed  the  Renais- 
sance of  a  later  age.  Unhappily,  few  of  its  monuments 
remain,  but  the  mosaics  of  S.  Maria  in  Trastevere, 
that  of  St.  Mary  Major,  by  Jacopo  Torriti  (1296),  and 
the  Genesis  frescoes  of  St.  Paul  Without  the  Walls, 
known  tlu-ough  drawings  in  a  MS.  at  the  Vatican, 
reveal  the  importance  of  this  ancient  Roman  school. 
The  same  compositions  are  also  found  in  the  upper 
church  at  Assisi,  which  was  to  be  the  cradle  of  Italian 
painting.  It  is  now  proved  that  these  scenes  were  the 
work  of  Cavallini  and  liis  school.  There  is  nothing 
to  prove  that  Cimabue  did  not  work  here,  but  he 
would  have  done  so  only  as  a  pupil  of  the  Roman 
school  (see  Ci.m-\bue). 

This  is  also  true  of  the  great  Giotto  in  his  earliest 
dated  works:  the  Navicella  of  St.  Peter's  (1298),  the 
Stefaneschi  retablo  and  the  Jubilee  fresco  painted  in 
1300  at  St.  John  Lateran.  It  was  otherwise  with  his 
second  sojourn  in  Rome,  for  his  early  Assisi  frescoes, 
the  28  scenes  of  the  "  Life  of  St.  Francis  "  (c.  1293)  are 
wholly  in  the  Roman  manner.  At  Rome,  therefore, 
in  the  thirteenth  century  was  created  the  giottesco 
style,  the  dolce  slil  nuovo  which  was  to  charm  Italy 
for  a  hundred  years.  (See  Giotto  di  Bondoxe.) 
Giotto  instilled  into  the  painting  of  age  the  wonderful 
poetry  of  Franciscan  Christianity.  St.  Francis  has 
been  called  the  Father  of  Italian  art,  and  the  saying 
is  true  if  taken  with  a  certain  elasticity  of  meaning. 
Both  he  and  St.  Dominic  rejuvenated  and  reanimated 
the  Church.  The  history  of  religious  art  down  to  the 
Reformation  and  the  Council  of  Trent  could  only  be 
accurately  written  in  the  light  of  this  great  historic 
fact.  All  that  Byzantine  and  early  medieval  art  had 
represented  as  dogmas  assumed  the  stirring  character 
of  life.  To  say  that  art  became  secularized  would  be 
to  risk  miscomprehension,  but  in  truth,  from  being 


intellectual  and  theological,  it  became  democratic  and 
popular.  Faith  became  visualized.  The  whole  effort 
of  the  painters,  as  well  as  iif  tlie  people,  was  to  imagine 
as  vividly  as  ])ossible  the  life  and  sutTerings  of  Christ. 
A  multitude  of  dramatic  elements  develo))ed  in  Chris- 
tianity, and  originated  a  sort  of  rudimentary  theatre. 
(See    Italy,    Italian    Litekatuhe;     Jacopo.nk    da 

TODI.) 

All  these  characteristics  began  to  show  themselves 
in  painting  also.  At  Padua,  in  1306,  Giotto  outlined 
the  earliest  and  best  formulated  of  his  school  in  the 
"Life  of  the  Virgin",  closeh'  linked  with  the  history 
of  the  Passion.  The  painter  retained  only  the  pathetic 
elements  of  Christianity.  A  number  of  new  scenes 
appeared,  while  the  old  ones  were  enriched  with 
countless  new  features.  The  picture  is  filled  with 
figures,  gestures  are  softened,  expression  grows  tender 
and  human.  "Giotto",  says  Vasari,  "was  the  first 
to  put  more  kindness  into  his  figures".  During  three 
centuries  of  development  some  scenes,  such  as  the 
Nativity  and  the  Epiphany,  continued  to  grow  in 
movement,  expression,  and  picturesque  effect.  Sym- 
bolism and  didactic  intent  are  absent:  painting  ceases 
to  have  any  object  but  to  represent  life.  The  teach- 
ing of  Christ,  the  parables,  and  the  sacraments  dis- 
appear, to  be  replaced  by  scenes  of  sorrow  and  the 
drama  of  Calvary,  every  moment  of  which  is  minutely 
treated  in  detail.  What  primitive  Christian  art 
avoided  with  a  sort  of  modesty  or  fear  now  became 
its  chosen  and  persistent  subject.  The  striking  feature 
of  these  pictures  is  a  wholly  new  impression  of  famil- 
iarity and  warmth. 

After  the  great  frescoes  of  the  Life  of  St.  Francis 
at  Assisi  a  host  of  local  saints  and  contemporary  beali 
were  honoured  in  like  manner.  In  painting  these  con- 
temporary lives,  the  artists  had  to  create  traditions; 
therefore  they  painted  what  they  saw — faces,  cos- 
tumes, assemblages  of  people.  They  became  realists 
and  observers,  and  these  same  tendencies  appeared 
in  their  paintings  of  the  Gospel.  There  was  little 
need  of  invention :  the  theat  re  and  its  representations, 
the  processions,  and  the  tableaux  vivants  assisted  their 
imagination  (cf.  Male,  "  Renouvellement  de  I'art  par 
les  my.steres"  in  "Gazette  des  Beaux-.\rts",  Feb.- 
May,  1904).  The  following  are  some  "Passions"  of 
the  Giottesque  school,  in  chronological  order:  in  the 
lower  church  of  Assisi,  by  Pietro  Lorenzetti  (c.  1325); 
by  Gerini,  at  S.  Croce,  Florence;  by  a  Sienese  master 
in  the  Neapolitan  church  of  Donna  Regina,  or  that  by 
Andrea  da  Firenze  (c.  1350)  at  the  Spanish  chapel; 
lastly  the  siilendid  frescoes  of  Altichiero  and  Avanzi  in 
the  chapel  of  the  Santo  of  Padua  (1370). 

But  all  this  realism  was  never  an  end  in  itself:  its 
object  was  to  reach  the  emotions;  and  it  made  mani- 
fest the  character  of  humanity  in  Christianity.  Hence 
the  many  paintings  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  in  which 
art  incessantly  sang  to  her  the  tenderest  hymns  of 
love.  The  Panagia  of  the  Byzantines,  the  Virgin  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  Throne  of  God,  Queen  of  Heaven, 
gave  place  to  the  Mother,  the  most  beautiful,  the 
sweetest,  and  the  tenderest  of  women.  After  St. 
Bernard — il  siwfedde  Bernardo — St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
and  St.  Bonaventure,  devotion  to  the  Madonna  be- 
came one  of  the  chief  Christian  devotions.  Schools 
competed  as  to  which  should  paint  the  holiest  and 
most  exquisite  Virgins,  and  none  were  more  charming 
than  those  of  Siena — Sena  veins  citritas  Virginis. 

The  Madonnas  of  Simone  di  Martino,  of  the  two 
Lorenzetti,  of  Lippo  Memmi,  and  their  successors, 
began  the  incomparable  poem  to  which  Raphael,  Van 
Dyck,  or  Murillo  added  perfect  strophes,  without, 
however,  obliterating  the  memory  of  their  ancient 
predecessors. 

The  same  inspiration  is  evident  in  the  paintings 
which  represent  the  moral,  didactic,  or  philosophic 
painting  of  that  time,  such  as  the  frescoes  of  "Good 
and  Evil  Government"  at  Siena  by  the  Lorenzetti  (c. 


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1340),  those  of  the  Church  militant  and  the  Church 
teaching  in  the  Spanish  Chapel  (c.  1355),  or  those  of 
the  "Anchorites"  and  the  "Triumph  of  Death"  in 
the  Campo  Santo  of  Pisa  (c.  1370),  all  showing  the 
same  popular  and  practical  character.  Such  pictures 
have  the  force  of  a  sermon ;  there  is  no  strictly  artistic 
intention,  but  an  ob\-ious  intention  to  instruct  and 
impress.  This  is  also  made  clear  by  the  celebrated 
allegories  of  the  Franciscan  Virtues,  in  the  lower 
church  of  Assisi  (c.  13.35),  and  in  the  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  the  Last  Judgment  (by  Giotto  at  Padua  and 
the  Florence  Signoria;  by  Orcagna  at  S.  Maria 
Novella,  etc.).  This  theme  of  death  and  the  Judg- 
ment was  evidently  a  favourite  one  with  the  Mendi- 
cants :  at  Assisi  and  Padua  are  two  frescoes  represent- 
ing a  Friar  Minor  indicating  a  skeleton  beside  him. 
And  hence  the  "Triumph  of  Death"  at  Pisa  and  the 
terrible  "Dance  of  Death"  of  northern  Europe. 

This  popular  art  required  popular  modes  of  expres- 
sion. Cavallini  and  Giotto  still  made  mosaics,  and 
Cimabue  is  best  known  to  us  as  a  mosaicist.  But 
this  slow  and  expensive  method  was  unsuited  to  a 
democratic,  sentimental,  and  impassioned  art,  while 
fresco,  which  had  never  been  abandoned,  even  during 
the  Byzantine  period,  offered  to  the  new  ideas  a  more 
plastic  and  animated  mode  of  expression.  With  less 
material  opulence,  the  latter  process  was  rapid,  cheap, 
and  apt  at  reproducing  the  undulations  of  life,  ex- 
pressing at  once  the  exactness  of  nature  and  the  emo- 
tion of  the  artist.  Thereby  a  new  element  entered  into 
the  execution  itself,  an  individual  element  of  sentiment 
and  spontaneity  only  limited  by  the  conditions  of 
mural  painting  and  the  exigencies  of  an  art  always 
somewhat  oratorical.  Inebriated,  as  it  were,  with 
this  new  liberty,  the  Giottesque  painters  covered  Italy 
with  innumerable  paintings.  Indeed,  this  school,  as  a 
whole,  despite  grave  faults,  constitutes  the  richest  and 
freest  fund  of  religious  painting. 

(2)  Masaccio  and  His  Age. — But  it  mu.st  be  ac- 
knowledged that  the  Giottesques  formed  a  popular 
school  which  was  too  often  satisfied  with  worthless 
improvisation.  The  task  of  imbuing  painting  with 
artistic  feeling  was  that  of  the  two  great  painters, 
Masolino  (q.  v.)  and  Masaccio  (q.  v.),  the  latter  espe- 
cially, in  his  frescoes  in  the  Carmelite  chapel  at  Flor- 
ence (1426)  sounding  the  keynote  of  the  future.  Nev- 
ertheless, despite  their  seriousness  of  conception  and 
aim,  the  religious  element  of  these  frescoes  is  scarcely 
to  be  taken  into  account.  There  are  evidences  of 
great  progress  in  the  art,  the  nobility  of  ideas,  the 
elevation  of  style,  the  seriousness  and  grandeur  of  the 
work,  but  the  gain  of  Christian  feeling  and  piety  is  less 
manifest.  But  Masaccio's  powerful  naturalness  was 
for  a  time  in  harmony  with  the  mystic  sense,  and  re- 
ligious art  then  yielded  perhaps  its  most  exquisite 
flowers.  The  works  of  Gentile  da  Fabriano,  such  as 
the  "Adoration  of  the  Magi"  (1423;  Academy  of 
Florence),  those  of  Pisaniello,  such  as  the  "Legend  of 
St.  George"  (c.  1425;  St.  Anasta.sia,  Verona),  and  in  a 
lesser  degree  those  of  the  Milanese  Stefano  da  Zcvio 
breathe  the  inimitable  grace  of  a  pure  and  holy  joy, 
which  is  still  more  charmingly  apparent  in  the  works 
of  the  Camaldolese  Lorenzo  Monaco,  and  especially  in 
those  of  the  Dominican  Fra  Giovanni  da  Fiesole, 
whose  genius  won  for  him  the  surname  of  Angelico 
(q.  v.). 

Angelico's  disciples  did  not  reach  his  level,  but  a 
youthful  charm  distinguishes  the  spiritual  paintings  of 
Benozzo  Gozzoli,  whose  "Adoration  of  the  Magi"  in 
the  Riccardi  chapel  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  works  of 
the  Renai-ssance,  while  his  "Genesis"  frescoes  in  the 
Campo  Santo  of  Pisa  (1469-85)  will  always  be  loved 
for  their  exquisite  figures  amid  rich  landscapes.  But 
perhaps  this  pious  joy  never  inspired  anything  more 
lovable  than  the  works  of  the  old  LTmbrian  masters, 
Ottaviano  Nelli,  Allegretto  Nuzi,  Domenico  Bontigli, 
and  Boccati  da  Camerino.    The  early  Renaissance  was 


a  fortunate  period,  in  which  the  simplicity  of  the  soul 
was  not  marred  by  the  discovery  of  nature  and  art. 
Even  the  poor  Carmelite  Fra  Filippo  Lippi,  unwilling 
monk  as  he  was,  whose  restless  life  was  far  from  ex- 
emplary, was  animated  by  true  and  delicate  piety. 
His  "Nativity"  (Berlin),  his  "Madonna"  (Ufiizi),and 
his  "Adoration  of  the  Holy  Child"  (c.  1465;  Louvre) 
recall  Angelico. 
^  C.  The  FiflecnihCentury  in  the  North. — What  Masac- 
cio's frescoes  were  for  fifteenth-century  Italy,  that  and 
much  more  was  the  retable  of  the  Van  Eycks  for 
the  rest  of  Europe.  This  colossal  work  was  begun  in 
1420,  completed  and  set  up  in  14.32.  Throughout  the 
fifteenth  century  the  art  of  the  schools  of  the  North 
retained  the  allegorical  and  symbolical  character 
which  marks  this  great  work.  Such  books  as  the 
"Speculum  humans  salvationis"  or  the  "Bibha  pau- 
perum"  dominated  iconography  and  furnished  artists 
with  their  favourite  subjects.  But,  with  all  this,  in 
Flanders  naturalism  was  unrestrained,  that  of  the  Van 
Eycks  making  even  Masaccio's  seem  vague  and  ab- 
stract. A  portion  of  the  change  accomplished  by  them 
is  foreshadowed  in  the  works  of  the  Limbourgs  (see 
LiMBorRd,  Pol  de).  To  the  revolution  which  they 
effected  in  the  manner  of  beholding  corresponds  an- 
other in  the  manner  of  painting.  The  whole  fifteenth 
century  spoke  of  the  "invention  of  the  Van  Eycks": 
it  is  hard  to  say  in  what  this  consisted,  but  if  they  did 
not,  as  was  bcUeved,  discover  oil-painting,  they  cer- 
tainly invented  new  processes  and  a  new  style.  (See 
Eyck,  Hubert  and  J.\n  Van.)  Undoubtedly  this 
rcaUsm  lacked  taste  and  charm.  The  types  were  com- 
mon, \'Tilgar,  and  middle-class,  and  these  faults  were 
even  exaggerated  by  the  disciples  of  the  school — Jean 
Daret,  Ouwater,  Dirck  Bouts,  Van  der  Goes,  and 
Petrus  Cristus.  The  school's  photographic  impassi- 
bility, on  the  other  hand,  was  suddenly  offset  by  the 
equally  exaggerated  and  somewhat  contorted  passion 
of  the  Braban^on  Van  der  Wej'den,  at  once  a  reaUst 
and  a  mystic.  Such  as  it  was,  this  robust  school  con- 
quered Europe  in  a  few  years,  even  Italy  feeling  its 
powerful  influence.  In  France,  Simon  Marmion, 
Nicolas  Fremont,  and  Jean  Fouquet  were  Uttle  more 
than  somewhat  refined  and  gallicized  Flemings.  In 
Spain  it  suffices  to  mention  Luis  Dalmaii  and  in  Portu- 
gal, Nuno  Gonzalez,  both  being  pure  Flemish. 

German  painting,  on  the  other  hand,  while  it  owed 
much  to  the  neighbouring  Flemish  school,  remained 
much  more  original  in  spirit.  In  it  is  found  the  deep 
and  tender  sentiment  lacking  in  the  school  of  the  Low 
Countries,  a  popular  mysticism  derived,  not  from 
books,  but  from  the  interior  treasures  of  the  soul.  The 
school  which  produced  (c.  1380)  the  Clarenaltar  of 
Cologne  and  (c.  1400)  the  delightful  little  "Paradise" 
of  Frankfort  obviously  possessed  but  mediocre  gifts; 
its  sense  of  form  was  often  defective,  but  even  the 
piety  of  Angelico  did  not  speak  a  purer  language.  A 
superior  plastic  education  produced  the  work  of 
Stephan  Lochner,  the  fine  Domhild  (1430),  the  "Ma- 
donna of  the  Violet",  and  the  marvellously  sweet 
"Madonna  of  the  Rose  Garden".  From  this  school 
was  descended  the  most  famous  of  the  Northern  mys- 
tics, the  tender  and  graceful  Memling  (q.  v.).  In  his 
work  a  new  aristocracy,  that  of  sentiment,  transfigures 
the  Flemish  opulence.  The  same  moral  delicacy  and 
familiarity  with  Divine  things  sweeten  and  spiritualize 
the  works  of  Gerard  David,  and  especially  of  Quentin 
Massys,  who  became  a  painter  through  love.  At  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century  there  was  no  German  town 
or  province  which  had  not  its  local  school.  For  a  long 
time  only  two  of  these  were  known  or  regarded:  that  of 
Cologne,  with  its  anonymous  masters,  the  Master  of 
the  Passion  of  Ly\cr;<hcrg,  the  Master  of  the  Death  of 
Mary,  the  Master  of  tlic  Jloly  Family  (Heitigerisippe), 
and,  most  powerful  of  all,  tlie  Master  of  the  Barthol- 
omdusaltar ;  and  the  school  of  Nuremberg,  with  its  two 
famous  painters,  Wohlgemuth  and  Pleydenwurff .    But 


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tn  reality  no  corner  of  Franconia,  Suabia,  Alsaoe,  or 
the  Tyrol  remained  sterile.  It  was  a  popular  art,  lo- 
calized, sentimental,  and  extremely  incorrect,  often 
coarse  in  form,  but  refined  in  soul  even  to  afTectation, 
and  which  in  its  pious  imager^'  expressed  better  than 
any  other  certain  ideas  of  sympathy  and  tenderness. 
There  is  nothing  more  thrilling  than  the  Passion  of 
Hans  Multescher  nor  more  appealing  than  the  altar- 
piece  of  St.  Wolfgang  by  the  Tyrole.se  Michel  Pacher. 
Elsewhere  in  Germany  there  were  other  admirable 
stylists,  such  as  Hans  Baldung  and  Conrad  Witz  at 
Fribourg  and  Basle,  foreshadowing  the  perfection  of 
Holbein. 

But  the  great  Albrecht  Durer  was  to  express  all  that 
was  most  intimate  in  Germanic  religion,  and  beautiful 
as  were  his  pictures  he  expressed  the  deepest  meanings 
in  his  prints.  This  more  direct  and  less  expensive  art, 
produced  for  the  masses,  satisfied  the  German  de- 
mands for  popularity  and  individuality.  To  this 
Diirer's  genius  was  wholly  devoted,  and  art  does  not 
possess  more  moving  masterpieces  than  the  ".Apoca- 
lypse" series  (1498),  the  "Life  of  the  Blessed  Virgin" 
(1506),  the  "Little  Passion"  (1.509),  and  the  "Great 
Passion"  (1510).  But  side  by  side  wnth  this  contem- 
plative, intimate,  and  noble  spiritual  art  was  a  second 
tendency,  no  less  thoughtful,  but  impassioned,  violent, 
dramatic,  and  which  went  to  extremes  in  the  search 
for  expression  and  the  mania  for  the  pathetic.  It  was 
inspired  by  the  mystery  plays.  All  technical  progress 
and  perfection  of  realization  were  utilized  to  express 
emotion.  It  began  with  Van  der  Weyden,  Memling 
did  not  escape  it  in  his  Munich  picture  of  the  "Seven 
Sorrows  of  the  Blessed  Virgin",  Massys  painted  blood- 
besprinkled  Holy  Faces  and  Magdalens  with  reddened 
and  streaming  eyes,  Diirer's  "Passions"  terrify  by 
their  intensity  of  sorrow,  but  the  most  tragic  of  all  was 
Mathias  Griinewald,  whose  terrible  "Crucifix-ions"  at 
Colmar  and  Stuttgart  are  like  the  nightmare  of  a  bar- 
barian visionary.  This  love  of  the  horrible  became  a 
genre.  Infernal  fantasies,  the  dreams  of  an  unhealthy 
imagination,  haunt  the  thoughts  of  ,Ierome  Hosch, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  idyllic  insipidity  and  chililish- 
ness  appear  in  the  "Holy  Family"  and  "I'liglit  into 
Egj'pt"  of  Cranach  and  Patenier.  At  this  juncture 
came  the  Reformation,  which  destroyed  painting  in 
Germany. 

IV.  The  Cinque  Cento  and  the  Later  Schools. — 
A.  Tuscany,  Umhria,  and  Rome. — The  two  tendencies 
observed  in  the  North,  naturalism  and  pathos,  devel- 
oped also  in  contemporary  Italy.  Protestant  criti- 
cism has  greatly  exaggerated  the  irreligion  of  the 
Renaissance.  Undoubtedly  some  painters,  absorbed 
by  problems  of  expression  and  the  study  of  atmos- 
phere, models,  and  perspective,  neglected  religious 
emotions.  At  Florence  especially  there  were  a  num- 
ber of  artists  who  saw  in  their  craft  only  a  question  of 
form.  Form,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  owes  much  of  its 
progress  to  the  studies  of  Castagno,  Paolo  Uccello, 
the  PoUaiuoli,  Andrea  Verrocchio,  and  Baldovinetti, 
but  their  learning,  importance,  and  great  services 
cannot  conceal  the  poverty  of  their  art  and  the  nar- 
rowness of  their  ideas;  they  were  professors  and  use- 
ful pedagogues,  but  neither  poets  nor  true  artists. 
On  the  other  hand  the  Renai-ssance  was  the  period 
when  the  love  of  ideas,  so  unnatural  to  Italian  thought, 
manifested  itself  by  most  important  works.  The 
decoration  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  (c.  1480)  at  the  com- 
mand of  a  Franciscan  pope,  is  perhaps  the  most 
clearly  symbolical  assemblage  of  Italian  art.  On  the 
walls  the  life  of  Moses  is  portrayed  parallel  with  that 
of  Christ.  Thirty  years  later  Michelangelo  depicted 
on  the  ceiling  the  Delivery  of  Israel,  the  Prophets,  the 
Sibyls,  and  the  Ancestors  of  Christ.  The  Apparta- 
inento  Borgia  was  decorated  by  Pinturicchio  with 
didactic  frescoes  in  imitation  of  the  Spanish  chapel; 
Filippino  Lippi  represented  at  the  Minerv.-i  the 
"Triumph  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas";   while  Perugino 


at  the  Cambio  of  Perugia  and  Raphael  in  his  xlame 
produced  the  masterpieces  of  the  painting  of  ideas. 

It  would  be  vain  to  deny  that  the  spirit  of  the 
Renaissance  possessed  irreligious  tendencies.  Cer- 
tainly such  a  work  as  that  of  Ghirlandajo  in  the  choir 
of  S.  Maria  Novella  is  singularly  secular  in  tone. 
Even  in  more  serious  works,  such  as  Leonardo's  won- 
derful "Last  Supper"  at  Milan,  it  is  readily  seen  that 
despite  its  sublime  beauty  it  was  not  intended  merely 
to  edify.  However,  these  matters  must  be  treated 
with  reserve,  owing  to  the  delicate  nature  of  questions 
of  religious  sincerity.  We  can  hardly  assert  tliat  the 
Dominicans  for  whom  these  works  were  executed  were 
poorer  judges  than  we,  nor  is  it  clear  by  what  right  we 
connect  religious  meaning  with  certain  archaic  forms. 
In  this  the  Church  has  judged  with  more  delicacy, 
never  having  restricted  a  sentiment  to  certain  forms, 
but  having  left  it  free  to  create  that  most  fitting  to  it 
and  to  speak  to  each  age  the  language  which  will  be 
best  understood.  The  fact  is  that  at  no  period  was 
religious  activity  so  fruitful;  no  other  has  bequeathed 
to  us  so  many  altar-pieces,  oratory  pictures,  Madonnas 
and  saints.  It  was  the  age  of  countless  pictures  for 
pious  confraternities,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  the 
artist,  who  was  so  often  a  member  of  the  confrater- 
nity, infused  something  of  his  heart  into  his  work. 
At  Siena  especially  such  charming  painters  as  Vec- 
chietta  or  Benvenuto  di  Giovanni  were  no  less  remark- 
able for  their  piety  than  their  talents.  Perugino, 
it  is  true,  has  been  called  an  Atheist,  but  of  this  we 
have  no  certainty,  nor  do  we  know  Vasari's  authority 
for  the  statement.  On  the  other  hand  we  note  in 
him  (before  he  lapsed  into  mechanical  production)  a 
reaction  against  dryness  and  intellectualism.  (See 
Perdgino.)  Botticelli  and  Filippino  Lippi  show  a 
tendency  to  the  nervous  pathos  of  Roger  van  der 
Weyden  and  Quentin  Massys.  An  extremely  ascetic 
and  terrifying  spirit  distinguishes  Luca  Signorelli. 

More  worthy  of  study  are  the  works  of  Crivelli  and 
Cosimo  Tura  at  \'erona  and  Ferrara,  showing  a  love 
for  depicting  suffering  w-hich  borders  on  caricature. 
.\t  Bologna,  on  the  other  hand,  the  productions  of 
Costa  and  Francia  are  marked  by  a  more  temperate 
religious  emotion,  while  a  group  of  Milanese  painters 
including  I-'oppa  and  Borgognone  upheld,  even  amid 
Leonardo's  influence,  the  mystical  traditions  of  the 
ancient  school.  The  appearance  of  new  motifs  based 
on  devotion  to  the  Precious  Blood,  to  the  Holy  Fam- 
ily, the  maternity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  etc.,  indicated 
the  continuous  enriching  of  religious  life  and  the  con- 
stant activity  of  Christian  piety.  Undoubtedly  when 
Leonardo  painted  the  "St.  Anne"  of  the  Louvre, 
and  Raphael  his  "Madonna  of  the  Goldfinch",  they 
did  not  aim  at  portraying  ascetic  mortification,  but 
rather  a  serene  confidence  in  the  beauty  and  nobility 
of  life.  It  is  difficult  to  stamp  this  optimism  as  an 
error. 

B.  Venice  and  the  Schools  of  Northern  Italy. — The 
Venetian  school  has  been  greatly  misjudged  from  a 
religious  stantlpoint.  Because  the  Venetians  could 
paint  better  than  any  others,  and  because  they  set 
great  value  on  the  charm  of  colouring,  they  have  been 
charged  with  paganism  and  immorality.  Quite  the 
contrary  is  true.  Two  very  different  traditions  are 
evident  in  Venetian  painting:  the  first  that  of  the 
popular  painters  employed  by  the  confraternities,  the 
guilds,  and  the  scuolr;  the  other  that  of  the  official 
painters  in  the  service  of  the  State,  the  patricians,  and 
the  convents.  The  former  school,  which  was  that  of 
Lazzaro  Bastiani  Carpaccio,  Cima  da  Conegliano,  and 
Diana,  filled  the  parishes  of  Venice  and  the  Islands 
with  brilfiant  and  delightfully  ingenuous  works.  Noth- 
ing could  be  more  charming  than  Carpaccio's  paints 
ings,  such  as  his  Legend  of  St.  Ursula  or  the  oratory 
pictures  in  San  Giorgio  de'  Schiavoni.  The  second 
and  more  scholarly  school,  proceeding  from  the  Viva- 
rini  and  the  great  Paduan  master,  Andrea  Mantegna, 


PAINTING 


401 


PAINTING 


is  chiefly  represented  by  the  three  Bellini,  the  last  of 
whom,  Giovanni,  is  not  only  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  painters,  but  also  one  of  the  most  elevated  and 
recollected.  The  works  of  Giorgione  are  no  less  poeti- 
cally inspired,  and  his  heads  of  Christ  are  marvels  of 
emotion.  It  may  be  questioned  how  Titian  can  be 
charged  with  irreHgion  in  his  "Assumption",  his 
Pesaro  Madonna,  his  "Martyrdom  of  St,  Lawrence", 
his  frescoes  in  the  Santo  of  Padua,  or  his  "  Death  of  St. 
Peter  Martyr".  In  his  "Bacchanal"  of  Madrid  and 
the  "Flora"  of  the  Uffizi  we  encounter  the  same  prob- 
lem presented  by  Raphael,  which  then  faced  all  cul- 
tured minds.  We  can  scarcely  accuse  of  religious 
insincerity^  the  author  of  the  "Entombment"  and 
"Crowning  with  Thorns"  of  the  Louvre,  who  after  so 
many  joyous  pictures  painted  as  his  last  testament 
and  farewell  to  life  the  funereal  "Pieta"  of  the  Acca- 
demia  of  Venice.  The  same  is  true  of  the  other  great 
Venetians,  Palma,  Veronese,  Bonifazio,  Tintoretto, 
and  the  divine  Corregio. 

But  the  Church  was  obliged  by  harsh  criticism  to  be 
vigilant  with  regard  to  humani.stic  extremes.  At 
Florence  the  work  of  Fra  Bartolommeo  or  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  at  Ferrara  that  of  Garofalo,  at  Brescia  that  of 
Moretto  or  Romanino,  at  Vercelli  that  of  Gaudenzio 
Ferrari,  at  Venice  itself  that  of  Lorenzo  Lotto,  are  so 
many  heralds  of  a  "counter-reformation",  which  be- 
came definite  about  1550,  at  the  time  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  and  which  derived  its  origin  from  Venice.  A 
significant  circum.stance  was  the  action  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion against  Veronese  for  having  introduced  fanciful 
figures  into  his  religious  pictures.  The  painter  was 
acquitted,  but  the  art  of  the  Renaissance  had  received 
a  blow  from  which  it  never  recovered.  It  was  the 
period  when  the  pope  ordered  Daniele  di  Volterra 
(Ricciarelli)  to  clothe  decently  the  too  audacious 
nakedness  of  his  "Last  Judgment",  when  the  learned 
Molanus  (Meulen)  wrote  his  work  on  images,  when 
St.  Charles  Borromeo  and  his  cousin  the  cardinal,  with 
their  circle  of  zealous  associates,  preached  a  return  to 
an  enlightened,  serious  religion,  purified  of  popular 
medieval  superstitions  and  recovered  from  the  danger- 
ous compromise  with  the  external  forms  of  pagan  nat- 
uralism (cf.  J.  A.  Symond's  "Renaissance  in  Italy: 
The  Catholic  Reaction",  I,  i-iv).  After  having  exer- 
cised great  toleration  the  Church  was  about  to  take 
vigorously  in  hand  the  direction  of  ideas.  Tintoretto's 
last  works  at  the  Scuola  di  S.  Rocco  display  a  system 
of  symbols  as  abstract  as  a  stained-glass  window  of  the 
thirteenth  century;  painting  once  more  became  the 
handmaid  of  theology.  From  Venice  itself  came  the 
last  Byzantine,  the  strange  Greco,  the  pupil  of  Titian 
and  Veronese,  whose  emaciated,  sickly,  dried-up  style 
is  a  proti^st  against  the  whole  luxuriant  ideal  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  who  became  the  founder  of  Spanish 
painting. 

C.  The  Baroque  School. — The  most  striking  trait 
of  the  new  school  was  its  unity  of  style  and  method. 
In  the  fifteenth  and  even  in  the  six-teenth  century  there 
was  an  endless  number  of  little  schools,  each  town 
having  its  own,  but  in  the  seventeenth  century  paint- 
ing once  more  became  international.  A  single  manner 
of  seeing  and  thinking  predominated  and  there  was  no 
essential  difTerence  between  a  Flemish  and  an  Italian 
or  Spanish  picture.  More  than  one  social  or  political 
reason  may  be  advanced  for  this,  e.  g.,  the  politi- 
cal supremacy  of  Spain  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Viceroyalty  of  Naples,  or  the  cosmopolitanism  of  the 
painters.  But  the  only  good  reason  was  the  existence 
of  a  general  organization,  a  universal  institute  which 
forced  a  common  direction  on  all  ideas.  But  the  time 
has  gone  by  when  the  word  baroque  was  used  to  dis- 
parage two  centuries  of  art,  as  the  word  Gothic  thinly 
disguised  a  condemnation.  What  science  is  to  the 
modern  world  the  idea  of  beauty  was  to  sixteenth- 
century  Italy.  Thus  the  lost  Grecian  ideal  was  re- 
stored tlirough  Florence  and  Venice,  but  the  cultiva- 
XI.— 26 


tion  of  the  form  without  thought  for  its  import  was 
what  dried  up  and  poisoned  the  school  which  issued 
from  Raphael  and  especially  from  Michelangelo,  the 
art  of  Giulio  Romano,  Zuccheri,  Vasari,  and  Giusep- 
pino.  Before  the  end  of  the  century  a  strong  reaction 
set  in  against  this  corrupt  and  empty  art.  In  1582  the 
Carracci  founded  their  academy  at  Bologna,  and  at 
Rome,  about  the  same  time,  the  independent  and 
eccentric  Caravaggio  scandalized  the  public  by  brutal 
painting  roughly  borrowed  from  the  lowest  reality. 
In  his  "Death  of  the  Blessed  Virgin"  (c.  1605)  now  at 
the  Louvre  he  did  not  hesitate  to  copy  a  drowned 
woman.  Nevertheless  Caravaggio  did  much  to  turn 
art  once  more  in  the  direction  of  nature  and  truth. 
His  "Entombment",  at  the  Vatican,  is  one  of  the  im- 
portant works  of  modern  painting  and  the  manifesta- 
tion of  a  new  art. 

Thus,  of  its  own  volition,  art  inclined  to  return  to 
naturalism  while  religion  endeavoured  to  hold  it  back. 
St.  Ignatius  in  his  "Spiritual  Exercises"  indicates  the 
share  of  sentiment  and  imagination  in  the  psychology 
of  belief,  laying  great  stress  on  the  "composition  of 
place  "  and  the  use  of  the  senses  as  aids  to  the  imagina- 
tion with  the  object  of  arousing  an  emotion.  It  will 
readily  be  seen  what  assistance  painting  would  be  to 
such  a  system,  and  that  is  why  the  Jesuits  restored  to 
art  all  the  importance  which  the  Protestants  had  taken 
from  it.  Naturalism  was  the  necessary  result  of  this 
spirit,  and  in  this  Jesuit  art  merely  resumed  the  con- 
stant tradition  of  Christianity.  Nor  was  this  all;  the 
picture  should  inspire  emotion,  and  the  corollary  of 
naturalism  was  pathos.  By  more  than  one  character- 
istic the  Catholic  school  of  the  seventeenth  century 
recalls  the  great  Franciscan  school  of  the  fourteenth. 
A  curious  fact  is  the  recurrence  of  popularity  of  Fran- 
ciscan legend.  The  "Vision  of  St.  Francis",  the 
"Stigmata",  the  "Vision  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua", 
the  "Last  Communion  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi"  are  the 
titles  of  masterpieces  in  the  schools  of  Antwerp,  Bo- 
logna, Naples,  and  Seville.  A  still  more  significant 
circumstance  was  that  the  Renaissance,  like  the  an- 
cient Byzantine  art,  had  avoided  all  portrayal  of  the 
sufferings  of  Christ:  Raphael,  Titian,  or  Rlichelan- 
gelo  never  painted  a  Crucifixion,  though  among  the 
masterpieces  of  Rubens  were  an  "Ascent  of  Calvary  ", 
an  "Erection  of  the  Cross",  a  "Piercing  with  the 
Lance",  and  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross".  The 
Renaissance  had  also  lost  the  taste  for  and  the  sense 
of  narrative;  but  the  art  of  the  seventeenth  century 
presents  numerous  examples  of  this  ability  restored, 
such  as  the  "Life  of  St.  Cecilia"  at  S.  Luigi  di  Fran- 
cesi  and  the  "Life  of  St.  Nilus"  at  Grottaferrata,  by 
Domenichino;  the  Lives  of  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Peter 
Nolasco  by  Zurbaran,  etc.  The  Gospel  and  the 
"Legenda  aurea"  were  restored  to  honour.  If  the 
Renaissance  had  been  a  retrogression  or  an  eclipse 
of  Christian  sentiment.  Baroque  art  was  a  real 
resurrection. 

V.  Modern  RELiGions  Painting. — Great  religious 
painting  ends  with  Tiepolo;  his  Spanish  imitators, 
Bayeii  and  Goya,  produced  charming  works,  but  did 
nothing  new.  Save  for  a  few  somewhat  touching 
works  of  Lesueur  the  classic  French  school  was  wholly 
lacking  in  religious  originality.  Philippe  de  Cham- 
pagne was  a  Fleming,  a  good  painter  whose  talent 
Jansenism  almost  destroyed.  New  theories  and  the 
spirit  of  the  eighteenth  century  struck  a  fatal  blow 
against  the  painting  of  the  Church.  To  the  admirers 
of  extreme  antiquity  such  as  Winckelmann  and 
Lessing,  and  their  disciple,  Diderot,  Christianity  was 
an  inferior  religion  wljirh  liad  diffused  an  unworthy 
system  of  ;estlic1ics  tlirnufilioul  tlie  worid.  l')in'opean 
painting  was  dominated  liy  a,  sort  of  artistic  Jacoli- 
inism.  David  and  his  school  produced  no  rehgious 
painting;  under  the  Empire  the  only  "(Jhrist'"  worthy 
of  mention  is  that  of  the  gentle  Prud'hon.  However, 
a  curious  reaction  followed  this  arid  fanaticism;   the 


PAKAWA 


402 


PAKAWA 


Middle  Apos  bogan  to  he  utidorstood.  Even  under  (lie 
Directory  and  in  David's  studio  there  was  a  small 
body  railing  themselves  the  "Primitifs".  Chateau- 
briand's "Cienius  of  Christianity"  was  published  on 
the  same  day  as  the  Concordat  of  1802.  At  Rome  a 
little  circle  of  German  artists,  weary  of  Goethe's  Hel- 
lenic rationalism,  returned  to  mysticism,  discovered 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  by  painting  reopened  the 
sources  of  the  moral  life.  Unfortunately  these  "  Naza- 
renes",  Ovcrbock,  Steinle,  and  the  rest,  liad  but  a  poor 
artistic  sense.  A  l>"renrhman,  Jean  Dominique  Ingres, 
had  better  success  and  endowed  with  life  his  "Bestowal 
of  the  Keys"  (1820),  his  "Vow  of  Louis  XIII"  (1824), 
his  "St.  Symphorian"  (1834),  and  some  of  his  Virgins. 

Other  painters  also  treated  rehgious  subjects:  the 
Protestant  .\ry  SchefTer,  Paul  Delaroche,  even  De- 
camps. But  the  only  one  who  succeeds  in  arousing 
emotion  is  Paul  Delacroix,  whose  "Christ  on  Mt. 
Olivet"  (1827),  "Descent  from  the  Cross"  (1834), 
"Goo<l  Hamaritan"  at  Mantua,  "Christ  Stilling  the 
Tempest",  .-11111  especially  his  Chapel  of  the  Angels  in 
the  churdi  of  .St.  Sulpiee,  are  examples  of  immortal 
passion  and  poetry.  With  Flandrin's  frescoes  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Victor  Mottoz  at  St.  Germain 
I'Auxerrois,  of  Chass<^riau  at  St.  Roch,  and  especially 
the  splendid  scenes  from  the  "Legend  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve" (1878-98)  by  Puvis  de  Chavannes  in  the  old 
Pantheon.  Henner  and  L#on  Bonnat  have  painted 
famous  Christs;  Ernest  Hebert  has  painted  Virgins 
such  as  that  of  "The  Deliverance"  (1872)  which  are 
real  masterpieces.  Some  of  Bouguereau's  are  also 
worthy  of  mention. 

But  in  France,  as  elsewhere,  religious  painting  prop- 
erly so  called  tends  to  disappear.  The  attempts  of 
some  sincere  painters  in  England  and  Germany  have 
had  but  few  imitators.  Despite  rare  merits,  the  Pre- 
Raphaelite  school  has  left  only  studied  works  in  which 
scholarship  supersedes  sentiment.  This  is  especially 
true  of  Burne-Jones  and  Rossetti,  whose  style  too 
often  shows  affectation  and  artifice.  James  Tissot, 
with  his  scrupulous  Orientalism,  has  failed  to  capture 
the  true  Evangelical  perfume.  The  best  work  of  this 
school  has  been  produced  by  Holman  Hunt  in  his 
"Scapegoat"  and  "Shadow  of  the  Cross",  which 
display  singular  refinement,  somewhat  hardened  by 
empha.sis,  but  new,  impressive,  and  original.  The 
German  Gebhardt  does  not  approach  these  master- 
pieces in  his  "Last  Supper"  of  the  Berlin  Museum. 
A  recent  Franciscan  Pre-Raphaelitism  in  France  has 
produced  the  prints  of  Charles  Marie  Dulac  and  some 
charming  decorations  of  Maurice  Denis,  such  as  his 
"Assumption"  in  the  church  of  V^sinet. 

The  reason  for  this  impoverishment  of  religious  art 
must  not  be  sought  in  a  diminution  of  the  Christian 
sentiment.  It  is  due  primarily  to  the  fact  that  reli- 
gious art  has  become  an  industry  and  concurrence  is 
no  longer  possible  between  the  artists  and  the  dealers, 
but  the  chief  reason  lies  in  the  very  evolution  of  reli- 
gious ideas,  which  now  seek  a  new  form.  This  has 
been  shown  by  the  painter  John  La  Farge  ("Higher 
Life  in  Art,"  1908).  Much  of  the  religious  .sentiment 
of  the  nineteenth  century  has  been  expressed  in  land- 
scape painting.  To  the  angelic  soul  of  Corot  painting 
was  always  a  prayer,  and  the  same  is  true  of  our  great- 
est Christian  painter.  Millet,  whose  peasants  naturally 
assume  the  appearance  of  Biblical  characters,  as  of  the 
paintings  of  the  same  class  by  Leon  Lhermitte  ("Pil- 
grims of  Emmaus",  1894,  Boston  Museum;  "Among 
the  Ix)wly",  1905,  New  York  Mu.seum),  those  of 
L<Srolle,  Fritz  von  Uhdc,  and  especially  of  Eugene 
Carri&re. 

Such  are  the  outlines  of  religious  painting  during 
the  past  900  years.  Ancient  Christianity  expressed 
every  sentiment  and  ignored  no  shade  of  human 
nature.  And  if  religious  painting  now  seems  uncertain 
in  Europe,  in  view  of  the  great  movement  incessantly 
impelling  from  East  to  West  and  in  consideration  of 


the  wonderful  development  of  the  Church  in  the  New 
World,  who  knows  what  future  still  awaits  it  in 
America? 

General:  Seroux  d'Aoincoubt,  Hist,  de  I'art  par  Ira  monu- 
ments (Paris,  1892),  6  vols,  in  fol.;  Winter  and  Deiiio,  Hunts- 
gcschirhte  in  Bildern  (S  vols.,  Leipzig,  1S09-1900):  Reinach,  R6- 
perloire  de  peintures  anthieures  au  X  Vllh  s.  (3  vols.,  Pixria.  1905- 
10);  Kitvt'M,  Cn'^rhiehte  der  chri&tlichen  Kttnst  (Freib.  iin  Breisg., 
IS!).'  TKUi',  \\'MruMANN  AND  WoLTMANN,  Gcschichie  de  Malerei 
{!.'  II'  !  i  -7't  ■^^^;  Michel,  Histoire  de  Vart  depuis  les  premiers 
l-rnr  .  7«'d  nos /ours  (Paris.  lS9.5);VENTURi,S(ortadeii' 

.Ir/r  //,,;,,,,,  \lil:in,  1901);  Bchckhardt,  Le  Cicerone  (Paris, 
IMfl.');  LowHiF.,  (christian  Art  and  ArchtFology  {New  Yovk,  1901): 
Gradmann,  (Je&chichtc  der  christlichen  Kunst  (Stuttgart,  1902); 
MuTHER,  History  of  Painting  from  the  Fourth  to  the  Eighteenth 
Century  (New  York.  1907). 

Special:  First  period. — De  Rossi.  Roma  Sotterranea  (Rome. 
1864-67);  P£rat£,  L'archfologie  ehritienne  (Paris,  1892); 
^avuTzE,  Archa-ologie  de  altchristlichen  Kunst  (Munich,  1895); 
Marucchi,  Le  catacombe  romane  (Rome,  1903);  Idem.  Elements 
d'archiologie  chretienne  (Paris,  1899-1902);  Wilpert,  Die  Kata- 
combengemdlde  (Freiburg,  1892). 

Second  period. — Diehl,  Manuel  d'art  byzantin  (Paris.  1910); 
Strzygowski.  Orient  Oder  Rom  (Leipzig.  1902) ;  Idem,  Kleinasien 
(Leipzig,  1903);  Kondakoff,  Histoire  de  I'art  byzanlin  considirS 
principalement  dans  les  miniatures,  French  tr.  (Paris.  1886-91); 
Ainalow,  Origines  helUnistiques  de  Vart  byzanlin  (St.  Peters- 
burg, 1900):  Schultz  and  Barnslet,  The  monastery  of  St.  Luke 
of  Stiris  in  Phocis  (London.  1902);  Millet,  Le  monaslire  de 
Daphni  (Paris.  1899) ;  Didbon.  Manuel  de  la  peinture  (Paris.  1845). 

Third  period. — Kraus.  Burckhardt,  Michel,  etc..  opp.  cit. 
above:  M-ALE.  L'art  religieux  en  France  au  Xllle  si^cle  (2nd  ed., 
Paris.  1902) ;  Idem,  L'art  religieux  en  France  d  la  fin  du  moyen  Age 
(Paris,  190S);  DiDRON.  Iconographie  ehritienne  (Paris.  1843);  Di- 
DRON  AND  Cahier,  Lcs  Vitraux  de  Bourges  (Paris,  1846);  MiiNTz, 
Les  Pri.-iirs.uTK  ,U  la  Rcnnssiance  (Puris.  1882;  Italian  ed.,  Flor- 
ewr.  Till"'  Mi-\-T7,  II i-t'-n'-r  - '."  /'.;7  jnudant  la  Renaissance 
(I'lti      I"     1-      \v,,iiii'       /I      /, ',  /,,  Kunst,  EinfUhrung  in 

di>   I  I,'  ■  .  'Mir   .1,    1  *  M 1 1  1 ;  Crowe  AND  Caval- 

CAsi  III,  ,,.,',  ',,,   ;,,,,,,„,  ,."„   M.il.rei  (Leipzig,  1869-76; 

EiiKlisii  f'i,.  l.nTHiijii,  liiD.ii;  1  Huut;.  t'raiLz  von  Assisi  und  die 
Angldnge  der  Kunst  in  Italien  (Berlin,  1903;  French  tr.,  1909); 
L.  Douglas.  History  of  Siena  (London.  1902);  Idem,  Fra  Angelieo 
(London,  1902);  Janitschek,  Geschichte  der  deutsehen  Malerei 
(Berlin.  1890):  RiAU,  Les  Primitifs  allemands  (Paris,  1910); 
BoucHOT,  Les  Primitifs  francais  (Paris,  1904);  Samfere  y  Mi- 
guel, Quaitrocentistas  catalaOas  (Barcelona,  1907);  Bertaux, 
U Exposition  de  Saragosse  (1911);  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle, 
Les  anciens  peintres  flamands  (Brussels,  1862-63);  Dehaisnes.  7)e 
I'arl  chrtlien  en  Flandre  (Douai,  1860) ;  Weale.  The  Early  Painters 
of  the  Netherlands  in  Burlington  Magazine  (1903);  Idem,  Hans 
Memtinr  (London,  1902);  Berenson,  Lorenzo  Lotto  (London, 
1902);  Cossio,  El  Greco  (Madrid,  1908);  BROUbsOLLE,  L'art  re- 
ligieux pendant  la  Renaissance  (Paris,  1908). 

Fourth  period.— Ebe.  Die  Spdtrenaissanee  (Beriin,  1886); 
GuRLiTT,  Geschichte  des  Barockstiles  (Stuttgart.  1887-89);  Fra9- 
chetti.  //  Bernini  (Milan,  1900);  BoEHM,  Guido  Reni  (Bielefeld, 
1910);  Fusti.  Murillo  (Leipzig,  1892);  Fromentin.  Les  Mattres 
d'autrefois  (Paris,  1876);  Bode,  Studien  zur  geschichte  der  hoi- 
Idndischen  Malerei  (Brunschurg,  1883);  VENTtTBi,  Tiepolo,  French 
tr.  (Paris,  1911). 

Fifth  period. — Delaborde,  Hippolyle  Flandrin  (Paris,  1872) ; 
Idem,  Ingres  {Pans,  1867);  Rolland,  J.  L.  Millet  (London,  1903); 
Steinle,  Briefwechsel  (Fribourg,  1S98) ;  de  la  Sizeraune,  La 
peinture  anglaise  contemporaine  (3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1903);  Idem, 
Ruskin  et  la  religion  de  la  Beauts  (5th  ed..  1903);  Idem,  Le  miroir 
de  la  vie  (Paris,  1902) ;  W.  H.  Hunt,  The  Preraphaelite  Brotherhood 
(London,  1906);  S^ailles,  Eugine  Carriire  (Paris,  1911). 

Louis   GiLLET. 

takawa  Indians,  also  written  Pacod,  one  of  a 
group  of  cognate  tribes,  hence  designated  the  Paka^ 
Wiin  (formerly  Coahuilteean)  stock,  formerly  ranging 
on  the  upper  waters  of  the  San  Antonio  and  Nueces 
rivers,  in  Southern  Texas,  and  extending  to  or  beyond 
the  Rio  Grande.  The  group  comprised  at  least  fifty 
small  tribes — few  of  which  contained  more  than 
two  or  three  hundred  souls — the  principal  being  the 
Pakawa,  Payaya,  Sanipao,  Tilijae,  Pamaque,  and 
Xar.ame.  They  are  notable  for  their  connexion  with 
the  famous  San  Antonio  missions  and  for  the  record 
whicli  Father  (Jarcla  has  left  of  their  language,  which 
appears  to  have  been  used  over  a  considerable  area  for 
intertrii);d  communication.  Almo.st  nothing  is  known 
of  the  I'tlinology  of  the  Pakawan  tribes,  which  were  of 
low  culture,  without  agriculture  or  fixed  habitation, 
but  roving  from  jilace  to  place,  subsisting  upon  game 
and  the  wild  fruits  of  the  mesquite,  pecan,  and  cactus, 
dwelling  under  temporary  shelters  of  brushwood  and 
grass  thatch,  and  with  very  little  tribal  cohesion  or 
organization.  While  their  neighbours,  the  T6nkawa 
and  other  tribes  of  eastern  Texas  were  notorious  can- 
nibals, this  was  probably  not  true  of  the  Pakawd  who, 


AMONG  THE   LOWLY 

LEON   LHERMITTE,  1905,   METROPOLITAN   MDSEOM,   NEW   YORK 


PALEOGRAPHY 


403 


PALEOGRAPHY 


while  inconstant,  seem  to  have  been  of  unwarlike  and 
generally  friendly  disposition. 

The  first  civilized  men  to  encounter  the  Pakawdn 
tribes  were  the  shipwrecked  Cabeza  de  Vaca  and  his 
three  companions,  survivors  of  the  Narvdez  expedi- 
tion, who  spent  seven  years  (1529-1536)  wandering 
over  the  Texas  plains  before  finally  reaching  Mexico. 
It  is  possible  also  that  the  Pakawii  were  represented 
among  the .  neophytes  whom  the  Franciscan  Father 
Andres  de  Olmos  drew  out  of  Texas  and  established 
under  the  name  of  Olives  in  a  Tamaulijas  mission  in 
1544.  The  earliest  known  missionary  effort  among 
the  Pakawdn  tribes  is  that  of  the  Franciscan  Damian 
Massanet  (or  Manzanet),  the  father  of  the  Texas 
missions,  who  in  1691  stopped  at  the  village  of  the 
Payaya  tribe,  near  the  present  San  Antonio,  set  up 
a  cross  and  altar  and  said  Mass  in  the  presence  of 
the  tribe,  explaining  the  meaning  of  the  ceremony, 
afterwards  distributing  rosaries  and  gaining  the  good 
will  of  the  chief  by  the  gift  of  a  horse.  Throughout 
their  history  the  Spanish  Texas  missions  were  in  charge 
of  Franciscans,  directed  from  the  Colleges  of  Zaca- 
tecas  and  Queretaro  in  Mexico.  In  1718  was  estab- 
lished the  Spanish  presidio,  or  garrison  post,  which 
later  grew  into  the  city  of  San  Antonio.  In  the  same 
year  the  mission  of  San  Francisco  Solano,  founded  in 
1700  on  the  Rio  Grande,  was  removed  by  Fr.  Antonio 
de  Olivares  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  new  post  and 
renamed  San  Antonio  de  Valero,  famous  later  as  the 
Alamo.  The  principal  tribe  represented  was  the 
Xarame.  Other  establishments  followed  until  in  1731 
there  were  within  a  few  miles  of  San  Antonio  five  mis- 
sions, occupied  almost  exclusively  by  Indians  of  Paka- 
wan  stock,  viz: 

(1)  San  Antonio  de  Valero  (later,  the  Alamo) — 1718 
— on  San  Antonio  river,  opposite  the  city.  In  1762  it 
had  275  neophytes.  (2)  San  Jose  y  San  Miguel  de 
Aguayo — 1720 — six  miles  below  San  Antonio.  This 
was  the  principal  and  most  flourishing  of  the  Texas 
missions,  and  residence  of  the  superior,  with  what  was 
said  to  be  the  finest  church  in  New  Spain.  In  1762  it 
had  350  neophytes,  and  1500  yoke  of  work  oxen. 
(3)  Purisima  Concepci6n  de  Acuna  (originally  a  Caddo 
mission  in  east  Texas),  removed  1731  to  San  Antonio 
river  just  below  the  city.  In  1762  it  had  207  neo- 
phytes. (4)  San  Juan  Capistrano  (originally  the 
Caddo  mission  of  San  Jos6  irj  east  Texas),  removed 
1731  to  San  Antonio  river  about  seven  miles  below  the 
city.  In  1762  it  had  203  neophytes,  with  5000  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep.  (5)  San  Francisco  de  la  Espada 
(originally  a  Caddo  mission  in  east  Texas),  removed 
1731  to  San  Antonio  river,  nine  miles  below  thecity. 
The  chief  tribes  represented  were  the  Pacao,  Pajalat, 
and  Pitalac,  numbering  together  about  1000  souls. 
In  1762  it  had  207  neophytes  with  some  6000  cattle, 
horses,  sheep,  and  goats.  It  was  here  that  Father 
Garcia  wrote  his  "Manual".  The  ruins  are  locally 
known  as  the  "fourth  mission". 

The  missions  probably  reached  their  zenith  about 
1740.  In  that  or  the  preceding  year  an  epidemic  dis- 
ease wasted  the  Texas  tribes,  and  about  the  same 
time  the  jealousies  of  the  San  Antonio  settlers  and  the 
increasingly  frequent  raids  of  the  wild  LipAn  and 
Comanche  checked  further  development.  In  1762  an 
official  report  showed  1242  neophytes,  although  the 
missions  were  already  on  the  decline.  In  1778  small- 
pox ravaged  the  whole  Texas  area,  practically  exter- 
minating several  small  tribes.  In  1793  the  report 
showed  fewer  than  300  neophjies  remaining  in  the  five 
missions,  and  in  the  next  year  they  were  formally  dis- 
solved by  official  Spanish  order,  provision  being  made 
for  securing  a  portion  of  lands  to  the  few  surviving 
Indians.  Some  of  the  monks  remained  and  continued 
their  ministrations  for  at  least  ten  years  longer.  In 
1801  anothersmallpoxvisitation  practically  completed 
the  destruction  of  the  tribes.  In  1886  Dr.  Albert  Gat- 
schet,  of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  could  find  only  28 


representatives  of  the  stock,  all  on  the  Mexican  side  of 
the  Rio  Grande  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Camargo. 
Excepting  for  a  short  vocabulary  collected  by  him,  our 
only  knowledge  of  the  language  is  derived  from  Fr. 
Bartholome  Garcia's  "Manual  para  administrar  los 
Santos  sacramentos,  etc."  (1760),  written  in  Pakawd 
for  the  San  Antonio  missions  and  pubUshed  in  1760. 

B.lNCHOFT,  Hist,  of  the  North  Mexican  States  and  Texas  (San 
Francisco,  lSSG-9);  Bolton  in  Hodge,  Handbook  Am.  Inds.  (Bur. 
Am.  Ethn.  BuHedn),  Texas  tribal  and  mission  articles  (2pts..VSrash- 
ington,  19(17-10);  Garrison,  Texas  (Boston,  1903);  Pilling, 
Proo/sheets  of  a  Bibliography  of  the  Languages  of  the  N.  Am.  Inds. 
(Bur.  Ethnology,  Washington.  1885),  for  Garcia  title;  Shea, 
Hist,  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  United  Slates  (New  York,  1886). 

James  Mooney. 

Palaeography  (■n-a'Kaii,  "ancient",  ypa<p7},  "writ- 
ing"), the  art  of  deciphering  ancient  writing  in  manu- 
scripts or  diplomas.  It  is  distinguished  from  epi- 
graphy, which  provides  rules  for  reading  carved 
inscriptions,  and  from  diplomatics,  which  studies  the 
intrinsic  character  of  written  documents,  while  pala;- 
ography  concerns  itself  only  with  written  characters 
and  the  classification  of  documents  by  their  external 
characters. 

During  the  Renaissance  period  the  reading  of  man- 
uscripts, necessary  to  the  printing  of  classic  authors, 
became  widespread,  but  it  was  only  in  the  seventeenth 
century  that  scholars  thought  of  reducing  their  obser- 
vations to  a  system  and  formulating  rules  for  the  read- 
ing of  manuscripts  and  diplomas.  As  early  as  1681,  in 
the  first  edition  of  his  "De  re  diplomatica",  Mabillon 
devoted  a  study  (I,  xi)  to  the  various  kinds  of  Latin 
writing,  and  gave  specimens  of  these  in  the  plates  ac- 
companying his  book.  It  was  on  this  model  that 
Montfaucon,  after  having  worked  on  the  editions  of 
the  Greek  Fathers,  published  his  "  Palajographia 
Gra?ca"  (Paris,  1708),  simultaneously  creating  the 
word  and  the  thing.  From  that  time,  thanks  to  the 
labours  of  Villoison,  Natalis  de  Wailly,  L6opold  De- 
lisle,  and  Henri  Omont  in  France,  of  Thompson  in 
England,  of  Gardthausen  in  Germany,  palxography 
has  become  the  basis  of  all  study  of  historical,  reli- 
gious, or  literary  texts.  There  are  as  many  branches 
of  palajography  as  there  are  different  kinds  of  writings, 
but  the  science  of  Oriental  written  characters  is  as  yet 
hardly  formed.  In  general  students  have  had  to  be 
content  with  determining  the  place  of  each  character 
in  the  succession  of  such  characters.  (See  Ph.  Berger, 
"Histoire  de  I'i^criture  dans  I'antiquilr",  Paris,  1892.) 
In  1819,  however,  Kopp,  in  his  "  Fahr(inr;ipliia  Cri- 
tica",  laid  the  foundations  for  Oriciilal  pala'ography, 
while  devoting  himself  exclusively  to  Semitic  lan- 
guages. The  province  of  palaeology,  therefore,  more 
particularly  consists  of  Greek  and  Latin  characters, 
together  with  all  those  derived  therefrom  (Gothic 
alphabets,  Slavic,  etc.). 

I.  Greek  Pal.eography  covers  two  periods:  A. 
Antiquity  (till  the  fourth  century  after  Christ) ;  B.  the 
Byzantine  Period  (from  the  fourth  century  to  modern 
times). 

A.  Antiquity. — This  period  is  much  better  known  to- 
day, owing  to  the  numerous  discoveries  of  papyri 
which  have  been  made  in  Egypt  (sec  Manuscripts). 
The  differences  between  the  various  modes  of  writing 
are  not  so  marked  as  in  Latin  documents.  Besides, 
the  material  employed  influenced  the  form  of  the  let- 
ters: papyrus  does  not  lend  itself  as  well  as  parchment 
to  rounded  forms.  The  chief  systems  of  characters 
used  on  papyrus  are:  (1)  The  Capital,  employed  some- 
what rarely,  and  chiefly  known  through  inscriptions. 
On  the  papyri  it  is  already  mixed  with  uncial  forms. 
One  of  the  most  ancient  documents  of  this  writing  is 
the  papyrus  called  the  "Invocation  of  Artemis"  (Li- 
brary of  Vienna,  third  century  B.  c).  The  words  are 
not  separated  from  ^  one  another,  and  the  uncial  form 
of  the  lunar  .sigma  \,  is  found.  The  greater  number 
of  the  other  letters — A,  E,  P,  n,  etc. — have  the  same 
form  as  in  the  inscriptions. 


PAUEOGRAPHY 


404- 


PAL^OGRAPHY 


(2)  The  I'ncial. — Tho  loriii  is  borrowed  by  analogy 
from  Latin  paUcology.  A  passage  from  St .  Jerome  ("In 
Job",ed.  D.Valarsii,ix,lC)0)  proves  that  capital  writing 
was  formerly  designated  uncial.  The  term  is  now  con- 
ventionally applied  to  rounded  forms  as  distinguished 
from  the  square  forms  of  the  capital.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  definitively  formed  until  the 
Hellenistic  period,  and  then  chiefly  at  Alcxan-  «  » 
dria.  The  most  characteristic  uncialletters  are:  <V  ^  ^ 

The  first  four  of  the.se  letters  have  similar  forms  in  the 
Latin  alphabet.  On  the  papyri  thus  composed  (Papy- 
rus of  Chrysippus  in  the  Louvre,  end  of  third  century 
B.  c;  fragment  of  Euripides  on  parchment  at  Berlin, 
100  u.  c;  papyrus  of  the  Constitution  of  Athens  in 
British  Museum,  first  century  after  Christ),  the  abbre- 
viations are  few,  the  words  are  not  separated,  and 
punctuation  is  rare.  The  accents  and  breathings  per- 
fected by  the  grammarians  of  Alexandria  appear  by 
degrees.  (3)  The  Cursive,  directly  derived  from  the 
capital,  the  forms  of  which  it  retained  for  a  long  time. 
The  letters  are  joined  by  ligatures  which  allowed  the 
writer  to  write  fiowingly  without  raising  his  calamus 
after  each  letter.  This  writing  is  chiefly  used  on  ad- 
ministrative papyri  for  accounts,  census,  contracts, 
letters,  reports,  etc.;  it  is  found,  however,  in  copies  of 
literary  works  and  a  part  of  the  Constitution  of 
Athens,  cited  above,  is  written  in  cursive  writing.  In 
this  writing  the  a  takes  the  minuscule  form,  the  B  re- 
tains its  capital  form  or  takes  the  simpli-  »  fied  ap- 
pearance of  u ;  the  H  has  the  form  of  P ;  from  the 
Roman  period  only  dates  •/  •/  the  prolongation 
of  the  first  stroke  of  the  -^  »\  '  y^.  The  majuscule 
cursive,  which  is  that  of  the  ancient  papyri,  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  minuscule  cursive,  used  on  the 
papyri  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries. 

B.  Byzantine  Period. — The  history  of  Greek  writing 
in  the  Middle  Ages  is  more  or  less  parallel  with  that  of 
Latin.  Until  the  ninth  century  uncials  predominated. 
(Manuscripts  in  epigraphical  capitals  were  not  found 
in  the  East  as  in  the  West.)  In  the  ninth  century 
there  arose  in  the  Eastern,  as  in  the  Carlovingian,  Em- 
pire a  minuscule  which  became  the  customary  script  of 
manuscripts,  but  which  always  retained  its  traditional 
forms  more  faithfully  than  did  the  Latin  character. 
The  uncial  is  the  chief  script  of  parchment  MSS.  from 
the  fourth  to  the  ninth  centurj'.  Dated  MSS.  written 
at  this  period  are  rare,  and  no  more  than  its  beginning 
and  ending  can  be  determined.  According  to  the 
rules  laid  down  by  Montfaucon  and  Gardthausen,  a 
manuscript  is  ancient  in  proportion  as  its  characters 
resemble  those  of  inscriptions.  The  most  ancient 
MSS.  have  disconnected  letters  and  abbreviations; 
they  incline  to  rounded  or  almost  square  forms;  the 
letters  are  nearly  always  of  an  equal  height;  the 
strokes  are  slightly  marked;  as  a  general  thing,  the 
simijlest  forms  are  the  most  ancient.  The  position  of 
the  initials  is  also  an  indication:  not  much  larger  than 
other  letters  on  the  papyri,  they  begin  to  spread  over 
th(;  margin  in  the  fourth  century,  and  soon  acquire 
great  importance;  they  are  at  first  black,  but  are  later 
embellished  with  colours.  Such  is  the  character  of  the 
ancient  uncial,  one  of  the  most  important  specimens 
of  which  is  furnished  by  the  fourth-century  "Codex 
Sinaiticus"  (q.  v.).  The  same  is  true  of  the  "Dios- 
corides"  of  V'ienna,  written^about  A.  D.  506,  in 
which  is  found  the  abbreviation  0  for  o6. 

The  new  uncial,  on  the  other  hand,  appeared  only  at 
the  end  of  the  seventh  and  during  the 
eighth  century.  To  the  square  and  round       Ci     li   V 
letters  succeeded    elongated    characters  ' 

terminating  in  a  point;  right  angles  a.  U.  T  ^ 
were  replaced  by  sharp  corners;  circles  n         l\ 

became  pointed  and  tapering  ovals.  CL  P  Y  ' 
The    origins    of    this    style    have   been 


mistakenly  sought  in  the  ancient  papyri  (see  Gard- 
thausen, "Byz.  Zeit.",  XI,  112):  examples  of  it  may, 
indeed,  be  found  in  marginal  glosses  of  the  sixth-  and 
seventh-century  Syriac  MSS.  preserved  in  London, 
but  this  is  all.  The  style  appears  fully  formed  chiefly 
in  the  MSS.  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  conturies.  Tlu-ough 
all  these  MSS.  is  traced  the  growing  use  of  breathings 
and  accents.  Ligatures  and  abbreviations  l)eciiiiie 
more  frequent.  Beginning  with  the  tenth  century, 
dated  uncial  MSS.  multiply.  Script,  hitherto  slo|)iiig, 
becomes  almost  perjjendicular.  In  Cod.  Vat.  ;i.')4 
(dated  919)  reappear  the  round,  full  forms,  which  in- 
creased in  number  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cen- 
turies. In  the  Evangelary  of  Harlei  5589  (dated 
995)  the  B  as-  in  nsumes  i  the  ap-  />  pearance  of 
a  Slavic  letter  i?  oJ,  the  A  and  the '  W  'are  orna- 
mented with  little  points,  ^  ~r  we  meet  with  liga- 
tures and  abbreviations,  0  5  ^  for  toS  and  rd  etc. 
Soon,  especially  in  religious  books,  rountl  letters  re- 
turned to  favour.  There  then  arose  a  liturgical  uncial 
with  ornamented  letters  (eleventh  and  twelfth  cent  ). 
The  papyri  of  the  Byzantine  period  (sixth  and  seventh 
centuries)  show  the  minuscule  cursive,  tlistinguished 
from  the  majuscule  cursive  by  the  greater  ease  with 
which  the  letters  are  joined  by  means  of  ligatures,  and 
b}'  more  frequent  abbreviations.  This  script,  which 
is  characteristic  of  papyri,  is  found  only  exceptionally 
in  parchment  MSS. :  traces  of  it  are  found  in  the  ninth- 
century  Codex  Bezffi  in  the  possession  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge  (see  Codex  Bez.«). 

Minuscule  character  appears  suddenly  in  Greek 
MSS.  of  the  ninth  century,  at  the  very  time  when  it 
was  taking  root  in  the  West  as  a  consequence  of  the 
Carlovingian  reform.  As  in  the  West,  it  was  destined 
to  supplant  all  others.  It  has  been  thought,  not  with- 
out probability,  that  St.  Theodore  the  Studite  (759- 
826),  who  attached  such  importance  to  the  copying 
of  MSS.,  was  instrumental  in  this  reform.  The  cur- 
sive minuscule  may  have  furnished  the  elements  for 
this  character;  it  appears,  however,  chiefly  as  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  small  uncial,  which  increases  in  re- 
finement in  the  MSS.  of  the  eighth  century.  Thence 
arose  the  idea  of  combining  the  advantages  of  the 
uncial  with  that  of  the  cursive,  and  the  new  writing 
quickly  spread  through  all  the  monastic  studios  of  the 
Greek  world.  Definitively  adopted  for  the  copying  of 
MSS.  and  engrossing  of  diplomas,  it  never  underwent 
such  radical  changes  as  did  the  Carlovingian.  Its 
development  may,  however,  be  divided  into  three 
stages:  (1)  Ancient  Minuscule  (ninth  to  end  of  tenth 
century),  connected  with  the  cursive  of  the  pajiyri, 
but  with  the  letters  mure  carefully  separated,  in  spite  of 
the  ligatures.  (2)  Middle  Minuscule  (from  middle  of 
tenth  to  end  of  eleventh  century)  shows  a  revival  of 
the  uncial  and  the  cursive.  The  MSS.  of  this  )5eriod 
evidence  particular  care;  except  for  the  ascenders,  or 
uprights,  which  go  beyond  the  line,  the  letters  are  of 
an  almost  equal  height ;  the  words  are  generally  sep- 
arated and  the  abbreviations,  still  limited,  follow  pre- 
cise rules.  (3)  The  New  Minuscule  (twelfth  century 
to  modem  times)  acquires  an  increasingly  obscure  ap- 
pearance because  of  the  growth  of  abbreviations  and 
ligatures.  Besides,  the  employment  of  paper,  which 
was  partly  substituted  for  parchment,  contributed 
to  make  it  assume  a  more  cursive  character.  One 
of  the  most  characteristic  let-  ters  is  the  B,  which  is 
found  under  the  cursive  form  iL  until  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury and  then  resumes  its  normal  shape. 

The  three  alphabets  (Gardthausen,  op.  cit.  infra 
in  bibliography,  tables  5,  6,  9)  are: 


PALEOGRAPHY 


405 


PALAEOGRAPHY 


The  first  printers  adopted  tliis  minuscule  character 
for  their  type.  Until  tlie  eighteenth  century  books 
printed  in  Greek  retained  a  part  of  the  ligatures  and  a 
large  number  of  the  abbreviations  of  the  minuscule 
of  the  IMSS.  It  was  also  adopted  by  imperial  or 
episcopal  chanceries  for  copying  diplomas. 

Abbreviations. — In  Greek  handwriting  two  sorts 
of  abbreviations  are  to  be  distinguished.  (1)  Those  of 
religious  MSS.  are  the  most  ancient,  being  found  in 
uncial  MSS.  and  transmitted  by  tradition  to  the 
minuscule.  The  abbreviation  is  effected  by  the  sup- 
pression of  vowels  and  indicated  by  a  bar.  The 
nouns  thus  abbreviated  were  those  having  a  religious 
character. 


0Z  erfs 


0KOZ 


l€poviTa\ri/x 


1  ni\'l<rfia^\ 


ludl'VT]^ 


(2)  In  minuscule  MSS.  abbreviations  are  made  by 
interrupting  the  word  and  cutting  off  the  last  letter 
with  a  transverse  line.  For  the  reader's  assistance 
the  scribe  retained  the  characteristic  consonance  of 
the  last  syllable.  These  abbreviations,  tables  of 
which  will  be  found  in  the  works  of  Montfaucon  and 
Gardthausen,  are  by  far  the  most  numerous  and  in- 
crease from  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
Examples : — 


archaic  letters  are  made  use  of.  C     (<^:\  —  C 
From  1000  the  same  letters^     ^       '       ^ 
are  used  with  accents  written  ^      {{cofiha.'^  ~  40 
beneath.       Arabic    numerals  "      ^     1 1    ^  ~  • 
reached  the  Greeks   through    J\     /  .\ 

the  West,  and  do  not  appear  K/     U^mljtls  ^00 
in  MSS.  before  the  fifteenth  '   •' 

century.    Dates,  according  to  the  era  of  the  Creation 
of  the  World,  are  written  in  letters. 

National  and  Provincial  Writings. — Owing  to  the 
unity  of  culture  which  prevailed  throughout  the  ter- 
ritory subject  to  the  Greek  Church,  there  is  no  marked 
difference  between  the  MSS.  copied  at  Constantinople 
and  those  which  originated  in  the  provinces.  Mgr 
Batiffol  considers  the  minuscule  in  the  MSS.  of  South- 
ern Italy  (Abbey  of  Rossano)  as  but  slightly  different 
from  that  of  Constantinople;  but  his  conclusions  have 
been  opposed  by  Gardthausen  (Byzant.  Zeit.,  XV, 
236),  who  .sees  here  simjily  the  difference  between  the 
work  of  disciples  and  that  of  masters.  The  same 
scholar  has  .studied,  at  Sinai,  Greek  MSS.  copied  in 
Armenia  or  Georgia  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and 
has  found  their  w-riting  the  same  as  that  of  Constanti- 
nople. In  the  West  the  national  writings,  as  they  are 
called,  disappeared  before  the  Carlovingian  minuscule, 
and  in  the  East  the  influence  of  the  Greek  Church  was 
such  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of  provincial  hand- 
writing. In  the  W^est,  where  the  monks  sometimes 
copied  Greek  MSS.  and  edited  bilingual  glosses  (see 
Miller,  "Glossaire  Gr6co-latine  de  Laon",  notices  and 
extracts  from  MSS.,  29,  2),  the  Greek  writing  is  fre- 


quently awkward  or  irregular,  but,   far 
,'.     ^3,        -        Jm/^'^n  scrupulously   transcribe    the    characters 

Abbreviations  by  superscribed  letters  are  also  found:- 

€  (cm),  a  ((xtto),  (Xv^ (oivTi^. 

Among  the  abbreviated  endings  may  be  cited: — 


which  the   MSS.   copied  by  the  Greeks  offered   as 
models. 

It  was  quite  otherwise  with  alphabets  derived  from 
the  Greek  and  applied  to  foreign  languages.  Created 
under  the  influence  of  the  Greek  Church,  but  adapted 
to  a  vocabulary  very  different  from  the  Greek,  they 
became  truly  national  writings.  Such  is  the  charac- 
ter adopted  by  the  Copts,  which  resembles  Greek 
writing,  and  is  merely  a  transformation 


(9'(o?'),?rw 


Some  conventional  signs  (found  tabulated  in  Gard- 
thausen, op.  cit..  p.  259)  are  veritable  hieroglyphics; 
they  are  used  chiefly  in  astrological  or  chemical 
treatises.  The  moon  is  designated  by  a  crescent,  the 
sea  by  three  undulating  lines,  etc.  (see  Wiedmann, 
" Byzantinische  Zeitschrift",  XIX,  144).  Lastly,  the 
Greeks,  like  the  Latins,  knew  a  tachygraphical  char- 
acter in  which  syllables  were  represented  by  signs. 
Several  of  these  tachygraphical  signs,  indicating  end- 
ings, parts  of  the  verb  "to  be",  etc.,  are  transferred 
to  the  minuscule,  and  some  recur  in  Latin  handwriting. 


A/. 
//• 


(etvflci) 
(eicri) 

(duo) 
(eiv) 


2^  Qb  (xaf) 

^   "^     Cou) 

•^  0'   (hi) 


Numerals. — In  Greek  MSS.  numerals  are  expressed 
by  letters  of  the  alphabet  followed  by  an  accent.  Three 


Bishop  of  the  Goths,  borrowed,  in  the 
fourth  century,  the  characters  of  which  he  made  use  to 
translate  the  Bible  into  the  Gothic  language  (Socrates, 
"Hist.  Eccles",  IV,  xxxiii,  6),  but  he  was  also  indebted 
to  the  Latin  alphabet;  moreover,  traces  are  found  in 
this  ancient  Gothic  writing  of  the  runes  in  use  before 
that  time.  So,  about  400,  St.  Mesrop,  also  desiring 
to  translate  the  Bible,  created  the  national  alphabet 
of  the  Armenians  by  a  mixture  of  the  Greek  uncial  and 
cursive.  The  Georgian  character,  a  still  nearer  neigh- 
bour to  the  Greek,  has  the  same  origin.  Finally,  the 
missionaries  sent  by  the  Greek  Church  among  the 
Slavic  people,  especially  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius, 
created  the  Slavonic  alphabet,  from  which  the  writings 
of  all  the  Slavonic  peoples  are  derived. 
This  was  about  855.  The  Glagolitio 
alphabet  (glagol,  "word"),  which  Slavic 
legend  attributes  to  the  invention  of 
St.  Jerome,  is  probably  due  to  some 
disciple  of  St.  Cyril,  who  composed  it 
with  the  aid  of  Slavic  rimes  and  the 
Cyrillic  alphabet  (Leger's  hypothesis 
2  ^  V  — "Cyrille  et  Methode",  Paris,  1868), 
7^  yTdOy)  unless  it  is  simply  an  adapted  Greek 
minuscule  (Gardthausen,  "Palaeog.", 
109).  The  most  ancient  MS.  in  Cyrillic  characters  is 
the  Gospel  of  Ostrojnir,  dated  1057,  but  there  was 
discovered  at  Prespa  (Bulgaria),  in  1888,  an  inscription 
in  this  writing  in  the  name  of  the  Tsar  Samuel,  dated 
99.3  (Bulletin  of  the  Russian  Archa;ological  Institute  of 
Constantinople,  III,  1899). 


A' 


(fv) 
Con) 
(o-iv) 


PALEOGRAPHY 


406' 


PALEOGRAPHY 


Latin  PAL.EOcUAriiY. — The  Latin  alphabet  is  do- 
rived,  according  to  the  most  widely  accepted  opinion, 
from  tlie  Greelc  alphabets  of  yoiitlieru  Italy.  Its  let- 
tore  are  composed  of  the  following  elements,  the  no- 
menclature of  which  it  is  important  to  know:  (1)  Of 
vertical  lines  called  ascenders  \vhen  they  extend  above 
the  line,  and  tails  when  they  arc  prolonged  below  it; 
(2)  horizontal  liiK-s,  called  bars  or  crosses;  (3)  convex 
lines,  designated  under  the  name  of  paunches  or  curls. 
Thus  B  is  formed  of  an  ascender  and  a  double  paunch, 
H  is  formed  of  two  ascendei's  and  a  cross,  etc. 

The  history  of  Latin  writing  and  its  derivatives  is 
divided  into  five  periotls:  A.  .\ntiquity;  B.  Barbarian 
Period;  C.  Carlovingian  Reform;  D.  Gothic  Period; 
E.  Sixteenth-Century  Reform  and  Modern  Writing. 
On  two  occtisions  there  has  been  a  systematic  reform 
in  Latin  WTiting  intended  to  restore  it  to  its  primitive 
purity:  under  Charlemagne,  and  in  the  sixteenth 
century. 

A.  Anliquiiy. — In  the  most  ancient  MSS.  (fourth 
and  fifth  centuries)  there  are  four  kinds  of  writing. 
( 1 )  The  Capital  is  composed  of  large  and  regular  letters 
written  between  two  parallel  lines,  beyond  which  they 
seldom  extended.  It  seems  to  have  been  the  oldest  in 
use  among  the  Romans,  who  made  use  of  it  almost 
exclusively  for  inscriptions.  The  epigrapliical,  or  ele- 
gant, capital,  similar  to  the  ordinary  majuscule  of  our 
printed  books,  was  used  in  MSS.,  but  there  exist  only 
rare  specimens  of  it.  Such  is  the  Virgil  of  the  Vatican 
(Lat.  3256),  which  may  be  attributed  to  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  century;  other  MSS.  of  Virgil  of  the 
same  period  are  in  the  Vatican  (Lat.  3255)  and  at  St. 
Gall.  The  only  difficulty  in  reading  these  MSS.  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  words  are  not  separated.  The 
letters  differ  but  little  from  those  of  our  printed  books. 
The  A  ordi-     a  a    narily  appears  under  one  of 

two  forms:  •  *  and  yA\.  The  character  V  desig- 
nates botli  U  and  \\  m  the  same  manner  I  is  used  for 
both  I  and  J.  This  beautiful  writing  seems  to  have  been 
reserved  for  MSS.  v/c  luxe  and  for  the  most  revered 
works,  such  as  Virgil  or  the  Bible.  The  rustic  capital, 
much  used  from  the  end  of  antiquity,  is  less  graceful; 
its  characters  are  more  slender  and  less  regular;  their 
extremities  are  no  longer  flattened  by  the  small  grace- 
ful bar  which  adorns  the  epigraphical  capital.  Such 
is  the  writing  of  the  Prudentius  of  Paris  (Bib.  Nat., 
Lat.  8084),  in  which  is  found  the  signature  of  the  con- 
sul Mavortius  (527).  All  these  MSS.  lack  punctu- 
ation, and  in  those  where  it  occurs  it  was  added  later. 

(2)  The  Uncial  is  a  transformed  capital  writing  in 
which  the  ascenders  are  curved  and  the  angles 
rounded.  At  first  this  expression,  derived  from  the 
Latin  uncia,  "one-twelfth  ",  was  applied  to  the  capital 
writing  itself.  Examples  occur  in  the  Latin  in- 
scriptions of  Africa,  but  it  is  above  all  the  writing 
used  in  MSS.  The  letters  most  modified  are:  A,  D, 
E,  G,  H,  M,  Q,  T,  V,  which  became  respectively: 

An  example  of  a  MS.  in  uncials  is  fumi.shed  in  the 
collection  of  Acts  of  the  Council  of  .'Vquileia  (381), 
transcribed  shortly  after  this  date  (Paris,  Bib.  Nat., 
Lat.  8907) ;  others  are  the  Livy  of  the  Biblioth^que 
Nationale  (Lat.  5720)  and  several  MSS.  of  the  sixth 
and  seventh  centuries. 

(3)  The  Half-Uncial,  a  combination  of  uncial  and  mi- 
nuscule letters.  The  letters  E,  V,  H  retain  the  uncial 
form;    the  D  has  sometimes  the  uncial 

form,  sometimes  the  minuscule;  the  N  ^    "i    <Y^ 
is  in  capital.    Characteri.stic  letters  are:        'tx?  ' 
(respectively,  a,  g,  r).    The  most  ancient  specimen  is 
the  Verona  palimpsest,  written  in  486,  containing  the 
consular  annals  from  439  to  486. 

(4)  Minuscule  (scriptura  minuta)  presents  simplified 


forms  similar  to  the  modern  characters  of  ordinary  or 
italic  print,  within  more  restricted  limits  than  the 
capital  and  the  uncial.  It  was  useil  from  the  imperial 
period  for  accounts,  business  letters,  etc.  The  best 
known  MSS.  are  not  prior  to  the  sixth  century  (Latin 
MS.  12097,  Bib.  Nat.,  Paris);  the  greater  number 
date  only  from  the  seventh  century.  Even  in  the 
Roman  period  ligatures  were  numerous.  The  most 
characteristic  forms  . 

arc  those  of  a,  b,  «l.a^,J),cl,€,f  .T,,!  ,l,n),Il,r',V 
e,  f,  g,  1,  1,  m,  n,  r,     '  '      \    J  '  '| 

and  s,  respectively. 

(5)  The  Cursive  includes  all  rapidly  traced  writing. 
The  size  of  the  letters  is  smaller,  their  shape  is  siiiiiili- 
fied,  and  they  are  joined  together.  From  this  resulted 
occasional  serious  deformations  of  the  alphabet.  Be- 
fore the  sixth  century  it  was  a  modification  of  the 
capital;  from  this  time  forth  it  borrowed  its  characters 
chiefly  from  the  minuscide.  The  most  ancient  known 
specimens  are  the  papyrus  fragments  of  Herculaneum 
(VV.  Scott,  "Fragmenta  Herculanensia",  Oxford, 
1865),  which  date  from  A.  D.  53  and  A.  D.  79;  the  wax 
tablets  of  the  gold  mines  of  Vorotspak  (Transylvania), 
written  between  A.  D.  131  and  A.  D.  167  (Corpus 
Inscript.  Latinar.,  Ill,  2);  the  Egyptian  papyri  of  the 
fourth  century  (Karabacek,  "Mitteilungen  aus  der 
Sammlung  der  Papyrus  Erzherzog  Rainer",  Vienna, 
18S6);  the  fragments  of  sixth-century  imperial  re- 
scripts found  in  Egyjit,  which  are  distinguished  by 
large  irregular  letters,  joined,  without  any  separation 
of  words  (Thompson,  "Handbook  of  Pateog.",  211- 
13).  This  writing  was  much  employed  in  legal  docu- 
ments down  to  the  seventh  century,  anil  it  is  found  in 
the  papyrus  charters  of  Ravenna  (end  of  sixth  cen- 
tury); on  the  other  hand,  it  was  but  little  used  in  the 
copying  of  MSS.,  and  serves  only  for  glosses  and  mar- 
ginal notes. 

(6)  The  Tironian  Notes. — The  Romans  were  ac- 
Cjuainted  with  a  still  more  rapid  system  of  writing, 
used  to  take  down  speeches  or  notes.  These  were  the 
Tironian  notes,  the  invention  of  which  is  attributed  to 
TuUius  Tiro,  a  freedman  of  Cicero  (Suetonius,  "De 
Viris  illust.  reliq.",  135),  or  to  the  poet  Ennius.  Ac- 
cording to  Plutarch  (Cato  Jun.  23)  Cicero  had  formed 
tachygraphs  for  taking  down  his  speeches.  These 
notes  were  not  arbitrary  signs,  like  those  of  modern 
stenography,  but  mutilated  letters  reduced  to  a 
straight  or  curved  line  and  linked  together.  Some- 
times a  single  letter  indicated  a  w-hole  word  (e.  g.,  P 
for  primus).  The  chanceries  of  the  Middle  Agea 
doubtless  made  much  use  of  these  notes. 

There  is  no  punctuation  in  the  most  ancient  MSS. 
But  aci'cinlin.!;  to  the  Greek  grammarians,  whose  doc- 
trine is  i(|iic>diiri  (1  by  Isidore  of  Seville,  a  single  sign, 
the  poiiil ,  was  cniployed:  placed  above,  it  indicated  a 
long  pause  {disjunctio,  or  periodus,  whence  our  word 
period);  placed  below,  a  short  pause  {subdistinctio, 
comma);  in  the  middle,  a  pause  of  medium  length  {dis- 
linclio  media,  colon).  In  the  greater  number  of  MSS. 
the  point  above  or  periodus,  and  the  point  below,  or 
comma,  were  used  exclusively. 

B.  Barbarian  Period  i Fifth  'to  Eighth  Crntury) .—After 
the  Germanic  invasions  there  (lev(lcii)ed  in  Europe  a 
series  of  writings  called  national,  which  were  all  de- 
rived from  the  Roman  cursive,  but  assumed  distinc- 
tive foims  in  the  various  countries.  Such  was,  in 
France,  the  Merovingian  minuscule,  characterized  by 
lack  of  proportion,  irregularity,  and  the  number  of 
ligatures.  The  writing  is  upright,  slightly  inclined  to 
the  left,  the  MSS.  are  not  ruled,  and  the  lines  some- 
times encroach  on  one  another.  The  phrases  are  sep- 
arated by  points  and  begin  with  a  majuscule  letter  in 
capital  or  uncial;  the  abbreviations  are  few.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Corbie  MS.  of  Gregory  of  Tours  (Paris,  Bib. 
N.at.,  Lat.  17665),  the  a  has  the  form  .°^  ^  rx.  uA 
double  c  CC  and  is  sometimes  superscribed  ^  "  * 
when  it  is  joined   to   the   following  letter    u 


PALEOGRAPHY 


407 


PALEOGRAPHY 


(apud) ;  the  c  is  sur-  mounted  t)  by  an  appendix  in 
the  form  of  a  crosier  v;  tlie  e  is  ^7  of '■^n  looped  and 
resembles  ^  anS:     ■»,       true,        also, 

of  the  o :  "TT  Otyh  ICCCm  (loronicam),  the  1  affects 
cursive  forms,  I  T,^>  the  r  and  s  are  distinguished 
with  difficulty;  '  »  "''^  and  t  is  included  in  a  great 
many  ligatures  which  change  its  form;  the  i,  without  a 
dot,  often  goes  above  the  line.  The  writings  of  royal  dip- 
lomas, thirty-seven  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  Bib. 
Nat.,  Paris,  differs  only  from  the  minuscule  of  MSS.  in 
that  the  higher  and  more  slender  characters  are  con- 
nected by  tradition  with  the  cursive  of  the  imperial  acts 
of  the  fifth  century.  The  first  line  and  the  royal  signa- 
ture are  in  more  elongated  characters;  at  the  beginning 
of  the  document  is  the  chrismon,  or  monogram  of  Christ , 
formed  of  the  Cireek  letters  X  and  P  interlaced,  which 
replaces  the  invocation  in  use  in  the  imperial  diplomas. 
Tironian  notes  also  accompany  the  signatures  on 
twenty-seven  diplomas;  they  represent  the  names  of 
persons — referendaries  or  notaries — who  assisted  in  the 
preparation  and  expediting  of  the  document.  The 
reading  of  these,  undertaken  by  Jules  Havet  (d.  1893) 
and  completed  by  Jusselin  (Biblioth.  Ecole  des 
Chartcs,  i907,  4S2),  has  furnished  valuable  informa- 
tion on  the  organization  of  the  royal  chancery.  Tiro- 
nian notes  are  also  employed  for  the  correction  of 
MSS.  and  for  marginal  notes. 

Lombardic  writing,  wliich  developed  in  Italy  dur- 
ing this  period,  until  the  ninth  century,  bore  a  great 
resemblance  to  the  Merovingian  minuscule;  it  was 
also  introduced  into  some  Prankish  monasteries  in  the 
eighth  century.  From  the  ninth  century  it  assumed, 
in  Southern  Italy,  a  more  original  character  and  long 
survived  the  Carlovingian  reform.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury it  reached  its  apogee  in  the  scriptorium  of  IMonte 
Cassino;  it  became  regular,  and  was  characterized  by 
the  thickness  of  the  strokes  which  contrasted  with  the 
slender  portions  of  the  letters.  In  the  twelfth  century 
this  writing  acquired  more  and  more  angular  shapes. 
It  persisted  in  Southern  Italy  until  the  end  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Its  use  in  diplomas  was  aboUshed  by 
Frederick  II  as  early  as  1231.  Until  the  beginning  of 
the  twelfth  century  the  pontifical  chancery  made  use 
o(a,simi\ar  handwriting  ca\ledlitterabeneve?itana,  char- 
acterized by  letters  with  long  ascenders  and  by  excep- 
tional shapes — e.  g.,  the  a  in  the  form  of  the  Greek  u, 
the  E  and  J  with  a  loop  Uke  that  of  the  O.  The  Visi- 
gothic  handwriting  (littera  toletana,  niozarabica)  was 
employed  in  Spain  from  the  eighth  to  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. It  combined  with  the  Roman  cursive  some  ele- 
ments of  the  uncial  and  is  generally  illegible.  Accord- 
ing to  Rodrigo  of  Toledo  (De  rebus  Hispanic,  VI,  29) 
a  Council  of  Toledo  in  lOSO  decreed — doubtless  under 
the  influence  of  the  Cluniac  monks — that  it  should  be 
replaced  by  the  French  minuscule. 

Irish  writing  {scriptura  scoUica),  unlike  the  others, 
did  not  proceed  from  the  Roman  cursive.  It  is  found 
under  two  forms:  (1)  A  half-uncial,  somewhat  large 
and  regular,  with  rounded  outlines  (seventh-century 
Evangeliarium  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  called  the 
"Book  of  Kells";  Maesyck  Evangeliarium,  Belgium, 
eighth  century) .  The  words  are  separated,  t  he  ligatures 
numerous,  the  initials  often  encircled  with  red  dots,  and 
the  abbreviations  rather  fre-  ^  quent.  it.  Some 
conventional  signs  also  occur:  ^  (ejus),  l*  (enim), 
'  (est),  sr  (atilem).  This  writing  was  chiefly  used 
•  f  o  r  n  the  transcription  of  liturgical  books. 
C2)  A  pointed  minuscule,  bearing  no  relation  to  the 
Roman  cursive,  and  also  derived  from  thf  half-uncial. 
This  writing  acquired  still  more  angular  forms  in  the 
eleventh  century,  and  throughout  the  Mifldle  Ages 
remained  the  national  writing  of  Ireland.  The  Irish 
MSS.  are  remarkable  for  the  fantastic  and  rich  deco- 
ration of  their  initials  (see  Manuscript.s,  Illumi- 
nated). 

The  Anglo-Saxon  writing  is  derived  from  both  the 
Irish  writing  and  the  Roman  script  of  the  MSS.  which 


the  missionaries  brought  to  the  island.  As  in  Ireland, 
it  is  sometimes  round,  broad,  and  squat  (especially  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries),  sometimes  angular, 
with  long  and  pointed  ascenders.  The  liturgical  MSS. 
differ  from  those  of  Ireland  in  the  frequent  use  of  gold 
in  the  initials.  The  Evangeliary  of  Lindisfarne  (Book 
of  Durham),  transcribed  about  700  (London,  Brit. 
Museum),  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  examples  of 
round  writing.  Anglo-Saxon  writing  disappeared 
after  the  Norman  Conquest,  but  the  Carlovingian 
minuscule  which  succeeded  it  was  formed  partly  under 
the  influence  of  the  Irish  and  Anglo-Saxon  monks  who 
had  been  brought  to  the  Continent. 

C.  Carlovingian  Reform. — The  reform  of  writing 
undertaken  in  the  monasteries  on  Charlemagne's  initia- 
tive was  inspired  by  the  desire  for  correct  and  easily 
legible  texts  of  the  Sacred  Books.  Models  were  sought 
in  the  ancient  MSS.,  and  Servatus  Lupus,  Abbot  of 
Ferrieres,  persuaded  Eginhard  that  the  royal  scribe 
Bertcaudus  should  take  as  a  model  the  ancient  capital 
("  Lettres",  ed.  Desdevises  du  Dezert,  Paris,  ISSS,  pp. 
60,  61).  The  monastery  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  of 
which  .\lcuin  was  abbot  (796-804),  may  be  considered 
the  chief  centre  of  this  reform  and  produced  the  most 
beautiful  manuscripts  of  this  period — e.  g.,  the  Evan- 
geliary of  Lothair,  the  Bible  of  Charles  the  Bald,  the 
Sacramentary  of  Autun,  the  book  of  St.  Martin  of 
QuedlinOurg.  These  MSS.  served  as  models  for  the 
monastic  scriptoria  throughout  the  empire,  and  by  de- 
grees the  Carlovingian  writing  conquered  all  the 
West.  In  these  MSS.  are  found  the  various  kinds  of 
ancient  writing:  the  epigraphic  capital,  the  rustic  cap- 
ital, the  uncial,  the  half-uncial,  and  the  minuscule. 
With  few  exceptions,  the  capital  was  little  used  except 
for  titles,  initials,  and  copies  of  inscriptions.  The 
MSS.  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours  show  a  partiality  for  a 
beautiful  half-uncial,  but  the  most  important  reform 
was  the  creation  of  the  minuscule,  which  became,  ex- 
cept for  titles,  initials,  and  the  first  lines  of  chapters, 
the  writing  used  in  the  greater  number  of  MSS.  This 
minuscule  prevailed  throughout  Europe  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century,  when  another 
reform  of  writing  was  inaugurated,  the  Italian  copy- 
ists and  typographers  again  used  it  as  a  model.  M.  L. 
Delisle  (Mem.  Acad,  des  Inscript.,  XXXII)  has  shown 
that  the  half-uncial  and  the  cursive  uncial,  employed 
in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  for  the  annotation 
of  MSS.,  may  be  traced  as  elements  in  the  Carlovin- 
gian minuscule.  Among  its  chief  characteristics  are: 
A  sometimes  open  CC,  sometimes  closed,  and  derived 
from  the  uncial  ^;  the  ascenders  L  J  |  I  of  the  b, 
d,  1,  and  h  broadened  at  the  top  ►^^Q'jV  ^T^;  the  g  re- 
tains its  semi-uncial  form  (j;  the  i  no  longer  goes  above 
theline.  The  MSS.  hence  aforth  well  ordered  present  a 
clear  and  pleasing  appearance.  The  words  are  nearly 
always  well  separated  from  one  another;  ligatures  are 
rare,  but  that  of  the  &  (for  and)  has  been  retained. 
Sentences  begin  with  majuscules  and  are  separated  by 
points  (weak  punctuation)  or  semi-colons  (strong 
punctuation).  At  first,  abbreviations  were  few,  but 
they  increased  in  the  tenth  century.  One  of  the  most 
beautiful  specimens  of  this  minuscule  is  furnished  by 
the  MS.  Lat.  14.51,  in  Bib.  Nat.,  Paris,  transcribed  in 
796,  and  containing  a  collection  of  conciliar  canons  and 
a  catalogue  of  the  popes. 

In  documents  of  the  imperial  chancery  the  reform 
of  writing  was  at  first  less  pronounced,  and  the  scribes 
retained  the  elongated  writing  of  the  Merovingian 
period;  it  became,  however,  clearer,  more  regular,  and 
less  encumbered  with  ligatures,  while  care  was  taken 
in  the  separation  of  the  words.  In  the  time  of  Louis  the 
Pious,  on  the  other  hand,  the  minuscule  of  MSS.  began 
to  be  seen  in  ofllcial  documents,  and  soon  it  supjilanted 
writing.  At  the  same  time  it  followed  some  ancient 
traditions:  it  is  generally  more  ornamented  than  the 
writing  of  MSS.,  the  space  between  the  lines  is  greater, 
the  ascenders  of  the  d,  i,  and  1  are  usually  lengthened, 


PALEOGRAPHY 


408 


PALEOGRAPHY 


the  first  line  of  a  diploma  is  always  in  slender  and 
elongated  characters. 

Sudi  is  the  system  of  writing  which,  thanks  to  its 
simplicity  and  clearness,  spread  throughout  the  West, 
and  everywliere,  except  in  Ireland,  took  the  place  of 
the  national  writings  of  the  barbarian  period.  In  the 
tenth  century  it  was,  howe%er,  less  regular,  and  it  be- 
came more  slender  in  the  eleventh  century.  The  MSS. 
and  ollicial  documents  are  generally  very  carefully 
executed,  the  words  are  well  separated,  and  abbrevi- 
ations are  not  yet  very  numerous.  Beginning  with 
Clement  I\'  (1046—18),  the  pontifical  Chancery  sub- 
stitutes this  writing  for  the  tillcra  hoievvnlana;  how- 
ever, until  Paschal  II  (1099-lllS),  the  two  systems 
were  employed  simultaneously.  It  was  only  in  the 
latter  pontificate  period  that  the  Carlovingian  beearne 
the  exclusive  writing  of  the  pontifical  notaries,  as  it 
remained  imtil  the  sixteenth  century. 

D.  Gothic  Period  (twelfth  to  sixteenth  century). — 
Gothic  writing  arose  from  the  transformations  of  the 
Carlovingian  minuscule,  much  as  Gothic  architecture 
is  derived  from  Romanesque.  The  transition  was  at 
first  imperceptible,  and  most  of  the  MSS.  of  the  first 
thirty  years  of  the  thirteenth  century  do  not  differ 
from  those  of  the  ])receding  epoch.  It  is  only  notice- 
able that  the  letters  thicken  and  assume  a  more  robust 
appearance,  and  that  abbreviations  are  more  frequent. 
Soon  changes  are  introduced:  the  regularity  is  more 
pronounced,  curves  are  replaced  by  angles,  the  lower 
extremities  of  certain  strokes  are  provided  with  more 
or  less  fine  lines  in  the  shape  of  hooks,  which  turn  up 
to  the  right  to  join  the  next  stroke;  the  upper  curves 
of  the  letters  ra  and  n  are  replaced  by  angles.  Among 
the  most  ancient  examples  is  a  MS.  copied  at  St.  Mar- 
tin of  Tournai  in  110.5  (Paris.  Bib.  Nat.,  Lat.  Nouv. 
219.5,  reproduced  in  Prou,  "PalEeography",pl.  VII,  1), 
and  a  charter  of  the  Abbey  of  Anchin  near  Lille  (be- 
tween 1115-20;  Flammermont,  "Album  paleog.  du 
nord  de  la  France",  pi.  IV).  On  the  mortuary  roll  of 
Bl.  Vitalis,  Abbot  of  Savigny  (d.  1122),  are  found, 
among  signatures  collected  in  France  and  England, 
specimens  of  the  new  writing  niiiifjlid  willi  the  Car- 
lovingian minascule.  Diplomatic  writing  follows  an- 
cient tradition  until  the  thirteenth  century,  and  re- 
tains the  elongated  ascenders,  which  sometimes  end  in 
a  more  or  less  curled  stroke.  Nevertheless,  as  early  as 
about  1  i;j()  the  influence  of  Gothic  writing  was  felt  in 
the  charters  of  the  North,  some  of  which  are  even 
written  in  the  characters  used  in  MSS.  Among  the 
most  beautiful  charters  of  this  period  may  be  men- 
tioned those  of  the  papal  Chancery ;  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury their  writing  had  become  simple,  elegant,  and 
clear. 

At  the  end  of  the  twelfth  and  during  the  thirteenth 
century  the  change  in  handwriting  was  more  pro- 
nounced. MSS.  and  charters  in  the  vulgar  tongue 
are  more  and  more  numerous.  Writing  ceases  to  be  a 
monastic  art;  it  no  longer  possesses  its  former  beauti- 
ful uniformity,  and  takes  an  inflividual  character  from 
the  scribe.  .Vbbreviations  multiply;  side  by  side  with 
the  elegantly  shai)ed  Gothic,  miiui.'i?ule  appears  in 
official  documents  (registers,  minutes,  etc.)  a  smaller, 
more  cursive  writing,  pointed  and  ligatured.  The 
tendency  diiring  this  period  is  to  diminish  the  size  and 
to  thicken  the  letters.  In  luxuriously  executed  liturgi- 
cal books,  however,  large  thick  letters,  termed  "letters 
of  form ",  are  used.  This  sort  of  letters  persisted  >inl  il 
the  sixteenth  century  and  served  as  a  model  for  the 
earliest  type  used  in  printing.  Finally,  the  diplomatic 
writing  used  in  charters  disappears  in  the  first  part 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  but  the  writing  of  books 
takes  on  a  cursive  character.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  the  writing  of  ordinary  hooks  becomes  more 
and  more  .slenrler,  angular,  anrl  compressed.  The 
"letter  of  form"  is  reser\-ed  for  inscriptions,  for  copy- 
ing the  Bible  and  liturgical  books.  The  same  charac- 
ters appear  in  official  documents  where  cursive  writing 


becomes  more  and  more  frequent ,  not  only  in  minutes 
and  registers,  but  even  in  certified  copies  (expiditinns 
solentielles) .  It  is  evident  that  the  scribes  wrote  more 
frequently  and  freed  themselves  from  the  ancient 
traditions.  This  transformation  became  still  more 
pronounced  in  the  fifteenth  century,  when  Gothic 
writing  took  on  a  national  character  in  the  various 
countries  of  Europe.  The  writing  of  charters  t  hen  be- 
came finer  and  more  cursive,  the  letters  are  less  care- 
fully formed  and  all  joined  together.  At  last  printing, 
which  spre.ad  through  the  West  about  14.50,  fixed 
the  characters  then  in  use.  The  maju.scule  letters, 
called  capitals,  used  to  begin  sentences  or  jjroper 
names,  are  always  borrowed  from  uncial  or  capital 
writing.  Cursive  writing  was  much  employed,  even 
for  the  copying  of  books.  Moreover,  according  to  the 
temperament  of  individual  scribes,  gradual  transitions 
occur  between  the  "letter  of  form"  and  the  cursive. 
Such,  e.  g.,  is  MS.  9242  of  the  Library  of  Brussels 
(Chronicle  of  Jacques  dc  Guise),  dated  144li. 

Abbreviations. — One  of  the  chief  ditlicultics  in  read- 
ing documents  of  the  twelfth  to  the  sixteenth  (century 
is  the  frequency  of  abbreviations.  This  was  carried 
to  such  an  excess  in  official  documents  that  some 
princes — e.  g.,  Philip  the  Fair,  by  his  ordinance  of  July, 
1304  (Ordonnances  des  Roys  de  France,  I,  417) — 
vainly  endeavoured  to  restrain  their  use.  Abbrevia- 
tions continued  to  multijily  until  the  fifteenth  century 
and  they  are  found  not  only  in  manuscripts  but  .also 
in  the  greater  number  of  printed  bofiks  previous  to 
1520.  Happily,  these  abbreviations  were  not  arbitra- 
rily conceived:  their  use  followeil  determined  rules. 
Besides,  each  branch  of  learning  had  sjiccial  abbrevia- 
tions for  its  technical  terms.  In  writing  the  vernacu- 
lars— English,  French,  German,  etc. — abbreviations 
were  less  numerous,  and  they  followed  the  same  rules 
as  Latin  abbreviations.  These  rules  are  reduced  to  a 
few  essential  principles. 

(1)  Abbreviation,  by  a  sigla,  or  single  letter,  repre- 
sents the  whole  word  of  which  it  is  the  initial.  The 
sigla  is  doubled  to  indicate  tlic)ilural  (D.  N.  for />i»(i- 
nus  Noster;DD.  NN.  for  /;.-///("(  Xnsiri:  FF.  for  Fro- 
Ires).  In  the  pontifical  charters  of  tliethirtccntli  century 
occur:a.s.  (apostolicascripla);e.m.  (eumdcm  rnodnm); 
f.  u.  (fraternitati  vestrce).  Siglas,  which  were  fre- 
quently used  in  inscriptions,  jvere  less  common  in 
manuscripts  and  charters.  Of  rather  frequent  occur- 
rence are:  e  (est),  S.  {signum,  "seal"),  SS.  {subscripsi}, 
i.  (id  est). 

(2)  Abbreviation  by  interior  contraction  consists  in 
suppressing  one  letter  or  more  in  the  interior  of  a  word, 
the  suppression  being  indicated  by  a  horizontal  line 
above  the  word^  (a)  Suppression  of  vowels_  (the 
oldest  used):  Dns  (Domimis)  scs  (sanctu.f) ,  cps,  epc 
(cpiscopus),  sps  (sinrUus).  (b)_Suppression  of  a  single 
vowel:  aj^  (apud),  fdt  (fecit),  ul  (eel),  (c)  Retention 
of  only  the  initial  and  final  letters:  pr  (pater),  mr 
(martyr),  hi  (hoc),  (d)  Contraction  of  the  last  .sylhi- 
ble,  especially  the  termination  unt:  furrt  (fucrunt)  air 
(aliler),  or^  (oratio);  of  the  termination  a  lion  in 
French:  oblw^i  (obligation).  In  Latin  and  French 
the  final  letters  are  always  retained  in  substantives, 
adjectives,  and  adverbs. 

(.3)  A  .small  letter  placed  above  a  word  indicates 
the  suppression  of  one  or  several  letters.  A  vowel 
written  over  another  vowel  indicates  the  initial  letter 
and  the  termination.  The  consonants  m,  r,  I  placed 
above  the  line  are  used  to  indicate  the  terminations 
um,  ur,  it.  ... 

(4)  Abbreviation  by  suspension  consists  in  leaving 
the  word  unfinished;  the  omission  being  indicated  by  a 
stroke,  which  cuts  through  _4.:inv  ascender  thai  may 
be  in  its  way:  „',  (o«/c)  SOl  (.w//-/-«),j,..r....v-,  (/«n.s- 
iensis),  amar  (amariiiit);  in  French,  liruim  {li<-ulni(iiit\. 
The  syllable  ram  and  the  genitive  plural  terminal  ions 
orum,  arum,  are  abbreviated  by  the  suppression  of 
the  last  two  letters;  in  this  case  the  foot  of  the  r  is 


PALiEOGRAPHY 


409 


PAUEOGRAPHY 


given  a  transverse  bar :  Cf-J^;  (coram)  g^ntiCCJi^V' 
(antecessorum ) .  / 

(5)  Abbreviations  by  special  signs. — The  sign  most 
widely  used  is  a  small  horizontal  bar,  sometimes 
waved,  placed  above  the  word,  which  indicates  an  ab- 
breviation by  contraction  or  suspension:  n'ra  [nostra). 
In  the  thirteenth  century  the  bar  has  a  „  •  ^ 
the  forms:  (^  /C—  ,3^.  The  signs,  J  ^  '  "^ , 
represent  °  sometimes  the  termination 

us,  especially  in  ablative  plurals  in  bus;  sometimes  the 
terminations  que,  et,  and  the  final  m  of  the  accusative. 
Other  signs  have  a  more  determined  value :^ for  r; 
Q  <j\  for  ur,  OS,  Ms,  and  in  the  North  of  France  /  all  ter- 
y  -^  minations  in  s  and,  exceptionally,  in  el.  The 
origin  of  this  sign  is  a  Tironian  note;  it  arises  from  the 
joining  of  u  with  s.  The  following  are  abbreviations 
of  the  verb  esse,  and  others  of  the  most  widely  used 
signs: 

Esse  re',=,.^',y,^ 

Esl  \.  ,  'V   and  in  fifteenth  century  ,' J  >  ^  i    3 


Pro^,^ 

Obiit,  obitus,  v ,  '\T' 


(6)  liCtters  enclosed  in  larger  letters,  found  chiefly 
in  inscriptions  on  titles  of  MSS. 

(7)  Monograms. — The  letters  of  a  single  word  com- 
bined in  a  single  figure.  This  custom  must  have  been 
borrowed  from  the  Greek  chanceries  in  the  Carlovin- 
gian  period.  The  best  known  are  those  of  Charle- 
magne (Karolus)  and  Clot  aire  (Hlolarius): — 

Dictionaries  of 
abbreviations  will 
be  found  in  special 
works  (seebibliog- 
raphj')-  From 
,  _  ancient  times  sig- 

las  were  so  numerous  that  .under  Nero,  the  grammarian 
Valerius  Probus  compiled  a  lexicon  of  them,  of  which 
only  the  juridical  section  has  survived  (ed.  Mommsen, 
"Grammatici  latini",  IV,  265).  At  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century  lexicons  of  the  same  kind  were  com- 
piled in  Italy;  one  of  these  published  at  Brescia  in 
1534  has  been  reproduced  (Bib.  de  I'Ecole  des  Chartes, 
1902,  pp.  8,  9). 

Numerals. — Roman  numerals  never  ceased  to  be 
u.sed,  and  with  two  exceptions  they  were  placed  be- 
tween two  points. 

IIII.  represents  IV 

a^  "  VI— in  Merovingian  MSS. 

<5£>  "  M 

s  "         'A 

Xs  ^  "  lOH 
Numbers  were  indicated  by  the  multipliers — IIII'^  = 
80,  V-^"  =  100.  Roman  numerals  were  nearly  always 
written  in  minuscules.  The  termi- <y»0  nation  indi- 
cates a  cardinal  or  ordinal  adjective  :Vl/  ,  millesimo. 
The  Arabic  figures,  of  Hindu  origin,  employed  as  early 
as  the  tenth  century  byGerbert ,  appear  in  mathematical 
treatises  in  the  twelfth  century  and  are  hardly  found  in 
other  works  before  the  fifteenth  century.  In  the  fif- 
teenth century-  ,  »  -  ,  /■  ^  j^  ^ 
the  forms  of  the  \  (fl ,}-,},  t,  ^ij,  6,7,  g,9 
nme  digits  are:  '  *- 
Tironian  notes  and  tachygraphy. — Tironian  notes 
continued  to  be  used  in  diplomas  or  for  glosses  of  MSS. 
until  the  twelfth  century.  Latin  MS.  1597  (Bib.  Nat., 
Paris)  contains  some  tenth-century  exercises  from  the 


Tironian  manual  (see  Bib.  Ec.  des  Chartes,  1906, 270). 
Pope  Sylvester  II  also  used  for  his  letters  a  North- 
Italian  tachygraphical  system,  in  which  each  syllable 
is  represented  by  a  sign  of  its  own  (see  J.  Havet 
"Seances  de  1' Academic  des  Inscriptions",  18S7).  In 
the  Middle  Ages  various  secret  codes  were  used  for 
writing  (cryptography).  These  mostly  consisted  in 
suppressing  vowels  and  supplying  their  places  with 
groups  of  points.  Sometimes  the  consonants,  while 
retaining  their  own  value,  also  represent  the  preceding 
vowel  in  alphabetical  order  (b  =  a,  f  =  e,  k  =  i,  p  =  o). 

Chief  Difficulties  in  Reading  Medieval  Documents. 
— First  to  be  reckoned  with  are  errors  of  transcription, 
which  occur  not  only  in  authors'  MSS.,  but  even  in 
diplomas.  Examples  of  two  words  joined  in  one  also 
occur,  of  which  the  most  frequent  cases  are:  the  join- 
ing of  the  possessive  adjective  to  the  substantive  (e.  g., 
virisui  for  viri  sui),  the  personal  pronoun  to  the  verb 
(e.  g.,  lueris  for  lu  eris),  of  the  preposition  to  its  com- 
plement (invilasua  for  in  vita  sua),  of  the  conjunction 
to  the  following  word  (sitalis  for  si  talis).  Another 
difficulty  arises  from  the  arbitrary  division  of  words 
between  two  fines.  It  is  now  admitted  that  division 
can  only  be  made  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  and  there 
is  a  custom  of  placing  a  hyphen  at  the  end  of  the  line 
to  indicate  that  the  word  is  divided:  in  the  Middle 
Ages  the  same  syllable  was  unhesitatingly  divided 
between  two  lines,  and  the  hyphen,  introduced  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  never  became  universal.  Finally, 
before  beginning  the  study  of  documents  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  some  ideas  of  the  orthography  of  the 
languages  in  which  the  texts  are  written.  Not  only 
had  the  vulgar  tongues  (English,  French,  Cierman, 
Provengal,  etc.)  forms  which  have  now  disai)i)cared, 
but  the  orthography  of  Latin  itself  was  very  different 
from  ours.  Not  to  mention  letters  improperlj'  added 
to  words,  and  Germanic  breathings  (especially  in  the 
Merovingian  period),  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
termination  of  the  genitive  feminine  singular  is  always 
in  e  {rose  for  rosw).  During  the  greater  part  of  this 
period,  also,  the  diphthongal  vowels  ae  are  written 
separate. 

Sixteenth  Century  Reform  and  Modern  Writings. — 
One  consequence  of  the  Renaissance  was  a  progressive 
abandonment  of  Gothic  for  the  writing  of  books.  The 
Italian  typographers  created  the  modern  Latin  char- 
acter on  the  model  of  the  Carlovingian  minuscule. 
This  reform  was  adopted  in  Latin  countries;  in  Eng- 
land Latin  characters  were  introduced  as  early  as  1467 
and  by  degrees  supiilanted  the  Gothic  character  or 
"black  letter".  On  the  other  hand,  this  character 
persisted  in  German-speaking  countries,  which  have 
not  even  yet  entirely  abandoned  it.  Books  copied  by 
hand  became  more  and  more  rare.  In  legal  docu- 
ments and  correspondence  writing  assumed  a  more 
individual  character;  abbreviations  were  left  to  the 
fancy  of  each  writer — a  licence  which  sometimes  in- 
creases the  difficulty  of  deciphering.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century  writing  tended  to  become 
more  regular  and  by  the  end  of  that  century  attained 
great  perfection.  The  thoroughly  individual  charac- 
ter of  nineteenth-century  writing  renders  all  pateo- 
graphical  study  of  it  hopeless. 

Oriental. — Rosny,  Archucs  paUof/raphiques  de  VOrient  et  de 
IWvierique,  I  (Paris,  1860-7!)  (nntirrs  nn  Turkish,  Sanskrit,  Chi- 
nese. Japanese,  Siameso,  T  i:'iiri-iTi  <^'itTi.if'ivi,i  \iiMrir:in.  Ocean- 
ian writing);  Silvestim  r  '  ■  '■  1  'n.-^,  1839- 
41);  MOEI.LEB,  OriVn/  '  /  I  I  l.lMi.  1844); 
EvRBEhL.  Ekinent^  of  S  '  !  -I  'I-  I. .n.  1878); 
MOKITZ.  .\rilh^r  P:J-.  '  .  '  :  '  •  r  I  .  }  -PHir^i. 
(1,  \N'm.. •               •  •    ■        I    •■  '1"'^.    I-  ■  '■       ■■' 


Ore 


JOR 


,  i.i 


(1908),   175-811.    <,.Ai< -.        '  '       ••    /■   ■  '    •      I  •  i|:- 

zig.  1879)  (still  theonl>  r.. I.  ,..  '.    ..-,  !■      ■        //■■■■l- 

book  of  Greek  and  Lai i "    /'  t        ,    :      i-    i       '     ■       i, 

Pac-simiUde  Tnanuscrih  ir ;.     ■-   ■'  ;..,,' ' :u 

IX'  au  XIV'  sUde  (I'u.i.-,.  l^'Jlj.  Iulm.  /u, -.,.«,,/.  ,.'.,.  ;./u.i 
anciens  manuscrit.t  grecs  en  oncmles  ti  tn  ininiiacule  de  la  Bihliuth. 
Nat.  VI'-XI'  siede  (Paris,  1892) ;  Henbt,  llixtary  oj  Writing  (Lon- 
don, 1907)  (portfolios);  Kenyon,  The  Pala:ography  of  Greek  Papyri 


PAUEOLOGUS 


410 


PAIJEONTOLOOY 


(Olford,  1899) ;  Wesselv.  Slwlwi  rur  Palttographie  und  Papyrus- 
fOTSchuntJ  CLeipzig,  lifUi — );  Gakdthausen,  Geschichte  tier 
griichxschen  Tachygriiphit  im  AUerthum  in  Archiv  fiir  StenouTaphie 
(1905);    HOHLWEIN,  La  papyroloyie  yrecque  (Louvain,  1905). 

Latin.— Mabillon,  De  re  diplomatica,  I  (Paris,  1601);  Du- 
CANOE  Gtossarium  medite  et  iiifima:  latiaiUilis:  Scriptura;  Nataus 
DE  Waillv.  EUmenU  de  paKoaraphie  (Paris,  1838);  Chassant, 
PaUoaraphie  des  chartes  el  des  manuscrits  du  XI'  au  A'  ill'  siicle 
(Paris,  1876);  Diet,  des  abbreviations  laiiiies  et  frantaises  (Paris, 
1876):  Prod,  Manuel  de  paliographie  latine  du  \'I' au  XVUI' 
siicle  (Paris,  1890;  new  od.,  1910);  Reusens,  EUmmts  de  paUo- 
grapkie  (Louvain,  1899);  Blass,  Lateinische  Palaographie:  MiJL- 
LER,  Handbuch  der  klassischen  AUertumsnissenscha/t ,  I  (1892); 
Groeber,  Grundriis  der  romanischen  Philologie,  I  (1888),  157-196; 
Die  schri/llichen  Quellen;  Paul,  Grundrisa  der  germanischen  Philo- 
logie,  I  (1901),  263-82;  Meister,  Grundriss  der  Geschichtswissen- 
acha/l,  I  (1906),  21-171;  Bretholz,  Lateinische  Paliiographie: 
Steffens.  Palaographie  laline  (Trier  and  Paris,  1908);  MuSoz  T 
Rn'ERO,  Manual  de  paleografta  diplomdtica  espafiola  (Madrid, 
1890);  Chrestomathia  paleographica  (Madrid,  1890);  Thompson 
(see  alx>ve,  under  Greek);  Friedbich,  Vchna  Kniha  paleogra- 
phie  latinsU  (Prague,  1898);  Df.d-ii,  V  ,'  ,.  .<  ,le  paliographie 
et  de  bibliographic  (.Paris.  18S0):    M<  '      ■le  calligraphiqu^ 

de  Tours  in  M(m.  Acad.  Inscript  .  '.  \  ■  1  I  !  I^^.'i);  Champol- 
UON,    Paliographie  des  classiqiu^    m-  1   i[i>.    1837);     Bond, 

Thompson,  and  Warner,  Occidenial  .^ine.i  u;  the  Palrrographical 
Soc.  (London,  1873-83);  Chatelain,  Paliographie  des  classiques 
latins  (Paris,  1884-97);  Album  paleographique  de  la  Sociilt  de 
I'Ecole  des  Chartes  (Paris,  1887) ;  IJqdrmont,  Lecture  et  transcrip- 
tion des  vieilles  icrUures:  Manuel  de  paliographie  des  X  VI*.  X  VII'. 
XVIII'  siecles  (Caen,  1881);  Gilbert,  Facsimiles  of  National 
Manuscripts  of  Ireland  (Dublin  and  London,  1874-84);  Sanders, 
Facsimiles  of  National  Manuscripts  of  England  (Southampton, 
1865-68);  Idem,  Facsimiles  of  Anglo-Saxon  Manuscripts  (South- 
ampton, 1878-84);  McsAe  des  Archives  Nationales,  Docu- 
ments originaux  de  I'histoire  de  France  (Paris,  1872) ;  Mus^E  des 
Archives  D6partementai.es,  Rccueil  de  facsimiles  (Paris,  1878) ; 
Flammermont,  .\lbum  paleographique  du  nord  de  la  France  (Lille, 
1896) ;  Prou.  Recueil  de  fac-similis  d'icritures  du  XII'  au  X  VII' 
sihde  (Paris,  1904) :  Koennecke,  Bilderatlas  der  deutschen  na- 
tional Litteratur  (Marburg,  1894)  (numerous  facsimiles);  de 
Vries,  Album  palieographicum  (Leyden,  1909);  Bond  and 
Thompson  in  Palxographical  Society^s  Publications  (London, 
1874-94)  (455  plates).  Reorganized  as  The  New  Palseographical 
Society,  the  same  Society  has  published,  since  1903,  various  speci- 
mens of  Greek  and  Latin  writing  (7th  fasc,  1909). 

Louis  BRfiniER. 
Pal8Bolog:us,  House  op.    See  Byzantine  Empire. 

PalsBOntology  (Xi57os  tQv  iraXaiHv  6imiii'),  or  the 
science  of  fo.^sils,  deals  with  extinct  or  primeval  ani- 
mals and  plants.  It  treats  of  their  characteristics, 
classification,  life  and  habits,  geographical  distribu- 
tion, and  succession.  It  embraces  also  whatever 
deductions  may  be  drawn  from  these  investigations 
for  the  history  of  the  organisms  and  of  the  earth. 
Palseontologj-,  therefore,  is  closely  connected  with 
geology,  botany,  zoology,  comparative  anatomy,  and 
embryology,  or  ontogeny,  which  at  the  same  time 
serve  it  as  auxiliary  sciences.  The  science  of  fossils 
is  divided  into  palaeophytology  {tf^vrdv,  plant '),  also 
called  phj-topateontology,  or  paleobotany  (/Sordi'i;, 
herb),  treating  of  fossil  plants,  and  palaeozoology 
(fifioc,  animal),  treating  of  extinct  animals. 

Historical  Summary. — Even  in  antiquity  fossil 
marine  animals  attracted  the  attention  of  a  number 
of  philosophers  who,  in  .some  measure,  explained  them 
correctly,  dra%ving  the  conclusion  that  at  one  time 
there  had  been  a  different  distribution  of  sea  and 
land.  The  earliest  of  these  philosophers  was  Xeno- 
phanes  of  Colophon,  the  founder  of  the  Eleatic  school 
of  philosophy  (600  B.  c).  After  him  came  Strabo, 
Seneca  etc.;  the  earliest  Christian  observers  were 
Tertullian  of  Carthage  (160-230),  and  Euscbius  of 
Ca;sarea  (about  270-339).  In  the  Middle  Ages  little 
attention  was  paid  to  fossils,  which  were  generally 
regarded  as  products  of  a  creative  force  of  the  earth 
(m  plaslica,  or  virtus  formativa) ,  though  a  few  men 
like  Albertus  Magnus,  and  later  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
(14.52-1.519)  held  correct  views  on  the  subject.  In 
the  sixteenth  century  the  first  engravings  of  fossils 
were  published  by  the  .Swiss  physician  Conrad  Gess- 
ner.  It  was  not  until  a  century  later,  however,  that 
a  few  scholars,  particularly  the  Englishmen,  Robert 
Hooke,  John  Ray,  and  .John  Woodward,  vigorously 
maintained  the  organic  origin  of  fossils.  The  opinion 
was  still  universal  that  fossils  represented  life  de- 
stroyed by  the  flood,  a  theory  championed  especially 


by  .Scheuchzcr.  William  Smith  (17tJ9-lS30)  was  the 
first  to  recognize  the  value  of  fo.ssils  for  the  historical 
investigation  of  the  strata  of  the  earth,  his  theory 
being  introduced  into  France  by  Alexander  Brong- 
niart  (1770-1847),  who,  with  Cuvier  (1769-1832),  was 
the  first  to  apply  the  principles  of  botany,  zoology, 
and  comparative  anatomy  to  pala;ontology,  whereby 
the  latter  became  a  science.  The  designation  "pahe- 
outology",  however,  was  first  given  it  by  a  pupil  of 
Cuvier,  Ducrotay  de  Blainville,  and  the  zoologist 
Fischer  of  Waldheim.  Since  then  about  one  hundred 
thousand  species  of  extinct  organisms  have  been  de- 
scribed. Cuvier  and  his  successors,  as  d'Orbigny, 
Agassiz,  d'Archiac,  and  Barrande,  however,  main- 
tained the  catastrophic  theory,  that  is,  the  doctrine 
that  at  the  end  of  each  geologic  period  the  entire  fauna 
was  de'^troyed,  and  replaced  by  a  new  order  of  life. 
Darwin's  "The  Origin  of  Species  by  Means  of  Natural 
Selection"  (1S.59)  proved  a  turning-point  for  these 
theories,  for  since  that  time  the  theory  of  descent  was 
also  applied  to  palaeontology,  and  to-day  is  generally 
accepted.  We  may  especially  mention  the  works  on 
this  subject  by  Kowalewsky,  Riitiraeyer,  Gaudry, 
Cope,  W.  Waagen,  Neumayr,  and  Zittel. 

The  geological  and  pateontological  collections  of 
universities  serve  for  the  study  of  palaeontology  and 
instruction  in  this  science,  as  do  also  similar  collections 
in  museums  of  natural  history.  The  national  geolog- 
ical collections  and  geological  societies  have  the  same 
object.  There  are  only  two  purely  pala?ontological 
societies,  the  Swiss  and  the  London;  their  object 
being  the  publication  of  palseontological  works. 
Palaeozoology  is  cultivated  almost  exclusively  by 
geologists;  it  is  only  in  exceptional  cases  that  zoolo- 
gists occupy  themselves  with  this  science,  while 
phytopaliEontology  is  carried  on  mainly  by  botanists. 

The  object  of  palaeontological  study  is  petrefaetions 
(from  TT^rpoj,  stone,  and  facere,  to  make),  or  fossils 
(Jossilis,  what  is  buried).  Fossils  are  those  remains 
or  traces  of  plants  and  animals  which  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  present  geological  era  found  their  way 
into  the  strata  of  the  earth  and  have  been  preserved 
there.  Most  of  the  species  thus  found  are  extinct, 
but  the  more  recent  the  strata  the  greater  the  number 
of  extant  species  it  contains.  As  implied  by  the  word 
petrefaction,  most  palaeontological  remains  have  been 
transformed  into  stone,  but  leaves  and  bones  com- 
pletely incrustcd  in  limestone,  and  therefore  petrified, 
have  been  found  which  belong  to  the  present  geolog- 
ical era  and  are,  therefore,  not  considered  fossils, 
whereas  the  skeletons  of  the  mammoth  and  rhinoceros 
frozen  in  the  ice  of  Siberia,  or  the  insects  preserved  in 
amber  are.  The  fossilization  of  the  remains  of  plants 
and  animals  could  take  place  only  under  very  unusu;il 
conditions,  for  in  the  normal  process  of  decay,  only  the 
hard  parts  of  the  bodies  of  animals  at  the  most,  as 
bones,  teeth,  shells  of  molluscs,  etc.,  are  preserved. 
Even  these  hard  parts  gradually  disappear  by  dis- 
integration through  atmospheric  influences.  One 
very  important  process  of  preser^'ation  for  primeval 
organisms  is  carbonization,  which  afTects  plants  par- 
ticularly; it  takes  place  under  water,  air  being  ex- 
cluded. Most  frequently,  however,  organic  remains 
are  completely  penetrated  by  solutions  of  mineral 
matter  and  are  thus  in  the  literal  sense  mineralized  or 
petrified.  Generally  the  petrifying  substance  is  car- 
bonate of  lime,  but  silicious  earth,  and  more  rarely 
brown  clay  iron-ore,  red  iron-ore,  zinc-spar,  sulphide 
of  zinc,  black  lead-ore  etc.,  also  contribute  to  produce 
fossils.  The  mineralization  does  not  always  destroy 
the  original  structure  of  the  tissue,  especially  in  case 
of  silicatization.  But  there  are  still  other  means  of 
preserving  as  fossils  the  remains  of  ancient  organisms. 
Not  infrequently  such  remains  are  covered  by  mineral 
waters  with  an  envelope,  the  organic  body  itself  was 
afterwards  dissolved,  leaving  only  ,an  impression.  On 
the  other  hand  molluscs,  echinoderms,  corals,  etc., 


PALSONTOLOGY 


411 


PALEONTOLOGY 


have  their  hollow  chambers  filled  with  a  mineral  sub- 
stance and  afterwards  the  outer  shell  is  chemically 
removed,  so  that  only  a  cast  of  the  inside  or  a  hard 
kernel  remains.  Finally,  the  tracks  of  birds  and  rep- 
tiles, and  traces  of  the  trails  of  Crustacea  and  worms 
which  have  been  preserved  as  impressions  are  counted 
as  fossils.  These  are  often  found  with  the  remains  of 
moUuscs,  as  the  well-known  impressions  of  medusiE 
in  the  lithographic  slate  of  Bavaria. 

The  study  of  palfeontological  objects  is  often  at- 
tended with  great  difficulties  as  for  the  most  part  the 
remains  found  are  incomplete  and  their  correct  in- 
terpretation requires  careful  comparison  with  living 
organisms.  Palaeontology,  therefore,  makes  use  of 
the  methods  of  zoology  and  botany,  but  its  task  is  a 
far  more  difficult  one.  In  the  fossils  of  animals  all  the 
fleshy  parts  are  lacking,  and  even  the  hard  parts  are 
often  enough  only  very  imperfectly  represented,  and 
preserved  in  fragments.  Ihe  blossoms  of  plants  are 
completely  wanting,  while  leaves,  fruit,  stem,  and  root 
are  hardly  ever  found  together.  Consequently,  pate- 
ontologists  have  given  special  attention  to  the  study 
of  the  comparative  anatomy  of  the  hard  parts  of 
organisms,  and  thus  discovered  important  organic 
laws;  among  these  should  be  especially  mentioned 
Cuvier's  "law  of  correlation".  By  this  is  meant  the 
mutual  dependence  of  the  different  parts  of  an  organ- 
ism, which  enables  us,  e.  g.,  from  the  teeth  alone,  to 
decide  whether  an  animal  was  carnivorous  or  herbiv- 
orous etc.  Furthermore,  by  the  aid  of  palaeontology 
the  material  of  the  biological  sciences  was  enlarged  to 
an  astonishing  degree,  and  many  gaps  therein  were 
filled.  The  problems  of  the  development  theory  re- 
ceived much  light  from  the  same  source.  Finally 
palseogeography  is  wholly  dependent  on  this  science, 
as  the  fossils  indicate  where  there  were  continents  and 
oceans,  where  the  animal  life  of  the  coast  developed, 
where  coral  reefs  grew,  where  lakes  containing  fresh 
water  organisms  existed,  where  the  primeval  tropical 
forests  flourished,  and  where  the  tundras  of  the  cold 
regions  extended.  This  not  only  enables  us  to  fill  the 
outlines  of  ancient  continents  and  oceans,  but  also 
furnishes  the  means  of  determining  the  geographical 
distribution  of  plants  and  animals,  and  the  climatic 
conditions  during  the  different  geological  eras. 

Of  special  importance  is  the  historical  side  of 
paleontology.  As  has  already  been  said,  William 
Smith  was  the  first  to  recognize  the  importance  of  fos- 
sils for  the  historical  investigation  of  the  earth's 
strata.  Before  his  day  they  were  regarded  as  proofs 
of  the  Flood.  The  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth  consists  of  varying  stratified  rocks  that  have 
been  deposited  by  the  ocean,  by  brackish,  and  by 
fresh  water.  Geology  studies  the  individual  strata 
and  infers  their  age  from  their  succession.  This  can 
easily  be  done  in  a  limited  district,  but  if  two  districts 
somewhat  distant  from  each  other  are  compared,  then 
it  will  prove  impossible  by  geology  alone  to  establish 
that  the  two  strata  are  of  the  same  age,  for  at  the  same 
time  in  one  place  limestone  may  have  been  deposited, 
in  another  sandstone,  and  in  a  third  clay.  Again, 
strata  of  an  epoch  which  appear  in  one  place  may  bo 
wanting  in  another.  In  such  cases  the  geologist  may 
receive  great  assistance  from  palaeontology.  For  the 
stratified  portion  of  the  earth  generally  contains  fos- 
sils which  are  found  more  or  less  frequently,  whicl]  arc 
so  distributed  that  each  group  of  strata  ci>nrs|i(incl-;  to 
a  definite  collection  of  species  that  hved  when  iIksc 
strata  were  deposited.  In  .such  a  case  palaMiiitcilogy 
determines  the  chronological  succession  of  the  several 
fauna  and  flora  and  studies  the  mutual  relations  of  the 
organic  remains  found  at  the  different  localities.  By 
this  means  the  contemporaneousness  of  the  various 
strata  may  be  recognized  or  the  parallelism  of  the 
several  strata  established.  In  doing  this,  however, 
many  obstacles  have  been  overcome  with  considerable 
difficulty.     Most  strata  have  been  deposited  by  the 


sea.  At  the  same  time,  however,  deposits  were 
formed  by  lakes;  on  land  forests  grew  and  land  ani- 
mals lived,  in  warm  seas  there  were  luxurious  growths 
of  coral.  Naturally  each  of  these  regions  produced 
organisms  utterly  different;  consequently  some  lucky 
discovery  such  as  that  of  shells  which  found  their  way 
into  deposits  of  plants,  or  that  of  the  bone  of  a  mam- 
mal imbedded  in  the  sea-sand  is  required,  in  order  to 
be  able  to  decide  whether  the  deposits  are  contem- 
poraneous. From  what  has  been  said  it  is  clear  that 
all  fossils  are  not  equally  important  and  useful  in 
determining  the  age  of  strata.  Thus,  all  remains  of 
land  and  fresh-water  organisms  are  of  less  importance, 
because  most  strata  were  deposited  by  the  ocean. 
Even  the  marine  fossils  are  not  all  equally  important. 
The  most  important  are  those  combining  the  most 
rapid  changes  in  character  with  the  most  extensive 
geographical  distribution. 

The  most  important  task  of  pateontology  is  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  history  of  the  development  of  life, 
for  it  is  the  only  science  which  furnishes  means  and 
in  the  fossils  offers  documents  to  elucidate  this  prob- 
lem. Only  in  this  way  is  it  possible  to  learn  whether 
the  past  and  present  organisms  form  a  continuous 
whole,  or  whether  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  various 
periods  in  the  earth's  historj-  were  destroyed  by 
catastrophes  and  were  replaced  by  a  new  creation. 
There  ure  two  fundamental  characteristics  of  all  or- 
ganisms: heredity  and  variation.  It  is,  at  the  same 
time,  interesting  to  prove  that  the  conception  of 
mutation  and  with  it  of  the  evolution  of  living  beings 
is  older  than  the  knowledge  of  its  capacity  of  persist- 
ence. Aristotle  believed  that  eels  sprang  from  mud, 
Theophrastus  accepted  the  belief  that  the  tubers  of  a 
number  of  plants  were  formed  from  the  earth,  and 
even  Goethe  maintained  the  ojiinion  that  plant-lice 
were  developed  from  parts  of  the  plants.  With  Lin- 
naeus began  the  perception  of  the  great  importance  in 
physical  law  of  the  capacity  of  persistence  in  organ- 
isms, which  makes  it  possible  for  the  naturalist  to 
organize  the  whole  of  the  great  kingdom  of  living 
beings  into  genera  and  species.  Darwin  was  as  the 
opponent  of  Linnaeus,  in  that  he  once  more  brought 
the  capacity  for  mutation  of  all  organisms  into  the 
focus  of  natural  philosophy. 

According  to  the  theory  of  the  evolutionist  all  life 
issued  from  several  cells,  or  according  to  some  from 
a  single  cell.  Of  this  cell,  of  course,  no  fossilized 
traces  can  have  been  preserved.  Yet  according  to 
this  theory  we  should  expect  the  most  ancient  strata 
to  be  filled  with  the  remains  of  animals  and  plants  of 
the  lowest  type  capable  of  preservation.  This,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  case.  In  the  Cambrian,  the  olilest 
stratified  formation,  which  has  yielded  somewhat 
abundant  fo.ssils,  all  families  of  the  animal  kirgdom 
are  found,  with  exception  of  the  vertebrates;  all  plants 
are  likewise  missing.  These  two  groups  first  appear 
in  the  Silurian  formation.  The  organisms  found  in 
the  Cambrian  formation  are  not  the  lowest  of  their 
kind,  the  brachiopods,  for  instance,  and  the  trilobites 
are  as  highly-organized  as  the  present  representatives 
of  their  species.  In  the  same  manner,  vertebrates  are 
represented  in  the  Silurian  formation  by  the  trunk-fish 
or  oslraciiihv,  and  the  oldest  known  plants  are  the  algm 
and  the  highly-organized  ferns.  Consequently  the 
lowest  classes  are  not  the  earliest..  When  by  the  dis- 
covery of  older  remains  the  limits  of  life  were  traced 
further  back,  here  also  remains  of  higher  organisms 
were  founfl,  so  that  even  here  we  are  very  far  removed 
from  the  beginnings  of  life.  In  attempting  to  find 
traces  of  the  simplest  organisms  the  Eozoon  canadense 
played  a  great  role  imtil  it  was  .seen  that  in  the  remains 
in  question  crystals  of  olivin  or  chrysolite,  that  had 
been  converted  into  serpentine,  had  produced  the  il- 
lusion of  an  organic  structure.  Great  importance  was 
also  .attached  to  the  appearance  of  graphite  in  the 
earliest  of  strata,  until  Weinscheok  proved,  at  least 


PALEONTOLOGY 


412 


PALEONTOLOGY 


for  many  of  them,  tli;it  tlii\v  owed  their  existence  to 
volcanic  action.  Kqually  inconclusive  are  the  earliest 
limestones,  now  that  we  know  that  these  are  still 
being  produced  chemically  in  the  ocean.  In  short, 
pala-ontology  tells  us  nothing  about  the  origin  of  life; 
the  whole  series  of  organisms,  from  the  simplest  pro- 
toplasmic m;usses  to  the  differentiated  fonns  found  in 
the  Cambrian  rocks  is  missing. 

If  we  survey  the  fossils  so  far  known  in  historical 
order,  the  following  facts  are  ascertained:  The  earliest 
or  primary  jieriod  of  the  earth  is  the  era  of  the  Pteri- 
dophyta,  the  ferns,  horsetails,  and  club-mosses;  in  the 
Triassic  and  .lurassic  periods  the  gymnosperms  pre- 
vail, and  beginning  with  the  cretaceous  period  the 
angiosperms.  TIk^  history  of  the  animal  kingdom  is 
similar.  Of  the  arliculala,  only  the  Crustacea  appear 
in  the  earliest  formations,  insects  and  spiders  are  not 
found  unl  il  the  Upper  Carboniferous.  The  first  verte- 
brates are  found  in  the  Upper  Silurian,  these  are  some 
trunk-fish  or  ostraciid;K,  which  reached  their  most 
flourishing  period  in  the  Upper  Devonian.  The  first 
vertebrates  living  on  Land  ajjpcar  in  the  Carboniferous 
period;  these  were  amphibians  represented  by  the 
stegocephala,  and  th(>  first  reptiles.  The  Triassic  al.so 
yields  the  first  small  mammals,  which,  however,  do  not 
become  important  until  the  Old  Tertiary  period,  while 
true  birds  are  already  known  in  the  Jurassic.  Man, 
who  appears  in  the  Quaternary,  concludes  the  series. 
Thus,  starling  from  geological  antiquity,  the  fossils  of 
which  still  in  part  seem  strange  to  us,  although  in  al- 
most all  cases  they  can  be  inserted  without  difficulty 
in  the  existing  orders  and  classes  of  tlic  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms,  thi  i^'  is  I'l.iind  a  prof^rrssive  ap- 
proximation to  the  oiuaniMiis  now  existing  which  is 
completed  by  the  gradual  and  imliroken  succession  of 
beings  more  and  more  highly  differentiated. 

At  the  first  glance  this  seems  to  be  a  brilliant  con- 
firmation of  the  theory  of  development,  but  when 
more  closely  examined  it  is  seen  that  the  guiding- 
thread,  which  should  lead  from  one  point  to  another, 
is  continually  broken  and  the  loose  ends  cannot  readily 
be  connected.  Vertebrates  first  appear  in  the  Silurian 
and  angiosperms  in  the  cretaceous,  but  there  are  no 
organisms  leading  up  to  these  groui)s.  Thus  we  are 
met  by  the  broad  fact  that  both  vertebrates  and  flow- 
ering plants  with  covered  seed  appear  without  inter- 
mediate links.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  each  one  of 
the  clas.scs  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms. 
We  see  them,  indeed,  appear  one  after  another  in 
time,  but  we  always  miss  the  intervening  links  which 
would  indicate  genetic  relations  among  the  several 
orders.  It  is  true  that  at  times  animal  remains  are 
found  which,  it  is  believed,  may  rightly  be  claimed  as 
the  missing  links.  The  best  known  of  these  is  prob- 
ably the  aboriginal  bird,  the  archa;opteryx,  which 
ranks  midway  Ix^t  ween  reptile  and  bird.  Its  plumage, 
its  bird-like  fool,  and  the  closed  capsule  of  its  .skull 
characterize  it  :us  a  bird,  while  the  structure  of  the 
vertebra^  th(^  teeth,  and  the  long,  lizard-like  tail 
point  to  the  reptiles.  Since,  however,  it  has  been 
found  that  these  reptile-like  peculiarities  also  appear 
in  embrj-onic  birds,  there  is  no  longer  any  doubt  that 
the  species  under  consideration  are  real  birds,  the 
highly-ditTerentiated  last  link  of  an  extinct  class  of 
birds.  In  the  same  way  the  opinion  that  the  thero- 
morpha,  a  kinfl  of  reptile,  are  the  aboriginal  form  of 
\ertebrates,  has  not  proved  tenable.  At  the  same 
lime  we  now  and  then  find  in  the  record  of  successive 
geological  strata  forms  that  may  be  regarded  as  the 
common  starting-point  of  two  or  of  several  orders. 
\\  e  know,  for  instance,  the  connecting  links  between 
the  four-branched  and  six-branched  corals,  or  between 
the  ganoids,  and  the  teleosts  fbony  fish),  also  between 
the  two  great  groups  of  camivoro\is  .and  insectivorous 
marsupials  on  the  one  side  and  the  herbivorous  mar- 
supials on  the  other.  At  the  base  of  the  i)lacental 
mammalia  are  found  forms  which  unite  the  character- 


istics of  hoofed  animals,  beasts  of  prey,  and  insectiv- 
orous animals.  Such  collective  types  as  they  are 
called,  however,  are  very  rare,  where.os  according  to 
the  theory  of  descent  they  should  be  found  in  large 
numbers. 

In  the  smallest  classified  case  of  minute  systematic 
units  it  is  true  pateontological  series  of  descent  may 
be  recognized,  for  here  individual  species  by  imper- 
ceptible mutations  lead  to  new  species.  The  best 
known  line  of  descent  of  this  kind  is  probably  the 
ancestral  tree  of  the  horse,  published  long  ago  by 
Huxley;  but  this  very  ca,se  illustrates  the  dilliculties 
of  such  problems,  for  just  now  it  is  very  doubtful  if 
some  of  the  links  should  be  inserted  in  the  series. 
Moreover,  such  proofs  always  c<intain  hypothetical 
elements.  Besides,  connecting  links  are  often  lack- 
ing; or  parts  separately  found,  such  as  teeth  or  bones, 
are  the  only  means  of  completing  a  line  of  ancestral 
descent.  A  special  obstacle  to  the  recognition  of  true 
relationship  is  the  phenomenon  called  convergence. 
By  convergence  is  meant  the  fact  that,  in  consequence 
of  similar  conditions  of  life,  uniformity  of  organs  or 
even  of  the  entire  structure  can  be  developed  by  ani- 
mals far  apart  in  systematic  classification.  Thus,  for 
example,  a  mollusc  of  the  cretaceous  period,  a  brachi- 
opod  of  the  Carboniferous,  and  a  coral  of  the  Devo- 
nian externally  are  much  alike.  Or,  again,  in  Mesozoic 
times  the  repiilia  prevailed  in  water,  air,  and  on  land. 
There  existed  in  this  period  beasts  of  prey,  along  with 
herbivorous  and  insectivorous  animals,  cheiroptera  in 
the  air,  and  fish-like  carnivora  in  the  ocean.  In  the 
latest  geological  periods  the  mammals  took  the  lead, 
and  placental  mammals  took  possession  of  all  three 
elements.  Alongside  of  these  there  existed  carnivor- 
ous, insectivorous,  and  rodent  marsupials. 

If  we  study  the  fossils  of  successive  strata  we  will 
notice  along  with  the  forms  which  are  gradually 
changed,  numerous  new  forms  unconnected  with  pre- 
viously-existing forms.  There  is,  therefore,  a  gap 
which  cannot  be  filled  up  by  means  of  small,  inappre- 
ciable changes,  as  the  Darwinian  theory  of  descent  de- 
mands, because  there  is  not  time  enough  for  numerous 
intermediate  members  of  the  series.  Hackel,  there- 
fore, assumes  a  process  of  change  which  he  calls  meta- 
kinesis,  by  this  he  understands  "an  almost  violent  and 
always  far-reaching  cliange  in  the  forms,  which  cer- 
tainly cannot  take  place  in  the  adult  form  of  the  or- 
ganism, but  only  in  its  earlier  younger  stages  when  the 
individual  organs  are  not  yet  histologically  si)ecialized 
and  therefore  possess  a  more  or  less  independent  i)la,s- 
ticity".  In  the  shortest  space  of  time  such  nietaki- 
netic  processes  can  completely  change  the  a]ii)earaiice 
of  the  entire  fauna  and  flora,  and  in  the  history  of  life 
periods  of  relative  constancy  alternate  with  those  of 
violent  change  and  new  formation.  Under  these  con- 
ditions the  individual  genera  act  very  ditTcrentlv. 
Many  genera  of  the  brachiopods,  the  foraniiiiifera,  the 
echinoderms,  gasterojxKls,  as  well  as  the  iiiolliisca,  the 
cephaloiKjds,  and  the  Crustacea  extend  almost  without 
change  from  geological  antiiiuity  up  into  the  present 
time.  Other  genera,  on  the  contrary,  have  only  a  life 
of  very  brief  tiuration.  In  these  latter  is  perceived,  at 
times,  a  very  gradual  remodelling  by  mutations,  mu- 
tations which  being  separated  into  fragments  by  a  vio- 
lent metakinetic  break-up,  afterwards  give  rise  to  a 
large  number  of  species;  thus  the  vital  energy  of  the 
genera  is  soon  exhausted.  This  phenomenon  brings 
us,  therefore,  face  to  face  with  a  new  problem,  com- 
monly called  the  "extinction  of  species". 

One  circumstance  must,  however,  still  be  pointed 
out,  namely  that  the  variability  of  the  forni  groups 
does  not  appear  to  be  unlimited  in  all  directions,  but 
that  this  variability  in  different  families  frequently 
moves  independently  in  the  same  direction.  For  in- 
stance, there  was  a  tendency  toward  bilateral  sym- 
metry in  the  animal  kingdom  at  a  fairly  early  period, 
and  individual  echinoderms  attained  it;  but  it  was  not 


PALEONTOLOGY 


413 


PALEONTOLOGY 


general  until  the  era  of  the  worms.  One  family  of 
worms  already  had  gills,  yet  it  was  only  upon  the 
appearance  of  the  tnoUuscoidea  that  such  organs  for 
breathing  were  always  present.  In  the  same  manner 
the  crocodiles,  alone  of  the  reptilia,  have  a  heart  di- 
vided into  two  ante-chambers  and  two  main  cham- 
bers, a  form  of  heart  which  is  found,  once  more,  with- 
out exception  among  birds  and  mammals.  This  agree- 
ment among  various  groups,  however,  cannot  be  based 
upon  a  close  relationship,  but,  strictly  speaking,  comes 
also  under  the  conception  of  convergence. 

If  we  survey  extinct  organisms,  there  are  without 
doubt  many  important  considerations  which  tell  for 
the  theory  of  development.  However,  the  theory  of 
development  in  its  extreme,  monistic  sense,  signifies 
that  all  life,  both  animal  and  plant,  springs  from  a  sin- 
gle root.  For  this  many  proofs  are  still  lacking,  even 
if  we  set  aside  the  fact  that  the  oldest  organisms  of 
every  family  (except  the  vertebrates  and  plants)  are 
highly  organized,  inasmuch  as  their  oldest  progenitors 
may  have  been  made  unrecognizable  by  the  metamor- 
phosis of  the  earliest  rocks  and  thus  withdrawn  from 
our  observation;  and  even  if  the  enormous  length  of 
time  required  for  the  development  of  forms  so  highly 
speciahzed  as  the  trilobite,  does  not  seem  to  be  suffi- 
ciently represented  in  the  eozoic  sediments.  But  in 
the  later  formations  also  the  entire  family  of  verte- 
brates appear  without  any  preparation;  among  the 
plants  to  name  only  a  few,  the  flowering  cretaceous 
angiosperms  appear  without  any  precursors,  and  the 
Older  Tertiarj'  brings  without  warning  us,  all  ten  or- 
ders of  the  mammalia;  even  among  these  ten  orders  a 
closer  relationship  can  be  conjectured  in  only  a  few 
cases.  In  the  pedigree  of  organic  beings,  therefore, 
we  meet  with  chasms  which  cannot  be  bridged  over 
even  with  the  help  of  Hackel's  metakinesis.  In  view 
of  this  fact  it  is  hardly  possible  any  longer  to  maintain 
the  opinion  that  all  life  has  sprung  from  a  single  root 
(monophyletic).  It  appears  much  more  probable  that 
the  different  genera  of  animals  and  plants  originate  in 
various  roots  (polyphyletic).  The  advocates  of  the 
monophyletic  theory,  it  is  true,  declare  that  the  experi- 
ence of  animal  breeders  and  florists  shows  that  new 
variations  appear  for  the  first  time  in  few  examples 
only,  and  that  in  view  of  the  fragmentary  character  of 
palaeontological  records  these  first  examples  may  have 
perished.  If  we  were  to  accept  this  explanation  we 
should  deceive  ourselves  as  to  the  difficulties  of  the 
problem  of  development.  For  in  every  case  a  whole 
series  of  intermediate  links  is  missing,  and  it  would, 
therefore,  be  strange  that  none  of  these  should  have 
been  transmitted  to  us.  It  would  be  still  more  start- 
ling if  the  transition-links  had  regularly  perished  in  all 
the  larger  units  of  classification. 

We  infer  therefore  that  the  facts  presented  to  us  by 
the  known  fossils  compel  us  to  accept  a  polyphyletic 
descent.  It  is,  therefore,  interesting  that  zoologists  like 
E.  von  Beer,  I'Icisi'limann,  and  Th.  Boveri,  and  a  num- 
ber of  bolaiiists  Hkc  A.  von  Kerner,  who  work  in  a 
different  held,  have  also  gradually  adopted  a  polj'phy- 
letic  line  of  descent. 

Finally,  if  we  examine  more  closely  the  individual 
groups  of  forms,  we  see  their  mutual  relations  in  a  new 
and  peculiar  light.  For  the  studies  in  question  show 
tliat  tlic  extinct  animals  and  plants,  while  differing 
more  or  less  in  structure  from  those  now  living,  did  not 
fall  below  them  in  the  perfection  of  their  organization, 
that,  on  the  contrary,  in  many  cases  indeed,  a  decline 
is  manifested.  All  the  great  orders  begin  at  once  with 
Iiii:lily  liilTi  ii-ntiated  forms,  so  that,  with  Koken,  we 
can  'iiilv  -peak  of  a  "modification  of  limited  system- 
atic Jivi.--ions". 

Development  may,  therefore,  take  place  \\ithout 
progress  in  organizations,  for  all  forms  which  have 
been  classified  as  belonging  to  the  same  genus  or  the 
same  family  stand  upon  the  same  level  of  organization. 
The  difference  consists  essentially  in  a  strong  differ- 


entiation and  speciahzation  of  peculiarities,  which  are 
subject  now  to  an  increase  and  again  to  a  decrease. 
Bj'  means  of  this  metamorphosis  new  species,  new 
genera,  and  even  new  famihes  may  easily  arise.  This 
may  exemplify  for  us  progressive  development,  which, 
however,  should  be  strictly  distinguished  from  ascend- 
ing development.  The  new  forms  produced  to-day  in 
the  breeding  of  animals  or  in  floriculture,  belong  en- 
tirely to  the  domain  of  progressive  evolution.  Hith- 
erto unquestioned  proofs  of  ascending  development 
have  been  lacking  in  pala?ontology,  nor  does  experi- 
ment supply  the  deficiency.  We  may  therefore  say 
that  the  organisms  of  the  geological  ages  are  connected 
by  descent,  and  that  there  is  good  reason  for  accepting 
progressive  development  in  the  several  lines  of  de- 
scent down  to  the  present  time.  But  if  we  go  beyond 
this  and  set  up  a  divergent  line  of  descent  for  the 
whole  world  of  organisms,  or  seek  to  trace  all  organ- 
isms back  to  a  single  cell,  we  abandon  the  foundation 
of  fact.  If,  therefore,  we  infer  that  a  general  develop- 
ment cannot  be  established  by  the  facts,  we  are  still 
within  the  lines  of  the  theory  of  descent,  for  the  essen- 
tial conception  of  this  theory  is  that  the  systematic 
species  of  zoology  and  botany  are  not  rigid  and  un- 
changeable, but  have  developed  from  ancestors  unlike 
themselves,  and  may  likewise  develop  into  flifferently 
formed  descendants.  It  is  the  business  of  the  theory 
of  deve'opment  to  investigate  the  facts  and  causes 
which  underlie  the  series  of  organic  forms,  at  the  head 
of  which  stand  existing  species.  Consequently,  it  is  no 
e.ssential  part  of  its  aim  to  prove  that  development  is 
ascending  or  that  it  supposes  a  single  original  progeni- 
tor. 

One  of  the  questions  involved  in  this  problem  is  that 
of  the  descent  of  man,  which  will  be  touched  on  here 
because  it  has  aroused  the  greatest  interest.  We  may 
begin  by  stating  that  pala;ontology  has,  indeed,  made 
known  to  us  an  older  race  of  men  with  very  beetling 
brows  and  an  almost  total  absence  of  chin,  but  that  up 
to  now  no  ape-like  progenitors  of  men  have  been  dis- 
covered. Wherever  fossil  remains  of  man  have  been 
found — and  hitherto  they  have  been  found  only  in  the 
Quaternary  period,  for  all  reports  of  Tcrtiarj-  man 
have  so  far  been  proved  unreliable — man  always  ap- 
pears as  a  true  man.  So  far  only  a  relatively  small 
number  of  remains  of  Quaternary  man  are  known  (e. 
g.  the  skulls  of  Spy,  Neandertal,  and  Krapina,  and  the 
lower  jaws  of  Schipka,  La  Naulctte,  and  Ochos). 
There  is,  moreover,  the  Pilhecanlhropus  eredus,  parts 
of  the  skeleton  of  which  were  found  by  the  Dutch 
military  surgeon  Eugen  Dubois  in  1891  on  the  island 
of  Java.  Since  its  discovery  it  has  been  industriously 
brought  forward  by  certain  supporters  of  the  theory  of 
development  as  the  long-sought  missing  link  between 
ape  and  man.  At  present,  however,  it  is  agreed  that 
this  Pilhecanlhropus  is  only  a  large  gibbon,  an  ape,  al- 
though there  is  no  doubt  that,  as  regards  the  size  of 
brain,  he  should  be  placed  between  the  largest  man- 
ape  now  known  and  man.  One  more  fact  must  be 
emphasized.  Volz  and  Elbert  have  Litely  investigated 
the  locality  in  Java  where  the  I'llln  ninihinjins  w.as 
found,  and  they  have  proved  inconte.-lalilv  tliat  the 
strata  in  which  these  remains  were  discovered  belong 
to  the  (Quaternary  period,  that  therefore  the  Pilhrcini- 
thropus  crcctus  was  a  contemporary  of  man  and  could 
not  be  his  ancestor. 

When  we  look  at  Hackel's  "Stammbaum  der 
Primaten"  (Descent  of  the  Primates),  the  pedigree 
seems  somewhat  fuller.  In  this  work  the  ancestors 
of  man  are  arranged  in  the  following  order:  Archi- 
primas,  from  which  are  descended  the  Pacliytemures, 
including  the  Lemuraviilir,  from  which  in  turn  the 
necrolemures  are  descended;  and  these  are  the  direct 
ancestors  of  the  apBs.  Starting  with  the  ape  the 
descent  is  continued  as  follows:  Archipilhecus,  the 
primeval  ape:  Prothylnhates,  the  primeval  gibbon; 
Pithecanthropus  alalus,  the  speechless  man-ape;  Homo 


PALAFOX 


414 


PALAFOX 


slupiJus,  the  stupid  man;  and  finally  Homo  sapiens. 
It   will   not   be   uninteresting   to  examine   this  line 
of  descent  a  little  more  closely.     Both  the  I'achylc- 
mures   and    the   A  vcrolcmures    are    conceived    quite 
indefinitely.     The  specially  indicated  forms:     Archi- 
pnmas,  Archipithecus,  Prothylobates,  Pithecanthropus 
alalus,  are  pure   inventions,  not  even  the  smallest 
bone  belonging   to    them   is  known,   in    fact    there 
IS  nothing  to  them  but  their  imposing  names.    Never- 
theless, as  Klaatsch  assorts,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that 
there  are  a  sufficient  number  of  facts  to  lead  every 
thinking  man  to  the  inexorable  conclusion  that  man 
has  sprung  from  the  same  source  of  life  as  the  animal 
kingdom.     The  only  question  is:  whether,  from  the 
similarity  of  two  beings  in  structure  and  function  of 
body,  in  spite  of  what  we  know  of  the  phenomena 
of  convergence,  we  not  only  may,  but,  as  Klaatsch 
says,  logically  must,  infer  their  genetic  connexion  in 
the  sense  of  a  blood  relationship  or  of  descent  from 
the  same  basic  form?    Klaatsch  answers  this  question 
in  the  alfirmative,  but  we  rather  agree  with  Kathari- 
ncr,  whose  answer  is:  "At  this  point  our  views  diverge, 
and  all  the  more  as  it  is  impossible  to  reach  a  com- 
pletely satisfactory  conclusion  on  the  origin  of  man- 
kind if  we  base  it  solely  on  morphology  and  ignore 
mans  spiritual  side.     .A.  discussion  of  this  question 
based  on  palsontologieal  data  is  fruitless,  as  the  de- 
cision is  too  greatly  influenced  by  the  conception  which 
men  have  of  creation  as  a  whole  and  of  its  need  of  a 
first  cause,  of  their  views  on  the  theory  of  cognition, 
and    of   other    subjective   considerations."      Conse^ 
quently,  neither  paleontology  nor  morphology  can  say 
anything  positive  concerning  the  physical  oriein  of 
man. 

When  we  review  the  facts  of  paltpontology,   we 
recognize  that  this  science,  while  offering  probable 
arguments  for  a  progressive  evolution  of  the  organic 
world,  can  only  to  a  limited  degree— even  with  the  aid 
of  fossil  fauna  and  flora— explain  the  process  of  de- 
velopment, and  that  certain  phenomena,  such  as  the 
complete  disappearance  of  entire  large  groups,  cannot 
at  present  be  satisfactorily  explained.     Tlie  question 
of  the  efficient  causes  of  the  changes  in  the  organic 
world  has  already  begotten  many  theories,  to  decide 
the  merits  of  whicli  [jahcontology  sometimes  assists 
us.     Darwin  s  theory  has  exceedingly  few  adherents 
among  paL-contologists.  On  the  other  hand,  Lamarck's 
teaching,   developed   by   Cope   as   neo-Lamarckism, 
meets    with   continually   increasing   acceptance      It 
teaches   that   the   development   of   organisms   rests 
mainly  on  hereditary  changes,  produced  by  the  use 
or  non-use  of  the  organs,  as  well  as  by  correlat  ion  and 
direct  transforming  influences,  while  selection  has  only 
a  slight,  if  any,  importance.     Nevertheless,  we  must 
confess,  with  Diener,  that  "in  our  attempts  to  explain 
the  changes  of  the  pres.-nt  forms  of  life,  which  are  the 
results  of  purely  mechaiiic:il  c-aus.s  still  acting  before 
our  eyes,  we  con.stantly  i,i,rf  witl,  the  action  of  factors 
which  we  cannot  directly  uuder.tancl  with  the  aid  of 
physical  science  alone.    The  knowledge  of  the  phenom- 
ena of  adaptation  is  a  matter  of  experience,  but  the 
explanation,  how  such  an  adaptation  of  the  cell-groups 
of  a  complicated  body  is  possible,  belongs  to  the  do- 
main of  metaphysics.     Whether  we  speak  of  new  crea- 
tions, in  the  sense  of  A.  d'Orbigny,  or  of  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  fauna,  in  both  cases  we  formulate  biological 
phenomena  which  are  not  clear  to  us  in  their  nature 
and  the  explanation  of  which  by  a  mechanical  method 
docs  not  satisfy  our  need  of  causality  " 

PariL  Till  ^7?  S;„*'  CyviER,  0»s™ct(s  /om7e»  (12  vols., 
atU'  l^'lll-  BRON.v-n^MER,  Lttha-,,  geoonosHca  (6  vols,  and 
«  ami   I'iR^f '•  ^'"■'"■^'*0'  P'tre/ada  Germanic  (3  vola..  1826- 

Pfrl/akllnku^lt  nR2it*r'*  «»!»«•  1849-84) ;  Idem,  IJaruibuch  der 
//„  T  I  ,  „  ,''*'^''  Lnoer,  UmeU  f3d  ed.,  1864)-  Zittet 
Bho  m" 'rV"'/^'^"r"''S''^'  '5  ^?''-  Munich,  187&-93);  nE^ed 
AND  i'joDEa".  r.v"'  1i;  P''taontolooienU„,rh.  1910):  Ste,nmann 
AND    IJoDLELliN.    Elcmente    der    PalOontohaie    (1890V    FBrrn 


}L*r.  't.  d''-  "^V^""'"''""  "/""^  ^erla,ra!a  (Chicago,  1884); 
iDtM,  The  Prtmary  Factors  of  Organic  Evolution  (Chicago,  1896)' 
Steinmann,  ElnfUhruno  in  die  Palaonlologic  Leipzig  1907  • 
lfi«m'"#°''  "'"'  Lydekker,  Manual  of  PaUrontology  (London.' 
I  „nH„„  ?^nJ,oP  !''«''«'"'«,  Textbook  o/  Pala!ontology  (2  vols.. 
London  190(^-02) ;  Schimper,  Trait6  de  paliontologie  vigitale  (3 
vola  with  atlas  Pans,  1809-74);  Saporta,  Monde  dea  plantes 
avayit  I  app  del  homme  (Paris.  1S78):  Seward,  Fossil  PUints  (2 
vols..  Cambridge  1898— ) ;  Potoni^,  Lehrbuch  der  Phytopaldon- 
lologie  (Leipzig  1910);  Zeiller,  Eltm.  de  paliobot.  (Paris,  1900)- 
,^ITTEL,  Oeschichte  der  PaUontologie  (Munich,  1899) ;  Scott.  Stud 
\"  f"?^-  .""'a  <Lo°don.  1900);  Nedmatr,  Erdgeschichte  (2  vols., 
Leipzig  18S9);  ed.  Uhliq  (Leipzig,  1895);  Idem,  Die  Stdmrne  de« 
7  icrrexches  (Vienna..  1 889) ;  Koken.  Die  Vorwelt  und  ihre  Enlviick- 
lungsgesclnchte  (Leipzig.  1893) ;  Idem,  Paldonlologie  und  Descen- 
denzlehre  (Jena.  1902) ^-DtptRBT,  Les  trans/ormalions  du  monde 
animal  (Pans.  1907);  German  tr.  Wegener.  Die  Umhildung  der 
hriie  und  des  Lebens  (Stuttgart.  1909);  Walther.  Gcsrhithli:  der 
Erde  und  des  Lebens  (Leipzig.  1908);  Waaoen.  Vnsere  Erde 
(Munich.  1909);  DlENEH,  Palaontologie  und  Abstammunn.Mtre 
(Leipzig.  1910);  GuRicH.  Leit/ossilien  (Berlin.  1908— ) ;  Stromeb 
VON  KniCHENBACH.  Lehrbuch  der  Paldozoologie  (Leipzig  1900—) 
i.  modKa.\s.—-Pala!onlolographica  (Stuttgart,  from  1840);  /'«6- 
hcationaof  the  Pala:ontolographical  Society  of  London  (from  1847)  ■ 
iMr^/"  £'"'"''  ■'''"'  Mineralogie  und  Pala:ontologie  (Stuttgart,' 
IMU — );  Ueitr/lge  zur  Oealagie  und  Palaontologie  Oesterreicha 
Ungarns  und  des  Orients  (Vienna,  from  1882) ;  Transactions  of  the 
btnss  Palcrontological  Society  (Basle,  from  1874);  Mim.  de  la  Soc. 
ueol.  de  t  ranee.  Section  of  Palwontology  (Paris,  1890—) ;  Abhand- 
tungen  der  k.k.  geolog.  Reichsanstalt  (Vienna,  from  1852) ;  Pala- 
ratta°''l8l51— )       '™  ^^'^'''   1^^^~>:    Palwontologia  Indick  (Cal- 

LuKAs  Waagen. 


Palafox  y  Mendoza,   Juan   de.  Bishop   of  La 
1  uebla  lie  los  Angeles  in  Mexico,  b.  at  Fitero  in  Na- 
varre, 24  June,  1600;  d.  at  Osma  in  Spain,  1  October, 
1659.     He  was  a  son  of  Jaime  de  Palafox  y  Mendoza' 
Marquess  of  Ariza.     After  studying  at  the  University 
of  Salamanca  he  was  appointed  member  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Uar  and  of  the  Indies  at  the  Court  of  Madrid. 
In  1629  he  renounced  this  dignity  and  was  ordained 
priest.     He  accompanied  Princess  Mary  as  almoner 
to  Germany  and  upon  his  return  was  consecrated 
Bishop   of   Puebla   de   los   Angeles,    27   December, 
1639,  and  appointed  "visitador  general"  of  Mexico. 
He  arrived  there,  June,  1640.     He  soon  came  in  con- 
flict with  the  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  and  Augustin- 
lans,  whose  many  exemptions  and  pri^'ileges  he  looked 
upon  as  encroachments  on  his  episcopaljurisdiclion. 
In  May,  1642,  he  received  secret  advice  from  Madrid 
to  take  temporary  charge  of  the  Government  in  place 
of  the  viceroy,   Villena,   who  had  been  accused  of 
financial   mismanagement   and   of  secret  sympathy 
with  the  Portuguese  rebels  in  New  Spain.     At  the 
same  time  he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  ]\Iexieo. 
From  10  June  to  23  November,  1642,  he  was  acting 
viceroy,  but  would  not  accept  the  dignity  of  arch- 
bishop.    During  his  viceroyalty  of  five  months  he 
corrected  many  financial  abuses,  framed  new  statutes 
for  the  University  of  Mexico,  and.  to  root  out  idolatry 
among  the  aborigines,  destroyed  many  Aztec  idols 
and  other  pagan  antiquities  collected  by  preceding 
viceroys. 

In  1647  began  his  conflict  with  the  Jesuits.  The 
reason  of  the  strife  was  the  numerous  exemptions 
and  privileges  which  the  Jesuit  missionaries  had  en- 
joyed in  Mexico  since  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  and  which,  in  the  opinion  of  Palafox,  under- 
mined his  episcopal  authority.  In  a  letter  to  Inno- 
cent X,  dated  25  May,  1647,  he  denounced  the  use 
which  the  Jesuits  were  making  of  their  privileges  and 
asked  the  pope  for  redress.  The  p(j[)e  ;iiiswcre(l  with 
abrief,  dated  14  May,  1648,  in  whirl,  he  snsl;iins  the 
bishop  in  all  disputed  points  of  jurisdiilion,  but  ex- 
horts him  to  be  more  kind  and  lenient  towards  the 
Jesuits.  A  second  letter  to  Pope  Innocent  X,  dated 
8  January,  1649,  more  acrimonious  than  the  first,  is 
often  attributed  to  Palafox,  but  was  probalily  forgcfl 
by  enemies  of  the  Jesuits,  as  it  is  disavowed  bj-  Pal.-i- 
fox  in  a  defence  of  his  actions  which  he  addressed  to 
Philip  IV  of  Spain  in  16.52.  In  May,  1649,  Palafox 
left  for  Spain.  On  27  May,  16.53,  Pope  Innocent  X 
issued  a  new  brief,  in  which  he  confirmed  his  previous 
decision  in  favour  of  Palafox.     The  bishop  was  trana- 


PALAMAS 


415 


PALATINATE 


ferred  to  the  Diocese  of  Osma  in  Spain  on  24  Novem- 
ber, 1653.  He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  labour- 
ing with  his  usual  zeal  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of 
his  flock,  which  honoured  and  reverenced  him  as  a 
saint. 

The  process  of  his  canonization  was  introduced  in 
1726  under  Benedict  XIII  and  was  continued  during 
the  pontificates  of  Benedict  XIV,  Clement  XIII, 
Clement  XIV,  and  Pius  VI.  At  the  last  session  which 
was  held  on  2S  February,  1777,  twenty-six  out  of  forty- 
one  votes  favoured  his  beatification,  but  Pius  Vl 
suspended  the  final  decision.  His  literary  produc- 
tions, consisting  chiefly  of  ascetical,  pastoral,  and  his- 
torical tn-.iti-oi;  in  Spanish,  were  published  in  fifteen 
voluiiirs    Ml. Ill  1.  1762). 

Istrin  I  I  II arable  monsignore  Don  Giovanni  di  Palu- 

fox  e  M.  .iw      1    lAngelopoli  e  poi  d'Osma,  I,  II  (Florence, 

1773);  RosKXDE.  I  ula  y  virtudes  de  D.  Juan  de  Palafox  y  Men- 
doza  (Madrid,  1666);  Dinoitart,  Vie  de  Jean  de  Palafox  (Co- 
logne, 1767),  anti-jesuitical;  Bancroft,  History  of  Mexico,  III 
(San  Francisco,  1883),  98-134;  Eodhen,  Palafox  y  los  Jesuitas 
(Madrid,  1878). 

Michael  Ott. 
Palamas,  Gregory.    See  Hesychasm. 

Palasor  (or  Palliser),  Thomas,  Venerable,  Eng- 
lish martyr,  b.  at  EUerton-upon-Swale,  parish  of 
Catterick,  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire;  d.  at  Durham, 
9  August,  1600.  He  arrived  at  Reims  24  July,  1592, 
whence  he  set  out  for  Valladolid  24  August,  1592. 
There  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1596.  He  was  ar- 
rested in  the  house  of  John  Norton,  of  Ravensworth, 
near  Lamesley,  County  Durham,  who  seems  to  have 
been  the  second  son  of  Richard  Norton,  of  Norton 
Conyers,  attainted  for  his  share  in  the  Rebellion  of 
1569.  iS'^orton  and  his  wife  (if  the  above  identifica- 
tion be  correct,  she  was  his  second  wife,  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Christopher  Rcdshaw  of  Owston)  were 
arrested  at  the  same  time,  and  with  them  John  Talbot, 
one  of  the  Talbots  of  Thornton-le-Street,  North  Rid- 
ing of  Yorkshire.  All  four  were  tried  at  Durham  and 
condemned  to  death,  Palasor  for  being  a  priest,  and 
the  others  for  assisting  him.  Another  gentleman  was 
condemned  at  the  same  time  but  saved  his  life  by 
conforming,  as  they  might  have  tlone.  Mrs.  Norton, 
being  supposed  to  be  with  child,  was  reprieverl. 
The  others  suffered  together.  Bishop  Challoner  tells 
how  an  attempt  to  poison  Palasor  and  his  companions 
made  by  the  gaoler's  wife  resulted  in  the  conversion 
of  her  maid-servant  Mary  Day. 

Challoner,  Missionary  Priesls,  I,  no.  122;  Foster,  Glover's 
Visitation  of  Yorkshire  (privately  printed,  London,  1875),  244, 
245,  577;  Knox,  Domy  Diaries  (London,  1878),  246,  247;  Bibt. 
Diet.  Eng.  Calh.,  V,  198,  237. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Palatinate,  Rhenish  (Ger.  Rheinpfalz),  a  former 
German  electorate.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  title 
of  a  royid  otiicial  in  the  old  German  Empire,  the  pals- 
grave (Pfahgraf)  or  count  palatine.  In  the  Carlovin- 
gian  period  the  count  palatine  was  merely  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  king  in  the  high  court  of  justice.  Otto 
the  Great  in  937  appointed  a  count  palatine  for  Ba- 
varia— and  subsequently  for  other  duchies  also — who 
also  had  supervision  of  the  crown  lands  situated  in  the 
duchy,  as  well  as  of  the  imperial  revenues  payable 
there,  and  had  to  see  that  the  duke  did  not  extend  his 
powers  at  the  king's  expense.  The  palsgrave  of  Lor- 
raine, who  had  his  seat  at  .\achen,  was  later  esteemed 
the  foremost  in  rank. '  In  1155,  after  the  death  of  the 
palsgrave  Hermann  of  Stahleck,  Frederick  Barbaro.ssa 
transferred  the  countship  to  his  half-brother  Conrad 
(11.55-95),  who  united  the  lands  belonging  to  the 
office  with  his  own  possessions  on  the  central  Rhine, 
the  inheritance  of  the  Salie  kings.  He  made  his  resi- 
dence at  Heidelberg,  where  he  built  a  strong  castle. 
Thus  the  palatinate  of  Lorraine  advanced  up  the  Rhine 
and  became  the  palatinate  "of  the  Rhine".  Neither 
the  lands  of  the  palatinate,  nor  those  which  Conrad 
had  inherited,  formed  a  compact  whole;  but  by  fur- 


ther acquisitions  which  Conrad  made,  the  foundation 
was  laid  for  the  principality  to  which  the  name  Pa- 
latinate has  clung.  Conrad's  daughter  Agnes  married 
Henry  the  Lion's  son,  the  Guelph  Henry  the  Long, 
who  became  palsgrave  (1195-1211);  in  1211  he  re- 
signed it  to  his  son  Henry  the  Younger,  who  d.  child- 
less (1214).  The  dignity  passed  to  the  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia, Louis  of  Kelheim  of  the  House  of  Wittelsbach; 
Louis's  son.  Otto  the  Illustrious,  married  Henry  the 
Long's  daughter,  who  also  bore  the  name  Agnes.  In 
this  way  the  Rhenish  estates  of  the  Hohenstaufen 
came  to  the  House  of  Wittelsbach,  in  whose  hands 
part  of  them  remain  to  the  present  day. 

Otto  the  Illustrious  acquired  in  addition,  one-half  of 
the  county  of  Katzenellenbogen;  Louis  II  the  Severe 
(1253-96)  received  from  the  last  Hohenstaufen,  Con- 
radin,  the  latter's  estates  in  the  Nordgau,  in  the  pres- 
ent Upper  Palatinate  {Oberpfah,  in  Bavaria),  as 
pledge.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  dignity  of  pals- 
grave was  raised  from  its  original  ministerial  character 
to  complete  independence,  and  the  count  palatine, 
largely  in  consequence  of  the  union  with  Bavaria,  be- 
came one  of  the  powerful  territorial  magnates,  subse- 
quently the  foremost  of  the  secular  princes  of  the 
empire.  The  union  with  Bavaria  was  dissolved  by 
Emperor  Louis  the  Bavarian,  who  after  1319  governed 
the  Palatinate  also;  in  the  family  compact  of  Pa  via, 
1329,  ha  divided  the  possessions  of  the  Wittelsbachs 
so  that  he  himself  retained  the  old  Bavarian  lands, 
while  he  left  to  his  nephews  Rudolf  ami  Huiiprecht  the 
Rhenish  Palatinate  and  the  Upper  Palatinate.  This 
division  existed  until  1777.  The  electoral  ilignity,  ac- 
cording to  the  compact,  was  to  be  exercised  alter- 
nately by  Bavaria  and  the  Palatinate;  but  this  provi- 
sion was  altered  in  the  "Golden  Bull"  of  Charles  IV, 
to  the  effect  that  the  electoral  office  was  attached  to 
the  Palatinate  alone,  which  on  that  account  has  since 
been  called  the  electoral  Palatinate;  in  return  the  Pal- 
atinate had  to  relinquish  the  nortliern  part  of  the 
Upper  Palatinate  to  Charles.  Of  the  nephews  of 
Louis  the  Bavarian,  Rudolf  reigned  until  13.52,  Rup- 
precht  until  1390.  Rupprecht  was  one  of  the  foremost 
champions  of  the  interests  of  the  princes  as  opposed  to 
the  cities,  and  by  his  victory  over  the  league  of  Rhen- 
ish cities  at  Alzei  in  1388  again  restored  the  princes' 
authority  on  the  central  Rhine.  He  founded  the  Uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg  in  1386.  His  nephew  Rupprecht 
II  (1390-98)  regained  from  King  Wenzel  part  of  the 
Upper  Palatinate;  the  rest  was  won  by  Rupprecht  III 
(1398-1410),  who  in  1400  was  elected  King  of  Ger- 
many. 

By  the  "Golden  Bull"  the  division  of  a  territory,  to 
which  the  electoral  dignity  was  attached,  was  forbid- 
den; this  provision  was  evaded  by  selecting  special 
estates  for  the  establishment  of  younger  sons.  Sev- 
eral lines  were  thus  formed  in  the  Palatinate  after  the 
death  of  liupprccht  III:  thr  uhl  cltcioral  line;  the  fine 
of  Ste])hi'n,  wliich  in  ll'j'.l  spin  iiitu  Smnncrn  and 
Zweibruckcn;  the  line  of  Xiuinarkl,  cMiiirl  in  1448, 
and  the  line  of  Mo.sbach,  extinct  in  1  I'.l'.t,  wlicrcuijonthe 
lands  belonging  to  the.se  two  lines  rcverlcd  to  the  elec- 
toral house.  In  the  electoral  line  Hui)i)ri'clit  III  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Louis  III  (1410-36),  one  of  the 
leading  personalities  at  the  Council  of  Constance;  the 
depo.sed  John  XXIII  was  held  in  custody  by  him  for 
three  years  at  the  Castle  of  Eichelsheim ;  his  men  car- 
ried out  the  execution  of  John  Hus.  He  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  famous  Palatine  Library.  Louis  IV 
(1437-49)  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Frederick  the 
Victorious  (1449-75),  who  governed  for  his  nephew 
Philip,  but  wore  the  electoral  cap  himself.  His  reign 
is  almost  wholly  taken  up  with  wars,  in  which  he  was 
nearly  always  victorious.  He  is  entitled  to  s))ecial 
credit  for  his  .serviceff1;o  the  University  of  Heidelberg. 
From  his  marriage  with  Klara  Tott  (or  Dett)  of  Augs- 
burg the  family  of  the  princes  Lowenstein  is  descended. 
After  him  his  nephew  Philip  the  Sincere  (1475-1508) 


PALATINATE 


416 


PALATINATE 


reigned  alone.  Tlie  Renaissanoe  wsis  zealously  fos- 
tered; Heiilelberg  Cattle,  in  wliich  Johann  Diihlberg, 
Rudolf  Agiicola.  Johannes  Reuehlin,  Konrad  Celtcs 
and  others  were  hospitably  rceeived,  became  the  rally- 
ing point  of  the  champions  of  a  reform  in  literature 
and  science,  while  the  university  remaineil  unaffected. 
After  the  death  of  Cieorge  the  Itieh  of  Bavaria-Land- 
shut,  he  elaimetl  for  his  second  son  Rupprecht,  who 
had  married  George's  daugliter,  the  lands  of  Lower 
Bavaria;  this  led  to  a  conliiet  with  Albrecht,  Duke 
of  Upper  Bavaria,  who  found  in  his  brother-in-law, 
Emperor  Maximilian,  a  powerful  helper.  For  the  Pal- 
atinate little  was  gained  by  the  war,  which  lasted  un- 
til 1.')().5:  only  the  city  of  iVeuburg  on  the  Danube  with 
its  environs  was  ceded  to  the  sons  of  Rupprecht,  who 
had  fallen  in  battle,  as  the  "New  Palatinate",  while 
the  rest  was  given  to  Upper  Bavaria. 

In  the  electoral  Palatinate  Louis  V  the  Peaceable 
(l.')0S-41)  succeeded,  a  man  of  conservative  views, 
who  personally  kept  aloof  from,  and  regretted  the 
Reformation,  but  did  nothing  to  withstand  it.  He 
added  a  number  of  buildings,  the  last  of  the  Gothic 
period,  to  Heidelberg  Castle.  His  brother  Frederick 
II  (1.544-.5(5),  who  for  a  time  belonged  to  the  Smal- 
kaldic  League,  was  more  ready  to  give  ear  to  innova- 
tions, but  in  many  respects  still  wavered.  Otto 
Henry,  a  son  of  that  Rupprecht  who  had  laid  claim  to 
Lower  Bavaria,  succeeded  to  the  electoral  dignity;  the 
"New  Palatinate",  which  he  now  held,  was  given  by 
him  to  his  relatives  of  the  line  of  Zweibriicken.  Otto 
Henry  (1.5.56-59)  enforced  the  Lutheran  Reformation 
in  his  lands  resolutelj'  and  indiscriminately,  and  aided 
the  new  humanistic  movement  to  victory  in  the  Uni- 
versitj'  of  Heidelberg.  He  added  to  Heidelberg  Castle 
the  building  named  for  him,  the  Otthcinrichshau,  the 
most  brilliant  creation  of  the  Renaissance  on  German 
soil.  The  electoral  dignity  and  the  lands  passed  to 
Frederick  HI  (1559-7(i)  of  the  Palatinate-Simmern 
line,  a  family  who  zealously  championed  Protestant- 
ism. Frederick's  son  John  Casimir  fought  in  France 
for  the  Protestant  cause;  his  younger  brother  Christo- 
pher in  the  Netherlands,  where  he  fell,  1574,  on  the 
Mookcr  Heath ;  John  Casimir's  son  in  1654,  as  Charles 
X,  ascended  the  Swedish  throne,  which  the  house  of 
Palatinate-Zweibrlicken  occupied  until  1751. 

From  1545  to  1685  the  ruling  family  of  the  Palati- 
nate changed  its  creed  no  less  than  nine  times.  Fred- 
erick III  w-as  a  zealous  Calvinist;  he  made  the  Palati- 
nate Calvinistic,  caused  the  drawing-up,  in  1562,  of 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  sheltered  French 
Huguenots.  His  .son  Louis  VI  (1576-83)  brought 
about  a  l>utheran  reaction;  John  Casimir,  regent  from 
1573-92  for  Louis's  son  Frederick  IV,  restored  Calvin- 
ism. Frederick  IV  (1592-1610)  attained  the  leader- 
ship of  German  Protestantism;  he  was  the  founder  of 
the  Evangelical  Union,  160S.  Frederick  V  (1610-23), 
the  husband  of  the  British  Princess  Elizabeth  (daugh- 
ter of  James  I),  was  a  man  of  boundless  self-confidence 
and  ambition,  and  when  he  took  the  crown  of  Bo- 
hemia, offered  him  by  the  insurgents,  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  broke  out.  The  battle  at  Weissen  Berg, 
near  Prague  (1620),  cost  Frederick  notonly  the  "Win- 
ter Kingdom"  but  also  his  electoral  Palatinate,  which 
together  with  the  electoral  dignity  and  the  L^pper 
Palatinate  was  transferred  in  1623  to  Maximilian  of 
Bavaria.  The  ent  ire  burden  of  the  war  rested  for  dec- 
ades upon  the  Palatinate;  the  famous  library  of  Heidel- 
berg was  presented  to  the  pope  by  Tilly,  who  had  cap- 
tured the  city  in  1622.  At  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 
Frederick's  son,  Charles  Frederick  (1648-80),  received 
back  the  RhenLsh  Palatinate  undiminished,  but  had  to 
give  up  the  Upper  Palatinate  and  be  content  with  a 
newly-created  electoral  vote.  In  spite  of  his  dimin- 
ished resources,  he  raised  the  country  materially  and 
intellectually  to  a  highly-flourishing  condition.  In 
contrast  with  his  predecessors  h(^  permitted  the  three 
great  creeds  of  Germany  to  exist  side  by  side,  and  re- 


ceived colonists  from  all  lanils  without  (lucstioning 
them  as  to  their  religion.  Church  und  schools  found 
in  him  a  zealous  patron:  the  University  of  Heidelberg, 
deserted  since  1630,  was  again  opened  by  him  in  1652, 
and  renowned  scholars  such  as  Pufeudorf  were  ap- 
pointed to  the  professorships.  In  the  wars  between 
Germany  and  France  he  remained  loyal  to  the  em- 
peror; as  a  consequence  his  lands  suffered  severely 
from  the  devastation  of  the  French  soldiers  in  the 
Wars  for  Reunion.  With  his  incompetent  son, 
Charles  Louis  (1680-88),  the  Palatinate-Simmern  line 
became  extinct. 

With  Philip  William  (168.5-90)  the  government 
passed  to  the  Catholic  line  of  Palatinatc-Neuburg, 
which  by  marriage  (1614)  had  come  into  ))ossession 
of  Jiilich-Berg,  and  in  1624  into  that  of  Ra\ensberg. 
The  allodial  lands  of  the  family,  however,  were 
claimed  by  Louis  XIV  for  his  brother  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  who  was  wedded  to  the  sister  of  Charles 
Louis,  Elizabeth  Charlotte.  When  his  claims  were 
rejected  Louis  in  revenge  undertook  a  number  of 
sanguinary  expeditions  into  the  Palatinate,  particu- 
larly in  16SS-S9,  and  transformed  it  into  a  veritable 
desert.  Heidelberg  with  its  castle,  Mannheim,  Sins- 
heim,  Bretten,  Bruchsal,  Durlach,  Pforzheim,  Baden, 
Rastatt,  and  others,  as  w'ell  as  numerous  villages  were 
given  to  the  flames.  Peace  was  not  restored  until 
1697,  at  Ryswick.  The  son  of  Philip  William,  the 
ostentatious  John  William  (1090-1716),  resided  at 
DUsseldorf ;  during  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
he,  for  a  short  time,  again  obtained  for  his  family  the 
Upper  Palatinate.  His  brother  Charles  Philip  (1716- 
42),  in  cdu.'ic '(luence  of  friction  with  the  Protestants  of 
Heidelberg,  transferred  his  residence  to  Mannheim 
(1720),  where  he  erected  a  magnificent  palace  in  the 
French  style. 

With  him  the  Palatinate-Neuburg  line  ended;  his- 
torians averse  to  Catholicism  have  painted  the  reli- 
gious policy  of  these  three  Catholic  electors  in  the 
blackest  colours.  In  reality,  if  they  gave  Catholicism 
the  opportunity  to  expand  without  hindrance,  and 
reintroduced  the  Catholic  Divine  service  in  many 
places,  they  did  nothing  more  than  Protestant  princes 
have  at  all  times  done  in  favour  of  Protestantism 
in  their  dominions,  and,  in  accordance  with  the  princi- 
ple then  in  force,  Cuius  regio,  eius  est  religio,  they  were 
just  as  much  justified  as  Protestant  rulers.  The  occu- 
pation of  the  Palatinate  by  the  French  (1688-89)  was 
also  to  the  advantage  of  the  Catholics,  as  the  French 
gave  them  complete  or  joint  possession  of  a  number 
of  churches,  and  the  title  to  the  property  thus  ob- 
tained by  ,the  Catholics  in  many  places  was  upheld 
by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  As  the  non-Catholics  con- 
sidered these  conditions  and  the  introduction  of  simul- 
taneous services  in  many  churches  a  great  hardship 
and  made  complaint  to  Brandenburg,  the  leading 
Protestant  power,  who  threatened  reprisals,  complete 
religious  liberty  was  proclaimed  for  the  three  chief 
creeds  (Catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Reformed),  in  the 
declaration  of  1705;  the  joint  use  of  the  churches  was 
replaced  (1706)  by  the  division  of  the  churches  into 
a  Catholic  and  a  non-Catholic  part.  From  1686 
Jesuit  professors  were  appointed  at  Heidelberg;  after 
their  suppression  Lazarists  took  their  places. 

Charles  Theodore  (1742-99),  of  the  Palatinate- 
Sulzbach  line,  succeeded;  he  promoted  the  arts  and 
sciences  at  great  expense,  so  that  his  reign  was  later 
regarded  as  the  Golden  Age  in  the  Palatinate.  In 
1777  Charles  Theodore  inherited  Bavaria;  the  Palati- 
nate electorate  thereupon  became  extinct.  Mannheim 
was  given  up,  and  Munich  became  the  seat  of  the 
court.  In  1794  the  French  entered  the  Palatinate  and 
took  possession  of  Mannheim,  which  they  were  com- 
pelled to  surrender  to  the  imperial  troops  under 
General  Wurmser  in  1795,  after  a  prolonged  siege. 
The  armistice  of  1796  practically  decided  the  cession 
to  France  of  that  portion  of  the  Palatinate  lying  on 


-    JL 
.4 


^':«-^,iJ£^:r,'*^-;Bf|| 


CATHEDRAL,  PALENCIA,   AND  CHOIR  SCREEN 


PALATINI 


417 


PALENCIA 


the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  wliich  was  actually  carried 
out  by  the  Peace  of  Luneville  in  ISOl.  The  successor 
of  Charles  Theodore,  Max  Joseph  (1799-1803)  of  the 
Palatinate-Zweibriicken  line,  afterwards  King  of 
Bavaria,  in  August,  ISOl,  formally  renounced  all  claim 
to  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  for  wliich  he  was  to  re- 
ceive indemnity  in  the  form  of  secularized  church 
lands.  The  Palatinate  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine 
by  the  decision  of  the  deputation  of  the  estates,  1S03, 
was  taken  from  Bavaria  and  divided  between  Baden 
and  Hesse,  so  that  the  greater  part  fell  to  Baden. 
After  the  yoke  of  Napoleon  had  been  thrown  off,  the 
Palatinate  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  together  with 
the  territory  of  the  former  Bishopric  of  Speyer  (so 
far  as  this  lay  to  the  left  of  the  Rhine)  with  somewhat 
modified  boundaries  was  restored  to  Bavaria,  1815, 
and  at  the  present  time  forms  the  administrative 
District  of  Pfalz  (Palatinate),  which  in  1905  had 
885,833  inhabitants  (391,200  Catholics,  479,694  Pro- 
testants, and  9606  Jews).  The  part  of  the  former 
electoral  Palatinate  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  however,  in  spite  of  the  protest  of  Bavaria, 
was  retained  by  Baden  and  Hesse  and  the  Congress  of 
Aachen  recognized,  1818,  the  right  of  succession  of 
the  Baden-Hochberg  line,  descended  from  the  second 
marriage  of  the  Margrave  of  Baden,  Charles  Frederick, 
with  a  woman  below  him  in  rank,  to  that  part  which 
had  been  added  to  Baden,  although  Louis  of  Ba- 
varia laid  claim  to  these  parts  of  Baden  and  main- 
tained this  claim  until  1827.  The  name  Palatinate 
has  since  then  been  confirmed  to  that  administrative 
district  of  Bavaria,  which  in  ecclesiastical  affairs 
forms  the  Bishopric  of  Speyer.  (See  Germany,  map; 
Speyer.) 

Mats,  Pfahische  Bibliographie  (Heidelberg,  1886);  Habehle, 
PJahische  Bibliographie  (3  vols.,  Munich,  1909-11);  Idem,  Pfah- 
ische Heimatkunde  (1910);  Hacsser,  Geschichte  der  rhenischen 
Pfalz  (2  vols.,  Heidelberg,  1844-45);  Pfaff,  Geschichte  des  Pfalz- 
grafenamtes  (Halle,  1847) ;  Schmitz,  Geschichte  der  lothringischen 
Pfalzagrafen  (Bonn,  1878);  Koch  and  Wille,  Regesten  der  Pfalz- 
grafen  am  Rhein  (Innsbruck,  1884) ;  Gumbel,  Die  Geschichte  der 
prolestantischen  Kirche  der  Pfalz  (Kaiserslautern,  1885);  Gla8- 
schroder,  Urkunden  zur  pfdlzischen  Kirchengeschichte  im  Mittet- 
alter  (Munii-h  and  Fr.Uii.E,  1903);  RoTT,  Friedrich  II  von  der 
Pfalz  und  die  R, ;"»;,/-. /im„  i  Heidelberg,  1904);  Lossen,  Staat  und 
Kirche  in  der  Vfniz  i™  Au  ;inngdes  Mittelalters  (Munster,  1907); 
Beringer,  Kurpjiilzi  :rlir  Kunst  und  Kultur  (Freiburg,  1907); 
Neues  Archiv  fUr  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Heidelberg  und  der  Pfalz 
(Heidelberg.  18 — );  Mitteilungen  des  Historischen  Vereins  der 
Pfalz  (Speyer,  1870 — );  Zeitschrift  fUr  Geschichte  des  Oberrheins 
(Karlsruhe,  1850 — ). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Palatini  (Lat.  palatium,  "palace"),  the  designa- 
tion, primarily,  of  certain  high  officials  of  the  papal 
court.  In  the  early  Middle  Ages  the  judices  palatini 
were  the  highest  administrative  officers  of  the  papal 
household;  with  the  growth  of  the  temporal  power  of 
the  popes  they  acquired  great  importance.  These  Ju- 
dices palalini  were  (1)  the  primicerius  nolariorum  and 
(2)  secundicerius  nolariorum,  the  two  superintendents 
of  the  papal  nolarii,  who  superintended  the  preparation 
of  official  documents,  conducted  judicial  investiga- 
tions, and  also  exercised  jurisdiction  in  legal  matters 
voluntarily  submitted  by  the  interested  parties  to  the 
papal  court;  they  were  the  highest  officers  of  the  papal 
Chancery  and  of  the  Archives  in  the  Lateran  Palace. 
Other  palalini  were:  (3)  the  nomenculator,  or  admini- 
culalor  (originally  perhaps  two  distinct  officials),  who 
took  charge  of,  and  decided  upon,  petitions  to  the 
pope.  (The  nomenculator  was  superseded  in  the 
course  of  the  ninth  century  by  the  protoscriniarins, 
or  superintendent  of  the  Roman  public  schools  for 
scribes.)  (4)  The  arcarius  and  (5)  saccellarius  were 
the  highest  financial  officers,  custodians  of  the  treas- 
ures of  the  Lateran  Palace,  who  had  charge  of  the 
receipt  and  payment  of  moneys.  (6)  The  primicerius 
and  (7)  secundicerius  defensorum,  being  superintend- 
ents of  the  defensores,  who  aided  and  protected  widows, 
orphans,  captives,  and  other  needy  persons,  had  the 
supervision  of  charitable  institutions. 
XI.— 27 


These  various  offices  developed  from  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  with  the  formation  of  the  papal  house- 
hold. Their  functions  covered  the  whole  central  ad- 
ministration of  the  papacy,  both  at  Rome  and  in  the 
outlying  possessions  (patrimonia)  of  the  Roman 
Church.  The  judices  palatini  were  also  employed  as 
papal  envoys;  they  also  had  definite  duties  in  the 
solemn  processions  and  other  great  church  ceremonies 
at  which  the  pope  was  present  in  person.  Their  au- 
thority continued  down  to  the  middle  of  the  eleventh 
century,  when  the  reform  of  the  papal  administration, 
inaugurated  after  the  troubles  of  the  tenth  century, 
placed  the  cardinals  in  that  position  at  the  Roman 
curia,  which  the  judices  palatini  had  previously  oc- 
cupied, and  the  latter  gradually  disappeared.  In 
later  times  the  designation  palatini  has  been  bome  (1) 
by  certain  cardinals,  whose  position  brings  them  into 
constant  relations  with  the  pope,  and  who  formerly 
resided  in  the  papal  palace,  and  (2)  by  the  highest  prel- 
ates of  the  pope's  personal  suite.  Until  very  recent 
times  the  cardinales  palatini  were:  the  cardinal-proda- 
tary,  the  cardinal  secretary  of  State,  the  cardinal 
secretary  of  Briefs,  and  the  cardinal  secretary  of 
Memorials.  Pius  X  has  abolished  the  two  last-men- 
tioned positions;  the  holders  of  the  other  two  are 
still  called  cardinales  palatini,  or  "palatine  cardinals", 
but  only  the  cardinal  secretary  of  State  actually  fives 
in  the  Vatican.  The  prcelati  palalini  are:  the  major- 
domo  {maggiordomo),  the  high  chamberlain  {maestro 
di  camera),  the  auditor  of  the  pope  [uditore  santissimo), 
and  the  pope's  theologian  (maestro  del  sacro  palazzo). 
The  last-named  is  always  a  Dominican. 

In  the  times  of  the  Frankish  kings  and  of  the  Ger- 
man emperors  there  were  comites  palatini,  counts 
palatine,  who  originally  presided  in  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  of  a  palatinate  as  representatives  of  the  Crown. 
In  Germany  the  counts  palatine  were  entrusted,  after 
Otto  I  (936-73),  with  the  supervision  of  the  imperial 
lands  and  revenues,  and  were  also  imperial  judges. 
The  Court  officials  bearing  this  title,  introduced 
by  Charles  IV  (134(5-78),  had  various  powers,  partly 
judicial,  partly  administrative. 

Gai.letti,  Del  Primicerio  di  S,  Sede  Apostolica  e  di  altri  ufj 
ziali  maggiori  del  sacro  Palazzo  Lateranense  (Rome.  1776) ;  Keller, 
Die  sieben  rSmischen  Pfalzrichter  im  byzantinischen  Zeitalier  in 
Stdtz,  Kirchenrechtliche  Abhandlungen,  XII  (Stuttgart,  1904); 
Die  katholische  Kirche  unserer  Zeit  und  ihre  Diener,  I;  Rom,  das 
Oberhaupt,  die  Einrichtung  und  Verwaltung  der  Gesammtkirche 
(Berlin,  1899),  276  sqq.;  Schroeder,  Lehrbuch  der  deutschen 
Rechtsgeschichte  (Leipzig,  1907). 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Palawan,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of,  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  comprises  I'alawan,  Cuyo,  Culion, 
Twahig,  and  Calamines  Islands.  It  was  separated 
from  the  Diocese  of  Jaro  (q.  v.)  on  11  April,  1910,  and 
confided  to  the  Augustinians.  The  first  prefect 
Apostolic  is  Mgr.  Fernando  Hermand  y  d' Arenas,  who 
resides  at  Puerto  Princesa.  The  Jesuits  and  Sisters 
of  St.  Paul  have  houses  on  Culion  where  a  leper 
settlement  under  government  control  has  been  estab- 
lished. 

Catholic  Directory  (Milwaukee,  1911). 

Palencia,  Diocese  of  (Palentina),  comprises  the 
civil  provinces  of  Palencia,  Santander,  Valladolid, 
Burgos,  and  Leon.  Palencia,  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  that  name,  has  a  population  of  15,050.  F16rez 
dates  the  origin  of  the  diocese  from  the  first  centuries. 
Its  bishop  may  have  been  among  those  assembled  in 
the  third  century  to  depose  Basilides,  Bishop  of  As- 
torga.  According  to  Idatius  the  city  of  Palencia  was 
almost  destroyed  (457)  in  the  wars  between  the  Suevi 
and  the  Visigoths.  The  Priscillianistic  heresy  origi- 
nated in  Galicia,  and  spread  over  the  Tierra  de  Cam- 
pos. It  was  strongly  opposed  by  St.  Toribius,  Bishop  of 
A.storga.  Maurila,  an  Arian  bishop  placed  by  Leovi- 
gild  in  Palencia,  abjured  that  heresy  when  King  Re- 
cared  (587)  was  converted,  and  in  589  he  assisted  at  the 


PALEOPOLIS 


418 


PALEOPOLIS 


Third  Council  of  Toledo.  Coiuuitius,  the  biufrraphci' 
of  St.  Ildeplionsus,  iissisted  at  the  synod  held  in  To- 
ledo in  liU),  and  at  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  si.xtli  Toledaii 
Councils.  He  composed  many  new  ecclesiastical  mel- 
odies and  a  book  of  ])rayers  from  the  Psalms.  He 
ruled  the  see  for  more  tlian  thirty  years,  and  had  for 
pupil  St.  Fructuosus  of  Hraga. 

To  defend  his  new  country,  Alfonso  I  devastated 
the  Campos  Goticos  (Gothic  Fields),  i.  e.  the  Tierra  de 
Campos,  as  far  as  the  Ducro.  The  Arabian  authors 
only  once  cite  Palencia  in  the  division  of  the  jirovinces 
previous  to  the  Onuniad  dynasty.  In  tlie  Council  of 
Oviedo  (811)  we  find  Abundantius,  Bishop  of  Palen- 
cia, but  he  was  apparently  only  a  titular  bishop. 
Froila,  Count  of  Villafruela,  succeeded  in  restoring 
the  see  in  921,  but  the  true  restorer  was  Sanclio  the 
Elder,  of  Navarre  and  Cast  ile.  The  first  prelate  of  the 
restored  see  (1035)  is  said  to  have  been  Bernardo,  who 
was  given  command  over  the  city  and  its  lands,  with 
the  various  castles  and  abbeys.  Bernardo  was  born  in 
France  or  Navarre, 
and  devoted  himself 
to  the  construction  of 
the  original  cathedral 
built  over  tlie  cryi)t 
of  St.  Antoninus  (An- 
tolin).  It  was  rebuilt 
three  centuries  \:iU  i 
Its  principal  trea>i.M 
was  the  relics  of  ,^' 
Antoninus,  forninl-, 
venerated  in  Aipii- 
tania.  Alfonso  \  1 
conferred  many  iiri\  i- 
leges  on  Hirn.ii do- 
successor,  liaiiiiiiniln. 
Pedro,  a  native  nf 
Agen  (France)  an^l 
one  of  the  noted  mh  n 
brought  in  by  Hishoji 
Bernardo  of  Toledo, 
succeeded  Bishop 
Raimundo.  For  his 
fidelity  to  Queen 
Urraca,   he  was   im- 


prisoned by  Alfonso  I  of  Aragon.  In  1113  a  pro\'incial 
council  was  held  in  Palencia  by  Archbishop  Bernardo 
to  quell  the  disorders  of  the  epoch.  On  the  liberation 
of  Pedro,  another  council  was  held  in  Palencia  during 
the  Lent  of  1129,  at  which  Raimundo,  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  and  the  celebrated  Archbishop  of  Santiago, 
Diego  Gelmirez,  assisted.  The  luiij;  and  beneficent 
administrationof  Pedro  was  suecei  del  li\  I  hat  of  Pedro 
II,  who  died  in  Almeria  and  was  .--urcc  eded  by  Rai- 
mundo II.  Bishop  Tello  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Las 
Navas  de  Tolosa  in  1212,  where  the  Palencians  won  the 
right  to  emblazon  the  cross  over  their  castle. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  Bishop 
Sancho  de  Rojas  vaUantly  fought  the  Moors  of  Ante- 

?_uera,  and  in  the  Treaty  of  Caspe  aided  the  Infante 
'erdinand  to  secure  the  crown  oi  Aragon.  St.  Vin- 
cent Ferrer  preacliedin  Palencia,  converting  thousands 
of  Jews,  with  whose  synagogue  he  founded  the  hospi- 
tal of  S.  Salvador,  later  connected  with  that  of  S.  An- 
tolin.  Among  the  succeeding  bishops  of  Palencia,  who, 
as  feudal  lords,  were  members  of  the  noblest  families,  we 
may  mention  Rodrigo  de  Velasco  (d.  1435) ;  Rodrigo 
Sanchez  de  Ar6valo,  author  of  a  history  of  Spain  in 
Latin  (1466);  the  bishops  Mendoza  (1472-1485)  and 
Fonseca  (1505-1514)  who  decorated  the  new  cathe- 
dral; Pedro  de  Castilla  (1440-1461);  Fray  Alonso  de 
Burgos  (148.5-1499);  La  Caeca  (1550-1561),  and 
Zapata  (1569-1577). 

The  L'niversitv  of  Palencia  was  founded  by  Al- 
fonso VIII  at  the  request  of  Bishop  Tello  Tdllez  de 
Meneses  and  was  the  first  university  of  Spain.  It  was 
the  model  upon  which  was  patterned  the  University  of 


Salamanca.  Stutly  Ijegan  to  flourish  in  Palencia  and 
men  notable  for  their  virtue  and  science  came  from  its 
schools,  among  them  St.  Julian  of  Cuenca,  St.  Dom- 
inic, and  St.  Peter  Gonzdlez  Telmo;  hence  tlie  adage: 
"En  Palencia  armas  y  cicncia"  (In  Palencia  arms  and 
science).  The  university  was  founded  about  1212, 
shortly  after  the  aforesaid  victory  of  "Las  Navas" 
(others  say  in  1208),  and  the  king  svnnnioned  from 
France  and  Italy  noted  teachers  of  various  arts  and 
sciences,  retaining  them  in  Palencia  on  large  salaries. 
The  death  of  the  founder  in  1214,  the  minority  of 
Henry  I,  and  the  growth  of  its  fortunate  rival,  Sala- 
manca, caused  the  decay  of  Palencia,  many  of  whose 
professors  and  students  went  to  Salamanca,  whence 
the  erroneous  belief  of  a  transfer  of  the  university  to 
the  latter  place.  In  1243  Archbishop  Rotli-igo  records 
that  in  spite  of  unpropitious  events,  study  continued 
in  Palencia  and  that  the  cardinal  legate,  .hian  de  Ab- 
beville, in  a  Council  of  Valladolid  (122S)  had  endeav- 
oured to  revive  it.  Bishoj)  Fernando  obtained  from 
Urban  IV  (14  May, 
1263)  a  Bull  granting 
Id  the  professors  and 
students  of  Palencia 
all  the  privileges  of 
the  L'niversity  of 
Paris.  But  lack  of 
financial  support  and 
the  proximity  of  the 
|)rospejous  Univer- 
sity of  Salamanca 
made  a  revival  of 
Palencia  impossible, 
and  it  died  out  be- 
fore the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century, 
pnilialily  in  1264,  at 
uhiiii  lime  the  uni- 
vci-.sj'y  was  definitely 
traiisfeired  to  Valla- 
dolid. It  was  Bishop 
Tello  who  also  estab- 
lished convents  of  the 
Dominicans  and 
Franciscans;    the 


;  Choir,  Cathedral,  Palencia 


former  was  famous  for  the  striking  conversion  of 
St.  Peter  Gonzdiez  Telmo. 

Among  the  most  celebrated  natives  of  the  pro\'ince 
are  the  first  Marquis  of  Santillana,  Bishop  Inigo  L6- 
pez  de  Mendoza,  the  immortal  Berruguete,  and  Dona 
Maria  de  Padilla. 

Palencia  is  famous  for  the  great  Benedictine  monas- 
tery of  S.  Zoilo,  a  rococo  monument,  the  work  of  Juan 
de  Badajoz.  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 
hospital  of  S.  Barnabd  and  S.  Antolin.  The  conciliar 
seminary  was  founded  in  1584  by  Bishop  Alvaro  de 
Mendoza. 

Pedro  Fernandez  del  Puloar,  Ilistoria  secular  jt  edesidstica 
de  la  ciudad  de  Palencia;  Fl6rez,  Esparia  Sagrada,  VIII  (3rd  ed., 
Madrid,  1809);  Villalba,  Cronica  general  de  Espufia:  Crunica 
de  la  Protincia  de  Palencia  (Madrid,  lSfi7);  Vicente  de  la 
Fuente,  Historia  de  las  univcrsidades  de  Espafia,  I  (Madrid, 
1884):  Cuadrado,  EspaJla,  sus  monumentos  y  artcs:  Palencia 
(Barcelona,  1885).  Ram6n  Ruiz  AmaDO. 

Paleopolis  (Pal.eopolis),  a  titular  see  of  Asia 
Minor,  suffragan  of  Ephesus.  The  history  of  this  city 
is  unknown.  In  the  si.xth  century  it  is  mentioned  by 
Hierocles  (.Synecdemus,  660,  4).  It  is  found  in  the 
"Notitise  Episcopatuum",  as  late  as  the  tliirteenth 
century,  among  the  suffragan  sees  of  Ephesus.  It  is 
now  the  town  of  Baliambol  in  the  vilayet  of  Smyrna. 
Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus,  I,  729)  mentions  seven 
bishops  of  this  city  known  by  their  presence  at  the 
councils:  Rhodon  at  Ephesus,  431 ;  Basilicus  at  Chalce- 
don,  451;  Eusebius  at  Constantinople,  536;  George  at 
Constantinople,  692;  Gregory  at  Nica;a,787;  Peter  at 
Constantinople,  869;  Julian  at  Constantinople,  879. 
S.  PiTRiofcs. 


PALEOTTI 


419 


PALERMO 


Paleotti,  Gabriele,  Cardinal,  Archbishop  of  Bo- 
logna, b.  at  Bologna,  4  October,  1522;  d.  at  Rome,  22 
July,  1597.  Having  acquired,  in  1546,  the  title  of 
Doctor  of  Civil  and  Canon  Law,  he  was  appointed  to 
teach  civil  law.  In  1549  he  became  canon  of  the  cathe- 
dral, but  he  did  not  become  a  priest  until  later.  He 
gave  up  teaching  in  1555,  and  although  he  had  many 
times  refused  the  episcopal  dignity,  he  became  in  1556 
auditor  of  the  Rota.  Pius  IV  sent  him  to  the  Council 
of  Trent  where  he  played  an  important  role.  His 
"Diarium",  or  journal,  on  the  proceedings  of  the 
council,  forms  one  of  the  most  important  documents 
for  its  history.  The  complete  te.xt  will  be  published  in 
the  third  volume  of  the  "Concilium  Tridentinum. 
Diariorum,  Actorum,  Epistularum,  tractatuum  nova 
collectio,  edidit  Societas  Goerresiana"  (Freiburg;  see 
Vol.  I,  ed.  S.  Merkle,  p.  XXXVI,  Freiburg,  1901).  A 
resumi5  was  published  by  Mendham  (London,  1S42) 
and  Theiner  ("Acta  Concilii  Tridentini",  Agram, 
1874,  II,  523-580).  After  the  council  Paleotti  became 
one  of  the  commission  of  cardinals  and  prelates  that 
served  as  a  basis  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Council. 
On  12  March,  1565,  he  became  cardinal,  and  on  13 
January,  1567,  was  made  Bishop  of  Bologna;  he  was 
also  the  first  archbishop,  for  in  1582  this  see  became  an 
archdiocese.  His  biographers  never  cease  praising  his 
zeal  in  introducing  the  Tridentine  reforms  in  his  cUo- 
cese,  comparing  his  activity  at  Bologna  to  that  of 
Saint  Charles  Borromeo  at  Milan.  The  latter  held 
him  in  high  esteem.  In  15S9  Paleotti  became  Cardi- 
nal-Bishop of  Albano  and  in  1591  of  Sabina.  There 
also  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  for  reform.  At 
the  conclave  in  1590  which  elected  Gregory  XIV,  he  ob- 
tained the  votes  of  an  important  minority.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are:  "De  nothis  spuriisque  filiis  liber" 
(Bologna,  1850;  Frankfort,  1573;  The  Hague,  1655); 
"De  sacris  et  profanis  imaginibus  libri  V"  (Bologna, 
1582;  Ingoldstadt,  1594);  "Episcopale  Bononiensis  ci- 
vitatis"  (Bologna,  15S0),  and  "  Archiepiscopale  Bono- 
niensis civitatis"  (Rome,  1594),  remarkable  works 
dealing  with  the  good  administration  of  a  diocese; 
"De  sacris  consistorii  consultationibus"  (Ingolstadt, 
1594;  Rome,  1596);  "De  bono  senectutis"  (Rome, 
1595). 

Bruni,  FiVa  OdbrieKs  PateoU' in  Mart^ne  et  Dur.\nd,  Veterum 
Bcriptorum  et  monumentorum  amplissima  collection  VI  (Paris,  1729), 
1387  sq.;  Ledesma.  De  vita  ct  rebus  geslis  (;:jbri,li.<  Palr„li  (Bo- 
logna. 1647);  Faxti-zzi.  Noliz^e  degli  '.'.'"  '  /;  '  ,  •  i.  VI 
(Bologna.  17.S1-94).  242-259;. Scnr-LTE,  Di.',       '  'Ji.ll.-n 

und  Liltralur  dt.i  cnnonisclien  Itrrhtx.  Ill  ISiu'  ■  .  ■  I  ■■'.,  l,",:i- 
454;  MflRKLE.  Kardinnl  PahotliH  tillerari:,!.,,-  .\."";  in  Ro- 
mische  Quartalschri/t,  XI  (Rome,  1897),  333-439. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Palermo,  Akchdiocese  of  (Panormitana),  in 
Sicily.  The  city  is  built  on  an  inlet  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  is  partly  surrounded,  to  the  south,  by  a  semi- 
circle of  mountains  and  hills,  of  which  the  highest  are 
Catalfano  to  the  east,  and  Montepellegrino  to  the 
west.  Among  the  churches  are  the  Duomo,  built 
in  1170  by  the  Archbishop  Gualtiero  Offamiglio  on 
the  site  of  an  ancient  basilica  which  had  been 
changed  into  a  mosque  during  the  Saracen  domi- 
nation. The  walls  are  decorated  with  frescoes  and 
mosaics  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  In 
the  first  chapel  on  the  right  are  six  tombs  of 
kings  and  queens  of  Sicily.  Other  objects  of  interest 
in  the  cathedra!  are  sculptures  by  Gagini  and  by 
Villareale;  an  Assumption  bj'  Velasquez,  and  other 
paintings  by  well-known  masters;  the  crj-pt  with  21 
tombs  of  archbishops  of  Palermo,  and  the  tabidarium, 
or  archives  with  interesting  Latin,  Greek,  and  Arabic 
documents.  S.  Domenico  (1300),  restored  in  1414  and 
in  1640  is  the  largest  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
churches  of  Palermo;  it  contains  the  tombs  of  many 
famous  Sicilians,  also  paintings  by  Anemolo,  Fondulli, 
Paladino,  and  Vito  d'Anna,  as  well  as  sculptures  by 
Gagini.  In  the  Olivella  (1598)  there  is  a  beautiful 
Madonna,  said  to  be  by  Raphael  or  by  Lorenzo  di 


Credi.  S.  Giorgio  dei  Genovesi,  which  represents  the 
most  beautiful  architecture  of  the  sixteenth  century  in 
Palermo,  has  paintings  by  Palma  Vecohio,  Giordano, 
Paladino,  and  others.  La  Badia  Nuova  has  paintings 
by  Alorrealese.  by  whom  also  are  the  frescoes  in  the 
vault  of  the  church.  At  S.  Giuseppe  there  are  two 
admirable  crucifixes,  one  in  ivory,  and  the  other  in 
bronze,  works  of  Fra  Umile  da  Petralia,  and  also 
paintings  by  Tancredi,  Morrealese  and  Giuseppe 
Velasquez.  L'Annunziata,  called  la  Martorana,  was 
built  by  George  of  Antioch,  an  admiral  of  King  Roger 
(twelfth  century);  it  is  famous  for  its  mosaics  and 
for  a  painting,  the  Ascension,  by  Anemolo.  At  Santa 
Maria  di  Gesfl  there  are  paintings  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Other  monumental  churches  are  S.  Antonio 
(1220);  S.  Matteo  (seventeenth  century),  which  has 
the  "Sposalizio"  by  Novelli;  S.  Eulalia  dei  Catalani; 
Santa  iVIaria  la  Nuova  (13.39),  which  has  a  fine  portico; 
the  church  and  the  seminary  "dei  greci",  dating, 
respectively,  from  1540  and  1734;  S.  Cita,  connected 
with  the  military  hospital,  which  has  a  Madonna  by 
C.  Maratta;  the  church  of  the  Cancelliere  (1171),  built 
by  Matteo  d'Aielo,  chancellor  of  King  WiUiam  the 
Good;  S.  Caterina;  S.  Cataldo,  which  is  in  the  Greco- 
Norman  style;  Santa  Maria  degli  Angeli;  S.  Giacomo 
in  Mazara  (Norman);  the  parish  church  "dell'Alber- 
gheria",  which  has  a  fine  belfry;  S.  Giovanni  dell'Orig- 
lione;  the  Badia  della  Magione,  of  the  Teutonic  Order, 
which  has  a  PietS.  by  Gagini;  S.  Giacomo  la  jMarina 
(1336) ;  S.  Anna  la  Misericordia  (statutes  by  Gagini). 

Among  the  secular  buildings  is  the  Palazzo  Reale, 
built  on  the  site  of  the  Saracen  fortress  by  the  Norman 
kings.  It  was  a  mass  of  halls,  of  silk  and  of  wool 
factories,  churches,  chapels,  and  towers;  of  the  latter, 
only  one  remains,  that  of  S.  Ninfa,  which,  since  1791, 
has  been  the  seat  of  the  astronomical  observatory. 
It  was  from  this  observatory  that  Ceres,  the  first 
of  the  asteroids  to  be  observed,  was  discovered  by 
the  Theatine  Padre  Piazzi  (1801).  The  Palazzo  dei 
Tribunali  was  the  property  of  the  Chiaramonte  fam- 
ily, but  was  confiscated  and  served  as  the  seat  of 
the  Inquisition.  The  university  has  a  magnificent 
portico,  and  contains  the  Museo  Nazionale  and  also 
a  picture  gallery  with  a  Pieta  by  Spagnoletto,  a  Holy 
Family  by  Rubens,  a  Madonna  with  angels  by  Ruz- 
zolone,  etc.  Other  buildings  are  the  Sopraintendenza 
agli  .\rchivi  di  Stato;  the  Palazzo  Firenze  (1578), 
formerly  the  custom-house,  now  used  for  banks  and 
other  institutions;  the  tower  of  Palitelli,  which  dates 
from  the  >Saracen  period;  the  forincr  college  of  the 
Jesuits,  which  contains  a  library  (now  national)  of 
120,000  volumes  and  1269  MSS.;  the  private  palaces 
Aiutamicristo,  Campofranco  (collection  of  paintings), 
Trabia  (art  collection  and  library),  ForccUa,  Butera, 
and  others.  There  are,  moreover,  a  conservatory  of 
music,  several  educational  institutes,  and  two  other 
public  libraries,  one  of  the  commune,  and  the  other 
of  the  Oratorio  di  S.  Filippo  Neri.  Outside  the  city, 
are  the  cave  of  St.  Rosalia,  where  her  relics  were 
found,  which  has  been  transformed  into  a  church; 
S.  Giovanni  dei  lebbrosi;  S.  Spirito,  where  the  first 
episode  of  the  famous  Sicilian  Vespers  took  place; 
I  Cappuccini,  with  its  well-known  catacombs ;  the 
ancient  convent  of  Baida  on  the  slopes  of  Mt.  Aguzzo. 

Palermo  is  a  city  of  Phoenician  origin,  the  name  of 
which  means  "surrounded  by  rocky  cliffs".  In  time, 
it  came  under  the  rule  of  the  Carthaginians.  In  254, 
however,  the  Romans  took  possession  of  Palermo. 
P:iliiiriii  nlained  its  form  of  government,  but  under 
Aii?iii-nis  l)ii:ime  a  colony;  and  the  Greek  language, 
which  under  the  Carthaginians  was  the  predominant 
tongue  of  the  city,  little  by  little  ceded  its  place  to  the 
Latin.  The  Saracens  obtained  posses.^iion  of  Palermo 
for  a  time  in  820,  but  in  835  their  rule  was  estabhshed 
permanently.  In  1063,  the  Pisans  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  take  Palermo.  Finally,  Roger, 
abetted  by  the  treason  of  the  Cliristian  soldiers  in 


PALERMO 


420 


PALERMO 


Palermo,  took  the  city  in  1071,  and  made  it  tho  capital 
of  his  Sicilian  possessions.  Under  Roger  II,  it  lieiame 
the  cajjital  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  so  remained,  until 
the  conquest  by  Charles  of  Anjou.  Under  the  Nor- 
mans the  arts  and  letters  (Greek,  Arabic,  and  Latin) 
flourished  at  Palermo,  and  the  Mohammedan  religion 
was  tolerated,  the  kings  being  only  too  zealous  imi- 
tators of  the  customs  of  the  caliplis.  The  famous 
Sicilian  \'espers  (31  JMarch,  1282)  were  the  signal  of 
revolt  against  the  Ange\-in  domination,  in  favour  of 
Peter,  King  of  Aragon,  who  was  hailed  as  legitimate 
heir  of  tlie  rights  of  Conradin;  and  in  the  new  ICing- 
dom  of  Sicily,  Palermo  again  became  a  capital.  At 
the  death  of  Martin  I  (1409)  Sicily  was  united  with 
the  Kingdom  of  Aragon,  and  at  Palermo  wa.s  governed 
by  its  own  viceroys,  independent  of  those  of  Naples 
after  the  conquest  of  the  latter  state  by  the  Aragonese. 
In  fact,  the  customs  of  Sicily,  and  especially  of  the 
nobilit}',  were  left  unchanged  under  Spanish  rule, 
which  Wiis  therefore  peaceful,  although  the  conduct 
of  the  troops  of  Diego  Xern,  returning  from  Tripoli 
in  1511,  caused  a  sort  of  Second  Vespers,  soon  sup- 
pressed, however,  by  the  viceroy  Moncada.  There 
was  another  more  serious  revolt,  contemporaneous 
with  that  of  Masaniello  at  Naples;  it  took  place  in 
1647,  and  was  caused  by  a  famine.  The  new  gov- 
ernor, Cardinal  Tri\'ulzio,  combining  severity  and 
clemency,  re-established  order.  From  1713  to  1720, 
Sicily  was  again  separated  from  the  Kingdom  of 
Naples,  and  Vittorio  Amedeo  of  Savoy  was  crowned 
at  Palermo.  Afterwards,  the  island  followed  the  for- 
tunes of  Naples,  under  the  Bourbons.  In  1798,  the 
royal  family  was  driven  by  the  Revolution  to  seek 
refuge  in  Sicily,  and  again  by  the  French  occupation 
in  1806.  The  suppression  of  Sicilian  autonomy  was 
the  cause  of  several  revolutionary  movements  at 
Palermo.  In  that  of  1820-21,  a  governing  commis- 
sion was  created,  with  Cardinal  Gravina  at  its  head; 
on  this  occasion  peace  was  re-established  with  Aus- 
trian aid.  In  1848  a  provisional  government  was 
estabUshed  that  offered  the  crowTi  of  Sicily  to  Ferdi- 
nand of  Savoy,  who,  however,  did  not  accept  it. 
General  Filangieri  retook  Palermo  fourteen  months 
later;  and  finally.  Garibaldi  overthrew  the  Bourbon 
government,  and  substituted  for  it,  not  the  autonomy 
of  Sicily,  but  the  annexation  of  the  island  to  the  King- 
dom of  Italy.  A  last  movement  in  favour  of  inde- 
pendence was  made  in  1866,  but  was  queUed  in  its 
beginmng. 

Christianity  was  preached  at  an  early  date  in 
Palermo.  According  to  Pra;destinatus  (I,  6),  its 
bishop,  Theodorus,  together  with  the  Bishop  of 
Lilyb;BUm,  condemned  the  heresy  of  Heracleon, 
Theodorus  being  a  contemporary  of  Pope  St.  Alex- 
ander (second  decade  of  the  eleventh  century) ;  his 
predecessor,  it  is  said,  was  St.  Philippus.  The  bishop, 
St.  Mamilianxs,  who  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyr- 
dom under  Diocletian,  and  whose  relics  are  preserved 
in  the  cathedral,  may  be  identical  with  St.  Mami- 
lianus,  whom  the  Vandals  relegated  to  the  island  of 
Monte  Cristo  in  4.50.  Other  mnrtyrs  under  Diocle- 
tian were  Claudius,  Sabinus,  and  ISIaximus.  Among 
the  bishops  were  Gratianus,  .503,  Victor  who  died  in 
603,  and  Joannes,  603  (St.  Gregory  the  Great  was  in 
correspondence  with  the  two  last  named),  Felix,  649, 
and  Theodorus,  787.  During  the  Saracen  domina- 
tion there  appears  to  have  been  no  bishop  of  Palermo ; 
it  was  in  that  period  (828)  that  SS.  Philaretus  and 
Oliva  suffered  martyrdom.  In  1049,  Leo  IX  sent  to 
Sicily,  as  archbishop,  the  Humbert  us  who,  later,  be- 
came Cardinal  Bishop  of  Silva  Candida;  but  the 
Normans,  then  enemies  of  the  pope,  prevented  the 
archbishop  from  landing.  In  106.5,  Bishop  Nicodemus 
was  appointed.  Other  bishops  were  Alcherius  (1083) ; 
Gualterius  (1113),  the  first  to  bear  the  title  of  arch- 
bishop, although  the  pallium  had  been  sent  to  .loannes 
(603);    Stephauus  (1166),  compelled  by  his  enemies 


to  resign;  GuaUicro  t)tTamiglio  (of  the  Mill),  an 
Knglishman,  who  died  in  1191;  Bartolomeo  (1201), 
brother  of  the  preceding,  who  was  sent  into  exile; 
Gualtiero  da  Polena,  who  was  appointed  in  1201  by 
Innocent  III  and  transferred  to  Catania,  Parisius 
being  installed  in  his  stead;  Berardo  di  Castaca 
(1214-52),  a  great  diplomat  and  a  mediator  between 
the  popes  and  Frederick  II;  Licio  de  CoUe  (1296),  a 
benefactor  of  the  cathedral;  Bartolomeo  da  Antiochia 
(1305);  Francesco  da  Antiochia  (1311);  Giovanni 
Orsini  (1320);  Matteo  Orsini  (1371);  Nicol6  d'Agri- 
gento,  O.  Min.  (1383);  Lodovico  Bonnito  (1387)  and 
Giliforte  Riccobono  (1397),  both  persecuted  by  the 
Chiaramonte  faction ;  Nicol6  da  Tudisco  (1434-1445), 
a  great  canonist  (Panormitanus)  and  one  of  the 
pillars  of  the  Council  of  Basle,  who  became  a  cardinal 
of  the  antipope,  Felix  V;  Simone  Beccatelli  (1445), 
a  generous  restorer  of  the  cathedral  and  of  other 
churches;  Nicold  Puxades  (1466),  who  caused  the 
stalls  of  the  choir  of  the  cathedral  to  be  adorned  with 
inlaid  work;  Giovanni  Borghi  (1467),  who  had  been 
a  famous  physician;  Fihppo  (1474),  who  was  a 
nephew  of  King  Ferdinand,  and  died  under  the  walls 
of  Granada  in  1488;  Cardinal  Pietro,  Count  of  Foix, 
O.  Min.  (1485);  Cardinal  Tommaso  de  Vio,  O.P. 
(Caietanus),  who  was  elected  in  1519,  but  not  recog- 
nized by  Charles  V,  the  pope  not  recognizing  Gio- 
vanni Carandolet,  the  king's  candidate;  Ottaviano 
Preconi,  O.  Min.  (1562),  zealous  for  the  decoration  of 
the  churches;  Cesare  Marulh  (1578),  who  founded 
the  seminary;  Cardinal  Giannetto  Doria  (1609-42), 
who  was  for  a  time  viceroy  and  reformed  the  nuns, 
and  distinguished  himself  for  his  charity  during  the 
famine  of  1624;  Martin  de  Leon  y  Cardenas  (1650), 
who  donated  the  beautiful  tabernacle  of  the  cathedral ; 
Pietro  Alartinez  Rubio  (1656),  who  was  noted  for  his 
charity  and  obtained  the  use  of  the  mitre  for  his 
canons;  Cardinal  Domenico  Pignatelli  (1802);  Car- 
dinal Pietro  Gravina  (1816);  Cardinal  Gaetano  M. 
Trigona  e  Parisi  (1832);  Cardinal  Ferdinando  M. 
Pignatelli  (1839),  who  had  been  a  general  of  the 
Theatines;   Cardinal  Geremia  Celesia  (1871-1904). 

CefalCl,  Mazzara,  and  Trapani,  are  the  suffragans 
of  Palermo;  the  archdiocese  has  50  parishes,  with 
444,982  inhabitants,  18  religious  houses  of  men  and 
24  of  women,  12  educational  establishments  for  male 
students  and  27  for  girls,  and  1  Catholic  daily  paper. 

PiHRl,  Sicilia  sacra  (Palermo.  1735);  Cappelletti,  Le  chiese 
d'ltalia,  XXI;  Monqitore,  Palermo  santificato  (Palermo,  2d  ed., 
1888) ;  Di  Giovanni.  Topografia  antica  di  Palermo  (Palermo, 
1899) :  Di  Bartolo,  Monografia  suUa  cattedrale  di  Palermo  (Pa- 
lermo, 1903) ;  Annuario  delV  archidiocesi  di  Palermo  (1906). 

U.  Benigni. 

University  of  Palermo — The  Convent  of  St. 
Dominic  of  Palermo  may  be  considered  the  nucleus  of 
the  future  University  of  Palermo.  In  this  convent  in- 
struction was  given  in  theology  and  philosophy,  not 
only  for  the  Dominicans,  but  also  for  the  public.  In 
1469  Father  Tommaso  Schifaldo  gave  lessons  there  in 
Latin  literature.  A  theological  lecturer.  Fat  her  Salvo 
Cassetta,  had  so  large  a  following  that  he  lectured  in 
the  pubhc  square;  he  was  also  well  versed  in  mathe- 
matics. In  1553  the  commune  wished  to  have  a 
medical  school  and  called  upon  the  famous  Gianfilippo 
Ingrassia.  His  lectures  too  were  delivered  at  the 
Convent  of  St.  Dominic.  In  1555  the  commune  also 
engaged  Dominican  professors  of  philosophy,  includ- 
ing the  liistorian  Fazello.  The  chair  of  jurispru- 
dence was  founded  in  1556,  and  the  first  professor  was 
Geo.  Ant.  de  Contovo.  At  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century  nothing  more  was  heard  of  the  Dominican 
School.  From  1591,  philosophy  and  theology  were 
taught  in  the  Jesuit  College  (founded  in  1.550).  In 
1599  the  number  of  chairs  was  increased.  The  col- 
lege had  the  right  of  conferring  degrees  in  these  two 
sciences.  The  courses  of  the  Jesuits  were  well  at- 
tended. 


PALESTINE 


421 


PALESTRINA 


In  1632  the  Jesuit  Pietro  Salerno,  gave  his  patri- 
mony to  the  university  wliich  was  about  to  be  estab- 
lished in  the  college  of  the  order.  The  royal  conces- 
sion was  obtained  and  furthermore  a  contention  arose 
between  the  rector  of  the  college  and  the  archbishop, 
each  of  whom  desired  to  be  chancellor;  this  controversy 
hindered  the  formation  of  the  university  itself,  that 
is,  of  the  two  other  faculties,  law  and  medicine. 
Courses  in  medicine  were  given  until  1621  in  the 
Spedale  Grande  (Academy  of  Anatomy)  through  the 
initiative  of  Dr.  Baldassare  Grassia.  On  the  failure 
of  this,  another  similar  course  began  in  164.5,  in  the 
house  of  Camillini,  which  course  continued,  sup- 
plemented by  instruction  in  mathematics.  On  the 
suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  their  college  was  entrusted 
to  secular  priests.  In  1777  the  Senate  of  Palermo 
began  to  erect  a  complete  university,  which  was  es- 
tablished 1779  with  three  chairs  in  theology,  four  in 
law,  six  in  medicine,  seven  in  philosophy  and" the  natu- 
ral sciences.  The  great  professors  were  Spedalieri  in 
philosophy,  Cari  in  law,  Sergio  in  political  economy, 
Father  Bernardino  d'Ugria  and  the  Benedictine  Eu- 
tichio  Barone  in  the  natural  sciences,  Maronglia  in 
mathematics.  In  1780  new  chairs  were  added,  and 
in  the  following  year  the  university  acquired  the  right 
of  conferring  degrees.  In  ISOo  it  was  enacted  that 
the  rectors  should  be  taken  from  the  Theatine  Order 
which  furnished  many  renowned  professors,  e.  g.,  the 
astronomer  Piazzi  (1786).  When  the  Jesuit  Order 
was  re-established,  the  academy  had  to  change  its 
place;  but  it  was  also  in  that  year  (180.5)  that  the  said 
academy  took  the  name  of  university.  Among  the 
professors  we  may  mention:  Scina,  Gorgone,  Amari, 
Ugdulene,  and  the  late  Canizarro  (1826-1910). 

The  university  has  the  usual  four  faculties  of 
jurisprudence,  medicine,  letters,  and  philosophy  and 
sciences,  besides  a  practical  school  for  engineers  and 
a  school  of  pharmacy.  It  has  also  a  botanical  garden, 
a  cabinet  of  physics,  including  chemistry,  mineralogy, 
geology,  physiology,  and  anatomy,  an  astronomical 
observatory,  various  clinics  and  an  archaeological 
museum.  The  number  of  students  in  1909  was  15.3.5; 
regular  professors,  68;  special  professors,  111.  It 
supports  84  chairs,  and  more  than  123  teachers. 

Sampolo,  La  R.  Accademia  degli  Stutli  di  Palermo  (Palermo, 
1888) :  AuBE,  Sur  I'instruction  publigue  en  Sidle  ei  particulQre- 
ment  sur  I'  Universite  de  Palermo  (Paris,  1872). 

U.  Benigni. 
Palestine.    See  Geography,  Biblical. 

Palestrina,  Diocese  op  (Pk^nestinensis)  ;  the 
town  of  Palestrina,  in  the  province  of  Rome,  central 
Italy,  is  the  ancient  Prteneste,  situated  on  the  Via 
Labicana,  the  origin  of  which  was  attributed  by  the 
ancients  to  Ulysses,  or  to  another  fabulous  personage. 
It  is  first  mentioned  in  history  as  an  ally  of  Rome 
against  the  Latins,  in  499  B.  c.  P>om  373  to  370,  how- 
ever, it  was  in  continual  war  against  Rome  or  her 
allies,  and  was  defeated  by  Cincinnatus;  in  354  and  in 
338  it  lost  portions  of  its  territory.  Thenceforth  it  was 
always  an  ally  of  Rome,  but  disdained  Roman  citizen- 
ship until  90  B.  c.  In  82,  having  recei\'ed  Marius,  it 
was  taken  and  sacked  by  Sulla;  later,  untler  Tiberius, 
it  became  a  municipium.  It  was  a  summer  resort  of 
the  Romans,  who  ridiculed  the  language  and  the  rough 
manners  of  its  inhabitants.  The  modern  town  is  built 
on  the  ruins  of  the  famous  temple  of  Fortuna  Priini- 
genia.  From  the  eleventh  century,  it  was  a  fief  of  the 
Colonna,  and  a  refuge  in  their  rebclliuiis  ai;:iiii>l  the 
popes;  consequently,  it  was  several  times  di  sticiycd, 
as  in  1297,  by  order  of  Boniface  VIII,  and  in  Hiiti,  by 
Giovanni  Vitelleschi,  at  the  command  of  Eugenius 
IV.  It  was  rebuilt  in  1447,  sacked  in  1527,  and  occu- 
pied by  the  Duke  of  Alba,  in  1.556.  In  16.30,  it  was 
sold  to  the  Barberini.  The  town  contains  remnants  of 
Cyclopean  walls  and  of  the  aforesaid  great  temple  of 
Fortune.    The  cathedral  has  fine  paintings  and  fres- 


coes. In  the  Church  of  St.  Rosalia  (1677)  there  is  an 
admirable  Pieta,  carved  in  the  solid  rock.  Palestrina 
is  the  birthplace  of  the  archieologist  Andrea  Fulvio  and 
of  the  prince  of  sacred  music,  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da 
Palestrina.  The  oldest  Christian  record  of  this  city 
relates  to  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Agapitus,  patron  of  the 
cathedral,  which  took  place  under  Aurelian;  this  basil- 
ica was  restored  and  enriched  with  costly  gifts  by  Leo 
III.  Secundus,  Bishop  of  Palestrina,  was  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Rome  (313),  and  the  names  of  several  other  of  its 
bishops  in  ancient  times  are  known.  From  the  si.\th 
century  there  was  a  flourishing  monastery  on  the  site 
of  Castel  S.  Pietro,  overlooking  the  city.  After  the 
seventh  century,  the  Bishop  of  Palestrina  was  one  of 
the  hebdomadary  prelates  for  the  services  of  the 
Lateran  basilica,  and  was,  therefore,  a  cardinal;  he  is 
the  fourth,  in  order,  of  the  cardinal-bishops. 

Among  the  prelates  of  this  see  may  be  mentioned 
Gregory,  who  in  757  consecrated  the  antipope  Con- 
stantine;  Andreas,  legate  of  Adrian  I  to  King  Desi- 
derius,  in  772;  Petrus  (996),  the  first  to  bear  the  title 
of  cardinal;  Uberto  (1073),  legate  of  Gregory  VII  to 
Henry  IV;  Conon  (1111),  who  embeUished  the  crypt 
of  St.  Agapitus;  S.  Stefano  (1122),  a  Cistercian  monk, 
praised  by  St.  Bernard  and  John  of  Salisbury  for  his 
piety;  Guarino  Guarini  (1144),  a  Regular  Canon  of  St. 
Augustine,  famous  for  his  virtues;  Manfredo  (1166) 
who  persuaded  Barbarossa  to  become  reconciled  with 
Alexander  III;  Paolo  Scolari  (1181),  later  Clement 
III;  Blessed  Guido  de  Pare  (1196),  a  Cistercian;  Ja- 
copo  Pecoraria  (1231);  Stefano  III  (1244),  pre\-iously 
Archbishop  of  Gran;  Girolamo  d'AscoU  (1278),  a 
Franciscan,  later  Nicholas  IV;  Pietro  d'Anablay 
(1306),  Grand  Chancellor  of  France;  Simon  de  Lang- 
ham  (1376),  an  Englishman.  During  the  schism,  the 
popes  of  Avignon,  also,  appointed  cardinal-bishops  of 
Palestrina.  Thereafter,  as  a  result  of  the  custom  that 
gave  to  cardinal-bishops  the  option  of  selecting  an- 
other suburbicarian  see,  the  rule  of  the  prelates  of  Pal- 
estrina was  of  short  duration.  Among  those  who  fol- 
lowed were  Hugues  de  Lusignan  (1431),  a  brother  of 
the  King  of  Cyprus;  Guglielmo  Brissonette  (1.507), 
deposed  by  Julius  II  for  attending  the  conciliabule  of 
Pisa;  Lorenzo  Campeggio  (1535);  Gianvicenzo  Carafa 
(1539);  Giovanni  M.  del  Monte  (1543),  later  Julius 
III;  Louis  de  Bourbon  (1550);  Federico  Cesi  (1.557); 
Giovanni  Morone  (1562);  Cristoforo  Madruzzi  (1564); 
Gian  Antonio  Serbelloni  (1578);  Marcantonio  Co- 
lonna (1587);  Alessandro  Medici  (1602),  later  Leo  XI; 
Guido  Bentivoglio  (1641) ;  Alfonso  de  laQueva  (1644); 
Antonio  Barberini  (1661),  who  founded  the  seminary; 
Paluzzo  Altieri  (1691);  Girolamo  Spinola  (1775); 
Aurelio  Rovarella  (1809),  who  died  an  exile  in  France, 
in  1812;  Diego  Caracciolo  (1814);  Giuseppe  Spina 
(1820);  Castruccio  Castracani  degli  Antelminclli 
(1844).  The  sanctuary  of  Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel 
of  Genazzano  is  in  this  diocese;  here,  also,  are  the  an- 
cient see  of  Gabii,  ten  bishops  of  which,  between  the 
fifth  and  the  ninth  centuries,  are  known,  and  that  of 
Subaugusta,  four  bishops  of  which  are  known  between 
465  and  502.  The  diocese  has  24  parishes,  45,700  in- 
habitants, 10  religious  houses  of  men,  14  of  women, 
and  3  girls'  schools. 

C.^PPELLETTI,  Le  r;iiMcrf'/(n/M.  I;  Moroni,  Duionario,  b.  v.; 
Marucchi,  6'indo  archeol.  deW  antica  Pnmeste  (Rome,  1885)- 
Cecconi,  Storia  di  Palestrina  (Ascoli,  1756). 

U.  Benigni. 

Palestrina,  ("iiovAXNi  Pierluigi  da,  the  greatest 
compopiT  of  litmuical  music  of  all  time,  b.  at  Pales-  ' 
I  niia  (ancient  Fra^niste)  in  1514  or  1515,  according  to 
Bami,  Ricmann,  and  others,  according  to  Haberl,  in 
1526;  d.  at  Rome,  2  Februaj^-,  1.594.  His  early  history 
is  practically  unknown.  Giusseppi  Ottavia  Pittoni 
(1-6.57-1743),  in  "Notizie  dei  maestri  di  cappella  si  di 
Roma  che  altramontani,  1.500-1700",  a  manuscript  in 
the  Vatican,  relates  that  young  Pierluigi  sang  in  the 
streets  of  Rome  while  offering  for  sale  the  products  of 


PALESTRINA 


422 


PALESTRINA 


his  parents'  farm  and  that  he  wa.s  licard  on  8uch  an 
occasion  by  the  choir-master  of  Santa  Maria  Mappiore, 
who.  impressed  by  the  boy's  beautiful  voice  and  pro- 
nounced musical  talent,  educated  him  musically.  As 
to  the  identity  of  the  choir-master,  tradition  gives  no 
clue.  Some  hold  that  Palestrina  was  taught  by 
Jacques  Arcadclt  (1514-60),  choir-master  and  com- 
poser in  Rome  from  1539  to  1549.  The  opinion,  so 
long  held,  that  Claude  Goudimel  (1505-72)  was  his 
principal  teacher  has  now  been  definitively  abandoned. 
As  far  as  is  known,  lie  began  his  active  musical  life  as 
organist  and  choir-master  in  his  native  city  in  1544; 
his  reputation  increasing,  in  1551  he  was  called  to 
Rome,  entrusted  with  the  direction  and  musical  for- 
mation of  the  choir-boys  at  St.  Peter's,  and  within  the 
same  year  was  advanced  to  the  post  of  choir-master. 
In  1554  he  dedicated  to  Julius  III  (1549-55)  his  first 
compositions,  a  volume  of  masses  for  four  voices,  and 
was  rewarded  with  the  ap- 
pointment as  a  member  of  the 
papal  chapel  in  contravention 
of  the  rules  governing  that 
body.  The  pope  had  set  aside 
the  rule  requiring  those  who 
held  membership  in  the  papal 
choir  to  be  in  Holy  orders, 
and  also  used  his  authority  to 
exempt  him  from  the  usually 
severe  entrance  examination. 
These  circumstances  and  the 
further  fact  that  his  voice  was 
much  inferior  to  those  of  the 
other  singers,  aroused  the  op- 
position and  antagonism  of 
his  fellow-members.  The 
papal  singers  did  not  appre- 
ciate the  object  of  the  pope, 
which  was  to  secure  for  the 
gifted  young  man  the  neces- 
sary leisure  to  compose. 

In  the  course  of  the  same 
year,  Palestrina  pubhshed  a 
volume  of  madrigals.  The 
texts  of  some  of  these  the  com- 
poser himself  in  later  years  con- 
sidered too  free.  In  the  dedi- 
cation of  his  setting  of  the 
Canticle  of  Canticles  to  Greg- 
ory XIII,  he  expresses  not  only 
regret  but  repentance,  for  hav- 
ing caused  scandal  by  this 
publication.  Marcellus  II,  as  cardinal,  had  pro- 
tected and  admired  Palestrina,  but  died  after  a  reign 
of  only  twenty-one  days.  Paul  IV,  shortly  after  his 
accession,  re-inforced  the  former  rules  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  papal  choir.  B&sides  Palestrina,  there 
were  two  other  lay  married  members  in  the  choir.  All 
were  dismi.ssed  with  a  sm.all  pension,  in  spite  of  the 
understanding  that  these  singers  were  engaged  for  life. 
The  worry  and  hard.ship  caused  by  the  dismissal 
brought  on  a  severe  illness;  restored,  the  composer 
took  charge,  1  October,  1555,  of  the  choir  at  ,St.  John 
Lateran,  where  he  remained  until  February,  1.561. 
During  this  period  he  wrote,  besides  Lamentations 
and  ^lagnificats,  the  famous  "Improperia".  Their 
performance  by  the  papal  choir  on  Good  Friday  was 
ordered  by  Paul  IV.  and  tliey  have  remained  in  its 
repertoire  for  Holy  Week  ever  since.  This  produc- 
tion greatly  increa.sed  Pale.strina's  fame.  In  1,561  he 
asked  the  chapter  of  St.  John  Lateran  for  an  increase 
in  salary,  in  view  of  his  growing  needs  and  the  expense 
of  publishing  his  works.  Refused,  he  accepted  a 
similar  post  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  which  he  held 
until  1.571.  It  is  not  known  at  what  period  of  his 
career  Palestrina  came  unrler  the  influence  of  St. 
Philip  Xeri,  but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  it  was 
in  early  youth.     As  the  saint's  penitent  and  spiritual 


GlOV.^NNI   P 

After  an  original  in  the 
Vatican 


disciple,  he  gained  that  insight  into  the  spirit  of  the 
liturgy,  which  enabled  him  to  set  it  forth  in  polyphonic 
music  as  it  had  never  before  been  done.  It  was  his 
spiritual  formation  even  more  than  his  artistic  ma- 
turity, which  fitted  him  for  the  providential  part  he 
played  in  the  reform  of  church  music. 

The  task  of  hastening  the  reforms  decreed  by  the 
Council  of  Trent  was  entrusted  by  Pius  IV  to  a  com- 
mission of  eight  cardinals.  A  committee  of  two  of 
these,  St.  Charles  Borromeo  and  Vitellozo  Vitelli,  was 
appointed  to  consider  certain  improvements  in  the  dis- 
cipUne  and  administration  of  the  papal  choir,  and  to 
this  end  they  associated  to  themselves  eight  of  the 
choir  members.  Cardinal  Vitelli  caused  the  singers 
to  perform  certain  compositions  in  his  presence,  in 
order  to  determine  what  measures  could  be  taken  for 
the  preservation  of  the  integrity  and  di-stinct  declama- 
tion of  the  text  in  compositions  in  which  the  voices 
were  interwoven.  St.  Charles, 
as  chancellor  of  his  uncle,  Pius 
IV,  was  the  patron  of  Pales- 
trina, increasing  his  iiension  in 
1.565.  He  celebrated  a  solemn 
Mass  in  presence  of  the  pontiff 
on  19  June,  15ti5,  at  which  Pal- 
estrina's  great  "Missa  Papae 
Marcelli"  was  sung.  These  his- 
torical data  are  the  only  dis- 
coverable basis  for  the  legends, 
so  long  repeated  by  historians, 
concerning  the  trial  before  the 
cardinals  and  pope  of  the  cause 
of  polyphonic  music,  and  its 
vindication  by  Palestrina,  in  the 
composition  and  performance 
of  three  masses,  the  "Missa 
Paps  Marcelli"  among  them. 
Haberl's  studies  of  the  archives 
conclusively  demolished  these 
fictions,  but  their  continued 
repetition  for  nearly  two  hun- 
dred years  emphasizes  the  fact 
of  Palest  rina's  activity,  in- 
spired by  St.  Philip  and  en- 
couraged by  St.  Charles,  in  the 
reform  of  church  music,  an  ac- 
tivity which  embraccfi  his  en- 
tire career  and  antedated  by 
some  years  the  disciplinary 
measures  of  the  church  author- 
Museum  ities. 

The  foundation  of  his  reform  is  the  two  principles 
legitimately  deduced  from  the  only  references  to 
church  music  in  the  Tridentine  decrees:  (1)  the  elim- 
ination of  all  themes  reminiscent  of,  or  resembling, 
secular  music;  (2)  the  rejection  of  musical  forms  an<l 
elaborations  tending  to  mutilate  or  obscure  the  litur- 
gical text.  Pius  IV  created  for  Palestrina  the  office 
of  "Composer  to  the  Papal  Chapel"  with  an  increased 
salary.  In  this  office  he  had  only  one  successor,  Felice 
Anerio.  When  in  1571  Giovanni  Annimuccia,  choir- 
master at  St.  Peter's,  died,  Palestrina  became  his  suc- 
cessor, thus  being  connected  with  the  papal  choir  and 
St.  Peter's  at  the  same  time.  An  attempt  of  his  jeal- 
ous and  intriguing  colleagues  in  the  papal  chapel  to  have 
him  dismissed  by  Pius  V  was  unsuccessful.  During  thi.s 
year  he  wrote  anumber  of  motets  and  liiiidi  spiriliiali 
for  the  Oratory  of  St.  Philip  Neri.  Besides  the  duties 
of  choirmaster  at  St.  Peter's,  composer  to  the  papal 
chapel,  director  of  music  at  St.  Philip's  Oratory,  he 
also  taught  at  the  school  of  music  of  Giovanni  Maria 
Nanini.  In  addition,  Gregory  XIII  commi.ssioned 
him  to  prepare  a  new  version  of  the  Gregorian  chant. 
His  exac^t  share  in  this  edition,  afterwards  published 
under  the  name  of  "editio  MedicEea"  because  printed 
in  a  press  belonging  to  Cardinal  de'  Medici,  and  what 
was  prepared  by  his  pupil  Giovanni  Guidetti,  Felice 


PALEY 


423 


PALLADIO 


Anerio,  and'Francesco  Suriano,  has  long  been  a  matter 
of  controversy.  The  undertaking  was  not  particularly 
congenial  to  Palestrina  and  kept  him  from  original 
production,  his  real  field  of  activity.  His  wife's  death 
in  1580  affected  him  profoundly.  His  sorrow  found 
expression  in  two  compositions,  Psalm  c.xxxvi,  "By 
the  waters  of  Babylon",  and  a  motet  on  the  words 
"O  Lord,  when  Thou  shalt  come  to  judge  the  world, 
how  shall  I  stand  before  the  face  of  Thy  anger,  my 
sins  frighten  me,  woe  to  me,  O  Lord".  With  these 
he  intended  to  close  his  creative  activity,  but  with  the 
appointment  in  1581  as  director  of  music  to  Prince 
Buoncompagni,  nephew  of  Gregory  XIII,  he  began 
perhaps  the  most  brilliant  period  of  his  long  life. 

Besides  sacred  madrigals,  motets,  psalms,  hymns  in 
honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  masses,  he  produced 
the  work  which  brought  him  the  title  of  "Prince  of 
Music  ",  twenty-nine  motets  on  words  from  the  "Can- 
ticle of  Canticles".  According  to  his  own  statement, 
Palestrina  intended  to  reproduce  in  his  composition 
the  Divine  love  expressed  in  the  Canticle,  so  that  his 
own  heart  might  be  touched  by  a  spark  thereof.  For 
the  enthronement  of  Sixtus  V,  he  wrote  a  five-part 
motet  and  mass  on  the  theme  to  the  text  "Tu  es  pas- 
tor ovium",  followed  a  few  months  later  by  one  of 
his  greatest  productions,  the  mass  "Assumpta  est 
Maria  ".  Sixtus  had  intended  to  appoint  him  director 
of  the  papal  choir,  but  the  refusal  of  the  singers  to  be 
directed  by  a  layman,  prevented  the  execution  of  his 
plan.  During  the  last  years  of  his  life  Palestrina 
wrote  his  great  "Lamentations",  settings  of  the  litur- 
gical hymns,  a  collection  of  motets,  the  well-known 
"Stabat  Mater"  for  double  chorus,  litanies  in  honour 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  and  the  offertories  for  the 
ecclesiastical  year.  His  complete  works,  in  thirty- 
three  volumes,  edited  by  Theodore  de  Witt,  Franz 
Espagne,  Franz  Commer,  and  from  the  tenth  volume 
on,  by  Haberl,  are  published  by  Breitkopf  and  Hartel; 
Mgr  Haberl  presented  the  last  volume  of  the  com- 
pleted edition  to  Pius  X  on  Easter  Monday,  1908. 
Palestrina's  significance  lies  not  so  much  in  his  un- 
precedented gifts  of  mind  and  heart,  his  creative  and 
constructive  powers,  as  in  the  fact  that  he  made  them 
the  medium  for  the  expression  in  tones  of  the  state  of 
his  own  soul,  which,  trained  and  formed  by  St.  Philip, 
was  attuned  to  and  felt  with  the  Church.  His  cre- 
ations will  for  all  time  stand  forth  as  the  musical 
embodiment  of  the  spirit  of  the  counter-reformation, 
the  triumphant  Church. 

Baini,  ilfun'-'-  ^i>'ri>-'-r^i''rln'  '/>'Ua  vUa  c  dclle  opere  di  Giovanni 
Pierluigid'i  I'  :  i;.    :      1  ^-M  ;  Baumker,  Paiesfruta  (Frei- 

burg,   lS77t,    />       '  Jahrbuch    (Ratisbon,    1886); 

Feli.'c,  Pal,  !....:  .:  /,..  <,,■  i./tf  (Paris,  1897) :  Capecela- 
TRO.  Life  of  S:.  i'.,,.,,.  ,\i,i  iLuu.lou,  1894);  Haberl,  Bausleine 
far  Musikgesch  (Leipzig,  18S8). 

Joseph  Otten. 

Paley,  Frederick  Apthorp,  classical  scholar,  b.  at 
Easingwold  near  York,  14  Jan.,  1815;  d.  at  Bourne- 
mouth, 9  Dec,  1888,  son  of  the  Rev.  Edmund  Paley  and 
grandson  of  William  Paley  who  wrote  "Evidences  of 
Christianity  " .  He  was  educated  at  Shrewsbury  School 
and  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  whore  he  taught  and 
continued  to  study  for  eight  years  after  his  B.  A.  degree 
(1838).  His  studies  were  mainly  classical;  but,  de- 
spite an  incapacity  for  mathematics,  he  was  interested 
in  mechanics  and  in  natural  science,  and  was  an  enthu- 
siastic ecclesiological  antiquary.  In  1846,  being  well 
known  as  a  Cambridge  sympathizer  with  the  O.xford 
Movement,  he  was  expelled  from  residence  in  St. 
Johii's  College,  on  suspicion  of  having  influenced  one 
of  his  pupils  to  become  a  Catholic.  He  was  himself  re- 
ceived into  the  Church  in  this  year.  For  the  next  four- 
teen years  he  supported  himself  as  a  private  tutor  in 
several  Catholic  families  successively  (Talbot,  Throck- 
morton, Kenelm  Digby)  and  by  his  pen.  From  1860, 
when  Tests  began  to  be  relaxed,  he  again  lived  at  Cam- 
bridge until  1874:  from  1874  to  1877  he  was  professor 
of  classical  literature  at  the  abortive  Catholic  Univer- 


sity College  at  Kensington.  From  1877  till  his  death 
he  continued  to  write  assiduously.  But  the  interrup- 
tion of  his  university  career,  the  want  of  a  settled  com- 
petence, and  his  banishment  from  the  place,  the  soci- 
ety, and  the  learned  facilities  which  might  best  have 
improved  his  talents  and  industry,  had  the  effect  of 
rendering  nearly  all  his  voluminous  production  ephem- 
eral. His  many  classical  editions,  which  had  a  great 
and  not  undeserved  vogue  and  uifluence  in  their  day. 
became  soon  obsolete  and  marked  no  decisive  epoch  in 
classical  philology.  Yet  his  work  on  Euripides  and 
jEschylus  in  particular  may  still  be  consulted  with 
profit,  at  least  as  a  monument  of  protest  against  the 
Victorian  mock-archaic  convention  in  translations 
from  Greek  poetry;  and  it  is  easy  to  underrate  now  the 
merits  of  work  which  met  a  great  demand  for  school 
and  college  use,  and  itself  did  much  to  evoke  the  more 
scientific  scholarship  which  has  superseded  it. 

His  works  number  more  than  fifty  volumes,  besides 
numerous  magazine  articles  and  reviews  contributed 
to  the  "American  Catholic  Quarterly",  "Edinburgh 
Review",  "Journal  of  Philology"  etc.  The  first  of 
his  classical  pubhcations,  and  the  one  which  estab- 
hshed  his  reputation  as  a  scholar,  was  the  text  of 
^schylus  (1844-7);  during  the  next  forty  years  he 
edited  with  the  commentaries,  Propertius  (1853); 
Ovid's  "Fasti"  (1854);  ^Eschylus  (1855);  Euripides 
(1857);  Hesiod  (1861);  Theocritus  (1863);  Homer's 
"Iliad"  (1866);  Martial  (1868);  Pindar  (transl.  with 
notes)  1868;  Aristophanes'  "Peace"  (1873);  Plato's 
"Philebus"  (1873);  "Private  Orations  of  Demos- 
thenes" (1874);  Plato's  "Thstetus"  (1875);  Aristo- 
phanes' "Acharnians"  (1876);  "Medicean  Scholia  of 
iEschylus"  (1878);  Aristophane.s'  "Frogs"  (1878); 
Sophocles  (1880).  To  these  must  be  added  many 
critical  inquiries,  especially  on  the  Homeric  question; 
and  most  of  his  Commentaries  ran  through  three  or 
four  editions,  of  which  Marindin  remarks  that  "every 
new  edition  was  practically  a  new  work".  He  found 
leisure  to  issue  books  on  architecture;  his  "Manual  of 
Gothic  Mouldings",  first  published  in  1845,  went  into 
a  fifth  edition  in  1891. 

Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  a.  v. 

J.  S.  Phillimore. 

Pall,  a  heavy,  black  cloth,  spread  over  the  coffin  in 
the  church  at  a  funeral,  or  over  the  catafalque  at  other 
services  for  the  dead.  In  the  centre  of  it  there  is  gen- 
erally a  white  or  red  cross.  It  must  always  be  black, 
but  its  material  and  ornamentation  may  vary.  Sym- 
bols of  death,  such  as  skulls,  cross-bones  etc.,  forbid- 
den on  the  altar  and  ministers'  vestments,  are  allowed 
on  palls.  The  pall  is  in  universal  use,  though  not  pre- 
scribed. Where,  however,  there  is  no  catafalque  or 
bier,  absolution  may  not  be  given  except  a  black  cloth 
be  extended  on  the  floor  of  the  sanctuary  (S.  R.  C, 
3535,  5). 

Castaldus,  lib.  II,  s.  9.  c.  v;  De  Herdt,  Sac.  Liturg.  Praxis^ 

'"•  "•  ^*^-  Andrew  B.  Meehan. 

Pall  (Chalice  Cover).  See  Altar,  sub -title 
Altar-Linens;  Chalice. 

Palladio,  Andrea,  ItaUan  architect,  b.  at  Vicenza, 
1508;  d.  at  Venice,  19  Aug.,  1580.  There  is  a  tradi- 
tion that  he  was  the  son  of  a  poor  carpenter,  with  no 
surname  of  his  own,  and  that  the  famous  humanistic 
poet,  Gian  Giorgio  Trissino,  became  his  patron  and 
gave  him  the  name  of  Palladio,  in  fanciful  allusion  to 
Pallas,  the  Greek  goddess  of  wisdom.  After  a  brief 
apprenticeship  as  sculptor  he  travelled  and  studied 
the  remains  of  classical  architecture,  endeavouring  to 
determine  its  principles  by  the  aid  of  Vitruvius's  writ- 
ings. The  results  of  these-studies  appear  in  the  build- 
ings which  he  constructed,  of  which  the  earliest  known 
is  the  Palazzo  Godi  at  Lonedo  (1540).  The  execution 
of  his  design  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  basilica  in  his 
native  town  was  commenced  in  1549.     The  colonnades 


PALLADIUS 


424 


PALLADIUS 


Andrea  Palladio 


of  this  basilioa  arc  his  most  famous  work.  His  Arco 
di  Trioiifo,  also  at  \'icenza,  is  even  now  tlie  best 
modern  imitation  of  a  Roman  triumphal  arch.  A  fine 
sense  of  proportion,  combined  with  scholarly  refine- 
ment and  fertility  of  invention,  characterizes  the 
palaces  of  Viccnza,  where  PalUwlio  had  a  free  hand. 
He  was  a  favourite  of  society  in  and  about  Vicenza, 
and  was  therefore  a  most  prolific  designer  of  vilhis. 
Few  of  these  were  ever  completed,  many  have  been 
changed  or  dismantled,  and  nearly  all  have  lost  the 
environment  of  gardens  and  accessories  which  were  a 
necessary  part  of  the  composition.  All  are,  however, 
stately,  spacious 
and  airy,  effec- 
tive in  mass, 
dignified  in  do- 
tail,  and  free 
from  affectation. 
Two  standard 
types  are  the 
Villa  Capra,  in 
the  environs  of 
Vicenza,  and  the 
MUa  Giacomelli 
at  Treviso. 

Only  three 
sacred  buildings 
are  surely  his 
work,  the  small 
chapel  near  the 
last-named  villa, 
and  the  churches 
of  San  Giorgio 
(1565)  and  II 
Redentore  (be- 
gun, 1576,  fin- 
ished after  his 
death)  at  Venice.  These  two  churches  are  cruciform, 
with  aisles,  crossing-domes,  and  apsidal  terminations 
to  choirs  and  transepts.  The  interiors  are  cold,  power- 
ful, and  spacious;  the  exteriors  are  frankly  structural, 
of  inferior  materials,  with  serai-circular,  lead-covered 
domes,  and  with  no  ornamentation  except  in  thef  agades. 
Palladio  may  be  taken  as  the  representative  of  a 
wholesome  reaction  against  the  decadent  tendencies 
of  his  age,  and  may  be  said  to  have  fixed  good  archi- 
tectural style  for  many  succeeding  centuries.  Al- 
though in  France  a  more  meretricious  taste  prevailed, 
represented  by  Lescaut  and  by  De  I'Orme  in  England, 
through  Inigo  Jones,  Palladio  became  so  much  the 
controlling  spirit  that  the  English  style  of  the  seven- 
teenth centurj'  is  now  known  as  "Palladian".  Nat- 
urally, the  Georgian  architecture  of  the  United  States 
develops  directly  from  Palladio  through  the  later 
masters  who  followed  Inigo  Jones.  Palladio's  writ- 
ings, particularly  "Le  Antichit^  di  Roma"  and  the 
"  (^uattro  Libri  dell'  Architettura  ",  did  more  than  any- 
thing else  to  spread  his  influence  over  Europe:  many 
editions  were  published  in  Italy  between  1554  and 
1042.  They  were  widely  translated,  and  in  England 
Inigo  Jones  acted  as  editor  and  commentator. 

ScAMOzzi.  L' Architecture  Univerval'  (Hi'jl);  Gualdo,  Vita  di 
Andrea  Palladio  (1749) ;  Temanza,  Vitidi  A.nlr.a  I'atladio  (1702- 
1778);  MlLlziA,  Mcmorie  degli  ArchU-  ri i  17,^1);  rr.  Crecy,  Lites 
of  Celebrated  Architects  (London,  182GK  .Ma(;rini.  DelV  Architet- 
tura in  Vicenza  (1845) ;  Bcrchkhardt.  Die  Renaissance  in  Italien 
(1867) ;  Baricheela,  Andrea  Palladia  e  la  sua  Scuola  (1880); 
GooDTEAB.  Renaissance  and  Modern  Art  (New  York,  1894) ; 
Fletcheb,  Arulrea  PaUadio  (London,  1902). 

Ralph  Adams  Cham. 

Palladius,  Saint,  first  bishop  sent  by  Pope  Celes- 
tine  to  Ireland  (431).  The  chronicle  of  the  contempo- 
rary St.  Prosper  of  Aquitaine  presents  two  important 
entries  relating  to  Palladius.  Under  date  of  429  it  has 
".Agricola,  a  Pelagian,  son  of  Severianus,  a  Pelagian 
bishop,  corrupted  the  churches  of  Britain  by  the  in- 
sinuation of  his  doctrine;  but  at  the  instance  of  the 
Deacon  Palladius  (ad  actionem  Palladii  Diaconi)  Pope 


Celestine  .sends  Germanus,  Bishop  of  Auxerre,  as  his 
reprrsenlativc  to  root  out  heresy  and  direct  the  Brit- 
ons Ici  the  Catholic  Faith".  .'Vgain  under  date  of  431, 
in  tli(>  eonsuLsliip  of  Bassus  and  Antiochus:  "  Palladius 
was  consecrated  by  Pope  Celestine  and  sent  to  the 
Scots  believing  in  Christ,  as  their  first  bishop"  (Ad 
Scotos  in  Christum  credentes,  ordiiKitur  a  Pajia  Celes- 
tino  Palladius  et  primus  episcopus  niillitur).  In  his 
work  against  Cassian,  St.  Prosper  (•(unpcndiates  both 
entries:  "Wherefore  the  Pontiff  Celestine  of  venerable 
memory,  to  whom  the  Lord  ga\c  many  gifts  of  His 
grace  for  safeguarding  the  Catholic  Church,  knowing 
that  for  those  who  are  already  condemned,  the  remedy 
to  be  applied  is  not  a  further  judicial  inquiry  but  only 
repentance,  gave  instructions  for  Celestius,  who  asked 
for  a  further  hearing  in  a  matter  already  settled,  to  be 
driven  from  the  borders  of  all  Italy  .  .  .  with  no  less 
jealous  care  he  delivered  Britain  from  the  same  dis- 
ease, when  he  drove  even  from  that  hidden  recess  of 
the  ocean  some  enemies  of  Grace  who  were  settling  in 
their  native  soil;  and  by  ordaining  a  bishop  for  the 
Irish  (Scolis),  whilst  he  laboured  to  keep  the  Roman 
Island  Catholic,  he  made  also  the  barbarous  Island 
Christian."  The  words  in  the  second  entry  of  the 
chronicle  "to  the  Scots  believing  in  Christ"  can  only 
have  the  meaning  that  when  the  chronicle  was  being 
written  in  447,  the  Irish  had  become  a  Christian 
people. 

Some  writers  with  Dr.  Todd  regard  Palladius  as 
deacon  of  St.  Germanus,  but  it  appears  more  probable 
that  he  held  the  high  rank  of  Deacon  of  Rome;  it  can 
hardly  be  supposed  that  a  Deacon  of  Auxerre  would 
exercise  such  influence  in  Rome  as  that  assigned  to 
Palladius,  and  it  is  in  accordance  with  St.  Prosper's 
usage  to  indicate  the  Roman  deacon  by  the  simple  title 
diaconus.  Thus  in  the  chronicle  we  have  frequent  en- 
tries such  as  "Hilarius  Diaconus",  "loannes  Dia- 
conus", "Leo  Diaconus",  which  invariably  refer  to 
the  deacons  of  Rome.  The  seventh  century  life  of  St. 
Patrick  by  Muircu  Maccumacthenus  in  the  "Book  of 
Armagh"  expressly  st3des  Palladius  "Archidiaconus 
Papa;  Coelestini  urbis  Romae  Episcopi",  repeated  in 
several  of  the  other  lives  of  St.  Patrick.  Ussher  regis- 
ters the  tradition  long  current  in  England  that  Palla- 
dius was  born  in  Britain  and  that  he  had  combated  the 
Pelagian  heresy  there.  The  Bollandists  are  also  of 
the  opinion  that  he  was  "a  Briton  by  birth  ".  The  Pal- 
ladii, however,  were  reckoned  among  the  noblest  fami- 
lies of  France  and  several  of  them  held  high  rank  about 
this  time  in  the  Church  of  Gaul.  These  conflicting 
opinions  may  perhaps  be  reconciled.  Under  Julian  the 
Apostate  there  was  a  Palladius  holding  prominent 
rank  in  the  army  of  Gaul,  who,  for  his  fearless  profes- 
sion of  the  Faith,  was  exiled  into  Britain.  We  may  easily 
suppose  that  the  scion  of  such  a  privileged  Gallo-Brit- 
ish  family  would  attain  the  position  of  Deacon  of 
Rome,  would  take  much  interest  in  the  British  Church, 
and,  would  by  his  familiarity  with  the  Celtic  lan- 
guage, be  qualified  to  undertake  the  mission  of  first 
bishop  to  the  Irish.  Palladius  is  honoured  in  the  Scot- 
tish calendar  on  6  July.  The  Aberdeen  Breviary  de- 
scribes him  as  "pontificem  et  fidei  Catholica;  aposto- 
lum  pariter  et  doctorem".  In  some  ancient  records  he 
is  styled  a  martyr,  probably  because  of  the  hardships 
endured  during  his  missionary  career  in  Ireland. 

Palladius  landed  in  the  territory  of  the  Hy-Garchon, 
on  the  strand  where  the  town  of  Wicklow  now  stands, 
then  occupied  by  the  tribe  of  Cualann  who  have  left 
their  name  on  the  beautiful  valley  of  GlencuUen,  seven 
miles  distant  from  the  spot  where  Palladius  landed. 
The  chieftain  of  the  district  had  no  welcome  for  the 
missionaries.  However  some  of  the  tribe  appear  to  have 
extended  a  better  measure  of  kindness  to  them  and  at 
least  three  churches  were  in  after  times  assigned  as  the 
result  of  Palladius's  mission.  The  Life  of  St.  Patrick, 
already  referrefl  to,  records  the  failure  of  the  mis- 
sion: "Palladius  was  ordained  and  sent  to  convert  this 


PALLADIUS 


425 


PALLADIUS 


island  lying  under  wintry  cold,  l)ut  God  hindered  him, 
for  no  man  can  receive  anything  from  earth  unless  it 
be  given  to  him  from  heaven;  and  neither  did  those 
fierce  and  cruel  men  receive  his  doctrine  readily,  nor 
did  he  himself  wish  to  spend  time  in  a  strange  land, 
but  returned  to  him  who  sent  him.  On  his  return 
hence,  however,  having  crossed  the  first  sea  and  com- 
menced his  land  journey,  he  died  in  the  territory  of  the 
Britons."  In  the  Scholia  on  St.  Fiacc's  Hymn  in  the 
ancient  "Liber  Hyranorum"  it  is  stated  that  in  the 
country  of  the  Hy-Garclion,  Palladius  "founded  some 
churches:  Teach-na-Roman,  or  the  House  of  the  Ro- 
mans, Kill-Fine,  and  others.  Nevertheless  he  was  not 
well  received,  but  was  forced  to  go  round  the  coast  of 
Ireland  towards  the  north,  until  driven  by  a  tempest 
he  reached  the  extreme  p.art  of  Modhaidh  towards  the 
south,  where  he  fovmded  the  church  of  Fordun,  and 
Fledi  is  his  name  tliere."  The  Vita  Secunda,  life  of  St. 
Patrick,  in  Colgan's  collection,  adds  further  interest- 
ing details:  "The  most  blessed  Pope  Celestine  or- 
dained Bisiiop  the  Archdeacon  of  the  Roman  Church, 
named  Pall-adius,  and  sent  him  into  the  Island  of  Hi- 
bernia,  after  having  committed  to  him  the  relics  of 
Blessed  Peter  and  Paul  and  other  Saints,  and  having 
also  given  him  the  volumes  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. Palladius,  entering  the  land  of  the  Irish,  ar- 
rived at  the  territory  of  the  men  of  Leinster  where 
Nathi  Mac  Garrchon  was  chief,  who  was  opposed  to 
him.  Others,  however,  whom  the  Divine  mercy  had 
disposed  towards  the  worship  of  God,  having  been 
baptized  in  the  name  of  the  sacred  Trinity,  the  blessed 
Palladius  built  three  Churches  in  the  same  district; 
one,  which  is  called  Cellfme,  in  which  even  to  the  pres- 
ent day,  he  left  his  books  which  he  had  received  from 
St.  Celestine  and  the  box  of  relics  of  the  blessed  Peter 
and  Paul  and  other  Saints,  and  the  tablets  on  which  he 
used  to  write,  which  in  the  Irish  language  are  called 
from  his  name  Pallere,  that  is,  the  burilen  of  Palladius, 
and  are  held  in  veneration.  Another,  Tcrh-na-Roman, 
and  the  third  Domnach  Ardec,  in  which  are  buried  the 
holy  men  of  the  companions  of  Palladius,  Sylvester 
and  Salonius,  who  are  honoured  there.  After  a  short 
time  Palladius  died  in  the  plain  of  Girgin  in  a  place 
which  is  called  Fordun.  But  others  say  that  he  was 
crowned  with  martyrdom  there."  Another  ancient 
document,  known  as  the  Vita  Quinia  in  Colgan's  work, 
repeats  the  particulars  here  given  relating  to  the  foun- 
dation of  three  churches,  and  adds:  "But  St.  Palladius, 
seeing  that  he  could  not  do  much  good  there,  wishing 
tQ  return  to  Rome,  migrated  to  the  Lord  in  the  region 
of  the  Picts.  Others,  however,  say  that  he  was 
crowned  with  martyrdom  in  Ireland." 

The  three  churches  have  been  identified.  Teach-na- 
Roman  is  Tigroney,  where  are  the  ruins  of  an  old 
church  in  the  parish  of  Castle  Mac  Adam  in  the 
county  of  Wicklow.  Kill-Fine  was  supposed  by  Fa- 
ther Shearman  to  be  the  same  as  Killeen  Cormac,  a  re- 
markable old  churchyard,  three  miles  south-west  of 
Dunlavin,  but  more  probably  situated  in  the  parish  of 
Glendalough,  in  the  townland  which  the  Ordnance 
Survey  has  named  Lara-West,  but  which  is  still  called 
Killfinn  by  the  people.  The  third  church  Domnach 
A  rdec  is  Donard  which  gives  its  name  to  a  parish  and 
village  in  the  west  of  the  County  Wicklow  in  the  barony 
of  Lower  Talbotstown.  This  parish,  as  Father  Shear- 
man writes,  retains  "some  vestiges  of  its  ancient  im- 
portance; the  sites  of  primeval  Christian  churches, 
large  and  well-preserved  Raths  and  Tumuli,  Crom- 
lechs, Ogham  Pillars,  ancient  ecclesiastical  Cashels, 
Pagan  Cathairs  on  the  surrounding  hills,  with  many 
other  evidences  of  a  civilized  and  numerous  pop- 
ulation". The  modern  critical  Scottish  historians. 
Bishop  Forbes,  Skene,  and  others,  confess  that  in  re- 
gard to  the  connexion  of  St.  Palladius  with  Scotland, 
the  Irish  documents  are  the  only  reliable  sources.  The 
traditions  set  forth  in  Fordun's  chronicle  and  later 
writings  are  regarded  as  purely  mythical.    One  assigns 


to  Palladius  an  apostolate  in  Scotland  of  twenty-three 
years;  another  makes  him  the  tutor  of  St.  Servanus, 
contemporary  of  St.  Adamnan  and  Brude,  King  of  the 
Picts  (a.  d.  697-706),  all  of  which  is  irreconcilable 
with  the  Irish  narratives  and  with  the  date  of  the 
saint's  mission  from  St.  Celestine.  A  German  theory 
has  found  favour  with  some  writers  in  recent  times,  to 
the  effect  that  the  Bishop  Palladius  referred  to  in  the 
second  entry  by  Prosper  as  sent  to  Ireland  by  Celes- 
tine was  none  other  than  St.  Patrick.  This  theory 
viewed  independently  of  the  ancient  historical  narra- 
tives would  have  much  to  commend  it.  It  would 
merely  imply  that  the  Bishop  Palladius  of  the  second 
entry  in  the  chronicle  was  distinct  from  the  Deacon 
Palladius  of  the  first  entry,  and  that  the  scanty  rec- 
ords connected  with  Palladius's  mission  to  Ireland 
were  to  be  referred  to  St.  Patrick.  But  this  theory 
is  inconsistent  with  the  unbroken  series  of  testimonies 
in  the  ancient  lives  of  St.  Patrick  and  cannot  easily  be 
reconciled  with  the  traditions  of  the  Scottish  Church. 


Shearman.  Loca  Patriciana  (Dublin,  1879);  Stokes,  Vita  Tri- 
partila  in  Rolls  Series  {London.  1888);  Forbes,  Kalendars  of  Scot- 
tish MSS.  (Edinburgli,  1872):  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland,  II  (Edin- 
burgh, 1886);  Bellesheim,  Hist,  of  the  C.  Church  in  Scotland,  tr. 
Hunter-Blair,  I  (Edinburgh  and  London,  1887).  See  also  lives 
of  St.  Patrick  by  Healy,  Tonn,  Burt.  etc. 

Patrick  Francis  Cardinal  Moran. 

Palladius  (naXXdSios),  b.  in  Galatia,  368;  d. 
probably  before  431.  The  identity  of  the  author  of 
the  "Historia  Lausiaca",  of  the  Palladius  who  wrote 
a  life  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  of  the  Bishop  of 
Helenopolis,  long  disputed,  has  been  vindicated  of 
late  years  (Preuschen,  Butler,  op.  cit.)  and  is  now 
generally  accepted.  A  disciple  of  Evagrius  of  Pontus 
(q.  v.)  and  an  admirer  of  Origen,  he  became,  when 
twenty  years  of  age,  a  monk  on  the  Mount  of  Olives 
under  a  certain  priest.  Innocent.  After  three  years 
he  went  to  Egypt  to  study  the  life  of  the  famous 
Egyptian  monks  (see  Monasticism),  but  later,  fall- 
ing into  ill-health,  wandered  from  one  colony  of 
monks  to  another,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Didymus  the  Bhnd  (d.  395)  who  had  known  St. 
Anthony.  In  the  Nitrian  desert.,  then  inhabited  by 
thousands  of  monks  living  partly  in  communities  and 
partly  as  isolated  hermits,  he  met  Evagrius.  For 
nine  years  he  stayed  among  these  monks,  observing 
their  life  and  hearing  the  traditions  of  their  founders, 
Anthony,  Paul,  Pachomius,  Pambo,  etc.;  he  also 
visited  the  monks  and  nuns  of  the  Thebaid  and  Scete, 
so  that  he  saw  all  the  chief  monastic  colonies  of 
Egypt.  On  the  death  of  Evagrius  (399),  Palladius 
set  out  for  his  own  country  (Asia  Minor)  by  Alex- 
andria and  Palestine.  At  Bethlehem  he  met  St. 
Jerome,  whose  great  knowledge,  he  declares,  was 
marred  by  "envy  and  jealousy"  (Hist.  Laus.,  1,  Of 
Possidonius) .  The  great  opponent  of  Origen  was  nat- 
urally not  sympathetic  to  his  visitor.  At  Jerusalem 
Palladius  saw  Rufinus  of  Aquileia  and  Melania.  In 
Bithynia  he  was  ordained  bishop  (ibid.,  xlix,  Of 
John  of  Lycus).  St.  John  Chrysostom  ordained  him 
for  the  See  of  Helenopohs,  hut  Bardenhewer  thinks 
that  Palladius  of  Helenopolis  mentioned  by  Socrates, 
"Hist.  Eccl.",  VII,  xxxvi  (Frcilnirg.  1S94,  p.  3.54),  is 
another  person.  From  this  time  he  hei'omes  a  zealous 
adherent  of  his  patriarch,  whose  troubles  in  403  he 
shared.  He  was  imprisoned  for  eleven  months  in  a 
dark  cell  (Hist.  Laus.,  loc.  cit.).  Later  he  hved  for  a 
time  in  Palestine  near  Jericho  under  a  famous  her- 
mit, Elpidius  of  Cappadocia  (Hist.  Laus.,  Ix,  Of 
Elpidius).  In  40,')  he  went  to  Rome  to  plead  the 
cause  of  Chrysostom  with  Innocent  I  (401-17)  and 
Emperor  Honorius  (395-423).  He  came  back  to  Con- 
stantinople as  a  member  of  the  mission  sent  by  Honorius 
to  Arcadius  (30.5—108)  in  favour  of  the  banished  pa/- 
triarch.  But  there  he  and  his  colleagues  were  im- 
prisoned and  then  banished,  Palladius  being  sent  to 
Syene  in  Upper  Egypt.     Later  he  went  to  Antinoe 


PALLAVICINO 


426 


PALLAVICINO 


and  was  in  Anoyra  after  412.  In  417  he  chanRcd  his 
Diocese  of  Helenopolis  for  Aspuna  in  tialatia  (Soc- 
rates, loc.  cit.)-  In  420  he  wrote  his  "Historia  Lau- 
siaca"  (Butler,  "The  Lausiac  History",  I,  179  sq.). 
After  that  lie  disappears  ;  but  he  died  apparently 
before  431,  in  whicli  year  a  certain  Eusebius  was 
Bishop  of  Aspuna. 

His  chief  work  is  the  "Historica  Lausiaca",  a 
historj-  of  tlie  monks  of  Egypt  and  Palestine  in 
the  form  of  anecdotes  and  short  biographies.  Its 
name  comes  from  the  dedication  to  Lausos,  a 
chamberlain  of  'I'hcodosius  II  (408-50)  'H  -rrpis 
AoCffoi'  i(rTop(a  and  then  shortly,  Aafffiatri^or  AautroiVAy. 
Difficulties  about  the  text  are  examined  and  in  great 
part  solved  by  Dom  Cuthbert  Butler  (see  below). 
The  chief  difficulty  is  that  Palladius  repeats  nearly 
all  the  contents  of  Rufinus,  "Historia  monachorum" 
(written  from  a  Greek  source  between  404  and  410). 
The  text,  as  it  is  in  Migne,  eNndently  depends  on 
Rufinus's  source.  There  are  also  many  variant 
texts.  The  book  was  popular  among  monks  all  over 
the  East,  who  appear  to  have  added  to  it  considerably 
in  transcribing  it.  The  first  edition  was  a  Latin  ver- 
sion by  Cicntianus  Hervetus  (Paris,  1555),  reprinted 
by  H.  Rcsweyde  ("Vita;  pat  rum",  VIII,  Paris,  1628). 
A  shorter  (ireek  text  was  published  by  J.  Meursius 
(Leyden,  1616),  and  a  longer  one  by  Fronton  Leduc 
("AuctariuMi  liibliotheca"  Patrum",  IV,  Paris,  1624), 
and  a  still  ni(irc  comiilete  one  by  J.  Cotelerius  ("Mon- 
umenta  eccl.  gr;cc;e",  III,  Paris,  1686;  reprinted  in 
P.  G.,  XXXIV,  995-1260).  This  longer  version  con- 
tains the  text  of  Rufinus.  Butler,  Preuschen,  and 
others  think  that  the  shorter  text  (of  Meursius)  is 
Palladius's  authentic  work,  the  longer  version  being 
interpolated.  Amelineau  (op.  cit.)  holds  that  the 
longer  text  is  all  Palladius's  work,  and  that  the  first 
thirty-seven  chapters  (about  the  monks  of  Lower 
Egypt)  are  mainly  an  accoimt  of  what  the  author  saw 
and  heard,  though  even  here  he  has  also  used  docu- 
ments. But  he  thinks  the  second  part  (about  L^pper 
Egj-pt)  is  merely  a  compilation  from  a  Coptic  or 
Greek  document  which  Rufinus  also  used;  so  that 
Palladius's  \'isit  to  LTpper  Egjpt  must  be  a  literary 
fiction.  (See  also  Fessler-.Jungmann,  op.  cit.)  But 
the  shorter  text  itself  exists  in  various  forms.  A 
Syrian  monk,  Anan-Isho,  li\'ing  in  the  sixth-seventh 
centuries  in  Mesopotamia,  translated  the  "Lausiac 
Historj'"  into  Syriac  with  further  interpolations 
("Paradisus  Patrum",  ed.  Bedjan,  "Acta  martyrum 
et  sanctorum",  VII,  Paris,  1897;  tr.  E.  A.  Wallis 
Budge,  "The  Paradise  of  the  Fathers",  2  vols., 
London,  1907).  At  one  time  the  "Lausiac  History" 
was  considered  a  compilation  of  imaginary  legends 
(see  Weingarten,  "Der  Urspnmg  des  Monchtums", 
Gotha,  1877,  and  others).  Later  research  has  very 
considerably  rehabilitated  Palladius;  the  chief  au- 
thorities now  (Butler,  Preu.schen)  consider  the  "Lau- 
siac History"  to  be  in  the  main  a  serious  historical 
document  as  well  as  an  invaluable  picture  of  the  lives 
and  ideas  of  the  earliest  Christian  monks  (cf.  Preu- 
schen, op.  cit.,  210). 

Pallaflius's  object  is  not  so  much  to  save  material 
for  history  as  to  provide  spiritual  reaflLng;  at  the  same 
time  the  author  has  a  controversial  purpose  as  an 
Origenist.  Rosweyde  in  his  edition  adds  to  the 
"Lausiac  History"  an  alphabetic  list  of  "Sayings 
of  the  Fathers"  (' AnocpOiyimra  tQiv  iraripuiv,  in  the 
"VitsE  Patrum",  V-VI).  These  are  later  and  consist 
partly  of  old  traditions  of  Egyptian  monks,  partly 
of  apocryphal  additions  (Butler,  "  The  Lausiac  His- 
tory", I,  208-15).  Under  the  name  of  Palladius  there 
is  also  a  life  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  (Dialogue  with 
Theodore,  deacon  of  the  Roman  Church,  about  the 
life  and  manners  of  .lohn  Chrysostom).  It  was  first 
edited  in  Greek  with  a  Latin  translation  by  E.  Bigot 
(Paris,  1680);  it  is  included  in  de  Montfaucon's 
edition  of  Chrysostom  (XIII,  Paris,  1718-38),  and  in 


P.  G.  (XLVII,  5-S2).  There  are  dimculties  about  the 
identification  of  its  author  with  that  of  the  "Lausiac 
History"  and  the  Bishop  of  Helenopolis,  so  that  all 
possible  combinations  have  been  suggested,  including 
that  of  three  separate  persons.  The  chief  of  these 
difficulties  is  that  the  biographer  distinguishes  liim- 
self  from  the  bishop  (c.  iii,  "P.  G.",  loc.  cit.,  13).  Bar- 
denhewer  ("Patrologie",  354)  and  Fessler-Jungmann 
("  Institutiones  Patrologia; ",  II,  i,  209-10)  identify  the 
author  of  the  "Lausiac  History"  and  the  biographer, 
but  distinguish  from  them  the  bishop.  It  is,  how- 
ever, now  very  common  to  identify  the  bisho[)  and  the 
Lausiac  author  (Dr.  Wallis  Budge,  "Tlie  Paratlise  of 
the  Fathers",  p.  xxi),  so  that  we  come  to  the  identity  of 
all  three  as  supposed  in  this  article.  Preuschen  ex- 
plains the  difficulty  in  the  Dialogue  as  a  literary 
fiction  (Palladius  u.  Rufinus,  246). 

The  tip.st  modern  edition  of  the  Lausiac  IHntory  is  DoM 
CrTiiiiKiiT  Hitler,  Palladius,  The  Lausiac  History:  I.  A  critical 
die;  '■.:  II,  11. r  GreektcxfmTextsandStudics. \HC&mhndRe, 
\^''^  l''"l  ,  li;i.t-9CHEN.  Palladius  u.  Rufinus,  ein  Beilrag  zur 
Qij':''  il'i'sten  Monchtums  (Gieasen,  1S97};  AMti.isEAV. 

[)'■  III  I.  It;  i;.'i  (Paris.  1887);  HnpTER,  Nomenclalor.  I  (Inn-s- 
bruck,  ]no:i),322:  Fes.sler-Jcngmann,  Institutiones  Patrologicc, 
ii,  i  (Innsbruck,  1892),  209-12. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Pallavicino,  Pietro  Sforza,  cardinal,  b.  28  Nov., 
1607;  il.  5  ,June,  1667.  Descended  from  the  line  of 
Parma  of  the  ancient  and  noble  house  of  the  Marchese, 
Pallavicini,  the  first-born  of  his  family,  he  renounced 
the  right  of  primogeniture  and  resolved  to  enter  the 
priesthood.  He  obtained  the  doctorate  in  philosoph}' 
in  1625,  theology  in  1628  (the  theses,  printed  in  the  years 
mentioned,  being  extant).  Pope  LIrban  VIII  (1623-44) 
appointed  him  rcferendarius  ulriusque  signaturce  and 
member  of  several  congregations.  He  was  highly  es- 
teemed in  the  literary  circles  of  Rome.  When  his 
friend  Giovanni  Ciampoli,  the  secretary  of  briefs, 
fell  into  disfavour,  Pallavicino's  standing  at  the  papal 
court  was  also  seriously  affected.  He  was  sent  in  1632 
as  governatore  to  Jesi,  Orvieto,  and  Camcrino,  where  he 
remained  for  a  considerable  time.  In  spiteof  his  father's 
opposition,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  21 
June,  1637.  Afterthe  two  years' novitiate  he  became, 
1639,  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Collegium  Ro- 
manum.  In  1643,  when  John  de  Lugo  was  made  car- 
dinal, Pallavicino  became  his  successor  in  the  chair 
of  theology,  a  position  he  occupied  imtil  1651.  At 
the  same  time  he  was  frequently  employed  by  In- 
nocent X  in  matters  of  importance.  In  this  way  he 
became  a  member  of  the  commission  appointed  to 
examine  the  writings  of  Jansenius.  He  was  further- 
more commissioned  to  examine  the  writings  of  M.  de 
Barcos,  two  of  which  were  condemned  in  1647. 

Before  his  entrance  into  the  Jesuit  order  he  had 
published  orations  and  poems.  Of  his  great  poem  "I 
fasti  sacri",  which  was  to  havebeen  completed  in  four- 
teen cantos,  he  had  pubhshed  one  part  (Rome,  1636); 
but  upon  his  entrance  into  the  novitiate  he  gave  up 
its  fuiiher  publication.  His  first  considerable  literary 
work  as  Jesuit  was  a  tragedy,  "Ermenegildo  martire" 
(Rome,  1644).  In  the  same  year  there  appeared  "  Del 
bene  libri  quattro"  (Rome  1644  and  often  reprinted). 
He  began  editing  the  works  of  his  former  friend 
Giovanni  Ciampoh;  of  these  the  "Rime"  appeared  in 
Rome  (1648)  and  the  "Prose"  (1667  and  1676).  In 
rebuttal  of  the  numerous  accusations  raised  against 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  Pallavicino  composed  a  circum- 
stantial refutation,  "Vindicationes  Societatis  Jesu, 
quibus  multorum  accusationes  in  eius  institutum, 
leges,  gymnasia,  mores  refelluntur"  (Rome,  1649). 
In  the  same  year  he  began  the  publication  of  hisgre.at 
dogmatic  work  in  conjunction  with  his  theological 
lectures,  "Assertiones  theologicap".  The  complete 
work  treats  the  entire  field  of  dogma  in  nine  books. 
The  first  five  books  appeared  in  three  volumes  (Rome, 
1649),  the  remaining  four  books  are  included  in  vol- 
umes IV-VIII  (Rome,  1650-1652) .    Immediately  after 


PALLIXTM 


427 


PALLIXTM 


this  he  began  the  publication  of  disputations  on  the 
second  part  of  the  "  Summa  theologica  "  of  St.  Thomas. 
"R.  P.  Sfortiie  Pallavicini  .  .  .  Disputationum  in 
lam  Ilae  d.  Thomce  tomus  I"  (Lyons,  1653).  How- 
ever, only  this  first  volume  of  the  work  appeared,  for 
in  the  meantime  Pallavicino  had  been  directed  by  the 
pope  to  write  a  refutation  of  Sarpi's  History  of  the 
Council  of  Trent. 

The  odious  and  hostile  account  of  the  Council  of 
Trent  by  Sarpi  had  appeared  as  early  as  1619  under 
a  fictitious  name  ("Historia  del  Concilio  Tridentino, 
nella  quale  si  scoprono  tutti  gli  artifici  della  corte  di 
Roma  .  .  .  di  Pietro  Soave  Pollano",  London,  1619). 
■Several  Catholic  scholars  had  already  begun  to  collect 
the  material  for  a  refutation  of  this  work,  but  none 
had  been  able  to  finish  the  gigantic  undertaking. 
Felix  Contelorio  and  the  Jesuit,  Ter.  Alciati,  in  par- 
ticular had  collected  a  rich  mass  of  material.  The 
latter,  moreover,  had  already  begun  with  the  compila- 
tion, when  he  died  suddenly  in  1651.  Pallavicino  by 
order  of  the  pope  was  now  to  take  up  the  work  anew. 
Accordingly  he  resigned  his  professorship  at  the  Col- 
legium Romanum,  t  o  devote  himself  exclusively  to  this 
prodigious  task.  He  utilized  all  the  available  material 
previously  gathered  by  Contelorio  and  Alciati,  and 
added  much  that  was  new  from  Roman  and  non- 
Roman  archives.  The  reports  of  the  council  in  the 
secret  archives  of  the  Vatican  were  at  his  unrestricted 
disposal  fcf.  Ehses,  in  "Romische  Quartalschrift", 
1902,  p.  296  sqq.).  He  was  thus  able  to  bring  out  the 
work  as  early  as  1656  and  1657  in  two  folio  volumes 
under  the  title,  "Istoria  del  Concilio  di  Trento,  scritta 
dal  P.  Sforza  Pallavicino,  della  Comp.  di  Giesil  ove 
insieme  rifiutasi  con  auterevoli  testimonianze  un  Istoria 
falsa  divolgata  nello  stesso  argomento  sotto  nome  di 
Petro  Soave  Polano"  (first  part,  Rome,  1656;  second 
part,  Rome,  1657).  The  author  himself  was  able  to 
bring  out  a  new  edition  in  three  volumes  (Rome,  1664). 
With  the  assistance  of  his  secretary  Cataloni,  he  made 
an  abridgement  in  which  the  polemical  portions  are 
omitted  (Rome,  1666).  Until  within  very  recent  years 
Pallavicino's  History  of  the  Council  of  Trent  was  the 
principal  work  on  this  important  ecclesiastical  assem- 
bly. Reprints  of  it  have  appeared  frequently,  and 
Antonio  Zaccaria  published  an  annotated  edition 
(Rome,  1733,  4  vols.),  which  has  been  reprinted  three 
times.  The  work  was  also  translated  into  Latin  by  a 
Jesuit,  Giattini  (Antwerp,  1670);  into  German  by 
Klitsche  (Augsburg,  18.35-1837);  into  French  (Migne 
series,  Paris,  1844-1845);  and  into  Spanish.  Palla^ 
vicino's  work  is  more  copious,  more  conscientious, 
and  more  in  accordance  with  the  truth  than  that  of 
his  adversary  Sarpi.  But  it  is  an  apologetic  treatise, 
and  for  that  reason  not  free  from  partiality  as  it  is 
not  without  errors  [cf.  "ConciHum  Tridentinum, 
Diariorum  pars  prima",  ed.  Seb.  Merkle  (Freiburg  im 
Breisgau,  1901),  p.  xiii].  In  any  case,  however,  Palla- 
vicino did  not  purposely  falsify  the  history  of  the 
council,  and  he  has  reported  much  that  proves  his 
frankness  and  objectivity  in  the  recital. 

Pallavicino  received  due  recognition  from  his  friend, 
Alexander  VII  (1655-67).  On  19  April,  1657,  he  was 
created  cardinal  in  petto:  on  10  Nov.,  1659,  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  cardinalate  was  published.  Nevertheless 
he  continued  his  simple,  pious  way  of  living.  The 
pope  often  consulted  him  in  matters  of  importance. 
He  attended  to  his  diverse  tasks  with  the  greatest 
conscientiousness.  His  income  was  in  a  large  measure 
employed  in  supporting  scientific  endeavours.  His 
own  work  in  literature  was  likewise  continued,  as 
is  proved  by  the  new  edition  of  his  History  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  and  the  edition  of  the  "Prose"  of  Ciam- 
poli.  A  work  of  ascetic  character,  "Arte  della  per- 
fezione  cristiana,  divisa  in  tre  libri",  appeared  in 
1665  (Rome).  Several  of  his  works  were  not  printed 
until  later;  others  are  still  in  manuscript.  After 
becoming     cardinal,     Pallavicino     continued     loyal 


to  the  Jesuit  Order  and  was  its  protector  and 
patron.  He  died  during  the  vacancy  of  the  Holy  See 
in  1667. 

In  the  year  after  his  death  his  former  secretary, 
Giambattista  GalU  Pavarelli,  published  a  collection 
of  his  letters,  "  Lettere  dettate  dal  card.  Sforza  Pal- 
lavicino" (Rome,  1668).  Other  collections  appeared 
in  Bologna  (1669),  in  Venice  (1825),  in  Rome  (4  vols., 
1848).  An  opinion  which  he  had  written  on  the 
question  whether  it  was  most  appropriate  that  the 
pope  five  in  Rome  at  St.  Peter's,  was  printed  together 
with  a  discussion  of  the  same  question  by  Lucas 
Holstenius,  in  Rome  (1676).  Larger  collections  of 
various  works  of  Pallavicino  were  brought  out  as  late 
as  the  nineteenth  century.  The  following  editions  of 
his  "Opera"  are  to  be  noted  as  the  most  important: 
Rome,  1834  (in  2  volumes);  Rome,  1844-48  (m  33 
volumes);  and  a  collection  of  other  works  in  five 
volumes  published  at  the  same  time  by  Ottavio 
Gilgi. 

ApFd,  Biography  of  Pallavicino  in  RaccoUa  di  opuscoli  scien- 
tifici  e  letteraij  di  autori  italiani,  V  (Ferrara,  1780),  1-64  fthi.-!  ac- 
couat  13  printed  with  additions  in  the  ed.  of  the  Istoria  del  Con- 
cilio by  Zaccaria  (Faenza,  1792)];  Sommervogel,  Bibliothkque  de 
la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  VI,  BibUography  (new  edition,  Brussels, 
1S95),  120-143;  Hurter.  Nomeiiclator  literarius,  IV  (Innsbruck, 
1910).  192;  GloRDANi,  Opera  inedita  del  P.  S.  Pallaviciiio  in  Vila 
diAless.  VII.  1  (Prato,  IS39),  3  sqq. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Pallium. — Form  and  Use  of  the  Modern  Pallium. — 
The  modern  pallium  is  a  circular  band  about  two 
inches  wide,  worn  about  the  neck,  breast,  and  shoul- 
ders, and  having  two  pendants,  one  hanging  down  in 
front  and  one  behind.  The  pendants  are  about  two 
inches  wide  and  twelve  inches  long,  and  are  weighted 
with  small  pieces  of  lead  covered  with  black  silk. 
The  remainder  of  the  pallium  is  made  of  white  wool, 
part  of  which  is  supplied  by  two  lambs  presented  an- 
nually as  a  tax  by  the  Lateran  Canons  Regular  to  the 
Chapter  of  St.  John  on  the  feast  of  St.  Agnes,  sol- 
emnly blessed  on  the  high  altar  of  that  church  after 
the  pontifical  Mass,  and  then  offered  to  the  pope. 
The  ornamentation  of  the  pallium  consists  of  six 
small  black  crosses — one  each  on  the  breast  and  back, 
one  on  each  shoulder,  and  one  on  each  pendant.  The 
crosses  on  the  breast,  back,  and  left  shoulder  are  pro- 
vided with  a  loop  for  the  reception  of  a  gold  pin  set 
with  a  precious  stone.  The  pallium  is  worn  over  the 
chasuble. 

The  use  of  the  pallium  is  reserved  to  the  pope  and 
archbishops,  but  the  latter  may  not  use  it  until,  on 
petition,  they  have  received  the  permission  of  the 
Holy  See.  Bishops  sometimes  receive  the  pallium  as 
a  mark  of  special  favour,  but  it  does  not  increase 
their  powers  or  jurisdiction,  nor  give  them  prece- 
dence. The  pope  may  use  the  pallium  at  any  time. 
Others,  even  archbishops,  may  use  it  only  in  their 
respective  dioceses,  and  there  only  on  the  days  and 
occasions  designated  in  the  "Pontificale"  (Christ- 
mas, the  Circumcision,  and  other  specified  great 
feasts;  during  the  conferring  of  Holy  orders,  the  con- 
secration of  abbots,  etc.),  unless  its  use  is  extended  by 
a  special  privilege.  Worn  by  the  pope,  the  pallium 
symbolizes  the  plenitudo  pontificalis  officii  (i.  e.  the 
plenitude  of  pontifical  office) ;  worn  by  archbishops,  it 
typifies  their  participation  in  the  supreme  pastoral 
power  of  the  pope,  who  concedes  it  to  them  for  their 
proper  church  provinces.  An  archbishop,  therefore, 
who  has  not  received  the  pallium,  may  not  exercise 
any  of  his  functions  as  metropolitan,  nor  any  metro- 
politan prerogatives  whatever;  he  is  even  forbidden 
to  perfonn  any  episcopal  act  until  invested  with  the 
pallium.  Similarly,  after  his  resignation,  he  may  not 
use  the  pallium;  should  he  be  transferred  to  another 
archdiocese,  he  must  again  petition  the  Holy  Father 
for  the  paUium.  In  the  case  of  bishops,  its  use  is 
purely  ornamental.  The  new  palliums  are  solemnly 
blessed  after  the  Second  Vespers  on  the  feast  of  Sts. 


PALLIUM 


428 


PALLIUM 


Peter  anil  Paul,  and  are  then  kept  in  a  special  silver- 
gilt  casket  near  the  Confcssio  Fetri  until  required. 
The  pulliuin  is  conferred  in  Rome  by  a  cardinal- 
deacon,  and  outside  of  Rome  by  a  bishop;  in  both 
cases  the  ceremony  takes  place  after  the  celebration 
of  Mass  and  the  administration  of  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance. 

History  and  Anliquily. — It  is  impossible  to  indicate 
exactly  when  the  pallium  was  first  introduced.  Ac- 
cording to  the  "Liber  Pontificalis",  it  was  first  used 
in  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  century.  This  book  re- 
lates, in  the  life  of  Pope  IMarcus  (d.  336),  that  he  con- 
ferred the  right  of  wearing  the  pallium  on  the  Bishop 
of  Ostia,  because  the  consecration  of  the  pope  apper- 
tained to  him.  At  any  rate,  the  wearing  of  the  pal- 
lium was  usual  in  the  fifth  century;  this  is  indicated 
by  the  above-mentioned  reference  contained  in  the 
life  of  St.  Marcus,  which  dates  from  the  beginning  of 
the  sixth  century,  as  well  as  by  the  conferring  of  the 


subject  of  embittered  controversies,  the  attitude  of 
many  critics  being  indefensibly  extreme  and  unjusti- 
fiable. 

Character  and  Significance. — As  early  as  the  sixth 
century  the  pallium  was  considered  a  liturgical  vest- 
ment to  be  used  only  in  the  church,  anil  iiidrcd  only 
during  Mass,  unless  a  special  privilege  dctiTinined 
otherwise.  This  is  proved  conclusively  by  the  cor- 
respondence between  Gregory  the  Great  and  John  of 
Ravenna  concerning  the  use  of  the  pallium.  The 
rules  regulating  the  original  use  of  the  pallium  cannot 
be  determined  with  certainty,  but  its  use,  even  before 
the  sixth  century,  seems  to  have  had  a  definite  liturgi- 
cal character.  From  early  times  more  or  less  exten- 
sive restrictions  limited  the  use  of  the  pallium  to 
certain  days.  Its  indiscriminate  use,  permitted  to 
Hincmar  of  Reims  by  Leo  IV  (851)  and  to  Bruno  of 
Cologne  by  Agapetus  II  (9.54),  was  contrary  to  gen- 
eral custom.     In  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  just 


u 

1 

i 

+ 

1 

l!9 

ll 

]IJ 

Pallfdm 
showing  development 


pallium  on  St.  Csesarius  of  Aries  by  Pope  Sjonmachus 
in  513.  Besides,  in  numerous  other  references  of  the 
sixth  century,  the  pallium  is  mentioned  as  a  long-cus- 
tomary vestment.  It  seems  that,  from  the  begin- 
ning, the  pope  alone  had  the  absolute  right  of  wearing 
the  pallium.  Its  use  by  others  was  tolerated  only  in 
virtue  of  the  permission  of  the  pope.  We  hear  of  the 
pallium  being  conferred  on  others,  as  a  mark  of  dis- 
tinction, as  early  as  the  sixth  century.  The  honour 
was  usually  conferred  on  metropolitans,  especially 
those  nominated  vicars  by  the  pope,  but  it  was  some- 
times conferred  on  simple  bishops  (e.  g.  on  Syagrius 
of  Autun,  Donus  of  Messina,  and  John  of  Syracuse  by 
Pope  Gregory  the  Great).  The  use  of  the  pallium 
among  metropolitans  did  not  become  general  until 
the  ninth  century,  when  the  obUgation  was  laid  upon 
all  metropolitans  of  forwarding  a  petition  for  the 
pallium  accompanied  by  a  solemn  profession  of  faith, 
all  consecrations  being  forbiilden  them  before  the  re- 
ception of  the  pallium.  The  object  of  this  rule  was  to 
bring  the  metropolitans  into  more  intimate  connexion 
with  the  seat  of  unity  and  the  source  of  all  metropoli- 
tan prerogatives,  the  Holy  See,  to  counteract  the  as- 
pirations of  various  autonomy-seeking  metropolitans, 
which  were  incompatible  with  the  Constitution  of  the 
Church,  and  to  counteract  the  evil  influences  arising 
thereform:  the  rule  was  intended,  not  to  kill,  but  to 
re\-i\-ifj'  metropolitan  jurisdiction.  The  oath  of  alle- 
giance which  the  recipient  of  the  pallium  takes  to- 
day originated,  apparently,  in  the  eleventh  century. 
It  is  met  with  during  the  reign  of  Paschal  II  (1099- 
1118),  and  replaced  the  profession  of  faith.  It  is 
certain  that  a  tribute  was  paid  for  the  reception  of 
the  pallium  as  early  as  the  sixth  century.  This  was 
abrogated  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  in  the  Roman 
Synod  of  .505,  but  was  reintroduced  later  as  partial 
maintenance  of  the  Holy  See.  These  pallium  contri- 
butions have  often  been,  since  the  Middle  Ages,  the 


as  to-day,  the  general  rule  was  to  limit  the  use  of  the 
pallium  to  a  few  festivals  and  some  other  extraordi- 
nary occasions.  The  symbolic  character  now  attached 
to  the  pallium  dates  back  to  the  time  when  it  was 
made  an  obligation  for  all  metropolitans  to  petition 
the  Holy  See  for  permission  to  use  it.  The  evolution 
of  this  character  was  complete  about  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century;  thenceforth  the  pallium  is  always 
designated  in  the  papal  Bulls  as  the  symbol  of  pleni- 
ttido  pontificalis  officii.  In  the  sixth  century  the  pal- 
lium was  the  symbol  of  the  papal  office  and  the  papal 
power,  and  for  this  reason  Pope  Felix  transmitted  his 
pallium  to  his  archdeacon,  when,  contrary  to  custom, 
he  nominated  him  his  successor.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  used  by  metropolitans,  the  pallium  originally 
signified  simply  union  with  the  Apostolic  See,  and 
was  the  symbol  of  the  ornaments  of  virtue  which  should 
adorn  the  life  of  the  wearer. 

Formal  Development. — There  is  a  decided  difference 
between  the  form  of  the  modern  pallium  and  that 
in  vogue  in  early  Christian  times,  as  portrayed  in  the 
Ravenna  mosaics.  The  pallium  of  the  sixth  century 
was  a  long,  moderately  wide,  white  band,  ornamented 
at  its  extremity  with  a  black  or  red  cross,  and  finished 
off  with  tassels;  it  was  draped  around  the  neck,  shoul- 
ders, and  breast  in  such  a  manner  that  it  formed  a  V 
in  front,  and  the  ends  hung  down  from  the  left  shoul- 
der, one  in  front  and  one  behind  (see  illustration).  In 
the  eighth  century  it  became  customary  to  let  the 
ends  fall  down,  one  in  the  middle  of  the  breast  and  the 
other  in  the  middle  of  the  b.ack,  and  to  fasten  them 
there  with  pins,  the  paUium  thus  becoming  Y-shaped. 
A  further  development  took  place  during  the  ninth 
century  (according  to  pictorial  representations,  at 
first  outside  of  Rome  where  ancient  traditions  were 
not  maintained  so  strictly):  the  band,  which  had 
hitherto  been  kept  in  place  by  the  pins,  was  sewed 
Y-shaped,  without,  however,  being  cut.     The  present 


PALLIUM 


429 


PALLOTTI 


circular  form  originated  in  the  tenth  or  eleventh  cen- 
tury. Two  excellent  early  examples  of  this  form,  be- 
longing respectively  to  Archbishop  St.  Heribert  (1021) 
and  Archbishop  St.  Anno  (d.  1075),  are  preserved  in 
Siegburg,  Archdiocese  of  Cologne.  The  two  vertical 
bands  of  the  circular  pallium  were  very  long  until  the 
fifteenth  century,  but  were  later  repeatedly  shortened 
until  they  now  have  a  length  of  only  about  twelve 
inches.  The  illustration  indicates  the  historical  de- 
velopment of  the  pallium.  At  first  the  only  decora- 
tions on  the  pallium  were  two  crosses  near  the  extrem- 
ities. This  is  proved  by  the  mosaics  at  Ravenna  and 
Rome.  It  appears  that  the  ornamentation  of  the 
pallium  with  a  greater  number  of  crosses  did  not  be- 
come customary  until  the  ninth  century,  when  small 
crosses  were  sewed  on  the  pallium,  especially  over  the 
shoulders.  There  was,  however,  during  the  Middle 
Ages  no  definite  rule  regulating  the  number  of  crosses, 
nor  was  there  any  precept  determining  their  colour. 
They  were  generally  dark,  but  sometimes  red.  The 
pins,  which  at  first  served  to  keep  the  pallium  in  place, 
were  retained  as  ornaments  even  after  the  pallium 
was  sewed  in  the  proper  shape,  although  they  no 
longer  had  any  practical  object.  That  the  insertion 
of  small  leaden  weights  in  the  vertical  ends  of  the 
palUum  was  usual  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century 
is  proved  by  the  discovery  in  1605  of  the  pallium  en- 
veloping the  body  of  Boniface  VIII,  and  by  the  frag- 
ments of  the  pallium  found  in  the  tomb  of  Clement  IV. 

Origin. — There  are  many  different  opinions  con- 
cerning the  origin  of  the  pallium.  Some  trace  it  to 
an  investiture  by  Constantine  the  Great  (or  one  of  his 
successors) ;  others  consider  it  an  imitation  of  the 
Hebrew  ephod,  the  humeral  garment  of  the  high 
priest.  Others  again  declare  that  its  origin  is  trace- 
able to  a  mantle  of  St.  Peter,  which  was  symbolical  of 
his  office  as  supreme  pastor.  A  fourth  hypothesis 
finds  its  origin  in  a  liturgical  mantle,  which,  they  as- 
sert, was  used  by  the  early  popes,  and  which  in  the 
course  of  time  was  folded  in  the  shape  of  a  band;  a 
fifth  says  its  origin  dates  from  the  custom  of  folding 
the  ordinary  mantle-pallium,  an  outer  garment  in  use  in 
imperial  times;  a  sixth  declares  that  it  was  introduced 
immediately  as  a  pajial  liturgical  garment,  which,  how- 
ever, was  not  at  first  a  narrow  strip  of  cloth,  but,  as 
the  name  suggests,  a  broad,  oblong,  and  folded  cloth. 
Concerning  these  various  hypotheses  see  Braun,  "  Die 
liturgische  Gewandung  im  Occident  und  Orient," 
sect,  iv,  ch.  iii,  n.  8,  where  these  hypotheses  are  ex- 
haustively examined  and  appraised.  To  trace  it  to  an 
investiture  of  the  emperor,  to  the  ephod  of  the  Jewish 
high-priest,  or  to  a  fabled  mantle  of  St  Peter,  is  en- 
tirely inadmissible.  The  correct  view  may  well  be  that 
the  pallium  was  introduced  as  a  liturgical  badge  of  the 
pope,  and  it  does  not  seem  improbable  that  it  was 
adopted  in  imitation  of  its  counterpart,  the  pontifical 
omophorion,  already  in  vogue  in  the  Eastern  Church. 

Omophgrion. — The  omophorion  of  the  Greek  Rite 
— we  may  here  pass  over  the  other  Oriental  rites — 
corresponds  to  the  Latin  pallium,  with  the  difference 
that  in  the  Greek  Rite  its  use  is  a  privilege  not  only 
of  archbishops,  but  of  all  bishops.  It  differs  in  form 
from  the  Roman  pallium.  It  is  not  a  circular  gar- 
ment for  the  shoulders,  with  short  pendants  before 
and  behind,  but  is,  like  the  original  Roman  pallium, 
a  broad  band,  ornamented  with  crosses  and  draped 
loosely  over  the  neck,  shoulders,  and  breast.  The  only 
change  in  the  omophorion  has  been  the  augmentation 
of  its  width.  We  find  distinct  testimony  to  the  exist- 
ence of  the  omophorion  as  a  liturgical  vestment  of  the 
bishop  in  Isidore  of  Pelusium  about  400.  It  was  then 
made  of  wool  and  was  symbolical  of  the  duties  of 
bishops  as  shepherds  of  their  flocks.  In  the  miniatures 
of  an  Alexandrian  "Chronicle  of  the  World",  written 
probably  during  the  fifth  century,  we  already  find 
pictorial  representation  of  the  omophorion.  In  later 
times  we  meet  the  same  representation  on  the  re- 


nowned ivory  tablet  of  Trier,  depicting  the  translation 
of  some  relics.  Among  the  pictures  dating  from  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries,  in  which  we  find  the 
omophorion,  are  the  lately  discovered  frescoes  in  S. 
Maria  Antiqua  in  the  Roman  Forum.  Tlie  represen- 
tation in  these  frescoes  is  essentially  the  same  as  its 
present  form.  Concerning  the  origin  of  the  omopho- 
rion similar  theories  have  been  put  forth  as  in  the  case 
of  the  pallium,  .attempts  have  been  made  to  prove 
that  the  omophorion  was  simply  an  evolution  of  the 
ordinary  mantle  or  paUium,  but  it  was  mo.st  probably 
derived  from  the  civil  omophorion,  a  shoulder  gar- 
ment or  shawl  in  general  use.  We  must  suppose 
either  that  the  bishops  introduced  directly  by  a  posi- 
tive precept  as  a  liturgical  pontifical  badge  a  humeral 
cloth  resembUng  the  ordinary  omophorion  and  called 
by  that  name,  or  that  the  civil  omophorion  was  at 
first  used  by  the  bishops  as  a  mere  ornament  with- 
out any  special  significance,  but  in  the  course  of  time 
gradually  developed  into  a  distinctively  episcopal  or- 
nament, and  finally  assumed  the  character  of  an  epis- 
copal badge  of  office. 

RuiNART,  Ouwages  poslhumes,  II  (Paris.  1724):  Marriott. 
VestiaTium  christ.  (London.  1868) ;  BocK,  Hist,  of  Liturg.  Vest- 
ments, II  (Bonn,  1866):  Garrucci,  Storia  delta  arte  christ.,  I 
(Prato,  1872) ;  Duchesne,  Origine  du  cuUe  chret.  (Paris,  1903) ; 
WiLPERT,  Un  capitoto  delta  storia  del  vestiario  (Rome,  1898-99): 
Grisah,  Das  rom.  Pallium  in  Festschr.  zum  1100-jdhrigen  Jubildum 
d.  deutchcn  C'ampo  Santo  zu  Rom  (Freiburg,  1897);  Thurston, 
The  Pnl'ium  (London,  1892);  Rohault  de  Fleurt.  La  messe, 
VIII  (Paris.  1889);  Braun,  Die  pontif.  Gewdnder  des  Abendlandes 
(Freiburg.  1898) ;  Idem,  Die  liturg.  Gexmndung  im  Occident  u. 
Orient  (Freiburg,  1907). 

Joseph  Braun. 

Pallium  (Antipendium)  .  See  Altar,  sub-title 
Altar-Frontal. 

Pallotti,  Vincent  Mart,  Venerable,  founder 
of  the  Pious  Society  of  Missions  (q.  v.),  b.  at  Rome, 
21  April,  1798;  d.  there,  22  Jan.,  1850.  He  lies  buried 
in  the  church  of  San  Salvatore  in  Onda.  He  was 
descended  from  the  noble  families  of  the  Pallotti  of 
Norcia  and  the  De  Rossi  of  Rome.  His  early  studies 
were  made  at  the  Pious  Schools  of  San  Pantaleone, 
whence  he  passed  to  the  Roman  College.  At  the  age 
of  sixteen,  he  resolved  to  become  a  secular  priest,  and 
on  16  May,  1820,  he  was  ordained.  He  celebrated 
his  first  Mass  in  the  church  of  the  Gesil  in  Frascati. 
On  25  July  he  became  a  Doctor  of  Theology,  and 
was  soon  made  a  substitute  professor  of  theology  in 
the  Roman  Archigymnasium.  He  gave  promise  of 
being  a  distinguished  theologian,  but  decided  to  dedi- 
cate himself  entirely  to  pastoral  work. 

Rome  had  in  him  a  second  Philip  Neri.  Hearing 
confessions  and  preaching  were  his  constant  occupa- 
tions. From  morning  until  night  he  could  be  seen 
hurrying  along  the  streets  of  Rome  to  assist  at  the 
bedside  of  the  sick  in  the  hospitals,  to  bring  aid  and 
comfort  to  the  poor  in  their  miserable  dwellings,  or  to 
preach  to  the  unfortunates  in  prison.  Once  he  went 
so  far  as  to  disguise  himself  as  an  old  woman  in  order 
to  reach  the  bedside  of  a  dying  young  man,  who 
had  a  pistol  under  his  pillow  ready  to  kill  the  first 
priest  who  should  approach  him.  During  the  cholera 
plague  in  18.37,  Pallotti  constantly  endangered  his 
life  in  ministering  to  the  stricken.  After  a  day  spent 
in  apostolic  labour  he  was  accustomed  to  pass  almost 
the  whole  night  in  prayer,  disciplining  himself  even 
to  blood,  and  sleeping  for  a  few  hours  on  a  chair  or 
on  the  bare  floor.  The  most  distinguished  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Roman  aristocracy,  bishops,  car- 
dinals, and  even  Popes  Gregory  XVI  and  Pius  IX 
honoured  him,  but  the  only  advantage  he  took  of 
their  friendship  was  to  advocate  the  claims  of  the 
poor.  Even  as  a  young  man,  he  often  returned  home 
barefooted,  after  having  given  away  half  his  clothing 
in  alms;  and  more  than  once  was  he  known  to  have 
given  away  his  bed  to  the  needy.  Leo  XIII,  who 
spoke  from  his  personal  observations,  said  he  would 
not  hesitate  to  consider  him  a  saint.     Shortly  after 


PALMA 


43a 


PALMIERI 


his  death  the  preparatory  examinations  for  his  beati- 
tication  began;    in  1887  lie  was  declared  Venerable. 

It  was  Venerable  Pallotti  who  started  in  ISiSti  the 
special  observance  at  Rome  of  the  Octave  of  the 
Epiphany.  Since  then  the  celebration  has  been 
faithfully  maintained.  Pallotti's  chief  desire  was  to 
make  this  obser\ance  a  means  of  uniting  the  dissent- 
ing Oriental  Churches  with  Rome. 

Melu.\,  \'inci-ut  Piillotti  (London):  tlierc  is  a  biography  in  Ital- 
ian by  Orlandi  (Rome),  and  in  German  by  the  Pallottini 
F.VTHERS  (Limburg).  JOHN    VoGEL. 

Palma  Vecchio  (J.\copo  Nigreti),  b.  at  Serinalta 
near  Bergamo,  about  1480;  d.  at  Venice,  30  July,  )  328. 
Like  Giorgione  and  Lotto,  he 
studied  uniler  Giovanni  Bel- 
lini, from  whom  he  drew  the 
inspiration  for  his  altar-pieces, 
introducing,  however,  more 
freedom  of  arrangement.  His 
works  are  strong  and  broad 
rather  than  graceful.  Imitat- 
ing Giorgione,  Palma  treated 
sacred  subjects  as  "tableaux 
de  genre",  wherein  the  scunr- 
times  exuberant  strength,  ani- 
mation, and  limpid,  transpanm 
colouring  deserve  admiratidii 
while  they  lack  religious  senti- 
ment. Among  these  produc- 
tions are:  the  "Madonna  with 
St.  George  and  St.  Lucy", 
painted  for  San  Stefano,  Vi- 
cenza;  "Saint  Peter  with  six 
saints"  (Accademia  of  Venice) ; 
"Adoration  of  the  Shepherds" 
(Lou\Te);  "Meeting  of  Jacob 
and  Rachel"  (Dresden  Mu- 
seum). His  favourite  subjects 
were  the  so-called  "Holy  Con- 
versations", i.  e.,  the  H0I3'  Fam- 
ily or  the  Madonna  surrounded 
by  saints.  Examples  are  to  lie 
seen  at  Rome,  in  the  Colonna 
and  Borghese  Galleries,  at  Flor- 
ence, in  the  Uffizi  and  Pitti 
Palaces,  at  Dresden,  Munich, 
and  Vienna.  One  of  his  \W)<t 
beautiful  "conversations"  is 
that  of  the  Holy  Family  with 
St.  John  Baptist  and  St.  Lucy, 
in  the  Accademia  of  Veiiiii'. 
His  master-piece  is  the  altai- 
piece  in  Santa  Maria  Formosa, 
Venice.  It  is  a  triptych  rcpiv- 
senting  St.  Barbara  betw. m 
St.  Anthony  the  Hermit  tmd 
St.  Sebastian.  Palma  was  also 
a  remarkable  portrait  painter, 

excelling  especially  in  portraits  Saint 

of  women,  most  of  whom  were  Palma  Vecchio,  Santa 

court  ladies.  Worthy  of  note  are:  the  "Bella",  in  the 
collection  of  Baron  Alphonse  de  Rothschild;  the 
"Violante",  in  the  museum  of  Vienna;  the  "Three 
Sisters",  in  the  museum  of  Dresden.  His  portraits  of 
men  are  also  excellent,  especially  that  of  an  unknown 
man  (museum  of  Berlin),  and  Palma  himself  (Pina- 
cothek,  Munich).  He  received  the  surname  Vecchio 
to  distinguish  him  from  his  nephew,  Jacopo  Palma 
Giovane  (1544-1628). 

Vasabi,  Le  tile  de'  piii  eccellenti  pittori,  ed.  Milanesi,  V  (Flor- 
ence. 1880).  243-96:  Blanc,  Hi.1l.  rles  peinlres  de  toMtes  les  Ecoles: 
Ecole  vlnitienne  (Pari.'j,  lSfi.7-77) :  MCntz.  Hint,  de  I'art  pendant  la 
Renaistance.  Ill  (Paris,  1R95).  612-14;  Bryan.  Diet,  painters  and 
enaraters,  IV  (London,  1904);  P^RAxt.  Pnlma  Vecchio  in  Hist. 
gtn.  de  Vart.  ed.  Michel.  IV  (Paris.  1909).  437-40. 

Gaston  Sortais. 
Palmas,  Las.    See  Canary  Islands,  The. 


Palmer,  William,  b.  at  Mixbury,  Oxfordsliiiv,  12 
July,  181 1 ;  (1.  at  Rome,  4  April,  1879;  the  elder  brot her 
of  Roundell  Palmer,  afterwards  Lord  Chancellor  of 
England  and  first  Earl  of  Selborne.  He  hiiii.scir 
was  educated  at  Rugliy  and  Oxford  (Magdalen  Col- 
lege), where  he  proceeded  .\1.A.  in  bS.'i:!,  being  then 
in  deacon's  orders  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  was, 
successively,  tutor  at  Durham  University  (1834-37), 
classical  examiner  at  Oxford  1837-39,  and  tutor  at 
Magdalen  College  (1838-43).  In  1,840  he  visited 
Russia  to  obtain,  if  possible,  official  iiconnilinn  of  tlu 
Anglican  Church  as  a  branch  of  the  ( 'atlioln'  Chureli; 
but  after  a  year's  fruitless  laboni  his  (  lairji  to  cdin- 
muiiion  was  rejected  by  the 
Metropolitan  of  Moscow.  A 
second  attempt  in  1842  only 
resulted  in  the  express  reject  ion 
by  the  Ru.ssian  Church  of 
Anglican  claims  to  Catlioii- 
eisni.  After  the  Gorham  Judg- 
ment in  1,S")2  he  eimtianphited 
joining  the  Russi;in  Church, 
but  was  deterred  by  the  neces- 
sity for  rebaptism.  He  spent 
some  time  in  Egypt  and  then 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Chiui'h,  28  Feb., 
185.5,  and  where  he  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life.  His  works,  which 
show  a  wide  acquaintance  with 
both  Anglican  and  Eastern 
theology,  were  mainly  con- 
cerned with  his  efforts  to  ob- 
tain inteiconununion  between 
these  bodies.  Chief  among  these 
were:  "Harmony  of  Anglican 
Doctrine  with  the  Doctrine 
of  the  I'jistcrn  Church"  (Aber- 
(leiii,  Isti'i:  Greek  version, 
Athens,  IS.'ill;  "An  appeal  to 
tlie  ."Scottish  Bi.shops  and 
Cleigy"  (Edinburgh,  1849); 
and  "Dissertations on  subjects 
relating  to  the  Orthodox  or 
F^ast  ern  Cat  holic  Communion  " 
(London,  IS.'!,';).  After  he  be- 
came a  Catholic  he  devoted 
himself  to  archa'ology  and 
wrote:  "An  Introduction  to 
Karlv  Cliristi:m  Symbolism" 
(l.onduu,  is.'.'.l);  and  "Egyp- 
tian (  III  nnii'les,  with  aharmony 
of  sacred  and  Egyptian  Chro- 
nol.ogy"  (London,  1861).  He 
also  wrote  a  Latin  commentary 
on  the  Book  of  Daniel  (Rome, 
1874),  and  a  number  of  minor 
works.  After  his  death  his 
friend  Cardinal  Newman 
edited  his  "Notes  of  a  Visit 
to  the  Russian  Church"  (London,  1882). 

Rugbi/  Sckool  Registers,  1675-187.',  (London,  1881-6);  Bloxam. 
Magdalen  College  Registers  (London,  18.53-85);  Neale,  Life  of 
Patrick  Torry,  D.D.  (London,  18.56),  vi;  Wordsworth,  Annals  of 
my  Life,  1847-1856:  (London.  1893);  LiDDON.  Life  of  Pusey  (Lon- 
don. 1893-4) ;  Browne.  Annals  of  the  Tractarian  Movement  (Lon- 
don, 1856):  Mozley,  Reminiscences  (London,  1882). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Palmerston.  See  Northern  Territory,  Pre- 
fecture Apostolic  of  the. 

Palmieri,  Domenico,  theologi.an,  b.  at  Piacenza, 
Italy,  4  July,  1829;  d.  in  Rome,  29  May,  1909.  He 
studied  in  his  native  city,  where  he  was  ordained  priest 
in  1852.  On  6  June,  1852,  he  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  where  he  completed  his  studies.  He  taught  in 
several  places,  first  rhetoric,  then  philosophy,  theology, 
and  the  Sacred  Scriptures.     In  these  courses,  espe- 


PALMIERI 


431 


PALMIERI 


cially  during  the  sixteen  years  that  he  was  professor  in 
the  Roman  College,  he  acquired  fame  as  a  philosopher. 
In  this  field  he  published:  "  Animadversiones  in  re- 
cens  opus  de  Monte  Concilii  Viennensis"  (Rome, 
1878);  a  more  interesting  work  is  his  "  Institutiones 
Philosophicae"  (3  vols.,  Rome,  1874-76).  In  this  he 
followed  the  scholastic  method;  but  the  doctrines  in 
many  points  differ  from  those  common  to  the  Peripa- 
tetic philosophers.  As  regards  the  composition  of 
bodies  he  admits  the  dyiiamic  theory,  and  considers 
the  first  elements  of  bodies  to  be  formally  simple,  en- 
dowed with  an  attractive  and  repulsive  force,  but 
which  he  says  are  virtually  extended.  On  the  other 
hand  he  does  not  admit  the  real  accidents,  and  to  ex- 
plain the  permanence  of  the  Eucharistic  Species,  he 
has  recourse  to  the  phenomena  of  ether,  which  persist 
by  Divine  operation,  the  substance  of  bread  and  wine 
ceasing  to  exist.  He  held  a  conception  altogether  his 
own  of  the  life  of  plants,  and  assigned  simple  souls  to 
animals,  which  expire  with  their  death.  As  regards 
the  origin  of  the  idea,  he  was  true  to  the  scholastic 
principles  in  admitting  that  the  intellectual  apprehen- 
sion has  its  origin  in  the  apprehension  of  the  senses; 
but  to  his  last  day  would  not  admit  the  necessity  of 
the  intelligible  species.  His  works  have  a  very  forcible 
quality  of  argument,  which  obliges  one  to  recognize 
the  thinker,  even  when  at  variance  with  his  mode  of 
thought. 

In  Scriptural  study  also  he  made  his  mark.  Hav- 
ing taught  the  Holy  Scriptures  from  1880-87,  and 
Oriental  languages  to  the  scholastics  of  his  society  in 
Maestricht,  he  published  "Commentariusinepistolam 
ad  Galatas"  (Gulpen,  1886);  and  "De  veritate  histo- 
rica  libri  Judith  aliisque  ss.  Scripturarum  locis  speci- 
men criticum  exegeticum"  (Gulpen,  18S6).  Many 
others  of  his  minor  works  can  be  placed  under  this  head. 
When  Loisy's  book,  "L'Evangile  et  I'Eglise",  ap- 
peared, he  was  one  of  the  first  to  give  alarm  to  the 
Catholic  party,  and  to  show,  in  a  treatise  in  the  form  of 
letters,  the  errors  contained  in  this  author's  works.  He 
examined  more  minutely  another  work  of  Loisy's, 
"Autourd'un  Petit  Livre",  in  his  "Esamedi  un  opus- 
colo  che  gira  intorno  ad  un  piccolo  libro  ".  To  this  dem- 
onstration he  joins  a  more  complete  one  of  certain  of 
the  favourite  errors  of  the  new  school,  that  is  to  say, 
not  demonstrating  the  Divinity  of  Our  Lord  from  the 
Synoptics.  He  does  the  same  with  another  book  en- 
titled "Se  e  come  i  sinottici  ci  danno  GesA  Cristo  per 
Dio"  (Prato,  1903).  Only  the  first  part  of  this  book, 
concerning  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  was  published; 
but  these  books  contain  nevertheless  a  valid  defence 
of  Catholic  truth. 

Palmieri's  reputation,  however,  rests  principally  on 
his  theology  in  the  Roman  College:  (a)  "Tractatus  de 
Romano  Pontifice  cum  prolegomeno  de  Ecclesia"  (3rd 
ed.,  Prato,  1902);  (b)  "  Tractatus  dePoenitentia"  (2nd 
ed.,  Prato,  1896);  (c)  "  Tractatus  deMatrimonioChris- 
tiano"  (2nd  ed.,  Prato,  1897);  (d)  " Tractatus  de  Gra- 
tia Divina  Actuali"  (Gulpen,  1885);  (e)  "Tractatus 
TheologicusdeNovissimis"  (Prato,  1908);  (f)  "Trac- 
tatus de  Crcatione  et  de  Pra>cipuis  Creaturis"  (Prato, 
1910);  (g)  "Tractatus  de  Ordine  Supematurali  et  de 
Lapsu  Angelorum"  (Prato,  1910);  (h)  "Tractatus  de 
Peccato  Originali  et  de  Immaculato  Beatae  Virginis 
Deiparae  Conceptu  "  (Prato,  1904). 

The  last  three  treatises  here  noted,  taken  together, 
form  a  new  edition  in  many  parts  perfected  and  re- 
arranged from  his  former  treatise  on  God  the  Creator, 
printed  first  in  Rome,  1878.  The  third  part  was  pub- 
lished before  the  other  two,  because  the  author  wished 
with  it  to  render  homage  to  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion on  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  proclamation  of 
the  dogma.  In  his  treatise  on  creation  and  the  special 
creatures,  a  posthumous  work,  but  of  which  he  left 
the  manuscript  completed  and  prepared,  we  have  to 
note  the  change  made  by  him  regarding  the  union  of  the 
soul  with  the  body,  because  while  he  first  asserted  that 


the  union  was  only  natural  and  not  substantial,  now 
that  it  is  defined  doctrine  that  the  human  nature 
consists  entirely  in  the  synthesis  of  two  elements,  that 
is  to  say,  of  the  body  and  of  the  reasoning  soul,  he  ad- 
mits that  this  union  is  substantial,  although  he  as- 
serts that  it  is  not  yet  sufficiently  determined  how  one 
nature  can  result  from  these  two  elements. 

The  originality  of  his  theological  works  consists 
principally  in  the  method  which  he  followed,  which 
amounts  to  an  exhaustive  demonstration  of  the  exist- 
ence of  the  dogma,  and  in  its  scholastic  exposition 
and  defence,  so  that  his  treatises  are  almost  complete 
from  the  positive,  scholastic,  and  polemic  viewpoints. 
Father  Antonio  Ballerini  left  at  his  death  a  valuable 
collection  of  studies  in  moral  theology.  It  was  in  the 
form  of  a  commentary  on  the  "Medulla"  of  Busen- 
baum ,  but  not  complete.  Palmieri  undertook  the  task 
of  putting  in  order  this  work  and  made  many  additions 
of  his  own.  To  the  acumen  shown  in  his  theological 
works  he  here  adds  evidence  of  a  sound  practical  judg- 
ment, hereby  proving  himself  a  great  moralist.  For 
this  reason,  on  the  election  of  Cardinal  Steinhuber, 
he  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  as  theologian  of 
the  S.  Poenitcntiaria,  in  which  capacity  his  work  was 
greatly  appreciated  by  Leo  XIII  and  Pius  X.  These 
labours  were  followed  by  a  commentary  on  the  Divine 
Comedy  of  Dante  Allighieri,  a  work  undertaken  by 
him  at  the  suggestion  of  his  mother,  Giuseppina 
Rocci  Palmieri,  a  lady  of  high  ideals  and  culture.  To 
this  he  brought  all  the  profundity  of  his  philosophy 
and  theology,  and  produced  a  work  wonderful  to  all 
those  who,  knowing  these  sciences,  are  able  to  ap- 
preciate the  profound  thought  which  is  re^-ealed, 
especially  in  a  most  learned  introduction  and  in  the 
scientific  observations  appended  to  the  individual 
cantos.  Benedetto  Ojetti. 

Palmieri,  Luigi,  physicist  and  meteorologist,  b. 
at  Faicehio,  Benevento,  Italy,  22  April,  1807;  d.  in 
Naples,  9  Sept.,  1896.  He  first  studied  at  the  semi- 
nary of  Caiazzo,  then  took  up  mathematics  and  the 
natural  sciences  in  Naples,  getting  his  degree  in  archi- 
tecture from  the  University  of  Naples.  He  taught 
succes.sively  in  the  secondary  schools  of  Salerno,  Cam- 
pobasso,  and  Avellino,  until  in  1845  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  the  Royal  Naval  School  at  Naples. 
In  1847  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  physics  at  the 
university.  He  began  his  connection  with  the  meteo- 
rological observatory  on  Mount  Ve.suvius  in  1S48  and 
became  its  director  in  1854,  after  the  death  of  Melloni. 
The  chair  of  meteorological  and  terrestrial  physics 
was  created  especially  for  him  at  the  university. 
He  filled  it  in  1860  together  with  the  position  of 
director  of  the  physical  observatory  of  Naples. 

Member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Naples  (."Academy 
of  Sciences)  since  1861,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  the  Lincei  (Florence)  in  1871.  Among 
other  honours  were  the  following:  Member  of  the 
Superior  Council  of  Meteorology,  Senator  of  the  King- 
dom, Grand  Commander  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown  of 
Italy,  Commander  of  the  Order  of  Rosa  del  Brazile, 
etc.  His  work  is  chiefly  connected  with  the  observa- 
tion of  the  eruptions  on  Mount  Vesuvius  and  with  the 
study  of  earthquakes  and  meteorological  phenomena 
in  general.  He  watched  all  the  volcanic  disturbances 
at  the  observatory  and  nearly  lost  his  life  there  during 
the  eruption  of  1872.  He  was  very  successful  in  the 
invention  and  improvement  of  delicate  apparatus. 
He  modified  the  Peltier  electrometer  and  used  it  for 
his  investigation  of  atmospheric  electricity  during 
forty  years.  His  seismometer  for  the  detection  and 
measurement  of  ground  vibration  was  so  sensitive  that 
he  was  able  to  detect  very  slight  movements  and  to 
predict  the  eruption^ of  the  volcano.  A  modification 
of  the  Morse  telegraph,  an  anemometer,  and  a  plu- 
viometer were  also  among  his  inventions.  His  tribute 
to  Galluppi  has  often  been  applied  to  himself:  "The 


PALM 


432 


PALM 


Catholic  religion  was  the  guide  of  his  studies  during 
life,  and,  supported  by  its  inexpressible  consolation, 
he  left  tiiis  earth  to  live  forever  in  heaven. " 

Keports  of  his  observation  and  studies  at  the  vol- 
cano were  published  in  the  "Aunali  dell'  osservatorio 
Vesuviano  tlS69-73).  Numerous  memoirs  also  ap- 
peared in  the  "Rendiconto  dell'  accademia  delle 
Bcienze  fisiche  e  matematiche  di  Napoli",  and  in  the 
"Atti  della  R.  Ace.,  Napoli".  Among  his  larger 
works  were  the  following:  "Incendio  Vesuviano  del 
26  Aprile  1872"  (Naples,  1872;  Ger.  tr.,  Berlin.  1872); 
"ll\esuvio  e  la  sua  storia"  (Milan,  1880);  "Nuove 
lezioni  di  fisica  sperimentale  e  di  fisica  terrestre" 
(Naples,  1883);  "Die  Atmospharische  Elektrizitat" 
(tr.,  Vienna,  1884);  "Les  lois  et  les  origines  de  I'^lec- 
tricite"  (tr.,  Paris,  1885). 

Pop.  Sc.  Miscellany,  h  (New  York.  1896),  430;  Ciiilti  Cat- 
totica,  series  16.  XI  (Rome,  1897),  470;  Villahi  in  Rendiconto 
deW  Ace.  Napoli,  XXXV  (Naples,  1896),  236. 

William  Fox. 

Palm  in  Christian  Symbolism. — In  pre-Christian 

times  the  palm  was  regarded  as  a  symbol  of  victory 
(Aulas  Gellius,  "Noct.  Alt.",  Ill,  vi).  It  was 
adopted  by  the  early  Christians,  and  became  a  symbol 
of  the  victory  of  the  faithful  over  the  enemies  of  the 
soul.  The  palm,  says  Origen  (In  Joan.,  XXXI),  is 
the  symbol  of  victory  in  that  war  waged  by  the  spirit 
against  the  flesh.  In  this  sense  it  was  especially  ap- 
plicable to  martyrs,  the  victors  par  excellence  over  the 
spiritual  foes  of  mankind;  hence  the  frequent  occur- 
rence in  the  Acts  of  the  martyrs  of  such  expressions 
as  "he  received  the  palm  of  martyrdom."  On  10 
April,  1688  it  was  decided  by  the  Congregation  of 
Rites  that  the  palm  when  found  depicted  on  catacomb 
tombs  was  to  be  regarded  as  a  proof  that  a  martyr  had 
been  interred  there.  Subsequently  this  opinion  was 
acknowledged  by  Mabillon,  Muratori,  Benedict  XIV 
and  others  to  be  untenable;  further  investigation 
showed  that  the  palm  was  represented  not  only  on 
tombs  of  the  post-persecution  era,  but  even  on  pagan 
tombs.  The  general  significance  of  the  palm  on  early 
Christian  monuments  is  slightly  modified  according 
to  its  association  with  other  .symbols  (e.  g.,  with  the 
monogram  of  Christ,  the  Fish,  the  Good  Shepherd). 
On  some  later  monuments  the  palm  was  represented 
merely  as  an  ornament  separating  two  scenes. 

Khaus,  Heal-Encyklopddie  (Freiburg,  1882-86).  a.  v.;  Idem, 
Gesch.  der  christt.  Kunsts,  I  (Freiburg.  1896) ;  Tybwhitt  in  Diet. 
of  Christ.  AnliipiMes  (London,  1875-80).  b.  v. 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Palms,  S^-NOD  OF.    See  Symmachus,  Saint,  Pope. 

Palm  Sunday,  the  sixth  and  last  Sunday  of  Lent 
ami  beginning  of  Holy  ^^'eek,  a  Sunday  of  the  highest 
rank,  not  even  a  commemoration  of  any  kind  being 
permitted  in  the  Mass.  In  common  law  it  fixes  the 
commencement  of  Easter  duty.  The  Roman  Missal 
marks  the  station  at  St.  John  Lateran  (see  Stations) 
and  before  September,  1870,  the  pope  performed 
the  ceremonies  there.  The  Greeks  celebrate  the 
day  with  great  solenmity;  they  call  it  KvpiaKT]  or  hpTrj 
Twii  patwv  or  iopTTi  /3oio06pos  or  also  Lazarus  Sunday, 
because  on  the  day  before  they  have  the  feast 
of  the  resuscitation  of  Lazarus.  The  emperors  used 
to  distribute  branches  of  palm  and  small  presents 
among  their  nobles  and  domestics.  The  Latin  litur- 
gical books  call  it  Dominica  in  Palmis,  Dominica  or 
Dies  Palmarum.  From  the  cry  of  the  people  during 
the  procession  the  day  has  received  the  name  Domin- 
ica Hosanna  or  simply  Mosanna  (Ozanna).  Because 
every  great  feast  w.as  in  some  way  a  remembrance 
of  the  resurrection  of  Christ  and  was  in  consequence 
called  Pascha,  we  find  the  names  Pascha  Jloridum,  in 
French  Pdques  fleuries,  in  Spanish  Pascua  florida,  and 
it  was  from  this  day  of  1512  that  our  State  of  Florida 
received  its  name  (Nilles,  II,  205).  From  the  custom 
of  also  blessing  flowers  and  entwining  them  among 
the  palms  arose  the  terms  Dominica  florida  and  dies 


floridus.  Flower-Sunday  wsis  well  known  in  England, 
in  Germany  as  Blu^mensonntag  or  lUumcnUig,  sis  also 
among  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Ruthenians,  in  the 
Cilagolite  Breviary  and  Missal,  and  among  the  Arme- 
nians. The  latter  celebrate  another  Palm  Sunday  on 
the  seventh  Sunday  after  Easter  to  commemorate"  the 
"Ingressus  Domini  in  ca>lum  juxta  visionem  (Jregorii 
Illuminatoris"  called  Secundus  floricullux  or  Sirnnda 
palmarum  dominica  (Nilles,  II,  519).  Since  this  Sun- 
day is  the  beginning  of  Holy  Week,  during  which 
sinners  were  reconciled,  it  was  called  Dominica  indul- 
gentice,  competentium ,  and  caiiilil(n'iiim  from  the  prac- 
tice of  washing  and  shaving  of  the  head  as  a  bodily 
preparation  for  baptism.  During  the  early  centuries 
of  the  Church  this  sacrament  was  conferred  solemnly 
only  in  the  night  of  Holy  Saturday,  the  text  of  the 
creed  had  been  made  known  to  the  catechumens  on 
the  preceding  Palm  Sunday.  This  practice  was  fol- 
lowed in  Spain  (Isidore,  "De  off.  eccl.",  I,  27),  in 
Gaul  (P.  L.,  LXXII,  265),  and  in  Milan  (Ambrose, 
Ep.  xx).  In  England  the  day  was  called  Olive  or 
Branch  Sunday,  Sallow  or  Willow,  Yew  or  Blossom 
Sunday,  or  Sunday  of  the  Willow  Boughs.  Since  the 
celebration  recalled  the  solemn  entry  of  Christ  into 
Jerusalem  people  made  use  of  many  quaint  and  realis- 
tic representations;  thus,  a  figure  of  Christ  seated 
on  an  ass,  carved  out  of  wood,  was  carried  in  the  pro- 
cession and  even  brought  into  the  church.  Such 
figures  may  still  be  seen  in  the  museums  of  Basle, 
Zurich,  Munich,  and  Niirnberg  (Kellner,  50). 

Id  some  places  in  Germany  and  France  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  strew  flowers  and  green  boughs  about  the 
cross  in  the  churchyard.  After  the  Passion  had  been 
recited  at  Mass  blessed  palms  were  brought  and  this 
cross  (in  consequence  sometimes  called  the  Palm 
cross)  was  wreathed  and  decked  with  them  to  sym- 
bolize Christ's  victory.  In  Lower  Bavaria  boys  went 
about  the  streets  singing  the  "Pueri  Ilebrfforum"  and 
other  carols,  whence  they  received  the  name  of  Pueribu- 
ben  ("Theologisch-praktische  Quartalschrift ",  1892, 
81).  Sometimes  an  uncovered  crucifix,  or  the  gospel- 
book,  and  often  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  was  carried  in 
procession.  In  many  parts  of  England  a  large  and 
beautiful  tent  was  prepared  in  the  churchyard.  Two 
priests  accompanied  by  lights  brought  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  in  a  beautiful  cup  or  pyx  hung  in  a  shrine 
of  open  work  to  this  tent.  A  long-drawn  procession 
with  palms  and  flowers  came  out  of  the  church  and 
made  four  stations  at  the  Laics'  cemetery  north  of  the 
church,  at  the  south  side,  at  the  west  door,  and  before 
the  church-yard  cross,  which  was  then  uncovered. 
At  each  of  these  stations  Gospels  were  sung.  After 
the  singing  of  the  first  Gospel  the  shrine  with  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  was  borne  forward.  On  meeting, 
all  prostrated  and  kissed  the  ground.  The  procession 
then  continued.  The  door  of  the  church  was  opened, 
the  priests  held  up  on  high  the  shrine  with  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  so  that  all  who  went  in  had  to  go  under 
this  shrine,  and  thus  the  procession  came  back  into  the 
church.  The  introduction  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
into  the  Palm  Simday  procession  is  generally  ascribed 
to  Bl.  Lanfranc  who  ordered  the  ceremony  for  his 
Abbey  of  Bee. 

Liturgical  writers  differ  in  assigning  a  time  for  the 
introduction  of  the  benediction  of  palms  and  of  the 
procession.  Martfene,  "De  antiq.  eccl.  discipl.",  xx, 
288,  finds  no  mention  of  them  before  the  eighth  or 
ninth  century.  Peliccia,  "Christian,  eccl.  politia",  II, 
308,  is  of  the  same  opinion  and  mentions  Amularius, 
"  De  div.  off.",  I,  x,  as  the  first  to  speak  of  them.  Bin- 
terim,  V,  i,  173,  on  the  authority  of  Severus,  Patri- 
arch of  Antioch,  and  of  Josue  Stylites,  states  that 
Peter,  Bishop  of  Edessa,  about  397  ordered  the  bene- 
diction of  the  palms  for  all  the  churches  of  ]Mesopo- 
tamia.  The  ceremonies  had  their  origin  most  prob- 
ably in  Jerusalem.  In  the  "Peregrinatio  Sylvise", 
undertaken  between  378  and  394,  they  are  thus  de- 


PALMYRA 


433 


PALMYRA 


scribed:  On  the  Lord's  Day  which  begins  the  Paschal, 
or  Great,  Week,  after  all  the  customary  exercises  from 
cook-crow  till  morn  had  taken  place  in  the  Anastasia 
and  at  the  Cross,  they  went  to  the  greater  church  be- 
hind the  Cross  on  Golgotha,  called  the  Martyrium, 
and  here  the  ordinary  Sunday  services  were  held.  At 
the  seventh  hour  (one  o'clock  p.  m.)  all  proceeded  to 
the  Mount  of  Olives,  Eleona,  the  cave  in  which  Our 
Lord  used  to  teach,  and  for  two  hours  hymns,  anthems, 
and  lessons  were  recited.  About  the  hour  of  None 
(three  o'clock  p.  m.)  all  went,  singing  hymns,  to  the 
Imbomon,  whence  Our  Lord  ascended  into  heaven. 
Here  two  hours  more  were  spent  in  devotional  exer- 
cises, until  about  .5  o'clock,  when  the  passage  from  the 
Gospel  relating  how  the  children  carrying  branches 
and  palms  met  the  Lord,  saying  "Blessed  is  He  that 
Cometh  in  the  Name  of  the  Lord"  is  read.  At  these 
words  all  went  back  to  the  city,  repeating  "  Blessed  is 
He  that  cometh  in  the  Name  of  the  Lord."  All  the 
children  bore  branches  of  palm  or  olive.  The  faithful 
passed  through  the  city  to  the  Anastasia,  and  there  re- 
cited Vespers.  Then  after  a  prayer  in  the  church  of 
the  Holy  Cross  all  returned  to  their  homes. 

In  the  three  oldest  Roman  Sacramentaries  no  men- 
tion is  found  of  either  the  benediction  of  the  palms  or 
the  procession.  The  earliest  notice  is  in  the  "Grego- 
rianum"  used  in  France  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centu- 
ries. In  it  is  found  among  the  prayers  of  the  day  one 
that  pronounces  a  blessing  on  the  bearers  of  the  palms 
but  not  on  the  palms.  The  name  Dominica  in  palmis, 
De  passione  Domini  occurs  in  the  "Gelasianum",  but 
only  as  a  superscription  and  Probst  ("Sacramentarien 
und  Ordines",  Miinster,  1892,  202)  is  probably  correct 
in  suspecting  the  first  part  to  be  an  addition,  and  the 
De  passione  Domini  the  original  inscription.  It  seems 
certain  that  the  bearing  of  palms  during  services  was 
the  earlier  practice,  then  came  the  procession,  and 
later  the  benediction  of  the  palms. 

The  principal  ceremonies  of  the  day  are  the  benedic- 
tion of  the  palms,  the  procession,  the  Mass,  and  during 
it  the  singing  of  the  Passion.  The  blessing  of  the 
palms  follows  a  ritual  similar  to  that  of  Mass.  On  the 
altar  branches  of  palms  are  placed  between  the  can- 
dlesticks instead  of  flowers  ordinarily  used.  The 
palms  to  be  blessed  are  on  a  table  at  the  Epistle  side  or 
in  cathedral  churches  between  the  throne  and  the  altar. 
The  bishop  performs  the  ceremony  from  the  throne, 
the  priest  at  the  Epistle  side  of  the  altar.  An  antiphon 
"Hosanna  to  the  Son  of  David"  is  followed  by  a 
prayer.  The  Epistle  is  read  from  Exodus  xv,  27-xvi,  7, 
narrating  the  murmuring  of  the  children  of  Israel  in 
the  desert  of  Sin,  and  sighing  for  the  fleshpots  of 
Egypt,  and  gives  the  promise  of  the  manna  to  be  sent  as 
food  from  heaven.  The  Gradual  contains  the  prophetic 
words  uttered  by  the  high-priest  Caiphas,  "That  it 
was  expedient  that  one  man  should  die  for  the  peo- 
ple"; and  another  the  prayer  of  Christ  in  the  Garden 
of  Olives  that  the  chalice  might  pass;  also  his  admoni- 
tion to  the  disciples  to  watch  and  pray.  The  Gospel, 
taken  from  St.  Matthew,  xvi,  1-9,  describes  the  tri- 
umphant entry  of  Christ  into  Jerusalem  when  the 
populace  cut  boughs  from  the  trees  and  strewed  them 
as  He  passed,  crying,  Hosanna  to  the  Son  of  David; 
blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  (In 
private  Masses  this  Gospel  is  read  at  the  end  of  Mass 
instead  of  that  of  St.  John.)  Then  follow  an  oration,  a 
preface,  the  Sanctus,  and  Benedictus. 

In  the  five  prayers  which  are  then  said  the  bishop  or 
priest  asks  God  to  bless  the  branches  of  palm  or  olive, 
that  tliey  may  be  a  protection  to  all  places  into  which 
they  may  be  brought,  that  the  right  hand  of  God  may 
expel  all  adversity,  bless  and  protect  all  who  dwell  in 
them,  who  have  been  redeemed  by  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  The  prayers  make  reference  to  the  dove 
bringing  back  the  olive  branch  to  Noah's  ark  and  to 
the  multitude  greeting  Our  Lord;  they  say  that  the 
branches  of  palms  signify  victory  over  the  prince  of 
XL— 28 


death  and  the  olive  the  advent  of  spiritual  unction 
through  Christ.  The  officiating  clergyman  sprinkles 
the  palms  with  holy  water,  incenses  them,  and,  after 
another  prayer,  distributes  them.  During  the  distri- 
bution the  choir  sings  the  "Pueri  Hebraiorum".  The 
Hebrew  children  spread  their  garments  in  the  way, 
and  cried  out  saying,  "Hosanna  to  the  Son  of  David; 
Blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord." 
Then  follows  the  procession,  of  the  clergy  and  of  the 
people,  carrying  the  blessed  palms,  the  choir  in  the 
mean  time  singing  the  antiphons  "Cum  appropin- 
quaret",  "Cum  audisset",  and  others.  All  march  out 
of  the  church.  On  the  return  of  the  procession  two  or 
four  chanters  enter  the  church,  close  the  door  and  sing 
the  hymn  "Gloria,  laus",  which  is  repeated  by  those 
outside.  At  the  end  of  the  hymn  the  subdeacon 
knocks  at  the  door  with  the  staff  of  the  cross,  the  door 
is  opened,  and  all  enter  singing  "  Ingrediente  Domino  ". 
Mass  is  celebrated,  the  principal  feature  of  which  is 
the  singing  of  the  Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew, 
during  which  all  hold  the  palms  in  their  hands. 

Palm  branches  have  been  used  by  all  nations  as  an 
emblem  of  joy  and  victory  over  enemies ;  in  Christianity 
as  a  sign  of  \'ictory  over  the  flesh  and  the  world  accord- 
ing to  Ps.  xci,  13,  "Justus  ut  palma  florebit";  hence 
especially  associated  with  the  memory  of  the  mart,yrs. 
The  palms  blessed  on  Palm  Sunday  were  used  in  the 
procession  of  the  day,  then  taken  home  by  the  faithful 
and  used  as  a  sacramental.  They  were  preservetl  in 
prominent  places  in  the  house,  in  the  barns,  and  in  the 
fields,  and  thrown  into  the  fire  during  storms.  On  the 
Lower  Rhine  the  custom  exists  of  decorating  the  grave 
with  blessed  palms.  From  the  blessed  palms  the  ashes 
are  procured  for  Ash  Wednesday.  In  places  where 
palms  cannot  be  found,  branches  of  olive,  box  elder, 
spruce  or  other  trees  are  used  and  the  "  Crcremoniale 
episcoporum",  II,  xxi,  2,  suggests  that  in  such  cases  at 
least  little  flowers  or  crosses  made  of  palm  be  attached 
to  the  olive  boughs.  In  Rome  olive  branches  are  dis- 
tributed to  the  people,  while  the  clergy  carry  palms 
frequently  dried  and  twisted  into  various  shapes.  In 
parts  of  Bavaria  large  swamp  willows,  with  their  cat- 
kins, and  ornamented  with  flowers  and  ribbons,  were 
used. 

Rock,  The  Church  of  Our  Fathers  (London.  1904) ;  Duchesne, 
Christian  Worship  (London,  1904),  247;  American  Ecclesiastical 
Review  (1908),  361;  Kirchenlexicon;  Kellner.  Heortology  (tr. 
London,  190S);  Kraus,  Realencyklopddie;  Nilles,  Katendarium 
Manuale  (Innabruck,  1897). 

Francis  Mershman. 

Palmyra,  titular  metropolitan  see  in  Phoenicia  Se- 
cunda.  Solomon  (III  Kings,  ix,  18)  built  Palmira  (A. 
V.  Tadmor)  in  the  wilderness,  but  it  is  not  certain  that 
this  means  Palmyra,  the  Greek  name  of  Tadmor,  and 
the  reference  may  be  to  Thamar   (Ezech.,  xh-ii,  19). 

For  a  long  time  it  was  a  market  for  the  Romans  and 
Parthians,  as  it  was  situated  on  the  route  of  the  cara- 
vans. The  city  had  a  Greek  constitution,  made  use 
of  the  era  of  the  Seleucides,  the  Macedonian  calendar, 
and  a  Semitic  alphabet;  the  language  was  a  dialect  of 
Aramaic.  Hadrian  %nsited  it  in  129  and  thenceforth 
the  town  was  called  Hadriana  Palmyra.  Its  pros- 
perity and  monuments  date  from  this  period.  The 
Romans  used  it  as  a  starting-point  for  their  expedi- 
tions against  the  Parthians.  Septimius  Severus  and 
Alexander  Severus  sojourned  there.  In  2.58  Septimus 
Oda?nath,  the  descendant  of  a  local  dynasty,  was 
Prince  of  Palmyra.  He  proclaimed  himself  king  in 
260,  and  in  264  received  the  title  of  emperor.  After 
his  death  (267)  his  inheritance  passed  under  the 
regency  of  Zenobia.  She  established  an  empire  with 
the  assistance  of  her  ministers  Longinus  and  Paul  of 
Samosata,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  conquered  Egypt  and  a 
part  of  Asia  Minor.  In  272  the  Emperor"  Aurelian 
sacked  Palmyra  and -carried  off  Zenobia  a  prisoner. 
Diocletian  established  a  camp  there  where  the  first 
Illyrian  Legion  afterwards  sojourned.  Justinian  re- 
stored it  in  the  sixth  century  (Procopius,  "De  JDdifi- 


PALOn 


434 


FALUDANUS 


ciis",  xi).  In  745  it  sutTcred  from  the  wars  of  the 
Ommiads  and  Abba.ssids,  in  lOS'J  underwent  an  earth- 
quake, and  then  fell  eonipletely  into  oblivion. 

The  date  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into 
Palmyra  is  unknown.  In  32.5  its  bishop,  Marinus, 
assisted  at  the  Council  of  Niea-a;  another,  John, 
signed  at  Chalcedon  in  451  as  suffragan  of  Dama-seus; 
another  John  was  expelled  as  a  Monophysite  in  518 
(Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christ.",  II,  845).  The  diocese 
first  depended  on  Tyre  in  Phoenicia,  then  on  Da- 
mascus in  Lebanon  Phrenieia,  as  is  shown  by  the 
Antioch  "Notitia  epi.scopatuum"  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury ("Echos  d'Orient",  X,  145;  "Hieroclis  Synec- 
demus",  ed.  Burckhardt,  40);  George  of  Cyprus, 
"Descriptioorbis  romani",ed.  Gelzer.  50).  After  TtU 
Palmyra  wsis  a  suf- 
fragan of  E  m  e  s  a 
(Echos  d'Orient,  X, 
96).  The  ruins  of 
Palmyra  (now  Toutl- 
mour)  arc  among  the 
most  beautiful  in  the 
world. 

Wood  and  Dawkins, 
Les  mines  dc  Pahnijrc 
autremcnt  dite  Tadmur 
(Paris,  1819);  Seller, 
Antiquities  of  Palmyra 
(London.  1696);  Saint- 
Martin.  Hisloirc  de  Pal- 
myre  (Paris.  1823); 
Wright,  Palmyra  and 
Zcnobia  (London.  1898); 
Littmann,  Semitic  In- 
scriptions (New  York, 
1904) ;  VooO£,  Syrie  cen- 
trale.  Inscriptions  s^mi- 
tiques  (Paris.  1868) ;  Wai>- 
DINGTON,  Explication  des 
inscriptions     ffrecques     et 

iatinea  de  Grece   et   d\isie  P.i 

Mineure,   n.    2.571-202li: 

Double.  Les  C'esars  de  Palmyre  (Paris.  1877);  von  Sallet,  Dii 
Farsten  ton  Palmyra  (Berlin.  18G6);  MoRlTZ,  Zur  antiken  Topii- 
ffraphie  der  Palmyrenc  (Berlin.  1899) ;  Marquardt.  Organisatioi 
de  Vempire  romain  (Paris.  1892),  H.  360-62;  Horns,  Essai  sttr  U 
rjgnejie  I'emperettr  Auretien  (^Paris,  1904);  Revue  biblique,  I,  633- 


38;  II,  117.  627-30;  VI,  592-97;  XI,  94-9 


;  608-618;  XII, : 
S.  Vailh^. 


Falou,  Francisco,  Friar  Minor,  b.  at  Palma, 
Island  of  Majorca,  about  1722;  d.  in  1789  or  1790. 
He  entered  the  Franciscan  order  at  his  native  place. 
In  1740  he  began  the  study  of  philosophy  under  the 
illustrious  leather  Junipero  Serra.  With  the  latter 
he  volunteered  for  the  American  Indian  missions,  and 
joined  the  missionary  College  of  San  Fernando  de 
Mexico  early  in  1740.  With  his  friend  he  was  also  in 
the  same  year  assigned  to  the  Indian  missions  of  the 
Sierra  Gorda,  north  of  Queretaro,  and  laboured  there 
until  1759  when  with  Father  .Serra  he  was  recalled  in 
order  to  work  among  the  Indians  in  the  San  Sabas 
region,  Texas.  For  some  reason  the  college  failed  to 
accept  those  missions.  Father  Palou  was  therefore 
employed  in  the  City  of  Mexico  until  1767  when  with 
Father  Serra  and  fourteen  other  Franciscan  friars  he 
was  sent  to  Lower  Cahfornia.  In  April.  1768,  on 
reaching  Loreto,  he  was  given  charge  of  Mission  San 
Francisco  Javier.  In  the  following  year,  when  Father 
Serra  proceeded  to  establish  the  missions  of  L^pper 
California,  Father  Palou  succeeded  him  in  the  office 
of  prcxitlcnte  or  superior  of  the  lower  missions.  While 
at  the  head  of  t  lie  friars  in  Lower  California,  he  demon- 
strated his  eminent  fitness  for  the  position  in  a  pro- 
tracted struggle  with  the  hostile  Governor,  Phelipe 
Barri,  whom  he  held  at  bay,  and  whose  schemes  against 
the  missionaries  and  Indians  he  defeated  wliile  in  the 
territorj'.  When  in  177.5  the  Franciscans  turned  the 
peninsula  missions  over  to  the  Dominican  Fathers, 
Father  Palou  joined  his  brethren  in  Upper  Californi;i 
and  acted  as  superior  until  the  return  from  Mexico 
of  Father  .Serra  in  1774.  In  November  of  that  year 
he  accompanied  Captain  Rivera's  exploring  expedition 


to  the  Hay  of  San  Francisco,  and  on  4  December, 
planted  the  cross  on  Point  Lobos  in  view  of  the  ( ioklen 
Gate  and  Pacific  Ocean,  the  first  priest  to  re:icli  that 
point.  In  June,  1776,  he  accompanied  Lieutenant 
ftlorag.a  to  the  same  baj%  and  on  .June  2S,  offered  up 
the  first  holy  Mass  on  the  spot  hiter  under  the  Mis- 
sion Dolores  (q.  v.)  or  San  Fr;uicisco,  which  Kalher 
Palou  founded  a  few  weeks  after,  lie  remaiiiccl  in 
charge  until  July,  1784,  when  he  was  c;ille(l  lo  Mission 
San  Carlos  in  order  to  administer  the  l:ist  sacnui'cnts 
to  his  fatherly  friend  and  superior,  latlier  Junipero 
Serra.  When  the  latter  had  p:issr(l  away  on  28 
August,  1784,  Father  Palou  bei'aine  :utiiig  iircsidnde 
of  the  missions.  Age,  ill-health,  and  the  necessity  of 
having  an  experienced  advocate  near  the  vice-regal 
court  to  defend  the 
rights  of  the  Indians 
and  their  spiritual 
guides  against  the 
assumptions  of  the 
governor,  induced 
lather  P;dou  to  re- 
tire to  the  College  of 
San  Fernando  in 
September,  17,S5.  In 
July  of  the  following 
year  he  was  elected 
guardian  of  the  col- 
lege, and  held  this 
office  until  his  death. 
\\'hile  in  charge  of 
Mission  San  I'ran- 
cisco  he  compiled  his 
"Noticias"  in  four 
volumes.  It  is  the 
standard  history  of 
the  California  mis- 
sions from  1767  to 
1784.  At  San  Carlos  Mission  he  wrote  the  Life  of 
Father  Serra  which  contains  the  history  of  the  first 
nine  missions,  San  Diego  to  San  Buenaventura. 

Palou,  Noticias  de  la  Antigua  y  Nueva  California,  I-IV  (>San 
Francisco,  187.5) ;  Palou.  Relacidn  Historica  de  la  Vida  del  Ven. 
P.  Fr.  Junipero  Serra  (lilexico,  1787);  Santa  Barbara  Mission 
Archives;  California  Archives  (San  Francisco):  Archbiffhop's 
Archives  (San  Francisco) ;  Engelhardt,  Franciscans  in  Califor- 
nia (Harbor  Springs.  Micli..  1897);  Idem,  Missions  and  Mission- 
aries of  California.  I  (San  Francisco,  1908);  II  (San  Francisco, 
1911);  Bancroft,  History  of  California,  I  (San  Francisco,  1886). 

Zephyhin  Engelhardt. 

Paltus,  a  titular  see  and  suffragan  of  Seleucia  Pieria 
in  Syria  Prima.  The  town  was  founded  by  a  colony 
from  Arvad  or  Aradus  (Arrianus,  Anab.  II,  .xiii, 
17).  It  is  located  in  Syria  by  PHny  (Hist.  Natur.,  V, 
xyiii)  and  Ptolemy  (V,  xiv,''2);  Strabo  (XV,  iii,  2; 
XVI,  ii,  12)  places  it  near  the  river  Badan.  When 
the  pro\ince  of  Theodorias  was  made  by  Justinian, 
Paltus  became  a  part  of  it  (Georgii  Cyprii  Descriptio 
orbis  romani,  ed.  Gelzer,  45).  From  the  sixth  century 
according  to  the  "Xotitia  episcopatuum"  of  Anas- 
ta-sius  [Echos  d'Orient,  X,  (1907),  144]  it  was  an  au- 
tocephalous  archdiocese  and  depended  on  Antioch;  in 
the  tenth  century  it  still  existed  and  its  precise  limits 
are  known  [Echos  d'Orient,  X  (1907),  97].  Le  (^uien 
(Oriens  christ.,  II,  799)  mentions  five  of  its  bishops: 
Cymatius,  friend  of  St.  Athanasius,  and  Patricias,  his 
successor;  Severus  (381);  Sabbas  at  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451);  finally  John  exiled  by  the  Mono- 
physites  and  reinstated  by  Emperor  Justin  I  (518). 
The  ruins  of  Paltus  may  be  seen  at  Belde  at  the  south 
of  Nahr  es-Sin  or  Nahr  el-Melek,  the  ancient  Badan. 

S.  V'AlLufi. 

PaJudanus,  Peter  (Petrus  de  Pai.ude),  theolo- 
gian and  archbi.shop,  b.  in  tlie  County  of  Brcsse, 
Savoy,  about  1275;  d.  at  Paris,  1.342.  He  entered  the 
Dominican  Order  at  Lyons,  completed  his  theological 
studies  at  the  University  of  Paris,  and  was  made  a 


PAMELIUS 


435 


PAMIERS 


Doctor  and  Master  of  Theology  in  1314.  Wishing  to 
devote  his  life  to  teaching  and  writing,  he  avoided  all 
offices  of  honour  in  the  order,  except  those  pertaining 
to  the  direction  of  studies.  Twice,  however,  he  was 
sent  as  definitor  from  the  Province  of  France  to  the 
General  Chapter.  John  XXII,  wishing  to  organize  a 
Crusade,  sent  him  in  1318  as  legate  to  the  Court  of 
Flanders,  in  the  hope  of  establishing  peace  between 
the  prince  and  the  King  of  France.  The  mission  was 
not  successful,  and  his  associates  made  charges  to  the 
pnp(>  against  the  legate,  who,  however,  easily  cleared 
hims(4f.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  commission 
appointed  by  John  XXII  to  examine  the  writings  of 
Petrus  Olivi,  whose  books  contained  some  errors  of 
the  Fraticclli  (Denzinger,  484-91,  interesting  account 
in  Touron).  About  this  time  he  wrote  "De  causa 
immediata  ecclesiastics  potestatis"  (Paris,  1.50G) 
against  John  of  Poillv,  whose  errors  were  condemned 
25  July,  1321  (Denzinger,  491,  49.5).  In  1329  the 
pope  called  him  to  Avignon,  and  consecrated  him 
Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  The  same  year  he  journeyed 
into  Egypt,  to  negotiate  with  the  sultan  for  the  deliv- 
erance of  the  Holy  Land.  The  sultan  was  immovable. 
The  accounts  which  the  patriarch  gave  of  the  miser- 
able condition  of  the  Holy  Land  led  to  the  announce- 
ment of  another  Crusade,  but  owing  to  apathy,  and 
dissensions  among  the  Christian  princes,  the  project 
failed.  Peter  resumed  his  studies,  composing  at  this 
time  his  commentaries  on  the  Sentences  of  Peter 
Lombard,  in  which  he  combats  Durandus.  About 
1332  he  was  appointed  by  the  King  of  France  to  pre- 
side over  the  deliberations  of  a  body  of  prelates  and 
theologians  whom  Philip  had  convoked  at  Versailles 
to  discuss  the  charge  made  against  John  XXII,  of 
asserting  that  the  souls  of  the  just  will  not  be  admitted 
to  the  beatific  vision  until  after  the  general  judgment. 
Th<!  patriarcli  and  his  associates  manifested  consum- 
mate )jru(lence  in  dealing  with  this  matter.  In  a  let- 
ter to  tlie  king  they  declared  (1)  their  entire  submis- 
sion to  the  pope's  authority,  and  their  filial  devotion 
to  his  person;  (2)  their  belief,  based  on  the  testimony 
of  trustworthy  witnesses,  that  John  XXII  had  not 
held,  much  less  taught,  the  opinion  attributed  to  him, 
Ijut  at  the  most,  had  mentioned  it  (recitandu)  and 
examined  it;  (3)  that  since  the  death  of  Christ  the 
souls  of  the  just  with  no  faults  to  expiate  immediately 
after  death,  and  the  souls  of  other  just  persons  after 
complete  purgation,  are  admitted  to  the  beatific  vi- 
sion, which  will  endure  forever.  This  doctrine  was 
defined  by  Benedict  XII,  29  Jan.,  1.3.36  (Denzinger, 
530) .  Besides  the  works  mentioned,  Paludanus  wrote 
commentaries  on  all  the  books  of  the  Bible,  and 
"  Concordantia;  ad  Summam  S.  Thoma;"  (Salamanca, 
15.52). 

Du  BoULAY.  Cdt.  illustr,  academ.  Hist.  Univ,  Parisi,  IV,  984 
(Paris,  1673) ;  Qu£tif-Echasd,  Script.  Ord.  Prad.,  I,  603  (Paris, 
1719):  Touron,  Hist,  des  hommes  illustres  de  VOrdre  de  S.  Dom., 
II  (Paris,  174.5),  223;  Sixths  Senensis,  Bibliot.  iiancta,  lib.  IV 
(Venice,  1566,  Lyons,  1591);  see  Benedict  XII;  Durandus;  Fra- 
TicELLi;  John  XXII. 

D.  J.  Kennedy. 

Pamelius  (Jacques  de  Joignt  de  P.\mele),  Bel- 
gian theologian,  b.  at  Bruges,  Flanders,  13  May,  1.5.36; 
d.  at  Mons  in  Hainaut,  19  September,  1587.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Boneffe  in  the 
Province  of  Xamur;  studied  philosophy  at  Louvain, 
and  on  27  March,  1553,  he  was  promoted  magisler 
arlium.  For  the  next  nine  years  he  studied  theology 
under  the  direction  of  Ruard  Tapper  .'ind  Josse  Rave- 
stein  and  after  receiving  the  li.iiriil.niir.itc  he  followed 
the  course  of  the  Sorbonne.  On  l(t  Imic,  1561,  he  was 
made  a  canon  of  St-Donatien  at  BriiKcs.  and  was  or- 
dained priest  probably  21  February,  1562.  He  vis- 
ited all  the  libraries  of  the  Low  Countries  to  procure 
manuscripts  and  unedited  works,  and  devoted  him^ 
self  to  the  publication  of  rare  texts,  beginning  with 
the  "Micrologus   de  e^clesiasticis  observationibus " 


(Antwerp,  1565),  a  valuable  liturgical  commentary 
on  the  Roman  "Ordo"  which  dates  probably  from 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  From  1568 
to  1571,  Pamelius  was  dean  of  the  chrelienle  of  Bruges. 
He  was  appointed  (1570)  a  member  of  the  commission 
for  the  examination  of  books  by  Remi  Drieux,  Bishop 
of  Bruges,  and  aided  in  the  publication  of  the  "Index 
expurgatorius  "  of  1571.  In  1574  he  replaced  George 
de  Vrieze  as  scholar  of  the  chapter  of  St-Donatien  and 
shared  in  the  installation  of  the  college  of  the  Jesuits 
at  Bruges  in  1575.  The  protection  which  Pamelius 
extended  to  the  victims  of  Calvinistic  violence  at 
Bruges  drew  upon  him  the  hatred  of  the  heretics  and 
he  was  obliged  to  withdraw  to  Douai.  In  1581  the 
chapter  of  St-Omer  promoted  him  to  the  dignity  of  the 
Archdiaconate  of  Flanders.  After  the  death  of  Bishop 
Jean  Six  (11  Oct.,  1.586),  Philip  II  appointed  PameUus 
his  successor  in  the  See  of  St-Omer,  but  Pamelius  died 
before  receiving  his  bulls  of  confirmation.  Besides 
the  "Micrologus",  he  wrote  "Liturg.ica  latinorum" 
(Cologne,  1571);  "De  rehgionibus  diversis  non  ad- 
mittendis  .  .  .  relatio"  (Antwerp,  1.589) ;  a  catalogue 
of  ancient  commentaries  on  the  Bible  (.Antwerp,  1566) ; 
and  he  edited  the  works  of  St.  Cyprian  (Antwerp, 
1566),  Tertullian  (Paris,  1584),  and  Rhabanus  Maurus 
(Cologne,  1527). 

Eulogy  by  Taelbomius  (Antwerp,  1589) ;  Gratulationes  et  mox 
tumuli  D.  Jacobo  Pamelio  ah  .int.  Hoio,  Brug.  et  Fred.  Jamotio 
medico  (Douai.  1587);  De  Schhevel.  Pamete  (Jacques  de  Joigny 
de)  in  Biographie  nalionale  .  .  .  de  Belgique,  XVI  (1901),  528- 
542. 

L.  Van  der  Essen. 

Pamiers,  Diocese  of  (Apam^ea),  comprising  the 
Department  of  Ariege,  and  suffragan  of  Toulouse. 
The  territory  forming  it  was  united  to  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  Toulouse  on  the  occasion  of  the  Concor- 
dat of  1801;  the  Concordat  of  1817  re-established 
at  Pamiers  a  diocese  which  existed  only  in  September, 
1823,  uniting  the  ancient  Dioceses  of  Pamiers  and 
Couserans,  the  larger  portion  of  the  former  Dioceses 
of  Mirepoix  and  Rieux  and  a  deanery  of  the  former 
Diocese  of  .\let  (See  Carcassonne).  A  decree  of  the 
Holy  See  11  March,  1910,  re-established  the  titles 
of  the  former  Sees  of  Couserans  and  Mirepoix. 

A. — Diocese  of  Pamiers.  The  traditions  of  the  dio- 
cese mention  as  its  first  Apostle  of  Christianity,  St. 
Antoninus,  born  at  Fredelacum  near  Pamiers,  an 
apostle  of  the  Rouergue,  martyred  in  his  native  coun- 
try (date  uncertain).  The  Abbey  of  St.  Antouin  was 
founded  near  Fredelacum  about  960;  in  1034  it  passed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishops  of  Girone  and 
was  annexed  in  1060  to  the  Congregation  of  Cluny. 
A  castle  built  on  the  site  of  the  abbey  by  Roger  II, 
Count  of  Foix  (1070-1125),  was  called  Appamia; 
hence  the  name  of  Pamiers  which  passed  to  the  neigh- 
bouring small  town.  Boniface  VIII  created  a  see  at 
Pamiers  by  the  Bull  "Roinanus  Pontifex"  23  July, 
1295,  and  made  it  a  sulf  ragan  of  Xarbonne.  He  named 
Bernard  Saisset  Abbot  of  St.  Antonin,  and  by  a  decree 
18  April,  1296,  settled  the  boundaries  of  the  new  dio- 
cese dismembered  from  that  of  Toulouse.  The  op- 
position of  Hughes  Mascaron,  Bishop  of  Toulouse, 
and  the  conflict  between  .Saisset  and  Roger  Bernard 
III,  Count  of  Foix,  prevented  Saisset  from  taking  im- 
mediate possession  of  his  diocese;  Abb6  Vidal  has 
proven  that  it  is  not  true,  as  had  long  been  thought, 
that  St.  Louis  of  Anjou,  who  became  Bishop  of  Tou- 
louse at  the  death  of  Mascaron,  hat!  been  appointed 
provisional  administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Pamiers. 
Saisset  took  possession  of  his  see  on  19  April,  1297; 
having  sided  with  Boniface  VIII  (1301),  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  order  of  Philip  the  Fair. 

After  careful  investig.ation,  Clement  V,  3  August, 
1308,  complied  with  T^rtain  demands  of  Toulouse 
concerning  the  decree  of  Boniface  VIII,  and  the  Dio- 
cese of  Pamiers  remained,  but  with  poorer  resources 
than  those  i-ssigned  it  by  Boniface  VIII.     However, 


PAMMACHinS 


436 


PAMPHILUS 


when  John  XXII  ruisi-il  Toulouse  to  an  arclibishopric, 
22  Feb.,  131S,  ho  also  extoiuloil  the  Diocese  of  Painiors 
which  he  made  suffragan  of  Toulouse.  Saissct's  suc- 
cessor Wiis  Jacques  Fournier  (1317-26),  subsequently 
pope  under  the  name  of  Benedict  XII  (q.  v.).  Vidal 
discovered  in  tiie  Vatican  Library  the  record  of  the 
procedure  of  the  Inquisition  tribunal  created  at 
Pamiers,  by  Jacques  Fournier  in  131S,  for  the  extirpa- 
tion of  the  remnants  of  Albigensianism  in  the  Foix 
region;  this  document  is  most  important  for  tlie  his- 
tory of  tlie  Inquisition,  representing  as  it  does,  and 
perhaps  in  this  instance  only,  that  particular  tribunal 
in  which  the  monastic  inquisitor  and  the  diocesan 
bishop  had  almost  equal  power,  as  decreed  in  1312  by 
the  Council  of  \'ienna.  In  this  new  regime  the  tra- 
ditional proceilure  of  the  Inquisition  was  made 
milder  by  temporizing  with  the  accused  who  persisted 
in  error,  by  granting  defendants  a  fair  amount  of  lib- 
erty, and  "by  improving  the  prison  regime.  Among 
the  noteworthy  bishops  of  Pamiers  were  Cardinal 
Amaud  de  Villemur  (1348-50);  Cardinal  Amanieu 
d'Albret  (1502-06);  John  of  Barbangon  (1550-55), 
who  became  a  Calvinist ;  Robert  of  Pellev6  (1557-79), 
during  whose  episcopate  the  religious  wars  gave  rise 
to  cruel  strife:  protestants  destroyed  every  church 
in  Pamiers,  among  them  the  magnificent  cathedral  of 
Notre-Dame  du  Camp,  and  three  times  they  demol- 
ished the  episcopal  palace  of  the  Mas  Saint-Antonin. 
Henrj'  of  Sponde  (1626-42),  Spondanus,  who  sum- 
marized and  continued  the  Ecclesiastical  Annals  of 
his  friend  Baronius;  the  Jansenist  Frangois  Etienne  de 
Caulet  (1644-1680). 

B. — See  of  Couserans  or  Conserans. — According  to 
St.  Gregory  of  Tours,  the  first  bishop  was  St.  Va- 
lier  (\'arerius)  before  the  sixth  century.  Bishop  Gly- 
cerins was  present  at  the  Council  of  Agde  in  506. 
According  to  Mgr  Duchesne  he  should  be  identified 
with  a  certain  Licerius  (St.  Lizier)  whom  the  "Galha 
Christiana"  places  lower  in  the  list  of  bishops;  he  was 
patron  saint  of  St-Lizier,  the  episcopal  residence  of 
the  bishops  of  Couserans,  suffragans  of  Auch.  The 
historian  Bishop  Pierre  de  Marca  (1643-52)  president 
of  the  Parliament  of  Navarre,  was  subsequently 
Bishop  of  Toulouse  and  Archbishop  of  Paris. 

C. — Sec  o/ flif  HI,  erected  by  John  XXII  in  1317, 
as  suffragan  to  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Toulouse. 
Among  its  bishops  were:  Cardinal  de  Rabastens 
(1317-21);  Cardinal  de  St-Martial  (1359-72). 

D. — See  of  Mircpoix,  erected  by  John  XXII  in 
1317  as  suffragan  of  the  Archbi.shop  of  Toulouse. 
Among  its  bishops  were  Jacques  Fournier  (1326- 
1327);  David  BcHhon,  Cardinal  de  Balfour  (1537-46); 
Innocent,  Cardinal  de  Monti  (1553-1.555);  Jean  Sua- 
vius,  Cardinal  de  Mirepoix  (155.5-60);  the  academi- 
cian Boyer,  preceptor  to  the  Dauphin,  father  of 
Louis  XVI  (1730-17.36). 

The  Diocese  of  Pamiers  specially  honours  St.  Ge- 
rontius,  martyr  (date  unknown)  who  gave  his  name 
to  the  city  of  St-Girons.  The  Council  of  Pamiers  in 
1212  drew  up  forty-nine  articles  concerning  the  police 
of  the  States  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  and  of  the 
other  seigneurs  to  whom  had  been  given  the  lands  of 
the  defeated  Albigonsian  noblemen  (See  Albigenses). 
In  a  council  held  at  Foix  in  1226,  Cardinal  de  Saint- 
Ange,  Honorius  Ill's  legato,  absolved  Bernard,  Count 
of  Foix,  who  had  become  a  follower  of  the  Albigenses, 
of  the  crime  of  heresy.  The  celebrated  Guy  de  Levis 
who  had  the  title  of  "Marcchal  de  la  foi  et  des 
croisf^s",  received  in  acknowledgement  of  his  conduct 
in  the  .Vlbigen.sian  war,  the  city  of  Mirepoix  which  re- 
mained the  property  of  the  house  of  Levis  until  the 
revolution.  Aside  from  the  pilgrimage  of  St.  An- 
tonin  at  Pamiers,  the  chief  pilgrimage  centres  are: 
Notre-Dame  d'Ax  les  Thermos;  Notre-Dame  du 
Camp  at  Pamiers;  Notre-Dame  de  Cellos  at  Cellos; 
Notre-Dame  de  I'Isard  in  the  valley  of  Aran;  Notre- 
Dame  du  Marsan   at   St-Lizier,  pilgrimage   centre 


dating  back  to  the  tenth  century;  Notre-Dame  de 
Sabart,  established  after  a  victory  won  by  Charle- 
magne over  the  Saracens;  Notre-Dame  du  Val 
d' Amour,  at  Belesta;  Notre-Dame  de  Vals;  Notre- 
Dame  de  Varilhes.  Pilgrims  are  also  attracted  to  St- 
Martin  of  Oydes  by  the  relics  of  St.  Anastasius,  by  St. 
Anthony's  at  Lozat,  and  by  the  miraculous  fountain 
of  Eycheil,  which  according  to  tradition,  gushcil  forth 
after  St.  Lizier  had  been  praying  to  St.  John  tlu'  Bap- 
tist. Prior  to  the  enforcomont  of  the  Law  of  HtOl, 
the  Diocese  of  Pamiers  had  Dominicans,  Carmelite 
monks  and  teaching  Brothers.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  twentieth  century,  the  religious  congregations  of 
the  diocese  had  charge  of  19  day  nurseries,  2  orphan- 
ages for  girls,  4  industrial  rooms,  2  sheltering  houses, 
10  hospitals,  1  insane  asylum,  2  houses  of  nuns  for  the 
care  of  the  sick  in  their  own  homes.  In  1905  (last 
year  of  the  period  covered  by  the  Concordat)  the  Dio- 
cese of  Pamiers  had  a  population  of  210.527,  with  22 
parishes,  321  mission  churches,  20  vicariates  subven- 
tioned  by  the  State. 

Gallia  Christiana,  nota  (1715).  I.  1123-44,  «ns(r..  18.5-7:  nam 
(178.-)),  Xin.  150-79,  186-99,  267-84.  imtr.,  87-180,  221-46; 
Duchesne.  Fastes  Episcopaux,  II.  99-100;  Vidal.  Les  orifiines  de 
la  province  eccUsiastique  de  Toulouse  (Annales  du  Midi,  XV.  1 903) ; 
Vidal.  Le  tribunal  d'inquisition  de  Pamiers  (Toulouse,  190B); 
FoNB,  Eviques  de  Pamiers  in  ^T''r:r^rr-  .',-  r  Academic  des  Sciences 
de  Toulouse  (1873);  Blazy,  .V.  -  <  (Foix,  1902);  La- 

font  de  Sentenac. -Irmono/  "  /'imiers  (Foix.  1902); 

Lahgnd^is,  ^nna^es  de  Pami<  i       1 ~.  .  1  ss2) ;   Harot,  .Armo- 

rial des  (vlques de  Rieux  (Toulou.sc,  IHil*.  iiAUuiEHE-FLAVY,  Pouilli 
du  diocise  de  Rieux  (Foix,  1896);  Douais,  Documents  ponlificaux 
sur  VMchi  de  Couserans  (1425-1619)  in  Rerue  de  Gascogne  (1888) ; 
RoBEBT.  L'ancien  Dioche  de  Mirepoix  (Foix,  1908);  Chevalier, 
Topo-bibl.  1952,  2237-2238.  2554. 

Georges  Gotau. 

Panunachius,  Saint,  Roman  senator,  d.  about 
409.  In  youth  he  frequented  the  schools  of  rhetoric 
with  St.  Jerome.  In  385  he  married  Paulina,  second 
daughter  of  St.  Paula.  He  was  probably  among  the 
viri  gcnere  oplimi  rcligione  prceclari,  who  in  390  de- 
nounced Jovinian  to  Pope  St.  Siricius  (.Ambrose,  Ep. 
xli).  When  he  attacked  St.  Jerome's  book  against 
Jovinian  for  prudential  reasons,  Jerome  wrote  him  two 
letters  (Epp.  xlviii-ix,  ed.  Vallarsi)  thanking  him;  the 
first,  vindicating  the  book,  was  probably  intended  for 
publication.  On  Paulina's  death  in  397,  Pammachius 
became  a  monk,  that  is,  put  on  a  religious  habit  and 
gave  himself  up  to  works  of  charity  (Jerome,  Ep.  Ixvi; 
Pauhnus  of  Nola,  Ep.  xiii).  In  399  Pammachius  and 
Oceanus  wrote  to  St.  Jerome  asking  him  to  translate 
Origen's  "De  Principiis",  and  repudiate  the  insinua- 
tion of  Rufinus  that  St.  Jerome  was  of  one  mind  with 
himself  with  regard  to  Origen.  St.  Jerome  replied 
the  following  year  (Epp.  Ixxxiii-iv).  In  401  Pam- 
machius was  thanked  by  St.  Augustine  (Ep.  Iviii) 
for  a  letter  he  wrote  to  the  people  of  Numidia,  where 
he  owned  property,  exhorting  them  to  abandon  the 
Donatist  schism. "  Many  of  St.  Jerome's  commen- 
taries on  Scripture  were  dedicated  to  Pammachius. 
After  his  wife's  death  Pammachius  built  in  conjunc- 
tion with  St.  Fabiola  (Jerome,  Epp.  Ixvi,  Ixxvii),  a 
hospice  at  Porto,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  for  poor 
strangers.  The  site  has  been  excavated,  and  the  ex- 
cavations have  disclosed  the  plan  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  this  only  building  of  its  kind.  Rooms  and 
halls  for  the  sick  and  poor  were  grouped  around  it 
(Frothingham,  "The  Monuments  of  Christian  Rome," 
p.  49).  The  church  of  SS.  John  and  Paul  was  founded 
either  by  Pammachius  or  his  father.  It  was  anciently 
known  first  as  the  Titulus  Bizantis,  and  then  as  the 
Titulus  Pammachii.  The  feast  of  Pammachius  is 
kept  on  30  August. 

(JEILLIEB,  Hist,  des  auleurs  eccles.,  X.  99  sqq.;  TiLLEMONT, 
Memoires.  vol,  X,  p.  567;  Gbisar,  Storia  di  Roma,  I,  73;  Lanciani, 
Pagan  anil  Christian  Rome,  158-9;  Marccchi,  Eliments  d  Ar- 
chiol.  chrtt.,  203.  „     ,     .,^ 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 

Pamphilus  of  Csesarea,  Saint,  martyred  309.  Eu- 
sebius'a  life  of  Pamphilus  is  lost,  but  from  his  "Mar- 


PAMPLONA 


437 


PAMPLONA 


tyrs  of  Palestine"  we  learn  that  Pamphilus  belonged 
to  a  noble  family  of  Beirut  (in  Phoenicia),  where  he  re- 
ceived a  good  education,  and  that  he  quitted  his  na- 
tive land  after  selling  all  his  property  and  giving  the 
proceeds  to  the  poor.  He  attached  himself  to  the 
"perfect  men".  From  Photius  (cod.  118),  who  took 
his  information  from  Paniphilus's  "  Apology  for  Ori- 
gen",  we  learn  that  he  went  to  Alexandria  where  his 
teacher  was  Pierius,  then  the  head  of  the  famous  Cate- 
chetical School.  He  eventually  settled  in  Cssarea 
where  he  was  ordained  priest,  collected  his  famous  li- 
brary, and  established  a  school  for  theological  study 
(Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VH,  xxxii,  25).  He  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  producing  accurate  copies  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  Testimonies  to  his  zeal  and  care  in 
this  work  are  to  be  found  in  the  colophons  of  Biblical 
MSS.  (for  examples  see  Edsebius  of  C.ES.-iRE.'i) .  St. 
Jerome  (De  Vir.  111.,  Ixxv)  says  that  Pamphilus  "tran- 
scribed the  greater  part  of  the  works  of  Origen  with  his 
own  hand",  and  that  "these  are  still  preserved  in  the 
library  of  Cssarea."  He  himself  was  a  possessor  of 
"twenty-five  volumes  of  commentaries  of  Origen", 
copied  out  by  Pamphilus,  which  he  looked  upon  as  a 
most  precious  relic  of  the  martyr.  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl., 
VI,  xxxii)  speaks  of  the  catalogue  of  the  library  con- 
tained in  his  life  of  Pamphilus.  A  passage  from  the 
lost  life,  quoted  by  St.  Jerome  (Adv.  Rufin.,  I,  ix),  de- 
scribes how  Pamphilus  supplied  poor  scholars  with  the 
necessaries  of  life,  and,  not  merely  lent,  but  gave  them 
copies  of  the  Scriptures,  of  which  he  kept  a  large  sup- 
ply. He  likewise  bestowed  copies  on  women  devoted 
to  study.  The  great  treasure  of  the  library  at  Ctesarea 
was  Origen's  own  copy  of  the  Hexapla,  probably  the 
only  complete  copy  ever  made.  It  was  consulted  by 
St.  Jerome  ("In  Psalraos  comm.",  ed.  Morin,  pp.  5, 
21 ;  "In  Epist.  ad.  Tit.").  The  hbrary  was  certainly  in 
existence  in  the  sixth  century,  but  probably  did  not 
long  survive  the  capture  of  Caesarea  by  the  Saracens  in 
638  (Swete,  "Introd.  to  O.  T.  in  Greek",  74-5). 

The  Diocletian  persecution  began  in  303.  In  306  a 
young  man  named  Apphianus — a  disciple  of  Pam])hi- 
lus  "while  no  one  was  aware;  he  even  concealed  it  from 
us  who  were  even  in  the  same  house"  (Eusebius, 
"  Martyrs  of  Palestine") — interrupted  the  governor  in 
the  act  of  offering  sacrifice,  and  paid  for  his  boldness 
with  a  terrible  martyrdom.  His  brother  ^desius,  also 
a  disciple  of  Pamphilus,  suffered  martyrdom  about  the 
same  time  at  Alexandria  under  similar  circumstances 
(ibid.).  Pamphilus's  turn  came  in  November,  307. 
He  was  brought  before  the  governor  and,  on  refusing 
to  sacrifice,  was  cruelly  tortured,  and  then  relegated 
to  prison.  In  prison  he  continued  copying  and  cor- 
recting MSS.  (see  Euskbios  of  C-«sarea).  He  also 
composed,  in  collaboration  with  Eusebius,  an  "Apol- 
ogy for  Origen"  in  five  books  (Eusebius  afterwards 
added  a  sixth).  Pamphilus  and  other  members  of  his 
household,  men  "  in  the  full  vigour  of  mind  and  body", 
were  without  further  torture  sentenced  to  be  beheaded 
in  Feb.,  309.  While  sentence  was  being  given  a  youth 
named  Porphyrius — "the  slave  of  Pamphilus",  "the 
beloved  disciple  of  Pamphilus",  who  "had  been  in- 
structed in  literature  and  writing" — demanded  the 
bodies  of  the  confessors  for  burial.  He  was  cruelly  tor- 
tured and  put  to  death,  the  news  of  his  martyrdom 
being  brought  to  Pamphilus  before  his  own  execution. 

Of  the  "Apology  for  Origen"  only  the  first  book  is 
extant,  and  that  in  a  Latin  version  made  by  Rufinus. 
It  begins  with  describing  the  extravagant  bitterness  of 
the  feehng  against  Origen.  He  was  a  man  of  deep  hu- 
mility, of  great  authority  in  the  Church  of  his  day,  and 
honoured  with  the  priesthood.  He  was  above  all 
things  anxious  to  keep  to  the  rule  of  faith  that  had 
come  down  from  the  Apostles.  The  soundness  of  his 
doctrine  concerning  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation  ia 
then  vindicated  by  copious  extracts  from  his  writings. 
Then  nine  charges  against  his  teaching  are  confronted 
with  passages  from  his  works.    St.  Jerome  stated  in  ' 


his  "De  Viris  illustribus"  that  there  were  two  apolo- 
gies— one  by  Pamphilus  and  another  by  Eusebius. 
He  discovered  his  mistake  when  Rufinus's  translation 
appeared  in  the  height  of  the  Origenistic  controversy, 
and  rushed  to  the  conclusion  that  Eusebius  was  the 
sole  author.  He  charged  Rufinus,  among  other  things, 
with  palming  off  under  the  name  of  the  martyr  what 
was  really  the  work  of  the  heterodox  Eusebius,  and 
with  suppressing  unorthodox  passages.  As  to  the  first 
accusation  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  "  Apol- 
ogy" was  the  joint  work  of  Pamphilus  and  Eusebius. 
AgaiiLst  the  second  may  be  set  the  negative  testimony 
of  Photius  who  had  read  the  original;  "Photius,  who 
was  severe  to  excess  towards  the  slightest  semblance 
of  Arianism,  remarked  no  such  taint  in  the  Apology  of 
Origen  which  he  had  read  in  Greek"  (Ceillier).  The 
Canons  of  the  alleged  Council  of  the  Apostles  at  An- 
tioch  were  ascribed  by  their  compiler  (late  fourth  cen- 
tury) to  Pamphilus  (Harnack,  "Spread  of  Christian- 
ity", I,  86-101).  The  ascription  to  Pamphilus,  by 
Gennadius,  of  a  treatise  "Contra  mathematicos"  was 
a  blunder  due  to  a  misunderstanding  of  Rufinus's  pref- 
ace to  the  "Apology".  A  Summary  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  among  the  writings  associated  with  Euthalius 
bears  in  its  inscription  the  name  of  Pamphilus  (P.  G., 
LXXXIX,  619  .sqq.). 

Bardenhewer,  Gesch.  der  altkirck  Lit.,  II,  242  sqq.:  Harnack, 
Altchrist  Lit.,  543  sqq.;  Ceillier,  Hist,  des  aut..  Ill,  435  sqq.; 
TiLLEMO:iT,  Hist,  eccles.,  V.  418  sqq.;  RouTH,  Reliq.  sac.  III,  258 
sqq.;  Rufinus's  Translation  of  the  Apology  for  Origen  will  be 
found  in  editions  of  the  works  of  Origen. 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 

Pamplona,  Diocese  of  (Pampilonensis),  con- 
prises  almost  all  of  Navarre  and  part  of  Guipuzcoa. 
This  diocese  is  said  to  date  from  Apostolic  times.  It 
is  matter  of  tradition  in  the  churches  of  Pamplona, 
Toledo,  and  Toulouse  (France),  that  St.  Saturninus, 
disciple  of  St.  Peter,  sent  from  Toulouse  the  priest 
Honestus  to  preach  to  the  inhabitants  of  Navarre,  and 
later  came  in  person.  Finding  that  Honestus  had 
already  made  many  converts,  Saturninus  left  him  in 
Pamplona.  Honestus  was  the  teacher  of  St.  Firminua 
(son  of  the  senator  Firmus),  first  Bishop  of  Pamplona. 
Firminus  went  later  into  France,  where  he  was  mar- 
tyred at  Amiens.  There  is  no  note  of  any  other 
Bishop  of  Pamplona  until  589,  when  Liliolus  signed  as 
such  in  the  Third  Council  of  Toledo.  During  the 
seventh  century  other  bishops  are  known  as  signatories 
of  various  councils  of  Toledo.  It  was  not  known  with 
certainty  whether  the  Arabs  succeeded  in  establishing 
themselves  in  Pamplona  (Ferreras  affirms  and  Moret 
denies  it) ;  at  all  events,  there  is  no  record  of  a  Bishop 
of  Pamplona  from  the  Saracen  invasion  until  the  reign 
of  Opilanus  (829).  The  old  cathedral  had  meanwhile 
fallen  into  ruins,  and  the  bishops  now  took  refuge  in 
the  monastery  of  San  Salvador  of  Leyre  (fountlod  in 
the  eighth  century).  Inigo  Arista  recovered  Pam- 
plona in  848  or  849,  and  restored  the  monastery,  con- 
verting it  into  a  stronghold.  This  was  for  a  long 
time  the  episcopal  court  and  see,  and  hither  Arista  had 
transferred  the  bodies  of  the  holy  virgins  Nunilona 
and  Alodia,  martyred  at  Huesca  in  the  time  of 
Abd-er-Rahman  II. 

It  was  the  wish  of  Sancho  the  Elder  to  introduce  into 
Leyre  the  Cluniac  reform,  but  the  bishops  and  abbots 
(e.  g.  in  the  Council  of  Pamplona  of  1023)  resisted 
until  1090,  during  the  reign  of  Sancho  Ramirez.  In 
the  said  council  they  resolved  to  restore  the  See  of 
Pamplona,  and  decreed  that  all  the  bishops  of  Pam- 
plona should  be  thereafter  of  the  monastery  of  Leyre 
like  Sancho  I,  who  then  occupied  the  see.  In  1025 
the  monks  of  Leyre  were  affiliated  with  the  canons  of 
Pamplona,  and  Juan  II  took  the  title  of  Bishop  of 
Pamplona  and  Leyre,  and  signed  in  a  number  of  de- 
crees "Joannes,  ccclesiie  Navarrensium  rector". 
Until  the  reign  of  Sancho  Ramirez  (1076-94)  Leyre 
remained  the  seat  of  the  bishops  of  Pamplona.     The 


PANAMA 


438 


PANAMA 


monastery  held  under  its  jurisdiction  fifty-eiglit  towns 
and  seventy-two  religious  houses,  and  was  besides  the 
mausoleum  of  the  Kings  of  Navarre.  Theobald  I 
brought  Cistercian  monks  to  Leyrc,  but  at  the  end  of 
the  same  century  the  monks  of  Cluny  returned  and 
occupied  it  for  some  time.  The  monastery  is  now  in 
ruins,  and  its  church  serves  as  that  of  a  rural  parish. 
The  sec  having  been  re-established  in  Pamplona,  King 
Sancho  Ramirez  (1070-94)  procured  the  appointment 
as  Bishop  of  Pedro  de  Roda,  monk  of  St.  Pons  de 
Tomicres,  who  built  the  new  cathedral  and  established 
a  chapter  of  canons  under  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine. 
The  bishops  of  Pamplona,  as  such,  presided  over  the 
ecclesiastical  order  and  the  three  estates  that  made 
up  the  Cortes  of  Navarre.  The  cathedral  of  Santa 
Maria  held  the  seigniory  of  the  citv,  and  its  canons 
enjoyed  the  privileges  of  the  royal  family.  Bishop 
Sancho  de  Larrosa  consecrated  the  cathedral,  com- 
pleted in  1124.  His  predecessor,  Guillermo  Gast6n, 
ha<l  accompanied  King  Alfonso  to  the  conquest  of 
Sarago.ssa,  and  there  founded  the  Church  of  "St. 
Michael  of  tlie  Navarrese". 

In  the  Cathedral  of  Pamplona  is  venerated  the 
ancient  statue  of  "St.  Mary,  the  White  Virgin" 
(Santa  Maria  la  Blanca,  Santa  Maria  de  la  Sede  or  del 
Sagrario),  which  was  preserved  in  Leyre  from  very 
ancient  times  until  the  eleventh  century.  There  is 
also  a  reliquary  containing  a  thorn  from  Our  Saviour's 
crown,  given  by  St.  Louis  to  Theobald  II;  likewise 
the  heads  of  the  virgins  Nunilona  and  Alodia,  whose 
bodies  were  in  Leyre.  Bishop  Pedro  de  Artajona — 
known  as  Pedro  of  Paris,  because  it  was  there  he  had 
received  his  education — obtained  from  Celestine  III 
(1191)  the  confirmation  of  all  the  privileges  of  the 
Cliurch  of  Pamplona,  and  procured  besides  from  the 
Bishop  of  Amiens  a  few  relics  of  St.  Firmin,  whose 
feast  was  from  this  time  (1186)  celebrated  with  the 
same  solemnity  as  the  feasts  of  the  Apostles.  In  1197 
Sancho  the  Strong  ceded  his  palace  to  Bishop  Garcia. 
The  sovereigns.  Donna  Juana  and  Philip  of  Evreux, 
recovered  it,  leaving  it  in  turn  to  Bishop  Amaldo  de 
Barbazdn;  their  son,  Carlos  the  Bad,  returned  it  to 
Bishop  Miguel  Sanchez  de  Asiain,  and  later  to  Bishop 
Bernardo  Folcant.  Since  the  union  of  Navarre  and 
Castille,  it  had  been  occupied  by  the  viceroys,  and  is 
to-day  the  headquarters  of  the  Captaincy-General. 
The  bi.shops  resided  later  in  the  "Casa  del  Con- 
destable"  (Hou.se  of  the  Constable,  i.  e.,  of  the  Duke 
of  Alba)  until  Bishop  Melchor  Angel  Gutierrez  Val- 
lejo  commenced  the  new  palace,  completed  by  Fran- 
cisco III  Ignacio  Anoa  y  Husto.  In  1317  Jimeno  III, 
Garcia  being  bishop,  Pamplona,  formerly  a  suffra- 
gan of  Tarragona,  became  a  suffragan  of  Saragossa. 
Carlos  III  the  Noble  reconstructed  the  cathedral,  and 
gave  it  for  twelve  years  the  fortieth  part  of  the  royal 
revenues  from  Navarre.  Bishop  Martin  de  Zavala, 
partisan  of  the  antipope  Pedro  de  Luna,  aided  in  the 
erection.  In  1400  Emperor  Manuel  Pala!ologus  gave 
to  the  Church  of  Pamplona  a  particle  of  the  wood  of 
the  True  Cross  and  another  of  the  reputed  blue  vest- 
ment of  Our  Lord;  these  rehcs  are  preserved  in  the 
cathedral.  Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
Bishop  .Sancho  de  Oteyza  completed  the  fagade. 

The  parish  church  of  St.  Satumioro  is  a  very  old 
structure  and  has  but  one  nave;  not  far  from  this  is 
pointed  out  the  well  where  the  saint  baptized  his  first 
converts.  The  parish  church  of  St.  Lorenzo  was  ren- 
ovated in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  enlarged  by 
the  erection  of  the  Chapel  of  St.  J^irminus  on  the  spot 
where  tradition  says  he  was  bom.  The  basilica  of  St. 
Ignatius  of  Loyola  was  erected  in  the  place  where 
that  saint  was  wounded  when  fighting  against  the 
French.  In  1601  Viceroy  Juan  de  Cardona  had  an 
arch  erected  with  an  inscription,  and  later  Count  de 
Santisteban  urged  the  Jesuits  to  raise  the  basilica, 
which  was  opened  on  10  October,  1694.  Former 
Dominican  and  Carmelite  convents  have  been  con- 


verted into  barracks  and  hospitals,  and  the  convent  of 
St.  Francis  into  sdiools.  The  sanctuaries  of  Ignatius 
Loyola  and  Francis  Xavier  belong  to  this  diocese. 
That  of  Loyola  contains  the  old  house  of  St.  Ignatius 
enshrined  in  a  monument  constructed  by  Fontana 
under  the  auspices  of  Queen  Mariana  of  Austria, 
mother  of  Carlos  II  (16S9-173S).  The  sanctuary  of 
St.  Francis  Xavier,  home  of  the  Apostle  of  the  Indies, 
has  been  restored  by  the  generositv  of  the  Dvikes  of 
Villahcrmosa  (1S96-1901).  The  co"llcgiate  church  of 
our  Lady  of  Roncesvalles  was  founded  at  tlie  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  century  as  a  hospice  for  travellers 
on  their  way  to  Compostela  or  from  Spain  to  Rome 
and  Jerusalem.  There  are  two  seminaries  in  Pam- 
plona, a  condliar  and  an  episcopal.  There  was  also 
a  university,  first  incorporated  with  that  of  Saragossa 
and  in  1745  with  that  of  Alcald.  It  was  founded  in 
1608  by  resolution  of  the  Cortes  of  Navarre  in  the 
Dominican  College  of  the  Rosary,  approved  by  Philip 
III  in  1619,  and  established  by  Gregory  XV  in  1621. 
Urban  VIII  in  1623  and  Philip  IV  in  16.30  confirmed 
it.  In  this  university  the  well-known  moralist, 
Francisco  Larraga,  was  a  professor.  It  boasts  of 
other  famous  scholars — jurists  like  Martin  de  Azpil- 
cueta,  historians  like  the  Jesuit  Moret,  missionaries 
like  Calatayud,  and  bishops  like  the  Benedictine 
Prudencio  ilr  S.limIon  al,  historian  of  Charles  V. 

MoEET,  Annh^  .1,1  l;.iiu,  lie  Navarra  (Tolosa,  1890);  Melida. 
Album  de  Juuur  (Miiiirid.  1901):  DE  la  Fuente,  Historia  de  las 
Universidades  de  E^paiiu,  11  (RIadrid,  1885);  Perez,  La  santa 
Casa  de  Loyola  (Bilbao.  1S91);  de  Madrazo,  Espafia,  sus  monu- 
mentoB  y  artes  :  Navarra  y  Logrono  (Barcelona,  1886). 

Ram6n  Ruiz  Amado. 

Panama,  Republic  and  Diocese  of,  in  Central 
America,  occupies  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  or  Darien, 
which  extends  east  and  west  between  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  on  the  north,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  south. 
The  republic  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Republic  of 
Colombia,  and  on  the  west  by  that  of  Costa  Rica.  Its 
extreme  length  is  about  480  miles;  its  width  varies 
from  37  to  110  miles;  it  has  an  area  of  31,500  square 
miles  and  a  population  estimated  at  about  420,000. 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  mixed  Aboriginal,  Span- 
ish, and  Negro  blood ;  the  canal  works,  however,  have 
attracted  many  North  .American  whites  and  some  40,- 
000  negroes,  chiefly  from  t  he  British  West  Indies.  The 
country  is  rich  in  natural  resources.  Although  only 
about  one-fourth  of  the  soil  is  under  cultivation,  the 
value  of  bananas  exported  from  Panama  annually  ex- 
ceeds $600,000  United  States  money;  coffee,  cocoa, 
and  rubber  arc  produced  in  abundance,  besides  vege- 
table drugs  (sarsaparilla,  etc.),  cabinet  woods,  and 
coco-nuts.  It  is  said  that  coal  is  the  only  common 
mineral  not  found  in  the  soil  of  the  republic.  Cattle- 
rearing  is  carried  on  to  a  certain  ex-tent.  Other 
minor  industries  are  pearl-fishing  (in  the  Gulf  of 
Panama)  and  the  collection  of  turtle-shells  for 
exportation. 

Panama,  until  then  a  state  of  the  Republic  of  Co- 
lombia, became  an  independent  republic  on  4  Novem- 
ber, 1903.  The  Government  of  the  United  States, 
having  resolved  to  construct  an  inter-oceanic  canal 
from  Colon,  on  the  Caribbean  Coast,  to  the  City  of 
Panama,  on  the  Pacific,  concluded  an  important  treaty 
(signed,  IS  Nov.,  1903;  ratified,  23  Feb.,  1904)  with 
the  newly  constituted  Republic  of  Panama.  By  this 
treaty  the  United  States  acquired  "the  use  in  perpe- 
tuity" of  a  tract  five  miles  wide  on  each  side  of  the 
route  marked  out  for  the  canal  (the  Canal  Zone),  with 
the  control  of  all  this  territory  for  police,  judicial,  san- 
itary, and  other  purposes;  to  provide  for  the  defence 
of  the  canal,  both  the  Caribbean  and  Pacific  coast  lines 
of  the  Canal  Zone  were  also  ceded  to  the  United  States ; 
lastly,  while  the  Cities  of  Colon  and  Panama  remained 
integral  parts  of  the  territory  of  the  republic,  jurisdic- 
tion in  those  two  cities  in  all  matters  of  sanitation  and 
quarantine  is  granted  to  the  United  States.     The  Con- 


PANCRATIUS 


439 


PANDECTS 


stitution  of  Panama  provides  for  a  National  Legisla- 
ture (Assamblea,  or  Chamber  of  Deputies)  elected  by 
the  people  on  the  basis  of  one  deputy  to  every  10,000 
inhabitants,  to  meet  on  1  September  of  every  alter- 
nate year ;  a  president  elected  for  a  term  of  four  years, 
and  two  vice-presidents.  The  president  is  assisted 
by  a  Cabinet  of  five  members.  Jos6  Domingo  de 
Obaldia,  elected  president  in  1908,  to  succeed  Manuel 
Amador  Guerrero,  died  during  his  term  of  office  (1 
March,  1910)  and  was  succeeded  by  Vice-President 
C.  A.  Mendoza. 

Religious  Condition.s. — Thesecession  of  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama,  comprising  the  Department  and 
Diocese  of  Panama  (see  below),  from  the  Republic 
of  Colombia  took  place  when  the  Constitutional  Gov- 
ernment of  that  republic  had  a  Catholic  representa- 
tion, and,  after  three  years  of  civil  war,  the  enemies  of 
religion  seemed,  politically,  vanquished.  None  of  the 
promoters  of  the  independence  of  Panama  seemed  to 
contemplate  any  religious  change.  But  in  order  to 
rally  to  the  Separatist  movement  the  forces  of  the 
Liberal  doctrinaires,  so  as  to  win  over  the  great  mass 
of  the  population  to  the  cause  of  independence,  the 
leaders  had  to  make  terms  with  them.  Besides,  some 
of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  cause,  being  anxious  to 
adopt  every  North-.\merican  idea  and  custom,  and 
not  merely  those  which  seemed  likely  to  be  beneficial, 
conceived  certain  erroneous  notions:  thus  they  as- 
sumed as  an  axiomatic  truth  that  separation  of  Church 
and  State  was  the  only  means  of  uniting  those  of  dif- 
ferent creeds  for  the  common  purpose  of  self-govern- 
ment and  progress.  In  spite  of  the  protestations 
which  Manuel  Amador  Guerrero,  who  led  the  way  to 
independence,  had  made  to  the  bishop — to  the  effect 
that  the  political  transformation  would  lead  to  no 
change  in  the  relations  of  Panama  with  the  Holy  See, 
and  that  the  missions  should  receive  all  possible  sup- 
port— when  the  Constituent  Assembly  began  to  elab- 
orate the  constitution  of  the  new  nation,  it  was  barely 
admitted  that  a  great  part  of  the  inhabitants  were 
Catholics.  The  intercourse  with  the  Holy  See,  which 
existed  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  Colombian 
Concordat  of  1SS7,  was  not  recognized.  The  obliga- 
tion of  paying  to  the  Diocese  of  Panama  a  fixed  sum 
in  compensation,  or  restitution,  for  the  church  prop- 
erty previously  confiscated  by  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment, and  now  in  pos.session  of  many  citizens  of  Pan- 
ama, was  repudiated.  The  appropriation  for  the 
Conciliar  Seminary  and  the  missions  might  be  con- 
sidered some  equivalent,  although  the  title  of  the 
Church,  in  strict  justice,  to  receive  these  contribu- 
tions as  the  State's  creditor,  was  ignored.  Since  it 
was  voted,  this  appropriation  has  been  religiously 
complied  with,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  certain  indi- 
viduals to  curtail,  withhold,  or  divert  it. 

The  National  Legislatures  (Assatnhlea!!),  successors 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  have  continued  to  yield 
to  the  Liberal  majority,  which  has  manifested  anti- 
Catholic  tendencies.  The  cemeteries  have  been  lai- 
cized (Law  29  of  1909),  in  virtual  derogation  of  the 
restitution  made  by  the  Republic  of  Colombia  years 
before  and  confirmed  in  the  above-mentioned  con- 
cordat with  the  Holy  See.  This  concordat  had  been 
recognized  as  a  law  by  the  Colombian  Republic,  and 
it  was  specially  declared  to  be  still  in  force — at  least 
so  far  as  concerned  this  point — by  the  new-born  na- 
tion of  Panama.  The  cemeteries  were  left  at  the  free 
disposal  of  the  municipalities.  Fortunately,  these 
bodies,  representing  the  village  communities,  are,  as 
a  rule,  composed  of  Christian  men.  There  is  also  a 
tendency  to  secularize  education,  not  merely  by  sub- 
mitting it  entirely  to  state  control  or  supervision,  but 
by  introducing  teachers  and  doctrines  hostile  to  re- 
Hgion.  Indeed,  some  of  the  functionaries  in  this 
branch  of  the  public  service  have  not  waited  for  legal 
measures,  but  have  attempted  to  impose  their  views 
on  the  school  system  and  on  the  pupils. 


The  Diocese  of  Panama  (Panamanensis)  was  erected 
by  Leo  X  in  1520  (.A.nnuaire  Pont.)  or  in  1.515,  or  by 
Clement  VII,  in  1.534  (Moroni,  "Diz.  diErud.  Storico- 
Eccl.").  It  was  at  first  suffragan  of  Lima,  but  is  now 
of  Cartagena.  Its  territory  coincides  with  that  of  the 
republic.  The  present  incumbent  of  the  see  (1911), 
Mgr  F.  X.  Junguito,  S.J.,  was  b.  at  Bogota,  3  Dec, 
1841,  and  was  appointed  bishop,  15  April,  1901.  The 
bishop,  residing  in  the  City  of  Panama,  is  assisted  by 
his  vicar-general,  the  priest  of  the  most  populous  par- 
ish, his  secretary,  the  priest  of  the  parish  of  the  Sa- 
grario,  and  two  other  secular  priests,  who,  with  the 
assistance  of  a  residence  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers  (seven 
priests),  one  of  the  Lazarists  (five  priests),  and  one  of 
the  Discalced  Augustinians  (three  priests  and  two  lay 
brothers),  labour  to  supply  the  spiritual  needs  of  the 
30,000  inhabitants,  at  least  two-thirds  of  whom  are 
Catholics.  The  community  of  Christian  Brothers, 
from  whom  the  present  government  took  away  the 
normal  school,  to  incorporate  it  in  the  discredited  In- 
stituto,  conducts  in  Panama  a  primary  school  recog- 
nized by  the  State,  and  an  independent  college  which 
is  now  in  jeopardy,  being  non-official.  The  same  con- 
gregation has  similar  schools  at  Colon  and  in  each  of 
the  six  most  important  centres  of  population.  The 
Daughters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul  have,  at 
Panama,  a  primary  school  for  girls,  with  400  pupils, 
a  pension  and  orphanage  of  the  Holy  Family,  inde- 
pendent of  the  State,  a  government  asylum,  anfl  an- 
other institution  which  is  supported  by  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal authority.  It  will  be  easy  for  them  to  open  the 
benevolent  institutions  which  are  eagerly  solicited  of 
them  at  two  or  three  other  places. 

The  religious  interests  of  the  Catholics  who  are 
employed  at  the  Canal  Zone  are  cared  for  at  Ancon, 
Balboa,  Culebra,  Empire,  Gorgona,  Gatun,  Cristobal, 
and  Colon  by  priests  specially  qualified  for  the  work 
by  their  knowledge  of  several  languages.  The  Lazar- 
ists are  to  establish  a  residence  at  Gorgona,  to  give 
more  attention  to  the  natives,  who  avoid  places  where 
the  Americans  are  numerous,  under  the  belief  that  the 
Northern  strangers  look  down  upon  them.  By  this 
means  priests  are  provided  for  every  Catholic  in  the 
Canal  Zone,  though  there  are  not  enough  to  work 
the  parishes  properly.  The  Salesian  Fathers  of  Dom 
Bosco  have  lately  come  to  Panama  to  care  for  a  parish 
in  a  quarter  of  the  city  which  is  filled  with  working- 
men,  as  it  contains  the  principal  railroad  station.  In 
this  neighbourhood  they  have  opened  an  orphan 
asylum  which,  with  astonishing  rapidity,  is  preparing 
the  way  for  a  school  of  arts  and  manufactures  destined 
to  educate  good  Christian  workingmen.  The  Sale- 
sians  number  three  priests  and  two  brothers  who  act 
as  masters  or  managers  of  the  work.  They  formerly 
had  the  direction  of  the  School  of  Arts  and  Crafts 
(Escucla  de  Artes  yOficios)  established  by  the  Govern- 
ment, and  ('\  (■!>  I  liiiiij:  wi'iit  picLsperously  until  their 
anti-cli'iicil  u|,]j(.iiiiii^  foicid  (liem  to  resign. 

For  BiljUoerapln'  srr  (VjL.jMmA,  1{i;pubuc  of.  .Mso.  Waldo, 
The  Panama  Cannl  Work  and  the  Workers  (New  York,  1907); 
RoDRiGtJEZ,  The  Panama  Canal  (London,  1907);  MacMahon,  A 
Glimpse  of  Panama  Old  and  New  in  Cath.  World.hXXUl  (1901), 
65.3  sqq. 

F.  X.  Junguito. 
Pancratius,  Saint.       See    Nereus,   Achilletjs, 

DOMITILLA,  AND  PaNCRATIUS,  SaINTS. 

Pandects  (Pandect.^,  or  Digesta). — This  part  of 
Justinian's  compilation  was  his  most  important  con- 
tribution to  jurisprudence  (see  Justinian  I).  The 
language  of  d'.Aguesscau,  applied  by  him  to  pre- 
Napoleonic  Continental  law,  has  equal  application  to 
the  Common  Law  System.  The  reasons  underlying 
legal  institutions  are^-either  historical  or  logical;  and 
every  logii-al  rule  of  law  is  capable  of  illumination  from 
the  law  of  the  Pandects.  There  is  no  other  standard 
of  comparative  jurisprudence.  D'Aguesseau  pithily 
observes:  "Justice  has  fully  unveiled  her  mysteries 


PANDECTS 


440- 


PANDECTS 


only  to  the  Roman  jurists,  'llicv  are  the  safest  inter- 
preters of  ovir  own  laws:  they  lend  their  si)iril  to  our 
usages,  their  reason  to  our  customs;  and,  by  the  prin- 
ciples they  give  us,  serve  as  our  guides  even  when  wc 
walk  in  paths  that  were  unknown  to  them."  Of  the 
Pandects,  Prost  de  Royer  says:  "It  is  an  innnense  edi- 
fice, without  distribution,  without  proportion,  with- 
out ensemble.  The  pediments  have  disappeared,  the 
columns  are  broken,  the  statues  arc  nnitilated:  it  is 
no  longer  imposing  by  its  grandeur,  by  the  beauty  of 
its  parts,  by  the  richness  of  its  details.  After  so  many 
centuries,  the  digging  goes  on,  as  our  artists  still  go 
to  seek  rules  and  models  among  the  ruins  of  Palmyra, 
of  .Vthens  and  of  Rome." 

Hastily  compiled  by  Tribonian  and  his  associates 
(in  a  scant  three  years)  from  the  writings  of  thirty- 
nine  eminent  jurisconsults,  the  Pandects  leave  much 
to  be  desired  in  arrangement  and  abound  in  repeti- 
tions and  antinomies.  The  arrangement,  which  fol- 
lows that  of  the  Perpetual  Edict,  is  historical  or  tra- 
ditional, rather  than  scientific.  The  adjective,  or 
remedial,  element  dominates  the  classification.  Al- 
though more  rights  were  actually  defined  or  capable 


res  vel  ad  actiones"  (Every  right  which  we  enjoy  con- 
cerns either  persons,  or  tilings  or  actions)  is  not  an 
Aristotelean  division  of  law,  was  not  so  regarded  by 
Gaius  himself,  and  was  given  no  importance  as  a  canoii 
of  classification  by  the  compilers  of  the  Digest. 

The  Florentine  MS. — The  rediscovery  of  the  Pisan, 
or  Florentine,  MS.  of  the  Pandects  has  been  regarded 
as  the  critical  secular  event  for  modern  civilization 
by  those  who  associate  the  revival  of  Roman  law  with 
the  legend  of  Amalfi.  Charlemagne,  who  destroyed 
the  Lombard  monarchy  (c.  800),  was  unable  to  find  a 
copy  of  the  works  of  Justinian.  Yves  de  Chart  res, 
three  centuries  later,  mentions  fragments,  and  shortly 
after  his  death  the  legendary  narrative  begins. 
Pothier  accepts  it  and  relates  the  circumstances  in 
which  the  "complete  copy  of  the  Pandects  emerged 
from  the  shadows  of  the  tomb  as  by  a  miracle  of  Divine 
Providence".  During  the  siege  of  Amalfi  (about  1136 
or  1137),  the  Emperor  Lothair  II,  sustaining  the  cause 
of  Innocent  II  against  Roger,  Count  of  Sicily,  cham- 
pion of  the  anti-pope  Pietro  Pierleone  (see  Anacletus 
II),  recovered  the  priceless  MS.  and  gave  it  to  the 
Pisans  as  a  reward  for  their  great  service  in  furnishing 


c 


;^lu59uouiinpap.LieUc>peps'ONxsf  epL 
ri  NeTU^Uc>pcSueixc)xctiOMe5 


n^  THE  Florentine  MS.  of  the  Pandects 


of  definition  in  the  Roman  legal  system  than  is  even 
now  possible  in  the  Common  Law  System,  no  classi- 
fication based  upon  rights  was  evolved.  The  thing 
classified  was  an  actual  system  of  law,  and  the  only 
principles  of  arrangement  were  those  of  tradition  and 
convenience.  Neither  the  jurists  nor  the  compilers 
were  concerned  with  theoretical  jurisprudence.  The 
materials  of  the  Digest  were  not  written  into  a  contin- 
uous text.  The  fragments  give  the  name  of  the  jurist 
and  the  book  from  which  they  are  taken.  This  method 
was  designed  to  perpetuate  the  fame  of  the  jurists  and 
we  thus  enjoy  a  certain  familiarity  with  them,  al- 
though their  writings  for  the  greater  part  have 
perished.  There  are  four  hundred  and  thirty-two 
"titles"  contained  in  the  fifty  books  of  the  Digest. 
The  whole  is  divided  into  seven  parts:  the  first,  called 
TpuTo,  has  four  books  (I-IV);  the  second,  "De  judi- 
ciis",  seven  books  (V-XI);  the  third,  "De  rebus", 
eight  books  (XII-XIX);  the  fourth,  "L^mbihcus", 
eight  books  (XX-XXVII);  the  fifth,  "De  testa- 
mentis",  nine  books  (XXVIII-XXXVI);  the  sixth, 
with  a  great  variety  of  matters,  eight  liooks  (XXXVII- 
XLIV);  the  seventh  part,  six  books  (XLV-L).  The 
sixth  and  seventh  parts  seem  to  have  had  no  special 
designation.  This  division  into  seven  parts  was  never 
of  practical  importance. 

The  later,  or  occidental,  arbitrary  division  adopted 
by  the  glossators  during  the  Mi<ldle  Ages  was  probably 
due  to  the  order  of  time  in  which  the  materials  be- 
came available  for  the  production  of  a  complete  vul- 
gate  text.  The  division  was  as  follows:  "Digestum 
vetus"  (bk.  I-XXIV,  tit.  2);  the  "Infortiatum"  (bk. 
XXIV,  tit.  3,— XXXV,  tit.  2,  582);  the  "Tres  partes" 
(bk.  XXXV,  tit.  2.  583— XXXVIII);  the  "Digestum 
novum"  (bk.  XXXIX-L).  The  vulgate  MSS.  are  in 
three  volumina  (the  "Infortiatum"  with  the  "Tres 

f)artes").  The  first  printed  editions  follow  this  value- 
es-o  division,  and  it  was  abandoned  only  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  celebrated  fragment  from  Gaius 
(a  facsimile  of  which,  as  it  appears  in  the  Florentine 
MS.,  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration): 
"Omne  jus  quo  utimur  pertinet  vel  ad  personas  vel  ad 


him  a  fleet.  A  Pisan  historian  claims  to  have  seen  the 
original  deed  of  gift.  The  MS.  was  long  treasured  at 
Pisa,  but  at  last  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victorious 
Florentines,  who  carried  it  away  in  triumph  in  the 
early  fifteenth  century.  It  was  preserved  with  great 
veneration  in  the  ducal  palace  at  Florence,  as  an  ori- 
ginal written  in  the  time  of  Justinian  and  by  him  sent 
to  Amalfi.  About  the  time  of  the  fabled  finding  at 
Amalfi,  a  copy  of  the  Code  and  a  second  copy  of  the 
Pandects  were  unearthed  at  Ravenna. 

The  sacking  of  Amalfi  (according  to  the  tradition) 
led  to  the  founding,  by  Irnerius  of  the  first  and  most 
famous  school,  that  of  Bologna,  and  was  the  beginning 
of  the  revival.  Sigonius  gave  his  authority  to  the 
story,  and  it  was  generally  credited  until  1726,  when 
Grandi,  a  Pisan  professor,  seriously  questioned  it. 
The  revival  of  the  study  of  Roman  law  was  well  under 
way  at  Ravenna  and  at  Bologna  long  before  the  alleged 
sacking  of  Amalfi  and  the  immediate  school  of  Irne- 
rius had  reached  its  zenith  before  the  year  1118.  It 
is  an  established  fact  that  there  was  a  very  ancient 
MS.  at  Pisa,  that  this  MS.  was  brought  to  Florence 
in  1406  or  1411,  and  that  it  is  still  in  existence.  It  is 
however  a  copy,  not  an  original,  and  probably  dates 
from  about  one  hundred  years  after  Justinian.  Odo- 
fredus  (d.  1265)  says  it  was  brought  to  Pi.sa  from  Con- 
stantinople; according  to  Barlolus  (d.  13.57),  it  had 
always  been  at  Pisa.  That  it  ever  was  at  Amalfi 
is  improbable,  and  the  legend  is  supported  only  by 
Pisan  chronicles.  Laferriere  maintains  that  the  story 
is  true.  Savigny  and  Ortolan  reject  it.  Ortolan 
argues  that  if  Irnerius  and  the  early  glossators  be- 
came acquainted  with  it  only  as  the  result  of  the  sack- 
ing of  Amalfi,  they  would  not  have  passed  over  so 
momentous  an  event  in  silence. 

The  Vulr/olc. — By  comijarison  of  earlier  MSS.  then 
extant  with  each  other  ami  with  the  MS.  at  Pisa,  the 
glossators  reconstructed  the  generally  received  text  of 
Bologna,  known  as  the  Vulgate. 

Pnndeklen. — In  the  sixteenth  century  the  Roman 
law  was  received  in  Germany  and  became  the  positive 
common  law.     The  law  of  the  Pandekten  in  the  special 


PANDULPH 


441 


PANGE 


sense  is  Roman  law,  as  a  body  of  actual  law,  modern 
Roman  law  "modified  by  the  Canon  law,  the  cus- 
tomary law  of  Italy  and  Germany,  and  by  the  statute 
of  the  German  Empire''.  The  Pandekten,  as  part 
of  the  legal  curriculum,  give  the  altered  Roman  law 
The  pure  private  law  of  Rome,  the  Roman  law  of  the 
sixth  century,  is  generally  designated  Inslilidioiien. 
The  Pandekten,  in  the  special  sense,  since  the  adoption 
of  the  new  German  Civil  Code,  are  no  longer  of  legal 
efficacy  in  Germany. 

For  modern  texts  of  the  Pandects,  for  translations  into  ver- 
nacular languages,  and  general  references,  see  Law.  Roman  and 
bibliography  to  that  article:  Ortolan,  Pothiek,  Sohm.  Holland 
AND  Shadwell,  MtJHLENBRucH,  and  other  authorities  there 
cited. 

Joseph  I.  Kelly. 

Pandulph,  papal  legate  and  Bishop  of  Norwich, 
d.  at  Rome,  16  Sept.,  1226.  He  is  commonly  but  er- 
roneously called  Cardinal  Pandulph,  owing  to  his 
being  confused  with  Cardinal  Pandulph  Masca  of 
Pisa  (created  cardinal,  1182;  d.  1201).  The  identi- 
fication involves  the  supposition  that  the  legate  lived 
more  than  a  hundred  years  after  his  ordination  as 
subdeacon.  A  Roman  by  birth,  Pandulph  first  came 
into  notice  as  a  clerk  in  the  court  of  Innocent  III, 
where  he  was  one  of  the  subdeacons  attached  to  the 
papal  household.  In  1211  Innocent  sent  him  to 
England  to  induce  the  king  to  receive  Langton  as 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  thus  to  relieve  Eng- 
land from  the  interdict  which  weighed  so  heavily  on 
all  classes.  His  interview  with  the  king  at  North- 
ampton elicited  only  threats  from  the  king  to  hang 
the  archbishop  if  he  landed  in  England.  Pandulph 
joined  Langton  and  the  exiled  English  bishops  in 
Flanders  and  then  returned  to  Rome.  The  whole 
account  of  this  mis.sion  is  rejected  by  some  writers 
as  resting  solely  on  the  authority  of  the  annalist  of 
Burton;  but  his  account,  confirmed  by  allusions  in 
Matthew  Paris  and  other  writers,  may  be  accepted 
as  true.  In  1213  Pandulph  was  again  sent  as  papal 
envoy  to  England,  as  the  king  seemed  prepared  to 
submit,  and  on  1.5  May  took  ])lace  in  Dover  Castle 
the  historic  interview  at  wliii-h  i\ing  John  surrendered 
his  crown  into  Pandul])h's  hands  and  received  it  back 
as  a  fief  of  the  Holy  See.  The  king  also  paid  to  Pan- 
dulph the  sum  of  £8000  as  an  instalment  of  the  com- 
pensation due  for  damage  done  to  the  Church  during 
the  interdict,  the  sum  being  delivered  to  the  exiled 
bishops.  Pandulph  now  stopped  the  threatened 
French  invasion.  When  the  papal  legate.  Cardinal 
Nicholas  of  Tusculum,  arrived  in  England,  Pandulph 
naturally  fell  into  a  secondary  position,  but  he  con- 
tinued active,  collecting  money  to  compensate  suffer- 
ers from  the  interdict  and  mediating  between  the 
king  and  the  Welsh.  In  1214  he  was  sent  to  Rome 
to  counter-check  the  English  bishops  who  were  appeal- 
ing against  the  legate;  in  this  he  failed,  for  the  legate 
was  recalled,  and  Pandulph  again  returned  to  England 
where  he  remained  through  the  struggle  for  Magna 
Charta,  in  which  his  name  occurs  as  one  of  those  by 
whose  counsel  the  Charter  was  granted.  The  king, 
anxious  to  retain  his  support,  procured  his  election 
as  Bishop  of  Norwich,  though  he  did  not  yet  receive 
consecration.  When  Innocent's  Bull  arrived  annul- 
ling Magna  Charta,  Pandulph  excommunicated  the 
barons  who  would  not  receive  it,  and  suspended 
Langton  himself  on  his  setting  out  to  appeal  to  the 
pope  in  person.  Again  superseded  by  the  advent  of 
the  papal  legate,  Pandulph,  on  the  death  of  John, 
apparently  returned  to  Rome  where  he  held  the  posi- 
tions of  papal  notary  and  chamberlain.  On  12  Sept., 
1218,  he  was  sent  "to  England  as  papal  legate.  As 
Henry  III  was  a  minor  and  the  ministers  who  gov- 
erned after  the  death  of  the  regent  Pembroke  were 
disunited,  the  position  of  the  legate  as  representing 
the  pope,  who  was  now  suzerain  of  England,  was  very 
powerful.     From  1219  to  1221  Pandulph  practically 


acted  as  ruler  of  England.  His  administration  was 
successful;  the  revenue  was  increased,  the  country 
prosperous,  truces  were  made  with  France  and  Scot- 
land, Jewish  usurers  suppressed,  and  justice  was  firmly 
administered.  But  he  encountered  the  opposition 
of  Cardinal  Langton,  who  considered  the  exercise  of 
legatine  power  prejudicial  to  the  rights  of  Canterbury, 
and  of  Hubert  de  Burgh,  who  opposed  the  legate's 
action  in  the  government  of  Poitou.  During  a  visit 
to  Rome,  Langton  procured  the  withdrawal  of  the 
legate,  and  on  19  July,  1221,  Pandulph  publicly  re- 
signed his  function  as  legate  at  Westminster.  He  had 
hitherto  at  the  pope's  desire  postponed  his  consecra- 
tion as  Bishop  of  Norwich  to  avoid  coming  under  the 
archbishop's  jurisdiction,  but,  as  this  reason  now  no 
longer  held  good,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  by  the 
pope  himself  on  his  return  to  Rome  (29  May,  1222). 
He  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  there  engaged  in  diplo- 
matic affairs,  but  after  his  death  his  body  was  brought 
back  to  England  and  buried  in  Norwich  cathedral. 
Matthew  Paris,  Hist.  Major,  especially  Shirley's  introduc- 
tion. Rolls  Series  (1S72-S3);  Annals  of  Burton,  giving  documents 
of  John's  submission  and  reconciliation  in  Annales  Monastici,  I, 
Rolls  Series  (1869);  Annals  of  Thomas  Wykes  (Osney)  of  Margam, 
Waverley,  Worcester,  Dunstable  and  Tewkesbury  in  Annales  Mon- 
astici, Rolls  Series  (1869);  Epistolce  Innocentii  III  in  P.  L., 
CCXVI-VII ;  Bliss,  Calendar  of  Papal  Letters,  I  (London,  1893) ; 
Shirley,  Royal  Letters  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  III,  Rolls  Series 
(1862-6);  Stdbbs,  Registrum  Sacrum  Anglicanum,  where  he  is 
confused  with  Masca  (2nd  cd.,  0.\ford,  1897);  Idem,  Constitu- 
tional History  (Oxford,  1875-8) ;  Idem,  Select  Charters  (Oxford, 
1895);  Tout  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog..  s.  v.  Pandulf:  Gasquet,  Henry 
III  and  the  Church  (London,  1905). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Paneas.    See  C^sarea  Philippi. 

Panemotichus,  a  titular  see  of  Pamphylia  Secunda, 
suffragan  of  Perge.  Panemotichus  coined  money  dur- 
ing the  Roman  epoch  (Head,  "Historia  immorum", 
591).  A  Bishop  Faustus  assisted  at  the  Council  of 
Nioaea,  325,  when  the  city  belonged  to  Isauria.  Later 
it  was  part  of  Pamphylia  Secunda.  Another  bishop, 
Cratinus,  may  have  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon,  451.  Hierius  signed  the  provincial  letter  to 
Leo  the  Wise,  458.  Helladius  assisted  at  a  Council 
of  Constantinople  in  536.  (Le  Quien,  I,  1031).  There 
is  record  of  no  other  bishop  and  the  see  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  "Notitia;  Episcopatuum".  The  city  is 
spoken  of  by  Hierocles  in  the  sixth  century  (Synec- 
demus,  681,  3)  and  in  the  tenth  by  Constantino  Por- 
phyrogenitus  ("De  thematibus",  ed.  Bonn,  III,  38). 
Radet  ("Les  villes  de  la  Pi-sidie",  4,  reprinted  from 
"Revue  Archcologique",  Paris,  1893)  identifies  it  with 
the  ruins  of  Badem  Aghatch,  south  of  Ghirme,  in 
the  vilayet  of  Koniah. 

S.  PifiTRinfes. 

Pange  Lingua  Gloriosi,  the  opening  words  of  two 
hymns  celebrating  respectively  the  Passion  and  the 
Blessed  Sacrament.  The  former,  in  unrhymed  verse, 
is  generally  credited  to  St.  Venantius  Fortunatus  (6 
cent.),  and  the  latter,  in  rhymed  accentual  rhythm, 
was  composed  by  St.  I'homas  Aquinas  (13  cent.). 

I.  The  Hymn  of  Fortunatus. — The  hymn  has 
been  ascribed  to  Claudianus  Mamertus  (5  cent.)  by 
Gerbert  in  his  "Musica  sacra",  Biihr  in  his  "Die 
christl.  Dichter,"  and  many  others.  Piniont,  who  cites 
many  other  authorities  in  his  support,  is  especially 
urgent  in  his  ascription  of  the  hymn  to  Mamertus, 
answers  at  great  length  the  critics  of  the  ascription 
in  his  Note  sur  I'auteur  du  Pange  .  .  .  prajlium  certa- 
minis  (Ilymnes  du  br^v.  rom.  Ill,  70-76),  so  that  it 
seems  hardly  correct  to  say  with  Mearns  (Diet,  of 
Hymnol.,  2nd  ed.,  880),  that  "it  has  been  sometimes, 
apparently  without  reason,  ascribed  to  Claudianus 
Mamertus."  Exchlding  the  closing  stanza  or  dox- 
ology,  the  hymn  comprises  ten  stanzas,  which  appear 
in  the  MSS.  and  in  some  editions  of  the  "Roman 
Missal"  in  the  form: 


PANGE 


442 


PANGE 


Pange  lingua  glorio.si  pru'lium  certaminis 
Et  super  iTucis  tropajo  die  triumphuni  nobilem, 
Qualiter  Redemptor  orbis  immolatus  vicerit. 
The  stanza  is  thus  seen  to  comprise  thrpo  tetrameter 
trochaic  catalectic  verses.     In  the  "  Uonian  Breviary'' 
the  hymn  is  assigned  to  Passion  Sunday  and  the  ferial 
Oflices  following  it  ilown  to  and  including  Wednesday 
in  Holy  Week,  and  also  to  the  feasts  of  the  Finding  of 
the  Holy  C'ross,  the  ICxaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the 
Crown  of  Thorns,  the  Five  Wounds.     In  this  breviary 
use,  the  hymn  is  divided  into  two,  the  first  five  stanzas 
being  said  at  Matins,  the  second  five  (beginning  with 
the  words  "Lustra  sex  qui  jam  peregit")  at  Lauds; 
and  each  line  is  divided  into  two,  forming  a  stanza  of 
six  lines,  e.  g. : 

Pange  Ungua  gloriosi 
Lauream  certaminis, 
Et  super  crucis  tropha;o 
Die  triumphum  nobilem: 
Qualiter  Redemptor  orbis 
Immolatus  vicerit. 

The  whole  hymn  is  sung  during  the  ceremony  of  the 
Adoration  of  the  Cross  on  Good  Friday,  immediately 
after  the  Iniproperia  or  "Reproaches",  but  in  a  pecu- 
liar manner,  the  hymn  being  preceded  by  the  eighth 
stanza  {Crux  ficlelis)  while  the  stanzas  are  followed 
alternately  by  the  first  four  and  the  last  two  fines  of 
the  (divided)  eighth  stanza. 

It  will  have  been  noticed  that  in  the  six-lined  stanza 
quoted  above,  "lauream"  is  substituted  for  the  "prcc- 
lium  "  of  the  three-lined  stanza.  The  correctors  of  the 
Breviary  under  Urban  VIII  apparently  saw  a  pleon- 
asm in  the  expression  "pralium  certaminis".  Their 
suljstitution  of  "lauream"  has  not  commended  itself 
to  hymnologists,  who  declare  that  no  pleonasm  is  in- 
volved, since  "  prcelium  "  refers  to  the  battle  and  "cer- 
tamen"  to  the  occasion  or  cause  of  it;  so  that  "prce- 
lium certaminis"  means  the  battle  for  the  souls  of 
men  (see  Kayser,  "Beitrage  zur  Gesch.  und  Erklarung 
der  iiltesten  Kirchenhym.",  Paderborn,  18S1,  p.  417). 
He  very  aptly  instances  St.  Cyprian  (Ep.  ad  Ant.,  4): 
"Pra'lium  gloriosi  certaminis  in  persecutione  ferve- 
ret",  and  adds  that  "certamen"  reveals  the  impor- 
tance and  length  of  the  strife  and  renders  salient  the 
master  thought  of  the  whole  poem.  In  the  hands  of 
the  correctors  the  hymn  suflfered  many  emendations  in 
the  interest  of  classical  exactness  of  phrase  and  metre. 
The  corrected  form  is  that  found  to-day  in  the  Roman 
Breviary.  The  older  form,  with  various  manuscript 
readings,  will  be  found  in  Alarch  (Latin  Hymns,  64; 
with  grammatical  and  other  notes,  252),  Piraont  (Les 
Hymnes  etc.,  Ill,  47-70,  with  a  note  on  the  author- 
ship, 70-76),  etc.  The  Commission  on  Plain  Chant 
established  by  order  of  Pius  X  in  many  cases  restored 
older  forms  of  the  Uturgical  texts.  In  the  Gradual 
(the  Antiphonary  has  not  appeared  as  yet)  the  older 
form  of  the  "Pange  lingua"  is  now  given,  so  that  it 
can  be  compared  with  the  form  still  used  in  our 
Breviary.  For  the  variant  readings  of  MSS.  see  "Ana- 
lecta  Hymnica"  (Leipzig,  1907),  71-73.  Dreves 
ascribes  the  hymn  to  Fortunatus.  See  also  the 
"Hymnarium  Sarisburiense "  (London,  1851),  84. 

It  will  be  of  interest  to  give  here  some  specimens  of 
Catholic  translations  of  some  stanzas  of  the  hymn, 
i 

Sing  loud  the  conflict,  O  my  tongue, 
The  victory  that  repaired  our  loss; 

Exalt  the  triumph  of  thy  song 
To  the  bright  trophy  of  the  cross; 

Tell  how  the  Lord  laid  down  his  life 
To  conquer  in  the  glorious  strife. 

(J.  T.  Aylward,  O.  P.) 
ii 

Eating  of  the  Tree  forbidden, 
Man  had  suck  in  Satan's  snare, 


When  his  pitying  Creator 

Did  this  second  Tree  prepare; 
Destined,  many  ages  later, 

That  first  evil  to  repair. 

(Father  Caswall.) 

V 

Thus  God  made  Man  an  Infant  lies, 
And  in  the  manger  weeping  cries; 
His  sacred  limbs  by  Mary  bound. 

The  poorest  tattered  rags  surround; 
And  God's  incarnate  feet  and  hands 
Are  closely  bound  with  swathing-bands. 

(Divine  Office,  1763.) 
vi 
Soon  the  sweetest  blossom  wasting, 

Droops  its  head  and  withered  lies; 
Early  thus  to  Calvary  hasting. 

On  the  cross  the  Saviour  dies; 
Freely  death  for  all  men  tasting. 
There  behold  our  sacrifice, 

(R.  Campbell,) 
ix 
Bend,  O  noble  Tree,  thy  branches; 

Let  thy  fibres  yielding  be, 
Let  the  rigid  strength  be  softened 
Which  in  birth  was  given  thee. 
That  the  limbs  of  my  dear  Jesus 
May  be  stretched  most  tenderly. 

(Amer.  Eccl.  Rev.,  8191.) 

The  selected  stanzas  do  not  exhau.st  the  examples 
of  Catholic  versions,  but  offer  some  variety  in  metre 
and  in  rhyming  schemes.  They  represent  neither 
the  best  nor  the  worst  work  of  their  authors  in  the 
translation  of  this  hymn.  In  the  preface  to  his  "An- 
nus Sanctus"  Orby  Shipley  declared  that  "the  love  of 
Catholics  for  their  hymns  is  no  recent  ,  .  .  fancy 
,  .  .  and  that  the  results  achieved  are  not  less  wide 
in  extent,  not  less  worthy  in  merit  than  attempts  of 
Protestant  translators,  facts  overlooked  even  by 
Catholic  translators."  His  thought  is  worthy  of 
much  consideration  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  En- 
glish version  in  the  Marquess  of  Bute's  translation  of 
the  Roman  Breviary  (I,  409),  in  the  (Baltimore) 
"Manual  of  Prayers"  (614),  and  Tozer's  "Catholic 
Church  Hymnal"  (p.  48),  was  the  work  of  an  Angli- 
can, Dr.  Neale. 

It  may  well  be  doubted  if  any  translator  has  ex- 
pressed better  in  English  verse  the  strength  and  no- 
bility of  the  original  Latin  than  did  the  unknown 
Catholic  author  of  the  version  found  in  the  Divine 
Office  of  1763  (given  in  stanza  v  above).  Daniel  gives 
the  following  stanza  (Thes.  Hymnol.,  I,  168): 
Quando  judex  orbis  alto  vectus  axe  veneris, 
Et  crucis  tu;e  (ropa;um  inter  astra  fulserit, 
O  sis  anxius  asylum  et  salutis  aurora, 
which  Neale  translates  (Medieval  Hymns,  3rd  ed.,  p. 
5)  and  thinks  ancient  though  not  original;  but  Daniel's 
source  is  the  "Corolla  Hymnorum"  (Cologne,  1806). 
The  text  reads  "salutis  anchora".  Daniel  also  gives 
(IV,  68)  four  stanzas  which  Mone  thought  might  be 
of  the  seventh  century;  but  they  would  add  nothing 
to  the  beauty  or  neat  perfection  of  the  hymn.  For 
first  lines,  authors,  dates  of  translation,  etc.,  see  Ju- 
lian, "Diet,  of  Hymnol.",  880-881,  1685.  For  Latin 
text  and  translation  with  comment,  see  "Amer.  Eccles. 
Review",  March,  1891,  187-194,  and  "H.  A.  and  M., 
Historical  Edition"  (London,  1909,  No.  107). 

II.  The  Hy.mn  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. — Com- 
posed by  the  saint  (see  Ladda  Sign)  for  the  Office  of 
Corpus  Christi  (see  Corpus  Chri.sti,  Feast  of). 
Including  the  last  stanza  (which  borrows  the  words 
"Genitori  Genitoque" — "Procedenti  ab  utroque, 
Compar"  from  the  first  two  strophes  of  the  second 
sequence  of  Adam  of  St.  Victor  for  Pentecost)  the 
hymn  comprises  six  stanzas  appearing  in  the  MSS. 


PANGE 


443 


PANGE 


Pange,  lingua,  gloriosi  corporis  mysterium, 
Sanguinisque  pretiosi  quem  in  mundi  pref  ium 
Fructus  ventris  generosi  Rex  effudit  gentium. 
Written  in  accentual  rhythm,  it  imitates  the  triumphant 
march  of  the  hymn  of  Fortunatus,  and  like  it  is  di- 
vided in  the  Roman  Breviary  into  stanzas  of  six  lines 
whose  alternating  triple  rhyming  is  declared  by  Pi- 
mont  to  be  a  new  feature  in  medieval  hymnody. 
In  the  Roman  Breviary  the  hymn  is  assigned  to  both 
Vespers,  but  of  old  the  Church  of  Salisbury  placed  it 
in  Matins,  that  of  Toulouse  in  First  Vespers  only,  that 
of  Saint-Germain-des-Pr<5s  at  Second  Vespers  only, 
and  that  of  Strasburg  at  Compline.  It  is  sung  in  the 
procession  to  the  repository  on  Holy  Thursday  and 
also  in  the  procession  of  Corpus  Christi  and  in  that  of 
the  Forty  Hours'  Adoration. 

With  respect  to  the  metre,  ISI.  de  Marcellus,  quoted 
in  Migne's  "Litterature",  remarks  that  the  hymn  is 
composed  in  the  long  trochaic  verses  such  as  are  found 
in  Catullus,  Seneca,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides.  In 
addition  to  the  felicitous  rhythm  chosen  by  St. 
Thomas,  critics  recognize  its  poetical  and  hymnodal 
values  (thus  Neale:  "This  hymn  contests  the  second 
place  among  those  of  the  Western  Church  with  the 
Vexilla  Regis,  the  Stabat  Mater,  the  Jesu  dulcis  memo- 
ria,  the  Ad  Regias  Agni  Dapes,  the  Ad  Supernam, 
and  one  or  two  others  .  .  .")  and  "its  pecuUar  qual- 
ities, its  logical  neatness,  dogmatic  precision,  and  force 
of  almost  argumentative  statement"  (Duffield,  "Latin 
Hymns",  269),  in  which  qualities  "it  excels  all 
these  mentioned"  by  Neale. 

The  translations  have  not  been  many  nor  felicitous. 
Generosi  in  the  first  stanza  is  not  "generous"  (as  in 
Neale's  version)  but  "noble"  (as  in  Caswall's).  But, 
as  Neale  truly  says,  "the  great  crux  of  the  translator 
is  the  fourth  verse"  (i.  e.,  "Verbum  caro  panem 
verum,  etc."),  so  full  is  it  of  verbal  and  real  antith- 
eses. To  illustrate  the  question  of  translation  we 
select  from  the  specimen  versions  the  fourth  stanza, 
since  its  very  peculiar  condensation  of  thought  and 
phrase,  dogmatic  precision  and  illuminating  antith- 
eses, have  made  it  "a  bow  of  Ulysses  to  translators". 
Its  text  is: 

Verbum  caro  panem  verum 

Verbo  camera  efficit; 
Fitque  sanguis  Christi  merum; 

Et  si  sensus  deficit, 
Ad  firmandum  cor  sincerum 
Sola  fides  sufiicit. 
A  literal  translation  would  be:  "The  Word-(made)- 
Flesh  makes  by  (His)  word  true  bread  into  flesh;  and 
wine  becomes  Christ's  blood;  and  if  the  (unassisted) 
intellect  fails  (to  recognize  all  this),  faith  alone  suffices 
to  assure  the  pure  heart".  Sensus  (singular)  is  taken 
here  to  indicate  the  inner  sense,  as  distinguished 
from  scnsinim  (plural)  of  the  following  stanza,  where 
the  word  directly  refers  to  the  external  senses.  Per- 
haps the  word  has  the  same  implication  in  both 
stanzas.  "Sincere"  (in  its  modern  meaning)  may  be 
a  better  word  than  "pure".  Taking  first  the  old 
versions  found  in  books  of  Catholic  devotion,  we  find 
in  the  "Primer"  of  1604: 

The  word  now  being  flesh  become. 

So  very  bread  flesh  by  the  word, 
And  wine  the  blood  of  Christ  is  made, 

Though  our  sense  it  not  afford, 
But  this  in  heart  sincere  to  fix 
Faith  sufficeth  to  accord. 
It  is  not  in  the  rhj'thm  of  the  Latin,  and  contains 
but   three   monosyllabic   rhymes   instead   of   the   six 
double  rhymes  of  the  Latin.     The  "Primer"  of  1619 
makes  an  advance  to  six  monosyllabic  rhymes;  and 
the  "Primer"  of  1685  arranges  the  rhymes  in  coup- 
lets.    The  "Primer"  of  1706  retains  the  rhythm  and 
the  rhyrnic  scheme,  but  is  somewhat  more  flowing  and 
less  heavy: 


The  Word  made  flesh  for  love  of  man. 
With  words  of  bread  made  flesh  again; 
Turned  wine  to  blood  unseen  of  sense, 
By  virtue  of  omnipotence; 
And  here  the  faithful  rest  secure. 
Whilst  God  can  vouch  and  faith  ensure. 
A  distinct  advance  in  rhythmic  and  rhymic  corre- 
spondence was  made  in  more  recent  times  by  Catho- 
lic writers   like   Wackerbarth,   Father  Caswall,  and 
Judge  D.  J.  Donahoe. 

At  the  incarnate  Word's  high  bidding 

Bread  to  very  flesh  doth  turn, 
Wine  becoraeth  Christ's  blood-shedding; 

And  if  sense  cannot  discern. 
Guileless  spirits  never  dreading 
May  from  faith  sufficient  learn. 

(Wackerbarth,  1842) 

Word  made  flesh,  the  bread  of  nature 

By  his  word  to  flesh  he  turns; 
Wine  into  his  blood  he  changes: — 

What  though  sense  no  change  tliscerns? 
Only  be  the  heart  in  earnest, 

Faith  her  lesson  quickly  learns. 

(Caswall,  1849) 

Neale  criticises  the  version  of  Wackerbarth:  "Here 
the  antithesis  is  utterly  lost,  by  the  substitution  of 
Incarnate  for  made  flesh,  and  bidding  for  word,  to 
say  nothing  of  Blood-shedding  for  Blood";  and  de- 
clares that  Caswall  "has  given,  as  from  his  freedom  of 
rhyme  might  be  expected,  the  best  version".  He 
remarks,  however,  that  Caswall  has  not  given  the 
"panem  verum"  of  St.  Thomas. 

By  his  word  the  bread  he  breaketh 

To  his  very  flesh  he  turns ; 
In  the  chalice  which  he  takcth, 

Man  the  cleansing  blood  discerns, — 
Faith  to  loving  bosoms  maketh 
Clear  the  mystic  truth  .she  learns. 

(D.  J.  Donahoe,  1908) 

Some  of  the  more  recent  translations  take  little 
account  of  the  nice  discriminations  of  antithesis 
pointed  out  by  Dr.  Neale,  who  when  he  aKcmptrd  in 
his  day  a  new  version,  modestly  wrote  tl  1.1 1  it  'iliiims 
no  other  merit  than  an  attempt  to  unitr  I  lie  licsl  por- 
tions of  the  four  best  translations  with  which  I  am 
acquainted — Mr.  Wackerbarth's,  Dr.  Pusey's,  that  of 
the  Leeds  book,  and  Mr.  CaswaU's".  His  version  is: 
Word  made  Flesh,  by  Word  He  maketh 

Very  bread  his  flesh  to  be; 
Man  in  wine  Christ's  Blood  partaketh, 

And  if  senses  fail  to  see, 
Faith  alone  the  true  heart  wakcth 
To  behold  the  mystery. 
The  present  writer  rendered  the  stanza  in  the  "  Ainer. 
Eccles.  Review"  (March,  1890),  208,  as  follows: 
Into  Flesh  the  true  bread  turneth 

By  His  word,  the  Word  made  Flesh; 
Wine  to  Blood:  while  sense  discerneth 

Nought  beyond  the  sense's  mesh, 

Faith  an  awful  mystery  learneth. 

And  must  teach  the  soul  afresh. 

Neale's  version  is  given  in  the  Marquess  of  Bute's 

"Roman  Breviary".     The  Anglican  hymnal,  "Hymns 

Ancient  and  Modern",  declares  its  version  "based  on 

tr.  from  Latin  by  E.  Caswall";  but,  as  Julian  points 

out,  most  of  it  is  based  on  Neale,  four  of  who.so  stanzas 

it  rewrites,  while  a  fifth  is  rewritten  from  Caswall 

(i.  e.  the  third  stanza),  and  the  fourth  stanza  is  Ijy  the 

compilers.     The  arrangement  found  in  the  Anglican 

hymnal  is  taken  bodily  into  the  (Baltimore)  "  Manual 

of  Prayers" — a  rather  infelicitous  procedure,  as  the 

fourth  stanza  is  not  faithful  to  the  original  (Neale, 

"Medieval  Hymns  and  Sequences,"  181).     The  last 


PANIGAROLA 


444- 


PANO 


stanzii  and  tlip  (loxulogy  form  a  special  hymn  (s<'0 
T.WTiM  Emio)  prescribed  for  Beneiliction  of  the 
Most  IMesscd  Sacrament.  The  Vatican  edition  of  the 
Graduale  gives  its  plain-song  melody  in  two  forms, 
both  of  groat  beauty. 

Jdlun,  Did.  0/  Ihjmnol..  2nd  ed.,  8.  v.,  878  and  16S.5,  for  first 
lines  of  translations;  Henry  in  Amcr.  Cath.  Qttarterh/  Review 
(April,  1S93),  2S8-292,  for  difficulties  of  translation;  Idem  in 
Amer.  Ecdes.  Review  (March,  1890),  206-213,  for  text,  vcrsc- 
translation,  comment,  and  notes;  Pimont,  Hymnes  du  hrHiaire  to- 
main.  Ill  (Paris,  1884),  164-176.  A  list  of  hymns  beginning  with 
tlie  words  "Pange  lingua"  is  given  in  the  Analecta  Hi/mnien,  IV, 
70;  IV,  257;  and  indexes  passi/n.  JJ.  T.  Henry. 

Panigarola,  Fr.\ncesco,  preacher  and  contro- 
versialist. Bishop  of  Asti,  b.  at  Milan,  6  Feb.,  1548;  d. 
at  Asti.  .31  May,  1.594.  As  a  student  of  law  at  Pavia 
and  Bologna  he  led  a  dissipated  life,  until,  moved  by 
grace,  heentered  the  Orderof  Friars  Minorat  Florence, 
15  March,  1507.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three  he  was 
sent  to  Rome,  where  his  sermons  attracted  much  at- 
tention. Pius  V  had  him  sent  to  Paris  where  for  two 
years  he  studied  the  Fathers  and  the  Councils,  Greek 
and  Hebrew.  Returning  to  Italy  he  preached  during 
thirteen  years  in  the  principal  towns.  He  converted 
many  Calvinists  in  France  and  Savoy;  at  Naples  there 
was  collectefl,  through  one  of  his  sermons,  enough 
money  to  build  a  hospital  for  incurables.  He  also  as- 
sisted in  the  construction  of  the  Italian  church  of  Ant- 
werp, and  of  the  Franciscan  buildings  at  Genoa, 
Venice,  Milan,  and  Turin.  In  1579  Panigarola  at- 
tended, as  custos  of  his  prov-ince,  the  general  chapter 
at  Paris.  Finally  in  1586  Sixtus  V  appointed  him 
titular  Bishop  and  Coadjutor  of  Ferrara,  whence  in 
1587  he  was  transferred  to  the  See  of  Asti.  Shortly 
after  he  was  sent  to  France  as  assistant  to  the  Papal 
Legate,  Cardinal  Henry  Cajetan.  When  Henry  IV 
had  renounced  Calvinism,  the  bishop  returned  to  Asti. 

Melchiorri  (Annales  Min.  cont.  XXIII  ad  a. 
1594,  n.  76-81)  gives  the  most  complete  catalogue 
of  Panigarola's  works.  The  most  important  are: 
"II  Compendio  degli  Annali  ecclesiastici  del  Padre 
Cesare  Baronio",  Rome,  1590;  2nd  ed.,  Venice,  159.3, 
comprises  only  the  first  volume  of  Baronius.  "B. 
Petri  Apostolorum  Principis  Gesta  ...  in  rapsodis, 
quam  catenam  appellant,  speciem  disposita",  Asti, 
1591.  "Lettioni  sopra  dogmi,  dette  Cahnniche", 
Venice,  1584.  This  work,  translated  into  Latin 
(Milan,  1594),  was  attacked  by  Giacomo  Picenino  in 
"Apologia  per  i  Riformatori  e  per  la  Religione  Rifor- 
mata  contro  le  Invettivc  di  F.  Panigarola  e  P.  Se- 
gneri",  Coira,  1706.  "II  Predicatore  tli  F.  I'r.iiicisco 
Panigarola  .  .  .  overo  Parafrase,  comento  r  discnrsi 
intorno  al  libro  dell'  Elocutione  di  Demctno  lalcri'o 
.  .  .",  Venice,  1609.  He  also  wrote  commentaries 
(Psalms,  Jeremias  etc.)  and  many  collections  of  ser- 
mons, pubhshed  in  Italian  and  Latin. 

Wadding,  Scriptores  (Ir-I.    Mm.   liinnir,   Isniii,   s7   s!l    (Rome, 

1906),  88-90;  Sbaralea,  >  .,  ;  / ■  'v /  N. -.,:■.  ■  I;..i,h-.  180(1), 

176-78,  (Rome,  1908). 2!l.'    M,  1: i  im  -  1',-,im-,m  nsis, //iV 

toriarum  Seraphica  Relviini  Uhn  (.,  rVrnifc,  l.'.^iii,  fol.  317; 
Ugbelli,  Italia  Sacra,  IV  t2nd  ed..  Venice.  1719),  401-02;  BoAT- 
TERi,  Serie  cronologico-storica  de'  Vescovi  delta  Chiesa  d'Asti  (.\sti, 
1807),  110-14;  TiRABOscRl,  Storia  delta  Letteraiura  italiana, 
VII  (Rome,  1785),  iii.  424-29;  VII  (Rome,  1784),  i,  366; 
Melchiorri,  Annates  Minorum  Wadd.  cont.,  XXIII  (.\ncoua, 
1859),  157-64,  ad  an.  1.594,  n.  .57-84;  Marcellino  da  Civezza, 
Storia  Universale  detle  Missioni  Franeescane,  VII  (Prato,  1SS3),  i, 
436-49.  LiVARinS    OlIGER. 

Panis  Angelicus.    See  Sacris  Solemniis. 

Pannartz,  Arnold,  and  Sweinheim,  Konrad, 
printers;  Pannartz  d.  about  1476,  .Sweinheim  in  1477. 
Pannartz  was  perhaps  a  native  of  Prague,  and  Swein- 
heim of  Eltville  near  Mainz.  Zedler  believes  (Gu- 
tenberg-Forschungen,  1901)  that  Sweinheim  worked 
at  Eltville  with  Gutenberg  in  1461-64.  Whether 
Pannartz  had  been  connected  with  Sweinheim  in 
Germany  is  not  known.  It  is  certain  that  the  two 
brought  Gutenberg's  invention  to  Italy. 

The  Benedictine  monastery  of  Subiaco  was  the 
cradle  of  Italian  printing.     Probably  Cardinal  Gio- 


vanni of  Turrecremata,  who  was  Abbot  in  cnmv}cndam 
of  Subiaco,  summoned  the  two  printers  t  here.  They 
came  in  1464.  The  first  book  that  they  printed  at 
Subiaco  was  a  Donatus;  it  has  not,  however,  been 
preserved.  The  first  book  printed  in  Italy  that  is 
still  extant  was  a  Cicero,  "Do  oratore"  (now  in  the 
Buchgewerbehaus  at  Leipzig),  issued  in  September, 
1465.  It  was  followed  by  Lactantius,  "De  divinis 
institutionibus",  in  October,  1465,  and  Augustine's 
"De  civitate  Dei"  (1467).  These  four  impn-s.sions 
from  Subiaco  are  of  particular  importance,  because 
they  abandon  the  Gothic  type  of  the  early  German 
books.  In  Italy  Roman  characters  were  demanded. 
Pannartz  and  Sweinheim,  however,  did  not  produce 
a  pure  but  only  a  "half  Roman"  type. 

In  1467  the  two  printers  left  Subiaco  and  settled 
at  Rome,  where  the  brothers  Pietro  and  Francesco 
de'  Massimi  placed  a  house  at  their  disposal.  Their 
proof  and  manuscript  reader  was  Giovan  de'  Bussi, 
since  1469  Bishop  of  Aleria.  The  works  they  printed 
are  given  in  two  lists  of  their  publications,  issued  in 
1470  and  1472.  Up  to  1472  they  had  published  twenty- 
eight  theological  and  classical  volumes,  viz.  the  Bible, 
Lactantius,  Cyprian,  Augustine,  Jerome,  Leo  the 
Great,  Thomas  Aquinas,  Cicero,  Apuleius,  Gellius, 
Virgil,  Livy,  Strabo,  PHny,  Quintilian,  Suetonius, 
Ovid  etc.,  in  editions  varying  from  275  to  300  copies 
each,  in  all  12,475  volumes.  But  the  printers  shared 
the  fate  of  their  master,  Gutenberg;  they  could  not 
sell  their  books,  and  fell  into  want.  In  1472  they 
applied  to  Sixtus  IV  for  Church  benefices.  From 
this  we  know  that  both  were  ecclesiastics:  Pannartz 
of  Cologne  and  Sweinheim  of  Mainz.  The  pope  had 
a  reversion  drawn  up  for  them,  a  proof  of  his  great 
interest  in  printing.  In  1474  Sweinheim  was  made  a 
canon  at  St.  Victor  at  Mainz.  It  is  not  known  whether 
Pannartz  also  obtained  a  benefice.  Perhaps  the  pope 
also  aided  them;  at  any  rate  they  printed  eighteen 
more  works  in  1472  and  1473.  After  this  they  .sepa- 
rated. Pannartz  printed  by  liimself  twelve  further 
volumes.  Sweinheim  took  up  engraving  on  metal 
and  executed  the  fine  maps  for  the  "Cosmography" 
of  Ptolemy,  the  first  work  of  this  kind,  but  died  before 
he  had  finished  his  task. 

Burger,  The  Printers  and  Pubtisfiers  of  the  XV  Century  (Lon- 
don, 1902),  523,  524,  605,  606;  FrMAOALLi.  Dictionnaire  geogr. 
d' Italic  pour  servir  a  Vhistoire  dr  /'/r,>r'"'"'fN— j>  r/ans  ce  pays  (Flor- 
ence, 1905),  331-37,  405-09;  I,..i  '  i  ~  i-him  und  Pannartz 
in  Zeitschrift  fur  Bacherfreuihl.  I  li  i  ^11,  1905),  311-17; 
Idem,  Die  ersten  deuischen  Dru./.-  I   .'..  '    in  Ilisturisch-poli- 

tischc  Blatter,  CXLIII  (Munich    VM'Ji.  I.,  J7. 

Klbiuens  Loffler. 
Pannonhalma.    See  Martinsberg. 

Pane  Indians,  a  former  important  mission  tribe  on 
tiie  middle  Ucayali  River,  Peru,  being  the  principal  of 
a  group  of  twenty  or  more  closely  cognate  tribes  con- 
stituting the  Panoan  linguistic  stock,  and  holding 
most  of  the  territory  of  the  Huallaga,  Ucayali,  and 
Javarl  Rivers  in  north-eastern  Peru,  with  outlying 
tribes  on  the  Jurud,  Puru6,  Beni,  and  upper  waters  of 
the  Madeira  in  extreme  western  Brazil  and  northern 
Bolivia.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  beside 
the  Pano,  arc  the  Cashibo,  Conibo,  Mayoruna  (q.  v.), 
Remo,  Sensi,  Setebo,  and  Shipibo,  all  of  whom,  ex- 
cepting the  Cashibo  who  are  still  cannibal  savages, 
were  at  one  time  in  part  connected  with  the  famous 
.lesuit  missions  of  the  "Province  of  Mainas"  (see 
Mainas),  of  which  the  central  headquarters  was  at 
first  San  Francisco  de  Borja  and  later  the  Pano  town, 
of  Laguna. 

The  primitive  culture  of  the  Pano  and  eogiuite 
tribes  was  very  similar,  and  was  intermediate  bet  u ecu 
that  of  the  Quichua  tribes  of  Peru  and  the  wandering 
savages  of  the  Amazon  forests.  They  were  sed,_>ntary 
and  agricultural.  Their  villages,  always  close  to  the 
water,  consisted  of  large  communal  structures  of  oval 
shape,  and  sometimes  more  than  120  feet  in  length, 


PANOFOLIS 


445 


PANORMITANUS 


built  of  canes  and  thatched  with  palm  leaves,  with  two 
or  more  fire-places  inside,  and  raised  platforms  for 
beds  along  the  walls.  The  furnitm-e  consisted  chiefly 
of  clay  pots  of  various  sizes  and  purposes,  manufac- 
tured by  the  women,  a  wooden  trough  for  holding  the 
chicha  liquor,  with  the  weapons  and  fishing  gear  of 
the  men.  They  cultivated  corn,  bananas,  yuca,  and 
a  native  cotton  which  they  wove  into  girdles  and 
simple  fabrics.  They  had  also  bed  coverings  made 
from  the  inner  bark  of  trees  softened  by  beating.  Be- 
sides the  cultivated  plants,  they  subsisted  largely  upon 
fish,  wild  game,  and  the  oil  procured  from  turtle  eggs, 
which  were  gathered  in  great  quantities  during  the 
laying  season  in  late  summer.  The  oil  or  "butter" 
was  obtained  by  breaking  up  the  eggs  in  a  trough, 
pouring  water  over  the  mass,  and  skimming  off  the 
grease  which  rose  to  the  top  after  the  sun's  rays  had 
warmed  it.  This  turtle  oil  formed  a  considerable 
article  of  commerce  with  the  tribes  of  the  upper 
Amazon  as  well  as  of  the  Orinoco. 

Their  weapons  for  war  and  hunting  were  the  bow, 
the  knife,  the  blow-gun  with  poisoned  arrows,  the 
lance,  and  the  wooden  club,  armed  with  deer-horn 
spikes  and  ornamented  with  feathers.  The  most 
prized  possession  was  the  dug-out  canoe,  from  thirty 
to  forty  feet  long,  and  sometimes  requiring  months  for 
completion.  The  men  cleared  the  ground  of  trees, 
with  the  help  of  their  neighbours,  but  the  cultivation 
was  by  the  women.  Men  and  women  went  nearly 
naked,  but  painted  in  various  colours,  with  the  hair 
flowing  loosely  either  full  length  or  cut  off  about  the 
shoulders.  They  stained  their  teeth  a  dark  blue  with 
a  vegetable  dye.  The  women  wore  nose  pendants, 
necklaces  of  various  trinkets,  and  bracelets  and  ank- 
lets of  lizard  skin.  In  general  both  sexes  were  of 
medium  size  but  well  formed.  Their  mentality  was 
of  a  low  order  and  they  could  seldom  count  beyond 
four.  There  was  practically  no  government  or  chief- 
ship,  every  man  acting  for  himself  except  as  common 
interest  brought  them  together.  They  paid  special 
reverence  to  the  sim,  fire,  and  the  new  moon,  and  were 
in  great  dread  of  evil  spirits.  Some  of  the  tribes  had  a 
genesis  hero  who  was  said  to  have  struck  his  foot  upon 
the  ground  and  called  them  forth  out  of  the  earth.  In 
accord  with  a  widespread  Indian  custom,  one  of  a  pair 
of  twins  was  always  killed  at  birth,  as  also  all  deformed 
children,  considered  the  direct  offspring  of  evil  spirits. 
The  dead  were  buried  in  large  jars  in  the  earth  floor  of 
the  house.  In  the  case  of  the  warrior,  his  canoe  was 
used  as  a  coffin,  all  his  small  belongings  being  buried 
with  him.  There  seems  to  have  been  no  fear  of  the 
presence  of  the  dead.  Their  ceremonies  consisted  of  a 
few  simple  dances  to  the  sound  of  the  drum  and  Pan- 
dean pipes,  and  invariably  ended  in  a  drinking  orgy. 
They  had  few  traditions,  but  sometimes  kept  a  record 
of  events  by  means  of  pictographs  painted  upon  bark 
cloth.  Girls  were  betrothed  in  childhood,  and  married 
with  somewhat  elaborate  ceremony  when  very  young. 

In  1666  the  Jesuit,  Father  Lorenzo  Lucero,  after- 
ward killed  by  the  savages,  established  the  mission  of 
Santiago  de  la  Laguna,  at  the  present  Laguna,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Huallaga,  near  its  mouth  in  north- 
eastern Peru.  Here  he  gathered  a  number  of  Indians 
of  various  tribes,  Pano  and  Setebo  of  cognate  stock, 
Cocama  and  others  of  Tupian  stock.  In  a  short  time 
the  settlement  contained  4000  souls,  ranking  among 
the  most  important  missions  of  the  Mainan  province. 
Smallpox  visitations  and  Portuguese  slave  raids  (see 
Mameluco)  within  the  next  century  greatly  reduced 
it,  but  on  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1768  it  still 
contained  1600  Christian  Indians,  ranking  first  among 
the  33  existing  Jesuit  missions  of  the  upper  Amazon 
and  its  branches.  The  missionary  then  in  charge  was 
Father  Adam  Vidman,  a  Bavarian.  With  the  other 
missions  it  was  turned  over  to  the  care  of  the  Fran- 
.  ciscans,  under  whom  it  continued  until  the  establish- 
ment of  the  republican  government  in  Peru  in  1821, 


when  the  missionaries  were  again  scattered,  most  of 
the  missions  abandoned  and  the  others,  being  left 
without  support,  rapidly  dechned,  the  Indians  rejoin- 
ing their  wild  kinsmen  of  the  forest  and  relapsing  into 
their  original  barbarism.  The  Laguna  mission  con- 
tinued, but  in  1830,  in  consequence  of  dissensions  be- 
tween the  Cocama  and  the  Pano,  the  former  removed 
to  the  towns  of  Nauta  and  Parinari  on  the  Maranon, 
while  the  Pano  joined  the  mission  of  Sarayacii  on  the 
lower  Ucayali,  founded  by  the  Franciscan  Father 
Girbal  in  1791.  Lieutenant  Smyth  has  given  us  an 
interesting  account  of  this  mission  as  he  found  it  in 
1835,  ha\'ing  then  a  mixed  population  of  2000  Pano, 
Conibo,  Setebo,  Shipibo,  and  Sensi,  all  using  the  Pano 
language,  which  was  the  dominant  one  along  the  lower 
Ucayali.  While  the  Indians  had  accepted  Christian- 
ity, taken  on  some  of  the  customs  of  civilization,  and 
showed  the  greatest  devotion  to  their  padre,  they  were 
still  greatly  given  to  child-murder  and  to  their  beset- 
ting sin  of  drunkenness  from  chicha,  in  spite  of  every 
effort  of  the  missionary.  It  must  be  remembered  in 
explanation  that  the  whole  country  was  a  tropical 
wilderness,  without  a  single  white  inhabitant  other 
than  the  padre  himself,  who  laboured  without  salary 
or  government  recognition,  and  that  the  mission 
Indians  were  in  constant  communication  with  their 
wild  kinsmen  of  the  woods.  Of  the  Indians,  Smyth 
says:  "Their  manners  are  frank  and  natural,  and  show 
without  any  disguise  their  affection  or  dLsUke,  their 
pleasure  or  anger.  They  have  an  easy,  courteous  air, 
and  seem  to  consider  themselves  on  a  perfect  equality 
with  everybody,  showing  no  deference  to  anyone  but 
the  Padre,  to  whom  they  pay  the  greatest  respect". 
Sarayacii  still  exists,  though  no  longer  a  mission  town, 
but  the  Pano  name  and  language  are  gradually  yield- 
ing to  the  Quichua  influence  from  beyond  the  moun- 
tains.    (See  also  Pmo  Indians;  SarayaciJ  Mission.) 

For  the  tribes  and  missions  of  the  upper  Amazon  region  during 
the  Jesuit  period:  Chantrey  Herrera,  HisloHa  de  las  Missiones 
de  la  Compaaia  de  Jesus  en  el  Marafion  Espahol  (Madrid,  1901); 
for  more  recent  conditions:  Smyth  and  Lowe,  Journey  from 
Lima  to  Para  (London,  1836).  Consult  also  Rodriguez,  El 
Marahon  v  Amazonas  (Madrid,  1684);  Herndon,  Exploration  of 
the  Valley  of  the  Amazon  (Washington,  1853);  Brinton,  American 
Race  (New  York,  1891);  Markham,  Tribes  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Amazon  in  Jour.  Anth.  Inst.,  XXIV  (Londou,  1895);  Reclus, 
Soulh  America:  the  Andes  Regions  (New  York,  1894). 

James  MooNEr. 

Panopolis,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Antinoe  in  The- 
bais  Prima;  the  ancient  Apu  or  Khimmin  which  the 
Greeks  made  Khemmis  and  Panopolis,  capital  of  the 
Panopolitan  "nomos"  or  district;  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant towns  of  L^pper  Egypt  made  famous  by  the 
god  MIn.  Herodotus  (II,  91)  speaks  of  its  temple. 
Strabo  (XVII,  i,  41)  says  the  population  was  com- 
posed of  weavers  and  stone-cutters.  As  bishops, 
LeQuien  mentions  (Oriens  christianus,  II,  601-4) 
Arius,  friend  of  Saint  Pachomius,  who  had  built  three 
convents  there;  Sabinus,  at  Ephesusin  431 ;  St.  Menas, 
venerated  11  February;  and  some  other  Jacobites. 
Recent  excavations  have  disclosed  a  necropolis,  nu- 
merous tapestries,  similar  to  Gobelin  work,  important 
for  the  history  of  tapestry  from  the  second  to  the 
ninth  century;  numerous  Christian  manuscripts, 
among  them  fragments  of  the  Book  of  Henoch,  of  the 
Gospel,  and  of  the  Apocalypse  according  to  Peter,  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus;  and  numerous 
Christian  inscriptions  (see  Akhai!n). 

BouRiANT  in  Memoires  publics  par  la  Mission  arcMologique 
frani:aise  du  Caire  (Paris) ;  Gerspach,  Les  tapisseries  copies  (Paris, 
1890),-  FOHRER,  Die  Grfiher-uml  Trrtilfunde  ron  Akhmtn-Panopo- 
lis  (Strasburg,  1891);  M  vspkhm.  M,  hnnirs  de  mytholoyie  et  d'arche- 
ologie  Sgyptiennes,  1,211;  Ami:i.im.\i  .  La  geographie  de  I'Eyypte  d 
r^poque  copte  (Paris,  IS'.lii),  Is-JJ;  Lkfkbvre,  Recueil  des  inscrip- 
tions grecques  chretiennes  d'Egyplt  (Cairo,  1907),  46-6G;  Lb- 
CLEHCQ  in  Cabbol,  Diet,  d'archeologie  chret,  (q,  v.  Akhmtn). 

— ,  S.  Vailh6. 

Panonuia.    See  Canons,  Coi,i,ection8  of  An- 
cient; Ivo  OF  Chartres,  Saint. 
Panormitanus.    Sec  Nicolo  de'  Tudeschi. 


PANPSYCHISM 


446 


PANT^NUS 


Panpsychism  i.Grcck  jrcir,  all ;  \ti'X'i,  soul)  is  a 
philosophical  theory  which  holds  that  everything  in 
the  universe,  the  inorganic  world  as  well  as  the  or- 
ganic, has  some  degree  of  consciousness.  It  is  closely 
related  to  the  theory  of  hylozoism,  which  teaches  that 
all  matter  is  endowed  with  life.  As  synonymous 
with  hylozoism  must  be  regarded  the  word  panhio- 
tism,  which  was  coined  by  Paul  Carus  to  distinguish 
his  theory  from  the  panpsychism  of  Hiickel  ("Mo- 
nist",  l,S92-93,  III,  23-4-57).  Between  panp.sy- 
chism  and  hylozoism  there  is  no  sharp  distinction, 
because  the  ancient  hylozoists  not  only  regarded  the 
spirits  of  the  material  universe  and  plant  world  as 
alive,  but  also  as  more  or  less  conscious.  The  Re- 
naissance witnessed  a  revival  of  the  ancient  hylozo- 
ism. The  Italian  philosophers  of  nature  and  the 
alchemists  speculated  about  the  spirits  that  were 
present  in  all  things  and  the  "feelings"  and  ".striv- 
ings" of  the  "principles"  of  nature.  The  monadism 
of  Leibniz  is  e\-idently  panpsychistic.  All  things  are 
made  up  of  monads.  Every  monad  is  conscious  and 
mirrors  intellectually  in  itself  the  entire  universe. 
One  monad  differs  from  another  only  in  the  clearness 
with  which  thi.s  mental  representation  is  expressed. 

Apart  from  these  early  movements  there  is  the 
modern  scliool  of  panpsychism,  during  the  develop- 
ment of  which  the  word  itself  was  coined.  It  began 
with  Fechner  (1801-87)  and  received  a  new  impetus 
from  D;uuiiiian  iihilosophy  in  England  and  meta- 
physical sprriilatidn  in  America. 

The  paniisyihi^m  of  Fechner  and  later  German 
writers  is  most  closely  connected  with  the  Renais- 
sance revival  of  hylozoism.  Both  Fechner  and  Lotze 
have  much  in  common  with  the  mystical  speculations 
of  Paracelsus  and  van  Helmont.  To  Fechner  every- 
thing is  animated;  the  earth  is  truly  our  mother,  and  a 
living  mother  at  that.  The  panpsychism  of  Lotze 
(1S17-81)  arises  as  a  dreamy  speculation,  rather  than 
a  coldly-reasoned  conclusion.  "  Has  one  half  of  crea- 
tion, that  which  we  comprise  under  the  name  of  the 
material  world,  no  function  whatever  save  that  of 
serving  the  other  half,  the  realm  of  mind,  and  are  we 
not  justified  in  longing  to  find  the  lustre  of  sense  in 
that  also  whence  we  always  derive  it?"  (Micro- 
cosmos,  I,  Book  III,  ch.  iv,  p.  353.)  By  making  the 
atom  unextended  Lotze  thought  that  he  had  removed 
the  last  objection  to  his  panpsychism.  Of  a  simi- 
lar type  is  the  panpsychism  of  Paulsen,  and  not 
far  removed  are  the  speculations  of  Hackel  on  the 
pleasures  and  pains  of  the  elements.  With  G.  Hey- 
mans  panpsychism  appears  as  a  reasoned  conclusion 
from  a  metaphysical  consideration  of  the  relation  be- 
tween body  and  mind. 

In  England  panpsychism  was  advocated  by  Wil- 
liam Kingdon  Clifford  as  early  as  January,  1878 
(Mind,  III,  57-67).  He  arrived  at  the  theory  as  a 
corollary  from  the  doctrine  of  evolution.  Consciou.s- 
ncss  exists  in  man;  man  is  evolved  from  inorganic 
matter;  therefore  inorganic  matter  has  in  it  the  ele- 
ments of  consciousness.  This  conclusion  was  then 
extended  to  the  assertion  that  "the  universe  consists 
entirely  of  mind  stuff".  As  his  forerunners  in  this 
conception  Clifford  mentioned  Kant  and  Ilackel — ■ 
and  e.specially  Wundt — of  whom  he  wrote:  "the  first 
st.atement  of  the  doctrine  in  its  true  connexion  that  I 
know  of  is  by  Wundt"  (Lectures  and  Essays,  II,  73). 

In  America  as  early  as  1885,  Dr.  Morton  Prince 
advocated  the  theory  of  panpsychism,  though  not 
under  that  name.  He  looked  upon  his  theory  as 
a  vindication  of  materialism,  arguing  that  if  mat- 
ter is  psychical  in  its  nature  and  mind  is  to  be 
interpreted  as  the  resultant  of  these  mental  forces 
of  nature,  such  an  interpretation  must  be  mate- 
rialistic; for  "as  long  as  anything  is  the  resultant 
of  the  forces  of  nature  it  belongs  to  material- 
ism" (The  Nature  of  Mind,  1.52).  His  pan- 
psychism was  in  reahty  an  illegitimate  conversion  of 


the  proposition:  "all  conscidus  jirncesses  are  physical 
changes"  to  "all  iihy.-^ical  rhariL^i's  arc  cniiscicius  pro- 
cesses". This  inference  was  ,su|ipleiiiente(l  by  hints 
at  the  evolutionary  argument  of  Clil'ford.  While  the 
panpsychism  of  Clifford  and  Prince  w;us  nioie  or  less 
em])irical,  tliat  of  Prof.  C.  A.  Strong  is  more  pro- 
nouncedly metaphysical;  it  deals  with  the  iiroblem  of 
interaction  between  body  and  mind.  Prof.  Strong 
proposes  to  .solve  it  by  eliminating  the  cs.sential  dis- 
tinction between  body  and  soul,  in  holding  that  matter 
itself  is  psychical  nitlier  than  physical  in  its  nature. 
His  work,  "Why  the  Mind  Has  a  Body"  (New  York, 
1903)  called  forth  a  li\cly  discussion  of  this  theory. 

The  first  article  of  the  eighteenth  question  in  the 
first  part  of  the  "Summa  Theologica"  of  St.  Thomas 
is  entitled:  "Is  every  thing  in  nature  alive?"  It  is  a 
discussion  of  the  theory  of  hylozoism  and  tells  us  also 
the  position  of  the  great  scholastic  on  the  question  of 
panpsychism.  St.  Thomas  decides  that  the  test  of 
hfe  is  to  be  sought  in  the  possession  of  those  charac- 
teristics that  are  proper  to  beings  which  are  most 
evidently  alive.  These  characteristics  he  embraces 
under  what  he  terms  the  power  of  spontaneous  move- 
ment. By  this  he  does  not  mean  the  mere  capability  of 
moving  about  from  place  to  place,  but  any  spontaneous 
tendency  towards  any  kind  of  change  (qufECumque  se 
agunl  ad  mnlum  vel  opcrationem  aliqunm).  As  exam- 
ples of  such  motion  he  mentions  the  tendency  of  a 
thing  from  a  less  to  a  more  perfect  state  (growth), 
and  the  sensations  and  understanding  which  constitute 
the  activity  of  animals  that  have  already  acquired 
their  full  development.  The  question  then  becomes 
one  of  fact.  Are  there  any  things  in  nature  that  do 
not  manifest  the  power  of  spontaneous  movement,  i.  e. 
growth  or  the  activity  of  sensory  and  intellectual  life? 
Yes.  There  are  things  which  have  no  spontaneous 
activity  of  their  own  and  do  not  move  except  by  an 
impulse  from  without,  and  these  things  are  lifeless  or 
dead.  We  may  see  analogies  in  them  to  li^■ing  things, 
but  tliey  can  never  be  said  to  live,  except  we  are 
speaking  jjoetically  and  by  way  of  metaphor.  St. 
Thomas  therefore  rejects  hylozoism  and  panpsychism. 

The  only  serious  arguments  in  favor  of  panpsychism 
are:  the  evolutionary  one  put  forward  by  Clifford,  and 
the  metaphysical  reasoning  of  Prof.  Strong.  But  until 
there  is  evidence  to  show  that  the  chemical  elements 
manifest  some  kind  of  mental  process,  we  have  no 
right  to  say  that  they  do,  no  matter  how  much  it 
would  aid  any  theory  of  evolution,  or  how  easy  it 
might  make  our  metaphysical  explanation  of  the  re- 
lation between  body  and  mind. 

St.  Thomas  .\qt-in-ab.  Summa  Throlcnirn,  I,  Q.  xiii,  a.  1;  Baw- 
DEK,   Th.     Vn,,^i,^,:„'lt-r  r--;rlirnl\„   P'i!,-.   Ifrriew,  XIII  (1904), 

29S-:tr'    'I'        /■  -  '  ■     '    /■'■'    ■'•   "1  in   The  Monist, 

III   (Is'ij    I  ,  1      ;    I  ,,,,/,'  .  ,  /  Essays,  II;  Body 

and  .1//'  ,'  III  /   '        , '  I  I         1  -.  i      I  HEM,  On  the  Nature 

of  Tlui,.,x-u,-tl„i„.-,.h.  I  ■.'  ■  I  .1,.,  1,^;.>);  Fechneh,  Zend 
Avesta  (iJrd  ed.,  2  vul>..  I  '  :  ■,  i'  nii;  Flouknoy,  Sur  le  pan- 
psychisme    in    Archives   -        ,        '  .IV     (1904-0.';).     129-44; 

HXcKEL,  T/ieRWi^eo/f/.^  (  ,  ,  ,  .  I  ■.n.  Ion,  1900) ;  Our  Monism  in 
The  Monist,  II  (1891-:).',,  J-.1-M..  llLf^wuB,  ZurParallelismus- 
frage  in  Zeitschrift /Or  Psuchiduaic,  XVII  (1.S9.8).  (>2-10S;  Lotze, 
MicTocosmus,  tr.  Hamilton  and  Jones,  I  (Edinburgh,  1881),  bk. 
Ill,  iv;  Paulsen.  Introduction  to  Philosoph,/.  tr.  Thilly  (New 
York,  1895),  bk.  I,  i.  §  5.  87-11 1 ;  Ppivrr,  rhr  Nature  of  Mind 
and  the  Human  Automatism  (P'l'  ■  !  '■-'  ■  ■  !-^',);  The  Identifica- 
tion of  Mind  and  Matter  in  I'l  /  ,111  (1904),  444-51; 
Sthonq,  Why  the  Mind  Has  a  /I  ,  .  . .  .^  ^.iIlc,  1903);  Idem, 
Qurlques  considerations  sur  le  iiain>.^i^h,..inL  jii  Arch,  de  psychoL,  IV 
(1904-5),  145-54. 

Thomas  V.  Moore. 

Pantasnus,  head  of  the  Catechetical  School  of 
Alex.andria  about  180  (Eusebius,  "Hist,  ecd.",  \,  x), 
still  .alive  in  193  (Eusebius,  "Chron."  Abr.,  2210).  As 
he  was  succeeded  by  Clement  who  left  Alexandria 
about  203,  the  probable  date  of  his  (h'ath  would  lie 
about  200.  He  was  trained  in  the  .Stoic  philosophy;  as 
a  Christian  missionary,  he  reached  India  (probably 
South  Arabia),  and  found  there  Christians  po.ssessing 
the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  in  Hebrew,  which  they  had 
received  from  St.  Bartholomew.     All  this  is  given  by 


PANTALEON 


447 


PANTHEISM 


Eusebius  as  what  was  "said"  (Hist,  eccl.,  V,  xi). 
Eusebius  continues:  "In  his  ' Hypotyposes'  he  [Clem- 
ent] spealcs  of  Pantsenus  by  name  as  his  teacher.  It 
seems  to  me  that  he  alludes  to  the  same  person  also 
in  his  'Stromata'."  In  the  passage  of  the  "Stromata" 
(I,  i),  which  Eusebius  proceeds  to  quote,  Clement 
enumerates  his  principal  teachers,  giving  their  na- 
tionality but  not  their  names.  The  last,  with  whom 
Eusebius  would  identify  Pant;enus,  was  "a  Hebrew  of 
Palestine,  greater  than  all  the  others  [in  ability],  whom 
having  hunted  out  in  his  concealment  in  Egypt,  I 
found  rest."  These  teachers  "pre.serving  the  true 
tradition  of  the  blessed  doctrine  from  the  Holy  Apos- 
tles Peter  and  James,  John  and  Paul  .  .  .  came,  by 
God's  will,  even  to  us"  etc.  Against  Eusebius's  con- 
jecture it  may  be  suggested  that  a  Hebrew  of  Pales- 
tine was  not  likely  to  be  trained  in  Stoic  philosophy. 
In  its  favour  are  the  facts  that  the  teacher  was  met 
in  Egypt,  and  that  Pantaenus  endeavoured  to  press 
the  Greek  philosophers  into  the  service  of  Christian- 
ity. It  may  well  be  that  a  mind  like  Clement's 
"found  rest"  in  this  feature  of  his  teaching. 

Eusebius  (VI,  xiii)  saj-s  again  that  Clement  in  his 
"Hypotyposes"  mentioned  Pantaenus,  and  further 
a:lds  that  he  gave  "his  opinions  and  traditions".  The 
inference  commonly  drawn  from  this  statement  is  that, 
in  the  extant  fragments  of  the  "Hypotyposes"  where 
he  quotes  "the  elders",  Clement  had  Panta-nus  in 
mind;  and  one  opinion  or  tradition  in  particular,  as- 
signed to  "the  blessed  elder"  (Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.", 
VI,  xiv) ,  is  unhesitatingly  ascribed  to  Panta?nus.  But 
this  is  incautious,  for  we  cannot  be  sure  that  Clement 
would  have  reckoned  Pantcenus  among  the  elders;  and 
if  he  did  so,  there  were  other  elders  whom  he  had 
known  (Hist,  eccl.,  VI,  xiii).  Origen,  defending  his 
use  of  Greek  philosophers,  appeals  to  the  example  of 
Pantocnus,  "who  benefited  many  before  our  time  by  his 
thorough  preparation  in  such  things"  (Hist,  eccl.,  VI, 
xix).  That  Pantu-nus  anticipated  Clement  and  Origen 
in  the  study  of  tireck  philosophy,  as  an  aid  to  theology, 
i.s  the  most  important  fact  we  know  concerning  him. 
Photius  (cod.  118)  states,  in  his  account  of  the  "Apol- 
ogy for  Origen"  by  Pamphilus  and  Eusebius  (see 
P.'i.MPHiLns  OF  C^SAREA,  Saint),  that  they  said  Pan- 
tsenus  had  been  a  hearer  of  men  who  had  seen  the 
Apostles,  nay,  even  had  heard  them  himself.  The 
second  statement  may  have  been  a  conjecture  based 
u|)on  the  identification  of  Pantienus  with  one  of  the 
teachers  described  in  "Stromata",  I,  i,  and  a  too 
literal  interpretation  of  what  is  said  about  these 
teachers  di'ii\  iii'.:;  tlii-ir  doctrine  direct  from  the  Apos- 
tles. Thr  tir-i  -iiMinent  may  well  have  been  made 
by  Clemi'iil  ;  ii  r;|il:;iiis  why  he  should  mention  Pan- 
taenus in  his  ■•  1 1\  j  i  I  |i^  I-  ^",  a  book  apparently  made 
up  of  tradition-  i  I  ,  m  nn  the  elders.     Pantaenus 

is  quoted  (a)  in  '•'•'  I.'  'i-"j:.i-  ex  Prophetis"  (Migne, 
"Clem.  Alex.",  11,  72:1)  and  (b)  in  the  "Scholia  in 
Greg.  Theolog. "  of  St.  Maximus  Confessor.  But  these 
quotations  may  have  been  taken  from  the  "Hypoty- 
poses". The  last  named  in  his  prologue  to  "Dionys. 
,4reop."  (ed.  Corder,  p.  36)  speaks  casually  of  his 
writings,  but  he  merely  seems  to  assume  he  must  have 
-written.  A  conjecture  has  been  hazarded  by  Light- 
foot  (Apost.  Fathers,  4S8),  and  followed  up  by  Ba- 
tifTol  ("L'eglise  naissante",  3rd  ed.,  213  sqq.),  that 
Pantajnus  was  the  writer  of  the  concluding  chapters  of 
the  "Epistle  to  Diognetus"  (see  Diognetus).  The 
chief,  though  not  the  only  ground  for  this  suggestion, 
is  that  Anastasius  Sinaita  in  two  passages  (ed.  Migne, 
pp.  860,  892)  singles  out  Pantaenus  with  two  or  three 
other  early  Fathers  as  interpreting  the  six  days  of 
Creation  and  the  Garden  of  Eden  as  figuring  Christ 
and  the  Church — a  line  of  thought  pursued  in  the  frag- 
ment. 

B\nDENHEwEn,  Gesch.  rleraltkirch.  Lit.,  II,  13  sqq.;  Harnack,. 
AUchrist.  Lit.,  291  aqq.;  TrLLEMONT,  Hint,  eccles..  Ill,  170  sqq.; 
Ceillieb,  Hist,  des  aut.,  II,  237  aqq.;  Rodth,  Reliq.  sac,  I,  237 

sflfl  F.  J.  Bacchus. 


Pantaleon,  Saint,  martyr,  d.  about  305.  Accord- 
ing to  legend  he  was  the  son  of  a  rich  pagan,  Eustor- 
gius  of  Nicomedia,  and  had  been  instructed  in  Chris- 
tianity by  his  Christian  mother,  Eubula.  Afterwards 
he  became  estranged  from  Christianity.  He  studied 
medicine  and  became  physician  to  the  Emperor  Waxi- 
inianus.  He  was  won  back  to  Christianity  by  the 
priest  Hermolaus.  Upon  the  death  of  his  father  he 
came  into  possession  of  a  large  fortune.  Envious 
colleagues  denounced  him  to  the  emperor  during  the 
Diocletian  persecution.  The  emperor  wished  to  save 
him  and  sought  to  persuade  him  to  apostasy.  Panta- 
leon, however,  openly  confessed  his  faith,  and  as  proof 
that  Christ  is  the  true  God,  he  healed  a  paralytic. 
Notwithstanding  this,  he  was  condemned  to  death  by 
the  emperor,  who  regarded  the  miracle  as  an  exhibition 
of  magic.  According  to  legend,  Pantaleon's  flesh  was 
first  burned  with  torches;  upon  this  Christ  appeared  to 
all  in  the  form  of  Hermolaus  to  strengthen  and  heal 
Pantaleon.  The  torches  were  extinguished.  After 
this,  when  a  bath  of  liquid  lead  was  prepared,  Christ 
in  the  same  form  stepped  into  the  cauldron  with  him, 
the  fire  went  out  and  the  lead  became  cold.  He  was 
now  thrown  into  the  sea,  but  the  stone  with  which  he 
was  loaded  floated.  He  was  thrown  to  the  wild  beasts, 
but  these  fawned  upon  him  and  could  not  be  foiced 
away  until  he  had  blessed  them.  He  was  bound  on  thf^ 
wheel,  but  the  ropes  snapped,  and  the  wheel  broke.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  behead  him,  but  the  sword  bent, 
and  the  executioners  were  converted.  Pantaleon  im- 
plored heaven  to  forgive  them,  for  which  reason  he 
also  received  the  name  of  Panteleemon  (the  all-com- 
passionate). It  was  not  until  he  himself  desired  it  that 
it  was  possible  to  behead  him. 

The  lives  containing  these  legendary  features  are  all 
late  in  date  and  valueless.  Yet  the  fact  of  the  martyr- 
dom itself  seems  to  be  proved  by  a  veneration  for 
which  there  is  early  testimony,  among  others  from 
Theodoret  (Grscarum  afTectionum  curatio,  Sermo 
VIII,  "De  martyribus",  in  Migne,  P.  G.,  LXXXIII, 
1033),  Prooopius  of  Cssarea  (De  aedificiis  Justiniani, 
I,  ix;  V,  ix),  and  the  " Martyrologium  Hieronymi- 
anum"  (Acta  SS.,  Nov.,  II,  1,  97).  Pantaleon  is  Ven- 
erated in  the  East  as  a  great  martyr  and  wonder- 
worker. In  the  Middle  Ages  he  came  to  be  regarded  as 
the  patron  saint  of  physicians  and  midwives,  and  be- 
came one  of  the  fourteen  guardian  martyrs.  From 
early  times  a  phial  containing  some  of  his  blood  has 
been  preserved  at  Constantinople.  On  the  feast  day 
of  the  saint  the  blood  is  said  to  become  fluid  and  to 
bubble.  Relics  of  the  saint  are  to  be  found  at  St. 
Denis  at  Paris;  his  head  is  venerated  at  Lyons.  His 
feast  day  is  27  July,  also  28  July,  and  18  February. 

Acta  SS.,  July,  VI,  397-425;  Biblioth.  hagiogr.  grteca  (2nd  ed., 
Brussels,  1909),  19G-97;  Biblioth.  hag.  lat..  II  (Brussels,  1900-01), 
929-32    GiJNTEH  Legendenstwlien  (Cologne,  1906),  22,  passim. 

Klemens  Lofpler. 

Pantheism  {■fS.i/,  all;  Oe6s,  god),  the  view  according 
to  which  God  and  the  world  are  one.  The  name 
pantheist  was  introduced  by  John  Toland  (1670- 
1722)  in  his  "Socinianism  truly  Stated"  (1705),  while 
pantheism  was  first  used  by  his  opponent  Fay  in 
"Defensio  Rehgionis"  (1709).  Toland  pubhshed  his 
"  PantheLsticon "  in  1732.  The  doctrine  itself  goes 
back  to  the  early  Indian  philosophy;  it  appears  during 
the  course  of  history  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  and 
it  enters  into  or  draws  support  from  so  many  other 
systems  that,  as  Professor  Flint  says  ("Antitheistic 
Theories",  3.34),  "there  is  probably  no  pure  panthe- 
ism". Taken  in  the  strictest  sense,  i.  e.  as  identify- 
ing God  and  the  world,  Pantheism  is  simply  Atheism. 
In  any  of  its  forms  it  involves  Monism  (q.  v.),  but  the 
latter  is  not  necessarijy  pantheistic.  Emanationism 
(q.  V.)  may  easily  take  on  a  pantheistic  meaning  and, 
as  pointed  out  in  the  Encyclical,  "Pascendi  dominici 
gregis",  the  same  is  true  of  the  modern  doctrine  of 
immanence  (q.  v.). 


PANTHEISM 


448 


PANTHEISM 


Varieties. — Those  agroc  in  tlio  fiindamontal  iloc- 
trine  tlmt  benoatli  the  apparent  diversity  and  mul- 
tiplicity of  things  in  the  universe  there  is  one  only 
being  absolutely  necessary,  eternal,  and  infinite. 
Two  questions  then  arise:  What  is  the  nature  of  this 
being?  How  are  the  manifold  appearances  to  be  ex- 
plained? The  principal  answers  are  incorporated  in 
such  difTcrcnl  carliersystcmsas  Brahminism,  Stoicism, 
Neo-Platonisiii,  and  Gnosticism,  and  in  the  later  sys- 
tems of  Scotus  Kriugcna  and  Giordano  Bruno  (qq.  v.). 

Spinoza's  pantheism  was  reaUstic:  the  one  being 
of  the  world  had  an  objective  character.  But  the 
svstems  that  developed  during  the  nineteenth  century 
went  to  the  extreme  of  idealism.  They  are  properly 
grouped  under  the  designation  of  "transcendental 
pantheism",  as  their  starting-point  is  found  in  Kant's 
critical  [)hilo.sophy.  Kant  Tq.  v.)  had  distinguished 
in  knowledge  the  matter  which  comes  through  sensa- 
tion from  the  outer  world,  and  the  forms,  which  are 
purely  subjective  and  yet  are  the  more  important 
factors.  Furthermore,  he  had  declared  that  we  know 
the  appearances  (phenomena)  of  things  but  not  the 
things-in-themselves  (noumena).  And  he  had  made 
the  ideas  of  the  soul,  the  world,  and  God  merely  im- 
manent, so  that  any  attempt  to  demonstrate  their 
olDJective  value  must  end  in  contradiction.  This  sub- 
jecti\'ism  paved  the  way  for  the  pantheistic  theories 
of  Fichte,  Schelling,  and  Hegel. 

Fichte  set  back  into  the  mind  all  the  elements  of 
knowledge,  i.  e.  matter  as  well  as  form;  phenomena 
and  indeed  the  whole  of  reality  are  products  of  the 
thinking  Ego — not  the  individual  mind  but  the  ab- 
solute or  universal  self-consciousness.  Through  the 
three-fold  process  of  thesis,  antithesis,  and  synthesis, 
the  Ego  posits  the  non-Ego  not  only  theoretically  but 
also  for  practical  purposes,  i.  e.  for  effort  and  struggle, 
which  are  necessary  in  order  to  attain  the  highest 
good.  In  the  same  way  the  Ego,  free  in  itself,  posits 
other  free  agents  by  whose  existence  its  own  freedom  is 
limited.  Hence  the  law  of  right  and  all  morality;  but 
hence  also  the  Divine  being.  The  living,  active, 
moral  order  of  the  world,  says  Fichte,  is  itself  Gotl; 
we  need  no  other  God,  and  can  conceive  of  no  other. 
The  idea  of  God  as  a  distinct  substance  is  impossible 
and  contradictory.  Such,  at  any  rate,  is  the  earlier 
form  of  his  doctrine,  though  in  his  later  theorizing  he 
emphasizes  more  and  more  the  concepts  of  the  Abso- 
lute as  embracing  all  individuals  within  itself. 

According  to  Schelling,  the  Absolute  is  the 
"identitj'  of  all  differences" — object  and  subject, 
nature  and  mind,  the  real  order  and  the  ideal;  and 
the  knowledge  of  this  identity  is  obtained  by  an 
intellectual  intuition  which,  abstracting  from  every 
individual  thinker  and  every  possible  object  of 
thought,  contemplates  the  absolute  reason.  Out  of 
this  original  unity  all  things  evolve  in  opposite  di- 
rections: nature  as  the  negative  pole,  mind  or  spirit 
as  the  positive  pole  of  a  vast  magnet,  the  universe. 
Within  this  totality  each  thing,  like  the  particle  of  a 
magnet,  has  its  nature  or  form  determined  according 
as  it  manifests  subjectivity  or  objectivity  in  greater 
degree.  History  is  but  the  gradual  self-revelation  of 
the  Absolute;  when  its  final  period  will  come  to  pass 
we  know  not;  but  when  it  does  come,  then  God  will  be. 

The  system  of  Hegel  (q.  v.)  has  been  called  "logical 
pantheism",  as  it  is  constructed  on  the  "dialectical" 
method;  and  "panlogismus",  since  it  describes  the 
entire  world-process  as  the  evolution  of  the  Idea. 
Starting  from  the  most  abstract  of  notions,  i.  e.  pure 
being,  the  Absolute  developes  first  the  various  cate- 
gories; then  it  extemahzes  itself,  and  Nature  is  the 
result;  finally  it  returns  upon  itself,  regains  unity  and 
self-consciousness,  becomes  theindividual  spirit  of  man. 
The  Absolute,  therefore,  is  Mind;  but  it  attains  its  ful- 
ness only  by  a  process  of  evolution  or  "becoming", 
the  stages  of  which  form  the  historj'  of  the  universe. 

These  idealistic  constructions  were  followed  by  a 


reaction  due  largely  to  the  development  of  the  n.atural 
sciences.  But  these  in  turn  offer,  apparently,  new 
support  to  the  central  positions  of  pantheism,  or  at 
any  rate  they  point,  it  is  claimed,  to  that  very  unity 
and  that  gradual  unfolding  which  panllicisin  has  all 
along  asserted.  The  principle  of  the  ccin.servation  of 
energy  through  ceaseless  transforinalintis,  and  the 
doctrine  of  evolution  applied  to  all  things  and  all 
phenomena,  are  readily  interpreted  by  the  pan- 
theist in  favour  of  his  own  system.  Even  where 
the  ultimate  reality  is  said  to  be  unknowable, 
as  in  Herbert  Spencer's  "Synthetic  Philosophy",  it  is 
still  one  and  the  same  being  that  manifests  itself  alike 
in  evolving  matter  and  in  the  consciousness  that 
evolves  out  of  lower  material  forms.  Nor  is  it  sur- 
prising that  writers  like  the  late  Professor  Paulsen 
should  see  in  pantheism  the  final  outcome  of  all  specu- 
lation and  the  definitive  expression  which  the  human 
mind  has  found  for  the  totahtv  of  things  ("  Einlcitung 
in  die  Philosopliie",  Berlin,  1882,  242). 

His  statement .  in  fact,  may  well  serve  as  a  summary 
of  the  pantheistic  doctrine:  (1)  Reality  is  a  unitary 
being;  individual  things  have  no  absolute  indepen- 
dence; they  have  existence  in  the  All-One,  the  ens 
realissimum  et  perfectissimum  of  which  they  are  the 
more  or  less  independent  members;  (2)  The  All-One 
manifests  itself  to  us,  so  far  as  it  has  any  manifesta- 
tions, in  the  two  sides  of  reality — nature  and  history; 
(3)  The  universal  interaction  that  goes  on  in  the  physi- 
cal world  is  the  showing  forth  of  the  inner  esthetic 
teleological  necessity  with  which  the  All-One  unfolds 
his  essential  being  in  a  multitude  of  harmonious  modi- 
fications, a  cosmos  of  concrete  ideas  (monads,  entel- 
echies).  This  internal  necessity  is  at  the  same  time 
absolute  freedom  or  self-realization  (op.  cit.,  239-40). 

Catholic  Doctrine. — The  Church  has  repeatedly 
condemned  the  errors  of  pantheism.  Among  the 
propositions  censured  in  the  Syllabus  of  Pius  IX  is 
that  which  declares:  "There  is  no  supreme,  all-wise 
and  all-provident  Divine  Being  distmct  from  the 
universe;  God  is  one  with  nature  and  therefore  sub- 
ject to  change;  He  becomes  God  in  man  and  the  world; 
all  things  are  God  and  have  His  substance;  God  is 
identical  with  the  world,  spirit  with  matter,  necessity 
with  freedom,  truth  with  falsity,  good  with  evil,  jus- 
tice with  injustice"  (Denzinger-Bannwart,  "Ench.", 
1701).  And  the  Vatican  Council  anathematizes  those 
who  assert  that  the  substance  or  essence  of  God  and 
of  all  things  is  one  and  the  same,  or  that  all  things 
evolve  from  God's  essence  (ibid.,  1803  sqq.). 

Criticism. — To  our  perception  the  world  presents 
a  multitude  of  beings  each  of  which  has  qualities, 
activities,  and  existence  of  its  own;  each  is  an  individ- 
ual thing.  Radical  differences  mark  off  living  things 
from  those  that  are  lifeless;  the  conscious  from  the  un- 
conscious; human  thought  and  volition  from  the  activ- 
ities of  lower  animals.  And  among  human  beings  each 
personality  appears  as  a  self,  which  cannot  by  any 
effort  become  completely  one  with  other  selves.  On 
the  other  hand,  any  adequate  account  of  the  world 
other  than  downright  materialism  includes  the  concept 
of  some  original  Being  which,  whether  it  be  called 
Fir.st  Cause,  or  Absolute,  or  God,  is  in  its  nature  and 
existence  really  distinct  from  the  world.  Only  surli  a 
Being  can  satisfy  the  demands  of  human  thought, 
either  as  the  source  of  the  moral  order  or  as  the  ol  ject 
of  religious  worship.  If,  then,  pantheism  not  only 
merges  the  separate  existences  of  the  world  in  one  ex- 
istence, but  also  identifies  this  one  with  the  Divine 
Being,  some  cogent  reason  or  motive  must  be  alleged 
in  justification  of  such  a  procedure.  Pantheists  indeed 
bring  forward  various  arguments  in  support  of  their 
several  positions,  and  in  reply  to  criticism  aimed  at 
the  details  of  their  system;  but  what  lies  back  of  their 
reasoning  and  what  has  prompted  the  construction  of 
all  i)antheistic  theories,  both  old  and  new,  is  the  crav- 
ing for  unity.    The  mind,  they  insist,  cannot  accept 


PANTHEISM 


449 


PANTHEISM 


dualism  or  pluralism  as  the  final  account  of  reality. 
By  an  irresistible  tendency,  it  seeks  to  substitute  for 
the  apparent  multiplicity  and  diversity  of  things  a 
unitary  ground  or  source;  and,  once  this  is  determined, 
to  explain  all  things  as  somehow  derived  though  not 
really  separated  from  it. 

That  such  is  in  fact  the  ideal  of  many  philosophers 
cannot  be  denied;  nor  is  it  needful  to  challenge  the 
statement  that  reason  does  aim  at  unification  on  some 
basis  or  other.  But  this  very  aim  and  all  endeavours 
in  view  of  it  must  likewise  be  kept  within  reasonable 
bounds:  a  theoretical  unity  obtained  at  too  great  a 
sacrifice  is  no  unity  at  all,  but  merely  an  abstraction 
that  quickly  falls  to  pieces.  Hence  for  an  estimate  of 
pantheism  two  questions  must  be  considered;  (1)  at 
what  cost  does  it  identify  God  and  the  world;  and  (2) 
is  the  identification  really  accomplished  or  only  at- 
tempted? The  answer  to  (1)  is  furnished  by  a  review 
of  the  leading  concepts  which  enter  into  the  pantheis- 
tic system. 

God. — It  has  often  been  claimed  that  pantheism  by 
teaching  us  to  see  God  in  everything  gives  us  an  ex- 
alted idea  of  His  wisdom,  goodness,  and  power,  while 
it  imparts  to  the  visible  world  a  deejier  meaning.  In 
point  of  fact,  however,  it  makes  void  the  attributes 
which  belong  essentially  to  the  Divine  nature.  For 
the  pantheist  God  is  not  a  personal  Being.  He  is  not 
an  intelligent  Cause  of  the  world,  designing,  creating, 
and  governing  it  in  accordance  with  the  free  determina- 
tion of  His  wisdom.  If  consciousness  is  ascribed  to 
Him  as  the  one  Substance,  extension  is  also  said  to 
be  His  attribute  (Spinoza),  or  He  attains  to  self-con- 
sciousness only  through  a  process  of  evolution  (Hegel). 
But  this  very  process  implies  that  God  is  not  from 
eternity  perfect;  He  is  forever  changing,  advancing 
from  one  degree  of  perfection  to  another,  and  helpless 
to  determine  in  what  direction  the  advance  shall  take 
place.  Indeed,  there  is  no  warrant  for  saying  that  He 
"advances"  or  becomes Ynore  "perfect";  at  most  we 
can  say  that  He,  or'rather  It,  is  constantly  passing 
into  other  forms.  Thus  God  is  not  only  impersonal, 
but  also  changeable  and  finite — which  is  equivalent  to 
saying  that  He  is  not  God. 

It  is  true  that  some  pantheists,  e.  g.  Paulsen  (op. 
cit.),  while  frankly  denying  the  personality  of  God, 
pretend  to  exalt  His  being  by  asserting  that  He  is 
"supra-personal".  If  this  means  that  God  in  Himself 
is  infinitely  beyond  any  idea  that  we  can  form  of  Him, 
the  statement  is  correct;  but  if  it  means  that  our  idea 
of  Him  is  radically  false  and  not  merely  inadequate, 
that  consequently  we  have  no  right  to  speak  of  infinite 
intelligence  and  will,  the  statement  is  simply  a  make- 
shift which  pantheism  borrows  from  agnosticism. 
Even  then  the  term  "  supra-personal "  is  not  consist- 
ently applied  to  what  Paulsen  calls  the  All-One;  for 
this,  if  at  all  related  to  personality,  should  be  described 
as  infra-personal. 

Once  the  Divine  personality  is  removed,  it  is  evi- 
dently a  misnomer  to  speak  of  God  as  just  or  holy,  or 
in  any  sense  a  moral  Being.  Since  God,  in  the  panthe- 
istic view,  acts  out  of  sheer  necessity,  i.  e.  cannot  act 
otherwise,  His  action  is  no  more  good  than  it  is  evil. 
To  say,  with  Fichte,  that  God  is  the  moral  order,  is  an 
open  contradiction;  no  such  order  exists  where  nothing 
is  free,  nor  could  God,  a  non-moral  Being,  have  estab- 
lished a  moral  order  either  for  Himself  or  for  other 
beings.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  be  maintained  that 
the  moral  order  does  exist,  that  it  is  postulated  by  our 
human  judgments,  the  plight  of  pantheism  is  no  bet- 
ter; for  in  that  case  all  the  actions  of  men,  their  crimes 
as  well  as  their  good  deeds,  must  be  imputed  to  God. 
Thus  the  Divine  Being  not  only  loses  the  attribute  of 
absolute  holiness,  but  even  falls  below  the  level  of 
those  men  in  whom  moral  goodness  triumphs  over  evil. 

Man. — No  such  claim,  however,  can  be  made  in 
behalf  of  the  moral  order  by  a  consistent  pantheist. 
For  him,  human  personality  is  a  mere  illusion:  what 
XI.— 29 


we  call  the  individual  man  is  only  one  of  the  countless 
fragments  that  make  up  the  Divine  Being ;  and  since 
the  All  is  impersonal  no  single  part  of  it  can  validly 
claim  personality.  Futhermore,  since  each  human 
action  is  inevitably  determined,  the  consciousness  of 
freedom  is  simply  another  illusion,  due,  as  Spinoza 
says,  to  our  ignorance  of  the  causes  that  compel  us  to 
act.  Hence  our  ideas  of  what  "ought  to  be"  are 
purely  subjective,  and  our  concept  of  a  moral  order, 
with  its  distinctions  of  right  and  wrong,  has  no  founda- 
tion in  reality.  The  so-called  "dictates  of  conscience" 
are  doubtless  interesting  phenomena  of  mind  which 
the  psychologist  may  investigate  and  explain,  but 
they  have  no  binding  force  whatever;  they  are  just  as 
illusory  as  the  ideas  of  virtue  and  duty,  of  injustice  to 
the  fellow-man  and  of  sin  against  God.  But  again, 
since  these  dictates,  like  all  our  ideas,  are  produced  in 
us  by  God,  it  follows  that  He  is  the  source  of  our  illu- 
sions regarding  morality — a  consequence  which  cer- 
tainly does  not  enhance  His  holiness  or  His  knowledge. 

It  is  not,  however,  clear  that  the  term  illuttion  is  jus- 
tified; for  this  supposes  a  distinction  between  truth 
and  error — a  distinction  which  has  no  meaning  for  the 
genuine  pantheist;  all  our  judgments  being  the  utter- 
ance of  the  One  that  thinks  in  us,  it  is  impossible  to 
discriminate  the  true  from  the  false.  He  who  rejects 
pantheism  is  no  further  from  the  truth  than  he  who 
defends  it;  each  but  expresses  a  thought  of  the  Abso- 
lute whose  large  tolerance  harbours  all  contradictions. 
Logically,  too,  it  would  follow  that  no  heed  should  be 
taken  as  to  veracity  of  statement,  since  all  statements 
are  equally  warranted.  The  pantheist  who  is  careful 
to  speak  in  accordance  with  his  thought  simply  re- 
frains from  putting  his  philosophy  into  practice.  But 
it  is  none  the  less  significant  that  Spinoza's  chief  work 
was  his  "Ethics",  and  that,  according  to  one  modern 
view,  ethics  has  only  to  describe  what  men  do,  not  to 
prescribe  what  they  ought  to  do. 

Religion. — In  forming  its  conception  of  God,  pan- 
theism eliminates  everj-  characteristic  that  religion  pre- 
supposes. An  impersonal  being,  whatever  attributes 
it  may  have,  cannot  be  an  object  of  worship.  An  infinite 
substance  or  a  self-evolving  energy  may  excite  fear; 
but  it  repels  faith  and  love.  Even  the  beneficent  forms 
of  its  manifestation  call  forth  no  gratitude,  since  these 
result  from  it  by  a  rigorous  necessity.  For  the  same 
reason,  prayer  of  any  sort  is  useless,  atonement  is  vain, 
and  merit  impossible.  The  supernatural  of  course  dis- 
appears entirely  when  God  and  the  world  are  identified. 

Recent  advocates  of  pantheism  have  sought  to  ob- 
viate these  difficulties  and  to  show  that,  apart  from 
particular  dogmas,  the  religious  life  and  spirit  are  safe- 
guarded in  their  theory.  But  in  this  attempt  they 
divest  religion  of  its  essentials,  reducing  it  to  mere  feel- 
ing. Not  action,  they  allege,  but  humility  and  trust- 
fulness constitute  religion.  This,  however,  is  an  arbi- 
trary procedure;  by  the  same  method  it  could  be 
shown  that  religion  is  nothing  more  than  existing  or 
breathing.  The  pantheist  quite  overlooks  the  fact 
that  religion  means  obedience  to  Divine  law;  and  of 
this  obedience  there  can  be  no  question  in  a  system 
which  denies  the  freedom  of  man's  will.  According  to 
pantheism  there  is  just  as  little  "rational  service"  in 
the  so-called  religious  life  as  there  is  in  the  behaviour 
of  any  physical  agent.  And  if  men  still  distinguish  be- 
tween actions  that  are  religious  and  those  that  are  not, 
the  distinction  is  but  another  illusion. 

Immortality. — Belief  in  a  future  life  is  not  only  an 
incentive  to  effort  and  a  source  of  encouragement; 
for  the  Christian  at  least  it  implies  a  sanction  of 
Divine  law,  a  prospect  of  retribution.  But  this  sanc- 
tion is  of  no  meaning  or  efficacy  unless  the  soul  sur- 
vive as  an  individual.  If,  as  pantheism  teaches,  im- 
mortality is  absorption  into  the  being  of  God,  it  can 
matter  little  what  sort  of  life  one  leads  here.  There 
is  no  ground  for  discriminating  between  the  lot  of  the 
righteous  and  that  of  the  wicked,  when  all  alike  are 


PANVINIO 


450 


PANZANI 


merged  in  the  Absolute.  And  if  by  some  furtlior  pro- 
cess of  evolution  such  a  discrimination  should  come 
to  pass,  it  can  signify  nothino;,  cither  as  reward  or  as 
punishment,  once  personal  consciousness  has  ceased. 
That  perfect  union  with  (iod  which  jiantheism  seems 
to  promise,  is  no  powerful  inspiration  to  right  living 
when  one  considers  how  far  from  holy  must  be  a  God 
who  continually  takes  up  into  Himself  the  worst 
of  humanity  along  with  the  best — if  indeed  one  may 
continue  to  think  in  terms  that  involve  a  distinction 
between  evil  and  good. 

It  is  therefore  quite  plain  that  in  endeavouring  to 
unify  all  things,  pantheism  sacrifices  too  much.  If 
God,  freedom,  morality,  and  religion  must  all  be  re- 
duced to  the  One  and  its  inevitable  processes,  there 
arises  the  question  whether  the  craving  for  unity  may 
not  be  the  source  of  illusions  more  fatal  than  any  of 
those  which  pantheism  claims  to  dispel.  But  in  fact 
no  such  unification  is  attained.  The  pantheist  uses 
his  power  of  abstraction  to  set  aside  all  differences,  and 
then  declares  that  the  differences  are  not  really  there. 
Yet  even  for  him  they  seem  to  be  there,  and  so  from  the 
very  outset  he  is  dealing  with  appearance  and  reality; 
and  these  two  he  never  fuses  into  one.  He  simply 
hurries  ontoas.sert  that  the  reality  is  Divine  and  that 
all  the  apparent  things  are  manifestations  of  the  in- 
finite; but  he  does  not  explain  why  each  manifestation 
should  be  finite  or  why  the  various  manifestations 
should  be  interpreted  in  so  many  different  and  con- 
flicting ways  by  human  minds,  each  of  which  is  a  part 
of  one  and  the  same  God.  He  makes  the  Absolute 
pass  onward  from  unconsciousness  to  consciousness 
but  does  not  show  why  there  should  be  these  two 
stages  in  evolution,  or  why  evolution,  which  certainly 
means  becoming  "other",  should  take  place  at  all. 

It  might  be  noted,  too,  that  pantheism  fails  to  unify 
subject  and  object,  and  that  in  spite  of  its  efforts  the 
world  of  existence  remains  distinct  from  the  world 
of  thought.  But  such  objections  have  little  weight 
with  the  thorough-going  pantheist  who  follows  Hegel, 
and  is  willing  for  the  sake  of  "unity"  to  declare  that 
Being  and  Nothing  are  identical. 

There  is  nevertheless  a  fundamental  unity  which 
Christian  philosophy  has  always  recognized,  and 
which  has  God  for  its  centre.  Not  as  the  univensal 
being,  nor  as  the  formal  constituent  principle  of  things, 
but  as  their  efficient  cause  operating  in  and  through 
each,  and  as  the  final  cause  for  which  things  exist, 
God  in  a  very  true  sense  is  the  source  of  all  thought 
and  reality  (see  St.  Thomas,  "Contra  Gentes",  I). 
His  omnipresence  and  action,  far  from  eUminating 
secondary  causes,  preserve  each  in  the  natural  order 
of  its  efficiency — physical  agents  under  the  determina- 
tion of  physical  law  and  human  personaUty  in  the 
exercise  of  intelligence  and  freedom,  the  foundation 
of  the  moral  order.  The  straining  after  unity  in  the 
pantheistic  sense  is  without  warrant;  the  only  intel- 
ligible unity  is  that  which  God  himself  has  established, 
a  unity  of  purpose  which  is  manifest  alike  in  the  pro- 
cesses of  the  material  universe  and  in  the  free  volition 
of  man,  and  which  moves  on  to  its  fulfilment  in  the 
union  of  the  created  spirit  with  the  infinite  Person, 
the  author  of  the  moral  order  and  the  object  of  reh- 
gious  worship. 

PuTMTRE,  General  Sketch  of  the  Hint,  of  Pantheism  {London, 
1881):  JuNDT.  Hist,  du  Panth.  populaire  au  moyen  Age  (Paris, 
1875) :  Saisset,  Essni  de  philos.  Tetigieuse  (Paris,  1859),  tr..  Modern 
Pantheism  (Edinburgh,  1803);  Maret,  Essai  sur  te  Panlheisme 
(Paris,  18.39);  Harris.  Pantheism  in  Journal  of  Spec.  Philos..  IX 
(1875);  ibid..  XIX  (1885);  Weissenbero.  Theismus  u.  Pantheis- 
mus  (Vienna.  1880) ;  de  San.  Inst.  Metaphysicte  Specialis,  I  (Lou- 
vain.  1881);  HoNTHEiM.  Inat.  Theod.  (Freiburg,  1893);  Flint, 
Anti-Theistic  Theories  (5th  cd.,  Edinburgh,  1894);  de  Wulf. 
Quel^es  formes  contemp.  du  PanthHsme  in  Rev.  Nio-scol.,  IV 
(1897) ;  Gerard,  The  Old  Riddle  and  the  Newest  Answer  (London, 
1904) :  Uhlmann,  Die  Pers/inlichkeit  Gottes  u.  ihre  modernen  Gegner 
(Freiburg.  1906) ;  Paclsen.  Der  moderne  Pantheismus  u.  die 
christl.  Weltanseh.  (Halle.  1906);  Wolf.  Moderner  P.  u.  christl. 
Theismus  (Stuttgart,  1906);  flee  bibliog.  under  God;  Monibu. 

Edward  A.  Pace. 


Panvinio,  O.nofuio,  historian  an<l  .archaeologist, 
b.  at  Verona,  23  February,  I.'jiSO;  d.  at  Palermo,  7 
April,  15(38.  At  eleven  he  entered  the  Augustinian 
Hermits.  After  graduating  in  Home  as  bachelor  of 
arts  in  1553,  he  instructed  the  young  men  of  his  order 
there  for  one  year,  antl  then  taught  theology  in  the 
monastery  of  his  order  at  Florence.  In  1.557  he  ob- 
tained the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology,  visitetl  vari- 
ous libraries  in  Italy,  making  historical  researches, 
and  went  to  Germany  in  15.59.  Refusing  the  epis- 
copal dignity,  he  accepted  the  office  of  corrector  and 
reviser  of  the  books  of  the  Vatican  Library  in  1556. 
He  died  while  accompanying  his  friend  and  protector 
Cardinal  Famese  to  the  Synod  of  Monrcale.  He  was 
recognized  as  one  of  the  greatest  church  lii.slorians  and 
archa'ologists  of  his  time.  Paul  Manutius  called  him 
"antiquitatis  helluo",  and  Scaliger  styled  him  "pater 
omnis  historiae". 

He  is  the  author  of  numerous  historical,  theological, 
archaeological,  and  liturgical  works,  some  of  which  are 
posthumous  publications,  others  are  still  preserved  in 
manuscript  in  the  Vatican  Library.  Of  his  printed 
works  the  following  are  the  most  important:  "Fasti 
et  triumphi  Romanorum  a  Romulo  usque  ad  Carolum 
V"  (Venice,  1557);  a  revised  edition  of  Sigonio's 
"Fasti  consulares"  (Venice,  1558);  "De  comitiis  im- 
peratoriis"  (Basle,  1.558);  "De  republica  Romana" 
(Venice,  1558);  "Epitome  Romanorum  pontificum" 
(Venice,  1557);  a  revised  edition  of  Platina's  "De 
vitis  pontificum"  (Venice);  "XXVII  Pontif.  Max. 
elogia  et  imagines"  (Rome,  15G8);  "De  sibyllis  et 
carminibus  sibyllinis"  (Venice,  1567);  "Chronicon 
ecclesiasticum  a  C.  Julii  Csesaris  tempore  usque  ad 
imp.  Maximilianum  II "  (Cologne,  15G8) ;  "  De  epis- 
copatibus,  titulis,  et  diaconiis  cardinalium"  (Venice, 
1.567);  "De  ritu  sepeliendi  mortuos  apud  veteres 
Christianos"  (Cologne,  1568);  "De  pra;cipuis  Urbis 
Roma;  basilicis"  (Rome,  1570,  Cologne,  1584);  "De 
primatu  Petri  et  apostolica;  sedis  potestate"  (Verona, 
1589);  "Libri  X  de  varia  Romanorum  pontificum 
creatione"  (Venice,  1591);  "De  bibliotheca  pontificia 
vatieana"  (Tarragona,  1587);  "  Augustiniani  ordinis 
chronicon"  (Rome,  15.50). 

Pe-Ritii.  Onofrio  P(i7ivinin,  I.  ,,  ,-  .  r.  Unme,  1899) ;  Orlando. 
Onofrio  Panvinio  (Palermn,  l~  :  ^  '  i  ,i  it,  Bibliotheca  Augutt- 
tinianu  historica,  critica,  et  rlr  '     •  iNtadt  and  Augsburg. 

1768).  656-62;  TlRABOSCHi,.s7.,  /  :  i  ln.mtura  Italiana,  VII 
(Modena,  1792),  iii,  825-31.  A  Ml-  of  Panvinio  by  Professor 
Schroers  of  Bonn  is  in  preparation. 

Michael  Ott. 

Panzani,  Gregorio,  Bishop  of  Milcto,  d.  early  in 
1662.  He  was  a  secular  priest  of  Arezzo,  having  left 
the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  on  account  of  ill- 
health,  when  in  1634  he  was  chosen  by  Cardinal  Bar- 
berini  for  the  important  and  delicate  task  of  a  secret 
agency  in  London.  He  is  described  by  the  writer  of 
his  memoirs  as  a  man  "of  experienced  virtue,  of  sin- 
gular address,  of  polite  learning  and  in  all  respects 
well  qualified  for  the  business".  His  commission  was 
to  gain  first-hand  information  as  to  the  state  of  En- 
glish Catholics,  then  much  divided  on  the  question  of 
the  oath  of  allegiance  and  the  appointment  of  a  vicar 
Apostolic,  to  settle  the  differences  that  had  arisen  on 
these  points  between  the  seculars  and  regulars,  and 
to  establish  informal  relations  with  the  Government. 
Panzani  himself  realized  that  the  appointment  of  a 
bishop  was  necessary,  and  he  resented  the  efforts  of 
the  Jesuits  to  hinder  this.  Though  he  was  successful 
in  reconciling  the  seculars  with  the  Benedictines  and 
other  religious,  the  Jesuits  were  left  out  of  the  settle- 
ment, and  Panzani's  subsequent  efforts  to  bring  them 
in  were  fruitless.  He  had  repeated  interviews  with 
Windebank  and  Cottington,  the  secretaries  of  state, 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the  queen,  and  was  ad- 
mitted to  secret  audience  with  the  king.  He  was  also 
in  communication  with  the  Anglican  Bishop  of  Chi- 
chester on  the  subject  of  corporate  reunion.  He  was 
recalled  in  1634  when  a  scheme  of  reciprocal  agency 


PAOLI 


451 


PAPAGO 


was  established  between  the  pope  and  the  king.  Re- 
turning to  Rome  he  was  made  a  canon  of  S.  Lorenzo 
in  Damaso,  and  obtained  a  judicial  position  in  the 
civil  courts.  On  13  Aug.,  1640,  he  was  elected  Bishop 
of  Mileto,  in  the  Province  of  Catanzaro.  An  account 
of  his  English  mission  was  written  in  Italian  by  some- 
one who  had  access  to  his  papers,  and  a  copy  of  this 
was  used  by  Dodd,  who,  however,  thought  it  impru- 
dent to  publish  these  memoirs  in  full.  But  in  1793 
the  Rev.  Joseph  Berington  published  a  translation  of 
them  with  an  historical  introduction  and  supplement. 
Their  authenticity  was  immediately  called  in  question 
by  Father  Charles  Plowden,  S.J.  (op.  cit.  inf.),  who 
regarded  them  as  a  forgery  by  Dodd.  The  subse- 
quent researches  by  Tierney,  however,  conclusively 
proved  that  the  "Memoirs"  were  genuine.  The  orig- 
inal manuscript,  then  in  the  possession  of  Cardinal 
Gualterio,  was  purchased  by  the  British  Museum  in 
1854  (Add.  MSS.  15389). 

Berin-gton,  Memoirs  of  Gregorio  Panzani,  giving  an  account 
of  /its  O'jencjf  in  England  in  the  years  1634,  1635  and  16S6  (Bir- 
mingh.am.  1703) :  Plowden,  Remarks  on  a  hook  entitled  '  Memoirs 
of  Gregorio  Panzani'  (Li^ge,  1794);  Anon.,  The  Pope's  Nuncio  or 
Negotiation  of  Signor  Panzani  (London,  1643);  Prtnne,  The 
Popish  Royal  Favourite  (London,  1643);  N.  D.,  Vindicice  Caroli 
Regis  (s.  1..  1654) ;  Dodd,  Church  Hist.  (Brussels  iiere  Wolverhamp- 
ton, 1737-42);  Fl.\nagan,  Hist,  of  the  Church  in  England  (Lon- 
don, 1857);  GiLLOW,  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,  s.  w.  Berington, 
Joseph,  and  Plowden,  C.  EdWIN   BuRTON. 

Paoli,  Angelo,  Venerable,  b.  at  Argigliano,  Tus- 
cany, 1  Sept.,  1642;  d.  at  Rome,  17  January,  1720. 
The  son  of  Angelo  Paoli  and  Santa  MorelU,  he  was 
particularly  distinguished  for  his  charity  towards  the 
poor.  As  a  young  man  he  spent  the  greater  part  of 
his  leisure  time  in  teaching  Catholic  doctrine  to  the 
poor  children  of  Argigliano.  At  eighteen,  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  novitiate  of  the  Calced  Carmelites  at 
Siena.  After  making  liis  vows  he  spent  six  years  at 
his  studies,  was  ordained  priest,  and  appointed  to 
the  community  at  Pisa,  where  he  made  rapid  progress 
in  perfection.  He  was  subsequently  transferred  to 
Cupoh,  Monte  Catino,  and  Fivizzano.  Specially  de- 
voted to  the  Passion,  he  caused  wooden  crosses  to  be 
erected  on  the  hills  around  Fivizzano  (and  afterwards 
in  the  Coliseum  at  Rome)  to  bring  the  sacred  tragedy 
more  vividly  before  the  minds  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  1687,  he  was  called  to  Rome  and  stationed  at  the 
Convent  of  St.  Martin.  The  remaining  years  of  his 
life  were  di\ided  between  the  care  of  the  sick  poor  in 
the  city  hospitals  and  the  office  of  Master  of  Novices. 
He  was  called  by  the  citizens  "  the  father  of  the  poor". 
Many  miracles  were  wrought  by  him  both  before  and 
after  his  death.  His  virtues  were  declared  by  Pius  VI 
in  1781  to  be  heroic,  and  the  general  chapter  of  the 
order  held  at  Rome,  1908,  included  his  name  among 
those  Carmelite  servants  of  God,  the  cause  of  whose 
beatification  was  to  be  at  once  introduced. 

Analecta  ordinis  Carmelitarum,  fasc.  I-XII. 

Henry  Anthony  Lappin. 

Paolo  Veronese.    See  Caliari,  Paolo. 

Papacy. — This  term  is  employed  in  an  ecclesias- 
tical and  in  an  historical  signification.  In  the  former 
of  these  uses  it  denotes  the  ecclesiastical  system  in 
which  the  pope  as  successor  of  St.  Peter  and  Vicar 
of  Jesus  Clirist  governs  the  Catholic  Church  as  its 
supreme  head.  In  the  latter,  it  signifies  the  papal 
influence  viewed  as  a  political  force  in  history.  (See 
Apostolic  See;  Apostolic  Succession;  Church; 
Papal  Arbitration;  Pope;  Unity.) 

G.  H.  Joyce. 

Papago  Indians,  an  important  tribe  of  Shoshonean 
linguistic  stock,  speaking  a  dialect  of  the  Pima  lan- 
guage and  resembling  that  tribe  in  all  essentials  of 
culture  and  characteristics.  Their  territory,  which 
they  shared  with  the  closely  cognate  and  afterward 
incorporated  Sobaipuri,  comprisefl  the  valleys  of  the 
San  Pedro  and  Santa  Cruz  rivers,  southern  tribu- 


taries of  the  Gila,  in  south-eastern  Arizona,  together 
with  most  of  the  Rio  del  Altar,  in  the  State  of  Sonora, 
nort,hern  Mexico.  The  name  by  which  they  are 
commonly  known  is  a  derivation  from  the  proper  form, 
Papah-6otam,  as  given  by  their  missionary,  Father 
Kino,  signifying  "bean  people",  whence  the  Spanish, 
Frijoleros,  and  has  no  reference  to  "baptized",  as 
has  sometimes  been  asserted.  The  Pdpago  were  and 
are  a  semi-sedentary  and  agricultural  people,  occupy- 
ing numerous  scattered  villages  of  houses,  usually 
dome-shaped  and  grass-thatched  but  frequently  with 
flat  roofs  covered  with  earth.  They  practise  irriga- 
tion and  cultivate  corn,  beans,  and  cotton,  besides 
making  use  of  the  desert  food  plants,  particularly 
mesquite  beans  and  the  fruit  of  the  saguaro  or  giant 
cactus  (Cereus  giganteus,  Pitahaya).  From  the  la- 
goons they  collect  salt,  which  they  formerly  traded 
to  other  tribes.  Their  women  are  expert  basket- 
makers,  but  their  pottery  does  not  rank  so  high. 
In  their  aboriginal  condition  the  men  went  naked  ex- 
cepting for  the  G-string,  while  the  women  wore  only 
a  short,  skirt.  What  remains  of  their  primitive  myths 
and  ceremonies  accords  nearly  with  those  of  the  Pima. 
In  temperament  they  were  noted  for  their  industry 
and  friendly  disposition  towards  the  whites,  while 
carrying  on  ceaseless  warfare  with  their  hereditary 
enemies,  the  predatory  Apache. 

Owing  to  the  isolation  due  to  their  desert  environ- 
ment the  Pdpago  remained  practically  unknown  for 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half  after  the  more  eastern 
and  southern  tribes  had  come  under  Spanish  dominion. 
Their  connected  history  begins  in  1687,  when  the 
noted  German  Jesuit  missionary  and  explorer.  Father 
Eusebio  Francisco  Kino  (properly  Kuhn)  founded  the 
mission  of  Nuestra  Senora  de  los  Dolores,  about  the 
eastern  head  streams  of  the  Rio  del  Altar  and  not 
far  from  the  present  Cucurpe,  Sonora.  From  this 
headquarters  station  until  his  death  in  1711  he  re- 
peatedly traversed  the  country  of  the  Pdpago,  Pima, 
and  Sobaipuri  from  the  Altar  to  the  distant  Gila,  for 
some  years  alone,  but  later  aided  by  other  Jesuit 
workers,  notably  Fathers  Campos  and  Januske. 
Other  missions  and  visilas  were  established  on  both 
sides  of  the  line,  the  most  important  within  the  limits 
of  Arizona  being  San  Xavier  del  Bac,  originally  a 
Sobaipuri  village  of  about  800  souls.  It  was  first 
visited  by  Father  Kino  in  1692,  but  the  church  was 
not  begun  until  1699. 

In  1695  the  arbitrary  cruelty  of  a  local  Spanish  com- 
mandant provoked  a  rising  among  the  southern  Pima 
and  their  allies,  who  attacked  and  plundered  the 
missions  on  the  Sonora  side,  excepting  Dolores  where 
Father  Kino  was  stationed,  and  killing  Father  Saeta 
at  Caljorca  with  the  usual  savage  cruelties.  The  in- 
surrection was  soon  put  down  by  the  energetic  meas- 
ures of  Governor  Jironza,  and  through  the  interces- 
sion of  the  missionaries  a  general  pardon  was  accorded 
to  the  revolted  tribes.  In  1751  a  more  serious  re- 
bellion broke  out,  again  involving  the  three  tribes, 
in  whose  territory  there  were  now  eight  missions, 
served  by  nine  Jesuit  priests.  Of  these  missions  two 
only  were  within  the  present  hmits  of  Arizona,  viz., 
San  Xavier  del  Bac,  already  noted,  and  San  Miguel 
de  Guevavi,  founded  in  1732  near  to  the  present 
Nogales.  For  a  period  of  more  than  twenty  years 
after  Father  Kino's  death  in  1711  the  scarcity  of 
workers  had  compelled  a  withdrawal  from  the  north- 
ern missions,  v/ith  the  result  that  many  of  the  Indians 
had  relapsed  into  their  original  heathenism.  The 
return  of  the  missionaries  was  followed  a  few  years 
later  by  an  influx  of  Spanish  miners  and  garrison 
troops,  leading  to  trouble  with  the  natives,  which 
culminated  in  Noveml>er,  1751,  in  a  massacre  of 
Spaniards  and  a  general  attack  upon  missions  and  set- 
tlements alike.  Nearly  120  whites  lost  their  lives, 
including  Fathers  Zello  and  Ruhn,  and  the  missions 
were  again  abandoned  until  peace  was  restored  in 


PAPAL 


452 


PAPAL 


1752.  They  never  fully  recovered  from  this  blow, 
and  were  already  on  the  decline  when  the  Jesuit 
order  w:is  expelled  from  Mexico  in  1767  and  the  mis- 
sions were  turned  over  to  the  Franciscans,  among 
whom,  in  this  region,  the  most  noted  was  Father 
Francisco  Carets,  first  Franciscan  missionary  at  San 
Xavier  del  Bac  and  author  of  a  journal  of  explora- 
tion among  the  tribes  of  the  Lower  Colorado  River. 

San  Xavier  had  dwindled  from  S30  souls  in  1697 
to  270  in  1772,  while  the  other  missions  had  de- 
clined in  proportion,  their  former  tenants,  whose 
numbers  were  constantly  diminishing  by  neglect  and 
Apache  raids,  having  scattered  over  the  desert.  In 
1828  the  revolutionary  Government  of  Mexico  con- 
fiscated the  missions,  and  for  many  years  even  San 
Xa\aer  was  left  without  attention,  except  for  oc- 
casional visits  by  a  secular  priest  from  Sonora.  In 
1864  a  Catholic  school  was  once  more  re-established 
in  connexion  with  the  ancient  church,  and  continues 
in  successful  operation.  The  Pdpago,  including  most 
of  the  descendants  of  the  Sobaipuri,  number  now  alto- 
gether about  5500  souls,  of  whom  all  but  about  1000 
are  in  Arizona,  the  rest  being  in  Sonora,  Mexico. 
Those  in  Arizona  are  on  two  reservations  at  Gila 
Bend  and  San  Xav-ier,  established  in  1874  and  1882, 
or  scattered  in  villages  throughout  Pima  County. 
They  are  farmers,  stock  raisers,  and  general  labourers, 
practically  all  civilized  and  Catholic.    See  Kino  ;  Pim.\. 

B-vNCROFT,  Hist.  North  Mex,  States  and  Texas  (San  Francisco, 
1886);  Idem,  Hist,  of  Arizona  and  New  Mex.  (San  Francisco, 
1889);  CoUES  (ed.).  Cards  Diary  (New  York,  1900);  Ohteqa. 
Apost.  afanes  de  la  C.  de  J.  (Barcelona.  1754),  repub.  as  Hist,  del 
Nayarit  (Mexico,  1887);  Ortega  (?),  Rudo  ensayo  , .  .  descripcion 
oeographica  de  .  .  .  Sonora,  ca.  1762  (St.  Augustine,  1863),  tr.  Gui- 
teras  in  Am.  Cath.  Hist.  Soc.  Records,  V  (Philadelpliia,  1894); 
Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs,  annual  reports  (Washington) ; 
Bur.  Cath.  Ind.  Miss.,  annual  reports  of  director  (Washington). 

James  Mooney. 

Papal  Arbitration,  an  institution  almost  coeval 
with  the  papacy  itself.  The  principle  of  arbitra- 
tion presupposes  that  the  individuals  or  groups  of 
individuals  submitting  to  arbitrament  are  united  in 
some  common  bond.  As  soon  therefore  as  this  com- 
mon bond  has  come  prominently  before  public  opin- 
ion, there  necessarily  results  a  tendency  to  settle  dis- 
putes by  reference  to  it.  Thus  the  growth  of  law, 
i.  e.  the  gradual  evolution  from  private  revenge  or 
vendelta  to  the  judgment,  of  some  public  authority,  can 
in  the  history  of  any  known  nation  or  tribe  be  traced 
parallel  with  the  awakening  feeling  of  social  solidarity. 
It  was  just  because  men  began  to  realize,  however 
rudely,  that  they  were  not  single  units  but  members  of 
a  society,  that  they  understood  how  every  tort  or 
wrong-doing  disturbed  not  merely  the  individual  di- 
rectly affected,  but  the  whole  body  of  which  he  was 
a  member.  It  was  this  recognition  of  the  social  dis- 
advantages of  disorder  that  led  to  compromise,  to 
mutual  pledges,  to  trials  by  combat,  to  ordeals,  and 
eventually  to  the  regulations  of  courts  of  law.  This 
is  most  patently  manifest  among  the  Northern  na- 
tions in  the  primitive  history  of  the  jury  system. 

Now  this  same  principle  was  bound  to  operate  inter- 
nationally whenever  the  various  groupings  of  E\irope 
realized  their  solidarity.  The  same  undoubted  ad- 
vance would  be  made  when  men  became  conscious 
that  the  theory  into  which  law  had  developed  as  an 
adjudication  between  individuals  by  the  society,  was 
applicable  also  in  matters  of  international  dispute. 
But  this  consciousness  required  to  be  preceded  by  the 
recognition  of  two  principles:  (1)  that  nations  were 
moral  persons  (2)  tliat  they  were  united  in  some  com- 
mon organism.  The  first  principle  was  too  abstract 
in  its  nature  to  be  professed  explicitly  at  once  (Figgis, 
"From  Gerson  to  Grotius",  vi,  177).  The  second 
would  be  very  quickly  recognized  if  only  some  con- 
crete symbol  of  it  could  become  evident  to  public 
opinion.  This  concrete  symbol  was  fortunately  at 
hand,  and  the  result  was  arbitration.    For  the  medie- 


val papacy  directing  the  conscience  of  Europe,  legis- 
lating for  the  newly-converted  pcojjles,  drawing  to 
itself  the  representatives  of  (vuli  naliimal  episcopate, 
con.stiditing  a  sacred  shrine  for  myal  jiilgrimages,  could 
not  fail  to  impress  on  the  Christian  nations  a  sen.se  of 
their  common  faith.  It  was  the  pap;iry  which  there- 
fore at  one  and  the  same  time,  by  trc;iting  eadi  nation 
as  a  separate  unit,  expressed  in  a  primate  with  his 
suffragan  bishops,  and  yet  by  legislating  identically 
in  matters  of  faith  and  morals  for  all  the  nations,  ex- 
pounded the  double  thesis  of  nationalism  and  inter- 
nationalism. It  was  a  standing  concrete  exjiression 
of  the  two  principles  aforesaid,  viz.  that  the  nations 
were  separate  individuals,  yet  members  of  a  Christian 
brotherhood,  moral  persons  yet  subject  to  the  com- 
mon law  of  Christendom.  Hence,  owing  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  Western  politics,  papal  arbitration 
was  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  very  idea  of 
the  papacy.  In  treating  of  papal  arbitration,  three 
points  must  be  set  out:  (A)  the  principles  on  which  the 
popes  claimed  the  right  to  arbitrate,  i.  e.  the  papal 
theory  of  the  relationship  between  the  Holy  See  and 
the  temporal  powers;  (B)  the  most  important  cases  of 
historical  arbitration  by  the  popes;  (C)  the  future 
opportunity  for  this  arbitration. 

A.  The  Papal  Theory. — It  is  evident  that  before 
the  conversion  of  Constant  ine  there  could  have  been 
little  question  of  the  relations  between  Church  and 
State.  The  Church  was  undeniably  conscious  of  her 
independence,  but  up  to  that  date  Christianity  had 
practically  none  but  spiritual  duties  to  perform.  The 
Apostolic  writings  preach  submission  to  authority  and 
do  not  at  all  raise  the  problem  of  the  adjustment  of 
the  relationship  between  pope  and  Ca;sar.  The  con- 
version of  Constantine  therefore  opened  up  a  large 
field  of  speculation.  This  begins  indeed  from  the  as- 
sembling of  the  General  Council  of  Nica;a  (325). 
Here,  according  to  Rufinus  (H.  E.,  I,  ii,  in  P.  L.,  XXI, 
470),  the  emperor  himself  laid  the  basis  of  all  develop- 
ment in  this  direction.  He  declared  that  God  had 
given  to  the  priests  (i.  e.  to  the  whole  ecclesiastical 
corporation)  power  to  judge  even  emperors  (et  idea 
nos  a  I'obis  rede  judicamur). 

Hosius  of  Cordova,  who  had  been  president  of  that 
council,  in  his  defence  of  Athanasius  has  the  same 
thought,  noting  that  God  had  given  to  Constantine 
the  empire  and  to  the  priesthood  He  had  confided  the 
Church  (quoted  by  St.  Athanasius,  "History  of  the 
Arians",  xliv,  inP.  G.,  XXV,  717).  This  entire  separa- 
tion of  the  two  powers,  ecclesiastical  and  lay,  is  gen- 
erally laid  down  with  very  definite  clearness  by  the 
earlier  writers  (Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  "Pro  Athanasio", 
in  P.  L.,  XIII,  826;  St.  Optatus,  "  De  Schismate  Dona- 
tistarum",  III,  iii,  in  P.  L.,  XI,  999).  Not  that  any 
slight  is  put  upon  the  imperial  dignity,  for  to  the  prince 
first  of  all  is  applied  the  title  which  subsequently  be- 
comes proper  to  the  popes  alone.  He  is  called  Vicarius 
Dei  (.\mbrosiaster,  "Quaestiones  Veteris  et  Novi  Tes- 
tamenti  XCI",  in  P.  L.,  XXV,  2284;  Sedulius  Scotus, 
"De  Rectoribus  Christianis",  19  in  P.  L.,  CXII,  329). 
Yet  he  has  no  jurisdiction  over  the  spiritual  functions 
of  his  .subjects,  "for  who",  says  St.  Ambrose  (Ep., 
XXI,  4,  ad  Valenrinum,  II,  in  P.  L.,  XVI,  1046), 
"would  venture  to  deny  that  in  matters  of  faith,  it  is 
the  bishops  who  sit  in  judgment  over  emperors,  and 
not  the  emperors  who  sit  in  judgment  over  bishops?"; 
and  the  two  popes  who  first  have  any  prominent 
teaching  on  the  matter,  Felix  III  (483)  and  Gelasius 
I  (492),  use  precisely  the  same  language,  describing 
the  Church  and  the  State  as  two  parallel  powers,  en- 
tirely separate. 

"The  emperor",  says  Gehwius  in  an  epigram  (Ep. 
XV,  95,  ad  Episcopos  Orientales,  in  P.  L.,  LIX),  "is 
the  Church's  son,  not  sovereign  "  {Filius  est  non  prirnul 
ecclesicc).  This  pope  has  fortunately  left  us  two  com- 
plete treatises  on  this  question.  In  his  Fourth  Trac- 
tate and  his  Eighth  Letter  (P.  h.,  LIX,  41),  he  formu- 


PAPAL 


453 


PAPAL 


lates  his  views,  which  completely  agree  with  this  idea 
of  two  different  orders,  separate,  yet  in  so  far  inter- 
dependent that  they  both  work  towards  the  same  pur- 
pose, i.  e.  the  salvation  of  the  souls  of  men.  The  next 
step  is  marked  by  the  forcible  and  clear  doctrine  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  (.590).  His  relations  with  the 
emperors  are  too  well-known  to  need  re-statement. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  note  that,  in  his  own  words,  he 
would  go  as  far  as  possible  to  accept  every  law  and 
statute  of  the  imperial  throne.  "If  what  he  does  is 
according  to  the  canons,  we  will  follow  him;  if  it  be 
contrary  to  the  canons,  then  so  far  as  may  be  without 
sin,  we  will  bear  with  him"  (Epist.,  Lib.  XI,  47,  in  P. 
L.,  LXXVII,  1167).  Indeed,  when  in  actual  fact  the 
Emperor  Maurice  prohibited  public  officials  from  en- 
tering monasteries,  Gregory  promulgated  the  decree, 
though  at  the  same  time  warning  Maurice  that  it  by 
no  means  agreed  with  the  declared  will  of  the  Divine 
Omnipotence.  By  thus  acting  he  said  he  had  per- 
formed his  duty  of  obeying  the  civil  power  and  yet 
hatl  kept  his  faith  with  God  by  declaring  the  matter 
of  that  obedience  unlawful  (Lib.  Ill,  65,  in  P.  L., 
LXXVII,  663). 

A  last  example  of  the  papal  doctrine  of  this  period 
may  be  taken  from  the  writings  of  this  same  pope. 
Maurice  had  given  judgment  in  some  matter,  con- 
trary to  the  sacred  laws  and  canons.  The  Bishop  of 
Nicopolis,  who  as  Metropolitan  of  Corcyra  happened 
to  be  concerned  in  the  affair,  appealed  to  the  pope 
against  the  imperial  rescript.  Gregory  wrote  admit- 
ting the  bishop's  interpretation  to  be  correct  and 
adhering  to  it,  yet  declared  that  he  could  not  dare 
publicly  to  censure  the  emperor  lest  he  should  seem 
in  any  way  to  oppose  or  despise  the  civil  power.  (Lib. 
XIV,"S,  inP.  L.,LXXXII,  1311).  His  whole  idea  ap- 
pears to  have  been  that  the  prince  represented  God. 
Every  action  therefore  of  the  public  authority  (whether 
it  tended  to  the  sacred  ends  for  which  Government  was 
founded,  or  was  apparently  destructive  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal liberties)  was  equally  to  be  respected  or  at  least 
not  publicly  to  be  flouted.  This  curious  position 
taken  up  by  the  popes,  of  excessive  subservience  to 
the  civil  rulers,  was  due  to  a  threefold  cause: 

(a)  The  need  of  correcting  a  certain  anarchical 
spirit  noted  by  the  Apostles  (I  Pet.,  ii,  15,  16;  Gal.,  v, 
] ;  II  Cor.,  iii,  17;  I  Thess.,  iv,  10,  11,  v,  4). 

(b)  The  relation  in  which  the  protected  Church 
stood  to  the  first  Christian  emperor,  represented  by 
the  words  of  St.  Optatus,  "DeSchismate  Donatista- 
rum".  III,  iii:  "Non  enim  respublica  est  in  Ecclesia, 
sed  Ecclesia  in  republica  est  .  .  .  Super  Imperatorem 
non  sit  nisi  solus  Deus  "  (The  state  is  not  in  the  Church, 
but  the  Church  is  in  the  state  .  .  .  Let  God  alone 
be  above  the  emperor). 

(c)  The  influence  of  the  Biblical  language  as  regards 
the  theocratic  kingship  of  Israel. 

The  teaching  of  the  papacy  that  civil  authority 
was  held  independently  of  any  ecclesiastical  gift  was 
continued  even  in  the  days  of  Charlemagne,  whose 
father  owed  so  much  of  his  power  to  papal  influence 
(Decretals,  I,  6,  34).  Yet  even  the  new  line  of  Caesars 
claimed  to  hold  their  power  of  God.  Their  titles 
run  "Gratia  Dei  Rex"  or  "Per  misericordiam  Dei 
rex"  etc.  (cf.  Coronation  of  Charlemagne  in  "Jour- 
nal of  Theological  Studies",  April  and  .luly,  1901). 
Thus  through  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  the  sepa- 
ration-theory of  Pope  Gelasius  was  generally  taught 
and  admitted.  Both  pope  and  emperor  claimed  to 
hold  their  power  direct  from  God.  He  is  the  sole 
source  of  all  authority.  A  new  theory,  however,  was 
developing.  While  admitting  that  civil  rulers  are  of 
God,  the  good  by  God's  direct  ap)>ointment,  the 
wicked  by  God's  permission  for  the  diasti.sement  and 
correction  of  the  people's  sin  (Ilincmur,  "Ep.  xv  ad 
Karolum  rogem  ",  in  P.  L.,  CXXVI.  98),  some  writers " 
partially  broach  the  idea  that  without  justice  the 
king  is  no  king  at  all,  but  a  tyrant  (Mon.  Germ.  Hist.: 


Epp.,  IV,  " Epistolse  Varia;  Karoli  Magni  Script.",  7 
etc.),  for  he  must  govern  according  to  the  laws  which 
in  turn  depend  on  the  consent  of  the  people  (Hincmar, 
"DeOrdine  Palatii",  8,  in  M.  G.  H.:  Log.,  sect.  II, 
vol.  II). 

Thus  the  compact-theory  of  a  mutually  binding  en- 
gagement between  sovereign  and  subjects  enters  the 
full  stream  of  European  political  thought.  It  is  per- 
petuated in  the  Old  English  Coronation  oaths  (Stubbs, 
"Select  Charters",  Oxford,  1900,  64  etc.).  The  use 
made  of  this  theory  by  the  popes  will  appear  shortly. 
So  far  then  the  papal  political  ideals  sketched  out  two 
authorities,  independent,  separate;  the  one  supreme 
in  temporal  matters,  the  other  in  spiritual.  Then  in 
the  tenth  century,  the  point  was  raised,  at  first  in  a 
perfectly  academic  way,  as  to  the  relative  importance 
of  these  two  spheres  of  Government,  as  to  which  took 
precedence  of  the  other.  At  first,  the  result  of  the  con- 
troversy left  things  more  or  less  as  they  had  been. 
The  one  side  asserted  that  the  priesthood  was  the 
higher,  because,  while  it  was  true  that  the  priests 
had  to  render  obedience  to  kings  in  temporal  matters 
and  the  kings  to  priests  in  spiritual  matters,  yet  on 
the  priests  rested  the  further  burden  of  responsibility 
of  seeing  that  the  king  performed  his  temporal  duties 
in  a  fitting  way,  i.  e.  that  the  king's  actions  were 
matters  of  duty,  therefore  matters  of  conscience,  and 
therefore  matters  that  lay  under  the  spiritual  juris- 
diction of  the  Church. 

These  arguments  may  be  briefly  summarized  thus: 
(a)  that  both  powers  lay  within  the  physical  pale  of 
the  Church;  (b)  that  the  priest  was  responsible  for 
seeing  that  the  king  did  his  duty;  (c)  that  the  priest 
consecrated  the  king  and  not  vice  versa.  The  others 
("Tractatus  Eboracensis",  in  M.  G.  H.:  Libelli  de 
Lite,  III,  662  sq.)  replied  by  asserting  that  the  em- 
peror had  no  less  to  see  that  the  Church  affairs  were 
properly  conducted  (as  much  later  Sigismund  at 
Council  of  Constance;  Lodge,  "Close  of  Middle  Ages", 
London,  1904,  212).  Thus  Leo  III  and  Leo  IV  had 
submitted  practically  to  the  interference  of  Charle- 
magne (.800)  and  Louis  II  (853);  and  the  concrete  ex- 
ample of  the  Synod  of  Ponthiou  (S53),  summoned  by 
the  pope  and  commanded  by  the  enijieior,  was  a  stand- 
ing example  of  this  general  responsibility  of  each  for 
the  other  (M.  G.  H. :  Leg.,  II,  vol.  II,  no.  279) .  It  is 
interesting  however  to  recall  a  distinction  thrown  out 
almost  at  hazard  by  a  twelfth-century  canonist  (Ru- 
finus,  "Summa  Decretorum",  D.  xxi.  c.  1).  Com- 
menting on  a  supposed  letter  of  Nicholas  II  to  the 
people  of  Milan,  he  distinguishes  the  papal  right  to 
interfere  in  temporal  matters  by  conceding  to  him  not 
a.  jus  adminislraUonis  but  a,  jus  jurisdictionis,  i.  e.  the 
right  of  consecrating,  etc. 

The  advent  (1073)  of  Gregory  VII  to  the  papal 
chair  greatly  affected  the  policy  of  the  Holy  See 
(Tout,  "Empire  and  Papacy",  London,  1909,  126; 
Gos.sclin,  "Power  of  the  Pope  in  the  Middle  Ages"). 
But  it  is  not  so  much  his  actions  as  his  theories 
which  are  here  under  consideration.  He  took  over 
the  old  patristic  teaching  that  all  rule  and  govern- 
ment had  its  origin  in  the  fall  of  Adam,  that  orig- 
inal sin  caused  the  necessity  for  one  man  to  have 
command  over  another.  Consequently  he  had  hard 
things  to  say  of  the  imperial  position.  Moreover  he 
claimed  more  power  than  his  predecessors.  Both  he 
and  the  emperor  took  extreme  views  of  their  respec- 
tive offices.  The  pope  wished  to  put  liimself  at  the 
head  of  the  temporal  rule,  exercising  the  |)i)wer  de- 
scribed in  Jeremias  i,  10.  The  empcnjr  spoke  of  his 
traditional  right  of  appointing  and  dcposinf;;  popes. 
Neither  can  be  taken  as  represeiilinn  (hi'  freneral 
sentiment  of  their  time.  The  story  of  Caiids.sa  with 
its  legendary  details  is  no  more  reiircscnl ;il ivr  of  pub- 
lic opinion  in  the  eleventh  century  than  is  the  dra- 
matic surrender  of  Pa.scal  II  in  the  twelfth.  Hilde- 
brand,  despite  his  high  courage  and  noble  character, 


PAPAL 


45"4 


PAPAL 


does  not  really  continue  the  teaehing  of  his  preilo- 
cessors. 

Eventually,  the  Concordat  of  Worms  (23  Sept., 
1122)  took  u])  and  handed  down  the  average  me- 
dieval political  ijractice,  without  satisfying  the  extreme 
representatives  of  papal  or  imjicrial  claims.  Greg- 
ory, however,  developed  the  contractual  idea  of  the 
Coronation  oath.  This  he  declared  to  be,  as  were  all 
other  oaths,  under  the  Church's  dominion,  and  con- 
sequently could  be  annulled  by  jiapal  authority,  thus 
releasing  subjects  from  obedience  to  their  sovereign 
(Decretum.  causa  xv,  Q.  (5,  c.  2;  Stephen  of  Tournai, 
"Summa  Decretorum",  causa  xv,  Q.  6,  c.  2.  Auctorit. 
iii).  The  next  great  papal  ruler.  Innocent  III  (1198- 
1216),  did  not  take  the  same  attitude  toward  tem- 
poral power,  though  in  personal  exercise  of  authority 
he  exceeded  Gregory.  He  says  explicitly:  "We  do 
not  exercise  any  temporal  jiuisdiction  except  indi- 
rectly" (Epistola;,  IV,  17,  13).  He  interfered,  it  is 
true,  to  annul  the  election  of  Philip  of  Suabia  and  to 
confirm  Otto  in  the  imperial  dignity,  but  he  was  at 
pains  to  point  out  that  his  legate  was  only  a  denun- 
ciator, or  declarer  of  worthiness,  not  a  cognitor  or 
elector.  The  pope  could  not  override  the  electoral 
system  of  the  empire,  he  could  only  judge,  confirm, 
and,  in  divided  elections  only,  decide  on  the  candidate 
(Decretals,  1,  6,  34;  Carlyle,  "History  of  Mediaeval 
Political  Thought",  II,  217;  Barry,  "Papal  Mon- 
archy", XVIII,  292). 

Again  in  the  dispute  between  the  French  and  En- 
glish Kings,  Innocent  III  distinctly  declares  that  he 
makes  no  claim  to  settle  matters  of  fiefs  {nan  enim  in- 
temdimus  judicare  de  feudo  cujus  ad  ipfsum  special 
judicium,  Decretals,  ii,  I,  13).  Nor  had  he  any  in- 
tention of  diminishing  the  royal  authority.  His 
whole  justification  rests  on  three  grounds:  (a)  the 
English  king  had  appealed  to  him  against  his  brother- 
king  on  the  Gospel  principle,  for  it  was  a  matter  of 
sin,  i.  e.  again.st  peace;  (b)  Philip  had  himself  appealed 
earlier  against  Richard  I ;  (c)  A  treaty  had  been  made, 
confirmed  by  oaths,  then  broken.  This  therefore  lay 
within  the  pope's  jurisdiction.  On  another  occasion, 
he  even  went  so  far  as  to  order  the  Bishop  of  Vercelli  to 
declare  null  and  void  any  letters  produced  from  the 
Holy  See  dealing  with  matters  that  belonged  to  the 
secular  courts  of  Vercelli,  as  he  would  only  interfere 
on  appeal,  especially  since  the  imperial  dignity  was 
at  the  moment  vacant  (Decretals,  ii,  2,  10;  cf.  Al- 
exander Ill's  action  in  a  similar  case.  Decretals,  ii, 
2,  6).  Even  excommunication  was  in  his  hands  no 
arbitrary  power,  for,  if  it  were  applied  unjustly  or 
even  unreasonably,  he  protested  that  it  would  be 
null  and  void  (Decretals,  v,  39,  28).  He  retained  of 
course  in  his  own  hands  the  right  to  decide  whether  a 
particular  matter  came  within  the  cognizance  of  the 
spiritual  courts  or  not  (Ibid.,  iv,  17,  13). 

After  Innocent's  death,  the  attitude  of  Gregory  VII 
was  revived  by  Boniface  VIII  (1294-1303)  and  John 
XXII  (1316-34).  Though  some  twenty  j'ears  sepa- 
rate their  reigns,  these  two  pontiffs  held  practically 
the  same  attitude  towards  temporal  rulers  and  gave 
rise  to  a  large  polemical  literature,  which  is  practically 
continuous  for  some  fifty  years  (see  Scholz  and  Riezlcr, 
infra,  bibliography).  It  seemed  to  those  times  that 
either  pope  or  emperor  must  be  supreme.  The 
writers  who  defend  the  lay  side  are  of  many  shades  of 
feeling:  Pierre  du  Bois  (Wailly,  "Summaria  Brevis", 
1849,  "M6moires  de  rAcad(?miedes  Inscriptions"  etc., 
435-94);  Marsilius  of  Padua  (Poole,  "Illustrations  of 
the  History  of  Mediicval  Thought",  276  el  passim); 
William  of  Ockham  (ibid.  260);  John  Wycliff  (De 
civili  dominio,  1  cap.,  17  fol.,  40,  c,  ibid.  284).  Not 
merely  do  they  protest  agaiast  papal  interference,  but, 
as  a  counterblast,  endeavour  to  make  the  king  or 
emperor — accorrling  a.s  they  defend  Philip  the  Fair, 
Edward  I,  or  Louis  of  Bavaria — take  the  most  im- 
portant place  in  the  working  of  the  Church's  internal 


organism  (cf.  Baldus  de  Ubaldis,  1327-1400,  in  his 
"Consiha",  228,  n.  7:  Imperator  esl  dominus  lotius 
mundi  el  Deus  in  terra,  i.  e.  the  emperor  is  lord  of  the 
whole  world  and  God  on  earth). 

Certain  defenders  of  the  Holy  See  are  no  less  ve- 
hement. They  rightly  forbid  Caesar  to  meddle  with 
matters  within  the  spiritual  sphere  of  life;  but,  not 
content  with  this,  they  endeavour  to  put  the  em- 
peror directly  under  the  pope.  Augustinus  Trium- 
phus  (De  potestate  ecclesiastica  XXXVIII,  1,  224), 
and  ^gidius  Colonna  (De  ecclesiastica  potestate,  II, 
4)  assert  that  all  temporal  rule  comes  ultimately  from 
the  pope,  that  he  alone  has  the  supreme  plenitude  of 
power,  and  that  none  can  be  absolved  from  his  high 
jurisdiction.  While  these  high  claims,  the  inheri- 
tance of  ages  of  universal  faith  when  the  popes  were 
really  the  saviours  of  popular  liberties,  were  being 
thus  set  forth,  the  power  of  the  civil  authority  had 
de  facto  enormously  increased.  The  theorizing  of 
Marsilius  of  Padua,  Ockham,  and  others  led  to  the 
doctrine  of  unrestrained  royal  absolutism  (Poole,  loc. 
cit.,  2.59).  The  German  princes  with  their  territo- 
rializing ideals,  the  French  kings  with  their  strong  and 
efficient  monarchy,  and  the  English  Tutlor  sovereigns 
no  longer  brooked  interference  from  Rome  even  in 
purely  spiritual  matters.  The  phrase  of  the  Treaty 
of  Westphalia  (1648)  cujus  regio  ejus  religio,  i.  e.  the 
religion  of  the  prince  is  the  religion  of  the  land,  sums 
up  the  secular  reply  to  the  ecclesiastical  order. 

After  the  Reformation  had  served,  even  in  coun- 
tries like  France  and  Spain  which  did  not  adopt  the 
new  religion,  the  purpose  of  fettering  conscience  even 
more  than  before,  the  State  had  in  actual  practice  put 
the  Church  under  its  heel.  The  State  continued  to 
claim,  because  it  exercised,  the  power  to  interfere  and 
rule  in  all  matters,  whether  spiritual  or  temporal. 
The  Church  claimed,  though  it  no  longer  freely  exer- 
cised, the  right  to  independence,  nay  supremacy,  in 
all  matters  affecting  religion,  and  to  be  in  some  way 
the  fountain  of  all  temporal  dominion  (St.  Thomas, 
"Quodlibet",  12,  Q.  xiii,  a.  19,  ad  2um:  Reges  sunt 
vasalli  Ecclesioe).  Suarez  and  later  theologians  cer- 
tainly moderate  the  vehemence  of  Augustinus  Tri- 
umphus  and  his  companions.  It  is  true  of  course 
that  the  post-tridrntine  writers  expound  what  has 
been  called  "the  indirect  power"  of  the  pope  in  civil 
affairs,  while  they  curb  in  various  ways  the  growing 
civil  absolutism  of  the  times.  The  name  of  sover- 
eignty was  withdrawn,  but  its  substitute  was  suzer- 
ainty, which  meant  little  less  than  the  other  (Figgis, 
"From  Gerson  to  Grotius",  VI,  181).  Hence  the  un- 
deniable tendency  of  Catholic  theologians  to  repeat  in 
clear  language  the  cases  in  which  rulers  may  lawfully 
be  put  to  death.  Hence  also  their  unqualified  de- 
fence of  popular  rights.  Says  Filmer  ("Patriarcha", 
I,  i,  2,  1880)  concerning  the  i)ower  of  the  people  to  de- 
prive or  correct  the  sovereign:  "Cardinal  Bellarmine 
and  Calvin  both  look  asquint  this  way". 

No  doubt  in  this  long  controversy  both  ecclesiasti- 
cal and  secular  writers  went  too  often  to  extremes.  It 
is  in  the  rights  that  each  allows  the  other,  that  we  must 
look  for  the  more  workable  hjTJothesis.  Thus  when 
the  lay  writers  describe  the  spiritual  rule  of  the  Papacy 
(Dante,  "De  Monarchia";  Ockham,  "Octo  Ques- 
tiones",  q.  1,  c.  6,  ad  2),  they  depict  almost  literally 
the  position  of  a  Leo  XIII  or  a  Pius  X,  prophesying 
the  greatness  of  such  an  office.  And  when  the  eccle- 
siastico-political  writers  sketch  their  theory  of  a  state 
(Nicolas  of  Cusa,  " Concordantia  Catholica";  Schard- 
ius,  "Syntagma"),  directing,  ordering,  educating  the 
free  lives  of  free  citizens,  they  are  no  less  prophets  of  a 
desirable  order.  Moreover  Pius  IX  expressly  de- 
clared that,  for  their  execution  in  the  temporal  sphere, 
the  ecclesiastical  ideals  depended  no  less  than  the  lay 
ideals  on  the  consent  and  custom  of  the  people,  in 
the  absence  of  which  the  papacy  no  longer  claims  to 
exercise  power  and  rights,  that  pubhc  law  and  com- 


PAPAL 


455 


PAPAL 


mon  consent  once  accorded  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of 
Christendom  for  the  common  welfare  (Discorso  agli 
Accademici  cU  Religione  Cathohca,  20  July,  1871). 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  in  the  past  all  papal  at- 
tempts to  end  wars  and  decide  between  contending 
rights  of  disputing  sovereigns,  were  really  in  the  nature 
of  arbitration.  Popes  like  Innocent  III  never  claimed 
to  be  the  sources  of  temporal  rule,  or  that  whatever 
they  did  for  the  peace  of  Europe  was  done  by  them 
as  supreme  temporal  rulers;  but  only  on  the  invitation 
or  acceptance  of  the  princes  interested.  Even  popes 
like  Gregory  VII,  Boniface  VIII,  and  others,  who  ex- 
ercised most  fully  their  spiritual  prerogatives,  were 
unable  to  act  efficiently  as  peacemakers,  until  they 
were  called  in  by  those  at  war. 

B.  Historical  Cases  of  Papal  Arbitration. — The 
various  interpositions  of  Innocent  III  to  allay  the 
differences  in  European  diplomacy,  such  as  it  then 
was,  have  been  already  alluded  to.  It  will  be  better 
to  pass  at  once  to  later  historical  examples. 

(1)  The  popes  made  frequent  efforts  to  negotiate 
between  the  Ivings  of  France  and  England  during  the 
Hundred  Years'  \\'ar,  but  the  most  famous  attempt  is 
that  of  Boniface  VIII  in  1297.  It  came  just  after  the 
controversy  between  Philip  the  Fair  and  the  pope 
concerning  the  Bull  "Clericis  laicos".  Eventually 
Boniface  gave  up  many  of  his  earlier  demands,  partly 
through  pressure  from  the  French  king,  partly  be- 
cause he  found  that  he  had  gone  too  far,  partly  in 
the  interests  of  European  peace.  The  more  fully  to 
achieve  the  latter  purpose,  he  offered  to  arbitrate  in 
the  quarrel  that  had  been  further  complicated  by  the 
alliance  formed  between  the  Flemish  and  the  Enghsh. 
The  Cardinal  of  Albano  and  Pripneste  was  sent  to 
Creil  on  20  April,  1297.  But  the  temper  of  French 
thought  is  expressed  in  the  protest  of  King  Philip  that 
he  would  submit  to  arbitration,  as  did  Edward  I  and 
the  Count  of  Flanders,  but  that  he  looked  for  nothing 
more  than  arbitration,  not  for  recourse  to  the  pope  as 
to  a  higher  feudal  court.  He  laid  down  three  proposi- 
tions and  completed  them  by  a  practical  conclusion: 
(a)  The  government  ot  France  belonged  solely  to  the 
king;  (b)  the  king  recognized  no  temporal  superior; 
(c)  he  submitted  his  temporal  affairs  to  no  man  living. 
Therefore  he  came  to  the  Roman  Court  for  arbitra- 
tion, not  as  to  Boniface  VIII  the  supreme  sovereign 
pontiff,  but  as  to  the  lawyer  Benedetto  Gaetani.  The 
terms  of  the  arbitrament  are  not  of  present  interest; 
this  only  should  be  noted,  that  Boniface  placated  the 
French  king  by  deciding  largely  in  his  favour,  to  the 
disgust  of  the  Count  of  Flanders,  but  issued  his  award 
in  a  Bull  (Lavisse,   'Hist,  de  France"  (Paris,  1901). 

(2)  One  of  the  first  public  acts  of  Alexander  VI 
was  to  effect  a  settlement  between  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal. These  two  nations  had  been  foremost  in  under- 
dertaking  voyages  of  discovery  in  the  East  and  West. 
The  result  was,  that  as  each  expedition  on  landing 
annexed  the  new-found  territories  to  its  own  home 
government,  there  was  continual  friction  between  the 
rival  nations.  In  the  interests  of  peace,  Alexander  VI 
offered  to  arbitrate  between  the  two  countries.  He 
issued  his  Bull  "  Inter  Ca?tera, "  14  May,  1493,  fixing 
tile  line  at  meridian  of  100  leagues  west  of  the  Azores 
and  Cape  Verde  Islands — assumed  to  be  practically  of 
the  same  longitude — Spain  to  have  the  western,  Por- 
tugal the  eastern  division.  The  following  year  (7 
June)  by  the  treaty  of  Tordesillas  the  imaginary  line 
was  moved  to  370  leagues  west  of  Cape  Verde.  To 
this  the  pope  as  arbitrator  assented,  and  thus  averted 
war  between  the  two  countries  ("Civilta  Cattolica", 
1865,  I,  665-80;  Winsor,  "History  of  America", 
1886,  I,  13,  592;  "Cambridge  Modern  History", 
I,  23-24). 

(3)  More  curious  examples  are  found  in  the  invita- 
tion given  to  Leo  X  and  later  to  Clement  VII  to  arbi- 
trate between  Russia  and  Poland  over  Lithuania 
(Rombaud,    "History   of   Russia",   London,    1885). 


The  success  of  this  led  to  Gregory  XIII  being  asked  to 
settle  the  difference  between  Bathory  of  Poland  and 
Ivan  the  Terrible.  Gregory  between  1572  and  1583 
sent  to  Moscow  the  Jesuit  Antonio  Pos.sevino  (q.  v.), 
who  arranged  peace  between  them.  Ivan  ceded 
Polotsk  and  all  Livonia  to  the  Poles  ("Revue  des 
Questions  Historiques,"  Jan.,  1885). 

(4)  Perhaps  the  best-remembered  case  is  that  of 
1885,  when  war  was  averted  between  Germany  and 
Spain  by  the  arbitration  of  Leo  XIII.  It  was  over  the 
question  of  the  Caroline  Islands,  which  though  dis- 
covered by  Spain  had  been  practically  abandoned  for 
many  years.  England  and  Germany  had  presented 
a  joint  note  to  Spain,  refusing  to  acknowledge  her 
sovereignty  over  the  Caroline  and  Palao  group  of 
islands.  German  colonists  had  been  established  there. 
But  the  climax  was  reached  when  on  25  August,  1885, 
both  Spanish  and  German  war  vessels  planted  the 
flags  of  their  respective  countries  and  took  solemn 
possession  of  Yap.  On  24  September,  Bismarck,  out 
of  compliment  to  Spain  and  to  projMtiate  the  pope 
(Busch,  "  Life  of  Bismarck  ",  469-70,  London,  1899), 
referred  the  matter  to  Leo  XIII.  The  pope  gave  his 
award  on  22  October,  succeeding  perfectly  in  adjust- 
ing the  conflicting  claims  of  Spanish  sovereignty  and 
German  interests.  Finally  the  whole  matter  wps 
amicably  accepted  and  signed  at  the  Vatican  by  both 
powers  on  17  December  of  the  same  year  (O'Reilly, 
"Life  of  Leo  XIII",  xxxiii,  537-54). 

(5)  Lastly,  in  1897,  the  same  pontiff  arbitrated  be- 
tween Hayti  and  San  Domingo.  But  the  terms  of  his 
arbitration  do  not  appear  to  have  been  published 
(Darby,  "Proved  Practicabihty  of  International  Arbi- 
tration", London,  1904,  19).  For  the  celebrated  case 
of  Adrian  IV  and  his  gift  of  Ireland  to  Henry  II,  see 
Adrian  IV. 

C.  Future. — The  increasing  movement  of  arbitra- 
tion, growing  stronger  with  each  fresh  exercise  of  it, 
together  with  the  fact  that  owing  to  the  action  of  Italy 
the  popes  have  been  excluded  from  the  Hague  Con- 
ference, makes  the  thought  suggest  itself  of  how  far 
the  papacy  is  situated  to-day  to  act  as  a  general  arbi- 
trator: (1)  It  has  ceased  to  hold  any  territorial  do- 
minion and  can  therefore  stand  forward  as  an  impar- 
tial judge  unlikely  to  be  affected  by  temporal  interests. 

(2)  It  has  interests  in  too  many  lands  to  be  likely  to 
favour  any  one   country  at  the  expense  of  others. 

(3)  It  is  wholly  international,  and  adaptable,  because 
alive,  to  the  various  environments  of  temperament, 
customs,  laws,  languages,  political  constitutions,  so- 
cial organizations,  in  which  it  finds  itself.  The  clergy 
of  each  country  are  national  in  the  sense  of  being 
patriotic;  not  in  the  sense  of  being  separated  in  mat- 
ters of  faith  from  Catholics  elsewhere.  (4)  It  is  ruled 
by  a  pontiff,  ordinarily  indeed  Italian;  but  his  group 
of  advisers  is  a  privy  council  drawn  from  every  con- 
tinent, race,  and  nation.  So  detached  has  he  been, 
that  it  is  precisely  three  Italian  popes  who  have  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  the  Italian  spoliation  of  the 
Patrimony  of  St.  Peter.  (5)  As  the  greatest  Christian 
force  in  the  modern  world  its  whole  influence  must  be 
heavily  thrown  into  the  scale  of  peace.  (6)  It  has  about 
it  a  halo  of  past  usefulness,  touched  about  with  the 
mellow  hue  of  time.  It  has  seemed  to  men  so  differ- 
ent as  Leibniz  (Opera,  V,  65),  Voltaire  (E.ssais,  II,  ix), 
Ancillon  (Tableau  des  Revolutions,  I,  79,  106,  Berhn, 
1803),  to  have  been  set  in  a  position  not  to  dictate 
to,  but  to  arbitrate  for,  the  world.  And  because  it 
has  gone  back  to  the  older,  simpler,  more  spiritual 
theories  of  Gelasius  I,  Gregory  I,  and  Innocent  III 
it  has  now  opportunities  which  were  denied  it,  so  long 
as  it  claimcil  the  more  showy  rights  of  Gregory  VII, 
Boniface  \T1I,  and  John  XXII.  Just  as  under  Pius 
II  the  Church  created  the  idea  of  a  European  Congress 
(Boultmg,  ".Eneas  Sylvius,"  279,  3.50-51,  London, 
1908),  so  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  under  her  presidency 
the  practice  of  arbitration  by  a  permanent  tribunal 


PAPAL 


456 


PAPAL 


may  be  made  more  universal,  more  practicable,  ami  of 
greater  sanction. 

Neoro,  liiamarck,  il  Papa  el  V Arhilr'ittt  Inlrrnnrimmlc  (Asti. 
1882);  P001.E,  lUmtratiom  of  Midurrat  I'nHliral  Thmght  (Lon- 
don. ISSl);  MuRPHV.  C'Aai'r  of  I'.lrr  (I.oniluii,  1.SS5I;  L6pez.  Dc- 
recho  II  Arbitrajc  internacional  (P:iria,  IS'.U);  KlcilKT.  Les  Gucttcs 
fi  la  fMiiz  (Paris.  1S99);  Gierke.  Das  deulsche  Uenossenschafts- 
reckt.  III.  tr.  Mmtland.  Political  Theories  of  the-  Middle  Age 
(Cambridge.  1900) ;  Ouphant,  Rome  and  Reform  (London,  1902) ; 
Barry,  Papal  Monarchal  (London.  1902);  Cahlyi-e.  History  of 
Medicnal  Political  Thought  inthe  Wesl,  I  (London  and  Edinburg)!. 
1903).  II  (London  and  Edinburgh,  1909) ;  Barry  in  DuMin  Re- 
new (Oct.,  1907).  221-4.3;  F1OQI3.  Political  Theories  from  (Irrson  to 
Crotius  (Cambridge.  1007) ;  Go.s.seun.  The  Power  of  the  Pope  in 
the  Middle  Ages  (New  York.  1852) ;  Scholtz,  Die  Publizistik  zur 
Zeit  Philipps  des  Schinen  (Stuttgart,  1903);  RiEZLER,  Die  lite- 
rarischen  Wiedersacher  der  Papste  zur  Zeit  Ludwigs  des  Bayers 
(Leipzig,  1874);  HERaENRdTHER,  Church  and  State,  etc.  tr.  (Lon- 
don. 1872). 

Bede  Jarrett. 
Papal  Chancery.    See  Roman  Curia. 

Papal  Elections.  — Tiie  method  of  electing  the  pope 
has  v;vric(l  consitlerably  at  different  periods  of  the 
history  of  the  Church.  As  to  the  earliest  ages,  Fer- 
raris (op.  cit.  infra)  says  that  St.  Peter  himself  con- 
stituted a  senate  for  the  Roman  Church,  consisting 
of  twenty-four  priests  and  deacons.  These  were  the 
councillors  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome  and  the  electors  of 
his  successors.  This  statement  is  drawn  from  a  canon 
in  the  "Corpus  Juris  Canonici"  (can.  "Si  Petrus", 
cans.  8,  Q.  1).  Historians  and  canonists,  however, 
generally  hold  that  the  Roman  bishopric  was  filled 
on  its  vacancy  in  the  same  manner  as  other  bishop- 
rics, that  is,  the  election  of  the  new  pope  was  made  by 
the  neighbouring  bishops  and  the  clergy  and  faith- 
ful of  Rome.  Nevertheless,  some  maintain  that  the 
naming  of  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  was  restricted  to 
the  Roman  clergy,  and  that  the  people  were  admitted 
to  a  part  in  the  elections  only  after  the  time  of  Syl- 
vester I  (fourth  century).  After  Constantine  had 
given  peace  to  the  Church,  the  Christian  Roman  em- 
perors often  took  part  in  the  institution  of  a  new  pope 
and  at  times  their  influence  was  very  marked.  From 
the  fourth  century  onwards,  therefore,  a  new  force  had 
to  be  reckoned  with.  The  occasion  for  the  interfer- 
ence of  the  Roman  emperors  and  later  of  the  kings  of 
Italy  was  afforded  by  disputed  elections  to  the  papal 
chair.  The  most  noted  of  the  earlier  instance  was  at 
the  election  of  Boniface  I  (418).  This  gave  occasion 
to  the  decree  (c.  8,  dist.  79)  that  when  an  election  was 
disputed  a  new  candidate  should  be  chosen. 

The  interference  of  the  secular  power  was  always 
distasteful  to  the  Roman  clergy,  as  shown  by  their 
unwilhngness  to  observe  decrees  on  the  subject  made 
even  by  popes,  as  in  the  case  of  Simplicius  and  others. 
The  example  of  the  Roman  emperors  was  followed 
by  the  barbarian  kings  of  Italy,  of  whom  the  first  to 
interfere  was  Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth,  at  the  election 
of  Symmachus  in  498.  On  the  recovery  of  their  in- 
fluence in  the  Italian  peninsula,  the  Eastern  emperors 
required  that  the  choice  of  the  electors  for  a  new  pope 
must  be  made  known  to  the  Exarch  of  Ravenna,  who 
in  turn  forwarded  it  to  Constantinople,  and  until  the 
emperor's  confirmation  was  received,  the  candidate 
was  not  to  be  acknowledged  as  Bishop  of  Rome.  This 
resulted  in  long  vacancies  of  the  Holy  See.  The  cus- 
tom lasted  until  the  pontificate  of  Benedict  II  (684- 
85).  A  similar  claim  was  put  forward  by  the  Western 
emperors  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  some  demanded  it 
owing  to  a  concession  made  by  Adrian  I  to  Charle- 
magne. This  pretended  concession  is  now  recognized 
as  spurious.  As  to  the  so-called  confirmation  of  papal 
elections  by  the  secular  power,  Ferraris  (loc.  cit.  infra) 
notes  that  it  must  not  be  so  understood  as  to  imply 
that  the  new  pope  received  the  papal  power  from  the 
emperor.  This  would  be  heretical,  for  the  elected 
candidate  receives  his  power  from  Christ. 

The  confirmation  of  the  emperor,  then,  was  only 
to  en.sure  that  the  canons  of  the  Church  should  be 
carried  out  without  hindrance  from  factious  and  se- 


ditious dissenters.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the 
Holy  Roman  emperors  sometimes  made  use  of  their 
overwliclmiiig  [lower  unscrupulously,  ;inil  more  than 
once  (Miididalcs  were  clccti'd  lo  I  lie  |i:i|i:H'y  by  direct 
imp('ri:d  iiomiiuition.  Otto  111  is  iic.lilcd  with  the 
nomination  of  (iregory  V  and  Sylvester  11,  and  Henry 
111  with  the  etTectuid  naming  of  Clement  11,  Dama- 
8US  11,  Leo  IX,  and  Victor  II.  But  it  is  obvious 
that  such  nomination  is  not  re;d  elerlioii,  for  the  ac- 
ceptance of  the  lej;al  electors  w:is  ii((i'ss:iry  to  ratify 
the  choice,  though  undoubtedly  they  wcmld  naturally 
be  swayed  by  circumstances  to  gi\('  (>ffect  to  the 
imperial  preference.  It  has  sometimes  been  said  that 
in  the  earlier  ages  popes  have  apjiointed  their  succes- 
sors in  the  pontificate.  Thus,  St.  Peter  is  said  to  have 
so  chosen  Clement  1.  The  authority  on  which  the 
statement  rests  is  now  generally  acknf)wledged  to  be 
apocryphal.  Boniface  11  chose  Vigilius  for  his  .suc- 
cessor in  .5.3 1 ,  but  later  repented  and  publii'ly  withdrew 
the  nomination.  Baronius  (H.  JO.,  ann.  i(.)S^>,  1087) 
states  that  Gregory  Vll  in  1085  elected  Victor  III  as 
his  successor;  that  Victor  in  like  manner  chose  Urban 
II  in  1086,  and  Urban  elected  Paschal  11  in  1099.  It 
is  to  be  noted  that  the  canon  "Si  Transitus"  in  the 
"Corpus  Juris"  (can.  "Si  Trans",  10,  dist.  70)  seeme 
to  imply  the  right  of  the  pope  to  nominate  his  suc- 
cessor, since  its  opening  words  are:  "If  the  death  of  the 
pope  take  place  so  unexpectedly  that  he  cannot  make 
a  decree  concerning  the  election  of  his  successor,  etc." 
However,  these  so-called  elections  were  never  more 
than  nominations,  for  none  of  the  persons  thus  named 
ever  presumed  to  declare  themselves  popes  before  the 
ratification  of  the  legal  electors  had  been  obtained. 

It  is  certain  at  present,  that,  according  to  ecclesi- 
astical law  (c.  "Episcopo",  3;  c.  "Plerique",  5;  can. 
"Moyses",  6,  caus.  8,  Q.  1),  the  pope  cannot  elect  hia 
successor.  It  is  commonly  held  also  that  he  is  pro- 
hibited from  doing  so  by  Divine  law,  though  the  con- 
trary has  also  been  held  by  canonists.  As  to  the 
gradual  restrictions  and  determinations  governing 
the  mode  of  election  of  the  pontiffs,  we  note  that  in 
006  Boniface  111  decreed  that  the  electors  should  not 
meet  until  the  third  day  after  the  pope's  burial.  In 
769  a  decree  was  framed  in  a  synod  of  tlie  Lateran, 
that  the  Roman  clergy  were  to  choose  as  pope  only 
a  priest  or  deacon,  and  forbade  the  laity  to  take  any 
part  in  the  election.  The  newly-elected  was,  how- 
ever, to  receive  the  homage  of  the  laity  before  he 
was  conducted  to  the  Lateran  basilica.  This  decree 
caused  widespread  discontent  among  the  influential 
laymen,  and  Nicholas  I  in  a  Roman  Synod  held  in  862 
restored  the  right  of  suffrage  to  the  Roman  nobles. 
John  IX  in  898  confirmed  the  custom  of  having  the 
consecration  of  the  new  pontiff  take  place  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  imperial  ambassadors.  In  96.3,  the  Em- 
peror Otto  1  endeavoured  to  bind  the  Romans  by  oath 
not  to  elect  anyone  as  pope  until  he  had  been  nomi- 
nated by  the  emperor. 

An  epoch-making  decree  in  the  matter  of  papal 
elections  is  that  of  Nicholas  11  in  10.59.  According  to 
this  constitution,  the  cardinal  bishops  are  first  to  meet 
and  discuss  the  candidates  for  the  papacy,  and  se- 
lect the  names  of  the  most  worthy.  They  arc  then 
to  summon  the  other  cardinals  and,  together  with 
them,  proceed  to  an  election.  Finally,  the  as.sent  of 
the  rest  of  the  clergy  and  the  laity  to  the  result  of  the 
suffrage  is  to  be  sought.  The  choice  is  to  be  made 
from  the  Roman  clergy,  unless  a  fit  candidate  cannot 
be  found  among  them.  In  the  election  regard  is  to  be 
had  for  the  rights  of  the  Holy  Roman  emperor,  who 
in  turn  is  to  be  requested  to  show  similar  respect  for 
the  Apostolic  See.  In  case  the  .election  cannot  be 
held  in  Rome,  it  can  validly  be  held  elsewhere.  What 
the  imperial  rights  are  is  not  explicitly  stated  in  the 
decree,  but  it  seems  plain  from  contemporary  evi- 
dence that  they  require  the  results  of  the  election  to  be 
forwarded  to  the  emperor  by  letter  or  messenger,  in 


PAPAL 


457 


PAPIAS 


order  that  he  may  assure  himself  of  the  vahdity  of 
the  eleclion.  Gregory  VII  (1073),  however,  was  the 
last  pope  who  asked  for  imperial  confirmation.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  decree  of  Pope  Nicholas  reserves 
the  actual  election  to  the  cardinals,  but  requires  the 
assent  (laudntio)  of  the  lower  clergy  and  laity. 

The  Tenth  (Ecumenical  Synod  (Lateran)  in  1139 
restricted,  however,  the  entire  choice  to  the  cardinals, 
and  in  1 179,  another  Lateran  Council  under  Alexander 
III  made  the  rule  that  the  pope  is  to  be  chosen  by  a 
two-thirds  majority  of  the  electors  who  are  present. 
This  last  decree  did  not  state  what  was  to  be  done  in 
case  such  a  majority  could  not  be  obtained.  When  the 
cardinals  found  themselves  face  to  face  with  this  con- 
tingency on  the  death  of  Clement  IV  in  1268,  they 
commissioned  six  cardinals  as  plenipotentiaries  to  de- 
cide on  a  candidate.  The  vacancy  of  the  Holy  See  had 
lasted  for  two  years  and  nine  months.  To  prevent  a 
recurrence  of  this  evil,  the  Second  Council  of  Lyons 
under  Gregory  X  (1274)  decreed  that  ten  days  after 
the  pope's  decease,  the  cardinals  should  assemble  in  the 
palace  in  the  city  in  which  the  pope  died,  and  there 
hold  their  electoral  meetings,  entirely  shut  out  from 
all  outside  influences.  If  they  did  not  come  to  an 
agreement  on  a  candidate  in  three  days,  their  victuals 
were  to  be  lessened,  and  after  a  further  delay  of  five 
days,  the  food  supply  was  to  be  still  further  restricted. 
Thi.s  is  the  origin  of  conclaves. 

The  decretal  of  Gregory  X  on  this  subject  is  called 
"Ubi  periculum  majus".  For  the  later  regulations 
governing  papal  elections  see  Conclave.  According 
to  certain  ancient  canons  (can.  "Oportet",  3;  can. 
"NuUus",  4,  dist.  79),  only  cardinals  should  be  chosen 
pope.  However,  Alexander  III  decreed  (cap.  "  Licet ", 
6,  "De  elect.")  that  "he,  without  any  exception,  is  to 
be  acknowledged  as  pontiff  of  the  Universal  Church 
who  has  been  elected  by  two-thirds  of  the  cardinals. " 
As  late  as  1378,  Urban  VI  was  chosen,  though  not  a 
cardinal  (consult,  however,  Constitut.  50  of  Sixtus  V, 
"Postquam",  5  2).  A  layman  may  also  be  elected 
pope,  as  was  Celestine  V  (1294).  Even  the  election  of 
a  married  man  would  not  be  invalid  (c.  "Qui  uxoreni ", 
19,  caus.  33,  Q.  .5).  Of  course,  the  election  of  a 
heretic,  schismatic,  or  female  would  be  null  and  void. 
Immediately  on  the  canonical  election  of  a  candidate 
and  his  acceptance,  he  is  true  pope  and  can  exercise 
full  and  absolute  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  Church. 
A  papal  election,  therefore,  needs  no  confirmation,  as 
the  pontifif  has  no  superior  on  earth. 

Ferraris,  Bibliotheca  Canonica,  VI  (Rome,  1890),  8.  v.  Papa, 
art.  1;  Sagmuller.  Lehrhuch  des  Kirchenrechis  (Freiburg,  1903); 
Wernz,  Jus  Decretalium,  II  (Rome,  1899);  Smith,  Elements  oj 
Ecclesiastical  Law,  I  (New  York.  1895). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Papal  Letters.     See  Letters,  Ecclesiastical. 

Papal  States.    See  States  of  the  Chdkch. 

Papebroch,  Daniel  von.   See  Bollandists,  The. 

Paphnutius. — I.  The  most  celebrated  personage 
of  this  name  was  bishop  of  a  city  in  the  Upper  Thebaid 
in  the  early  fourth  century,  and  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting members  of  the  Council  of  Nicsea  (32.5).  He 
suffered  mutilation  of  the  left  knee  and  the  loss 
of  his  right  eye  for  the  Faith  under  the  Emperor 
Maximinus  (308-13),  and  was  subsequently  con- 
demned to  the  mines.  At  Nicai^a  he  was  greatly  hon- 
oured by  Constantine  the  Great,  who,  according  to 
Socrates  (H.  E.,  I,  11),  used  often  to  send  for  the  good 
old  confessor  and  kiss  the  place  whence  the  eye  had 
been  torn  out.  He  took  a  prominent,  perhaps  a  de- 
cisive, part  in  the  debate  at  the  First  Ecumenical 
Council  on  the  subject  of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy. 
It  seems  that  most  of  the  bishops  present  were  dis- 
posed to  follow  the  precedent  of  the  Council  of  Elvira 
(can.  xxxiii)  prohibiting  conjugal  relations  to  those 
bishops,  priests,  deacons,  and,  according  to  Sozomen, 
sub-deacons,   who  were  married  before  ordination. 


Paphnutius  earnestly  entreated  his  fellow-bishops  not 
to  impose  this  obligation  on  the  orders  of  the  clergy 
concerned.  He  proposed,  in  accordance  "with  the 
ancient  tradition  of  the  Church",  that  only  those 
who  were  celibates  at  the  time  of  ordination  should 
continue  to  observe  continence,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  "none  should  be  separated  from  her,  to 
whom,  while  yet  unordained,  he  had  been  united". 
The  great  veneration  in  which  he  was  held,  and  the 
well  known  fact  that  he  had  himself  observed  the 
strictest  chastity  all  his  life,  gave  weight  to  his  pro- 
posal, which  was  unanimously  adopted.  The  council 
left  it  to  the  discretion  of  the  married  clergy  to  con- 
tinue or  discontinue  their  marital  relations.  Paphnu- 
tius was  present  at  the  Synod  of  Tyre  (335). 

II.  Paphnutius,  surnamed  (on  account  of  his  love 
of  solitude)  the  Buffalo,  an  anchorite  and  priest  of 
the  Scetic  desert  in  Eg\'pt  in  the  fourth  century. 
When  Cassian  (Coll.,  IV,  1)  visited  him  in  395,  the 
Abbot  Paphnutius  was  in  his  ninetieth  year.  He 
never  left  his  cell  save  to  attend  church  on  Saturdays 
and  Sundays,  five  miles  away.  When  in  his  paschal 
letter  of  the  year  399,  the  Patriarch  Theophilus  of 
Alexandria  condemned  anthropomorphism,  Paphnu- 
tius was  the  only  monastic  ruler  in  the  Egj-ptian  des- 
ert who  caused  the  document  to  be  read. 

III.  Paphnutiu.s,  deacon  of  the  church  of  Boou, 
in  Egypt,  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian,  under  the  Prefect  Culcianus. 

Hefele-Leclercq,  Histoire  des  conciles,  I,  i  (Paris,  1907), 

Maurice  M.  Hassett. 

Paphos,  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus. 
There  were  two  towns  of  this  name.  Old  Paphos  which 
owed  its  renown  to  the  Phoenician  goddess  Astarte,  as 
represented  by  a  sacred  stone  or  ba'tjdus,  and  now 
identified  with  Kouklia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dio- 
rizo;  and  New  Paphos,  located  at  the  village  of  Baffo, 
over  nine  miles  distant  from  the  former.  The  latter 
was  the  see.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  the  metropolis 
of  the  island.  In  15  B.  c.  it  received  the  surname  of 
Augusta,  and  was  later  called  Sebaste  Claudia  Flavia 
Paphos.  The  proconsul  Sergius  Paulus  resided  there 
when  Paul  and  Barnabas,  after  having  confounded  the 
magician  Elymas,  converted  the  governor  to  Chris- 
tianity (Acts,  xiii,  6  sqq.).  The  first  known  bishop, 
Cyril,  assisted  in  325  at  the  Council  of  Nica;a;  for  the 
other  Greek  titulars  see  Le  Quien,  "Oriens  chris- 
tianus"  (II,  1059-62);  Hackett,  "A  History  of  the 
Orthodox  Church  of  Cyprus"  (London,  1901,  p.  314). 
Among  them  was  Theodore  (seventh  century),  the 
biographer  of  St.  Spiridion,  St.  Nicholas,  and  St. 
Macarius,  otherwise  unknown.  The  list  of  Latin 
bishops  from  1215  to  1597  has  been  compiled  by  Le 
Quien  (op.  cit.,  Ill,  1215-20);  Du  Cange  "Les  families 
d'outre-mer"  (Paris,  1869,  pp.  865-68);  Eubel, 
"Hierarchia  cathol.  med.  a!vi"  (I,  407;  II,  234;  III, 
287) ;  Hackett  (op.  cit.,  564-68).  The  last  residential 
bishop,  Francesco  Contarini,  who  in  1563  had  assisted 
at  the  Council  of  Trent,  was  slain  in  1570  during  the 
siege  of  the  town  by  the  Turks.  During  the  Prankish 
occupation  the  Greek  see  was  one  of  the  four  which 
the  Latins  supported  in  1222,  but  the  bishop  was  com- 
pelled to  reside  at  Arsinoe  or  Chrysochou.  It  still 
exists.  Baffo  is  a  miserable  village,  the  larger  portion 
of  its  population  living  at  Ktima  half  a  league  away. 
In  the  Nliddle  Ages  the  Latin  Diocese  of  Paphos  was 
dependent  on  the  Archdiocese  of  Nicosia. 

(Tesnola,  Cyprus,  its  ancient  cities,  tombs  and  temples  (London, 
1877).  210-13;  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  IX,  158-271;  Perrot 
ANn  Chipiez,  Hist,  de  Vart  dans  VantiquitS,  III  (Paris),  264-275. 

S.   VAILHfi. 

Papias,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Hierapolis  (close  to  Lao- 
dicea  and  Colossse  in  the  valley  of  the  Lycus  in  Phry- 
gia)  and  Apostolic  Father,  called  by  St.  Irena>us  "a 
hearer  of  John,  and  companion  of  Polycarp,  a  man  of 
old  time".     He  wrote  a  work  in  five  books,  Xoyiuv 


PAPIAS 


458 


PAPIAS 


KvptaKuv  ;?i)7))<r<5,  of  which  all  but  some  fragments  is 
lost.  We  loarn  somothinp;  of  the  contents  from  the 
preface,  part  of  which  has  been  preserved  by  Euscbtus 
(III,  xxix):  "I  will  not  hesitate  to  add  also  for  you  to 
my  interpretations  what  I  formerly  learned  with  care 
from  the  Presbyters  and  have  carefully  stored  in  mem- 
ory, giving  assurance  of  its  truth.  For  I  did  not  take 
pleasure  as  the  many  do  in  those  who  speak  much,  but 
in  those  who  teach  what  is  true,  nor  in  those  who  re- 
late foreign  precepts,  but  in  tho.se  who  relate  the  pre- 
cepts which  were  given  by  the  Lord  to  the  faith  and 
came  down  from  the  Truth  itself.  And  also  if  any 
follower  of  the  Presbyters  happened  to  come,  I  would 
inquire  for  the  sayings  of  the  Presbyters,  what  An- 
drew said,  or  what  Peter  said,  or  what  Philip  or  what 
Thomas  or  James  or  what  John  or  Matthew  or  any 
other  of  the  Lord's  disciples,  and  for  the  things  which 
Aristion  and  the  Presbyter  John,  the  disciples  of  the 
Lord,  were  saying.  For  I  considered  that  I  should  not 
get  so  much  advantage  from  matter  in  books  as  from 
the  voice  which  yet  lives  and  remains."  From  this 
we  learn  that  Papias's  book  consisted  mainly  of  "in- 
terpretations"— it  was  a  kind  of  commentary  on  the 
"Logia  of  the  Lord".  The  word  logia,  meaning 
"oracles",  is  frequently  at  the  present  day  taken  to 
refer  to  sayings,  as  opposed  to  narratives  of  Our  Lord's 
actions  (so  Zahn  and  many  others).  But  Lightfoot 
showed  long  ago  (Essays  on  Supernatural  Religion, 
171-7)  that  this  view  is  untenable.  Philo  used  the 
word  for  any  part  of  the  inspired  writings  of  the  Old 
Testament,  whether  speech  or  narrative.  St.  Paul, 
Irena;us,  Clement,  Origen,  even  Photius,  have  no 
other  usage.  St.  Irena!us  speaks  of  corrupting  the 
oracles  of  the  Lord  just  as  Dionysius  of  Corinth  speaks 
of  corrupting  the  Scriptures  of  the  Lord.  A67ia 
KvpiaKo.  in  Papias,  in  Irena^us,  in  Photius,  means  "the 
divine  oracles"  of  the  Old  or  New  Testament  or 
both.  Besides  these  "interpretations",  Papias  added 
oral  traditions  of  two  kinds:  some  he  had  himself 
heard  from  the  Presbyters,  vapa  tuv  irp^iTfivTipuiv, 
others  he  had  at  second  hand  from  disciples  of  the 
Presbyters  who  happened  to  visit  him  at  Hierapolis. 
The  Presbyters  related  what  the  "disciples  of  the 
Lord" — Peter,  Andrew  etc. — used  to  say  in  old  da.ys. 
Other  informants  of  Papias's  visitors  were  still  living, 
"Aristion  and  John  the  Presbyter,  the  disciples  of  the 
Lord",  as  is  shown  by  the  present  tense,  \iyovaiv. 
We  naturally  assume  that  Papias  counted  them 
also  among  the  direct  informants  whom  he  had 
mentioned  before,  for  as  they  lived  at  Ephesus  and 
Smyrna,  not  far  off,  he  would  surely  know  them  per- 
sonally. However,  many  eminent  critics — Zahn  and 
Lightfoot,  and  among  Catholics,  Funk,  Bardenhewer, 
Michiels,  Gutjahr,  Batiffol,  Lepin — identify  the  Pres- 
byters with  Andrew,  Peter  etc.,  thus  making  them 
Apostles,  for  they  understand  "what  Andrew  and 
Peter  and  the  rest  said"  as  epexegetic  of  "the  words 
of  the  Presbyters".  This  is  impossible,  for  Papias 
had  just  spoken  of  what  he  learned  directly  from  the 
Presbj'ters,  &aa  irOTi  irapa  Twi'  wpfa^vripuv  KaKCis 
ifiaBov,  yet  it  is  admitted  that  he  could  not  have  known 
many  apostles.  Again,  he  seems  to  distinguish  the 
sayings  of  the  disciples  of  the  Lord,  Aristion  and  John, 
from  those  of  the  Presbyters,  as  though  the  latter  were 
not  disciples  of  the  Lord.  Lastly,  Irenaeus  and  Euse- 
bius,  who  had  the  work  of  Papias  before  them,  under- 
stand the  Presbyters  to  be  not  Apostles,  but  disciples 
of  disciples  of  the  Lord,  or  even  disciples  of  disciples 
of  Apostles.  1'he  same  meaning  is  given  to  the  word 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria.  We  are  therefore  obliged 
to  make  "what  Andrew  and  Peter  and  the  rest  said" 
not  co-ordinate  with  but  subordinate  to  "the  sayings 
of  the  Presbyters",  thus:  "I  would  inquire  for  the 
Bayings  of  the  Presbyters,  what  (they  related  that) 
Aridrew  and  Peter  and  the  rest  said,  and  for  the 
things  Aristion  and  John  were  saying".  Eusebius 
has  caused  a  further  difficulty  by  pointing  out  that 


two  Johns  are  mentioned,  one  being  distinguished  by 
the  ejiithet  presbyter  from  the  other  who  is  ol)viou8ly 
the  Apostle.  The  historian  adds  that  Dionysius  of 
Alexandria  said  he  heard  there  were  two  tombs  of 
John  at  Ephesus.  This  view  has  been  adopted  by 
practically  all  liberal  critics  and  by  .><uch  cdnserva- 
tives  as  Lightfoot  and  Westcott.  Biit  Zahn  and  most 
Catholic  writers  agree  that  Dionysius  was  mistaken 
about  the  tomb,  and  that  Eusebius's  interpretation  of 
Pai)ias's  words  is  incorrect.  For  he  says  that  Papias 
frequently  cited  John  the  Presbyter;  yet  it  is  certain 
that  Irena^us,  who  had  a  great  veneration  for  the  work 
of  Papias,  took  him  to  mean  John  the  Apostle;  and 
Irena>us  had  personal  knowledge  of  Asiatic  tradition 
and  could  not  have  been  ignorant  of  the  existence  of 
John  the  presbyter,  if  there  ever  was  such  a  person  in 
Asia.  Again,  Irena'us  tells  us  that  the  Ajjostle  lived 
at  Ephesus  until  the  time  of  Trajan,  that  he  wrote 
the  Apocalypse  in  the  last  days  of  Domitian.  Ire- 
na'us had  heard  Polycarp  relate  his  reminiscences  of  the 
Apostle.  Justin,  who  was  at  Ephesus  about  130-5, 
asserts  that  the  Apostle  was  the  author  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse (and  therefore  the  head  of  the  Asiatic  Churches). 
But  if  the  Apostle  lived  at  Ephesus  at  so  late  a  date, 
(and  it  cannot  be  doubted  with  any  show  of  reason), 
he  would  naturally  be  the  most  important  of  Papias's 
witnesses.  Yet  if  Eusebius  is  right,  it  would  seem 
that  John  the  Presbyter  was  his  chief  informant,  and 
that  he  had  no  sayings  of  the  Apostle  to  relate.  Again, 
"the  Presbyter"  who  wrote  I  and  II  John  has  the 
name  of  John  in  all  MSS.,  and  is  identified  with  the 
Apostle  by  Irenasus  and  Clement,  and  is  certainly 
(by  internal  evidence)  the  writer  of  the  fourth  Gospel, 
which  is  attributed  to  the  Apostle  by  Irenaeus  and  all 
tradition.  Again,  Polycrates  of  Ephesus,  in  recount- 
ing the  men  who  were  the  glories  of  Asia,  has  no  men- 
tion of  John  the  presbyter,  but  of  "John,  who  lay  uijon 
the  Lord's  breast",  undoubtedly  meaning  the  Apostle. 
The  second  John  at  Ephesus  is  an  unlucky  conjecture 
of  Eusebius. 

A  fragment  is,  however,  attributed  to  Papias  which 
states  that  "John  the  theologian  and  James  his 
brother  were  killed  by  the  Jews".  It  is  not  possible 
that  Papias  should  really  have  said  this,  otherwise 
Eusebius  must  have  quoted  it  and  Irena?us  could  not 
have  been  ignorant  of  it.  There  is  certainly  some 
error  in  the  quotation.  Either  something  has  been 
omitted,  or  St.  John  Baptist  was  meant.  That  St. 
John  is  mentioned  twice  in  the  list  of  Papias's  author- 
ities is  explained  by  the  distinction  between  his  earlier 
sayings  which  the  Presbyters  could  repeat  and  the  last 
utterances  of  his  old  age  which  were  reported  by  visi- 
tors from  Ephesus.  'The  most  important  fragment 
of  Papias  is  that  in  which  he  gives  an  account  of  St. 
Mark  from  the  words  of  the  Presbyter,  obviously  St. 
John.  It  is  a  defence  of  St.  Mark,  attesting  the  per- 
fect accuracy  with  which  he  wrote  down  the  teachings 
of  St.  Peter,  but  admitting  that  he  did  not  give  a  cor- 
rect order.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  (as  Dr.  Abbott 
has  shown)  the  fourth  Gospel  inserts  or  refers  to  every 
incident  given  in  St.  Mark  which  St.  Luke  has  passed 
over.  The  prologue  of  St.  Luke  is  manifestly  cited  in 
the  fragment,  so  that  Papias  and  the  Presbyter  knew 
that  Gospel,  which  was  presumably  preferred  to  that 
of  Mark  in  the  Pauline  Church  of  Ephesus;  hence  the 
need  of  the  rehabilitation  of  Mark  by  "  the  Presbyter", 
who  speaks  with  authority  as  one  who  knew  the  facts 
of  the  life  of  Christ  as  well  as  Peter  himself.  The  fa- 
mous statement  of  Papias  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  his 
togia  (that  is,  his  canonical  work)  in  Hebrew,  and  each 
interpreted  (translated)  it  as  he  was  able,  seems  to 
imply  that  when  Papias  wrote  an  accepted  version  was 
current — our  present  St.  Matthew.  His  knowledge  of 
St.  John's  Gospel  is  proved  not  merely  by  his  mention 
of  aloes,  but  by  a  citation  of  John  xi  v,  2,  which  occurs 
in  the  curious  prophecy  of  a  miraculous  vintage  in  the 
millenium  which  he  attributed  to  Our  Lord  (Irenteus, 


PAPIENSIS 


459 


PAPINI 


V,  xxxvi).  The  reference  in  his  preface  to  our  Lord 
as  "the  Truth"  also  implies  a  knowledge  of  the  fourth 
Gospel.  He  cited  I  John  and  I  Peter  according  to 
Eusebius,  and  he  evidently  built  largely  upon  the 
Apocalypse,  from  which  he  drew  his  chiliastic  views. 
It  was  formerly  customary  among  liberal  critics  to 
assume  (for  no  proof  was  possible)  that  Papias  ignored 
St.  Paul.  It  is  now  recognized  that  a  bishop  who 
lived  a  few  miles  from  ColossiB  cannot  be  suspected  of 
opposition  to  St.  Paul  merely  on  the  ground  that  the 
few  lines  of  his  writings  which  remain  do  not  contain 
any  quotation  from  the  Apostle.  It  is  highly  prob- 
able that  Papias  had  a  New  Testament  containing  the 
Four  Gospels,  the  Acts,  the  chief  Epistles  of  St.  Paul, 
the  Apocalypse  and  Epistles  of  St.  John,  and  I  Peter. 

Eusebius  says  that  Papias  frequently  cited  tradi- 
tions of  John  and  narrations  of  Aristion.  He  had  also 
received  information  from  the  daughters  of  Philip,  one 
of  whom  was  buried  like  her  father  at  Hierapolis,  and 
had  apparently  been  known  to  Papias.  He  related  the 
raising  to  life  of  the  mother  of  Manaimos  (probably 
not  the  same  as  Manaen  the  foster-brother  of  Herod) ; 
also  the  drinking  of  poison  without  harm  by  Justus 
Barsabas :  he  may  have  related  this  in  connexion  with 
Mark,  xvi,  18,  as  it  is  the  only  one  of  the  miracles 
promised  in  that  passage  by  our  Lord  which  is  not  ex- 
emplified in  Acts.  It  would  be  interesting  if  we  could 
be  sure  that  Papias  mentioned  this  last  section  of 
Mark,  since  an  Armenian  MS.  attributes  it  to  Aris- 
tion. Eusebius  says  Papias  "published  a  story  of  a 
woman  accused  of  many  sins  before  the  Lord,  which  is 
contained  in  the  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews". 
This  appears  to  refer  to  the  pericope  adulterce,  John,  viii. 

The  cause  of  the  loss  of  this  precious  work  of  an 
Apostolic  Father  was  the  chiliastic  view  which  he 
taught,  like  St.  Justin  and  St.  Irenteus.  He  supported 
this  by  "strange  parables  of  the  Saviour  and  teach- 
ings of  His,  and  other  mythical  matters",  says  Euse- 
bius. We  can  judge  of  these  by  the  account  of  the 
wonderful  vine  above  referred  to.  His  method  of  exe- 
gesis may  perhaps  be  estimated  to  some  extent  by  a 
comparison  of  the  chiliastic  portion  of  St.  Irenteus's 
fifth  book  with  the  original  ending  of  Victorinus's 
commentary  on  the  Apocalypse,  as  published  by 
Haussleiter  (Theologisches  Litteraturblatt,  26  April, 
1S9.5);  for  both  passages  are  evidently  based  on  Pa- 
pias, and  contain  the  same  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament.  Eusebius  was  an  opponent  of  chiliastic 
speculations,  and  he  remarks:  "Papias  was  a  man  of 
very  small  mind,  if  we  may  judge  by  his  own  words". 
It  would  seem  that  the  fragment  of  Victorinus  of  Pet- 
tau  "De  fabrica  mundi"  is  partly  based  on  Papias. 
In  it  we  have  perhaps  the  very  words  to  which  Euse- 
bius is  referring:  "Nunc  igitur  de  inenarrabili  gloria 
Dei  in  providentia  videas  memorari;  tamen  id  mens 
parva  polerit,  conabor  ostendere".  This  passage  prob- 
ably preserves  the  substance  of  what  Papias  said,  ac- 
cording to  the  testimony  of  Anastasius  of  Mount  Sinai, 
as  to  the  mystical  application  to  Christ  and  the 
Church  of  the  seven  days  of  creation.  A  wild  and  ex- 
traordinary legend  about  Judas  Iscariot  is  attributed 
to  Papias  by  a  catena.  It  is  probable  that  whenever 
St.  Irena>us  quotes  "the  Presbyters"  or  "the  Presby- 
ters who  had  seen  John",  he  is  citing  the  work  of  Pa- 
pias. Where  he  attributes  to  these  followers  of  John  the 
assertion  that  our  Lord  sanctified  all  the  ages  of  man, 
he  is  probably  quoting  Papias;  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  Papias  had  inferred  that  our  Lord  reached  the  age 
of  fifty,  as  Irenajus  concludes,  nor  need  we  be  too  cer- 
tain that  Papias  ex-plicitly  cited  the  Presbyters  in  the 
passage  in  question.  His  real  statement  is  possibly 
preserved  in  a  sentence  of  "De  fabrica  mundi", 
which  implies  only  that  our  Lord  reached  the  perfect 
age  (between  30  and  40)  after  which  decline  begins. 

Of  Papias's  life  nothing  is  known.  If  Polycarp  was 
bom  in  69,  his  "comrade"  maj'  have  been  born  a  few 
years  earlier.    The  fragment  which  makes  him  state 


that  those  who  were  raised  to  life  by  Christ  lived  on 
until  the  age  of  Hadrian  cannot  be  used  to  determine 
his  date,  for  it  is  clearly  made  up  from  the  quite  cred- 
ible statement  of  Quadratus  (Eusebius,  iv,  3)  that 
some  of  those  cured  by  our  Lord  lived  until  his  own 
time  and  the  fact  that  Quadratus  wrote  under  Ha- 
drian; the  name  of  Papias  has  been  substituted  by  the 
egregious  excerptor.  The  work  of  Papias  was  evi- 
dently written  in  his  old  age,  say  between  the  years  115 
and  140. 

The  literature  on  Papias  is  of  overwhelming  quantity.  Every 
introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  every  book  on  the  Fourth 
Gospel  mentions  him.  The  best  discussion  in  English  is  Light- 
foot's  Essays  on  Supernatural  Religion,  reprinted  from  the  Con- 
temporary Review  (London,  1889) ;  on  the  preface  see  especially 
Zahn,  Forschungen,  VI  (1900);  on  the  two  Johns,  Drdmmond, 
Ezra  Abbott,  Camerlynck,  and  others  on  the  Gospel  of  St. 
John;  for  the  view  that  the  Apostle  was  not  at  Ephesus  but  only 
the  presbyter,  Harnack,  Gesch.  der  altchr.  Litt,,  II  (1897),  and 
(making  the  presbyter  the  beloved  disciple)  Delff,  Gesch.  d. 
Rabbi  Jesus  (Leipzig.  1889) ;  Idem,  Das  vierte  Evang,  wiederherge- 
stellt;  Idem.  Neue  Beitrdge zur Kritik  und  Erkl&rung  des  vierten  Ev, 
(both  at  Husum,  1890) ;  Sandat,  The  Criticism  of  the  Fourth  Gos- 
pel (Oxford.  1905) ;  Bousset,  Offenbarung  d.  Joh.  (Leipzig,  1896) ; 
also  Zahn,  loc.  cit.;  Stanton,  The  Gospels  as  Hist.  Documents,  X 
(1903);  Chapman,  John  the  Presbyter  (Oxford,  1911);  on  the  sup- 
posed martyrdom  of  St.  John,  De  Boor,  A^eue  Fragments  des 
Papias  in  Tezle  u.  Uniers.,  V,  II  (1888) ;  Delff,  loc.  cit.;  Chapman, 
loc.  cit.;  Schwartz,  Ueber  den  Tod  der  Sohne  Zebedcei  (in  favour 
of  the  martyrdom,  Berlin.  1904);  against  are;  Armitage  Robin- 
son, The  Historical  Character  of  St.  John's  Gospel  (London,  1908); 
Bernard  in  Irish  Church  Quarterly  (Jan.,  1908) ;  Edwin  Abbott, 
Notes  on  New  Testament  Criticism  (London,  1906) ;  for  a  general  ac- 
count of  Papias,  see  Bardenhewer,  Gesch,  der  altkirchl,  Litt.,  I 
(Frcihurt;,  1902),  who  gives  sufficient  references  to  older  books  and 
urMrl.  ini.[.  in  Richardson's  S^7iopsis  (Buffalo,  1887).  _  On  St. 
.1    I      ;ii  I  .-.  CnKPUK-N,  Papias  on  the  Age  of  our  Lord  in  Jour- 

:,.■  I  -.luflies,  IX  (Oct.,  1907),  33;  Gdtjahr,  Die  Glaub- 

(/'//';.('  ,''  irendischen  Zeugnisses  (Graz,  1904);  Lewis,  The 
Ircii.iHs  1,'xtimnny  to  the  Fourth  Gospel  (Chicago,  1908);  on  the 
Chiliasm  of  Papias,  Atzberger,  Gesch,  der  christl.  Bschatologie 
(Freiburg,  1896);  Gry,  Le  millenarisme  (Paris,  1904;  New 
York,  1S99).  JoHN   ChaPMAN. 

Papiensis,  Beknardus,  Italian  canonist  of  the 
thirteenth  century;  d.  IS  Sept.,  1213.  He  was  born 
at  Pavia,  studied  law  and  theology  at  Bologna,  was 
provost  of  the  cathedral  of  Pavia  until  1191,  Bishop 
of  Faenza  until  119S,  and  then  Bishop  of  Pavia  until 
his  death.  He  is  renowned  for  his  "Breviarium  ex- 
travagantium "  (later  called  "Compilatio  prima  an- 
tiqua"),  a  collection  of  canonical  texts  comprising 
ancient  canons  not  inserted  in  the  "Decretum"  of 
Gratian  and  also  later  documents.  The  work  was 
compiled  between  1187  and  1191,  and  was  edited  by 
Friedberg  ("Quinque  compilationes  antiquffi",  Leip- 
zig, 1882).  Papiensis  is  the  author  of  a  "Summa"  on 
his  own  compilation,  which  he  wrote  while  Bishop  of 
Faenza;  it  was  edited  by  Laspeyres,  as  were  also  other 
works  of  the  same  author:  "Summa  de  matrimonio", 
"Summa  de  electione",  "Casus  decretalium",  and  a 
glo.ss  on  his  "Breviarium  extravagantium"  ("Ber- 
nardi  Papiensis  Summa  decretalium",  Ratisbon, 
1861).  He  is  also  the  author  of  a  "Vita  sancti  Lan- 
franci"  (Acta  SS.,  IV  Jun.,  620  sqq.),  a  "Commen- 
tarius  in  Ecclesiasticum",  and  a  " Commentarius 
in  Canticum  Canticorum". 

Schulte,  Die  Gesch,  der  Quellen  u.  Lit,  des  canon.  Rechts,  I 
(Stuttgart,  1875),  175-82;  Laurin,  Introd.  in  Corp.  Jur.  Canon. 
(Freiburg,  1889),  20,  97-105;  Schneider,  Die  Lehre  von  den 
Kirchenrechtsquellen  (Ratisbon.  1892),  126-29. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Papini,  Nicholas,  historian,  b.  at  San  Giovanni 
Valdarno,  between  Florence  and  Arezzo,  about  17.51; 
d.  at  Terni,  LTmbria,  16  Dec,  1834.  Having  entered 
the  Order  of  the"  Conventuals  he  taught  Italian  liter- 
ature at  Modena,  was  secretary  of  the  Provincial  of 
Tuscan}',  cuslos  of  theSacred Convent  of  .-Vs.sisi,  1800  (?) 
-1803,  a  short  time  guardian  of  Dodici  Apostoli  at 
Rome,  and  finally  named  Minister  General  of  the  Con- 
ventuals 1803-09.  Later  on  he  lived  at  Assisi  and 
Terni,  where  he  is  buried.  His  printed  works  are 
"L'Etruria  Francescana  o  vero  raccolta  di  notizie 
storiche  interessanti  I'Ordine  de  FF.  Minor!  Con- 
ventuali  di  S.  Francesco  in  Toscana",  I,  Siena, 
1797;  "Notizie  sicure  della  morte,  sepoltura,  canoniz- 


PARA 


460 


PARABLES 


sftzione  e  traslazione  di  S.  Francesco  d'Assisi  e  del 
ritrovaraento  del  di  lui  corpo",  2nd  ed.,  Foligno, 
1824;  "Storia  del  Pordono  d  Assisi  con  documenti  e 
osservazioni",  Florence,  1S24;  "La  Storia  di  S.  Fran- 
cesco di  Assisi,  opera  critica,"  2  vols.,  Foligno,  1827. 

UoBlNSON,  A  Short  Introduction  to  Francisain  Litcroturr  (New 
York.  1907),  19,  44;  Eubel,  Sbaraleas  und  Papinis  lilerarischer 
Nachlass  in  Ilislorisches  Jahrbuch.  X  (1889),  67-9;  Manuate  dci 
Nocwii  e  Pro/essi  Chierici  e  Laid  Minori  Convenluati  (Rome. 
IS97),  278,  342;  Lanzi,  Note  e  ricordi  suUa  Chiesa  di  S.  Francesco 
in  TcmiiD  Miscellanea  Francescana,  IX  (1902),  6-7. 

L1VARIU.S  Oliger. 
Para.     See  Belem  do  Para,  Archdioce.se  op. 

Parables. — The  word  parable  (Heb.  bt'^,  mashal; 
Syr.  mathla,  Gr.  wapa^oXJi)  signifies  in  general  a  com- 
parison, or  a  parallel,  by  which  one  thing  is  used  to 
illustrate  another.  It  is  a  likeness  taken  from  the 
sphere  of  real,  or  sensible,  or  earthly  incidents,  in  order 
to  convey  an  ideal,  or  spiritual,  or  heavenly  meaning. 
As  uttering  one  thing  and  signifying  something  else,  it 
is  in  the  nature  of  a  riddle  (Heb.  khidah,  Gr.  atviyija  or 
Trp6;}\ri/ia) ,  and  has  therefore  a  light  and  a  dark  side, — 
"dark  sayings",  Wis.,  viii,  8;  Ecclus.,  xxxix,  3; — it  is 
intended  to  stir  curiosity  and  calls  for  intelligence  in 
the  listener,  "He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear" 
Matt.,xiii,9.  ItsGreek  designation  (from  Tapa/3dXXeiv, 
to  throw  beside  or  against)  indicates  a  deliberate 
"making  up "  of  a  story  in  which  some  lesson  is  at  once 
given  and  concealed.  As  taking  simple  or  common  ob- 
jects to  cast  light  on  ethics  and  religion,  it  has  been 
well  said  of  the  parable  that  "truth  embodied  in  a 
tale  shall  enter  in  at  lowly  doors."  It  abounds  in 
lively  sjjcaking  figures,  and  stands  midway  between 
the  hteralism  of  mere  prose  and  the  abstractions  of 
philosophy.  What  the  Hebrew  bt'^  is  derived  from 
we  do  not  know.  If  connected  with  Assyrian  mashalu, 
Arab,  matala,  etc.,  the  root  meaning  is  "likeness". 
But  it  will  be  a  likeness  which  contains  a  judgment, 
and  so  includes  the  "maxim",  or  general  proposition 
bearing  on  conduct  (Greek  "gnomic  wisdom"),  of 
which  the  Book  of  Proverbs  (Meshalim)  is  the  chief 
inspired  example.  In  classic  Latin,  the  Greek  word  is 
translated collatio  (Cicero,  "  De  invent.",  i-xxx),  imago 
(Seneca,  "Ep.  lix."),  simililudo  (Quintil.,  "Inst.", 
V,  7-8).  Observe  that  irapa^oXri  does  not  occur  in  St. 
John's  Gospel,  nor  napoi/xla  (proverb)  in  the  Synoptics. 

Likeness  and  abstraction  enter  into  the  idea  of  lan- 
guage, but  may  be  contrasted  as  body  and  spirit, 
standing  as  they  do  in  a  relation  at  once  of  help  and 
opposition.  Wisdom  for  the  practice  of  life  has  among 
all  nations  taken  a  figurative  shape,  passing  from  myth 
or  fable  into  the  contracted  sayings  we  term  proverbs, 
and  arriving  in  the  Greek  schools  of  philosophy  at 
ethical  systems.  But  system,  or  technical  metaphys- 
ics, does  not  appeal  to  the  Semite;  and  our  Sacred 
Books  were  never  written  with  a  view  to  it.  If,  how- 
ever, system  be  not  made  the  vehicle  of  teaching,  what 
shall  a  prophet  employ  as  its  equivalent?  The  image 
or  comparison  remains.  It  is  primitive,  interesting, 
and  easily  remembered;  and  its  various  applications 
give  it  a  continual  freshness.  The  story  came  into  use 
long  before  the  system,  and  will  survive  when  systems 
are  forgotten.  Its  affinity,  as  a  form  of  Divine  speech, 
with  the  "Sacrament"  {livar-qpiov)  as  a  form  of  Divine 
action,  may  profitably  be  kept  in  mind.  Neither  can 
we  overlook  the  points  of  resemblance  which  exist  be- 
tween parables  and  miracles,  both  exhibiting  through 
outward  shows  the  presence  of  a  supernatural  doctrine 
and  agency. 

Hence  we  may  speak  of  the  irony  which  must  al- 
ways be  possible  in  devices  adapted  to  human  weak- 
ness of  understanding,  where  heavenly  secrets  are 
concerned.  Bacon  has  said  excellently  well,  "parables 
are  serviceable  as  a  mask  and  veil,  and  also  for  ehici- 
dation  and  illustration"  (De  sap.  vet.).  Of  Scripture 
parables  we  conclude  that  they  illustrate  and  edify  by 
revealing  some  Divine  principle,  with  immediate  refer- 


ence to  the  hearers  addressed,  but  with  more  remote 
and  recondite  applications  in  the  whole  Christian 
economy  to  which  tlujy  belong.  Thus  we  find  two 
lines  of  interpretation,  the  first  dealing  with  Our  Lord's 
parabl(-s  as  and  when  they  were  spoken — let  this  be 
termed  crilical  exegesis;  and  the  second  bringing  out 
their  ■■^igniticanre  in  the  history  of  the  Church,  or  ec- 
clesia.-^tical  exegesis.  Both  are  connected  and  may  be 
traced  to  the  same  root  in  Hcvclalioii:  yet  Ihcv  are 
distinct,  .somewhiit  after  the  fashion  of  the  literal  und 
mystical  sense  in  Scripture  generally.  We  cannot  lose 
either  out  of  siglit.  The  parables  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment refuse  to  be  handled  like  ^Esop's  fables;  they 
were  intended  from  the  first  to  shadow  forth  the 
"mysteries  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven",  and  their 
double  purpose  may  be  re.'ul  in  St  Matthew,  xiii,  10- 
18,  where  it  is  attributed  to  Christ  Himself. 

Modern  critics  (Jiiliehcr  and  Loisy)  who  deny  this, 
affirm  that  the  Evangelists  have  deflected  the  parables 
from  their  original  meaning  in  the  interest  of  edifica- 
tion, suiting  them  to  the  circumstances  of  the  primi- 
tive Church.  In  making  such  accusations  these  crit- 
ics, following  the  example  of  Strauss,  not  only  reject 
the  witness  of  the  Gospel  writers,  but  do  violence  to  its 
text.  They  overlook  the  profoundly  supernatural  and 
prophetic  idea  on  which  all  Scri])ture  moves  as  its 
vital  form, — an  idea  certified  to  u.s  by  the  usage  of  our 
Lord  when  quoting  the  <  »ld  Ti'slaiiM-nt,  and  admitted 
equally  by  the  Evangeli.sis  urn  I  St.  Paul.  That  they 
run  counter  to  Catholir  tradition  is  manifest.  More- 
over, parables  thus  ilctuclied  from  a  Christological 
significance  would  hang  in  the  air  and  could  claim  no 
place  in  the  teaching  of  the  Son  of  God.  A  valid  exe- 
gesis will  therefore  be  prejjared  to  discover  in  them  all 
not  only  the  relevance  which  they  had  for  the  multi- 
tude or  the  Pharisees  but  their  truth,  sub  specie  sacra- 
nienli,  for  "the  Kingdom",  i.  e.,  for  Christ's  Church. 
And  on  this  method  the  Fathers  have  expounded  them 
without  distinction  of  school,  but  especially  among 
Westerns,  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Augustine,  and  St..  Greg- 
ory the  Great,  as  their  commentaries  prove. 

Of  the  proverb  not  an  ill  definition  might  be  that  it 
is  a  closed  or  contracted  parable:  and  of  the  parable 
that  it  is  an  expanded  proverb.  An  instance,  hovering 
on  the  verge  of  both,  occurs  Matt.,  xi,  17:  "We  have 
piped  to  you,  and  you  have  not  danced;  we  have  la- 
mented, and  you  have  not  mourned."  The  words 
were  taken  from  some  child's  game,  but  they  are  ap- 
plied to  St.  John  the  Baptist  and  to  Our  Lord,  with  a 
gnomic  moral,  "Wisdom  is  justified  by  her  children." 
In  a  myth  or  allegory,  fictitious  persons,  gods  and  men, 
are  introduced;  and  the  significance  lies  within  the 
story,  as  in  Apuleius,  "Eros  and  Psyche".  But  a 
parable  looks  at  life  as  it  is  li\'ed,  deals  in  no  personifi- 
cations, and  requiras  to  be  interpreted  from  without. 
Fable  is  marked  by  giving  speech  and  thought  to  irra- 
tional or  inanimate  objects;  parable  as  our  Lord  em- 
ploys it  never  does  so.  Examples  or  "histories  with  a 
moral "  have  at  least  a  core  of  reality — the  instances 
occurring  in  Scripture  and  allowed  by  critics  are  such 
as  Esther,  Susanna,  Tobias;  but  a  parable  need  not 
quote  individual  persons,  and  except  in  the  doubtful 
case  of  Lazarus,  we  shall  not  light  upon  instances  of 
this  kind  among  the  stories  told  in  the  Gospels.  A 
type  consists  in  the  significance  given  by  prophecy 
to  a  person  or  his  acts;  e.  g.,  to  Isaac  as  the  lamb  of 
sacrifice,  and  the  symbolical  deeds  of  Ezechiel  or  Jere- 
mias.  But  the  parable  brings  in  no  types  directly  or 
in  its  immediate  sense,  and  no  determined  persons. 
Metaphor  (Lat.  Iranslatio)  is  a  vague  term,  wliich 
might  be  applied  to  any  short  parabolic  saying  but 
does  not  fit  the  narrative  of  an  action,  such  as  we  mean 
by  a  parable  in  the  New  Testament.  The  Socratio 
myth  which  adorns  the  "Gorgias",  "Pha'do",  and 
"Republic",  is  confessedly  a  fable,  whereas  in  our 
synoptic  Gospels  whatever  illustrations  we  meet  are 
chosen  from  daily  occurrences. 


PARABLES 


461 


PARABLES 


The  Hebrew  genius,  unlike  that  of  the  Hellenes,  was 
not  given  to  myth-making;  it  abhorred  the  personifi- 
cations of  nature  to  which  we  are  indebted  for  gods  of 
the  elements,  for  Nereids  and  Hamadryads;  it  seldom 
pursued  an  allegory  to  any  length;  and  its  "realism" 
in  treating  of  landscape  and  visible  phenomena  strikes 
most  forcibly  on  the  modern  imagination.  Theism  was 
the  breath  of  its  nostrils;  and  where  for  a  moment  it 
indulges  a  turn  for  ancient  folk-lore  (as  in  Is.,  xiii,  21) 
it  is  far  removed  from  the  wild  Pantheon  of  Greek  na- 
ture-worship. In  the  parables  we  never  come  across 
enchanted  stones  or  talking  beasts  or  trees  with  magi- 
cal virtues;  the  world  which  they  describe  is  the  world 
of  every  day;  not  even  miracles  break  in  upon  its  es- 
tablished order.  When  we  consider  what  Oriental 
fancy  has  made  of  the  universe,  and  how  it  is  depicted 
in  cosmogonies  like  that  of  Hesiod,  the  contrast  be- 
comes indescribably  great.  It  is  in  the  world  which 
all  men  know  that  Christ  finds  exemplified  the  laws  of 
human  ethics,  and  the  correspondences  on  which  His 
kingdom  shall  be  carried  to  its  Divine  consummation. 
Seen  with  purged  eyes  nature  is  already  the  kingdom 
of  God. 

No  language  is  more  concrete  in  its  presentation  of 
laws  and  princiiJles,  or  more  viv-idly  figured,  than  that 
which  the  Old  Testament  affords.  But  of  parables 
strictly  taken  it  has  only  a  few.  Jotham's  apologue 
of  the  trees  choosing  a  king  (Judges,  ix,  8-15)  is  more 
properly  a  fable;  so  is  the  scornful  tale  of  the  thistle 
and  the  cedar  in  Lebanon  which  ,Ioas  of  Israel  sent  by 
messengers  to  Amasias,  King  of  Juda  (IV  Kings,  xiv, 
8-10).  Nathan's  rebuke  to  David  is  couched  in  the 
form  of  a  parable  (II  Kings,  xii,  1— t;)  so  the  wise 
woman  of  Thecua  (ibid.,  xiv,  4);  so  the  Prophet  to 
Achab  (III  Kings,  xx,  39);  and  the  song  of  the  vine- 
yard (Is.,  V,  1-8).  It  has  been  suggested  that  chap- 
ters i-iii  of  Osee  must  be  construed  as  a  parable,  and  do 
not  contain  a  real  history.  The  denunciation  of  woe 
on  Jerusalem  in  Ezech.,  xxiv,  3-5,  is  expressly  named 
a  mashal,  and  may  be  compared  with  the  Gospel  simil- 
itude of  the  leaven.  But  our  Lord,  unlike  the  Proph- 
ets, does  not  act,  or  describe  Himself  as  acting,  any  of 
the  stories  which  He  narrates.  Hence  we  need  not 
take  into  account  the  Old-Testament  passages.  Is.,  xx, 
2-4;  Jer.,  xxv,  15;  Ezech.,  iii,  24-26,  etc. 

That  the  character  of  Christ's  teaching  to  the  mul- 
titude was  mainly  parabolic  is  clear  from  Matt.,  xiii, 
34,  and  Mark,  iv,  33.  Perhaps  we  should  ascribe  to 
the  same  cause  an  element  of  the  startling  and  para- 
doxical, e.  g.,  in  His  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  which, 
taken  literally,  has  been  misunderstood  by  simple  or 
again  by  fanatical  minds.  Moreover,  that  such  a  form 
of  instruction  was  familiar  to  the  Jews  of  this  period 
cannot  be  doubted.  The  sayings  of  Hillel  and  Sham- 
mai  still  extant,  the  visions  of  the  Book  of  Enoch,  the 
typical  values  which  we  observe  as  attaching  to  the 
stories  of  Judith  and  Tobias,  the  .4pocalypse  and  the 
extensive  literature  of  which  it  is  the  flower,  all  be- 
token a  demand  for  something  esoteric  in  the  popular 
religious  preaching,  and  show  how  abundantly  it  was 
satisfied.  But  if,  as  mystical  writers  hold,  the  highest 
degree  of  heavenly  knowledge  is  a  clear  intuition,  with- 
out veils  or  symbols  dimming  its  light,  we  see  in  our 
Lord  exactly  this  pure  comprehension.  He  is  never 
Himself  drawn  as  a  visionary.  The  parables  are  not 
for  Him  but  for  the  crowd.  When  He  speaks  of  His 
relation  to  the  Father  it  is  in  direct  terms,  without 
metaphor.  It  follows  that  the  scope  of  these  exquisite 
little  moralities  ought  to  be  measured  by  the  audience 
whom  they  were  designed  to  benefit.  In  other  words 
they  form  p.art  of  the  "Economy"  whereby  truth  is 
dispensed  to  men  as  they  are  able  to  bear  it  (Mark,  iv, 
33;John,xvi,  12).  Since,  however,  it'is  the  Lord  that 
speaks,  we  must  reverently  construe  His  sayings  in  the 
light  of  the  whole  Revelation  which  furnishes  their 
ground  and  context.  The  "real  sense  of  Scripture", 
as  Newman  points  out  in  accord  with  all  the  Catholic 


Fathers,  is  "the  scope  of  the  Divine  intelligence",  or 
the  scheme  of  Incarnation  and  Redemption. 

Subject  to  this  Law,  the  New-Testament  parables 
have  each  a  definite  meaning,  to  be  ascertained  from 
the  explanation,  where  Christ  deigns  to  give  one,  as  in 
the  sower;  and  when  none  such  is  forthcoming,  from 
the  occasion,  introduction,  and  appended  moral.  In- 
terpreters have  differed  importantly  on  the  question 
whether  everything  in  the  parable  is  of  its  essence  (the 
"kernel")  or  anything  is  mere  machinery  and  acci- 
dent (the  "husk").  There  is  an  obvious  negative 
rule.  We  must  not  pass  over  as  unmeaning  any  de- 
tail without  which  the  lesson  would  cease  to  be  en- 
forced. But  shall  we  insist  on  a  correspondence  at  all 
points,  so  that  we  may  translate  the  whole  into  spirit- 
ual values,  or  may  we  neglect  whatever  does  not  seem 
to  compose  a  feature  of  the  moral  to  be  drawn?  St. 
John  Chiysostom  (In  Matt.,  Ixiv)  and  the  School  of 
Antioch,  who  were  literalists,  prefer  the  latter  method; 
they  are  sober  in  exposition,  not  imaginative  or  mystic; 
andTertullian  has  expressions  to  the  like  purpose  (De 
Pudic.,ix);  St.  Augustine,  who  holds  of  Origen  and  the 
Alexandrians,  abounds  in  the  larger  sense;  yet  he 
allows  that  "in  prophetic  narrations  details  are  told 
us  which  have  no  significance"  (De  Civ.  Dei,  XVI,  ii). 
St.  Jerome  in  his  earlier  writings  follows  Origen;  but 
his  temper  was  not  that  of  a  mystic  and  with  age  he 
becomes  increasingly  literal.  Among  modern  com- 
mentators the  same  difference  of  handling  appears. 

In  a  problem  which  is  literary  as  well  as  exegetical, 
we  must  guard  against  applying  a  hard  and  fast  rule 
where  taste  and  insight  are  required.  Each  of  the 
parables  will  need  to  be  dealt  with  as  if  it  were  a  poem; 
and  fulness  of  meaning,  refinement  of  thought,  slight 
but  suggestive  hints  and  touches,  characteristic  of 
human  genius,  will  not  be  wanting  to  the  method  of 
the  Divine  Teacher.  In  the  highest  criticism,  as 
Goethe  warns  us,  we  cannot  divide  as  with  an  axe  the 
inward  from  the  outward.  Where  all  is  living,  the 
metaphor  of  kernel  and  husk  may  be  often  misapplied. 
The  meaning  lies  implicit  in  the  whole  and  its  parts; 
here  as  in  every  vital  product  the  ruling  spirit  is  one, 
the  elements  take  their  virtue  from  it  and  separately 
are  of  no  account.  As  we  move  away  from  the  central 
idea  we  lose  the  assurance  that  we  are  not  pursuing 
our  own  fancies;  and  the  substitution  of  a  mechanical 
yet  extravagant  dogmatism  for  the  Gospel  truth  has 
led  Gnostics  and  Manicha?ans,  or  latter-day  vision- 
aries like  Swedenborg,  into  a  wilderness  of  delusions 
where  the  severe  and  tender  beauty  of  the  parables 
can  no  longer  be  discerned.  They  are  hterary  crea- 
tions, not  merely  hieratic  devices;  and  as  awakening 
the  mind  to  spiritual  principles  their  intent  is  fulfilled 
when  it  muses  on  the  deep  things  of  God,  the  laws  of 
life,  the  mission  of  Christ,  of  which  it  is  thus  made 
intimately  aware. 

St.  Thomas  and  all  Catholic  doctors  maintain  that 
articles  of  faith  ought  to  be  deduced  only  from  the  lit- 
eral sense  of  Scripture  whenever  it  is  quoted  in  proof  of 
them ;  but  the  literal  sense  is  often  the  prophetic,  which 
itself  as  a  Divine  truth  may  well  be  applicable  to  an  en- 
tire series  of  events  or  line  of  typical  characters.  The 
Angel  of  the  Schools  declares  after  St.  Jerome  that 
"spiritual  interpretation  should  follow  the  order  of 
history".  St.  Jerome  himself  exclaims,  "never  can 
a  parable  and  the  dubious  interpretations  of  riddles 
avail  for  the  establishment  of  dogmas"  (Summa,  I-I, 
Q.  x;  St.  Jerome,  In  Matt.,  xiii,  33).  From  a  par- 
able alone,  therefore,  we  do  not  argue  categorically; 
we  take  it  in  illustration  of  Christian  verities  proved 
elsewhere.  It  was  this  canon  of  good  sense  which  the 
Gnostics,  especially  Valentinus,  disregarded  to  their 
own  hurt,  and  so  fell  into  the  confusion  of  ideas  mis- 
called by  them  revelation.  Irenseus  constantlj-  op- 
poses church  tradition  or  the  rule  of  faith,  to  these 
dreamers  (II,  xvi,  against  the  Marcosians;  II,  xxvii, 
xxviii,  against  Valentinus).   TertulUan  in  like  manner, 


PARABLES 


462 


PARABLES 


"Heretics  draw  the  parables  wliither  they  will,  not 
whither  they  ought",  and  "Valentinus  did  not  make 
up  Scriptures  to  suit  his  teaching,  but  forced  his 
teaching  on  the  Scriptures."  (See  De  Pudic,  viii, 
ix;  De  I'nescript.,  viii;  and  compare  St.  Anselm,  "Cur 
Deus  homo",  I,  iv.) 

We  learn  what  the  parables  signify,  on  this  show- 
ing, from  "the  school  of  Christ";  we  interpret  them 
on  the  lines  of  "apostolic  and  ecclesiastical  tradition" 
(Tert.,  "Scorp.",  xii;  Vine.  Lerin.,  xxvii;  Cone.  Trid., 
Sess.  IV).  The  "analogy  of  faith"  determines  how 
far  we  may  go  in  applying  them  to  life  and  history. 
With  Salmeron  it  is  allowed  to  distinguish  in  them 
a  "root",  the  occasion  and  immediate  purpose,  a 
"rind",  the  sensible  imagery  or  incidents,  and  a  "mar- 
row", the  Christian  truth,  thus  conveyed.  Another 
way  would  be  to  consider  each  parable  as  it  relates  to 
Christ  himself,  to  the  Church  as  His  spiritual  body, 
to  the  individual  as  putting  on  Christ.  These  are  not 
different,  still  less  contrary  elucidations;  they  flow 
out  of  that  great  central  dogma,  "The  Word  was  made 
flesh".  In  dealing  on  such  a  system  with  any  part 
of  Holy  Writ  we  keep  within  Catholic  bounds;  we 
explain  the  "Verbum  scriptum"  by  the  "Verbum 
incarnatum".  To  the  same  principle  we  can  reduce 
the  "four  senses",  often  reckoned  as  derivable  from 
the  sacred  text.  These  medieval  refinements  are  but 
an  effort  to  establish  on  the  letter,  faithfully  under- 
stood, implications  which  in  all  the  works  of  genius, 
other  than  scientific,  are  more  or  less  contained.  The 
governing  sense  remains,  and  is  always  the  standard 
of  reference. 

There  are  no  parables  in  St.  John's  Gospel.  In  the 
Synoptics  Mark  has  only  one  peculiar  to  himself,  the 
seed  growing  secretly  (iv,  26) ;  he  has  three  which  are 
common  to  Matthew  and  Luke,  the  sower,  mustard 
seed,  and  wicked  husbandman.  Two  more  are 
found  in  the  same  Gospels,  the  leaven  and  the  lost 
sheep.  Of  the  rest  eighteen  belong  to  the  third  and 
ten  to  the  first  Evangelist.  Thus  we  reckon  thirty- 
three  in  all;  but  some  have  raised  the  number  even  to 
sixty,  by  including  proverbial  exTJressions.  An  exter- 
nal but  instructive  division  parts  them  into  three 
groups;  those  delivered  about  the  Lake  of  Galilee 
(Matt.,  xiii);  thoseon  the  waj'upto  Jerusalem  (Luke, 
x-xviii);  those  uttered  during  the  final  stage  of  Our 
Lord's  life,  given  in  either  Gospel;  or  parables  of  the 
kingdom,  the  Christian's  rule;  the  judgment  on  Is- 
rael and  mankind.  In  various  ways  commentators 
follow  this  arrangement,  while  indicating  more  elab- 
orate distinctions.  Westcott  refers  us  to  parables 
drawn  from  the  material  world,  as  the  sower;  from 
the  relations  of  men  to  that  world,  as  the  fig  tree 
and  lost  sheep:  from  the  dealings  of  men  with  one 
another,  as  the  prodigal  son;  and  with  God,  as  the 
hidden  treasure.  It  is  clear  that  we  might  assign 
examples  from  one  of  these  classes  to  a  different  head- 
ing without  violence.  A  further  suggestion,  not  un- 
real, brings  out  the  Messianic  aspect  of  the  parables  in 
St.  Matthew,  and  the  more  individual  or  ethical  of 
those  in  St.  Luke.  Again  the  later  chapters  of  St. 
Matthew  and  the  third  (jospel  tend  to  enlarge  and  give 
more  in  detail;  perhaps  at  the  beginning  of  our  Lord's 
ministry  these  illustrations  were  briefer  than  they 
afterwards  became.  We  can  surely  not  imagine  that 
Christ  never  repeated  or  varied  His  parables,  as  any 
human  teacher  would  under  various  circumstances. 
The  same  story  may  well  be  recorded  in  different 
Bhapes  and  with  a  moral  adapted  to  the  situation, 
as,  e.  g.,  the  talents  and  the  pounds,  or  the  king's 
eon's  marriage  and  the  unworthy  wedding  guest. 
Nor  ought  we  to  expect  in  the  reporters  a  stereotyped 
accuracy,  of  which  the  New  Testament  nowhere 
shows  itself  to  be  solicitious.  Though  we  have  re- 
ceived the  parables  only  in  the  form  of  literature,  they 
were  in  fact  spoken,  not  wTitten — and  spoken  in  Ara- 
maic, while  handed  down  to  us  in  Hellenistic  Greek. 


Although,  according  to  most  non-Catholic  writers, 
Sts.  Matthew  and  Luke  are  founded  upon  St.  Mark, 
it  is  natural  to  begin  our  exjiosition  of  the  i)arables 
in  the  first  Gospel,  which  has  a  group  of  seven  con- 
secutively (xiii,  3-57).  The  sower  with  its  explana- 
tion, introduces  them;  the  draw  net  completes  their 
teaching;  and  we  cannot  refuse  to  see  in  the  num- 
ber seven  (cf.  St.  John's  Gospel)  an  idea  of  selected 
fitness  which  invites  us  to  search  out  the  principle 
involved.  Men  fav6urable  to  what  is  known  as  an 
"historic  and  prophetic"  system  of  exegesis,  have  ap- 
plied the  seven  parables  to  seven  ages  of  the  Church. 
This  conception  is  not  foreign  to  Scripture,  nor  un- 
familiar in  patristic  writings,  but  it  can  scarcely  be 
pressed  in  detail.  We  are  not  qualified  to  say  how  the 
facts  of  church  history  correspond,  except  in  their 
general  features,  with  anything  in  these  parables; 
neither  have  we  the  means  of  guessing  at  what  stage 
of  the  Divine  Economy  we  stand.  It  may  be  enough 
to  remark  that  the  sower  denotes  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel;  the  tares  or  cockle,  how  it  meets  with 
hindrances;  the  mustard  seed  and  the  leaven,  its 
noiseless  yet  victorious  growth.  From  the  hidden 
treasure  and  the  pearl  of  price  we  learn  that  those 
who  are  called  must  give  up  all  to  possess  the  king- 
dom. Finally,  the  draw  net  pictures  God's  judg- 
ment on  His  Church,  and  the  everlasting  separation 
of  good  and  bad. 

From  all  this  it  appears  that  St.  Matthew  has 
brought  the  parables  together  for  a  purpose  (cf. 
Maldonatus,  I,  443)  and  he  distinguishes  between  the 
"multitude",  to  whom  the  first  four  were  chiefly  ad- 
dressed, and  the  "disciples",  who  were  privileged  to 
know  their  prophetic  significance.  They  illustrate 
the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  which  ends  with  a  twofold 
comparison,  the  house  on  the  rock  typifying  Christ's 
Church,  and  the  house  on  the  sand  opposed  to  it. 
Nothing  can  be  clearer,  if  we  believe  the  Synoptics, 
than  that  our  Lord  so  taught  as  to  enlighten  the  elect 
and  to  leave  obstinate  sinners  (above  all,  the  Phari- 
sees) in  their  darkness  (Matt.,  xiii,  11-1.5;  Mark,  iv, 
11-12;  Luke,  viii,  10).  Observe  the  quotation  from 
Isaias  (Matt.,  xiii,  14;  Is.,  vi,  9,  according  to  the 
Septuagint)  intimating  a  judicial  blindness,  due  to 
Israel's  backslidings  and  manifest  in  the  pubhc 
troubles  of  the  nation  while  the  evangelists  were 
writing.  Unbelievers  or  "Modernists",  reluctant  to 
perceive  in  the  man  Christ  Jesus  any  supernatural 
powers,  look  upon  such  sayings  as  prophecies  after 
the  event.  But  the  parable  of  the  sower  contains  in 
itself  a  warning  like  that  of  Isaias,  and  was  certainly 
spoken  by  Christ.  It  opens  the  series  of  His  Messianic 
teachings,  even  as  that  of  the  wicked  husbantlman 
concludes  them.  From  first  to  last  the  rejection  of  the 
Jews,  all  except  a  holy  "remnant",  is  contemplated. 
Moreover,  since  the  Prophets  had  constantly  taken 
up  this  attitude,  denouncing  the  corrupt  priesthood 
and  disparaging  legalism,  why  should  we  dream  that 
language  of  similar  import  and  contents  was  not 
heard  from  the  lips  of  Jesus?  And  if  anywhere,  would 
it  not  be  found  in  His  parabolic  delineations  of  the 
New  Law?  There  is  no  solid  reason  why  the  double 
edge  of  these  moralities  should  be  ascribed  to  a  mere 
"tendency"  in  the  recorders,  or  to  an  edifying  after- 
thought of  primitive  Christians.  If  the  "allegory", 
i.  e.,  the  application  to  history,  be  intended  by  all 
three  evangelists  (which  we  grant),  that  intention  lay 
at  the  root  of  the  parable  when  it  was  delivered. 
Christ  is  "the  Sower",  and  the  seed  could  not  escape 
the  divers  fortunes  which  befell  it  on  the  soil  of  Juda- 
ism. Even  from  the  modernist  point  of  view  our 
Saviour  was  the  last  and  greatest  of  the  Prophets. 
How  then  could  He  avoid  speaking  as  they  did  of  a 
catastrophe  which  was  to  bring  in  the  reign  of  Messias? 
Or  how  shall  we  suppose  that  He  stood  alone  in  this 
respect,  isolated  from  the  seers  who  went  before  Him 
and  the  disciples  who  came  after  Him?     It  is  certain 


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463 


PARABLES 


that,  for  the  Evangelists,  "He  that  hath  ears  to  hear 
let  him  hear"  did  not  signify  merely  a  "call  to  atten- 
tion"; we  may  compare  it  to  the  classic  formulae, 
Eleusinian  and  other,  which  it  resembles,  as  carrying 
with  it  an  intimation  of  some  Divine  mystery.  The 
more  an  esoteric  meaning  is  put  upon  the  Gospels  as 
their  original  scope,  so  much  the  more  will  it  be  evi- 
dent that  our  Lord  Himself  made  use  of  it. 

Dismissing  the  minute  conjectural  criticism  which 
would  leave  us  hardly  more  than  a  bare  outline  to  go 
upon,  and  not  regarding  verbal  differences,  we  can 
treat  the  parables  as  coming  direct  from  our  Lord. 
They  teach  a  lesson  at  once  ethical  and  dogmatic, 
with  implications  of  prophecy  reaching  to  the  consum- 
mation of  all  things.  Their  analogy  to  the  sacraments, 
of  which  our  Lord's  Incarnation  is  the  source  and 
pattern,  must  never  be  left  out  of  view.  Modern  ob- 
jections proceed  from  a  narrow  "enlightened"  con- 
ception as  of  the  "reasonable  man",  teaching  general 
truths  in  the  abstract,  and  attaching  no  importance 
to  the  examples  by  which  he  enforces  them.  But  the 
Evangelists,  like  the  Catholic  Church,  have  considered 
that  the  Son  of  God,  instructing  His  disciples  for 
all  time,  would  commit  to  them  heavenly  mysteries, 
"things  hidden  from  the  foundation  of  the  world" 
(Matt.,  xiii,  35).  So  perfectly  does  this  correspon- 
dence with  history  apply  to  the  tares,  the  good  Samar- 
itan, the  "watching"  parables,  to  Dives  and  Lazarus 
(whether  a  real  incident  or  otherwise),  and  to  the 
wicked  husbandmen,  that  it  cannot  be  set  aside. 
In  consequence,  certain  critics  have  denied  that 
Christ  spoke  some  of  these  "allegories",  but  the 
grounds  which  they  allege  would  entitle  them  to  re- 
ject the  others;  that  conclusion  they  dare  not  face 
(cf.  Loisy,  "Ev.  synopt.",  II,  318). 

All  orthodox  writers  take  the  sower  (Matt.,  xiii, 
3-8;  Mark,  iv,  3-8;  Luke,  viii,  5-8.)  as  a  model  both  of 
narrative  and  interpretation,  warranted  by  the  Divine 
Master  Himself.  The  general  likeness  between  teach- 
ing and  sowing  is  found  in  Seneca,  "Ep.  Ixxiii"; 
and  Prudentius,  the  Christian  poet,  has  thrown  the 
parable  into  verse,  "Contra  Symmachum",  II,  1022. 
Salmeron  comes  near  the  method  suggested  above  by 
which  we  get  most  profit  from  these  symbols,  when  he 
declares  that  Christ  is  "the  Sower  and  the  Seed ".  We 
are  immediately  reminded  of  the  Greek  Fathers  who 
call  our  Redeemer  the  seed  sown  in  our  hearts,  A47os 
(TTreptiaTiKds,  who  comes  forth  from  God  that  He 
n^av  be  the  principle  of  righteousness  in  man  (Justin, 
"Apol.",  II,  xiii;  Athan.,  "Orat.,"  ii,  79;  Cyril  Alex., 
"In  Joan.'",  75;  and  see  Newman,  "Tracts",  150- 
177).  I  Pet.,  i,  1-23,  reads  like  an  echo  of  this  para- 
ble. Note  that  our  Lord  does  not  use  personifications, 
but  refers  good  and  evil  alike  to  persons;  it  is  the 
"wicked  one"  who  plucks  away  the  seed,  not  a  vague 
impersonal  mischief.  The  rocky  bottom,  the  burning 
wind  and  scorching  sun,  tell  us  of  Palestinian  scenery. 
We  find  "thorny  cares"  in  Catullus  (Ixiv,  l.xxii)  and  in 
Ovid  (Metamorp.,  XIII,  5,  483).  Theologians  warn  us 
not  to  imagine  that  the  "good  and  perfect  heart"  of 
the  receiver  is  by  nature  such;  for  that  would  be  the 
heresy  of  Pelagius;  but  we  may  quote  the  axiom  of 
the  Schools,  "To  him  that  doeth  what  he  can  God 
will  not  deny  His  grace".  St.  Cyprian  and  St.  Augus- 
tine (Ep.  Ixix;  Serm.  l.™ii)  point  out  that  free  will 
acceptance  is  the  teaching  of  the  Gospel;  and  so 
Irena?us  against  the  Gnostic  forerunners  of  Luther- 
anism  (V,  xxxix). 

The  tares  or  cockle  (Matt.,  xiii,  24-30  alone). 
Whatever  be  meant  by  fifdwa  the  word,  found  only 
here  in  the  Greek  Scripture,  is  originallj-  Semite  (.4rab. 
zuwan).  In  the  Vulgate  it  is  retained  and  in  popular 
French  Wyclif  renders  it  "darnel  or  cockle",  and 
curiously  enough  the  name  of  his  followers,  the  Lol- 
lards, has  been  derived  from  a  Latin  equivalent,  ■ 
"lohum."  In  the  Reims  New  Testament  we  have 
"cockle",  for  which  compare  Job,   xxxi,  40:   "Let 


thistles  grow  instead  of  wheat,  and  cockle  instead  of 
barley."  It  is  pretty  well  determined  that  the  plant 
in  question  is  "  lohum  temulentum,"  or  bearded  darnel; 
and  the  mischievous  practice  of  "oversowing"  has  been 
detected  among  Easterns,  if  not  elsewhere.  The  late 
weeding  of  the  fields  is  in  "substantial  agreement  with 
Oriental  custom  ",  at  a  time  when  good  and  evil  plants 
can  be  fully  distinguished.  Christ  calls  Himself  the 
"Son  of  Man";  He  is  the  sower,  good  men  are  the 
seed;  the  field  is  indifferently  the  Church  or  the  world, 
i.  e.,  the  visible  Kingdom  in  which  all  kinds  are 
mingled,  to  be  sorted  out  in  the  day  of  His  coming. 
He  explains  and  fits  in  detail  the  lesson  to  the  incidents 
(Matt.,  xiii,  36-43),  with  an  adaptation  so  clear  to  the 
primitive  age  of  Christianity  that  Loisy,  Jtilicher,  and 
other  modern  critics,  refuse  to  consider  the  parable 
authentic.  They  suppose  it  to  be  drawn  out  of  some 
brief  comparison  in  the  original  lost  "source"  of 
Mark.  These  random  gucssings  have  no  scientific 
value.  Historically,  the  moral  which  recommends 
sufferance  of  disorders  among  Christians  when  a 
greater  evil  would  follow  on  trj'ing  to  put  them  down, 
has  been  enforced  by  the  Church  authorities  against 
Novatus,  and  its  theory  developed  in  St.  Augustine's 
long  disputes  with  those  hard  African  Puritans,  the 
Donatists.  St.  Augustine,  recognizing  in  Our  Lord's 
words  as  in  the  spiritual  life  a  principle  of  growth  which 
demands  patience,  by  means  of  it  reconciles  the  im- 
perfect militant  state  of  His  disciples  now  with  St. 
Paul's  vision  of  a  "glorious  church,  not  having  spot 
or  wrinkle"  (Eph.,  v,  27).  Such  is  the  large  Cath- 
olic philosophy,  illustrated  by  the  Roman  Church 
from  early  times,  despite  men  like  Tertullian;  from 
the  medieval  condemnation  of  the  Cathari;  and  from 
the  later  resistance  to  Calvin,  who  would  have  brought 
in  a  kind  of  Stoic  republic  or  ' '  Kingdom  of  the  Saints ' ', 
with  its  inevitable  consequences,  hypocrisy  and  self- 
righteous  Pharisaism.  Yet  Calvin,  who  separated 
from  the  Catholic  communion  on  this  and  the  like 
motives,  calls  it  a  dangerous  temjjtation  to  suppose 
that  "there  is  no  Church  wherever  perfect  purity  is 
not  apparent."  (Cf.  St.  Augustine,  "In  Psalm.  99"; 
"Contra  Crescon.",  Ill,  xxxiv;  St.  Jerome,  "Adv. 
Lucifer";  and  TertuU  in  his  orthodox  period,  "Apol.", 
xli:  "God  does  not  hasten  that  sifting  out,  which  is  a 
condition  of  judgment,  until  the  world's  end.") 

If  in  the  tares  we  perceive  a  stage  of  (jhrist's 
teaching  more  advanced  than  in  the  sower,  we  may 
take  the  mustard  seed  as  announcing  the  outward 
manifest  triumph  of  His  Kingdom,  while  the  leaven 
discloses  to  us  the  secret  of  its  inward  working  (Matt., 
xiii,  31-2;  Mark,  iv,  30-32;  Luke,  xiii,  18-9,  for  the 
first;  Matt.,  xiii  33;  Luke,  xiii,  20-21,  for  the  second). 
Strange  difficulties  have  been  started  by  Westerns 
who  had  never  set  eyes  on  the  luxuriant  growth  of  the 
mustard  plant  in  its  native  home,  and  who  demur  to 
the  letter  which  calls  it  "the  least  of  all  seeds."  But 
in  the  Koran  (Sura  xxxi)  this  proverbial  estimate  is 
implied;  and  it  is  an  elementary  rule  of  sound  Scrip- 
ture criticism  not  to  look  for  scientific  precision  in 
such  popular  examples,  or  in  discourses  which  aim  at 
something  more  important  than  mere  knowledge. 
The  tree,  salvadora  persica,  is  said  to  be  rare.  Ob- 
viously, the  point  of  comparison  is  directed  to  the 
humble  beginnings  and  extraordinary  development  of 
Christ's  Kingdom.  Wellhausen  believes  that  for  the 
Evangelists  the  parable  was  an  allegory  typifying  the 
Churcli's  rapid  growth;  Loisy  would  infer  that,  if  so, 
it  was  not  delivered  by  our  Lord  in  its  actual  form. 
But  here  are  three  distinct  yet  cognate  stories,  the 
mustard  seed,  the  leaven,  the  seed  growing  secretly, 
occurring  in  the  Synoptics,  contemplating  a  lapse  of 
time,  and  more  applicable  to  after-ages  than  to  the 
brief  period  during  which  Christ  was  preaching, — 
shall  we  say  that  He  uttered  none  of  them?  And  if 
we  allow  these  prophetic  anticipations  at  all,  does  not 
the   traditional  view  explain  them  best?     (Wellh., 


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464 


PARABLES 


"Matt.",  70;  Loisy,  "Ev.  syn.",  Ill,  770-3.)  It  has 
been  questioned  whether  in  the  leaven  we  should 
recognize  a  good  influence,  answering  to  the  texts, 
"you  are  the  salt  of  the  earth,  the  light  of  the  world" 
(Matt.,  V,  13-14),  or  the  evil  to  be  "purged  out"  ac- 
cording to  St.  Paul  (I  Cor.,  v,  6-8).  Better  to  take  it 
as  the  "good  seed",  with  consequent  appHcations,  as 
St.  Ignatius  does  (Ad  Magnes.,  x),  and  St.  Gregory 
Naz.  (Orat.,  xxxvi,  90).  By  the  "three  measures" 
were  understood  in  the  Gnostic  system  the  "earthly", 
"carnal",  and  "spiritual"  cla.sses  among  Christians 
(Iren.,  I,  viii).  Trench  admirably  describes  these  two 
parables  as  setting  before  us  the  "mystery  of  regener- 
ation" in  the  world  and  the  heart  of  man.  For  the 
"leaven  of  the  Pharisees",  consult  authors  on  Matt., 
xvi,  6. 

The  hidden  treasure  (Matt.,  xiii,  44) ;  the  pearl  of 
price  (ibid.,  45).  With  Origen  we  may  term  these 
"similitudes";  in  one  the  object  is  found  as  if  by  acci- 
dent (Is.,  Ixv,  1;  Rom.,  x,  20:  "I  was  found  by  them 
that  did  not  seek  me");  in  the  other  a  man  seeks  and 
buys  it  deliberately.  Under  such  figures  would  be  sig- 
nified the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  and  the  spiritual  striv- 
ings of  those  who,  with  Simeon,  waited  "for  the  con- 
solation of  Israel".  There  is  surely  an  allusion  to  the 
joy  of  martyrdom  in  the  first  (Matt.,  x,  37).  The  con- 
cealed treasure  is  a  widespread  Ea.stern  idea  (Job,  iii, 
21 ;  Prov.,  ii,  4) ;  pearls  or  rubies,  which  may  be  repre- 
sented by  the  same  Hebrew  word  (Job,  x.x^■iii,  18; 
Prov.,  iii,  15,  etc.)  will  mean  the  "jewel"  of  faith,  our 
Lord  Himself,  or  everlasting  life;  and  Christians  must 
make  the  great  surrender  if  they  would  gain  it.  No 
keeping  back  is  possible,  so  far  as  the  spirit  is  con- 
cerned; a  man  must  give  the  whole  world  for  his 
"soul",  which  is  worth  more,  hence  he  rejoices.  Here, 
as  elsewhere,  the  comparison  does  not  imply  any  judg- 
ment on  the  morality  of  the  persons  taken  by  way  of 
figures;  the  casuistry-  of  "treasure  trove",  the  possi- 
ble overreaching  in  business,  belong  to  the  "rind"  not 
the  "marrow"  of  the  story  and  yield  no  lesson.  St. 
Jerome  understands  Holy  Writ  to  be  the  treasure;  St. 
Augustine,  "the  two  Testaments  of  the  Law",  but 
Christ  never  identifies  the  "Kingdom"  with  Scrip- 
ture. A  strange  interpretation,  not  warranted  by  the 
context,  looks  on  the  Saviour  as  at  once  seeker  and 
finder. 

The  draw  net  (Matt.,  xiii,  47-50)  completes  the 
sevenfold  teaching  in  the  first  Gospel.  The  order  was 
chosen  by  St.  Matthew;  and  if  we  accept  the  mystic 
signification  of  the  number  "seven",  i.  e.,  "perfec- 
tion", we  shall  perceive  in  this  parable  not  a  repeti- 
tion, as  Maldonatus  held,  of  the  tares,  but  its  crown. 
In  the  tares  separation  of  good  and  bad  is  put  off; 
here  it  is  accomplished.  St.  Augustine  composed  a 
kind  of  ballad  for  the  people  against  the  Donatist 
schismatics  which  expresses  the  doctrine  clearly,  "se- 
cuU  finis  est  littus,  tunc  est  tempus  separare"  (see 
Enarr.  in  Ps.,  Ixiv,  6).  The  net  is  a  sweeping  net,  Lat. 
verriculum,  or  a  seine,  which  of  necessity  captures  all 
sorts,  and  requires  to  be  hauled  on  shore  and  the  divi- 
sion made.  For  the  Jews,  in  particular,  the  clean  must 
be  taken  and  the  unclean  cast  away.  Since  it  is  dis- 
tinctly stated  that  within  the  net  are  both  good  and 
bad,  this  implies  a  visible  and  a  mixed  congregation 
until  the  Lord  comes  with  His  angels  to  judgment 
(Matt.,  xiii,  41;  Apoc,  xiv,  IS).  The  Evangelist, 
Loisy  obser\'es,  has  understood  this  parable,  like  the 
others  quoted,  allegorically,  and  Christ  is  the  Fisher 
of  men.  Clement  of  Alexandria  perhaps  wrote  the 
well-known  Oq)hie  hymn  which  contains  a  similar  ap- 
pellation. The  "fiery  furnace",  the  "tears  and  the 
gnashing  of  teeth",  going  beyond  the  figures  in  the 
story,  belong  to  its  meaning  and  to  Christian  dogma. 
In  the  conclusion  "every  scribe"  (xiii,  .52)  points  to 
the  duty  which  Our  Lord's  Apostles  will  hand  on  to  the 
Church  of  bringing  forth  to  believers  the  hidden  spirit- 
ual sense  of  tradition,  "the  new  and  the  old ".    Speci- 


fically, this  does  not  serve  as  a  distinction  of  the  Testa- 
ments; but  we  may  compare,  "1  came  not  to  destroy 
but  to  fulfil",  and  "not  one  jot,  or  one  tittle"  (Matt., 
V,  17-18).  Modernist  critics  atlrilnitc  the  whole  idea 
of  a  Christian  "scribe"  to  St.  Malt  Ik \v  :ui<l  not  to  our 
Lord.  The  expression  "instructed  "  is  literally,  "hav- 
ing been  made  a  disciple",  iui.6r\TevBeU^  and  is  of  rare 
occurrence  (Matt  in  loco;  xxvii,  57;  xxviii,  19;  Acts, 
xiv,  21).  It  answers  to  the  Hebrew  "Sons  of  the  proph- 
ets" and  is  thoroughly  Oriental  (IV  Kings,  ii,  3,  etc.) 

The  unmerciful  servant,  or  "serve  nequam" 
(Matt.,  xviii,  21-35),  might  be  summed  up  in  two 
words,  "Forgiven,  forgive".  This  chapter  xviii  re- 
sumes the  parabolic  teaching;  Christ  sets  the  little 
child  in  the  midst  of  His  disciples  as  an  example  of 
humility,  and  tells  the  story  of  the  Good  Shepherd 
(verses  11-13)  which  St.  John's  Gospel  repeats  in  the 
first  person.  I'ndoubtedly,  Christ  said  "I  am  the 
Good  Shepherd",  as  He  says  here,  "The  Son  of  man  is 
come  to  save  that  which  was  lost"  (11).  St.  Peter's 
question,  "How  oft  shall  my  brother  sin  against  me 
and  I  forgive  him?"  brings  out  the  very  spirit  of  Jew- 
ish legahsm,  in  which  the  Apostle  was  yet  bound, 
while  it  provokes  a  statement  of  the  Christian  ideal. 
Contrast,  frequentlj'  employed  to  heighten  the  effect 
of  our  Lord's  teaching,  is  here  visible  in  the  attitude 
taken  up  by  Peter  and  corrected  by  His  Master.  "Un- 
til seventy  times  seven  times",  the  perfection  of  the 
perfect,  signifies  of  course  not  a  number  but  a  princi- 
ple, "Be  not  overcome  by  evil,  but  overcome  evil  by 
good"  (Rom.,  xii,  21).  That  is  the  "secret  of  Jesus" 
and  constitutes  His  revelation.  St.  Jerome  read  a 
curious  variant,  plainly  a  gloss,  in  the  "Gospel  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrews"  (Loisy,  II,  93).  The  prover- 
bial number  is  perhaps  taken  from  Lamech's  song  of 
revenge  (Gen.,  iv,  24);  where  however  the  A.  V.  reads 
"seventy  and  sevenfold".  This  parable  is  the  first  in 
which  God  appears  and  acts  like  a  king,  though  of 
course  the  title  is  frequent  in  the  Old  Testament.  As 
regards  the  persons,  observe  that  Our  Lord  does  not 
give  them  names,  which  makes  the  story-telling  more 
difficult.  The  "wicked  servant"  may  be  a  satrap, 
and  his  enormous  debt  would  be  the  tribute  of  his 
Government.  That  he  and  his  were  sold  into  slavery 
would  seem  natural  to  an  Eastern,  then  or  later. 
"Ten  thousand  talents"  may  refer  to  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments. "A  hundred  pence"  owed  by  his  "fel- 
low servant"  graphically  depicts  the  situation  as  be- 
tween man  and  man  compared  with  human  offences 
towards  God.  The  "prison"  in  which  torture  is  to 
wring  from  the  culprit  all  he  possesses,  represents  what 
has  ever  taken  place  under  the  tyrannies  of  Asia, 
down  to  recent  times  (compare  Burke's  charges  against 
Warren  Hastings  in  reference  to  similar  acts).  "Till 
he  paid"  might  .signify  "never",  according  to  a  possi- 
ble sense  of  "donee",  and  was  taken  so  by  St.  John 
Chrj-sostom.  Later  theologians  con.strue  it  more 
mildly  and  adapt  the  words  to  a  prison  where  spiritual 
debts  may  be  redeemed,  i.  e.,  to  purgatory  (Matt.,  v, 
25-26,  closely  corresponds).  The  moral  has  been  hap- 
pily termed  "Christ's  law  of  retaliation",  announced 
by  Him  aforetime  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Matt., 
V,  38-48),  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  makes  it  a  condition 
of  our  own  forgiveness. 

The  labourers  in  the  vineyard  (Matt.,  xx,  1-16) 
has  become  celebrated  in  modern  economical  discus- 
sions by  its  pregnant  phrase  "To  this  last."  Calde- 
ron,  the  Spanish  poet,  renders  its  meaning  well,  "To 
thy  neighbour  as  to  thee".  But  among  parables  it  is 
one  of  the  hardest  to  work  out,  and  is  variously  ex- 
pounded. In  the  main  it  is  an  answer  to  all  Pharisees 
and  Pelagians  who  demand  eternal  life  as  a  recom- 
pense due  to  their  works,  and  who  murmur  when  "sin- 
ners" or  the  less  worthy  are  accepted,  though  coming 
late  to  the  Divine  call.  It  might  seasonably  introduce 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  which  proceeds  on  iden- 
tical fines  and  teaches  the  same  lesson.    Yet  no  one 


PARABLES 


465 


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has  denied  its  authorsliip  t<j  Christ.  (Cf.  Eomans,  iii, 
24-27;  iv,  1;  ix,  20,  esp.  "O  man,  who  art  thou  that 
rcpliestagainstGod?")  The  attitude  of  Christ  towards 
publicans  and  sinners  which  gave  offence  to  the  Phari- 
sees (Mark,  ii,  16;  Luke,  v,  30),  affords  the  clearest 
comment  on  the  parable  as  a  whole.  Some  critics  re- 
ject the  last  sentence,  "Many  are  called",  as  an  in- 
terpolation from  the  parable  of  the  marriage  feast. 
Early  mystical  views  understand  the  labourers  to  be 
Israel  and  the  heathen;  Irena-us,  Origen,  Hilary  adapt 
the  difi'erent  hours  to  stages  of  the  Old  Covenant.  St. 
Jerome  coni]jares  the  prodigal  son,  for  which  this  may 
be  St.  Matthew's  equivalent  lesson.  Note  the  "evil 
eye"  and  other  references  to  it  (Deut.,  xv,  9;  II  Kings, 
xviii,  9;  Prov.,  .xxiii,  6). 

The  two  sons  (Matt.,  xxi,  28-32)  begins  in  this 
Gospel  a  series  of  denunciations  addressed  to  the 
Pharisees.  Its  drift  is  plain.  These  "  hypocrites  "  pro- 
fess to  keep  God's  law  and  break  it ;  hence  their  scorn 
of  the  Baptist's  preaching;  whereas  "publicans  and 
harlots"  were  converted;  therefore  they  shall  go  into 
the  Kingdom  before  the  others.  But  if  it  be  accom- 
modated to  Jews  and  Cientiles,  who  is  the  elder  son, 
who  the  younger?  From  the  text  no  reply  can  be 
drawn  and  commentators  are  not  agreed.  In  some 
MSS.  the  order  is  reversed,  but  without  foundation. 
(See  Luke,  vii,  29-30,  37-50.) 

The  wicked  husbandmen  (Matt.,  xxi,  33-45; 
Mark,  xii,  1-12;  Luke,  xx,  9-19).  This  remarkable 
challenge  to  the  "chief  priests  and  Pharisees",  occur- 
ring in  all  the  Synoptics,  and  foretelling  how  God's 
vineyard  shall  be  transferred  from  its  present  keepers, 
reminfls  us  of  the  good  Samaritan  and  the  prodigal 
son,  with  wliich  it  harmonizes,  though  severe  in  its 
tone  as  they  are  not.  However,  its  extreme  clearness 
of  application  in  detail  has  led  the  modernist  critics  to 
deny  that  Our  Lord  spoke  it.  They  call  it  an  allegoiy, 
not  a  parable.  The  "vineyard  of  the  Lord  of  Hosts" 
is  in  Is.,  V,  1-7,  and  the  prophecy  in  both  cases  anal- 
ogous. That  Jesus  foresaw  His  rejection  by  the  "chief 
priests"  caimot  be  doubtful.  That  He  contemplated 
the  entrance  into  God's  Kingdom  of  many  Gentiles  is 
apparent  from  Luke,  xiii,  29,  as  from  parables  already 
quoted.  This,  indeed,  was  boldly  pictured  in  the  Old 
Testament  (Is.,  ii,  1-4;  xix,  20-25;  Mich.,  iv,  1-7).  In 
the  first  Gospel  our  Lord  addresses  the  Pharisees;  in 
the  third  He  speaks  to  the  "people".  The  "tower"  is 
Mount  Sion  with  its  temple;  the  "servants"  are  the 
Prophets;  when  the  "  beloved  son"  is  murdered  we 
may  think  of  Naboth  dying  for  his  vineyard  and  the 
crucifixion  comes  into  sight.  Christ  is  the  "heir  of  all 
things"  (Heb.,  i,  2).  We  must  grant  to  Loisy  that  the 
anticipation  of  vengeance  is  an  apocalypse  in  brief, 
while  upholding  the  genuineness  of  the  larger  view  in 
Matt.,  xxiv,  which  his  school  would  attribute  to  a 
period  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  For  the  "stone 
which  the  builders  rejected"  and  which  "is  become 
the  head  of  the  corner",  see  Ps.,  cxvii  (Hebrew  cxviii), 
22,  23,  and  Acts,  iv,  11.  The  reading  is  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  not  the  Hebrew. 

The  marriage  of  the  king's  son,  or  less  accurately, 
the  wedding  garment  (Matt.,  xxii,  1-14).  If,  like 
Maldonatus  and  Theophylact,  we  identify  this  with 
the  great  supper  in  St.  Luke  (xiv,  16),  we  must  allow 
that  the  differences  observable  are  due  to  the  inspired 
reporters  who  had  in  view  "not  history  but  doctrine". 
Or  we  might  hokl  that  the  discourse  had  been  varied 
to  meet  another  occasion.  Read  St.  Augustine,  "De 
consensu  evang.",  II,  Ixxii,  who  is  for  distinguishing 
them.  The  Lucan  story  would  be  earlier;  the  present, 
spoken  in  wrath  when  all  hope  of  Christ's  acceptance 
by  clergy  or  scribes  is  at  an  end,  reveals  the  mood  of 
severe  sadness  which  overshadowed  our  Lord's  last 
days.  Naturally  the  mythical  school  (Strau.ss  and 
even  Keim,  with  recent  Modernists)  discovers  in  the 
violence  of  the  invited  guests  and  their  pimishment  an 
apologetic  tendency,  due  to  the  editors  of  the  original 
XL— 30 


tale.  "These  additions",  says  Loisy,  "  were  made  after 
the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus;  and  the  writer  had 
never  heard  Jesus,  but  was  manipulating  a  text 
already  settled"  (Ev.  synopt.,  II,  326).  That  the 
reign  of  the  Messias,  following  on  the  rejection  of 
Israel,  was  always  meant  in  this  story,  is  incontestable. 
Catholic  faith  would  of  course  allow  that  the  "serv- 
ants" maltreated  were,  in  our  Lord's  mind,  such  as 
St.  John  Baptist,  the  Apostles,  the  first  martyrs.  The 
feast,  in  oiu-  commentaries,  may  well  be  the  Incarna- 
tion; the  wedding  garment  is  sanctifying  grace,  "put 
ye  on  the  Lord  Jesus"  (Rom.,  xiii,  14).  Thus  Iren., 
IV,  xxxvi;   Tert.,  "De  resurrect,  carnis",  xxvii,  etc. 

The  ten  virgins  (only  in  Matt.,  xxv,  1-13)  may 
be  considered  as  first  of  several  jiarables  declaring  that 
the  advent  of  the  Kingdom  will  be  unexpected.  These 
are  all  comments  on  the  text,  "of  that  day  and  hour  no 
one  knoweth,  no  not  the  angels  of  heaven,  but  the 
Father  alone"  (Matt.,  xxiv,  36).  It  is  a  "watching" 
parable,  and  is  not  in  praise  of  virginity  as  such,  though 
applied  by  the  Fathers,  as  St.  Gregory  Martyr,  to 
the  duties  of  the  virgin-state.  St.  Augustine  writes, 
"souls  that  have  the  Catholic  faith  and  appear  to  have 
good  works"  (Serm.  xciii,  2);  St.  Jerome,  "they  boast 
the  knowledge  of  God  and  are  untainted  with  idol- 
atry". There  seems  to  be  a  reminiscence  of  this  para- 
ble in  Luke,  xii,  36,  wrought  into  the  admonition  to 
men  "that  wait  for  their  Lord".  Wellhausen's  idea 
that  St.  Matthew  composed  it  from  St.  Luke  is  unten- 
able. In  the  East  it  is  usual  that  the  bride  should  be 
conveyed  with  honour  to  the  bridegroom's  house;  but 
there  might  be  exceptions,  as  here.  Mystically,  Christ 
is  the  bridegroom.  His  parou.sia  the  event,  and  the 
preparation  by  faith  shining  out  in  Christian  deeds  is 
imaged  in  the  burning  lamps  or  torches.  For  the 
"closed  door"  see  Luke,  xiii,  25.  The  conclusion, 
"Vigilate",  is  a  direct  lesson  and  no  part  of  the  story. 
St.  Methodius  WTote  the  "Banquet  of  the  Ten  Vir- 
gins", a  rude  mystery  play  in  Greek. 

The  talents  (Matt.,  xxv,  14-30)  and  the  pounds  or 
the  miniE  (Luke,  xix,  11-27).  Whether  we  shall  iden- 
tify or  divide  these  two  celebrated  apologues  can 
scarcely  be  determined.  St.  Mark  (.xiii,  34-36)  blends 
his  brief  allusion  with  a  text  from  the  ten  virgins. 
The  circumstances  in  the  first  and  tliird  Gospels  differ; 
but  the  warning  is  much  the  same.  Commentators 
note  that  here  the  active  life  is  extolled,  as  in  the 
virgins  a  heedful  contemplation.  No  argument  for 
the  lawfulness  of  usury  can  be  drawn  from  verse  27. 
The  "servant"  was  a  bondslave;  all  that  he  had  or 
acquired  would  be  his  master's  property.  "To  him 
that  hath  shall  be  given ' '  is  one  of  the  ' '  hard  sayings ' ' 
which,  while  disclosing  a  law  of  life,  seems  not  to  har- 
monize with  Christian  kindness.  Yet  the  analogy  of 
God's  dealings — not  "mere"  benevolence,  but  "wise 
and  just"  recognition  of  moral  effort — is  hereby 
maintained.  If  our  Lord,  as  tradition  tells,  said,  "Be 
ye  good  money  changers"  (cf.  I  Thess.,  v,  21),  the 
same  principle  is  commended.  Ethically,  all  that  we 
have  is  a  trust  of  which  we  must  give  account.  For 
the  diversity  of  talents,  note  St.  Paul,  I  Cor.,  xii,  4, 
and  the  reconciliation  of  that  diversity  in  "the  same 
spirit".  Both  parables  relate  to  Christ's  second  com- 
ing. Hence  Loisy  and  others  attribute  to  the  Evan- 
gelists, and  especially  to  St.  Luke,  an  enlargement, 
founded  on  later  history,  perhaps  taken  from  Josephus, 
and  intended  to  explain  the  delay  of  the  Parousia  (Ev. 
synopt.,  11,464-80).  Not  accepting  these  premises,  we 
put  aside  the  conclusion.  Maldonatus  (I,  493),  who 
treats  the  stories  as  variants,  observes,  "it  is  no  new 
thing  that  our  Evaiigi'lists  .■^liould  appear  to  differ  in 
circumstances  of  tirne  niNl  phic'c,  since  they  consider 
only  the  general  outline  {-■uniiiiiiiin  rci  gestcr),  not  the 
order  or  the  time.  Where  else  we  find  them  seeming 
to  disagree,  they  wish  to  explain  not  Christ's  words 
but  the  drift  of  the  parable  as  a  whole". 

Leaving  St.  Matthew,  we  note  the  one  short  story 


PARABLES 


466 


PARABLES 


peculiar  to  St.  Mark,  of  the  seed  growing  secretly  (iv, 
26-29).  We  have  already  assigned  it  to  the  group  of 
the  mustard  tree  and  the  leaven.  Its  point  is  con- 
veyed in  the  Horatian  line,  "Crescit  occulto  velut 
arbor  a-vo"  (Odes,  I,  xii,  36).  The  husbandman  who 
"knows  not  how"  the  harvest  springs  cannot  be  the 
.■\lmighty,  but  is  the  human  sower  of  the  word.  For 
homilotic  purposes  we  may  combine  this  parable  with 
its  cognate,  "unless  the  grain  of  wheat  die"  (John,  xii, 
24)  which  applies  it  to  Christ  Himself  and  His  Divine 
influence. 

In  St.  Luke  the  two  debtors  (vii,  41-43)  is  spoken 
by  our  Lord  to  Simon  "the  leper"  (Mark,  xiv,  2-9) 
on  occasion  of  Mary  Magdalene's  conversion,  with  its 
touching  circumstances.  At  least  since  St.  Gregory  the 
Great,  Catholic  writers  have  so  understood  the  his- 
tory. The  double  saying  "  Many  sins  are  forgiven  her, 
for  she  loved  much",  and  "to  whom  less  is  forgiven, 
he  loveth  less",  has  a  perfectly  clear  human  sense,  in 
accordance  with  facts.  We  cannot  deduce  from  such 
almost  proverbial  expressions  a  theory  of  justification. 
The  lesson  concerns  gratitude  for  mercies  received, 
with  a  strong  emphasis  on  the  hard  arrogance  of  the 
Pharisee  over  against  the  lowly  and  tender  bearing  of 
the  "woman  who  was  a  sinner".  Thus,  in  effect,  St. 
Augustine  (Serm.  xcix,  4) .  The  contrast  between  dead 
faith  and  faith  animated  by  love — which  Maldonatus 
would  introduce — is  not  directly  meant.  And  we  need 
not  suppose  the  latter  portion  of  the  story  artificial  or 
pieced  together  by  St.  Luke  from  other  Gospel  frag- 
ments. With  the  problem  of  the  four  narratives 
(Matt.,  xxvi;  Mark,  xiv;  Luke,  vii;  John,  xii)  the 
present  article  is  not  concerned. 

The  good  Samaritan  (Luke,  x,  37)  is  certainly  au- 
thentic; it  can  be  explained  mystically  in  detail,  and 
is  therefore  as  much  an  "allegory"  as  a  parable.  If  it 
was  spoken  by  our  Lord  so  was  the  wicked  husband- 
men. It  does  not  exactly  reply  to  the  question  "Who 
is  thy  neighbour?"  but  propounds  and  answers  a 
larger  one,  "Whom  in  distress  should  I  like  to  be 
neighbour  to  me?"  and  gives  an  everlasting  instance 
of  the  golden  rule.  At  the  same  time  it  breaks  down 
the  fences  of  legalism,  triumphs  over  national  hatreds, 
and  lifts  the  despised  Samaritan  to  a  place  of  honour. 
In  the  deeper  sense  we  discern  that  Christ  is  the  Good 
Samaritan,  human  nature  the  man  fallen  among  rob- 
bers, i.  e.,  under  Satan's  yoke;  neither  law  nor  Proph- 
ets can  help;  and  the  Saviour  alone  bears  the  charge 
of  healing  our  spiritual  wounds.  The  inn  is  Christ's 
Church;  the  oil  and  wine  are  His  sacraments.  He 
will  come  again  and  will  make  all  good.  The  Fathers, 
Sts.  Ambrose,  .August  ine,  Jerome,  are  agreed  in  this 
general  interpretation.  Klere  philanthropy  will  not 
satisfy  the  Gospel  idea;  we  must  add,  "the  charity  of 
Christ  presseth  us"  (II  Cor.,  v,  14). 

The  friend  at  midnight  (Luke,  xi,  5-8)  and  the 
unjust  judge  (Luke,  x-\'iii,  1-8)  need  no  explanation. 
With  a  certain  strength  of  language  both  dwell  on  the 
power  of  continued  prayer.  Importunity  wins,  "the 
kingdom  of  heaven  suffereth  violence,  and  the  violent 
bear  it  away"  (Matt.,  xi,  12).  Dante  has  beautifully 
expressed  the  Divine  law  which  these  parables  teach 
(Paradiso,  xx,  94-100). 

The  rich  fool  (Luke,  xii,  16-21)  and  Dives  and 
Lazarus  (xvi,  19-31)  raise  the  question  whether  we 
should  interpret  them  as  true  histories  or  as  instruc- 
tive fictions.  Both  are  directed  against  the  chief 
enemy  of  the  Gospel,  riches  loved  and  sought  after. 
The  rich  fool  ("Nabal",  as  in  I  Kings,  xxv)  was 
uttered  on  occasion  of  a  dispute  concerning  property 
and  Christ  answers  "Man,  who  hath  appointed  me 
judge,  or  divider,  over  you?  "  Not  injustice,  but  covet- 
ousness,  "the  root  of  all  evil",  is  here  reprehended. 
Read  St.  Cyprian,  "  De  opere  pt  eleemosyna",  13. 

The  stor\'  of  Lazarus,  which  completes  this  le,SBon 
by  contra.st,  appears  to  have  no  concealed  meaning, 
and  would  therefore  not  fulfil  the  definition  of  a  para- 


ble. Catholics,  with  IrensEus,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and 
the  church  liturgy,  regard  it  as  a  narrative.  The  mod- 
ern school  rejects  this  view,  allows  tli.'it  our  Lord  may 
have  spoken  tlic  first  half  of  Hh'  r<M-it:Ll  (Luke,  xvi,  19- 
20)  but  consiilcrs  the  rest  to  lii'  an  allegory  which  con- 
demns tlic  Jew.s  for  not  acceiiting  the  witness  of  Moses 
and  tlie  Pro])Ii('ls  to  Jesus  as  the  Messias.  In  any  case 
our  Lord's  resurrection  furnishes  an  implied  reference. 
"Abraham's  bosom"  for  the  middle  .state  after  death 
is  adopted  by  the  Fathers  generally;  it  receives  illus- 
tration from  IV  Mach.,  xiii,  17.  For  a  recent  Jewish 
exposition  of  the  parable  seeGeiger  in  "JudischeZeit- 
schr.  ftir  Wissenschaft",  VII,  200.  St.  Augustine  (De 
Gen.  ad  Lift.,  viii,  7)  doubts  whether  we  can  take  lite- 
rally tli(Mlesorii)tionof  the  other  world.  On  the  relation, 
suiipipscil  l)y  rationalizing  critics,  of  this  Lazarus  to  St. 
John's  Gospel,  x,seeJoHN.  Gospel  of  Saint;  Laz.\rus. 

Passing  over  the  barren  fig  tree  (Luke,  xiii,  6-9) 
which  gave  a  plain  warning  to  Israel;  and  just  refer- 
ring to  the  lost  sheep  (Matt.,  xviii,  12-14;  Luke,  xv, 
3-7)  and  the  lost  groat  or  drachma  (Luke,  xv,  8-10), 
none  of  which  need  detain  us,  we  come  to  the  great 
supper  (Luke,  xiv,  1.5-24).  That  this  parable  con- 
cerns the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  is  admitted  and  is 
important,  as  bearing  on  the  universal  commission, 
Matt.,  xxviii,  19.  "Compel  them  to  enter",  like  the 
strong  sayings  quoted  above  (importunate  widow  etc.), 
must  be  taken  in  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  which 
compels  by  moral  suasion,  not  by  the  sword  (Matt., 
xxvi,  52). 

The  prodigal  son  (Luke,  xv,  11-32),  so  called  from 
verse  13,  has  a  deep  ethical  meaning,  but  likewise  a 
dogmatic,  in  which  the  two  sons  are  the  Israelite,  stay- 
ing at  home  in  his  father's  house,  and  the  Gentile  who 
has  wandered  away.  As  the  message  of  pardon  it  de- 
serves to  be  called  the  very  heart  of  Christ's  gospel. 
We  have  justified  these  parallel  lines  of  interpretation, 
for  ethics  and  revelation,  which  were  both  visible  to 
the  Evangelist.  Tertullian's  narrow  use  of  the  story 
is  uncritical.  St.  John  Chrysostom  and  the  Church 
always  have  apphed  it  to  Christian,  i.  e.,  baptized 
penitents.  The  "finst  [or  best]  robe"  is  naturally 
assumed  by  theologians  to  be  "original  justice",  and 
the  feast  of  reconciliation  is  our  Lord's  atoning  sacri- 
fice. Those  who  grant  a  strong  Pauline  influence  in 
St.  Luke's  Gospel  ought  not  to  deny  it  here.  The 
"jealousy  of  good  men"  towards  returned  prodigals, 
which  has  exercised  commentators,  is  true  to  life;  and 
it  counted  for  much  in  the  dissensions  that  finally 
clove  asunder  the  Church  of  Israel  from  the  Church 
of  Christ  (I  Thess.,  ii,  14-16).  The  joy  over  a  sinner's 
conversion  unites  this  parable  with  those  of  the  lost 
sheep  and  the  lost  drachma. 

The  unjust  steward  (Luke,  xvi,  1-9)  is,  beyond 
question,  the  hardest  of  all  our  Lord's  parables,  if  we 
may  argue  from  the  number  and  variety  of  meanings 
set  upon  it.  Verses  10-13  are  no  part  of  the  narration 
but  a  discourse  to  which  it  gives  rise.  The  connecting 
link  between  them  is  the  difficult  expression  "mam- 
mon [more  correctly  'Mamon'j  of  iniquity";  and  we 
may  suppose  with  Bengel  that  Christ  was  speaking  to 
those  of  His  followers,  like  Levi,  who  had  been  farmers 
of  the  taxes,  i.  e.,  "publicans".  In  the  contrast  be- 
tween the  "children  of  this  world"  and  the  "children 
of  light"  we  find  a  clue  to  the  general  lesson.  Mark 
the  resemblance  to  St.  John's  Gospel  in  the  opposition 
thus  brought  out.  There  are  two  generations  or  kinds 
of  men — the  worldling  and  the  Christian;  but  of  these 
one  behaves  with  a  perfect  understanding  of  the  order 
to  which  he  belongs;  the  other  often  acts  foolishly, 
does  not  put  his  talent  to  interest.  How  shall  he  pro- 
ceed in  the  least  Christian  of  all  occupations,  which  is 
the  handling  of  money?  He  must  get  good  out  of  its 
evil,  turn  it  to  account  for  everlasting  life,  and  this  by 
almsgiving,  "yet  that  which  remaineth,  give  alms; 
and  behold,  all  things  are  clean  unto  you"  (Luke,  xi, 
41).    The  strong  conclusion  follows,  which  lies  implicit 


PARABOLANI 


467 


PARABOLANI 


in  all  this,  "You  cannot  serve  God  and  mammon" 
(Luke,  xvi,  13). 

Much  unwisdom  has  been  shown  by  commentators 
who  were  perplexed  that  our  Lord  should  derive  a 
moral  from  conduct,  evidently  supposed  unjust,  on 
the  steward's  part;  we  answer,  a  just  man's  dealings 
would  not  have  afforded  the  contrast  which  points  the 
lesson,  viz.,  that  Christians  should  make  use  of  opjior- 
tunities,  but  innocently,  as  well  as  the  man  of  business 
who  lets  slip  no  chance.  Some  critics  have  gone  far- 
ther and  connect  the  hidden  meaning  with  Shake- 
speare's "soul  of  good  in  things  evil",  but  we  may 
leave  that  aside.  Catholic  preachers  dwell  on  the 
special  duty  of  helping  the  poor,  considered  as  in  some 
sense  keepers  of  the  gates  of  Heaven,  "everlasting 
tents".  St.  Paul's  "faithful  dispenser"  (I  Cor.,  iv,  2) 
may  be  quoted  here.  The  "measures"  written  down 
are  enormous,  beyond  a  private  estate,  which  favours 
the  notion  of  "pubhcani".  The  Revised  Version 
transforms  "bill"  happily  into  "bond".  It  may  be 
doubted  which  is  "the  lord"  that  commended  the 
unjust  steward.  Whether  we  apply  it  to  Christ  or 
the  rich  man  we  shall  obtain  a  satisfactory  sense.  "In 
their  generation"  should  be  "for  their  generation",  as 
the  Greek  text  proves.  St.  Ambrose,  with  an  eye  to 
the  dreadful  scandals  of  history,  sees  in  the  steward  a 
wicked  ruler  in  the  Church.  TertulUan  (De  Fuga) 
and,  long  afterwards,  Salmeron  apply  all  to  the  Jewish 
people  and  to  the  Gentiles,  who  were  indeed  debtors  to 
the  law,  but  who  should  have  been  treated  indulgently 
and  not  repelled.  Lastly,  there  seems  no  ground  for 
the  widespread  beUef  that  "mammon"  was  the  Phoeni- 
cian Plutus,  or  god  of  riches;  the  word  signifies 
"money". 

St.  Luke  (xvii,  7-10)  gives  a  short  apologue  of  the 
unprofitable  servants,  which  may  be  reckoned  as  a 
parable,  but  which  needs  no  explanation  beyond  St. 
Paul's  phrase  "not  of  works,  but  of  Him  that  calleth" 
(Rom.,  ix,  11 — A.  v.).  This  will  be  true  equally  as 
regards  Jews  and  Christians,  in  whose  merits  God 
crowns  His  own  gifts. 

The  lesson  is  driven  home  by  contrast,  once  more, 
between  the  pharisee  and  the  publican  (Luke,  xviii, 
9-14),  disclosing  the  true  economy  of  grace.  On  the 
one  hand  it  is  permissible  to  understand  this  with 
Hugo  of  St.  Victor  and  others  as  typifying  the  rejec- 
tion of  legal  and  carnal  Judaism ;  on  the  other,  we  may 
expand  its  teaching  to  the  universal  principle  in  St. 
John  (iv,  23-24)  when  our  Lord  transcends  the  distinc- 
tion of  Jew  and  heathen,  Israelite  and  Samaritan,  in 
favour  of  a  spiritual  Church  or  kingdom,  open  to  all. 
St.  Augustine  says  (Enarr.  in  Ps.  Ixxiv),  "The  Jewish 
people  boasted  of  their  merits,  the  Gentiles  confessed 
their  sins".  It  is  asked  whether  those  "who  trusted  in 
themselves  that  they  were  righteous  and  despised 
others"  were  in  fact  the  pharisecs  or  some  of  the  dis- 
ciples. From  the  context  we  cannot  decide.  But  it 
would  not  be  impossible  if,  at  this  period,  our  Saviour 
spoke  directly  to  the  pharisees,  whom  He  condemned 
(at  no  time  for  their  good  works,  but)  for  their  boast- 
ing and  their  disdain  of  the  multitude  who  knew  not 
the  law  (cf.  Matt.,  xxiii,  12,  23;  John,  vii,  49).  The 
Pharisee's  attitude,  "standing",  was  not  peculiar  to 
him;  it  has  ever  been  the  customary  mode  of  prayer 
among  Easterns.  He  says  "I  fast  twice  in  a  week", 
not  "twice  on  the  Sabbath".  "Tithes  of  all  that  I 
possess"  means  "all  that  comes  to  me"  as  revenue. 
This  man's  confession  acknowledged  no  sin,  but 
abounds  in  praise  of  himself — a  form  not  yet  ex-tinct 
where  Christians  approach  the  sacred  tribunal.  One 
might  say,  "He  does  penance;  he  does  not  repent". 
The  publican  is  of  course  a  Jew,  Zacehaeus  or  any 
other;  he  cannot  plead  merit;  but  he  has  a  "broken 
heart"  which  God  will  accept.  "Be  merciful  to  me" 
is  well  rendered  from  the  Greek  by  the  Vulgate,  "Be 
propitious",  a  sacrificial  and  significant  word.  "Went 
down  to  his  house  justified  rather  than  the  other"  is  a 


Hebrew  way  of  saying  that  one  was  and  the  other  was 
not  justified,  as  St.  Augustine  teaches.  The  expres- 
sion is  St.  Paul's,  SiKaimffdai.;  but  we  are  not  required 
to  examine  here  the  idea  of  justification  under  the  Old 
Law.  Mystically,  the  exaltation  and  abasement  indi- 
cated would  refer  to  the  coming  of  the  Kingdom  and 
the  Last  Judgment. 

It  remains  to  observe,  generally,  that  a  "double 
sense"  has  always  been  attached  by  the  Fathers  to  our 
Lord's  miracles,  and  to  the  Gospel  history  as  a  whole. 
They  looked  upon  the  facts  as  reported  much  in  the 
light  of  sacraments,  or  Divine  events,  which  could  not 
but  have  a  perpetual  significance  for  the  Church  and 
on  that  account  were  recorded.  This  was  the  method 
of  mystical  interpretation,  according  to  which  every 
incident  becomes  a  parable.  But  the  most  famous 
school  of  German  critics  in  the  nineteenth  century 
turned  that  method  round,  seeing  in  the  parabolic 
intention  of  the  Evangelists  a  force  which  converted 
sayings  into  incidents,  which  made  of  doctrines  alle- 
gories, and  of  illustrations  miracles,  so  that  little  or 
nothing  authentic  would  have  been  handed  down  to 
us  from  the  life  of  Christ.  Such  is  the  secret  of  the 
mythical  procedure,  as  exemplified  in  modern  dealing 
with  the  multiplication  of  the  loaves,  our  Lord's  walk- 
ing on  the  sea,  the  resurrection  of  the  widow's  son  at 
Nairn,  and  many  other  Gospel  episodes  (Loisy,  "Ev. 
synopt.",  passim). 

Parable,  in  this  view,  has  created  seeming  history; 
and  not  only  the  Johannine  document  but  the  synop- 
tic narratives  must  be  construed  as  made  up  from 
supposed  prophetic  references,  by  adaptation  and 
quotation  of  Old-Testament  passages.  It  is  for  the 
Catholic  apologist  to  prove  in  detail  that,  however  deep 
and  far-reaching  the  significance  attributed  by  the 
Evangelists  to  the  facts  which  they  relate,  those  facts 
cannot  simply  be  resolved  into  myth  and  legend. 
Nature  also  is  a  parable;  but  it  is  real.  "The  blue 
zenith",  says  Emerson  admirably,  "is  the  point  in 
which  romance  and  reality  meet".  And  again,  "  Nature 
is  the  vehicle  of  thought ",  the  "  symbol  of  spirit " ;  words 
and  things  are  "emblematic".  If  this  be  so,  there  is 
a  justification  for  the  Hebrew  and  Christian  philos- 
ophy, which  sees  in  the  world  below  us  analogies  of  the 
highest  truths,  and  in  the  Word  made  flesh  at  once  the 
surest  of  facts  and  the  most  profound  of  symbols. 

The  varioua  commentaries  on  the  Gospels,  in  courses  of  Scrip- 
ture, such  as:  van  Steenkiste,  Comment,  in  Evangel,  secundum 
Matthaum  (Bruges,  1880-2);  MacEvillt,  Exposilion  of  the  Gos- 
pels (Dubhn,  1877);  Schanz,  Commentar  iiber  das  Evangel,  d.  h, 
Lucas  (Tubingen,  1883);  Maas,  Comment,  of  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew  (New  York,  1898);  Rose,  Evangile  selon  s.  Matthieu 
(Paris,  1904);  Knabenbader  (1894);  Liagre  (1889);  Pillion 
(1883).  Mystical  exegesis  in  Origen,  Ambrose,  Augustine, 
Gregory  M.;  literal  in  Chrysost..  Thegphylactus,  Jerome. 

From  the  sixteenth  century ;  special  writers  among  early  Protes- 
tants, Calvin;  later,  Vitringa,  Schriftmdssige  Erklkrung  (Frank- 
fort. 1717);  amongOtholies,  Maldonatus,  In  IVevang.  (Pont  k 
Mousson,  1597;  latest  ed.,  Barcelona.  1881-2);  Salmer6n,  Ser- 
mones  in  Parabolas  (Antwerp.  1600).  Modern  Protestant  writers: 
— Greswell  (London,  1839);  Trench  (London,  1841;  lasted., 
1906);  Bruce,  Parabolic  Teaching  of  Christ  (Edinburgh,  1882). 
Critical.— Weiss,  Mark  and  Matthew  (1872);  Julicher  (1888- 
99).  these  in  German;  followed  by  Loisy,  Les  ^vangiles  synoptiques 
(Paris,  1907-8).  For  Jewish  parables,  Lauterbach  in  Jewish 
Encyc.    And  see  lives  of  Christ  by  Maas,  Fouard.  Didon. 

William  Barry. 

Parabolani,  irapi/SoXoi,  irapafia\imi  the  members 
of  a  brotherhood  who  in  the  Early  Church  volun- 
tarily undertook  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  burial  of 
the  dead.  It  has  been  asserted,  though  without  suffi- 
cient proof,  that  the  brotherhood  was  first  organized 
during  the  great  plague  in  Alexandria  in  the  episcopate 
of  Dionysius  the  Great  (second  half  of  third  century). 
They  received  their  name  from  the  fact  that  they 
risked  their  lives  (irapapdWcadai  ■rr)v  fw^i')  in  expos- 
ing themselves  to  contagitHis  diseases.  In  addition 
to  performing  works  of  mercy  they  constituted  a  body- 
guard for  the  bishop.  Their  number  was  never  large. 
The  Codex  Theodosianus  of  416  (xvi,  2,  42)  restricted 
the  enrolment  in  Alexandria  to  500.    A  new  law  two 


PARACELSUS 


468 


PARACELSUS 


years  later  increased  the  number  to  600.  In  Constan- 
tinople the  number  was  reduced  according  to  the 
Codex  Justinianus  (I,  2,  4)  from  1100  to  950.  The 
Parabolani  arc  not  mentioned  after  Justinian's  time. 
Though  thoy  were  chosen  by  the  bishop  and  always 
remained  under  his  control,  the  Codex  Theodosianus 
placed  them  under  the  supervision  of  the  Pra-feclus 
Atiynsldlis.  Tlu-y  had  neither  orders  nor  vows,  but 
they  wi'ii'  ciuniuTati'd  among  the  clergy  and  enjoyed 
clerical  privili'gi's  and  immunities.  Their  presence  at 
public  gatherings  or  in  tlie  theatres  was  forbidden  by 
law.  At  times  they  took  a  very  active  part  in  eccle- 
siastical controversies,  as  at  the  Robber  Synod  of 
Ephesus. 

BiNTERiM,  Denkwilrdigkeiten  der  chriskath.  Kirche,  VI,  3,  30; 
Bingham,  Antiquities,  II,  37. 

Patrick  J.  Healt. 

Paracelsus,  Theophrastus,  celebrated  physician 
and  reformer  of  therapeutics,  b.  at  the  Sihlbriicke, 
near  Einsiedeln,  in  the  Canton  of  Schwvz,  10  Nov., 
1493;  d.  at  Salzburg,  24  Sept.,  1541.  He  is  known 
also  as  Theophrastus  von  Hohenheim,  Eremita  (of 
Einsiedeln),  and  Theophrastus  Bombastus  von  Ho- 
henheim. It  is  now  established  that  the  family 
originally  came  from  Wiirtemberg,  where  the  noble 
family  of  Bombastus  was  in  possession  of  the  ances- 
tral castle  of  Hohenheim  near  Stuttgart  until  1409, 
Paracelsus  is  tin;  Latin  form  in  common  use  among 
the  German  scholars  of  the  time.  Wilhelm  Bombast 
von  Hohenheim,  ])hysician  to  the  monastery  of  Ein- 
siedeln and  father  of  Theophrastus,  changed  the 
family  residence  to  Villach  in  Carinthia  (c.  1502), 
where  at  the  time  of  his  death  (8  Sept.,  1534),  he  was 
city  phj-sician. 

Paracelsus  mentions  the  following  as  his  earliest 
teachers,  his  father,  Eberhard  Paumgartner,  Bishop 
of  Lavant,  Matthajus  von  Scheldt,  Bishop  of  Seckau, 
and  jMatthffius  Schacht,  Bishop  of  Freising.  He  was 
initiated  into  the  mysteries  of  alchemy  by  Joannes 
Trithemius  (1402-1516),  Abbot  of  Sponheim,  and  a 
prolonged  interval  spent  in  the  laboratories  of  Sig- 
mund  Fugger  at  Schwaz  made  him  familiar  with 
metallurgy.  All  his  life  restless  and  eager  for  travel, 
he  attended  the  most  important  universities  of  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Italy,  and,  in  1526,  went  to 
Strasburg,  where,  already  a  doctor,  he  joined  the 
guild  of  surgeons.  The  same  year  he  was  appointed, 
probably  through  the  influence  of  Joannes  CEcolam- 
padius,  the  theologian,  and  Joannes  Frobenius,  the 
publisher,  to  the  office  of  city  physician  of  Basle,  with 
which  was  connected  the  privilege  of  lecturing  at  the 
university. 

His  teaching,  as  well  as  his  opposition  to  the  pre- 
vailing Galeno-Arabic  system,  the  burning  of  Avi- 
cenna's  writings  in  a  public  square,  the  polemical 
tone  of  his  discourses,  which,  contrary  to  all  custom, 
were  delivered  in  German,  his  dissensions  with  the 
faculty,  attacks  on  the  greed  of  apothecaries,  and  to 
a  certain  extent,  also,  his  success  as  a  practitioner — 
all  drew  upon  him  the  hatred  of  those  in  authority. 
In  February  he  fled  from  Basle  to  Colmar.  A  typical 
vagrant,  his  subsequent  life  was  spent  in  continual 
wandering,  surrounded  by  a  troop  of  adventurers, 
with  the  reputation  of  a  charlatan,  but  all  the  while 
observing  all  things  with  remarkable  zeal,  and  busied 
with  the  composition  of  his  numerous  works.  In 
1529  we  find  him  at  Nuremberg,  soon  afterwards  at 
Beritzhausen  and  Ambcrg,  in  1531  at  St.  Gall,  later 
at  Inn.sVjruck,  in  1534  at  Sterzing  and  Meran,  in  1535 
at  Bad  PfiiiTers,  Augsburg,  1537  at  Vienna,  Presburg, 
and  Villach,  and  finally  at  Salzburg,  where  he  died  a 
natural  death  and,  in  accordance  with  his  wish,  was 
buried  in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Sebastian.  The  present 
tomb  in  the  porch  of  St.  Sebastian's  Church,  was 
erected  by  some  unknown  person  in  1752.  According 
to  recent  research  the  portrait  on  the  monument  ia 


Theophrastds  Paracelsus 


that  of  the  father  of  Paracelsus.  Paracelsus  did  not 
join  the  ranks  of  the  Reformers,  evincing,  rather,  an 
aversion  to  any  form  of  religion.  The  clause  in  his 
will,  however,  giving  dirrctions  for  a  requiem  Mass 
would  indicate  thul  before  his  death  he  regardi^d  him- 
self as  a  member  of  the  Church. 

Paracelsus  is  a  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  medi- 
cine, agenius  tardily  recognized,  who  in  his  impetuosity 
sought  to  overturn  the  old  order  of  things,  t.hereby 
rousing  hitter  antagonists.  He  sought  to  substitute 
something  hotter  for  what  seemed  to  liiin  antiquated 
and  erroneous  in  therapeutics,  thus  fiilling  into  the 
mistake  of  other  violent  reformers,  who,  during  the 
process  of  rebuild- 
ing, underesti- 
mate the  work  of 
their  contempora- 
ries. He  was  not 
in  touch  with  tin- 
humanist  move- 
ment or  with  tlic 
study  of  anatomy 
then  zealously 
pursued,  the  nio>i 
prominent  factors 
in  reorganization ; 
leaving  out  of  con- 
sideration In^ 
great  services  1 1 1 
special  depart- 
ments, he  stands 
alone  and  misun- 
derstood. His  in- 
fluence was  felt 
specially  in  \\'it- 
tenberg,  but  only 
in  a  few  schools  of 
Germany,  while  he  was  entirely  discounted  through- 
out Italy. 

He  sought  the  cause  of  pathological  changes,  not 
in  the  cardinal  humours,  blood,  phlegm,  yellow  and 
black  gall  (humoral  pathology),  but  in  the  entities, 
which  he  divided  into  ens  aalrorum  (cosmic  influences 
differing  with  climate  and  country),  ens  veneni  (toxic 
matter  originating  in  the  food),  the  cause  of  conta- 
gious diseases,  ens  nalurale  et  spirituale  (defective 
physical  or  mental  constitution),  and  ens  deale  (an 
affliction  sent  by  Providence).  The  diseases  known 
as  tartaric,  especially  gout  and  lithiasas,  arc  caused 
by  the  deposit  of  determinate  toxins  (tartar),  are  dis- 
covered chiefly  by  the  urine  test,  and  are  cured  by 
means  of  alkalies.  Like  the  followers  of  Hippocrates 
he  prescribes  the  observation  of  nature  and  dietetic 
directions,  but  attaches  too  great  a  value  to  experi- 
ence (empiricism).  In  nature  all  substances  have 
two  kinds  of  influences,  helpful  (essentia)  and  harmful 
(venena),  which  are  separated  by  means  of  alchemy. 
It  requires  experience  to  recognize  essences  as  such 
and  to  employ  them  at  the  proper  moment.  His  aim 
was  to  discover  a  specific  remedy  (arcanum)  for  every 
disease. 

It  was  precisely  here,  however,  that  he  fell  into  error, 
since  not  infrequently  he  drew  a  conclusion  as  to  the 
availability  of  certain  remedies  from  purely  external 
signs,  e.  g.,  when  he  taught  that  the  pricking  of 
tliistles  cures  internal  inflammation.  This  untrust- 
worthy "doctrine  of  signatures"  was  at  a  later  date  de- 
veloped farther  by  Rademacher,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
also  by  Hahnemann.  Although  the  theories  of  Para- 
celsus as  contrasted  with  the  Galeno-Arabic  sy.stem 
indicate  no  advance,  inasmuch  as  they  ignore  entirely 
the  stud}'  of  anatomy,  still  his  reputation  as  a  re- 
former of  therapeutics  is  justified  in  that  he  broke 
new  paths  in  the  science.  He  may  be  taken  as  the 
founder  of  the  modern  materia  medica,  and  pioneer  of 
scientific  chemistry,  since  before  his  time  medical 
science  received  no   assistance   from  alchemy.     To 


PARACLETE 


469 


PARA 


Paracelsus  is  due  the  use  of  mercury  for  syphilis  as 
well  as  a  number  of  other  metallic  remedies,  probably 
a  result  of  his  studies  in  Schwaz,  and  partly  his  ac- 
quaintance with  the  (luicksilver  works  in  Idria.  He 
was  the  firsi  to  point  out  the  value  of  mineral  waters, 
especially  the  PfafTrr  water,  even  attempting  to  pro- 
duce it  by  artiticial  means.  He  recognized  the  tinc- 
ture of  gallnut  as  a  reagent  for  the  iron  properties  of 
mineral  water.  He  showed  a  particular  preference 
for  native  herbs,  from  which  he  obtained  "essences" 
and  "tinctures",  the  use  of  which  was  to  replace  the 
curious  composite  medicines  so  popular  at  the  time. 
Regarding  him  from  an  ethical  standpoint,  his  noble 
ideals  of  the  medical  profession,  his  love  for  the  poor, 
and  his  piety  deserve  to  be  exalted.  The  perusal  of 
his  writings  disproves  the  accusation  of  drunkenness 
which  had  so  often  been  made  against  him  by  his 
enemies. 

For  the  most  part  Paracelsus  dictated  his  works,  in 
many  cases  bequeathing  the  manuscript  to  friends 
with  the  request  to  have  it  printed.  His  name,  being 
well  known,  was  often  misap])ropriated,  so  that  later 
it  became  necessary  to  draw  a  fixed  line  between 
authentic  and  unauthentic  writings.  The  former 
are  characterized  by  a  simple,  direct,  intelligible 
style.  Cf .  Schubert-Sudhoff,  "Paracelsusforschungen" 
(Frankfort  on  the  Main,  1887-89);  Sudhotf,  "Hibli- 
ographia  Paracelsica"  (Berlin,  1894);  Idem,  "\'ersurh 
einerKritik  der  Echtheit  der  Paracelsischen  Schrif  ten ' ' 
(Berlin,  1894-99).  The  best  of  the  collective  editions, 
which,  however,  includes  some  unauthentic  works,  is 
that  of  Huser  (Basle,  1589-91,  10  vols.;  Frankfort, 
1603,  3  vols.;  Strasburg,  1616).  A  detailed  list  of  the 
authentic  and  unauthentic  writings  is  to  be  found  in 
Albr.  von  Haller,  "Bibliotheca  medicinae  practicfe", 
II  (Basle,  1777),  2-12.  Among  his  most  important 
writings  may  be  mentioned:  "Opus  Paramirum" 
I,  II,  re-edited  by  Dr.  Franz  Strunz  (Jena,  1904), 
which  contains  the  system  of  Paracelsus;  "Drei 
Biicher  von  den  Franzosen"  (syphilis  and  venereal 
diseaises);  "Grosse  Wundarznei,  tiber  das  Bad 
Pfaffers,  Uber  die  Pest  in  Sterzing". 

FERGnaON,  Bibliographia  Paracelsica  (Glasgow,  1877);  The 
Hermetic  and  Alchemical  Writings  of  Aureolus  Pkilipptis  Theo- 
pkrastus  Bombast;  ed.  Waite  {London,  1894);  Hartmaxn,  The 
Life  of  Paracelsus  and  the  Substance  of  his  Teachings  (London, 
1886);  MooK,  Theophrastus  Paracelsus  (Wurzburg,  1876); 
Aberle,  Grabdenkmal,  Schddel  und  Abbildungen  des  Theophrastus 
Paracelsus  (Salzburg,  1891);  Sthunz,  Theophrastus  Paracelsus 
sein  Leben  und  PersHnlichkeit  (Leipzig,  1903). 

Leopold  Senfelder. 

Paraclete,  Comforter  (L.  Consolator;  Gr.  rapd- 
kXtjtos),  an  appellation  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  Greek 
word  which,  as  a  designation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at 
least,  occurs  only  in  St.  John  (xiv,  16,  26;  xv,  26;  xvi, 
7),  has  been  variously  translated  "advocate",  "inter- 
cessor", "teacher",  "helper",  "comforter".  This 
last  rendering,  though  at  variance  with  the  passive 
form  of  the  Greek,  is  justified  by  Hellenistic  usage,  a 
number  of  ancient  versions,  patristic  and  liturgical 
authority,  and  the  evident  needs  of  the  Johannine 
context.  According  to  St.  John  the  mission  of  the 
Paraclete  is  to  abide  with  the  disciples  after  Jesus  has 
withdrawn  His  visible  presence  from  them;  to  in- 
wardly bring  horne  to  them  the  teaching  externally 
given  by  Christ  and  thus  to  stand  as  a  witness  to  the 
doctrine  and  work  of  the  Saviour.  There  is  no  reason 
for  limiting  to  the  Apostles  themselves  the  comforting 
influence  of  the  Paraclete  as  promised  in  the  Gospel 
(Matt.,  x,  19;  Mark,  xiii,  11;  Luke,  xii,  11,  xxi,  14) 
and  described  in  Acts,  ii.  In  the  above  declaration  of 
Christ,  Cardinal  Manning  rightly  sees  a  new  dispensa- 
tion, that  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  the  Sanctifier.  The 
Paraclete  comforts  the  Church  by  guaranteeing  her 
inerrancy  and  fostering  her  sanctity  (see  Church). 
He  comforts  each  individual  soul  in  many  ways.  Says 
St.  Bernard  (Parvi  Sermones):  "De  Spiritu  Sancto 


testatur  Scriptura  quia  procedit,  spirat,  inhabitat, 
replet,  glorificat.  Procedendo  praedestinat;  spirando 
vocat  quos  pra;destinavit ;  inhabitando  justificat  quos 
vocavit;  replendo  accumulat  meritis  quos  justificavit; 
glorificando  ditat  pra^miis  quos  accumulavit  meritis". 
Every  salutary  condition,  power,  and  action,  in  fact 
the  whole  range  of  our  salvation,  comes  within  the 
Comforter's  mission.  Its  extraordinary  effects  are 
styled  gifts,  fruits,  beatitudes.  Its  ordinary  working 
is  sanctification  with  all  it  entails,  habitual  grace, 
infused  virtues,  adoption,  and  the  right  to  the  celestial 
inheritance.  "The  charity  of  God",  says  St.  Paul 
(Rom.,  v,  5),  "is  poured  forth  in  our  hearts  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  who  is  given  to  us."  In  that  passage  the 
Paraclete  is  both  the  giver  and  the  gift;  the  giver  of 
grace  {donum  creaium)  and  the  gift  of  the  Father  and 
the  Son  (donum  increalum) .  St.  Paul  teaches  repeat- 
edly that  the  Holy  Ghost  dwells  in  us  (Rom.,  viii,  9, 
11;   ICor.,  iii,  16). 

That  indwelling  of  the  Paraclete  in  the  justified  soul 
is  not  to  be  understood  as  though  it  were  the  exclusive 
work  of  the  third  Person  nor  as  though  it  constituted 
the  formalis  causa  of  our  justification.  The  soul,  in- 
wardly renovated  by  habitual  grace,  becomes  the  hab- 
itation of  the  three  Persons  of  the  Blessed  Trinity 
(John,  xiv,  23),  yet  that  indwelling  is  rightly  appro- 
liriiitcrl  to  the  third  Person  who  is  the  Spirit  of  Love. 
As  to  the  mode  and  explanation  of  the  Holy  Ghost's 
inhabitation  in  the  soul  of  the  just.  Catholic  theolo- 
gians are  not  agreed.  St.  Thomas  (I,  Q.  XLIII,  a.  3) 
proposes  the  rather  vague  and  unsatisfactory  simile 
"  sicu t  cognitum  in  cognoscente  et  amatum  in  amante ' ' . 
To  Oberdoffer  it  is  an  ever  acting  force,  maintaining 
and  unfolding  habitual  grace  in  us.  Verani  takes  it  to 
be  merely  objective  presence,  in  the  sense  that  the 
justified  soul  is  the  object  of  a  special  solicitude  and 
choice  love  from  the  Paraclete.  Forget,  and  in  this  he 
pretends  to  bring  out  the  true  thought  of  St.  Thomas, 
suggests  a  sort  of  mystical  and  quasi-experimental 
union  of  the  soul  with  the  Paraclete,  differing  in  degree 
but  not  in  kind  from  the  intuitive  vision  and  beatific 
love  of  the  elect.  In  so  difficult  a  matter,  we  can  only 
revert  to  the  words  of  St.  Paul  (Rom.,  viii,  15):  "You 
have  received  the  spirit  of  adoption  of  sons  whereby 
we  cry :  Abba  (Father) . ' '  The  mission  of  the  Paraclete 
detracts  nothing  from  the  mission  of  Christ.  In 
heaven  Christ  remains  our  napaKXrjTos  or  advocate 
(I  John,  ii,  1).  In  this  world,  He  is  with  us  even  to 
the  consummation  of  the  world  (Matt.,  xxviii,  20), 
but  He  is  with  us  through  His  Spirit  of  whom  He  says: 
"  I  will  send  Him  to  you.  He  shall  glorify  me;  because 
He  shall  receive  of  mine,  and  shall  shew  it  to  vou" 
(John,  xvi,  7.  14).    Sec  Holy  Ghost. 

Verani.  TAeoi.  N;.:,/  /'.  '"  .ninle,  XV.  iii  (Munich,  1700); 
Gaume,  rrai/edf  ("A  1 1  ( I'aris,  a.d.),  7;  Obehdorffer, 

De  inhabitalione  s,.  (Tournai,   1890);  Forget,  De 

I'habitation  du  St-Ei'i  II  <l  in.,  1S98);  Bellevue,  i'ffiutre  du 
Saint-Esprit  (Paris,  I'.HIL') ;  .Manning,  The  Internal  Mission  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (London,  1875) ;  Devine,  A  Manual  of  Ascetical  The- 
ology (London,  1902);  Wilhelm  and  Scannell.  A  Manual  of 
Catholic  Theology  (London  and  New  York,  1906);  see  also  Kitto, 
Cheyne,  Hastings,  Vigouroux;  commentators  on  St.  John, 
Cornelius  k  Lapide,  Pillion,  Calmes,  etc. 

J.    F.    SOLLIER. 

Paradise.     See  Terrestrial  Paradise. 

Para  du  Phanjas,  FRANgois,  writer,  b.  at  the  Cas- 
tle of  Phanj.'i  Champsaur,  Basses-Alpes,  1724;  d.  at 
Paris,  1797.  After  his  admission  into  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  1740  he  taught  mathematics  and  physics  and 
later  philosophy  at  Besangon.  Many  of  his  pupils  be- 
came distinguished  in  the  sciences  and  in  apologetics. 
He  was  esteemed  both  for  his  learning  and  for  his  con- 
ciliatory disposition.  On  the  suppression  of  the  Soci- 
ety, the  Archbishop  of  Paris  and  the  Princess  Adelaide 
granted  him  a  pension.  In  1791  he  took  the  oath  to 
the  new  authorities,  but  retracted  it  as  soon  as  the 
pope  had  spoken.  Amongst  his  works  are:  "Thdorie 
des  etres  sensibles"  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1772;  4  vols.,  Paris, 


PAR£TONinM 


470 


PARAGUAY 


1788);  this  work  is  both  an  encyclopedia  of  physics 
and  a  philosophy  of  the  sciences;  "Principes  du  cal- 
cul"  (1st  ed.,  I'aris,  1773;  2nd  ed.,  1783);  "Thferie 
des  nouvolles  d(5couvertes  en  physique  et  en  chimie"; 
"Th^orie  des  etrcs  insensibles"  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1779). 
Para's  eclecticism  is  not  always  too  happy.  He  sides 
with  Clarke  in  the  hitter's  discussion  with  Leibniz  as 
to  the  nature  of  absolute  space.  He  keeps  too  close  to 
Condillac's  theory  of  the  origin  of  ideas,  and  is  deeply 
influenced  by  ilalcliranrhe's  occasionalism.  His 
works,  "  Les  principes  de  la  sainc  philosophic  concilia 
avec  ceux  de  la  philosophic,  ou  la  philosophic  de  la  re- 
ligion", and  "Tableau  historique  et  philosophique  de 
la  religion",  proved  very  useful  to  the  apologists  of 
the  succeeding  generation.  The  general  treatment  is 
marked  by  ingenuity  in  answering  objections  and  the 
judicious  use  of  his  erudition. 

SoMMERVOQEL,  Bibl.  de  la  C.  de  J.,  VI,  192;  Qu^rard,  La 
France  litUraire;  Rochas,  Biographie  du  Dauphin^,  II,  213; 
Ch^rias.  Aper^u  sur  les  illuslTations  gapensaises  (1849);  Feller, 
Jounml  (1780),  507-23. 

P.    SCHETJER. 

Paxaetonium,  a  titular  see  of  Lybia  Secunda  or  In- 
ferior (i.  e.  Marmarica),  suffragan  of  Darnis.  This 
city,  which  some  claim  should  be  called  Ammonia, 
owed  its  celebrity  to  its  port,  whence  Alexander 
visited  the  oracle  of  Amun  (Ammon).  Mark  Antony 
stopped  there  before  Actium.  Justinian  fortified  it  to 
protect  Egypt  on  the  west.  It  has  since  disappeared 
and  the  port  is  partially  covered  with  sand;  the  site, 
long  called  by  the  Arabs,  Baretoun,  to-day  bears  the 
name  Mirsa  Berek,  in  the  vilayet  of  Benghazi  (Tripol- 
itana) .  Mention  is  made  of  three  bishops :  Titus,  pres- 
ent at  the  Council  of  Nicaea,  32.5;  Siras,  an  Arian;  and 
his  successor  Gains,  who  assisted  at  the  Council  of 
Alexandria,  362  (Le  Quien,  "Oriens  christ."  II,  631). 

Smith,  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog.,  a.  v. ;  Pacho,  Voy- 
age dans  la  Marmarique  (Paris,  1829),  28. 

S.  P^TRinfes. 

Paraguay,  one  of  the  inland  republics  of  South 
America,  separated  from  Spain  and  constituted  as  an 
independent  state  in  1811. 

Etymology. — Historians  disagree  as  to  the  true  ori- 
gin of  the  word  "Paraguay",  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon versions  being  that  it  is  a  corruption  of  the  term 
"Payagua",  the  name  of  an  Indian  tribe,  and"i", 
the  Guarani  for  water  or  river,  thus  "Paragua-i", 
or  "river  of  the  Payaguas".  Another  version,  which 
is  accepted  as  more  correct,  is  that  which  construes 
the  word  as  meaning  "crowned  river",  from  "Para- 
gua"  (palm-crown)  and  "i"  (water  or  river). 

Geography. — The  Republic  of  Paraguay,  with  an 
area  of  about  196,000  square  miles,  occupies  the  cen- 
tral part  of  South  America,  bounded  by  Brazil  to  the 
north  and  east,  by  the  Argentine  Republic  to  the 
south-east  and  south-west,  and  by  Bolivia  to  the  west 
and  north-west.  It  lies  between  22°  4'  and  27°  30'  S. 
lat.,  and  54°  32'  and  61°  20'  W.  long.  The  Paraguay 
River  divides  its  territory  into  two  great  regions,  viz.: 
the  Oriental,  which  is  Paraguay  proper,  and  the  Occi- 
dental, commonly  known  as  the  Chaco. 

Population. — 'The  population  of  Paraguay  is  com- 
posed of  Indians,  white  Europeans,  a  very  small  num- 
ber of  negroes,  and  the  offspring  of  the  mixture  of  the 
various  races,  among  whom  the  Spanish-Indian  pre- 
dominates. According  to  the  last  census  (1908)  the 
total  number  of  inhabitants  is  805,000,  of  which  nearly 
700,000  are  Catholics.  Most  of  the  Indian  tribes 
which  are  still  uncivilized  are  scattered  throughout 
the  immense  territory  of  the  Chaco,  the  principal  ones 
being  the  Guaranls,  the  Payaguas,  and  the  Agaces. 

Languages. — The  official  and  predominating  lan- 
guage is  Spanish,  and  of  the  Indian  dialects  the  one 
most  in  use  is  Guarani. 

History. — Originally,  Paraguay  comprised  the  en- 
tire basin  of  the  River  Plate,  and  it  was  discovered  in 
1525  by  Sebastian  Cabot  during  his  explorations  along 


the  Upper  Parand  and  Paraguay  Rivers.  He  was 
followed  by  Juan  de  Ayolas  and  Domingo  Martinez 
de  Irala  (1536-38).  It  was  during  the  hrst  adminis- 
tration of  the  latter  (1538-42)  that  Christianity  was 
first  preached,  by  the  Franciscan  Fathers,  who,  as  in 
almost  every  instance,  were  the  priests  accompanying 
the  first  conquerors.  In  1542  Irala  was  superseded 
by  Alvar  Nunez  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  famous  for  his  ex- 
plorations in  North  America,  who  had  been  appointed 
governor  of  the  River  Plate,  and  received  among  other 
instructions  from  the  king  that  of  "propagating  the 
Christian  religion  with  the  greatest  zeal".  This  task 
was,  however,  beset  with  many  difficulties.  In  the 
first  place  the  priests,  although  picked  and  of  high 
moral  character,  were  few  in  number;  then  they  had 
to  preach  through  interpreters;  and  worst  of  all, 
the  cruel  treatment  of  the  Indians  by  the  soldiers 
was  itself  sufficient  to  engender  in  the  hearts  of  the 
natives  a  keen  antipathy  towards  the  religion  that 
their  new  masters  professed.  Furthermore,  the  cor- 
rupt morals  of  the  conquerors,  their  insatiable  thirst 
for  riches,  their  quarrels  in  the  struggle  for  power,  and 
their  own  discords  and  controversies  could  not  but 
render  their  religion  suspicious  to  the  Indians.  The 
new  governor  was  well  aware  of  all  this;  so  his  first 
official  act  upon  reaching  Asunci6n  (11  March,  1.542) 
was  to  call  the  missionaries  together  to  convey  to 
them  the  wishes  of  his  sovereign,  impressing  upon 
them  the  kindness  with  which  the  Indians  should  be 
treated  as  the  necessary  means  of  facilitating  their  con- 
version; he  made  them  responsible  for  the  success  of 
the  undertaking.  He  then  convoked  the  Indians  of 
the  surrounding  country  and  exliorted  them  to  receive 
the  Faith.  The  administration  of  Alvar  Nunez  was 
characterized  by  his  wisdom,  tact,  and  spirit  of 
justice,  no  less  than  by  his  courage,  energy,  and  per- 
severance. He  succeeded  in  subduing  the  Indians, 
tribe  after  tribe,  mainly  through  a  policy  of  conciha- 
tion,  and  by  force  when  necessary.  It  was  thus  that 
the  march  of  Christianity  in  Paraguay  was  greatly 
facilitated  during  his  short  regime  (1542-44).  His 
achievements,  however,  only  served  to  increase  the 
jealousies  of  Martinez  de  Irala,  who,  never  forgetting 
his  relegation  to  a  subordinate  post,  finally  succeeded 
in  turning  most  of  the  officers  and  soldiers  against  the 
governor.  As  a  result  of  this  rebellion,  Nunez  was 
made  a  prisoner  and  sent  to  Spain,  where  he  was  ac- 
quitted after  a  trial  that  lasted  eight  years. 

Irala  was  then  left  in  full  command  of  the  province 
(1542)  until  his  death  in  1557.  His  second  adminis- 
tration was  noted  for  the  many  improvements  he 
introduced,  such  as  the  establishment  of  schools, 
the  construction  of  the  Cathedral  of  Asunci6n 
and  other  public  buildings,  the  promotion  of  local 
industries,  etc.  He  was  succeeded  by  Gonzalo  de 
Mendoza,  upon  whose  death  (1559)  Francisco  Ortiz 
de  Vergara  was  made  governor,  ruling  until  1565, 
when  he  was  deposed.  Juan  Ortiz  de  Zarate  was 
then  appointed,  but,  having  sailed  for  Spain 
immediately  thereafter  in  order  to  obtain  the  con- 
firmation of  the  king,  Felipe  de  Cilceres  was  left  in 
charge  of  the  government.  Although  Zarate  se- 
cured the  confirmation,  he  did  not  assume  command, 
for  he  died  in  the  same  year.  Juan  de  Garay  then 
took  the  reins  of  government,  and  upon  his  assassina- 
tion by  the  Indians  in  1580,  he  was  followed  by  Alonso 
de  Vera  y  Aragon,  who  resigned  in  1587  leaving  Juan 
Torres  de  Vera  in  command. 

Torres  de  Vera  was  still  governing  the  province 
when  S.  Francis  Solanus,  a  Spanish  Franciscan  mis- 
sionary, made  his  celebrated  journey  through  the 
Chaco  to  Paraguay,  coming  from  Peru.  In  the  course 
of  that  expedition  he  preached  to  the  natives  in  their 
own  tongues  and  converted  thousands  and  thousands 
of  them  (1588-89).  When  Torres  de  Vera  resigned 
his  post,  Hernando  Arias  de  Saavedra,  a  native  of 
ABUnci6n,  was  elected  governor,  ruling  until  1593, 


PARAGUAY 


471 


PARAGUAY 


when  Diego  Valdes  de  Banda  was  appointed  in  his 
stead.  Upon  the  death  of  the  latter,  Hernandarias.  as 
he  is  also  known,  again  took  command  in  1601.  It 
was  during  this  second  administration  of  Arias  (1601- 
09)  that  the  Jesuits  obtained  official  recognition  for 
the  first  time  in  Paraguay,  by  virtue  of  an  order  from 
Philip  III  (1608),  approving  the  plan  submitted  by 
Governor  Arias  for  the  establishment  of  missions  by 
the  disciples  of  Loyola.  This  marked  the  beginning 
of  the  flourishing  period  of  the  Church  in  Paraguay, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  welfare  and  advancement  of  the 
natives,  just  as  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers  in 
1767,  by  order  of  Charles  III,  marked  the  decadence  of 
the  Faith  among  the  Indians  of  the  Chaco  and  their 
falling  back  into  their  former  state  of  barbarism. 

Paraguay  was  then  nominally  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Viceroy  of  Peru,  but  in  1776  the  Viceroy- 
alty  of  La  Plata  was  created,  including  Paraguay. 

Finally,  when  in  1811  Paraguay  declared  its  inde- 
pendence of  Spain,  the  foundations  of  the  Church 
were  firmly  established,  as  was  the  case  in  the  other 
Latin-American  countries. 

After  its  emancipation,  the  country  was  ruled,  more 
or  less  despotically,  by  Jos6  Caspar  Rodriguez  de 
Francia,  as  dictator  (1811—10)  ;  Carlos  Antonio 
Lopez  (1841-62);  Marshal  Francisco  Solano  Lopez, 
a  son  of  the  former,  during  whose  rule  (1862-70) 
was  fought  one  of  the  bloodiest  wars  in  the 
history  of  South  America,  between  Paraguay  on 
one  side,  and  Brazil,  Argentina,  and  Uruguay  on 
the  other.  The  results  of  this  struggle,  provoked 
by  the  political  ambitions  of  Lopez,  were  most  dis- 
astrous for  Paraguay.  It  began  on  24  Nov.,  1864, 
and  lasted  until  1  March,  1870,  on  which  date  the 
Paraguayan  president  was  killed  in  the  battle  of 
Cerro  Cora.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  Paraguay  was 
in  a  state  of  desolation,  with  its  population  decimated, 
its  agriculture  destroyed,  and  its  treasurj'  completely 
exhausted.  After  the  peace  was  signed,  a  constitu- 
tion was  promulgated  (1870),  under  whose  shadow  the 
republic  has  recuperated  within  the  comparatively 
short  term  of  forty  years,  having  now  entered  upon  an 
era  of  prosperity,  peace,  and  stabiUty  of  government. 

Relations  betu-een  the  Church  and  State. — Under  the 
constitution  in  force,  promulgated  25  Xov.,  1870,  the 
religion  of  the  nation  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  and  the 
chief  prelate  must  be  a  Paraguayan.  Congress,  how- 
ever, has  no  power  to  forbid  the  free  exercise  of  any 
other  religion  within  the  territory  of  the  Republic 
(article  3). 

By  authority  of  paragraph  7,  article  2,  of  the  con- 
stitution, the  president  exercises  the  rights  of  national 
patronage  vested  in  the  repubUc,  and  nominates  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  said  nomination  to  be  made  upon 
presentation  of  three  names  by  the  legislative  senate, 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  ecclesiastical  senate 
or,  in  default  thereof,  of  the  national  clergy  assembled. 
It  is  further  provided  by  the  constitution  (par.  8,  art. 
102)  that  the  president  may  grant  or  refuse,  with  the 
advice  of  congress,  the  acceptance  of  the  decrees  of  the 
councils  and  of  the  Bulls,  Briefs,  or  Rescripts  of  the 
Supreme  Pontiff. 

The  Minister  of  Justice,  Worship,  and  Public  In- 
struction is  charged  with  the  inspection  of  all  branches 
of  Divine  worship  in  so  far  as  the  national  patronage 
over  the  Church  is  concerned;  it  is  also  his  duty  to 
negotiate  with  the  Apostolic  Delegates  in  behalf  of  the 
executive.  The  fiscal  budget  assigns  the  sum  of  $2.2.59 
for  the  salaries  of  the  bishop,  vicar-general,  and  secre- 
tary of  the  diocese. 

The  Diocese.  —  The  Diocese  of  Paraguay  (Para- 
Ounyensis)  was  created  under  a  Bull  issued  by  Paul 
III  on  1  July,  1547,  eleven  years  after  the  foundation 
of  Asuncion  by  Juan  de  Ayolas,  15  Aug.,  15.36,  and 
is  therefore  the  oldest  see  of  the  River  Plate.  The 
first  bishop  was  Father  Pedro  de  La  Torre,  a  Francis- 
can, who  arrived  at  Asunci6n  on  the  eve  of  Palm  Sun- 


day, 1555,  during  the  second  administration  of  Mar- 
tinez de  Irala.  Directly  dependent  upon  Rome,  its 
jurisdiction  extends  over  the  whole  territory  of  the  re- 
pubhc,  which  is  divided  into  102  parishes,  6  of  them 
being  located  in  the  capital.  The  present  Cathe- 
dral of  Asuncion  was  formally  dedicated  on  27  Oct., 
1845. 

Laws  Affecting  the  Church. — As  above  stated,  the 
constitution  provides  that  worship  shall  be  free  within 
the  territory  of  the  republic.  The  incorporation  of 
churches  and  tenure  of  church  property  in  Paraguay 
are  governed  under  laws  similar  to  those  in  force 
in  the  Argentine  Repubhc,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  as  to  wills  and  testaments,  charitable  bequests, 
marriage,  divorce,  etc.,  the  Argentine  Civil  Code 
having  been  adopted  as  a  law  of  the  country  un- 
der an  act  of  congress  dated  19  Aug.,  1876.  All 
Catholic  marriages  are  ipso  facto  valid  for  the  purposes 
of  the  civil  law,  and  by  an  act  of  27  Sept.,  1887,  mar- 
riages performed  under  other  rites  should  be  recorded 
in  the  civil  register  in  order  that  they  may  have  legal 
force. 

Under  the  Paraguayan  law  the  clergy  are  exempt 
from  military  and  jury  service,  and  all  accessories  of 
Divine  worship  are  admitted  free  of  duty  when  im- 
ported at  the  instance  of  the  bishop. 

Law  for  the  Conversion  of  the  Indian  Tribes. — On  6 
Sept.,  1909,  a  law  was  enacted  providing  for  the  con- 
version of  Indians  to  Christianity  and  civilization. 
By  virtue  of  this  law,  the  President  of  the  RepubUc 
is  authorized  to  grant  public  lands  to  individuals  or 
companies  organized  for  the  purpose  of  converting  the 
said  tribes,  in  parcels  not  exceeding  7,500  hectares 
(about  18,750  acres)  each,  on  which  the  concessionaire 
shall  establish  a  reduction  with  the  necessary  churches, 
houses,  schools,  etc.  Several  English  Episcopalian 
missions  have  been  estabUshed  in  the  Chaco  under  this 
law. 

Education. — By  law  of  22  July,  1909,  and  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Constitution  (Art.  8)  primary  instruc- 
tion is  compulsory  in  the  republic  for  all  children 
between  5  and  14  years  of  age.  .At  the  beginning  of 
1909  there  were  in  Paraguay  344  primary  schools,  at- 
tended by  40,605  pupils,  and  employing  756  teachers. 
These  figures  do  not  include  the  private  schools,  which 
had  during  the  same  year  an  attendance  of  from  2,000 
to  3,000  pupils.  The  course  of  primary  instruction 
covers  a  period  of  six  years.  Secondary  instruction 
is  given  in  five  national  colleges,  one  of  which  is  in 
the  capital,  and  the  others  in  Villa  Concepci6n,  Villa 
Rica,  Villa  Encarnaci6n,  and  Villa  del  Pilar.  There  are 
also  two  normal  schools  for  the  preparation  of  teachers. 
Higher  education  is  provided  for  in  the  University  of 
Asuncion,  which  offers  a  six-years'  course  in  law,  social 
sciences,  and  medicine.  Further  courses  in  pharmacy 
and  other  branches  have  recently  been  added.  There 
is  besides  a  school  of  agriculture  and  a  military 
academy. 

Conciliar  Seminary. — For  the  education  of  young 
men  in  the  ecclesiastical  career  there  is  at  Asuncion  an 
excellent  institution  known  as  the  "Seminario  Con- 
ciliar", founded  in  1881  upon  the  initiative  of  Ana 
Escate,  who  personally  collected  the  funds  necessary 
for  its  establishment.  During  the  thirty  years  of  its 
existence  sixty  priests  have  graduated  therefrom,  one 
of  them  being  the  present  Bishop  of  Paraguay,  Mon- 
signor  Juan  Sinforiano  Bogarin. 

Washbdrn,  History  of  Paraguay  (Boston.  1871);  FcNES,  En- 
sayo  de  la  Uistoria  Civil  del  Paraguay.  Buenos  Ayres  y  Tucuman 
(Buenos  Aires,  1816):  Bougabde.  Paraguay,  tr.  (New  York, 
1892):  Masterman.  .Seren  Eventful  Yearn  in  Paraguay  (London. 
1870):  Graham.  A  Vanished  .Arcadia  (New  York,  1901):  Banco 
Agricola  del  Paraguay,  Paraguay  (A3unci6n,  1910):  Butler, 
Paraguay  (Philadelphia.  1901 ) :  Yubero,  G»ia  General  del  Para- 
guaii  (Asuncion,  1910):  Bultetin  of  the  Pan-American  Union 
(August.  1910).  jpj^j^j^    MoRENG-LaCALLE. 

Paraguay,  Reductions  of.  See  Reductions  of 
Paraguay. 


PARAHYBA 


472 


PARALIPOMENON 


Parahyba,  Diocese  of  (Parahtbenesis),  in  the 
State  i)f  Parahyba,  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Bahia,  founded 
27  July,  IS!)2,  having  been  separated  from  the  Diocese 
of  Olinda  (q.  v.).  It  is  coterminous  with  the  State  of 
Parahyba,  one  of  the  smallest  in  Brazil,  bordering  on 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  is  bounded,  north  by  the  State 
of  Rio  (irande  do  Norte,  south  by  Peruanibuco,  and 
west  by  CearA.  It  has  an  area  of  28,850  square  miles. 
The  episcopal  city,  which  is  also  the  state  capital, 
dates  from  a  Portuguese  settlement  of  1579.  It  is  situ- 
ated partly  on  an  elevated  plateau  and  partly  on  the 
surrounding  plain,  the  latter(and  newer)  section  along 
the  Parahyba  comprising,  with  its  port  of  Cobadello, 
the  business  quarter.  Sugar,  cacao,  rice,  and  tobacco 
are  some  of  the  products  of  this  coast  region,  while  the 
slopes  back  of  the  town  are  heavily  forested.  The 
chief  ecclesiastical  buildings  of  the  city  are  the  cathe- 
dral, Notre  Dame  dos  Neves  (Our  Lady  of  the  Snows) , 
and  the  former  Jesuit  College,  now  occupied  by  the 
State  offices.  The  first  and  present  (1911)  bishop  of 
the  diocese,  Mgr  de  Miranda  Henriques,  is  a  native  of 
Parahyba.  Born  30  August,  1855,  he  studied  at  the 
Pio-Latino  American  College  at  Rome  and  received 
there  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Canon  Law.  Ordained 
priest  IS  September,  1880,  he  was  made  canon  of 
Bahia  14  August,  1885,  and  appointed  bishop  2  Janu- 
ary, 1894.  He  was  consecrated  on  7  January,  1894, 
and  assumed  his  duties  the  following  March.  The 
diocese  numbers  (1911)  735,572  Catholics;  1000  Prot- 
estants; 48  parishes;  52  secular,  10  regular  priests;  1 


United  Stales  of  Brazil  (issued  by  the  Bure.^u  of  American 
Republics,  Wasliington,  1901) ;  Galanti,  Compendia  de  Hist,  do 
Brazil  (4  vols.,  Sao  Paulo,  1896) ;  Annuaire  pontifi.  calh. 

K.  Crofton. 

Paralipomenon,  The  Books  op  (TlapaXeiwofi.fi/uii', 
o', /3';  Lumi  1'ahalipomenon),  two  books  of  the  Bible 
containing  a  .-iuinmary  of  sacred  history  from  Adam 
to  the  end  of  the  Captivity.  The  title  Paralipomenon, 
books  "of  things  passed  over",  which,  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  passed  into  the  old  Latin  Bible  and  thence 
into  the  Vulgate,  is  commonly  taken  to  imply  that 
they  supplement  the  narrative  of  the  Books  of  Kings 
(otherwise  known  as  I-II  Sam.  and  I-II  Kings);  but 
this  explanation  is  hardly  supported  by  the  contents  of 
the  books,  and  does  not  account  for  the  present  par- 
ticiple. The  view  of  St.  Jerome,  who  considers  Para- 
lipomenon as  equivalent  to  "epitome  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament", is  probably  the  true  one.  The  title  would 
accordingly  denote  that  many  things  are  passed  over  in 
these  books.  The  Hebrew  title  is  Dibherv  Hiyyamim, 
"the  acts  of  the  days"  or  "annals".  In  the  printed 
Hebrew  and  the  Protestant  Bibles  they  are  entitled 
"  Books  of  Chronicles". 

Unity  and  Place.s  in  the  Canon. — The  two  books 
are  really  one  work,  and  are  treated  as  one  in  the  He- 
brew MSS.  and  in  the  Massoretic  summary  appended 
to  the  second  book.  The  division  was  first  made  in 
the  Septuagint  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  and  thence 
was  adopted  into  the  Latin  Bibles.  The  Hebrew  text 
was  first  divided  in  Bomberg's  edition  of  the  rabbinical 
Bible  (Venice,  1516-7).  Moreover,  there  is  a  proba- 
bility that  Paralipomenon  originally  formed  part  of  a 
larger  work  which  included  the  two  Books  of  Esdras 
(Esdras  Neheraias).  For  not  only  is  there  similarity 
of  diction  and  style,  of  spirit  and  method,  but  I  Esdras 
begins  where  II  Par.  ends,  the  decree  of  Cyrus  being 
repeated  and  completed. 

It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that  these  facts 
can  be  explained  by  simple  community  of  authorship. 
In  the  Septuagint  and  Vulgate,  as  well  as  in  the  Prot- 
estant bibles,  the  Books  of  Paralipomenon  are  placed 
immediately  after  the  Books  of  Kings.  In  the  printed 
editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  they  stand  at  the  end  of 
the  third  division,  or  KelhAbhim. 

Contents. — The  first  part  of  I  Par.  (i-ix),  which  is 
a  sort  of  introduction  to  the  rest  of  the  work,  contains 


a  series  of  genealogical  and  statistical  lists,  inter- 
spersed with  short  historical  notes.  It  comprises:  (1) 
the  genealogy  of  the  patriarchs  from  Adam  to  Jacob 
(i);  (2)  the  genealogy  of  the  twelve  tribes  (ii-viii); 
(3)  a  list  of  the  families  of  Juda,  Benjamin,  and  Levi 
dwelling  in  Jerusalem  after  the  Exile,  with  the  gene- 
alogy of  the  family  of  Saul  repeated  (ix).  The  second 
part  of  I  Par.  contains  the  history  of  the  reign  of 
David  preceded  by  the  account  of  the  death  of  Saul 
(x-xxix).  II  Par.  comprises  the  reign  of  Solomon  (i- 
ix),  and  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Juda  (x-xxxvi,  21). 
Part  of  the  edict  of  Cyrus  allowing  the  Jews  to  return 
and  to  rebuild  the  temple  is  added  as  a  conclusion 
(xxxvi,  22-23).  The  historical  part  of  Paralipomenon 
thus  covers  the  same  period  as  the  last  three  Books  of 
Kings.  Hence  naturally  much  of  the  matter  is  the 
same  in  both;  often,  indeed,  the  two  narratives  not 
only  agree  in  the  facts  they  relate,  but  describe  them 
almost  in  the  same  words.  The  Books  of  Paralipome- 
non also  agree  with  the  Books  of  Kings  in  plan  and 
general  arrangement.  But  side  by  side  with  these 
agreements  there  are  many  differences.  The  Books  of 
Paralipomenon  narrate  some  events  more  briefly,  or 
present  them  in  a  different  manner,  and  omit  others 
altogether  (e.  g.,  the  adultery  of  David,  the  violation 
of  Thamar,  the  murder  of  Amnon,  and  the  rebellion  of 
Absalom),  while  they  dwell  more  on  facts  regarding 
the  temple,  its  worship  and  its  ministers,  furnishing 
much  information  on  these  subjects  which  is  not  found 
in  the  other  books.  Moreover,  they  ignore  the  north- 
ern kingdom  except  where  the  history  of  Juda  requires 
mention  of  it. 

Object. — On  comparing  Paralipomenon  with  the 
Books  of  Kings  we  are  forced  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  writer's  purpose  was  not  to  supplement  the  omis- 
sions of  these  latter  books.  The  objects  of  his  interest 
are  the  temple  and  its  worship,  and  he  intends  pri- 
marily to  write  the  religious  history  of  Juda  with  the 
temple  as  its  centre,  and,  as  intimately  connected 
with  it,  the  history  of  the  house  of  David.  This  clearly 
appears  when  we  consider  what  he  mentions  and  what 
he  omits.  Of  Saul  he  narrates  only  his  death  as  an  in- 
troduction to  the  reign  of  David.  In  the  history  of 
David's  reign  he  gives  a  full  account  of  the  translation 
of  the  ark  to  Mount  Sion,  of  the  preparations  for  the 
building  of  the  temple,  and  of  the  levitical  families 
and  their  offices ;  the  wars  and  the  other  events  of  the 
reign  he  either  tells  briefly,  or  passes  over  altogether. 
Solomon's  reign  is  almost  reduced  to  the  account  of 
the  building  and  the  dedication  of  the  temple.  After 
the  disruption  of  the  kingdom  the  apostate  tribes 
are  hardly  mentioned,  while  the  reigns  of  the  pious 
kings,  Asa,  Josaphat,  ,Ioas,  Ezechias,  and  Josias,  who 
brought  about  a  revival  of  religion  and  showed  great 
zeal  for  the  temple  and  its  worship,  are  specially  dwelt 
on.  Again,  the  additions  to  the  narrative  of  the 
Books  of  Kings  in  most  cases  refer  to  the  temple,  its 
worship  and  its  ministers.  Nor  is  the  decree  of  Cyrus 
allowing  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple  without  signifi- 
cance. The  same  purpose  may  be  noted  in  the  genea- 
logical section,  where  the  tribes  of  Juda  and  Levi  are 
given  special  prominence  and  have  their  genealogies 
continued  beyond  the  Exile.  The  author,  however, 
writes  his  history  with  a  practical  object  in  view.  He 
wishes  to  urge  the  people  to  a  faithful  and  exact  ad- 
herence to  the  worship  of  God  in  the  restored  temple, 
and  to  impress  upon  them  that  thus  only  will  the 
community  deserve  God's  blessings  and  protection. 
Hence  he  places  before  them  the  example  of  the  past, 
especially  of  the  pious  kings  who  were  distinguished 
for  their  zeal  in  building  the  temple  or  in  promoting 
the  splendour  of  its  worship.  Hence,  too,  ho  takes 
every  occasion  to  show  that  the  kings,  and  with  them 
the  people,  prospered  or  were  delivered  from  great 
calamiti&s  because  of  their  attachment  to  God's  wor- 
ship, or  experienced  misfortune  because  of  their  unfaith- 
fulness.    The  frequent  mention  of  the  Levites  and  of 


PARALLELISM 


473 


PARALLELISM 


their  offices  was  probably  intended  to  induce  them  to 
value  their  calling  and  to  carry  out  faithfully  their 
duties. 

Author  and  Time  of  Composition. — The  Books 
of  Paralipomenon  were  undoubtedly  written  after  the 
Restoration.  For  the  genealogy  of  the  house  of  David 
is  carried  beyond  Zorobabel  (I  Par.,  iii,  19-24),  and 
the  very  decree  of  Cyrus  allowing  the  return  is  cited. 
Moreover,  the  value  of  the  sums  collected  by  David 
for  the  building  of  the  temple  is  expressed  in  darics  (I 
Par.,  xxix,  7,  Heb.),  which  were  not  current  in  Pales- 
tine till  the  time  of  the  Persian  domination.  The 
peculiarities  of  style  and  diction  also  point  to  a  time 
later  than  the  Captivity.  The  older  wi-iters  generally 
attributed  the  authorship  to  Esdras.  Most  modern 
non-Catholic  scholars  attribute  the  work  to  an  un- 
known writer  and  place  its  date  between  300  and  2.50 
B.  c.  The  main  reasons  for  this  late  date  are  that  the 
descendants  of  Zorobabel  are  given  to  the  sixth  (in  the 
Septuagint  and  the  Vulgate  to  the  eleventh)  genera- 
tion, and  that  in  11  Esdras  (xii,  10,  11,  22)  the  list  of 
the  high-priests  extends  to  Jeddoa,  who,  according  to 
Josephus,  held  the  pontificate  in  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  Those  lists,  however,  show  signs  of  having 
been  brought  up  to  date  by  a  later  hand  and  cannot, 
therefore,  be  considered  as  decisive.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  writer  living  in  Greek  times  would  not  be 
likely  to  express  the  value  of  ancient  monej'  in  darics. 
Moreover,  a  work  written  for  the  purpose  mentioned 
above  would  be  more  in  place  in  the  time  immediately 
following  the  Restoration,  while  the  position  and 
character  of  Esdras  would  point  him  out  as  its  author. 
Hence  most  Catholic  authors  still  adhere  to  Esdrine 
authorship,  and  place  the  time  of  composition  at  the 
end  of  the  fifth  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury B.  c. 

Hi.STORic.4L  Value. — The  reliability  of  the  Books 
of  Paralipomenon  as  a  historical  work  has  been  se- 
verely attacked  by  such  critics  as  de  Wette,  Well- 
hausen  etc.  The  author  is  accused  of  exaggeration,  of 
misrepresenting  facts,  and  even  of  appealing  to  imagi- 
nary documents.  This  harsh  judgment  has  been  con- 
siderably mitigated  by  more  recent  writers  of  the  same 
school,  who,  while  admitting  errors,  absolve  the  au- 
thor of  intentional  misrepresentation.  The  objections 
urged  against  the  books  cannot  be  examined  here  in 
detail;  a  few  general  remarks  in  vindication  of  their 
truthfulness  must  suffice.  In  the  first  place,  the  books 
have  suffered  at  the  hands  of  copyists;  textual  errors 
in  names  and  in  numbers,  which  latter  originally  were 
only  indicated  by  letters,  are  especially  numerous. 
Gross  exaggerations,  such  as  the  slaying  of  7000  char- 
ioteers (I  Par.,  xix,  18)  as  against  700  in  II  Kings  (x, 
IS)  and  the  impossibly  large  armies  mentioned  in  1 1 
Par.  (xiii,  3),  are  plainly  to  be  attributed  to  this  cause. 
In  the  next  place,  if  the  sections  common  to  Parali- 
pomenon and  the  Books  of  Kings  are  compared,  sub- 
stantial agreement  is  found  to  exist  between  them.  If 
the  author,  then,  reproduces  his  sources  with  substan- 
tial accuracy  in  the  cases  where  his  statements  can  be 
controlled  by  comparing  them  with  those  of  another 
writer  who  has  used  the  same  documents,  there  is  no 
reason  to  suspect  that  he  acted  differently  in  the  case 
of  other  sources.  His  custom  of  referring  his  readers 
to  the  documents  from  which  he  has  dra^^Ti  his  infor- 
mation should  leave  no  doubt  on  the  subject.  In  the 
third  place,  the  omission  of  the  facts  not  to  the  credit 
of  the  pious  kings  (e.  g.  the  adultery  of  David)  is  due 
to  the  object  which  the  author  has  in  view,  and  proves 
no  more  against  his  truthfulness  than  the  omission  of 
the  history  of  the  northern  tribes.  He  did  not  intend 
to  write  a  full  history  of  the  kings  of  Juda,  but  a  his- 
tory for  the  purpose  of  edification.  Hence,  in  speaking 
of  the  kings  whom  he  proposes  as  models,  he  naturally 
omits  details  which  are  not  edifying.  Such  a  presen- 
tation, while  one-sided,  is  no  more  untruthful  than  a 
panegyric  in  which   the   foibles  of  the   subject   are 


passed  over.    The  picture  is  correct  as  far  as  it  goes, 
only  it  is  not  complete. 

GiQOT,  Special  Intrud.,  I  (New  York,  1901),  291  sqq.;  Driver, 
Liter,  of  the  0.  T.  (Edinburgh,  1909,,  516  sqq.;  Curtis  and  Mad- 
den, Comm.  on  the  Books  of  Chronicles  (Edinburgh,  1910);  Cor- 
NELY,  Inirod.,  II  (Paris,  1897),  i,  311  sqq.;  Hummelaueh,  Comm. 
in  Lib.  I  Par.  (Paris,  1905) ;  Kaulen.  Einleitung  (3rd  ed.,  Frei- 
burg, 1890),  240  sqq.;  Movers,  KHtische  Untersuchungen  iiber 
die  bibl.  Chronik  (Bonn,  1834) ;  Keil,  Apologetischer  Versuch  iiber 
die  B.  dcr  Chronik  (Berlin,  1834) ;  Nagl,  Die  nachdavidische 
Konigsgesch.  Israels  (Vienna,  1905) ;  Mangenot  in  Vigodroux, 
Diet,  de  la  Bible,  s.  v.  Paralipomenes.,  Les  deux  livres  des;  Kloster- 
mann  in  Realencyclop.  fur  prot.  Theol.,  s.  v.  Chronik.  Die  Biicher 
der.  F.   BecHTEL. 

Parallelism,  the  balance  of  verse  with  verse,  an 
essential  and  characteristic  feature  in  Hebrew  poetry. 
Either  by  repetition  or  by  antithesis  or  by  some  other 
device,  thought  is  set  over  against  thought,  form 
balances  form,  in  such  wise  as  to  bring  the  meaning 
home  to  one  strikingly  and  agreeably.  In  the  hymns 
of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  parallelism  is  funda- 
mental and  essential.  Schrader  takes  it  for  granted 
that  the  Hebrews  got  this  poetic  principle  from  them 
(Jahrbuch  fiir  Protestant.  Theologie,  i,  121);  a  com- 
mon Semitic  source,  in  days  long  before  the  migra- 
tion of  Abraham,  is  a  likelier  hypothesis.  The 
Syriac,  Vulgate,  and  other  ancient  versions,  recognized 
and  to  a  certain  extent  reproduced  the  balance  of 
verse  with  verse  in  the  Bible.  Not  until  the  sixteenth 
century  did  Hebraists  speak  of  it  as  a  poetical  prin- 
ciple, essential  to  the  Hebrews.  It  was  then  that 
Rabbi  Azaria  de  Rossi,  in  his  work  2^2*1'  "I'X^ 
"The  Light  of  the  Eyes",  first  divided  various  poetic 
portions  of  the  Bible  into  verses  that  brought  out  the 
fact  of  parallelism  and  of  a  fixed  number  of  recurrent 
accents.  Schottgen  ("Hora?  HebraicaeetTalmudica;", 
Dissertatio  vi,  Dresden,  1733,  vol.  I,  p.  12.52),  though 
erring  in  that  he  calls  it  absurd  to  speak  of  iambs  and 
hexameters  in  Hebrew  poetry,  deserves  the  credit  of 
having  first  drawn  up  the  canons  of  parallelism,  which 
hecallsexergasia  (i^epyaala,  the  working  up  of  a  sub- 
ject, Polybius,  X,  ,xlv,  6).  According  to  these  canons 
Biblical  prose  differs  from  Biblical  poetry  solely  in 
that  the  poet  works  up  a  subject  by  reiteration  of  the 
same  idea  either  in  the  same  or  in  different  words,  by 
omission  of  either  the  subject  or  the  predicate,  by 
antithesis  of  contrary  thoughts  etc.  Bishop  Lowth 
(De  Sacra  Poesi  Hebra>orum,  1753;  Isaiah,  1778) 
based  his  investigations  upon  the  studies  of  Schottgen 
and  coined  the  term  parallelism.  He  distinguished 
three  kinds  of  parallelism:  the  synonymous,  the  anti- 
thetical, and  the  synthetic.  His  conclusions  have 
been  generally  accepted. 

I.  Synonymous  Parallelism.  —  The  very  same 
thought  is  repeated,  at  times  in  the  very  same  words. 
The  following  examples,  being  close  translations  of 
the  original  text,  will  better  illustrate  Hebrew  paral- 
lelism than  does  our  Douai  version  which  (in  regard 
to  the  Psalms)  has  reached  us  through  the  medium  of 
a  Latin  translation  of  the  Septuagint  Greek: 

(a)  Up  have  the  rivers  lifted,  Jahweh, 
Up  have  the  rivers  lifted  their  voices, 
Up  the  rivers  lift  their  breakers. 

Ps.,  xcii,  3  (Hebrew,  xciii). 

(b)  Yea,  in  the  night  is  Ar-Moab  put  down, 

set  at  naught; 
Yea,  in  the  night  is  Kir-Moab  put  down, 
set  at  naught. 

Is.,  XV,  2. 

II.  Antithetical  Parallelism. — The  thought  of  thefirst 
line  is  expressed  by  an  antithesis  in  the  second;  or 
is  counterbalanced  by  a  contrast  in  the  second.  This 
parallelism  is  very  common  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs: 

(a)  The  tongue  of  the  wise  adorneth  knowledge, 
The  mouth  of  the  fool  blurteth  out  folly. 

Prov.,  XV,  2. 

(b)  Soundness  of  heart  is  the  life  of  the  flesh, 
Envy  is  the  rot  of  the  bones. 

Prov.,  sdv,  30. 


PARALLELISM 


474 


PARALLELISM 


III.  Synthetic  ParalliUsin. — The  theme  is  worked 
up  by  the  biiiliiing  of  thought  upon  siinihir  thought: 

(a)  Mightier  than  tlie  voices  of  many  waters, 
Mightier  than  the  breakers  of  the  oeean 
In  the  high  plaec  is  Jahweh. 

Ps.,  xcii.  4  (Hebrew,  xciii). 

(b)  Know  ye  that  Jahweh  he  is  the  Lord, 
He  hath  made  us;  his  we  are; 

liis  folk  are  we,  yea,  the  flock  of  His  pasture. 
Ps.,  xcix,  1  (Hebrew,  e). 

IV.  Iniroverted  Parallelism  (named  by  Jebb,  in 
"Sacred  Literature",  sec.  4).  The  thought  veers 
from  the  main  theme  and  then  returns  thereto. 

Only  in  God  be  still,  my  soul. 

From  Him  is  my  life; 
Only  He  is  my  rock,  my  salvation, 

My  fortress.     I  totter  not. 

How  long  will  ye  set  upon  a  man, — 

Will  ye  dash  upon  him,  all  of  you? 
Only  to  thrust  me  from  my  height  they  plan, 

As  from  a  toppling  wall. 
They  love  the  lie:  they  bless  with  the  lips; 
And  in  their  hearts  they  curse. 
Only  in  God  be  still,  my  soul. 

From  Him  is  my  hfe; 
Only  He  is  my  rock,  my  salvation, 
My  fortress.     I  totter  not. 

Ps.  Ixi,  2-7  (Hebrew,  Ixii). 

V.  Stair-like  Parallelism. — The  thought  is  repeated, 
in  pretty  much  the  same  words,  and  is  developed 
still  further: 

Jahweh  shall  guard  thee  from  all  evil, 
Jahweh  shall  guard  thy  soul; 
Jahweh  shall  guard  thy  coming  and  thy  going 
From  now  for  ever  more. 

Ps.  c.xx,  7-8  (Hebrew,  cxxi). 

VI.  Emhlemalic  Parallelism. — The  building  up  of  a 
thought  by  u.se  of  simile: 

Jahweh,  my  God,  early  I  seek  Thee; 

My  soul  doth  faim  for  Thee; 

My  flesh  doth  faint  for  Thee; 

Like  a  land  of  drought  it  thirsts  for  Thee. 

Ps.  Ixii,  2,  3  (Hebrew,  Ixiii). 
Parallelism  may  be  seen  in  distichs  or  tristichs.  In 
fact,  scholars  are  now  coming  round  to  the  theory  that 
the  principle  of  balance  and  counterbalance  is  far 
more  comprehensive  in  Hebrew  poetry  than  are  the 
above-named  parallelisms.  Each  individual  line  is  a 
unit  of  sense,  and  combines  with  other  such  units  to 
form  larger  units  of  sense.  Recent  scholars,  like  Zenner, 
have  found  an  almost  endless  variety  of  balance  and 
counterbalance  of  words  with  words;  of  hues  with  lines, 
either  of  the  same  strophe  or  of  an  antistrophe;  of 
strophe  with  antistrophe  or  with  another  strophe  etc. 
In  fact,  this  wider  application  of  the  principle  of 
parallelism  or  balance  in  the  study  of  Hebrew  poetry 
has  enabled  modern  scholars  to  go  far  in  their  efforts 
to  reconstruct  the  metres  of  the  sacred  writers. 

Sf:nijaau  DeremetricavHfrum  Ilehrfrorum  (Vienna.  1890);  DoL- 
LEB.  Rhtfthymus,  Metrilc  und  Strophik  in  tier  Biblisch-H ebr&ischen 
Poetie  (Padcrborn.  1899);  Grimmb,  Grundzuiie  der  Hebraiscken 
Akzent-unrl  Vocallehre  (Yfxhotirg,  1896);  Zenner,  Die CAorffesanffe 
im  Buck  der  Pmlmm  (Freiburg  im  Br..  1896) ;  Zenner  and  Wies- 
MASN,  Die  Paalmen  nach  dem  Urlexl  (Munater,  1906);  Kactzsch, 
Die  Poesie  und  die  poelixehen  Backer  dea  Alien  Testaments  (Leip- 
zig, 1902);  Brioos.  Pmlrm  (New  York.  1906);  Bickell.  Melriccs 
bibl.  rea.  exempt,  illwtrat.  (Innsbruck.  1882),  Carmina  V.  T.  me- 
Irice  (Innsbruck,  1882);  Gietmann,  De  re  metrica  Hebrceorum 
(Freiburg  im  Br.,  1880). 

Walter  Drum. 

Parallelism,  PsYcno-PnYsiCAL,  a  doctrine  which 
states  that  the  relation  between  mental  processes,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  physical,  physiological,  or  cerebral 
processes  on  the  other,  is  one  merely  of  invariable 
concomitance:  each  psychical  change  or  psychical 
state,  each  psychosis,  involves  a  corresponding  neural 
change  or  neural  state,  neurosis,  and  vice  versa.     It 


denies  the  possibility  of  interaction  between  body  and 
mind.  At  most  there  can  be  a  certain  point-for- 
point  correlation  such  that,  given  any  process  in  the 
nervous  system,  a  definite  mental  process  is  its  in- 
variable accompaniment;  and,  given  ririy  particular 
l)rocess  in  consciousness,  a  corresponding  brain-state 
or  neurosis  will  invariably  be  present. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  P.sycho-physical 
Parallelism  are  based  (1)  upon  the  f:u't  tliMt  .-Ul  psy- 
chical processes  presuppose  as  1  heir  (■(nidilidn  .■niic  qua 
lion  processes  of  a  physical  chaniclcr  in  I  he  mrvous 
organism;  (2)  upon  the  principle  of  tin-  cun.sciAHtionof 
energy;  and  (3)  upon  tlie  assuiiiptioii  that  mind  and 
matter  are  so  utterly  unlike  and  so  uttciiy  opposed  in 
character  that  interaction  between  them  is  ini|Missible. 

The  psychological  data  upon  which  the  theory  rests 
we  may  in  general  grant.  The  nuidrrn  scieiicc  of  p.sy- 
chophysics  (q.  v.)  aided  by  cerebral  anatomy,  cerebral 
physiology,  and  pathology,  proves  fairly  conclusively 
that  (1)  sensation  and  perception  are  conditioned  by 
nervous  processes  in  the  brain  and  in  the  peripheral 
end-organs  of  sense,  depending  in  part  at  least  upon 
external  stimuli;  (2)  that  memory  and  imagination 
likewise  presuppose,  and  are  conditioned  by,  cerebral 
connexions  and  cerebral  activity;  and  (3)  that  this  is 
also  to  some  extent  the  case  with  regard  to  intellect- 
ual operations  and  rational  volition. 

We  have  so  far  little  more  than  an  experimental 
verification  of  two  Scholastic  principles:  (1)  that  sen- 
sation is  an  act  of  the  composite  organism,  and  (2) 
that  intellectual  activity  is  conditioned  by  phantas- 
mata,  and  indirectly  by  nervous  processes.  In  truth 
the  data  scarcely  warrant  us  in  going  further  than 
this.  But  the  parallelist  goes  further.  He  asserts 
that  intellectual  operations  have  an  exact  physiolog- 
ical counterpart,  which  is  more  than  he  can  prove. 
An  image  has  doubtless  its  counterpart,  physiologi- 
cally in  the  brain  and  physically  in  the  outside 
world.  The  association  of  ideas  is  conditioned  by, 
and  in  a  sense  is  the  psychical  parallel  of,  the  simul- 
taneous or  successive  activity  of  different  parts  of  the 
brain,  between  which  there  is  a  physical  and  func- 
tional connexion;  and  without  such  association  of 
ideas  intellectual  operations  are  impossible — so  long, 
that  is,  as  soul  and  body  are  united  in  one  being.  But 
that  intellectual  operations  proper — judgment,  logi- 
cal inference,  general  concepts,  vast  and  far-reaching 
as  they  are  in  their  significance,  should  have  an  exact 
counterpart  in  the  activity  of  brain-cells  and  their  neu- 
ronic connexions,  is  a  hypothesis  which  the  known  facts 
of  psycho-physics  fail  to  bear  out,  and  which  is  also 
inconceivable.  How,  for  instance,  can  a  general  con- 
cept, referring  as  it  does  to  objective  reality  and  em- 
bracing schematically  in  a  single  act  many  diverse 
notes,  bear  any  resemblance  to  the  disturbance  of 
nervous  equilibrium  that  accompanies  it,  a  disturb- 
ance which  has  no  unity  at  all  except  that  it  occurs  in 
different  parts  of  the  same  brain  more  or  less  simul- 
taneously? Or,  how  can  cerebral  processes  of  a  pe- 
culiarly unstable  and  almost  haphazard  type  be,  as 
they  are  alleged  to  be,  the  physiological  counterpart  of 
processes  of  reasoning,  rigid,  exact,  logical,  necessary? 

The  assertion  that  all  psychical  processes  have  a 
physiological  "parallel"  is  unwarranted,  and  scarcely 
less  unwarranted  is  the  assertion  that  all  physiolo- 
gical processes  have  a  psychical  "parallel".  This 
latter  point  can  be  established  only  by  appeal  to  the 
fiction  of  "subliminal"  or  "subconscious"  con- 
sciousness. The  existence  of  a  "threshold  of  con- 
sciousness", or,  in  other  words,  of  a  limit  of  intensity 
which  must  be  exceeded  by  the  stimulus,  as  also 
by  the  nervous  impulse  which  results,  before  the 
latter  can  affect  our  consciousness,  has  been  experi- 
mentally proved,  and  tlJs  fact  cannot  be  accounted 
for  by  the  parallelist  except  on  the  assumption  that 
there  are  states  of  consciousness  of  which  we  are 
wholly  unconscious. 


PARALUS 


475 


PARANi 


The  second  line  of  argument  advanced  in  favour  of 
Parallelism  is  as  follows:  The  principle  of  the  con- 
servation of  energy  supposes,  we  are  told,  that  the 
universe  is  a  closed  mechanical  system  in  which 
events,  whether  past  or  future,  are  calculable  with  the 
utmost  precision,  given  the  knowledge  of  any  one 
stage  in  the  development  of  that  universe  and  the 
laws  according  to  which  that  development  takes 
place.  Such  a  system  will  brook  no  interference 
whatsoever  from  without.  Hence  interaction  be- 
tween mind  and  matter  is  impossible,  and  parallelism 
is  the  only  other  alternative. 

This  conclusion  is  quite  illegitimate.  Energy,  as 
understood  in  the  law  which  states  that  its  sum  is  in- 
variable, is  strictly  a  non-directed  quantity.  Hence, 
even  though  this  law  is  applicable  to  the  lower  phe- 
nomena of  animal  life,  as  the  experiments  of  Atwater 
and  Hubner  show,  it  by  no  means  disproves  the  in- 
fluence of  consciousness  and  will,  for  mind  could  still 
direct  material  energy  and  the  law  remain  intact. 
This  is  admitted  by  Fechner,  Mach,  Boltzmann, 
Hofler,  and  von  Hartmann,  the  latter  being  a  deter- 
minist.  (Cf.  Energy,  The  Law  op  the  Conserva- 
tion OF.) 

Moreover,  were  the  absolute  independence  of  the 
physical  world  indeed  a  fact,  the  existence  of  con- 
sciousness would  become  an  insoluble  mystery,  and 
the  existence  of  a  parallelism  between  it  and  the  physi- 
cal world  a  manifest  contradiction.  If  there  be  no  in- 
teraction between  mind  and  matter,  consciousness 
ceases  to  be  an  instrument  whereby  we  modify  our 
physical  environment  to  suit  our  needs.  Purposive 
striving,  deliberation,  choice,  volition,  are  thus  ren- 
dered wholly  unnecessary  and  irrelevant,  and  the  be- 
lief that  we  can  really  do  something  to  change  things 
in  the  outside  world  and  so  promote  both  our  com- 
fort and  that  of  our  neighbour  is  a  hopeless  delusion. 
The  practical  utility  of  physical  science  also  becomes 
illusory,  for  our  bodies,  which  alone  can  give  it  effect, 
are  declared  to  be  merely  automata  with  the  working 
of  which  consciousness  has  nothing  to  do.  Parallel- 
ism is  useless  here,  if  interaction  be  abolished;  nay, 
more,  is  incompatible  with  that  very  independence 
on  account  of  which  its  existence  is  affirmed.  Ab- 
solute independence  and  universal  concomitance  are 
contradictory.  If  there  is  concomitance,  directly  or  in- 
directly, as  Mill  said,  there  must  be  causal  connexion. 

That  such  a  causal  connexion  between  mind  and 
matter  really  exists  the  consciousness  of  activity, 
purpose,  will,  and  responsibility,  directly  testifies;  and 
in  the  face  of  this  testimony  to  hark  back  to  the 
Cartesian  doctrine  of  radical  opposition  between  body 
and  soul,  extension  and  thought,  is  futile  and  con- 
trary to  experience. 

Variations  and  developments  of  parallelism  may  in 
general  be  classed  under  two  heads;  conscious  auto- 
matism— the  theory  of  Huxley  that  the  human  body  is 
a  mere  machine  of  which  consciousness  is  the  "col- 
lateral product",  a  shadow  or  epiphenomenon  which 
symbolically  indicates,  though  it  in  no  wise  influences, 
the  mechanical  processes  which  underlie  it;  and  the 
"Dual-aspect  Theory"  which  maintains  that  psychi- 
cal and  physical  phenomena  between  which  there  is  a 
point-for-point  correspondence  all  along  the  line,  are 
but  different  aspects  or  expressions  of  the  same  com- 
mon substance.  Huxley's  view  emphasizes  the  material 
at  the  expense  of  mental,  curiously  oblivious  of  the 
fact  that  all  we  know  of  the  physical  universe  and  all 
the  theories  that  we  are  able  to  formulate  about  it, 
originate  in,  and  belong  to,  consciousness.  The  dual- 
aspect  view  improves  upon  this,  by  giving  to  conscious- 
ness a  value  at  any  rate  equal  to  that  of  mechanical 
movement.  It  is  in  fact  a  form  of  Monism  (q.  v.)  akin 
to  that  of  Spinoza  and  involves  most  of  the  difficulties 
to  which  that  system  leads.  But  from  our  point  of 
view  its  chief  error  lies  in  its  assertion  that  parallelism 
is  the  only  relation  which  holds  between  the  physical 


and  the  psychical ,  a  relation  which  can  be  proved  to  hold 
so  far  as  sensation  and  perception  are  concerned,  but 
which,  if  further  generalized  to  the  exclusion  of  inter- 
action, inevitably  leads  to  contradiction. 

Expository:  Bawden,  The  Functional  View  of  the  Relation  6e- 
tween  the  Psychical  and  the  Physical  in  Philos,  Review,  XI,  1902, 
474-84;  Cuffobd,  Lectures  and  Essays.  II  (Loniion,  1886),  31-70; 
Errardt,  Die  Wechselwirkung  zwischen  Leib  und  Seele  (Leipzig, 
1897):  Flechsig,  Gehirn  und  Seele  (Leipzig,  1896):  Huxley,  Coir- 
lected  Essays  (London,  1893-94) ;  Mach,  Analysis  of  the  Sensa- 
tions (tr.  Chicago,  1897) :  Reiff,  Der  moderne  psychophysische 
Parallelismus  (Basle,  1901):  Rickeht,  Psychophysische  Kausalitdi 
und  psychophysischer  Parallelismus  (Tubingen,  1900) ;  Stout, 
Manual  of  Psychology  (London,  1904),  iii. 

Critical:  G.  W.  Balfour.  Psychical  Research  and  Current  Doc- 
trines  of  Mind  and  Body  in  Hihhert  Journal,  VIII  (April,  1910), 
3;  BussE,  Geist  und  Korper,  Leib  und  Seele  (Leipzig.  1903) :  Dri3- 
COLL,  The  Soul  (New  York.  1898) ;  Gahdaik,  Corps  et  Ame  (Paris, 
1892);  GuTBEHLET,  Dcr  Kampf  urn  die  Seele  (Mainz.  1899); 
HoPLER,  Die  Metaphysischen  Theorien  von  der  Beziehung  zwischen 
Leib  und  Seele  (Vienna  and  Prague,  1897);  .Iames,  Principles  of 
Psychology  (2  vols..  London,  1890);  Jodl,  Lehrbuch  der  Psycholo- 
gic (Stuttgart,  1896):  Ladd,  Philosophy  of  Mind  (London  and 
New  York,  1895);  Lotze.  Metaphysic.  III(  tr.  Oxford,  1887),  6; 
Masci,  //  Materialismo  psicofisico  e  la  Dottrina  del  Parallelismo  in 
Psicologia  (Naples.  1901);  Mercier,  Les  Originesdela  Psychologie 
contemporaine  (Louvain  and  Paris,  1908);  Pe.sch,  Seele  und  Leib 
ats  zwei  Bestandteile  der  einen  Menschcnsubstaiiz  (Fulda,  1901); 
Villa,  Contemporary  Psychology  (London  and  New  York,  1903); 
Ward,  Naturalism  and  Agnosticism  (2  Vols.,  London,  1906); 
WUNDT,  Ueber  psychische  Causalitat  und  das  Princip  des  psycho- 
physischen  Parallelismus  in  Philosophische  Studien,  X  (Leipzig, 
1894) ;  Human  and  Animal  Psychology  (tr.  London,  1907). 

Leslie  J.  Walker. 

Paralus,  a  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Cabasa  in  ^gyp- 
tus  Secunda.  One  of  the  seven  mouths  of  the  Nile, 
Sebennys  or  Paralus  ("Georgii  Cyprii  Descriptio  orbis 
romani",  ed.  Gelzer,  39)  was  situated  there.  The  see 
is  mentioned  during  the  Arab  regime  in  the  Coptic 
"Notitia  episcopatuum "  (Roug^,  "Geographic  an- 
ciennede  la  Basse  Egypte",3S,  1.53).  Its  bishop,  Atha- 
nasius,  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  431  (Mansi, 
IV,  1128,  1160,  1220;  V,  590;  VI,  874);  another,  Pas- 
meius,  was  present  at  the  Robber  Council  of  Ephesus, 
449,  and  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  451  (Mansi, 
VI,  572,  612,  859,  925;  VII,  52).  Le  Quien  (Oriena 
Christ.,  II,  571)  mentions  two  other  Jacobite  bishops. 
The  site  is  now  called  Burlos  or  Burollos,  the  prom- 
ontory Ras  Burlos,  the  ancient  lake  of  Sebennys  Ba- 
heret-Burlos. 

Champollion,  L'Egypte  sous  les  Pharaons,  II,  360;  Gelzer, 
Georgii  Cywii  Descriptio  orbis  romani,  127. 

S.    VAILHfi. 

Parana,  Diocese  op  (Paranenris),  suffragan  of 
Buenos  Aires,  in  Argentine  until  recently,  comprised 
two  civil  provinces,  Entre  Rios  and  Corrientes, 
and  the  civil  Government  of  Misiones  (see  Map  of 
South  America  in  Vol.  III).  This  territory  belonged  to 
the  Diocese  of  Buenos  Aires  until  1854,  when  it  became 
a  separate  pro-vicariate  Apostolic,  to  be  erected  into  a 
diocese  by  the  Bull  of  Pius  IX  dated  13  June,  1859. 
The  area  of  Entre  Rios  is  28,754  sq.  miles;  Corrientes, 
32,.545sq.  miles;  Misiones,  8571  sq.  miles.  The  respec- 
tive populations  are:  Entre  Rios,  408,000;  Corrientes, 
322,000;  Misiones, 44,000.  Thusthediocesehas  a  total 
area  of  69,870  sq.  miles  and  a  population  of  774,000. 
The  Diocese  of  Corrientes  has  recently  been  erected. 

The  first  Bishop  of  Parand,  Jos6  Gabriel  Segura  y 
Cuvas,  b.  at  Catamarca,  Argentine  Republic,  1802;  • 
d.  13  October,  1862,  took  possession  of  the  see  3 
June,  1860.  His  successor,  Jos(5  Maria  Gelabert 
y  Crespo,  b.  in  1820;  d.  23  November,  1897,  took 
possession  of  the  see  23  August,  1865,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Rosendo  de  la  Lastra  y  Gordillo  (d.  3 
July,  1909).  The  present  bishop  (1911),  Abel  Bazan 
y  Bustos,  b.  at  La  Ri(i.i:[,  2S  .August,  1867,  was  pre- 
conized  7  February,  1910,  coD.sccrated  8  May,  and  took 
pos.session  of  the  see  15  May,  of  the  same  year.  The 
Province  of  Entre  Rios  is  divided  into  sixteen  parishes 
and  ten  chaplaincies  {capellanias  vicarias) ;  Corrientes, 
forming  one  vicariate  forain,  twenty  parishes;  Mis- 
iones, one  parish  and  three  chaplaincies.  The  cathe- 
dral has  a  chapter  of  ten  canons,  including  the  five 


PARASCEVE 


476 


PARAY-LE-MONIAL 


dignitaripfi.  The  "Guiii  Kclesiastica  do  ArRontina" 
for  1910  gives  the  total  number  of  elergy  (parish 
priests  aiuT  chaphiins)  for  the  diocese  as  Oti;  no  men- 
tion, however,  is  here  made  of  priests  belonging  to 
rehgious  institutes  engaged  in  educational  work  in 
the  diocese.  The  conciliar  seminary  (Calle  Urquiza, 
Parand),  under  the  direction  of  a  rector,  vice-rector, 
and  five  professors,  hiis  an  aggregate  of  forty-three 
students  in  all  its  departments.  The  Benedictine 
Fathers  have  an  agricultural  school  at  Victoria,  and 
the  Capuchins  conduct  a  college  for  boys  at  Concordia, 
both  in  Kntre  Kios.  There  are  nine  parochial  schools 
in  lOntre  Hios  and  one  in  Corrientes.  Educational 
institutions  for  girls  and  charitable  institutions  of 
various  kinds  are  conducted  by  the  Daughters  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  the  Religious  of  the  Perpetual 
Adoration  (Adoralrices),  Servants  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  of  St.  Joseph  (Lyons),  and  of  the 
Garden,  Vincentian  Sisters,  Belgian  Tertiaries,  Sisters 
of  the  Poor  of  St.  Catherine  of  Siena,  Carmelites 
(Tarragona),  Mercedarians,  and  Tertiaries  of  Charity 
and  of  Carrael.  Pious  and  charitable  societies  well 
represented  in  the  diocese  are  the  Acci6n  Cat61ica,  the 
Apostleship  of  Prayer,  the  Confraternities  (both  for 
men  and  for  women)  of  St.  Vincent  of  Paul,  Associa- 
tion for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  Confraternities 
of  Our  Lady  of  Perpetual  Succour  and  of  Carmel, 
Daughters  of  Mary,  and  the  peculiarly  national 
Society  of  Our  Lady  of  Itati. 

The  Diocese  of  Corrientes  also  embraces  Misiones. 
Rev.  Luis  A.  Niella  has  been  appointed  bishop  by 
the  pope. 

La  Diocesis  del  Parand  en  el  quincuaglsimo  aniversario  de  su 
ereccidn  canonica  (compiled  under  the  direction  of  the  Diocesan 
Jubilee  Commission,  Buenos  Aires,  1909) ;  Guia  Eclesidstica  de 
Argentina  (Buenos  Aires,  1910). 

Claudio  Poyet. 

Parasceve  (Or.  -n-apaaKevri)  seems  to  have  sup- 
planted the  older  term  irpoaippaTov^  used  in  the  tran.s- 
lation  of  Judith,  viii,  6,  and  in  the  title — not  to  be 
found  in  Hebrew — of  Ps.  xcii  (xciii).  It  became, 
among  Hellenistic  Jews,  the  name  for  Friday,  and  was 
atiopted  by  Greek  ecclesiastical  writers  after  the 
writing  of  "The  teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles". 
.\j)parently  it  was  first  applied  by  the  Jews  to  the 
afternoon  of  Friday,  then  to  the  whole  day,  its  ety- 
mology pointing  to  the  "preparations"  to  be  made 
for  the  Sabbath,  as  indicated  in  the  King  James  Bible, 
where  the  Greek  word  is  translated  by  "Day  of  Prep- 
aration". That  the  regulations  of  the  Law  might 
be  minutely  observed,  it  was  made  imperative  to  have 
on  the  Parasceve  three  meals  of  the  choicest  food  laid 
ready  before  sunset  (the  Sabbath  beginning  on  Friday 
night);  it  was  forbidden  to  undertake  in  the  afternoon 
of  the  sixth  day  any  business  which  might  extend  to 
the  Sabbath;  Augustus  relieved  the  Jews  from  certain 
legal  duties  from  the  ninth  hour  (Josephus,  "Antiq. 
Jud.",  XVI,  vi,  2). 

Parasceve  seems  to  have  been  applied  also  to  the 
eve  of  certain  festival  days  of  a  sabbatic  character. 
Foremost  among  these  was  the  first  day  of  the  unleav- 
ened bread,  Nisan  L5.  We  learn  from  the  Mishna 
(Pesach.,  iv,  1,  5)  that  the  Parasceve  of  the  Pasch, 
whatever  day  of  the  week  it  fell  on,  was  kept  even 
more  religiously  than  the  ordinary  Friday,  in  Judaea 
work  ceasing  at  noon,  and  in  Galilee  the  whole  day 
being  free.  In  the  schools  the  only  question  discussed 
regarding  this  particular  Parasceve  was  when  should 
the  rest  commence:  Shammai  said  from  the  very  be- 
ginning of  the  day  (evening  of  Nisan  13);  Hillel  said 
only  from  after  sunrise  (morning  of  Nisan  14). 

The  use  of  t  he  word  Parasceve  in  the  Gospels  raises 
the  (juestion  concerning  the  actual  day  of  Our  Lord's 
crucifixion.  All  the  Evangelists  state  that  Jesus  died 
on  the  day  of  the  Parasceve  (Matt.,  xxvii,  62;  Mark, 
XV,  42;  Luke,  xxiii,  .54;  John,  xix,  14,  31),  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  from  Luke,  xxiii,  54^56  and  John,  xix, 


31,  that  this  was  Friday.  But  on  what  day  of  the 
month  of  Nisan  did  that  particular  Friday  fall?  St. 
John  distinctly  points  to  Nisan  14,  while  tlie  Synop- 
tists,  by  implying  that  the  Last  Supper  was  the 
Paschal  meal,  convey  the  impression  lliat  Jesus  was 
crucified  on  Nisan  1.5.  But  this  is  hardly  reconcilable 
witli  the  following  facts:  When  Judas  left  the  table, 
the  disciples  imagined  he  was  going  to  buy  the  things 
wliich  were  needed  for  the  feast  (John,  xiii.  29) — a 
purchase  which  was  impossible  if  tlic  tVa>l  h:i'l  Ih  liuii; 
after  the  Supper,  Our  Lord  and  Ins  .lisriplrs  left 
the  city,  as  also  did  the  men  detailed  to  an<'sl  llim 
— this,  on  Nisan  15,  would  have  been  contrary  to  Ex., 
xii,  22;  the  next  morning  the  Jews  had  not  yet  eaten 
the  Passover;  moreover,  during  that  day  the  Council 
convened;  Simon  was  apparently  coming  from  work 
(Luke,  xxiii,  26) ;  Jesus  and  the  two  robbers  were  exe- 
cuted and  were  taken  down  from  the  crosses;  Joseph 
of  Arimathea  bought  fine  linen  (Mark,  xv,  46),  and 
Nicodemus  brought  "a  mixture  of  myrrh  and  aloes 
about  an  hundred  pound  weight"  (John,  xix,  39)  for 
the  burial;  lastly  the  women  prepared  spices  for  the 
embalming  of  the  Saviour's  body  (Luke,  xxiii,  55) — all 
things  which  would  have  been  a  desecration  on  Nisan 
15.  Most  commentators,  whether  they  think  the 
Last  Supper  to  have  been  the  Paschal  meal  or  an  antic- 
ipation thereof,  hold  that  Christ,  as  St.  John  states, 
was  crucified  on  the  Parasceve  of  the  Pasch,  Friday, 
Nisan  14. 

Lives  of  Clirist  l)v  DiDON.  Fouard,  Le  CAMua  etc.;  Plummer, 
T/ie6V,.. /'.---.,  ,',.;,,  I.,  ,>?;.  J, .',.  .  :i|.i»  n.lix  A  (Cambridge,  1905); 
WESTfnii     /  ■  //if  Gospe/s,  note  on  TAe 

Day  i>l  I' ■    •  1  I -:'■),  3.35-42;  Patrizi,  De 

Evangdii  ,  1  1  1 ,  ui  ,  I  '  ilMiM  ,  I  ^  J  ..  ,  ,  Calmes,  UEvangile  selon 
Saint-Jean  U^ariH,  1U04;;  .SiAi'tEH.  L'l  Palestine  au  temps  de  J&sun- 
Chrisl  (Paris,  a.  d.). 

Charles  L.  Souvat. 

Paray-le-Monial,  a  town  of  five  thousand  in- 
habitants in  the  Department  of  Saone-Loire,  Diocese 
of  Autun,   France.    It  is  indisputable  that  Paray 


Chapel  of  the  Visitation,  Parat-le-Monial 


(Paredum;  Parodium)  existed  before  the  monks  who 
gave  it  its  surname  of  Le  Monial,  for  when  Count 
Lambert  of  Chalon,  together  with  his  wife  Adelaide 
and  his  friend  Mayeul  de  Cluny,  founded  there  in  973 
the  celebrated  Benedictine  priory,  the  borough  had 
already  been  constituted,  with  its  a:diles  and  com- 
munal privileges.  At  that  time  an  ancient  temple  was 
dedicated  to  the  Mother  of  God  (Charter  of  Paray). 
The  Cluny  monks  were,  999-1789,  lords  of  the  town. 

Protestantism  made  many  proselytes  here;  but  in 
1618  the  Jesuits  were  summoned,  and  after  a  century 
there  remained  only  a  f(^w  Protestant  families,  who 
have  long  since  disappeared.  In  order  to  complete 
the  work,  Pere  Paul  de  Barry,  the  author  of  "  Pensez- 
y-bien",  in  1678  brought  thitlier  the  Visitandines. 

Paray-le-Monial  has  become  a  much-frequented 
place  of  pilgrimage  since  1873,  as  many  as  100,000 
pilgrims  arriving  yearly  from  all  parts  of  Europe 
and  America.  The  most  venerated  spot  is  the 
Chapel  of  the  Visitation,  where  most  of  the  appari- 


PARDIES 


477 


PARDONS 


tions  to  Blessed  Margaret  Mary  Alacoque  (q.  v.) 
took  place.  Next  comes  the  Basilica  of  the  Sa- 
cred Heart,  in  charge  of  secular  chaplains,  for- 
merly the  church  of  the  monks,  which  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  monuments  of  Cluniac  archi- 
tecture (tenth  or  eleventh  century).  The  Hotel  de 
Ville,  in  Renaissance  style,  the  fagade  of  which  is 
adorned  with  a  large  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  is 
also  one  of  the  historical  monuments.  Pilgrimage  is 
also  made  to  the  Hieron  or  temple-palace,  erected  by  a 
layman  in  honour  of  the  Eucharistic  King,  where 
there  is  a  very  curious  collection  of  pictures  and  ob- 
jects of  art  bearing  on  the  Holy  Eucharist.  Despite 
the  difficulties  of  the  present  religious  situation  in 
France,  Paray  still  possesses  a  number  of  commu- 
nities or  monasteries  which  justify  its  surname. 
Moreover,  with  this  town  are  connected  the  associa- 
tions the  object  of  which  is  the  cult  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  such  as  the  Apostlesliip  of  Prayer,  the  Arch- 
confraternity  of  the  Holy  Hour  (estabUshed  at  Paray 
itself  in  1S29  by  Pere  Robert  Debrosse),  and  the 
Communion  of  Reparation,  organized  in  1854  by 
Pere  Victor  Drevon.  The  latter  maintains  its  head- 
quarters at  Paray. 

From  a  secular  point  of  view  the  town  is  unim- 
portant, but  its  religious  glory  is  abundant.  It  is 
more  than  enough  for  its  honour  that  it  should  be,  as 
Leo  XIII  said  in  his  Brief  of  Coronation  of  Notre 
Dame  de  Romay  (25  July,  1896),  "Coelo  gratissimuni 
oppidum",  "a  town  very  dear  to  heaven". 

Chevalier,  Cartulaire  du  Paray-le-Monial  (Paris,  1890); 
Sackur,  Cluniazenser,  I  (1S92),  241  sq.;  II  (1894),  40-92. 

Joseph  Zelle. 

Pardies,  Ignace-Gaston,  French  scientist,  b.  at 
Pau,  5  Sept.,  1636;  d.  of  fever  contracted  whilst 
ministering  to  the  prisoners  of  Bicetre,  near  Paris,  22 
April,  1673.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  17 
Nov.,  1652  and  for  a  time  taught  classical  literature; 
during  this  poriod  he  composed  a  number  of  short 
Latin  works,  in  pro.se  and  verse,  which  are  praised  for 
their  dcUcacy  of  thought  and  style.  After  his  ordina- 
tion he  taught  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  the 
College  of  Louis-le-Grand  in  Paris.  His  early  death 
cut  short  a  life  of  unusual  activity  in  the  sciences. 
His  earliest  work  is  the  "Horologiura  Thaumanticuni 
Duplex"  (Paris,  1662),  in  which  is  described  an  in- 
strument he  had  invented  for  constructing  various 
kinds  of  sun-dials.  Tliree  years  later  appeared  his 
"Dissertatio  de  Motu  ct  Natura  Cometarum",  pub- 
lished separately  in  Latin  and  in  French  (Bordeaux, 
1665).  His  "Discours  du  mouvement  local"  (Paris, 
1670),  "La  Statique"  (Paris,  1673),  and  the  manu- 
script "Traite  complet  d'Optique",  in  which  he  fol- 
lowed the  undulatory  theory,  form  part  of  a  general 
work  on  physics  which  he  had  planned.  He  opposed 
Newton's  theory  of  refraction  and  his  letters  to- 
gether with  Newton's  replies  (which  so  satisfied  Par- 
dies  that  he  withdrew  his  objections)  are  found  in 
the  "Philosophical  Transactions"  for  1672  and  1673. 
His  "Discours  de  la  ConnaLssance  des  Bestes"  (Paris, 
1672)  combatted  Descartes's  theories  on  the  subject 
so  feebly  that  many  looked  on  it  as  a  covert  defence 
rather  than  a  refutation,  an  impression  which 
Pardies  himself  afterwards  endeavoured  to  destroy. 
His"El(5mensde  G6om6trie"  (Paris,  1671)  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  and  English.  He  left  in  manuscript 
a  work  entitled  "Art  de  la  Guerre"  and  a  celestial 
atlas  comjjrisiiig  six  charts,  published  after  his  death 
(Paris,  1(573-74).  His  collected  mathematical  and 
physical  works  were  published  in  French  (The 
Hague,  1691)  and  in  Latin  (.Amsterdam,  1694). 

SOMMERVOCEL,  Bibl.  de  la  C.  de  J.  (Brus.wl-s,  1895). 

Edward  C.  Phillips. 

Pardons  of  Brittany. — Pardon,  from  the  Latin 
perdnnare, — assimilated  in  form  to  donum,  a  gift, 
middle  English,  to  the  old  French  perdun  and  pardun, 


and  modem  French  pardonner — signifies  in  Brittany 
the  feast  of  the  patron  saint  of  a  church  or  chapel,  at 
which  an  indulgence  is  granted.  Hence  the  origin  of 
the  word  "Pardon"  as  used  in  Brittany.  The  Par- 
dons do  not  extend  farther  east  in  Brittany  than  Guin- 
gamp,  the  date  of  whose  celebration  occurs  on  the 
first  Sunday  in  July.  There  are  five  distinct  kinds  of 
Pardons  in  Brittany:  St.  Yves  at  Tr^guier — the  Par- 
don of  the  poor;  Our  Lady  of  Rumengol — the  Pardon 
of  the  singers;  St.  Jean-du-Doigt — the  Pardon  of  fire; 
St.  Ronan — the  Pardon  of  the  mountain;  and  St.  Anne 
de  la  Palude — the  Pardon  of  the  sea.  The  Pardons 
begin  in  March  and  end  in  October,  but  the  majority 
of  them  are  between  Easter  and  Michaelmas.  Two 
Breton  Pardons,  to  which  very  large  pilgrimages  are 
annually  made,  are  that  of  St.  Jean-du-Doigt  near 


Arriv 


___    _  _   _         _F   StE-AnNE   D-.    - 

Alfred  Guillon,  Luxembourg  Gallery 


Morlaix,  and  that  of  Ste-Anne  d'Auray  in  Morbihan. 
The  former  occurs  on  24  June,  and  that  of  Ste  Anne 
d'Auray  on  24  July,  the  anniversary  of  the  finding 
of  the  statue  of  ,Ste  Anne  by  the  peasant  Nicolazic. 
The  latter  is  regarded  as  the  most  famous  pilgrimage 
in  all  Brittany,  and  attracts  pilgrims  from  Treguier, 
Leonnais,  Cornouaille,  and  especially  from  Morbihan. 
Each  diocese  and  parish  is  known  by  its  costume. 

To  these  Breton  Pardons  come  pilgrims  from  every 
side,  clad  in  their  best  costumes  which  are  only  to  be 
seen  there  and  at  a  wedding.  It  is  a  pilgrimage  of 
devotion  and  piety.  The  greater  part  of  the  day  is 
spent  in  prayer  and  the  Pardon  begins  with  early  Mass 
at  4  A.M.  Its  observance,  however,  has  actually  com- 
menced earlier,  for  the  preceding  evening  is  devoted  to 
confession,  and  the  rosary  is  generally  recited  by  the 
pilgrims,  the  whole  way  to  the  place  of  the  Pardon 
After  the  religious  service,  the  great  procession  takes 
place  around  the  church.  This  is  the  most  pictur- 
esque part  of  the  Pardon  and  may  be  regarded  as  its 
mise  en  scene.  At  Ste-Anne  d'Auray,  this  procession 
is  especially  striking  and  impressive.  In  the  proces- 
sion join  all  those  whom  the  intercession  of  Ste  Anne 
has  saved  from  peril  and  danger.  The  sailors  are 
there  with  fragments  of  the  vessel,  upon  which  they 
escaped  in  the  shipwreck;  the  lame  are  there  carrying 
on  their  shoulders  the  crutches,  for  which  they  have 


PARi 


478 


PARENTS 


no  lonper  need;  and  those  reseiiod  from  fire  are  also  in 
the  procession,  carrying  the  rope  or  ladder,  by  means 
of  which  they  escaped  from  the  flames.  The  Pardon 
in  Brittany  has  practically  remained  unehanfjed  for 
over  two  hundred  years.  It  is  not  a  prclcxi  for  feast- 
ing or  revel,  but  a  reverent  and  religious  gathering 
where  young  and  old  commune  with  dod  and  His 
saints  in  prayer.  There  is  indeed  a  social  side  to  the 
Breton  Pardon,  but  it  is  purely  incidental.  Its  true 
import  is  religious. 

Weld.  A  Vamlion  in  Brillany  (London.  1856);  Baring- 
GoDLD,  .4  Book  of  Brillany,  V  (London,  1901);  Gostlino.  The 
Bretons  at  Home,  II  and  III  (Chicago,  1909):  Le  Braz.  Au  Pays 
des  Pardons,  translated  bv  Gostling  (New  York,  1906);  Souves- 
TRE,  En  Bretagne,  III  ani  V  (Paris,  1891). 

Thomas  O'Hagan. 

Pare,  Ambroise,  French  surgeon,  b.  at  Bourg- 
Hersent,  near  Laval,  department  of  Maine,  1517;  d. 
20  Dec,  1590.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  barber  at  an 
early  age,  became  barber-surgeon  at  the  Hotel- 
Dieu,  Paris,  surgeon  in  the  army  of  Francis  I  (1536- 
38),  re-enlisted  on 
the  reopening  of 
hostilities  (1542- 
44),  and  in  1545 
began  the  study  of 
anatomy  at  Paris, 
under  Francois- 
Jacques  Dubois 
(Sylvius).  He 
was  appointed 
ficlil-surgeon  by 
Marshal  Rohan, 
and  (1552)  became 
surgeon  to  King 
Henry  II,  in  1554 
member  of  the  Col- 
lege de  St-Cosme, 
exempt  from  tax- 
ation, and  in  1563, 
after  the  siege  of 
Rouen,  first  sur- 
geon and  cham- 
berlain to  King 
Charles  IX.  A  Catholic  throughout  his  life,  Tal  has 
given  documentary  refutation  of  the  legend  that  Par6 
was  a  Huguenot  and  was  spared  during  the  Massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day  (1572)  by  direct  command 
of  the  king.  On  account  of  his  humanitarian  activity 
he  was  held  in  special  regard  among  soldiers.  His 
motto,  as  inscribed  above  his  chair  in  the  College  de 
St-Cosme,  read:  "Je  le  pansay  et  Dieu  le  guarist." 
A  monument  was  erected  to  him  at  Laval. 

Fare's  pioneer  work  was  chiefly  in  the  department 
of  miUtary  surgery.  His  importance  in  the  develop- 
ment of  modern  surgery  may  be  compared  with  that 
of  his  contemporary,  Andreas  Vesalius,  in  the  de- 
velopment of  modern  anatomy.  The  chief  services 
rendered  by  Par6  are  a  reform  in  the  treatment  of 
gunshot  wounds,  and  the  revival  of  the  practice  of 
ligating  arteries  after  amputation.  From  the  time  of 
Giovanni  Vigo  (c.  1460-1520),  surgeon-in-ordinary  to 
Pope  Julius  II,  gunshot  wounds  were  classified  as 
contused,  burned,  and  poisoned,  and  the  last-named, 
on  the  supposition  that  all  gunshot  wounds  were 
poisoned  by  powder,  were  cauterized  with  red-hot 
iron  or  hot  oil.  On  one  occasion,  after  a  battle, 
Par6,  not  having  sufficient  oil,  applied  ointment  and 
bandaged  the  wounds,  and  obser\ed  that  the  healing 
process  proceeded  more  favourably  under  this  treat- 
ment. His  observations,  published  in  1545,  gave  the 
impetus  to  a  rational  reform  of  the  whole  system  of 
dealing  with  wounds,  and  did  away  with  the  theory 
of  poisoned  gunshot  wounds,  despite  the  fact  that 
the  Italians,  Alfonso  Ferri  (1.5.52),  and  Giovanni  Fran- 
cesco Rota  (1555),  obstinately  defended  the  old  view. 
Vascular  ligation,  which  had  been  practised  by  the 


Ambroise  PiM6 


Alexandrians,  was  revived  by  Par6  at  amputations  in 
the  form  of  ligating  the  artery,  though  thereby  the 
nerves  were  bruised.  This  discovery,  which  he  pub- 
lished in  1552,  he  speaks  of  as  an  inspiration  which 
came  to  him  through  Divine  grace.  In  cases  of 
strangulated  hernia  of  the  groin  he  performed  the 
operation  known  as  herniotomy,  while  heretofore 
physicians  feared  to  operate  in  such  cases,  leaving  the 
patient  to  die  miserably.  In  obstetrics  we  owe  to 
him  the  revival  of  foot-presentation,  but  he  was  al- 
ways averse  to  the  Ca;sarean  operation  {seclio  cce- 
sarea).  In  all  departments  of  surgery  we  find  Par(5  an 
independent  observer  and  thinker;  but  his  advanced 
notions  encountered  much  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  Paris  faculty  of  medicine.  Thus  at  the  time  of 
his  enrolment  in  the  faculty  of  tlie  College  de  St- 
Cosme,  in  1554,  the  faculty  made  his  ignorance  of 
Latin  a  ground  of  objection  against  him.  Nor  could 
it  ever  forgive  him  for  rendering  ludicrous  supposed 
panaceas,  the  so-called  arcana  (mumia,  ceralum  hu- 
manum,  unicornu). 

The  best  edition  of  Park's  works,  which  also  contains  biograph- 
ical notices,  is  that  of  Malgaigne,  (Euvres  d' Ambroise  Par6  (3 
vols..  Paris.  1840-41);  they  were  also  edited  by  Le  Paulmier, 
Ambroise  Pari  d'aprh  de  nouveaux  documents  (Paris,  1885). 
Earlier  editions  are:  (Euvres  de  M,  Ambr,  Pare  (Paris,  1575,  eleven 
editions  to  16S5;  Latin,  Paris,  1582;  tr.,  London,  1578;  Dutch, 
1604;  German,  1601).  The  more  important  editions  of  the  single 
treatises  are:  Cinq  livres  de  chirurgie  (Paris,  1572),  his  master- 
piece; La  methods  de  traicter  les  ptayes  faictes  par  hacquebutes  et 
aultres  bastons  a  feu:  et  de  celles  qui  sont  faictes  par  fleches,  flecdardz 
et  semblables:  aussi  des  combustions  specialement  faictes  par  la  pout- 
dre  a  canon  (Paris.  1545,  1552;  tr.  1617);  La  mSthode  curative  des 
playes  et  fractures  de  la  teste  humaine  (Paris,  1561) ;  Briefve  collec- 
tion de  V administration  anatomique  (Paris,  1550,  1561),  at  one  time 
a  very  highl.v  esteemed  anatomical  work;  Discours  de  la  mumie,  des 
venins,  de  la  licorne  et  de  la  peste  (Paris,  1532) ;  Riplique  a  la  res- 
ponse faicte  contre  son  discours  de  la  licorne  (Paris,  1584).  See 
Teeunq  in  The  Month  (March,  1903). 

Leopold  Senfelder. 

Pareja,  Francisco,  missionary,  probably  b.  at 
Aunon  in  the  Diocese  of  Toledo,  Spain,  date  unknown; 
d.  in  Mexico,  25January,  1G2S.  He  was  sent  to  Florida 
with  eleven  other  Franciscans,  and  arrived  at  St. 
Augustine  in  1593  or  early  in  1594.  He  laboured  as  a 
missionary  among  the  savages  of  the  peninsula,  not- 
ably at  San  Juan  on  the  coast,  and  then  became 
guardian  of  the  monastery  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, at  St.  Augustine.  He  is  also  styled  "cus- 
tos",  and  must  have  held  the  office  before  1613,  when 
the  custody  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  province 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Helena.  Subsequently, 
he  joined  the  province  of  the  Holy  Gospel  in  Mexico. 
Father  Pareja  is  noted  for  having  published  the  first 
books  in  the  language  of  an  Indian  tribe  within  the 
United  States,  the  Timuquanan,  and  may  for  that 
purpose  have  gone  to  Mexico.  His  various  works 
are:  "Catecismo  en  lengua  castellana  y  timuquana" 
(Mexico,  1612);  "Catecismo  y  breve  exposici6n  de  la 
doctrina  cristiana "  (Mexico,  1612);  " Conf esionario 
en  lengua  castellana  y  timuquana"  (Mexico,  1613): 
"Gramatica  de  la  lengua  timuquana  de  Florida' 
(Mexico,  1614);  "Catecismo  de  la  doctrina  cristiana 
en  lengua  timuquana"  (Mexico,  1617);  "Catecismo 
y  examen  para  los  que  comulgan,  en  lengua  castel- 
lana y  timuquana"  (Mexico,  1627). 

Barcia,  Ensayo  Cronologico  (Madrid,  1723);  Vetanccrt. 
Menologio  (Mexico,  1697) ;  Torquemada,  Monarquia  Indiana 
(Madrid.  1723);  Shea.  Catholic  Church  in  Colonial  Days  (New 
York.  1886) ;  Idem.  Catholic  Missions  (New  York,  1854) ;  Pillino, 
North  American  Linguistics  (Washington,  1884);  Sabin,  Diction- 
ary of  Books  Relating  to  America,  V  (New  York,  1884). 

Zephryin  Engelhardt. 

Parents  (Lat.  parere,  to  beget). — I.  Duties  op 
Parents  towards  their  Children. — In  the  old 
pagan  world,  with  due  allowance  for  the  operation  of 
the  natural  law,  love  and  revfrenco  were  replaced  by 
authority  and  fear.  The  Roiiiiiii  jurisprudence  dur- 
ing a  time  at  least  exaggerated  the  paternal  power  to 
the  point  of  ownership,  but  it  did  not  emphasize  any 
duties  that  he  had  to  perform.    His  dominion  over 


PARENTS 


479 


PARENTS 


his  children  was  not  less  complete  than  that  over  his 
slaves.  He  possessed  an  undisputed  right  of  life  and 
death;  he  might  sell  them  into  slavery  and  dispose  of 
any  property  they  had  acquired.  Compatible  with 
this  general  idea,  abortion,  infanticide,  and  exposi- 
tion were  widespread.  The  laws  seemed  to  contem- 
plate these  crimes  as  venial  offences  and  to  have  been 
largely  inoperative  in  such  cases. 

In  consequence  the  filial  observance  implied  in  the 
ancient  pietas  could  not  always  be  translated  as  af- 
fection. This  earlier  condition  was  modified  by  de- 
crees of  the  later  emperors.  Alexander  Severus  dis- 
tinguished the  right  of  a  father  to  put  an  adult  child 
to  death,  whilst  Diocletian  made  it  illegal  for  fathers 
to  sell  their  children. 

Uniler  Christianity  parents  were  not  merely  the  re- 
positories of  rights  and  duties  whose  affirmation  na- 
riire  demanded,  but  they  were  to  be  regarded  as  the 
representatives  of  God  Himself,  from  whom  "all  pa- 
ternity is  named",  and  found  in  this  capacity  the 
way  to  mingle  love  and  reverence,  as  well  as  the 
strongest  motive  for  a  cheerful  obedience  on  the  part 
of  the  children. 

The  first  duty  of  parents  towards  their  children  is  to 
love  them.  Nature  inculcates  this  clearly,  and  it  is 
customary  to  describe  parents  who  lack  this  afTection 
as  unnatural.  Here  the  offence  is  against  a  distinct 
virtue  which  the  theologians  call  pictns,  concerned 
with  the  demeanour  reciprocally  of  parents  and  chil- 
dren. Hence  the  circumstance  of  this  close  relation- 
ship must  be  made  known  in  confession  when  there 
is  question  of  sins  of  this  sort.  In  the  case  of  serious 
damage  done  by  parents  to  their  children,  besides  the 
sin  against  justice  there  is  contracted  the  quite  dif- 
ferent malice  derived  from  this  propinquity.  This 
virtue,  interpreting  the  precept  of  the  natural  law, 
also  requires  parents  diligently  to  care  for  the  proper 
rearing  of  their  children,  that  is,  to  provide  for  their 
bodily,  mental,  and  spiritual  well-being.  This  is  so 
even  in  the  supposition  that  the  children  are  illegit- 
imate. Parents  are  guilty  of  grievous  sin  who  treat 
their  children  with  such  cruelty  as  to  indicate  that 
their  conduct  is  inspired  by  hatred,  or  who,  with  full 
intent,  curse  them  or  exhibit  a  notable  and  unreason- 
able preference  for  one  child  rather  than  another. 
Parents  are  bound  to  support  their  children  in  a  man- 
ner commensurate  with  their  social  condition  until 
these  latter  can  support  themselves.  The  mother  is 
bound  to  do  nothing  to  prejudice  the  life  or  proper 
development  of  her  unborn  infant,  and  after  birth 
she  must  under  pain  of  venial  sin  nurse  it  herself  un- 
less there  is  some  adequate  excuse. 

A  father  who  is  idle  or  unthrifty  so  that  his  family 
is  left  without  fitting  maintenance  is  guilty  of  griev- 
ous sin.  Parents  must  see  that  their  chiklren  obtain 
at  least  an  elementary  education.  They  are  bound 
with  special  emphasis  to  watch  over  the  spiritual 
welfare  of  their  children,  to  afford  them  good  exam- 
ple, and  to  correct  the  erring.  The  teaching  of  the 
Church  is  that  the  right  and  duty  to  educate  their 
own  offspring  abides  natively  and  primarily  with  the 
parents.  It  is  their  most  important  task;  indeed 
understood  in  its  full  sense  it  is  ranked  by  no  obliga- 
tion. In  so  far  as  it  means  instruction  in  the  more 
elementary  branches  of  human  knowledge  it  is  in 
most  cases  identical  with  the  obligation  of  bestowing 
care  in  the  selection  of  a  school  for  the  children. 

Hence,  in  general,  parents  may  not  with  a  safe  con- 
science send  their  children  to  non-Catholic  schools, 
whether  these  be  sectarian  or  secularist.  This  state- 
ment admits  of  exception  in  the  instance  where  there 
are  grave  reasons  for  permitting  Catholic  children  to 
frequent  these  schools,  and  where  such  dangers  as 
may  exist  for  their  faith  or  morals  are  by  fitting  means 
either  neutralized  or  rendered  remote.  The  judge  in 
such  cases,  both  of  the  sufficiency  of  the  reasons  al- 
leged as  well  as  of  the  kind  of  measure  to  be  em- 


ployed to  encounter  successfully  whatever  risks  there 
are,  is,  in  the  United  States,  the  bishop  of  each  diocese. 
The  attendance  at  non-Catholic  schools  by  Catholic 
children  is  something  which,  for  weighty  motives  and 
with  due  safeguards,  can  be  tolerated,  not  approved. 
In  any  case  parents  must  carefully  provide  for  the 
child's  religious  instruction. 

As  to  higher  education,  parents  have  a  clear  duty  to 
sec  tliat  the  faith  of  their  children  is  not  imperilled  by 
(heir  going  to  iKjn-C'athdlic  univi  isitirs  and  oolleges. 
In  the  lack  of  jjositive  legislation  before  parents  can 
assent  to  their  children  attending  non-Catholic  uni- 
versities or  colleges  there  must  be  a  commensurately 
grave  cause,  and  such  dangers  as  may  threaten  faith 
or  morals  are  to  be  rendered  remote  by  suitable 
remedies.  The  last-named  requirement  is  obviously 
the  more  important.  Failure  to  fall  in  with  the  first, 
provided  that  means  had  been  taken  faithfully  to 
comply  with  the  second,  vv'ould  not  oblige  the  con- 
fessor to  refuse  absolution  to  such  parents.  There  is 
an  undoubted  and  under  ordinary  circumstances  in- 
alienable authority  to  be  exercised  by  parents.  The 
extent  of  this  is  a  matter  to  be  determined  by  positive 
law.  In  the  instances  in  which  it  becomes  necessary 
to  decide  upon  one  of  the  parents  rather  than  the 
other  as  custodian  of  the  children,  the  rule  of  legal 
preference  in  the  United  States  is  that  the  children 
are  confided  to  the  charge  of  the  father.  There  is, 
however,  a  growing  disposition  to  favour  the  mother. 
Parents  have  the  right  to  administer  chastisement  to 
delinquent  children.  Their  omission  to  punish  suit- 
ably may  be  a  serious  offense  before  God. 

II.  Duties  op  Children  towards  Parents. — 
Children  have  a  threefold  obligation  of  love,  rever- 
ence, and  obedience  toward  their  parents.  This  is 
enjoined  by  the  virtue  which  St.  Thomas  calls  pietas, 
and  for  which  the  nearest  English  equivalent  phrase 
is  "dutiful  observance".  As  religion  makes  it  oblig- 
atory for  us  to  worship  God,  so  there  is  a  virtue  dis- 
tinct from  all  the  others  which  inculcates  the  attitude 
we  ought  to  hold  towards  parents,  in  so  far  as  they  in  a 
secondary  sense  are  the  principles  of  our  being  and  of 
its  regulation.  The  violation  of  i  his  obligation  there- 
fore is  reputed  a  grievous  sin  unless  the  smallness  of 
the  matter  involved  make  the  offence  a  venial  one.  Of 
the  obligations  referred  to,  love  and  reverence  are  in 
force  during  the  parents'  lifetime.  Obedience  ceases 
when  the  children  pass  from  under  the  parental  au- 
thority. The  duty  of  love  of  parents,  strongly  inti- 
mated to  the  conscience  by  the  natural  law,  is  ex- 
pressly emphasized  by  the  positive  law  of  God.  The 
Fourth  Commandment,  "Honour  thy  father  and  thy 
mother",  is  universally  interpreted  to  mean  not  only 
respect  and  submission,  but  also  the  entertaining  and 
manifestation  of  affection  they  deserve  at  the  hands 
of  their  children. 

Those  children  are  guilty  of  grievous  sin  who  hab- 
itually exhibit  towards  their  parents  a  heartless  de- 
meanour, or  who  fail  to  succour  them  in  serious  need, 
either  bodily  or  spiritual,  or  who  neglect  to  carry  out 
the  provisions  of  their  last  will  and  testament  in  so 
far  as  the  amount  devised  will  permit.  It  is  not 
merely  the  external  bearing  which  has  to  be  governed. 
The  inward  sentiment  of  affection  must  be  deep- 
seated.  The  Christian  concept  of  parents  as  being 
the  delegates  of  God  carries  with  it  the  inference  that 
they  are  to  be  treated  with  peculiar  respect.  Chil- 
dren incur  the  guilt  of  grievous  sin  who  strike  their 
parents,  or  even  raise  their  hands  to  do  so,  or  who  give 
them  well-founded  reason  for  great  sorrow.  The  same 
is  to  be  said  of  those  who  put  their  parents  in  a  violent 
rage,  who  curse  them  or  revile  them,  or  refuse  to 
recognize  them. 

Besides  the  parental  relationship  and  dignity  ac- 
count is  to  be  taken  of  their  authority.  Children,  so 
long  as  they  remain  under  its  yoke,  are  bound  to  obey. 
This  does  not  mean,  according  to  the  teaching  of  St. 


PARENZO-POLA 


-480 


PARIS 


Thomas  (II-II,  Q.  civ,  a.  2,  ad  lum),  that  they  must 
intend  to  do  what  is  commandod  precisely  l)ecause  it 
is  enjoined;  it  is  enough  lliat  they  be  minded  to  do 
what  is  prescribed.  'I'liis  (il>lif;ati<)U  covers  all  tliose 
matters  and  those  only  which  make  for  the  proi)or 
rearing  of  the  olTspriiig.  Parents  have  no  power  to 
order  their  children  to  do  what  is  sinful,  nor  can  they 
impose  upon  them  against  their  will  any  particular 
calling  in  life.  Theologians  find  their  criterion  for 
determining  the  grievousness  of  the  sin  of  disobe- 
dience by  scrutinizing  the  command  given  as  well  as 
the  matter  with  which  it  is  concerned.  They  say  that 
the  offence  is  then  to  be  rated  as  mortal  when  the 
communication  of  the  parental  will  takes  the  form 
of  a  real  precept  given  in  earnest  and  not  merely  a 
counsel  or  exhortation.  They  further  require  that 
this  behest  should  have  to  do  with  something  im- 
portant. 

There  is  no  hard  and  fast  rule  to  gauge  the  gravity 
of  the  matter  in  which  an  infraction  of  the  duty  of 
obedience  will  become  a  mortal  sin.  Moralists  declare 
that  this  valuation  must  be  made  by  the  good  sense  of 
thoughtful  persons.  They  add  that  in  general  when 
an  act  of  disobedience  is  calculated  to  work  serious 
harm  to  the  parents,  or  interfere  seriously  with  domes- 
tic discipline,  or  put  in  jeopardy  the  temporal  or 
spiritual  welfare  of  the  children  themselves,  it  is  to  be 
accounted  a  mortal  sin.  When  the  thing  for  whose  per- 
formance or  omission  the  parent's  command  is  issued 
is  already  binding  under  pain  of  grievous  sin,  either  by 
the  natural  or  positive  law,  the  setting  at  naught  of 
the  parental  injunction  does  not  involve  a  distinct  sin 
of  disobedience  requiring  a  separate  accusation  in  con- 
fession .  The  reason  is  that  t  he  motive  of  the  command 
is  assumed  to  remain  the  same  in  both  cases.  An 
example  in  point  would  be  the  defiance  of  an  order 
given  by  a  parent  to  a  child  to  assist  at  Mass  on 
Sunday,  something  which  the  latter  is  already  bound 
to  do. 

Children  are  released  from  parental  control  when 
they  attain  their  majority,  or  are  legally  emanci- 
pated. In  the  United  States  this  latter  may  be  done 
either  by  a  written  instrument  or  by  means  of  cer- 
tain facts  which  the  statutes  construe  as  sufficiently 
manifesting  the  consent  of  the  parents. 

Slater,  Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908);  Leckt, 
History  of  European  Morals  (New  York,  1910);  SpiRAGO,  The 
Catechism  Explained  (New  York,  1899);  Devas,  Key  to  the 
World's  Progress  (London,  1906);  D'Annibale,  Summula  Theolo- 
gi(Z  Moralis  [JXome,  1908);  Ballerini,  Opus  Theologicum  Morale 
(Prato,  1899) ;  St.  Thomas,  Summa  Theologica. 

Joseph  F.  Delant. 

Parenzo-Pola  (Parentina-Polensis),  Diocese 
OF. — The  lit  til-  town  of  Parenzo  is  picturesquely  sit- 
uated on  a  promontory  extending  into  a  creek  of  the 
Adriatic.  At  the  head  of  this  promontory,  close  to 
the  water,  rises  the  cathedral,  the  pride  of  Parenzo. 
Built  by  the  first  bi.shop,  Euphrasius,  in  the  time  of 
Justinian,  under  whom  Byzantine  architecture  first 
reached  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  it  is  the  best  pre- 
8er\'ed  monument  of  that  epoch  in  Austria.  More- 
over, archicologists  have  proved  that  it  bears  witness 
to  the  antiquity  of  Christianity  in  Parenzo,  as  it  is 
the  most  recent  of  three  churches,  the  second  of 
which  belongs  to  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
while  the  oldest  antedates  that  epoch.  Parenzo  was 
a  separate  diocese  from  the  time  of  Euphrasius  until 
in  1827  it  was  united  with  Pola,  whose  first  bishop, 
Venerius,  died  about  ,520.  At  present  Parenzo-Pola 
is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Gorz  and  numbers 
132,000  Catholics,  including  135  secular  priests,  one 
monastery  with  21  monks,  and  6  (or  8)  convents  con- 
taining 132  nuns. 

Codice  diplomatico  Jstriano,  3  vols,  appearing  aa  supplement  to 
KANDLER'sA'/sfria  (1846);  Cappeletti,  Le ehiese d' Italia  (Venice, 
1844-71);  Kandlbb,  Faeti  eacri  e  profane  de  Trieste  e  dell'  Istria 
(Trieat,  1849). 

C.   WOLFSOBUBEB. 


Parini,  Giuseppe,  Italian  poet,  b.  at  Bosisio,  23 
May,  1729;  d.  at  Milan,  15  Aug.,  1799.  Parini  was 
early  taken  to  Milan.  lie  was  an  apt  iHii)il  and 
showed  that  he  possessed  marked  ability  tor  leaching, 
which  was  to  bo  the  work  of  the  greater  pari  of  his 
life.  His  poetic  talent  also  evinced  itself  at  an  early 
date  and  secured  his  entrance  into  several  of  the 
Accathmie,  especially  into  the  "Arcadia".  Taking 
Holy  orders  in  1754,  he  served  as  tutor  in  several 
noble  families  and  gained  that  knowledge  of  fashion- 
able life  which  he  was  to  put  to  good  use  in  his 
"Giorno".  From  1773  on  he  was  professor  of  fine 
arts  in  the  Brera  at  Milan.  When  the  Cisalpine 
Republic  was  established  with  its  capital  at  Milan, 
Bonaparte  made  him  a  member  of  the  municipal 
government;  this  position  he  lost  on  account  of  his 
liberal  utterances.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was 
passed  in  rather  straitened  circumstances.  Tlie  poet- 
ical fame  of  Parini  depends  upon  his  "Odi"  and  the 
"Giorno",  particularly  upon  the  latter.  The  "Odi" 
(1st  ed.,  Milan,  1791)  are  in  the  conventional  manner 
of  the  eighteenth  century  Arcadian  compositions; 
some  of  them  deal  with  matters  of  moral  and  social 
speculation.  The  "Giorno",  upon  which  he  had  be- 
gun to  work  about  1760,  is  a  satire  upon  the  life  of  the 
young  man  of  fashion  of  the  time.  In  the  four  parts 
of  it — the  "Mattino",  the  "Mezzogiorno",  the 
"  Vespro",  and  the  "Notte" — he  passes  in  review  the 
futile  daily  occupations  of  a  typical  society  beau,  all 
the  while  ridiculing  the  effeminate  and  corrupt  cus- 
toms of  the  youth  of  the  age.  The  interest  of  the 
composition  is  diversified  by  the  introduction  of 
pleasing  episodes.  The  verse  form  is  that  of  un- 
rhyined  decasyllabics.  Some  occasional  verses,  a 
cantata  ("La  figlia  di  Jefte"),  a  dramatic  work 
("Ascanio  in  Alba"),  and  a  few  minor  compositions 
in  prose  constitute  the  rest  of  his  literary  produc- 
tions. 

See  the  biography  by  Reina  prefixed  to  Parini's  Opere 
(Milan,  1881-4);  Cantu,  Giorno  (Milan,  1854);  Carducci, 
Storia  del  Giorno  di  Giuseppe  Parini  (Bologna,  1892) ;  Salvera- 
GUO,  Odi  (Bologna,  1882). 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Paris,  Archdiocese  op  (Parisiensis),  comprises 
the  Department  of  the  Seine.  It  was  re-established 
by  the  Concordat  of  1802  with  much  narrower  limits 
than  it  had  prior  to  the  Revolution,  when,  besides  the 
city  of  Paris  and  its  suburbs,  it  comprised  the  arch- 
deanery  of  Josas  (including  the  deaneries  of  Ch&teau- 
fort  and  Montlhery)  and  the  archdeanery  of  Brie  (in-  I 

eluding  the  deaneries  of  Lagny  and  Vieux-Corbeil). 
The  deanery  of  Champeaux,  enclosed  within  the 
territory  of  the  Diocese  of  Sens,  was  also  dependent 
on  the  Archdiocese  of  Paris,  which  had  then  492 
parishes.  The  Concordat  gave  to  the  dioceses  of 
Versailles  and  Meaux  the  archdeaneries  of  Josas  and 
Brie,  which  had  nearly  350  parishes,  and  reduced  the 
Archdiocese  of  Paris  to  42  urban  and  7G  suburban 
parishes.  According  to  the  Concordat  it  had  eight 
suffragans:  Amiens,  Arras,  Cambrai,  Orleans,  Meaux, 
Soissons,  Troves,  and  Versailles.  The  re-establish- 
ment under  the  Restoration  of  the  Archdioceses  of 
Reims  and  Sens  removed  the  Dioceses  of  Troyes, 
Amiens,  and  Soissons  from  the  juii.sdiction  of  Paris, 
but  the  Dioceses  of  Blois  and  Chartres,  created  in 
1882,  were  attached  to  the  Province  of  Paris.  In 
1841  Cambrai,  having  become  a  metropolitan  see, 
ceased  to  be  a  suffragan  of  Paris,  Arras  being  made 
its  suffi'agan. 

The  Roman  Lutetia. — The  Gaul  Camulogenus 
burnt  Lutetia  in  52  B.  C,  while  defending  against 
CKsar  the  tribe  of  the  Parisii,  whose  capital  it  was. 
The  Romans  erected  a  new  city  on  the  left  slope  of 
Mt.  Lucotilius  (later  Mont  Ste-Genevieve).  That  the 
Romanization  of  Paris  was  very  quickly  accomplished 
is  proved:  (1)  by  the  altar  (discovered  in  1710  under 
the  choir  of  Notre-Dame)   raised  to  Jupiter  under 


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481 


PARIS 


Tiberius  by  the  Nautce  Parisiaci,  on  which  are  repre- 
sented several  deities  borrowed  from  the  Roman 
pantheon;  (2)  by  the  remains  of  a  pedestal  (found  in 
1871  on  the  site  of  the  old  Hotel-Dieu),  which  doubt- 
less supported  a  statue  of  Germanicus,  and  on  which  is 
represented  Janus  Quadrifrons,  the  Roman  symbol  of 
peace.  At  the  end  of  the  third  century  Lutetia  was 
destroyed  by  the  barbarians,  but  an  important  mili- 
tary camp  was  at  once  installed  in  this  district.  Csesar 
Julian,  later  emperor  and  known  as  Julian  the  Apos- 
tate, defended  Lutetia  against  fresh  invasions  from 
the  north  over  the  road  from  Senlis  to  Orleans. 
There,  in  360,  he  was  proclaimed  Augustus  by  his 
soldiers,  and  Valentian  I  also  sojourned  there.  The 
ruins  found  in  the  garden  of  the  Musee  de  Cluny  have, 
since  the  twelfth  century,  been  regarded  as  the  ruins 
of  the  Thcriniv,  Ijut  in  1903-04  other  therma  were 
discovered  a  little  distance  away,  which  must  be  either 
those  of  the  palace  of  Julian  the  Apostate,  or,  accord- 
ing to  M.  Julian,  those  of  the  communal  house  of  the 
Nautcc  Parisiaci.  Ruins  have  also  been  discovered 
of  an  arena  capable 
of  holding  from  SOOO 
to  9000  persons. 

Beginnings  of 
Christianity  at 
Paris. — Paris  was  a 
Christian  centre  at 
an  early  date,  its  first 
apostles  being  St. 
Denis  and  his  com- 
panions, Sts.  Rusti- 
cus  and  Eleuthcrius. 
Until  the  li.'Vdlulion 
the  ancient  tradition 
of  the  Parisian 
Church  commemc  i- 
rated  the  seven  sta- 
tions of  St.  Denis,  the 
stages  of  his  aposto- 
late  and  martyrdom : 

(1)  the  ancient  mon- 
astery of  Notre- 
Dame  -  des  -  Chamjjs 
of  which  the  crypt,  it 

was  said,  had  been  Chtrch  of  tde 

dedicated  to  the 
Blessed  Virgin  by  St.  Denis  on  his  arrival  in  Paris; 

(2)  the  Church  of  St-Etienne-des-Gres  (now  disap- 
peared), which  stood  on  the  site  of  an  oratory 
erected  by  St.  Denis  to  St.  Stephen;  (3)  the  Church 
of  St-Benoit  (disappeared),  where  St.  Denis  had 
erected  an  oratory  to  the  Trinity  {Deus  Benedic- 
tus);  (4)  the  chapel  of  St-Denis-du-Pas  near  Notre- 
Dame  (disappeared),  on  the  site  of  the  tribunal  of  the 
prefect  Sicinnius,  who  tried  St.  Denis;  (5)  the  Church 
of  St-Denis-de-la-Chatre,  the  crypt  of  which  was  re- 
garded as  the  saint's  cell  (now  vanished) ;  (6)  Mont- 
martre,  where,  according  to  the  chronicle  written  in 
830  by  Abbot  Hilduin,  St.  Denis  was  executed;  (7)  the 
basilica  of  St-Denis  (see  below).  The  memorials  of 
the  saint's  activity  in  Paris  have  thus  survived,  but 
even  the  date  of  his  apostolate  is  a  matter  of  contro- 
versy. The  legend  stating  St.  Denis  came  to  Gaul  in 
the  time  of  St.  Clement,  dates  only  from  the  end  of  the 
eighth  century.  It  is  found  in  the  "Passio  Dionisii", 
written  about  800,  and  in  the  "Gesta  Dagoberti", 
written  at  the  Abbey  of  St-Denis  at  the  beginning  of 
the  ninth  century.  Still  later  than  the  formation  of 
this  legend  Abbot  Hilduin  identified  St.  Denis  of  Paris 
with  Denis  the  Areopagite  (see  D_ioNysiDS_  the 
Pseudo-.\reopagite),  but  this  identification  is  no 
longer  admitted,  and  history  is  inclined  to  accept  the 
opinion  of  St.  Gregory  of  Tours,  who  declares  St. 
Denis  one  of  the  seven  bishops  sent  by  Pope  Fabian 
about  250.  It  is  certain  that  the  Christian  commu- 
nity of  Paris  was  of  some  importance  in  the  third  cen- 

XI.— 31 


tury.  Recent  discoveries  seem  to  prove  that  the  cata- 
combs of  the  Gobelins  and  of  St.  Marcellus  on  the  left 
bank  were  the  oldest  necropolis  of  Paris;  here  have 
been  found  nearly  500  tombs,  of  which  the  oldest  date 
from  the  end  of  the  third  century.  Doubtless  in  this 
quarter  was  situated  the  church  spoken  of  by  St. 
Gregory  of  Tours  as  the  oldest  in  the  city;  here  was 
the  sarcophagus  of  the  virgin  Crescentia,  granted  that 
our  hypothesis  agrees  with  a  legend  referring  to  this 
region  the  foundation  of  the  chapel  under  the  patron- 
age of  Pope  St.  Clement,  in  which  Bishop  St.  Marcel- 
lus was  buried  in  the  fifth  century.  This  bishop,  who 
was  a  native  of  Paris,  governed  the  Church  of  Paris 
about  430;  he  is  celebrated  in  popular  tradition  for  his 
victory  over  a  dragon,  and  his  life  was  written  by  For- 
tunatus. 

Merovingian  Paris. — Paris  was  preserved  from 
the  invasion  of  Attila  through  the  prayers  and  activ- 
ity of  St.  Genevieve  (q.  v.),  who  prevailed  on  the 
Parisians  not  to  abandon  their  city.  Clovis,  King  of 
the  Franks,  was  received  there  in  497  after  his  conver- 
sion to  Christianity, 
and  made  it  his  cap- 
ital. The  coming  of 
the  Franks  brought 
about  its  great  reli- 
gious development. 
At  the  summit  of  the 
hill  on  the  left  bank 
Clovis  founded,  in 
honour  of  the  Apos- 
tles Peter  and  Paul, 
a  basilica  to  which 
the  tomb  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve drew  numbers 
of  the  faithful,  and 
in  which  St.  Clotilde, 
who  died  at  Tours, 
was  buried.  On  the 
right  bank  were  built 
as  early  as  the  fifth 
century  two  churches 
consecrated  to  St. 
Martin  of  Tours — 
one  near  the  present 
Notre-Dame,  the 
ADELEi.NE,  P.«is  ^^ijgj.  further  in  the 

country,  in  the  place  where  the  Church  of  St-Martin- 
des-Champs  now  stands.  Childebert  (d.  558),  son  of 
Clovis,  having  become  King  of  Paris  in  511,  added  to 
the  religious  prestige  of  the  city.  After  his  campaign 
in  Spain,  he  made  peace  with  the  inhabitants  of  Sara- 
gossa  on  condition  that  they  would  deliver  to  him  the 
sacred  vessels  and  the  stole  of  St.  Vincent,  and  on  his 
return,  at  the  instance  of  St.  Germain  (q.  v.),  built  a 
church  in  honour  of  St.  Vincent,  which  later  took  the 
name  of  Germain  himself.  The  present  church  of  St- 
Germain-des-Pres  still  preserves  some  columns  from 
the  triforiuin,  which  must  date  from  the  first  building. 
After  the  death  of  Caribert,  son  of  Clotaire  I  (567), 
Paris  was  not  divided  among  the  other  sons  of  Clo- 
taire, but  formed  a  sort,  of  municijjal  republic  under 
the  direction  of  St.  Germain.  Owing  to  this  excep- 
tional situation  Paris  escaped  almost  entirely  the  con- 
sequences of  the  civil  wars  with  which  the  sons  of 
Clotaire,  and  later  Fredegunde  and  Brunhilde,  dis- 
turbed Merovingian  France.  Mgr  Duchesne  concedes 
a  certain  authority  to  an  ancient  catalogue  of  the 
bishops  of  Paris,  preserved  in  a  sacramentary  dating 
from  the  end  of  the  ninth  or  the  beginning  of  the  tenth 
century.  After  St.  Germain  other  bishops  of  the 
Merovingian  period  were:  St.  C6ran  (Ceraunus,  606- 
21),  who  collected  and  compiled  the  Acts  of  the  Mar- 
tyrs, and  during  whose  episcopate  a  council  of  seventy- 
nine  bishops  (the  first  national  council  of  France)  was 
held  at  the  basilica  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul;  St.  Landry 
(650-6),  who  founded  under  the  patronage  of  St. 


PARIS 


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PARIS 


Christopher  the  first  charity  hospital  {H6k!-Dieu)  of 
Paris,  and  who  caused  the  monl<  Maroulf  to  (•ompilc, 
under  the  name  of  "Kecueil  dc  FornuiUs",  tlie  firsi 
Freneh  and  Parisian  code,  whicli  is  a  re.'d  iiionunieut  of 
the  legislation  of  the  seventh  century;  St.  Afjilbert 
(606-80),  who  was  the  brother  of  St.  Tlicodecliilde, 
first  Abbess  of  Jouarre,  and  who  had,  durint;  his  youth 
in  England,  instructed  in  Christianity  the  King  of  the 
Saxons;  St.  Hugues  (722-30),  nephew  of  Charles  Mar- 
tel,  ijreviously  Archbishop  of  Rouen  and  Abbot  of 
Fontenelle. 

P.\Kis  UNDER  THE  Carlovingians. — The  Cai'loving- 
ian  period  opened  with  the  episcopate  of  Deodefroi 
(T.'jT-TS),  who  received  Pope  Stephen  at  Paris.  Spe- 
cial mention  must  be  made  of  ^neas  (appointed 
bishop  in  8.53  or  858;  d.  870),  who  wrote  against  Pho- 
tius,  under  the  title  "Libellus  adversus  Grajcos",  a 
collection  of  texts  from  the  Fathers  on  the  Holy 
Ghost,  fiisting,  and  the  Roman  primacy.  As  the  Car- 
lovingians most  frequently  resided  on  the  banks  of  the 
Meuse  or  the  Rhine,  the  bishops  of  Paris  greatly  in- 
cre;i,sed  their  political  influence,  though  confronted  by 
counts  who  represented  the  absent  sovereigns.  The 
bishops  were  masters  of  most  of  the  He  de  la  Cite  and 
of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  right  bank,  near  St- 
Germain-l'Auxerrois.  As  early  as  the  ninth  century 
the  jjropcrty  of  the  chapter  of  Notre-Dame,  estab- 
lished (775-95)  by  Bishop  Erchenrade,  was  distinct 
from  that  of  the  diocese,  while  the  cloister  and  the  resi- 
dences of  the  canons  were  quite  independent  of  the 
royal  power.  Notre-Dame  and  the  Abbey  of  St-Ger- 
niain-des-Pr6s  were  then  two  great  economic  powers 
which  sent  through  the  kingdom  their  agents  (missi 
negocianles),  charged  with  making  purchases.  When 
the  Normans  entered  Paris  in  845  or  846,  the  body 
of  St.  Germain  was  hurriedly  removed.  They  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  abbey,  but  left  on  payment  of 
7000  livres,  whereupon  the  saint's  body  was  brought 
(jack  with  great  pomp.  Another  Norman  invasion  in 
850  or  856  again  occasioned  the  removal  of  St.  Ger- 
main's body,  which  was  restored  in  863.  Other 
alarms  came  in  865  and  876,  but  the  worst  attack 
took  place  on  24  Nov.,  885,  when  Paris  was  defended 
by  its  bishop,  the  celebrated  Gozhn,  a  Benedictine  and 
former  Abbot  of  St-Germain-des-Pr(5s,  and  by  Count 
Eudes  of  Paris,  later  King  of  France.  The  siege 
lasted  a  year,  of  which  an  account  in  Latin  verse  was 
written  by  the  monk  Abbo  Cernuus.  Gozlin  died  in 
the  breach  on  16  April,  886.  His  nephew  Ebles,  Abbot 
of  St-Germain,  was  also  among  the  valiant  defend- 
ers of  the  city.  The  Parisians  called  upon  Emperor 
Charles  the  Fat  to  assist  them,  and  he  paid  the  Nor- 
mans a  ransom,  and  even  gave  them  permission  to  as- 
cend the  Seine  through  the  city  to  pillage  Burgundy; 
the  Parisians  refused  to  let  them  pass,  however,  and  the 
Normans  had  to  drag  their  boats  around  the  walls. 
After  the  deposition  of  Charles  the  Fat,  Eudes,  who 
had  defended  Paris  against  the  Normans,  became 
king,  and  repelled  another  Norman  attack,  assisted  by 
Gozlin's  successor.  Bishop  Anscheric  (886-91).  After 
the  death  of  Eudes  the  Parisians  recognized  his  brother 
Robert,  Count  of  Paris  and  Duke  of  France,  and  then 
Hugh  the  Great.  Hugh  Capet,  son  of  Hugh  the 
Great,  prevented  Paris  from  faUing  into  the  hands  of 
the  troops  of  Emperor  Otto  II  in  978;  in  987  he 
founded  the  Capctian  dynasty. 

Paris  unber  the  Capetians. — "To  form  a  concep- 
tion of  Paris  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries", 
writes  M.  Marcel  Poete,  "we  must  picture  to  our- 
selves a  network  of  churches  and  monasteries  sur- 
rounded by  cultivated  farm-lands  on  the  present  site 
of  Paris."  Take,  for  example,  the  monastery  of  St. 
Martin-fle.s-Champs,  which  in  1079  was  attached  to 
the  Order  of  Cluny;  about  this  monastery  and  its  hos- 
pice was  grouped  a  real  agricultural  colony,  while  all 
trades  were  practised  in  the  monastic  school.  The 
same  was  true  of  the  monastery  of  Sts.  Barthdlemy 


and  Magloire,  which  was  celebrated  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Capctian  period,  and  was  dependent  on  the 
Abbey  of  Maniuiuliers  (see  TouHs).  But  a  still  more 
famous  iiiouastic  establishment  was  the  Abbey  of  St- 
Germain-de.s-l'res.  Its  estates  of  Issy  and  of  Celle-St- 
Cloud  were  vast  possessions,  and  the  jiolyptych  (rec- 
ord of  the  monastic  possessions),  drawn  tip  at  the 
beginning  of  the  ninth  century  und<'r  the  direction  of 
Abbot  Irminon,  shows  how  (Ihsc  csImIcs,  which  ex- 
tended into  Indre  and  N<inu:iii(ly,  were  aiheinistered 
and  cultivated.  The  first  Capitiaiis  giiicially  resided 
at  Paris.  Louis  the  Fat  quarrelled  with  Hishop  lOticnne 
de  Senlis  (1 124-42).  The  bi.slii.p  placed  the  royal  do- 
main under  interdict,  whereupon  the  king  conliscatcd 
the  teniporulitiesof  the  diocese,  but  the  intervention  of 
the  pope  and  of  St.  Bernard  put  an  end  to  the  differ- 
ence, and  to  seal  the  reconciliation,  the  king  invited 
the  bishop  to  the  coronation  of  his  son,  Louis  VII. 
The  episcopal  court  of  Peter  Lombard  (1 157  or  1 159  to 
1160  or  1164)  contributed  to  the  scholarly  reputation 
of  the  Church  of  Paris.  The  University  of  Paris  did 
not  yet  exist,  but,  from  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth 
century,  the  monastic  schools  of  Notre-Dame  were  al- 
ready famous,  and  the  teaching  of  Peter  I-ombard, 
known  as  the  Master  of  the  Sentences,  added  to  their 
lustre.  Louis  VI  declared  in  a  diploma  that  he  had 
passed  "his  childhood  in  the  schools  of  Xotre-Danic  as 
in  the  maternal  bosom".  At  Xotre-Danie  \\illiam  of 
Champeaux  (q.  v.)  had  taught  dialectics,  been  a  pro- 
fessor, and  become  an  archdeacon,  and  had  Abelard  as 
a  disci|)Ie  before  he  founded  the  school  of  St-Victor  in 
1108.  Until  aliout  1127  the  students  of  Notre-Dame 
resided  within  thi'  chapter  enclosure.  By  a  command 
of  Alexander  III  the  principle  of  gratuitous  instruction 
was  asserted.  In  a  letter  written  between  1 154  and  1 182 
Philippe  de  Harvengt  says:  "There  is  at  Paris  such 
an  assemblage  and  abundance  of  clerics  that  they 
threatened  to  outnumber  the  laity.  Happy  city, 
where  the  Holy  Books  are  so  assiduously  studied  and 
their  mysteries  so  well  expounded,  where  such  dili- 
gence reigns  among  the  students,  and  where  there  is 
such  a  knowledge  of  Scripture  that  it  may  be  called 
the  city  of  letters!"  At  the  same  period  Peter  of 
Blois  says  that  all  who  wish  the  settlement  of 
any  question  should  apply  to  Paris,  where  the  most 
tangled  knots  are  untied.  In  his  letter  to  Archbishop 
William  of  Sens  (1169),  St.  Thomas  ti  Becket  de- 
clares himself  ready  to  submit  his  difference  with 
the  King  of  England  to  the  judgment  of  the  scholars 
at  Paris. 

The  long  episcopate  of  Maurice  de  Sully  (1160-96), 
the  son  of  a  simple  serf,  was  marked  by  the  consecra- 
tion of  the  Cathedral  of  Notre-Dame  (see  below)  and 
the  journey  to  Paris  of  Pope  Alexander  III  (1 163). 
Hughes  de  Monceaux,  Abbot  of  St-Germain,  requested 
the  pope  to  consecrate  the  monastery  church.  Mau- 
rice de  Sully,  Bishop  of  Paris,  having  accompanied 
the  pope  to  the  ceremony,  was  invited  by  the  abbot 
to  withdraw,  and  Alexander  III  declared  in  a  sermon, 
afterwards  confirmed  by  a  Bull,  thenceforth  the 
Church  of  St-Germain-des-Pr6s  was  dependent  only 
on  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  subsequently  conferred 
on  the  abbot  a  number  of  episcopal  prerogatives. 
In  time  the  Abbey  of  St-Germain  became  the  centre  of 
a  bourg,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  granted  munici- 
pal freedom  by  Abbot  Hughes  de  Alonceaux  about 
1170.  Eudes  de  Sully  (1197-1208),  the  successor  of 
Maurice,  courageously  oppo.sed  King  Philip  II,  when 
he  wished  to  repudiate  Ingeburge  and  wed  Agnes  de 
Mtfran.  Philip  II  was  a  benefactor  of  Paris,  and  the 
university  was  founded  during  his  reign  (1215).  (See 
Paris,  University  of.)  The  thirteenth  century,  and 
especially  the  reign  of  St.  Louis,  was  a  period  of  great 
industrial  and  commercial  prosperity  for  Paris,  as  is 
shown  by  the  "Livre  des  Mestiers"  of  Etienne  Boileau 
and  the"  invectives  of  Petrarch.  Bishop  Guillaunie 
d'Auvergne  (1227-49)  received  from  St.  Louis  the 


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483 


PARIS 


Crown  of  Thorns,  which  was  borne  in  procession 
to  Paris  on  18  August,  1239.  Under  St.  Louis  the 
Parliament  was  permanently  established  at  Paris 
and  the  Bishop  of  Paris  declared  a  conseiller-ne. 
Under  PhiUp  the  Fair  occurred  at  Paris  the  trial  of 
the  Templars  (q.  v.)  which  ended  (1314)  with  the 
execution  of  Jacques  de  Molai  (q.  v.). 

Paris  Under  the  Valois. — The  troubles  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  War  throw  into  rehef  the  character 
of  Pierre  de  la  Forest,  Bishop  of  Paris  (1350-2),  later 
Archbishop  of  Rouen  and  cardinal.  After  the  Battle 
of  Poitiers  (1356),  at  which  John  II  was  taken  pris- 
oner, the  dauphin  Charles  (afterwards  Charles  V) 
convoked  at  Paris  the  States  General  of  1356,  1357, 
and  1358.  At  these  assembUes  the  provost  of  mer- 
chants, Etienne  Marcel,  and  Robert  Le  Coq,  Bishop 
of  Laon,  were  the  leaders  of  a  violent  opposition  to  the 
royal  party.  The  result  of 
the  assassination  of  Etienne 
Marcel  was  the  dauphin's 
victory.  Having  become 
king  as  Charles  V,  the 
latter  made  himself  a  mag- 
nificent residence  at  the 
Hotel  St-Paul,  rebuilt  the 
Louvre,  and  began  the  con- 
struction of  the  Bastille. 
During  his  reign  the  cardi- 
nalitial  purple  was  first  given 
to  the  bishops  of  Paris. 
Etienne  de  Paris  (1363-8) 
and  Aimeri  de  M  a  i  g  n  a  c 
(1368-84)  received  it  in 
turn.  The  revolt  of  the 
Maillotins  (1381)  and  the 
wars  between  the  Burgun- 
dians  and  Armagnacs  dur- 
ing the  first  twenty  years  of 
the  fifteenth  century  filled 
Paris  with  blood.  After  the 
Treaty  of  Troyes  (1420) 
Paris  received  an  English 
garrison.  Because  of  his 
sympathy  with  Charles  VI, 
John  Courtecuisse,  a  theo- 
logian of  GalHcan  tendencies 
who  became  bishop  in  1420, 
was  compelled  to  go  into 
exile  at  Geneva,  where  he 
died  in  1423.  The  attack  of  Joan  of  Arc  on  Paris 
in  1430  was  unsuccessful.  The  Treaty  of  Arras 
between  Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and 
Charles  VII,  restored  Paris  under  the  dominion  of 
the  kings  of  France.  Louis  XI  (q.  v.),  successor 
of  Charles  VII,  was  much  beloved  by  the  citizens  of 
Paris.  The  poet  Jean  du  Bellay,  friend  of  Francis 
I  and  several  times  ambassador,  was  Bishop  of  Paris 
from  1532  to  1551,  and  was  made  cardinal  in  1535. 
With  him  the  Renaissance  was  established  in  the 
diocese,  and  it  was  at  his  persuasion  that  Francis  I 
founded  for  the  teaching  of  languages  and  philology 
the  College  Royal,  which  later  became  the  College  de 
France  (1529).  In  1533  du  Ballay  negotiated  be- 
tween Henry  VIII  and  Clement  VII  in  an  attempt  to 
prevent  England's  break  with  the  Holy  See,  and, 
when  in  1536  the  troops  of  Charles  V  threatened 
Picardy  and  Champagne,  he  received  from  Francis  I 
the  title  of  Lieutenant-General  of  the  Kingdom  and 
placed  Paris  in  a  state  of  defence.  Du  Bellay  was  a 
typical  prelate  of  the  Renaissance,  and  was  celebrated 
for  his  three  books  of  Latin  poetry  and  his  magnificent 
Latin  discourses.  For  a  time  he  had  for  liis  secretary, 
Rabelais,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  inspired  to  write 
"Pantagruel".  He  was  disgraced  under  Henry  II, 
resigned  his  bi.shopric  in  1551,  and  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  died.  The  consequences  of  the  rise  of 
Protestantism  and  of  the  wars  of  reUgion  in  regard  to 


Paris  are  treated  under  Saint  Bartholomew's  Day; 
League,  The;  France. 

Paris  Under  the  Bourbons. — With  Cardinal 
Pierre  de  Gondi  (d.  1598),  who  occupied  the  See  of 
Paris  from  1568,  began  the  Gondi  dynasty  which 
occupied  the  see  for  a  century.  As  ambassador  to 
Pius  V,  Gregory  XIII,  and  Sixtus  V,  Pierre  de  Gondi 
always  opposed  the  League  and  favoured  the  accession 
of  Henry  of  Navarre.  After  the  episcopate  of  his 
nephew  Cardinal  Henri  de  Gondi  (1598-1622),  Paris 
became  an  archiepiscopal  see,  and  was  given  to  Jean 
Frangois  de  Gondi.  As  early  as  1376  Charles  V  had 
sought  the  erection  of  Paris  to  archiepiscopal  rank, 
but,  out  of  regard  for  the  archbishops  of  Sens,  the 
Holy  See  had  then  refused  to  grant  the  petition. 
Louis  XIII  was  more  successful,  and  by  a  Bull  of 
October,  1622,  Paris  was  made  a  metropolitan  see 
with  Chartres,  lileaux,  and 
Orleans  as  sufifragans.  Jean 
Frangois  de  Gondi  did  much 
to  further  the  development 
of  religious  congregations 
(see  Berdlle,  Pierre  de; 
Oratory,  French  Congre- 
gation OF  the;  Olier, 
Jean-Jacques;  St-Sulpicb, 
Society  of;  Vincent  de 
Paul,  Saint),  and,  during 
the  civil  disturbances  of  the  * 
Fronde,  laboured  for  the  re- 
lief of  the  suffering  popu- 
lace, whose  tireless  bene- 
factor was  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul.  The  archbishop's 
coadjutor  was  his  nephew 
Jean  Frangois  Paul  de  Gon- 
di, Cardinal  de  Retz  (q.  v.), 
who  often  played  the  part  of 
a  political  conspirator.  In 
1662  the  See  of  Paris  was 
for  a  very  brief  period  oc- 
cupied by  the  Galilean  can- 
onist Pierre  de  Marca,  earUer 
Archbishop  of  Toulouse.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Hardouin 
de  Pf^refixe  de  Beaumont 
(1662-71),  during  whose 
episcopate  began  the  sharp 
conflicts  evoked  by  Jan- 
senism. He  had  been  tutor  to  Louis  XIV  and 
was  the  biographer  of  Henry  IV.  Harlay  de 
Champvallon  (1671-95)  is  the  subject  of  a  separate 
article.  Louis  Antoine  de  Noailles  (1695-1729), 
made  cardinal  in  1700,  played  an  important  part 
in  the  disputes  concerning  Quietism  and  Jansenism. 
After  an  attempt  to  reconcile  Bossuet  and  Fdnelon 
he  took  sides  against  the  latter,  successively  ap- 
proved and  condemned  Quesnel's  book,  and  did 
not  subscribe  to  the  Bull  "Unigenitus"  until  1728. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  the  See  of  Paris  was 
made  illustrious  by  Christophe  de  Beaumont  (1746- 
81),  earlier  Bishop  of  Bayonne  and  Archbishop  of 
Vicnne,  who  succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to  the  op- 
position lingering  among  some  of  the  clergy  to  the 
Bull  "Unigenitus".  The  parliamentarians  protested 
against  the  denial  of  the  sacraments  to  impenitent 
Jansenists,  and  Louis  XV,  after  having  at  first  for- 
bidden the  Parliament  to  concern  itself  with  this  ques- 
tion, turned  against  the  archbishop,  exiled  him,  and 
then  endeavoured  to  secure  his  resignation  by  offer- 
ing him  tempting  dignities.  But  it  was  especially 
against  the  philosophes  that  this  prelate  waged  war; 
pamphlets  were  written  against  him,  among  them  the 
"Lettre  de  Jean  Jacques^  Rousseau  k  monseigneur 
l'arch6veque  de  Paris".  Antoine  Le  Clero  de  Juign^ 
(d.  1811),  who  succeeded  Beaumont  in  1781,  was  presi- 
dent of  the  clergy  at  the  States  General  of  1789.     He 


AnGUSTiN,  Paris 


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484 


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went  into  exile  during  tlic   Revolution,   jiikI   at  the 
Concordat  resigned  his  see  at  the  pope's  request. 

Paris  Dirink  the  Revolution. — Within  the 
present  boundaries  of  the  arehiliocese  the  number  of 
priests  forming  the  aetive  clergy  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution  was  about  lOOO,  ot  whom  tiOO  were  in 
Parisian  parishes,  l.')(l  in  those  of  the  suburbs,  and  250 
were  chaplains.  There  were  921  religious,  belonging 
to  21  religious  families  divided  among  liS  convents. 
Immediately  after  the  adoption  of  the  Civil  Constitu- 
tion of  the  clergy  8  new  parishes  were  created  in 
Paris  and  27  were  suppressed.  Out  of  50  Parisian 
pastors  26  refused  to  take  the  oath;  out  of  69  first  or 
second  curates  .36  refused;  of  the  399  other  priests  hav- 
ing spiritual  powers,  216  refused.  On  the  other  hand 
among  the  priests  who,  not  exercising  parochial  duties, 
were  not  called  upon  to  swear,  196  declared  that  they 
would  take  the  oath  and  14  refused.  On  13  IMarch, 
1791,  Gobel  (b.  1727),  Bishop  of  Lydda,  Coadjutor 
Bishop  of  Basle,  and  a  member  of  the  Constitutional 
Assembly,  was  elected  bishop  by  500  votes.  Lom(5nie 
de  Brienne,  Archbishop  of  Sens,  and  Jarente,  Bishop 
of  Orleans,  though  both  had  accepted  the  civil  con- 
stitution of  the  clergy,  refused  to  give  Gobel  canoni- 
cal institution,  and  he  received  it  from  the  famous 
Talleyrand,  Bishop  of  Autun.  Gobel  surrounded 
himself  with  married  clerics,  such  as  Louis  de  Saint 
Martin,  Colombart,  and  Aubert,  and  through  the 
Marquis  of  Spinola,  Minister  of  the  Republic  of 
Genoa,  endeavoured  to  obtain  from  the  Holy  See  a 
sum  of  money  in  exchange  for  his  submission.  At 
the  beginning  of  1793  he  was  at  the  head  of  about  600 
"sworn"  priests,  about  500  of  whom  were  employed 
in  parishes.  On  7  November,  1793,  he  solemnly 
declared  before  the  Convention  that  his  subordinates 
and  he  renounced  the  duties  of  ministers  of  Catho- 
lic worship,  whereupon  the  Convention  congratulated 
him  on  having  "sacrificed  the  grotesque  baubles  of 
superstition".  On  the  same  day  Notre-Dame  was 
dedicated  to  the  worship  of  Reason,  Citizeness  Au- 
brj',  a  comedienne,  impersonating  that  goddess  and 
Gobel  presiding  at  the  ceremony.  Finally,  the  Com- 
mune of  Paris  decided  that  all  churches  should  be 
closed,  and  that  whosoever  requested  that  they  be 
reopened  should  be  regarded  as  a  suspect.  In  March, 
1794,  Gobel  was  condemned  to  death  as  an  atheist 
by  the  followers  of  Robespierre,  and  was  executed 
after  lengthy  spiritual  interviews  with  the  Sulpician 
Emery  and  after  he  had  addressed  to  Abbe  Lothringer 
a  letter  in  which  he  declared  his  repentance.  In  the 
absence  of  Juign^,  the  legitimate  bishop,  the  Catholic 
faithful  continued  to  obey  a  council  formed  of  the 
Abb(^'s  de  Malaret,  Emery,  and  Espinasse,  under  the 
leadership  of  the  former  vicar-general,  Charles  Henri 
du  Valk  de  Dampierre,  who  was  in  hiding.  Public 
worship  was  restored  by  the  Law  of  Ventose,  Year 
III,  and  by  the  law  of  2  Prairial,  Year  III  (.30  March, 
1795),  fifteen  churches  were  reopened.  As  early  as 
1796  about  fifty  places  of  worship  had  been  reopened 
in  Paris;  sixteen  or  seventeen,  of  wliich  eleven  were 
parochial  churches,  were  administered  by  priests 
who  had  accepted  the  Constitution.  More  than  thirty 
others,  of  which  three  were  parochial  churches,  were 
administered  by  priests  who  were  in  secret  obedience 
to  the  legitimate  archbishop,  and  the  number  of  Con- 
stitutional priests  had  fallen  from  600  to  150. 

Paris  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. — The  Arch- 
diocese of  Paris  became  more  and  more  important 
in  France  during  the  nineteenth  century.  Jean 
Baptiste  de  Belloy,  former  Bishop  of  Marseilles,  who 
was  appointed  archbishop  in  1802,  was  then  ninety- 
three  yeai-s  old.  On  18  April,  1802,  he  presided  at 
Notre-Dame  over  the  ceremony  at  which  the  Con- 
cordat was  solemnly  published.  Despite  his  great  age 
he  reorganized  worship  in  Paris,  and  re-established 
religious  life  in  its  forty-two  parishes.  In  a  concilia- 
tory spirit  he  appointed  to  about  twelve  of  these 


parishes  priests  who  had  taken  the  oaUi  during  the 
Revolution.  He  became  cardinal  in  isoii  mid  died 
in  180S.  The  conflict  between  Napoli'on  and  Pius 
VII  was  then  at  its  height.  Napoleon  attempted  to 
make  Fesch  accept  the  See  of  Paris,  while  the  latter 
wished  to  retain  that  of  Lyons.  Cardinal  Maury 
(174t)-1817),  formerly  a  royalist  deputy  to  the  Consti- 
tutional Assembly,  also  ambassador  to  the  Holy  See 
from  the  Count  of  Provence,  but  who  went  over  to  the 
Empire  in  1806  and  in  1810  became  chaplain  to  King 
Jerome,  was  named  Archbishop  of  Paris  by  Napoleon 
on  14  Oct.,  1810.  The  chapter  at  once  conferred  on 
him  the  powers  of  vicar-capitular,  until  he  should  be 
preconized  by  the  pope,  but,  when  it  became  known 
that  Pius  VII,  by  a  Brief  of  5  November,  1810,  re- 
fused to  recognize  the  nomination,  Maury  was  actively 
opposetl  by  a  section  of  the  chapter  and  the  clergy. 
The  emperor  took  his  revenge  by  striking  at  the  vicar- 
capitular,  Astros  (q.  v.).  At  the  fall  of  Napoleon, 
despite  his  zeal  in  persuading  it  to  adhere  to  the  de- 
position of  the  emperor,  Maury  was  deprived  of  his 
faculties  by  the  chapter.  In  agreement  with  Rome, 
Louis  XVIII  named  as  Archbishop  of  Paris  (1  Aug., 
1817)  .Alexandre  Ang^lique  de  Talleyrand-P^rigord 
(1736-1821),  who,  despite  the  Concordat,  chose  to  re- 
tain his  title  of  Archbishop  of  Reims  until  1816  and 
who  was  created  cardinal  on  28  July,  1817.  Talley- 
rand-Perigord  did  not  take  possession  of  his  see  until 
Oct.,  1819.  He  divided  the  diocese  into  three  arch- 
deaneries,  which  division  is  still  in  force. 

On  the  death  of  Talleyrand-Pdrigord  in  1821,  his 
coadjutor  Hyacinthe  Louis  de  Quijlen  (1778-1840), 
court  chaplain,  succeeded  him.  A  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Peers  under  the  Restoration,  Qu^len, 
as  president  of  the  commission  for  the  investigation  of 
the  school  situation,  vainly  endeavoured  to  prevent 
the  promulgation  of  the  Martignac  ordinances  against 
the  Jesuits  in  June,  1828.  His  friendly  relations  with 
Louis  XVIII  and  Charles  X  drew  upon  him  in  1830  the 
hostility  of  the  populace;  his  palace  was  twice  sacked, 
and  the  Monarchy  of  July  regarded  him  with  sus- 
picion, but  the  devotion  he  showed  during  a  terrible 
cholera  epidemic  won  many  hearts  to  him.  Assisted 
by  Dupanloup  he  converted  the  famous  Talleyrand, 
nephew  of  his  predecessor,  on  his  death-bed  in  1838. 
Qu<51en  died  8  Jan.,  1840,  and  was  succeeded  by  Denis- 
Auguste  Affre,  (q.  v.,  1793-1848),  who  was  slain  at 
the  barricades  in  1848.  Marie-Dominique-Auguste 
Sibour  (1792-1862),  formerly  Bishop  of  Digne,  suc- 
ceeded Affre;  among  the  prelates  consulted  by  Pius 
IX  with  regard  to  the  opportuneness  of  defining  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  he  was  one  of  the  few  who 
opposed  it.  He  was  killed  in  the  church  of  St- 
Etienne-du-Mont  on  3  Jan.,  1857,  by  a  suspended 
priest.  After  the  short  episcopate  of  Cardinal  Morlot 
(1857-62)  the  see  was  occupied  from  1862  to  1872 
by  Georges  Darboy  (q.  v.),  who  was  slain  during  the 
Commune.  Joseph-Hippolyte  Guibert  (1802-86), 
previously  Bishop  of  Viviers  and  Archbishop  of  Tours, 
became  Archbishop  of  Paris  on  27  Oct.,  1871.  His 
episcopate  was  made  notable  by  the  erection  of  the 
basilica  of  Montmartre  (see  below),  and  the  creation 
of  the  Catholic  LIniversity,  at  the  head  of  which  he 
placed  Mgr  d'Hulst.  His  successor  was  FranQois- 
Marie-Benjamin  Richard  (1819-1907),  former  Bishop 
of  Belley,  who  had  been  coadjutor  of  Paris  since  July, 
1875,  became  cardinal  24  May,  1889,  and  was  active 
in  the  defence  of  the  religious  congregations.  Mgr 
'LO.on  Amette  (b.  at  Douvillc,  in  the  Dioee.se of  Evreux, 
1850),  coadjutor  to  Cardinal  Richard  since  February, 
190(),  succeeded  him  in  the  See  of  Paris,  on  28  Jan., 
1908. 

Notre-Dame-db-Pari8. — On  the  site  now  occupied 
by  the  courtyards  of  Notre-Dame  de  Paris  there  was 
as  early  as  the  sixth  century  a  church  of  Notre-Dame, 
which  had  as  patrons  the  Blessed  Virgin,  St.  Stephen, 
and  St.  Germain.     It  was  built  by  Childebert  about 


PARIS 


485 


PARIS 


528,  and  on  the  site  of  the  present  sacristy  there  was 
also  a  church  dedicated  to  St.  Stephen.  The  Norman 
invasions  destroyed  Notre-Dame,  but  St-Etienne  re- 
mained standing,  and  for  a  time  served  as  the  cathe- 
dral. At  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  Notre-Dame 
was  rebuilt,  and  the  two  churches  continued  to  exist 
side  by  side  until  the  eleventh  century  when  St-Etienne 
fell  to  ruin.  Maurice  de  Sully  resolved  to  erect  a 
magnificent  cathedral  on  the  ruins  of  St-Etienne  and 
the  site  of  Notre-Dame.  Surrounded  by  twelve  cardi- 
nals, Alexander  III,  who  sojourned  at  Paris  from  24 
March  to  25  April,  1163,  laid  the  corner-stone.  Henri 
deChdteau-Marqay,  papal  legate,  consecrated  the  high 
altar  in  1182;  Hierarchus,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  offi- 
ciated in  1185  in  the  completed  choir;  the  fa5ade  was 
finished  in  1218,  the  towers  in  1235.  Jean  and  Pierre 
de  Chelles  completed  the  work,  and,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  cathedral  was  as  it  is 
now.  The  following  are  among  the  noteworthy  events 
which  took  place  at  Notre-Dame:  the  depositing  by 
St.  Louis  (10  Aug.,  1239)  of  the  Crown  of  Thorns,  a 
portion  of  the  True  Cross,  and  a  nail  of  the  Passion; 
the  obsequies  of  St.  Louis  (21  May,  1271);  the  assem- 
bling of  the  fir.st  States-General  (10  April,  1302);  the 
coronation  of  Henry  VI  of  England  as  King  of  France 
(17  Nov.,  1431);  the  coronation  of  Mary  Stuart  (4 
April,  1560);  the  funeral  oration  of  the  Due  de  Mer- 
ccEUr  by  St.  Francis  de  Sales  (27  April,  1602);  the  vow 
of  Louis  XIII,  making  the  Assumption  a  feast  of  the 
kingdom  (10  Feb.,  1638);  the  abjuration  of  the  Mar^- 
chal  de  Turenne  (23  Oct.,  1668) ;  the  funeral  oration  of 
the  Prince  de  Conde  by  Bossuet  (10  March,  1687). 

During  the  French  Revolution,  in  the  period  fol- 
lowing 1790,  the  treasury  was  despoiled  of  many  of 
its  precious  objects,  which  were  sent  to  the  mint  to 
be  melted  down.  The  Crown  of  Thorns  was  taken 
to  the  cabinet  of  antiquities  of  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale  and  thus  escaped  destruction.  The  stat- 
ues of  the  kings,  which  adorned  the  porch,  were 
destroyed  in  October,  1793,  by  order  of  the  Paris 
Commune.  The  feast  of  Reason  was  celebrated  in 
Notre-Dame  in  November,  1793;  in  December  of  the 
same  year  Saint-Simon,  the  future  founder  of  the 
Saint-Simonian  religion,  was  about  to  purchase  the 
church  and  destroy  it.  From  1798  it  contained  the 
offices  of  the  Constitutional  clergy,  and  from  5  March 
to  28  May,  1798,  it  was  also  the  meeting-place  of  the 
Theophilanthropists.  Catholic  worship  was  resumed 
on  18  April,  1802,  and  the  coronation  of  Napoleon 
took  place  there  on  2  December,  1804.  By  the  pref- 
ace of  his  novel  "Notre  Dame  de  Paris"  (1832)  Victor 
Hugo  aroused  a  strong  public  sentiment  in  favour  of 
the  cathedral.  In  April,  1844,  the  Government  en- 
trusted Lassus  and  Viollet  le  Due  with  a  complete 
restoration,  which  was  completed  in  1864.  On  31 
May,  1864,  Archbishop  Darboy  dedicated  the  re- 
stored cathedral.  The  marriage  of  Napoleon  III 
(30  January,  1853),  the  funeral  services  of  President 
Carnot  (1  July,  1894),  the  obsequies  of  President 
F61ix  Faure  (23  Feb.,  1899),  took  place  at  Notre- 
Dame.  Notre-Dame  has  been  a  minor  basilica  since 
27  Feb.,  1805.  As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  at  least  two  churches  were  copied 
entirely  from  the  cathedral  of  Paris,  viz.  the  collegiate 
church  of  Mantes  (Seine-et-Oise)  and  the  cathedral 
of  Nicosia  in  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  the  bishop  of  which 
was  a  brother  of  the  cantor  of  Notre-Dame.  The 
lie  de  la  Cite,  where  Notre-Dame  stands,  also  con- 
tains the  Sainte-Chapelle,  in  the  Palais  de  la  Justice, 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  religious  buildings  in  Paris. 
It  was  built  (1212-47)  under  St.  Louis  by  Pierre  de 
Montereau,  with  the  exception  of  the  spire.  Its 
stained-glass  windows  are  admirable.  In  former 
times  the  king,  from  an  ogival  baldachin,  displayed 
to  the  people  the  relics  of  the  Passion. 

Principal  Churches  on  the  Right  Bank  of  the 
Seine. — The  Church  of  St-Germain-rAuxerrois  waa 


built  between  the  thirteenth  and  the  sixteenth  century 
on  the  site  of  a  baptistery  built  by  St.  Germain,  where 
baptism  was  administered  on  fixed  dates.  At  other 
times  the  piscina  was  dry,  and  the  catechumens  came 
and  seated  themselves  on  the  steps  while  catechetical 
classes  were  held.  Three  tragic  recollections  are  con- 
nected with  this  church.  On  24  August,  1572,  its 
bells  gave  the  signal  for  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew; in  1617,  the  body  of  Concini,  Marcchal  d'Ancre, 
which  had  been  buried  there,  was  disinterred  by  the 
mob  and  mutilated ;  on  14  Feb.,  1831,  the  people  sacked 
the  church  under  the  pretext  that  an  anniversary 
Mass  was  being  celebrated  for  the  soul  of  the  Due  de 
Berry.  The  Church  of  St-Eustache,  built  between 
1532  and  1637,  was  the  scene  of  the  First  Communion 
of  Louis  XIV  (1649),  the  funeral  oration  of  Turenne 
preached  by  Fl^chier  (1676),  and  Massillon's  sermon 


on  the  small  number  of  the  elect  (1704).  Massillon 
preached  the  Lenten  sermons  in  the  church  of  St-Leu 
(fourteenth  century),  and  the  conspirator  Georges 
Cadoudal  hid  in  its  crypt  from  the  police  of  Bonaparte. 
In  the  Church  of  St-Gervais  (early  sixteenth-century), 
where  the  League  was  established,  Bossuet  preached 
the  funeral  sermon  of  Chancellor  Michel  Le  Tellier. 
Its  doorway,  of  which  Louis  XIII  laid  the  finst  stone 
in  1616,  is  a  very  beautiful  work  of  Salomon  de  Brosse. 
Blessed  Marie  de  ITncarnation  was  baptized  at  Saint- 
Merry  (1520-1612).  In  Saint- Louis-en-1' He  (rebuilt 
1664-1726)  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  presided  over  the 
meetings  at  which  the  charity  bureaux  were  organized. 
Charles  VI,  Charles  VII,  and  Olier  were  baptized 
in  the  Church  of  St-Paul,  destroyed  during  the  Revo- 
lution. The  Church  of  St-Louis  (seventeenth-cen- 
tury), former  chapel  of  the  Jesuit  professed  house, 
where  Bourdaloue  preached  the  funeral  sermon  of 
Cond6  and  when'  he  was  buried,  was  chosen  at  the 
Concordat  to  replace  the  parish  of  St-Paul,  and  took 
the  name  of  St-Paul-St-Louis.  The  Madeleine  (begun 
1764  and  finished  1824),  of  which  Napoleon  I  wished 
to  make  a  Temple  of  Gloiy,  had  within  less  than  a 
century  two  pastors,  who  were  martyred,  Le  Ber, 
butchered  in  1792,  and  Deguerry,  shot  "in  1871.  The 
Church  of  St-Lawrence  (fifteenth-century)  was  often 
visited  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  who  hved  in  the  con- 


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486 


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vent  of  St-Lazare  within  the  confines  of  the  parish. 
Here  was  buried  Veneraljle  Madame  Le  (iras,  foun- 
dress of  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  During  the  Revohi- 
tion  it  was  given  to  the  Theophilant liropists  who  made 
of  it  the  "Temple  of  Hymen  and  Fidchty".  With 
regard  to  Notre-Dame-des-Victoires  see  below  under 
Famous  Pilgrimages.  St-Denys-de-la-Chapelle 
(thirteenth-century)  stands  where  St.  Genevieve  and 
her  companions  rested,  when  they  were  making  a 
pilgrimage  from  Paris  to  the  tomb  of  St.  Denis.  Bl. 
Joan  of  Arc,  who  had  come  to  besiege  Paris,  stopped 
here  to  pray. 

Principal  Chdrches  on  the  Left  Bank. — St- 
Nicholas-du-Chardonnet  (1656-1758)  is  famous  for 
the  seminary  which  Bourdoise  founded  in  the  vicinity, 
for  the  Forty  Hours  preached  there  by  St.  Francis  de 
Sales,  and  for  the  funeral  oration  of  Lamoignon 
preached  there  by  Fl^chier.  St-Sulpice  (1(346-1745) 
is  famous  for  its  pastor  Olier  (q.  v.);  in  1793  it  was  a 
temple  of  Victory,  under  the  Directory  it  was  used 
by  the  Theophilanthropists,  and  there  Pius  VII  con- 
secrated che  bishops  of  La  Rochelle  and  Poitiers.  To 
the  architectural  importance  of  St-Germain-des-Prcs 
was  added  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  attrac- 
tion of  Flandrin's  frescoes.  St-M(Sdard  (fifteenth- 
sixteenth-century)  became  celebrated  in  the  eight- 
eenth century  owing  to  the  sensation  caused  by  the 
Jansenists  with  regard  to  the  wonders  wrought  at 
the  tomb  of  the  deacon  Paris.  St-SiH'erin  (four- 
teenth-fifteenth-centurj'),  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
Gothic  edifices  of  Paris,  replaced  an  older  church  in 
which  Foulques  de  Neuilly  preached  the  fourth  cru- 
sade in  1199;  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Bossuet,  Mas.sillon, 
Fl^chier,  Lacordaire,  and  Ravignan  preached  in  this 
church.  Originally  dedicated  to  St.  Severinus,  a 
Parisian  hermit,  who  was  buried  there  in  555,  it  was 
dedicated  to  St.  Severinus  of  Agaune  from  the  fifteenth 
to  the  eighteenth  century,  and  since  1753  has  had 
both  these  saints  as  patrons.  Ste-Clotilde  (1846-61) 
was  made  a  minor  basilica  on  19  April,  1897,  at  the 
time  of  the  fourteenth  centenary  of  Clovis.  St- 
Lambert-de-Vaugirard  had  as  pastor  Olier,  who 
founded  the  Society  of  St-Sulpice,  and  St.  John 
Baptist  de  la  Salle  opened  his  first  school  in  this 
parish;  its  name  of  Vaugirard  {V'allis  Gerardi)  recalls 
the  charitable  Abbot  of  St-Germain-des-Pr6s,  Gerard 
de  Moret,  who  built  dwellings  for  sick  religious  in  the 
locality.  The  church  of  the  Sorbonne,  where  religious 
services  are  no  longer  held,  was  begun  in  1635, 
Richelieu  laj-ing  its  foundation  stone,  and  completed 
in  1646.  Richelieu's  tomb  in  this  church  was  vio- 
lated during  the  Revolution;  the  cardinal's  head, 
which  was  taken  away  on  this  occasion,  was  restored 
to  this  church  in  1866.  The  chapel  of  Val-de-Grdce, 
a  very  beautiful  specimen  of  the  Jesuit  style  and 
famous  for  its  cupola  wherein  Mignard  has  depicted 
the  glory  of  the  blessed,  was  built  in  fulfillment  of  a 
vow  made  by  Anne  of  Austria.  Mansart  w;is  its  first 
architect,  and  the  comer-stone  was  laid  in  1645  by 
Louis  XIV  at  the  age  of  seven.  Here  was  buried 
Henrietta  of  France,  wife  of  Charles  I  of  F^ngland, 
and  here  Bossuet  preached  the  Lenten  sermons  of 
1663.  It  is  now  the  chapel  of  the  Paris  military  hos- 
pital. The  chapel  of  St-Loui.s-des-Invalides  contains 
the  tomb  of  Napoleon  I.  In  the  ciypt  of  the  Church 
of  St-Joseph-de.s-Carmes,  built  by  the  Carmelites 
between  1(513  and  1625  and  now  the  church  of  the 
Institut  Catholique,  are  the  tomb  of  Ozanam  and  the 
remains  of  the  120  priests  massacred  in  this  church  on 
2  Sept.,  1792,  after  fifteen  days  of  captivity.  In  this 
crypt  Lacordaire  remained  attaclied  to  a  cross  for 
three  hours. 

Principal  Abbeys. — The  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St- 
Gennain-des-Prfe,  the  foundation  and  medieval  splen- 
dour of  which  have  been  described  above,  was  long 
famous  for  the  fair  which  it  held.  During  the  seven- 
teenth century  its  important  library  made  it  a  centre 


of  learning,  and  Luc  d'  Ach6rj',  Mabillon,  and  Mont- 
faucon  rendered  it  illustrious.  Abb6  Prfivost,  author 
of  the  famous  romance  "Manon  Leseaut",  was  for  a 
time  a  Benedictine  at  St-Germain-des-Pr6s,  where  he 
worked  on  "Gallia  Christiana".  John  Ca.simir,  first  a 
Jesuit  and  later  King  of  Poland,  died  as  Abbot  of  St- 
Germain-des-Prds  in  1672.  The  abbey  prison  was  the 
scene  of  the  September  massacres  in  1792. 

The  origin  of  the  Abbey  of  St-Victor  was  a  hermit- 
age, to  which  William  of  Champeaux  (q.  v.)  retired  in 
1108.  The  abbey  was  founded  by  a  royal  charter  in 
1113,  and  had  as  first  abbot  Gilduin,  confessor  of 
Louis  the  Fat.  The  abbey  gov(>rned  the  priories  of 
Corbeil,  Ch&teau-Laudon,  I'^taniiH's,  Mantes,  Poissy, 
Dreux,  and  even  the  catlicilral  nf  Srcz.  During  the 
first  century  it  was  rendered  illustrious  by  Richard  of 
St-Victor,  Hugh  of  St-Victor,  and  the  liturgical  poet, 
Adam  of  St-Victor.  Grave  abuses  having  crept  into 
the  Congregation  of  the  Canons  of  St.  Genevieve, 
Pope  Eugenius  III  and  Suger  in  114S  introduced  the 
Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine  from  the  Abbey  of 
St-Victor.  From  the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury the  abbey  passed  through  a  period  of  decadence, 
and  in  1498  two  strange  monks,  John  Standonck,  rec- 
tor of  the  College  of  Montaigu,  and  John  Monbaer  of 
Windesheim  near  Zwolle,  spent  nine  months  at  the 
abbey  to  effect  its  reform.  With  the  sixteenth  century 
began  a  series  of  commendatory  abbots,  one  of  whom, 
Antonio  Caracciolo,  became  a  Protestant.  The  canons 
of  St-Victor  took  a  very  important  part  in  the  League. 
The  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  was  charac- 
terized by  a  conflict  between  Jean  de  Toulouse,  prior 
of  St-Victor,  and  the  Gcnovefains;  a  decision  of  the 
official  (28  June,  1645)  declared  St-Victor  autonomous. 
Jansenism  found  its  way  into  St-Victor,  and  was  oom- 
batted  by  Simon  Gourdan,  who  was  persecuted.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  its  library  was  celebrated,  and  was 
open  to  the  pubhc  three  times  a  week.  The  librarian 
Mulot,  who  was  also  grand  prior,  published  a  transla- 
tion of  "Daphnis  and  Chloe".  The  abbey's  end  was 
sad.  When  the  Revolutionary  commissaries  ques- 
tioned the  twenty-one  religious  present,  only  one, 
aged  81,  affirmed  his  desire  to  remain;  nine  did  not  re- 
ply, eleven  left  the  monastery,  and  the  librarian  Mu- 
lot became  a  deputy  of  the  Legislative  Assembly.  The 
abbey  was  destroyed  in  November,  1798. 

The  early  history  of  the  Abbey  of  Saint-Denis,  near 
Paris,  is  very  obscure.  In  the  second  half  of  the  fifth 
century  the  clergy  of  Paris  erected  at  the  instance  of 
St.  Genevieve  in  the  village  of  Catulliacus  where  the 
saint  was  buried,  a  basilica,  administered  by  a  com- 
munity of  monks.  Pilgrims  flocked  thither,  and,  as 
early  as  625,  a  charter  of  Clotaire  II  authorized  the 
abbot  to  receive  a  legacy.  Nevertheless,  tradition  re- 
gards Dagobert  I  (628-38)  as  the  real  founder.  Ac- 
cording to  Mabillon,  Felibien,  and  M.  Leon  Levillain, 
he  merely  decorated  and  einhi'llishcd  t  lie  already  exist- 
ing basihca;  according  to  Julian  Ha  vet,  t  his  early  basil- 
ica stood  at  the  place  called  Saint-Denis-de-l'  Entrde, 
west  of  the  present  church,  and  between  623  and  625 
Dagobert  founded  the  new  abbey  church,  to  which  the 
reUcs  were  removed  in  626.  Whatever  the  solution 
of  this  problem,  with  which  scholars  have  occupied 
themselves  since  the  seventeenth  century,  Dagobert 
was  the  abbey's  signal  benefactor:  the  altar  orna- 
ments, the  tomb  containing  the  body  of  St.  Denis, 
the  golden  cross  set  with  precious  stones  which  stood 
beliind  the  high  altar  were  the  work  of  the  gold- 
smith, St.  Eligius  (Kloi),  the  king's  friend.  Dagobert 
himself  desired  to  be  buried  at  Saint-Denis.  At  the 
instance  of  Abbot  Fulrad  (d.  7,S4)  Pepin  the  Short  had 
the  abbey  rebuilt,  and  here  on  28  July,  754,  Pope 
Ste])hen  II  solemnly  administered  the  royal  anoint- 
ment to  Pepin,  Queen  Bertha,  and  their  two  sons,  and 
consecrated  an  altar.  The  new  edifice  was  dedicated 
on  24  Feb.,  775,  in  the  presence  of  Charlemagne.  Hil- 
duin,  who  became  abbot  in  814,  wrote  the  life  of  St. 


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487 


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Denis,  and  identifies  him  with  St.  Denis  the  Areopa- 
gite.  During  the  ninth  century  the  Normans  several 
times  levied  tribute  on  and  pillaged  the  monastery. 
During  the  siege  of  Paris  in  886,  the  monks  sought 
refuge  with  Arclibishop  Foulques  of  Reims,  taking 
with  them  the  body  of  St.  Denis.  After  these  disas- 
ters the  abbey  was  restored  and  perhaps,  as  some 
scholars  maintain,  entirely  rebuilt.  St.  Gerard,  of  a 
noble  family  of  the  Low  Countries,  was  a  monk  at  St- 
Denis  jireviously  to  founding  the  Abbey  of  Broglie  in 
1030.  In  1100  Paschal  II  visited  the  abbey,  and  for  a 
time  Abelard  was  a  monk  there.  Suger,  minister  of 
Louis  VI  and  Louis  VII,  who  became  Abbot  of  St- 
Denis  in  1122,  wished  to  erectasumptuous  new  church; 
his  architectural  work  is  known  to  us  tlirough  two  of 
his  writings,  the  "Book  of  his  Administration"  and 
the  "  Treatise  on  the  Consecration  of  the  Church  of  vSt. 
Denis".  St-Denis  then  attracted  numerous  pilgrims, 
whom  Suger  describes  as  crowding  to  the  doors, 
"squeezed  as  in  a  press".  By  a  charter  of  15  March, 
1125,  Suger  released  from  mortmain  the  people  of  St- 
Denis,  who  in  gratitude  gave  him  the  money  for  the 
reconstruction  of  the  church.  The  work  began  doubt- 
less about  1132;  the  choir  was  consecrated  on  11  June, 
1144,  in  the  presence  of  Louis  VII,  five  archbishops, 
and  fourteen  bishops,  and  the  translation  of  the  relics 
took  place  the  same  day.  The  alliance  of  the  Cape- 
tians  with  the  monastery  of  St.  Denis  was  thenceforth 
sealed.  Odo  of  Deuil,  Suger's  successor  as  abbot,  was 
chaplain  to  Louis  VII  during  the  second  crusade,  of 
which  he  wrote  a  chronicle.  The  Abbey  of  St-Denis 
was  the  repository  of  the  royal  insignia — the  crown, 
sceptre,  main  de  justice,  and  the  garments  and  orna- 
ments used  at  the  coronation  of  the  kings.  For  each 
coronation  the  abbot  brought  them  to  Reims.  The 
oriflamme  (q.  v.)  was  also  kept  there,  and  thither  re- 
paired Bl.  Joan  of  Arc  after  the  coronation  of  Charles 
VII  at  Reims. 

The  new  Church  of  St-Denis  has  an  extreme  impor- 
tance for  the  history  of  medieval  architecture.  It  was 
the  earliest  important  building  in  which  the  pointed 
arch  {croisce  d'ogive)  was  used  in  the  chapels  of  the 
deambulatory,  thus  inaugurating  this  wonderful  in- 
vention of  the  Gothic  style.  The  church  exercised 
also  a  great  influence  on  the  development  of  the  indus- 
trial arts:  the  products  of  the  goldsmith's  and  enamel- 
ler's  art  ordered  by  Suger  formed  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  treasures  of  Christianity,  some  remnants  of 
which  are  still  preserved  in  the  Gallery  of  Apollo 
at  the  Louvre.  As  regards  monumental  sculpture 
M.  Andr6  Michel,  the  art  historian,  writes  that 
"the  grand  chantry  of  St-Denis  was  the  decisive 
studio  in  the  elaboration  and,  if  we  may  so 
speak,  the  proclamation  of  the  new  style."  In  1231 
the  religious  of  St-Denis  resolved  to  reconstruct  the 
basilica,  and  the  chronicler  Guillaume  de  Nangis,  a 
monk  at  the  abbey,  says  that  St.  Louis,  a  friend  of 
their  abbot  Mathieu  de  Vendome,  advised  them  to  do 
so.  It  may  be  that  portions  of  the  edifice  built  by 
Suger  had  fallen  to  ruin,  or  perhaps  St.  Louis's  plan  to 
erect  tombs  to  his  predecessors  was  the  origin  of  the 
plan.  Of  Suger's  building  the  western  facade,  the 
deambulatory,  the  chapels  of  the  apse,  and  the  crypt 
were  retained,  the  remainder  being  rebuilt.  The  work 
was  directed  by  the  architect  Pierre  de  Montereau, 
thanks  to  whose  genius  the  nave  and  transept  form  a 
glorious  example  of  the  splendid  Gothic  art  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  St-Denis  was  the  historical  labora- 
tory of  the  old  French  monarchy:  the  abbot  selected  a 
religious  who  followed  the  court  as  historiographer  to 
the  king,  and,  on  the  death  of  each  king,  the  history  of 
his  reign,  after  having  been  submitted  to  the  chapter, 
was  incorporated  in  the  "Grandes  Chroniques".  Es- 
pecially important,  as  historical  sources,  are  the  works 
of  the  monk  Rigord  on  Philip  Augustus  and  that  of 
Guillaume  de  Nangis  on  St.  Louis.  On  the  invention 
of  printing  the  "Grandes  Chroniques"  were  put  in 


order  by  Jean  Chartier,  who  completed  them  with  the 
history  of  Charles  VII  and  published  them  in  1476, 
this  being  the  earliest  book  known  to  have  been 
printed  in  Paris. 

From  152'J  St-Denis  had  commendatory  abbots,  the 
first  of  whom  was  Louis  Cardinal  de  Bourbon.  The 
Religious  Wars  were  a  disastrous  period  for  the  abbey. 
In  1562  and  1567  tombs  were  destroyed,  the  archives 
ravaged,  and  the  reliquaries  of  the  saints  stripped  of 
their  plates  of  gold  and  silver.  Catherine  de'  Medici 
planned  to  erect  beside  the  church  a  chapel  for  Henry 
II  and  herself;  Frangois  Primatice,  Jean  Bullant,  and 
Androuet  de  Cerceau  in  turn  supervised  the  work  on 
this  great  mausoleum,  which,  owing  to  the  civil  dis- 
turbances, was  never  finished  and  was  demolished  in 
1719.    The  troubles  of  the  League  brought  about  fresh 


pillages.  Here  on  25  July,  1593,  Renaud  de  Beaune, 
Archbishop  of  Bourges,  received  the  abjuration  of 
Henry  IV.  In  1633  the  Benedictines  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  St.  Maur  reformed  the  abbey,  and  for  a  time 
the  celebrated  Mabillon  (1632-1707)  was  guardian  of 
the  treasury.  In  1686  Louis  XIV  transferred  the  ab- 
batial  revenues  to  the  recently  founded  royal  house  of 
St-Cyr.  In  1691  the  title  and  dignity  of  its  abbot  were 
suppressed,  and  thenceforth  the  abbey  was  directed  by 
grand  priors,  dependent  on  the  superior-general  of  the 
congregation  who  resided  at  the  Abbey  of  St-Germain- 
des-Prcs.  These  grand  priors  were  of  right  vicars- 
general  of  the  archbi-shops  of  Paris.  In  1700  the  monk 
Felibien  (1666-1719)  published  the  history  of  the  ab- 
bey. In  the  eighteenth  century  the  abbey  buildings 
were  entirely  rebuilt  by  the  monks,  and  they  were 
about  to  change  completely  the  Gothic  appearance  of 
the  church  itself  when  the  Revolution  broke  out.  St- 
Denis  was  then  called  Franciade,  the  I'lmicli  became 
first  a  temple  of  Reason,  and  then  a  iii:irki  (-Imuse.  In 
August,  1793,  the  Convention,  on  (lie  rccoiniiienda- 
tion  of  Bar^re,  ordered  the  destruction  of  the  tombs 
of  the  kings.  Immediately  most  of  the  Gothic 
tombs  were  destroyed,  and  between  14  and  25  Oct., 
1793,  the  ashes  of  the  Bourbons  were  scattered  to 
the  winds.  In  1795  Alexander  Lenoir  had  all  the 
tombs  that  had  been  spared  removed  to  the  Museum 


PARIS 


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of  French  Monuments.  Napoleon  (20  Feb.,  180.5)  de- 
cided that  the  church  should  be  restored,  re-estab- 
lished worshii)  there,  and  decreed  that  thenceforth  St- 
Denis  should  be  the  burial-place  of  the  eniperor.s.  At 
the  Restoration  the  tombs  wliicli  had  been  removed  to 
the  iSIuseum  of  French  .Mimumcnt.s  were  restored  to 
St'Denis,  but  in  such  a  disorderly  fashion  that  Mon- 
talembert,  in  a  discourse  of  1847,  called  the  Church  of 
St.  Denis  "a  museum  of  bric-a-brac " .  A  truly  artistic 
restoration  wjis  accomplished  finally  (1847-79)  by 
Viollet  le  Due. 

Of  the  tlurty-two  Capetian  kings  from  Hugh  Capet 
to  Louis  XV  only  tliree  were  buried  elsewhere  than  in 
St-Denis.  The  series  of  authentic  portraits  of  the 
kings  of  France  at  St-Denis  opens  with  the  sepulchral 
statue  of  Philip  III  the  Bold  (d.  1285).  Until  the  six- 
tenth  century  the  royal  tombs  at  St-Denis  maintained 
modest  proportions,  but  in  that  century  the  church 
was  filled  with  works  of  art.  The  monument  of  the 
Dukes  of  Orleans,  erected  by  Louis  XII,  was  the  work 
of  four  Genoese  sculptors;  that  of  Louis  XII  (d.  1.515) 
and  Anne  of  Brittany  (d.  1514),  is  the  work  of  the 
Juste  family,  Italian  sculptors  residing  at  Tours;  the 
magnificent  monument  of  Francis  I  and  Claude  of 
France  is  the  work  of  the  great  architect  Philibert 
Delorme  and  of  the  sculptor  Pierre  Bontemps ;  that  of 
Henry  II  and  Catherine  de'  Medici,  executed  under 
the  direction  of  Primatice,  is  admired  for  the  sculp- 
tures of  Germain  Pilon.  The  only  monument  repre- 
senting the  art  of  the  seventeenth  century  is  that  of 
Turenne.  The  episcopal  chapter  of  St-Denis,  created 
by  Napoleon  I  to  care  for  the  basilica,  was  composed  of 
ten  canons  whose  head  was  the  grand  almoner.  The 
canons  had  to  be  former  bishops  more  than  fifty  years 
of  age.  The  Restoration  created  canons  of  a  second 
order,  who  were  not  chosen  from  among  the  bishops, 
and  the  grand  almoner  received  the  title  of  primicier 
(dean)  of  the  chapter.  The  empire  and  the  Restora- 
tion claimed  that  this  chajjter,  which  Napoleon  had 
created  without  taking  counsel  with  Rome,  should  not 
be  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary.  This 
was  the  cause  of  conflict  until  1846,  when  the  pope  is- 
sued a  Bull  placing  the  chapter  of  St-Germain  under 
the  direct  supervision  of  the  Holy  See;  the  primate  re- 
tained episcopal  authority  over  the  church  and  the 
house  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  annexed  to  the  church, 
and  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  had  no  spiritual  jursidic- 
tion  over  either  of  these  buildings.  The  budget  for  the 
chapter  of  St-Denis  was  suppressed  by  the  State  in 
1888.  The  theologian  Maret,  famous  for  his  writings 
against  the  opportuneness  of  the  definition  of  infalli- 
bility, was  the  last  primate. 

Famous  Pilgrimages. — (1)  Tomb  of  St.  Genevieve. — 
St.  Genevieve  is  the  patroness  of  Paris,  but  after  the 
conversion  of  the  church  into  a  Pantheon  of  France's 
great  men  the  saint  had  no  church  in  Paris.  Since 
1803  her  tomb  has  been  at  St-Etienne-du-Mont  (built 
1517-1020),  the  burial-place  of  Racine  and  Pascal. 
There  Pius  VII  went  to  pray  on  10  January,  1805,  and 
it  was  the  scene  of  the  assassination  of  Archbishop 
Sibour  on  3  January,  1857.  The  veneration  of  St. 
Genevieve  is  expressed  in  two  feasts:  (1)  on  her  feast 
proper  (3  January)  and  the  following  eight  days  a 
solemn  novena  takes  place  at  St-Etienne-du-Mont 
and  at  the  church  of  Nanterre,  birthplace  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve, whither  Clotaire  II,  St.  Louis,  Blanche  of  Cas- 
tile, Louis  XIII,  and  Ann(^  of  Austria  went  to  vener- 
ate her  memorj':  (2)  on  20  November,  anniversary  of 
the  miracle  whereby,  in  1 130,  a  procession  of  the  relics 
of  St.  Genevieve  cured  many  Parisians  of  the  mal  des 
ardenls  (Miracle  des  ardcnl.s). 

(2)  Notre-Dame-des-Vicloires. — In  consequence  of 
the  visions  granted  to  Catherine  Labour^  (who  six 
months  previously  had  become  a  member  of  the  Sisters 
of  Charity),  M.  Aladel,  a.ssi.stant  of  the  Lazarists,  with 
the  approval  of  Mgr  deQu^^len, had  struck  the"mirac- 
ulous  medal"  of  Mary  Conceived  without  Sin,  more 


than  4,000,000  of  which  were  distributed  throughout 
the  world  within  four  years.  In  1838  Desgenettes, 
pastor  of  N<itre-Dnmc-des-Victoires,  organized  in  thai 
church  the  A.i.social ion  in  honour  of  the  Holy  and  Im- 
maculate Heart  of  Mary,  which  Grcudiy  X\  I  made  a 
confraternity  on  24  April,  183S,  and  I  lie  li.iilgc  of 
which  was  the  miraculous  medal.  In  virtue  of  another 
indult  of  Gregory  X\'I  (7  Dec,  183S)  the  Diocese  of 
Paris  received  the  right  to  transfer  to  the  second  Sun- 
day of  Advent  the  solemnity  of  the  feast  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception.  On  10  July,  1894,  Leo  XIII 
granted  to  the  Lazarists,  and  to  the  dioceses  that 
should  request  it,  the  faculty  of  celebrating  yearly  on 
27  November  the  manifestation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
through  the  miraculous  medal.  This  feast  was  first 
celebrated  at  Paris  in  the  chapel  of  Rue  du  Bac  on  25, 
26,  and  27  November,  1894.  On  27  July,  1897,  the 
statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  this  chapel  was  sol- 
emnly crowned  in  virtue  of  a  Brief  of  Leo  XIII  (2 
March,  1897).  In  1899  the  number  of  Masses  cele- 
brated by  foreign  priests  at  Notre-Dame-des-Victoires 
was  3031;  the  number  of  Communions,  110,000;  in- 
tentions 1,305,980,  or  an  average  of  3578  per  day. 

(3)  Montmarlre. — Prior  to  the  ninth  century  there 
were  two  churches  on  the  hill  of  Montmartre — one, 
half  way  up,  stood  on  the  traditional  site  of  the  mar- 
trydom  of  St.  Denis,  while  the  other,  on  the  summit, 
was  said  to  replace  a  temple  dedicated  to  Mars.  In 
1095  these  two  churches  became  the  property  of  a 
monastery  occupied  first  (1095-1134)  by  the  monks  of 
St-Martin-des-Champs,  and  from  1034  to  the  Revolu- 
tion by  the  Benedictines.  The  church  on  the  summit 
was  rebuilt  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  consecrated 
on  21  April,  1147,  by  Pope  Eugenius  III  with  St.  Ber- 
nard of  Clairvaux  as  deacon,  and  Peter  the  Venerable, 
Abbot  of  Cluny,  as  subdeacon.  Alexander  III  visited 
it  in  1162;  St.  Thomas  a  Becket  in  1170;  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas,  Bl.  Joan  of  Arc,  St.  Ignatius,  St.  Francis 
Xavier,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Olier,  and  Blessed  John 
Eudes  prayed  there.  During  the  war  of  1870-71  MM. 
Lcgentil  and  Roliuult  de  Fleury  issued  from  Poitiers 
an  appeal  in  behalf  of  the  erection  at  Paris  of  a  sanc- 
tuary to  the  Sacred  Heart,  to  obtain  the  release  of  the 
pope  and  the  salvation  of  France.  On  23  July,  1873, 
the  National  Assembly  passed  a  law  declaring  the  con- 
struction of  this  sanctuary  a  matter  of  public  utility. 
After  a  meeting  in  which  seventy  architects  took  part 
Abadie  was  charged  with  its  construction,  in  Byzan- 
tine style.  Cardinal  Guibert  laid  the  corner-stone 
on  16  June,  1875,  and  said  the  first  Mass  in  the  crypt 
on  21  April,  1881.  Cardinal  Richard  blessed  the 
church  on  5  June,  1891,  and  on  17  October  1899, 
blessed  the  cross  surmounting  the  main  dome. 

(4)  Pilgrimage  to  the  Church  of  St.  Francis  in  honour 
of  the  famous  Miracle  des  Bilkltes  in  1290,  when  blood 
flowed  from  a  Host  which  had  been  profaned  by  a  Jew 
and  Christ  appeared  above  the  receptacle  where  the 
Jew  had  thrown  the  Host. 

(5)  Pilgrimage  to  the  chapel  of  the  Picpus  in  honour 
of  the  statue  of  Notre-Dame-de-Paix  which  the  fa- 
mous Capuchin  Joyeuse,  known  as  Pcre  Ange,  gave  to 
his  convent  (sixteenth  century). 

(6)  Pilgrimage  of  Notre-Dame-des-Vertus  at  the 
church  of  Aubervilliers  (dating  from  1336),  whither 
Louis  XIII,  St.  Ignatius,  Blessed  John  Eudes,  St. 
Francis  de  Sales,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  St.  John  Bap- 
tist de  la  Salle,  and  Bossuet  went  to  pray. 

(7)  Pilgrimage  of  Notre-Dame-des-Miracles  at 
Saint-Maur,  dating  from  the  erection  of  a  chapel  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  by  the  Abbot  St.  Babolein  about 
640.  The  future  Pope  Martin  IV,  Philip  Augustus, 
St.  Louis,  Emperor  Charles  IV  of  Germany,  and  Olier 
prayed  there. 

(8)  Pilgrimage  in  honour  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  to 
the  parish  church  of  Clichy,  built,  by  the  saint. 

Saints  of  Paris. — A  number  of  saints  are  esjiecially 
connected  with  the  history  of  the  Diocese  of  Paris:  Sts. 


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489 


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Agoard  and  Aglibert,  martyred  at  Cretil;  St.  Lucan, 
raartj'red  at  Paris;  St.  Eugene,  who  according  to  the 
legend  was  sent  by  Saint  Denis  to  Spain,  founded  the 
Church  of  Toledo,  and  was  martyred  at  Deuil;  St. 
Yon,  a  disciple  of  St.  Denis;  St.  Lucian,  companion  of 
St.  Denis,  martyred  at  Beauvais  (third  century);  St. 
Ricul,  founder  (c.  300)  of  the  Church  of  Senlis,  visited 
and  encouraged  the  Christian  community  of  Paris;  St. 
Martin  (316-400),  Bishop  of  Tours,  while  at  Paris, 
cured  a  leper  by  embracing  him;  Sts.  Alda  (Aude)  and 
Cclinie,  comiianions  of  St.  Genevieve;  the  nun  St. 
Aurea,  disciple  of  St.  Gene-vieve  (fifth  century);  St. 
Germain  (3S()-448),  Bishop  of  Auxerre,  whose  name  is 
linked  with  the  history  of  St.  Genevieve;  St.  S^verin, 
Abbot  of  Agaune  (d.  508),  who  was  summoned  to 
Paris  to  cure  Clovis  of  a  serious  illness;  Queen  St.  Clo- 
tilde  (d.  54.5);  St.  Leonard,  a  noble  of  Clovis's  court, 
who  became  a  hermit  in  Limousin  and  died  about  559; 
St.  Columbanus  (540-615), 
who  performed  a  miracle  dur- 
ing his  stay  in  Paris;  St.  Cloud 
(d.  560),  grandson  of  St.  Clo- 
tilde,  who  was  made  a  monk 
by  St.  Severin;  St.  Radegund 
(.519-87),  wife  of  Clotaire  I; 
St.  Eloi  (Eligius,  588-659), 
founder  of  the  convent  of  St . 
Martial,  minister  of  Clotaire 
II  and  of  Dagobert;  St.  Ba- 
thilde.  Queen  of  France  (d. 
680);  St.  Domnolus  (sixth 
century).  Abbot  of  St-Lau- 
rent,  Paris,  prior  to  becoming 
Bishop  of  Le  Mans;  St.  Ber- 
techramnus  (Bertrand,  553- 
623),  Archdeacon  of  Paris, 
later  Bishop  of  Le  Mans;  St. 
Aure,  virgin  (7th  century), 
first  Abbess  of  St.  Martial;  St. 
Merry,  Benedictine  .\bbot  (d. 
700);  St.  Ouen  (609-S6),  who 
was  a  friend  of  St.  Eligius  and 
died  Archbishop  of  Rouen; 
St.  Sulpicc  (seventh  century), 
chaplain  of  Clotaire  II,  died 
as  Archbishop  of  Bourges;  St. 
Doctrovce  (seventh  century), 
first  Abbot  of  St.  Vincent;  St 
Leu,  Bishop  of  Sens  (seventh 
century),  who  on  his  w.ay  through  Paris  released  a  num- 
ber of  prisoners;  St.  John  of  Matha  (1160-1213),  who 
was  a  student  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and,  while 
saying  his  first  Mass  in  the  chapel  of  the  Bishop  of 
Paris,  had  the  vision  which  induced  him  to  found  the 
Trinitarians;  St.  William,  canon  of  Paris,  who  died 
in  1209  as  Archbishop  of  Bourges;  Bl.  Reginald  (1160- 
1220),  professor  of  canon  law  at  the  University  of 
Paris;  St.  Bonaventuro  (1221-74),  student  and  after- 
wards professor  at  the  University  of  Paris;  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  (1227-74),  successively  student,  profes.sor, 
and  preacher  at  the  University  of  Paris;  Bl.  Gregory  X 
(pope  1271-6),  doctor  of  the  University  of  Paris; 
St.  Yves  (1253-1303),  who  studied  law  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris;  Bl.  Innocent  V  (pope  1276),  who 
succeeded  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  as  professor  of  the- 
ology at  the  University  of  Paris;  St.  Louis  (1215-70), 
and  "his  sister  Bl.  IsabcUe  (1224-70),  foundress  of  the 
Abbey  of  Poor  Clares  of  Longchamps,  who  later  called 
themselves  Urbanists  because  their  rule  was  confirmed 
by  Urban  V;  Bl.  Peter  of  Luxemburg  (1369-87),  canon 
of  Paris  before  becoming  BLshop  of  Metz;  Blessed 
Urban  V  (pope  13C>'2  70).  sometime  professor  of  canon 
law  at  the  Univi  i-ii\  ^.f  I':iris;  Bl.  Jeanne-Marie  de 
Maille  (1332-14 11  >,  u  ho  r,i  me  to  Paris  to  make  known 
to  the  king  her  pruiilK'l  ical  visions  concerning  France; 
Bl.  Jeanne  de  Valois  (1464-1505),  daughter  of  Louis 
XI  and  wife  of  Louis  XII,  foundress  of  the  Annun- 


ciades;  St.  Ignatius  Loyola  (1491-1556);  St.  Francis 
Xavier  (1506-52),  who  studied  at  the  College  de  St- 
Barbe  and  made  his  vows  as  a  Jesuit  at  Montmartre; 
Mme  Acarie,  venerated  as  Bl.  Marie  de  I'lncarnation 
(1565-1618),  a  Parisian  by  birth,  who,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Duchesse  de  Longueville,  established 
at  Paris  the  Carmelites  of  the  Faubourg  St-Jacques; 
St.  Francis  de  Sales  (1567-1622),  who  was  educated 
at  the  College  de  Clermont,  Paris,  and  later  preached 
there  on  two  occasions;  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (1576- 
1660),  who,  having  received  from  Jean-Francois  de 
Gondi  the  College  des  Bons  Enfants,  founded  there 
the  Congregation  of  the  Mission;  Bl.  Louis  Grignion 
de  Montfort  (seventeenth  century-),  who  studied  at 
St-Sulpice  and  preached  several  times  at  Paris. 

Special  Fe.^tures  of  Ecclesiastical  Paris. — 
The  feast  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  was  cele- 
brated at  Paris  as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century  by 
the  students  of  the  English 
and  Norman  nations  in  the 
Church  of  St-Scverin,  and  a 
confraternity  was  estabUshed 
there  in  honour  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  Even  in 
the  last  quarter  of  the  twelfth 
century  the  poet  Adam,  canon 
regular  of  St-Mctor,  seems 
to  have  accepted  this  dogma. 
The  University  of  Paris  op- 
posed it  until  the  arrival  of 
Duns  Scotus,  who  came  to  de- 
bate the  question  with  the 
Dominican  doctors  at  Paris. 
The  belief  spread  during  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  the 
Dominican  Jean  de  Montson, 
having  maintained  in  1387 
that  the  theory  was  contrary 
to  faith,  was  excommuni- 
cated. The  doctors  of  the 
university  were  among  those 
most  eager  to  hasten  at  the 
Council  of  Basle  the  investi- 
gations preparatory  to  the 
definition  of  the  Immaculate 
(Conception,  which  this  coun- 
cil, in  the  meantime  become 
schismatical,  promulgated  in 
1439.  At  last,  on  9  March,  1497,  the  university  issued  a 
decree  obliging  all  its  members  to  promise  on  oath  to 
profess  and  defend  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  and  declaring  the  contrary  opinion  false, 
impious,  and  erroneous.  In  1575  it  took  issue  with 
the  famous  Jesuit  Maldonatus,  who  still  regarded  it  as 
an  optional  opinion,  but  it  refrained  from  formally 
branding  as  heretics  those  who  did  not  admit  the 
doctrine,  as  laid  down  by  Benedict  XIV  in  his  treatise, 
"De  testis".  The  procession  in  honour  of  the  As- 
sumption was  inaugurated  at  Paris  in  1638,  when 
Louis  XIII  placed  his  kingdom  under  the  protection 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  Devotion  to  the  departed 
souls  is  perhaps  the  most  deeply  rooted  form  of  Pa- 
risian piety.  Even  in  the  eighteenth  century  the 
clocheleurs  of  the  dead  traversed  the  streets  at  night, 
ringing  their  bells  and  calling: 

Rdveillez  vous,  gens  qui  dormez, 
Priez  Dieu  pour  les  trepa.ssds. 
The  .\ssociation  of  Our  Ladvof  Suffrage  for  the  Dead, 
foundcil  in  ls:;S:itlhr  Church  of  St.  Merry  by  Arch- 
bislio])  (Jurlcn  and  raised  to  an  archconfraternity  in 
LS57  by  Pius  IX,  is  .still  flourishing.  Several  ex- 
piatory chapels  exist  in  Paris:  (1)  in  memory  of  Louis 
XVI  and  the  members  of^his  family  who  fell  victims 
to  the  Terror;  (2)  in  memory  of  the  1300  persons  be- 
headed at  the  barrier  of  the  Place  du  Trone  (including 
the  16  Carmelites  of  Compiegne)  and  buried  in  the 


1 

-—    -    .'-^liCttV. 

-=^^1^  -  " 

~^. *»--.;    ■-■■ 

Church  of  St.  Jacques,  Paris 


PARIS 


490 


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cemetery  of  Piopus;  (.i)  in  memory  of  the  Due  d'Or- 
l^ans,  who  was  killed  in  1842  in  a  carriage  accident; 
(4)  in  niemoiy  of  the  victims  of  the  dreadful  fire  at 
the  Charity  Bazar  (4  May,  1897). 

RELKiiors  Congregations. — Prior  to  the  applica- 
tion of  the  Law  of  Associations  of  1901,  there  was 
a  large  number  of  religious  congregations  in  Paris. 
Among  those  having  their  mother-house  in  the  city 
were:  the  Assumptionists,  who  preserved  in  their 
chapel  a  statue  of  Notre-Damc-de-Salut  which,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  smiled  on  Duns  Scotus  in  1304 
when  he  wsis  about  to  preach  on  the  Immaculate 
Conception;  the  Eudists  (q.  v.);  the  Missionary 
Priests  of  Mercy  (founded  in  1808  bj'  Pere  Rauzau), 
who  were  the  founders  of  the  French  parish  in  New 
York;  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate  (founded  in 
1816  bj'  Eugene  de  Mazenod),  the  apostles  of  Upper 
and  Lower  Canada,  New  Brittany,  Oregon,  British 
Columbia,  Texas,  and  Mexico;  the  Oratorians, 
founded  in  1611  by  Pierre  de  Berulle  (q.  v);  the 
Priests  of  Picpus  (founded  in  1805  by  Abb6  Coudrin), 
the  founders  of  missions  in  Oceania — four  of  its  mem- 
bers were  martyred  under  the  Commune  (1871),  Peres 
Radique,  Tufiier,  Rouchouze,  and  Tardieu;  the  Fa- 
thers of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  founded  by  Pere  Ey- 
mard;  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  (q.  v.), 
founded  by  St.  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle;  the  Marianist 
Brothers  founded  at  Bordeaux  in  1817  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  young;  the  Nuns  of  the  Assumption, 
founded  in  1839  under  the  patronage  of  Archbishop 
AJIre  for  the  education  of  young  girls;  the  Sisters  of 
Charitable  Instruction  of  the  Child  Jesus  (of  St. 
Maur)  for  nursing  and  teaching,  which  was  founded  in 
1666  by  Pere  Barre,  O.  Minim.,  and  has  missions  in 
Japan,  Siam,  and  Malacca;  the  Sisters  of  Mary  Help, 
founded  in  1854  for  the  care  of  young  working-women; 
the  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity  of  the  Refuge  (of 
St.  Michael),  founded  in  1641  by  Venerable  Eudcs  to 
receive  voluntarj'  penitents;  the  Religious  of  the 
Mother  of  God,  a  teaching  order  founded  by  Olier 
in  1648;  the  Religious  of  the  Cenade  fnundfd  at 
Paris  in  1826;  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  leiitury 
by  Madame  Barat  (q.  v.);  the  Sisters  of  Picpus,  a 
teaching  and  contemplative  order  founded  at  Poitiers 
and  removed  to  Paris  in  1804;  the  Sisters  of  Our  Lady 
of  Sion,  a  teaching  order  founded  by  Pere  Ratisbonne. 

Prior  to  1901  there  were  also  at  Paris:  Carmelites; 
Dominicans,  several  of  whom  were  martyred  during 
the  Commune  (martyrs  of  Arcucil);  Franciscans; 
Jesuits,  five  of  whom  were  martyred  during  the 
Commune  (viz.  Peres  Olivaint,  Clerc,  de  Bengy,  Du- 
coudray,  and  Caubert);  Marists;  Priests  of  Mercy; 
Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart;  and  Redemptorists. 
Important  educational  works  brought  to  an  end  by 
the  law  of  1901  were  the  boarding-schools  of  the  Ab- 
baye  aux  Bois,  Oiseaux,  and  Roule,  conducted  by  the 
Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine,  a  congregation 
founded  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  by  St. 
Peter  Fourier.  The  same  law  also  terminated  the 
existence  of  two  great  Carmelite  convents — the  one, 
founded  in  1604  in  the  Faubourg  St-Jacques  by  Marie 
de  rincamation,  had  witnessed  the  Lenten  preaching 
of  Bossuet  in  1661,  the  vows  of  Mme  de  la  Valli^re  in 
1675,  and  the  funeral  oration  of  the  Princess  Palatine 
in  1685;  the  other,  founded  in  1664  and  established 
in  the  Avenue  de  Saxe  in  1854,  possessed  a  miraculous 
crucifix,  rescued  intact  from  the  flames  at  the  capture 
of  Bcsan^on  by  Louis  XIV.  Paris  still  possesses  two 
Visitation  monasteries,  which  date  respectively  from 
1619  and  1626.  They  were  founded  by  St.  Francis 
de  Sales  and  St.  Jaiu-I'ranttes  de  Chantal,  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  one  of  them  had  as 
superior  Venerable  Marie  de  Sales  Chappuis.  The 
Sisters  of  Charity,  instituted  in  1629  by  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul  and  Venerable  Mme  Le  Ciras  (iiec  Louise  de 
Marillac)  and  having  their  mother-house  at  Paris, 


still  have  the  right  to  exercise  their  nursing  activity, 
but  are  legally  bound  to  discontinue  gradually  their 
work  as  teachers.  Among  the  still  existing  congre- 
gations of  women  are:  the  Congregation  of  Adora- 
tion of  Reparation,  founded  in  1S4.S  by  Mother 
Marie-Therese  of  the  Heart  of  Jesus;  the  Helpers  of 
the  Souls  in  Purgatory,  founded  in  18.56;  the  Helpers 
of  the  Immaculate  Concejition,  founded  in  1859  by 
the  Abbe  Largentier  f(ir  tlie  care  of  the  sick  in  their 
homes;  the  Benedictine  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, founded  in  1653  by  Catherine  de  Bar — a  second 
house  was  founded  in  1816  by  the  Princess  Louise  de 
Bourbon-Conde  (Mother  Marie-Joseph  de  la  Misdri- 
corde). 

Seminaries. — The  Seminary  of  St-Sulpice,  founded 
by  Olier  in  1642,  had  been  supplemented  since  1814 
by  the  house  at  Issy,  in  the  suburbs  of  Paris,  reserved 
for  the  teaching  of  philosophy.  The  Paris  seminary 
was  seized  by  the  State  in  virtue  of  the  recent  laws, 
and  the  present  theological  school  of  the  Parisian 
clergy  is  located  at  Issy.  The  seminary  of  Foreign 
Missions  was  founded  in  1663.  Twenty-eight  houses 
were  confided  to  it  by  the  Holy  See.  This  seminary 
belongs  to  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  and  is  still 
authorized  by  the  State,  as  also  is  the  Seminary  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  located  in  the  mother-house  of  the  Con- 
gregations of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary — the  former  was  founded  in  1703  by 
PouUard  Desplace,  the  latter  in  1841  by  Venerable 
Francis-Mary-Paul  Libermann,  and  the  two  were 
merged  in  1848.  This  seminary  provides  priests  for 
the  e\'angelization  of  the  negroes  in  Africa  and  the 
colonies.  Neither  has  the  State  disturbed  the  Con- 
gregations of  the  Mission  of  St-Lazanis  (Lazarists), 
founded  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  with  its  mother-house 
at  Paris.  They  devote  themselves  to  the  evangeliza- 
tion of  the  poor  by  means  of  missions  and  to  the  for- 
eign missions.  For  a  long  time  their  chapel  held  the 
body  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  now  removed  to  Belgium. 
The  Lazarist  Blessed  Jean-Gabriel  Perboyre,  mar- 
tyred in  China,  is  venerated  here.  With  regard  to  the 
Irish  College  in  Paris  see  Irish  Colleges. 

Other  Religions. — As  early  as  1512  Lefevre 
d'Etaples,  at  the  College  du  Cardinal  Lemoine,  and 
Bri^onnet,  Abbot  of  St-Germain-des-Pr<^s  and  shortly 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Meaux,  spread  at  Paris  certain 
theological  ideas  which  prepared  the  way  for  Prot- 
estantism. In  1521  Luther's  book,  "The  Babylonian 
Captivity",  was  condemned  by  the  Sorbonne.  In 
1524  Jacques  Pavannes  (or  Pauvert),  a  disciple  of 
Lefevre,  underwent  capital  punishment  for  having 
attacked  the  veneration  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  purga- 
tory, and  holy  water;  the  same  penalty  was  inflicted 
on  Louis  de  Berriuin  in  1529.  Until  1555  the  Prot- 
estants of  Paris  had  no  pastor,  but  in  that  year  they 
assembled  at  the  house  of  one  of  their  number,  named 
La  Ferriere.  As  he  had  a  child  to  baptize,  the  gather- 
ing elected  as  pastor  Jean  le  Magon,  a  young  man  of 
twenty-two  years,  who  had  studied  law.  He  exer- 
cised his  ministry  at  Paris  until  1562,  when  he  took 
up  his  residence  as  pastor  at  Angers.  The  first  general 
synod  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  France  was  held  at 
Paris  from  26  to  28  May,  1558,  and  drew  up  a  con- 
fession of  faith — later  called  the  Confession  of  La 
Rochelle,  because  it  only  received  its  final  form  at  the 
eighteenth  national  synod  convened  at  La  Rochelle  in 
1607.  In  1560  a  number  of  Protestants  perished  at 
Paris,  among  them  the  magistrate  Anne  du  Bour^. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  Reformed  Church  of  Pans 
had  40,000  members  in  1.564.  In  1.572  took  place 
the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  The  Edict  of 
July,  1573,  having  authorized  the  Protestants  of  Paris 
to  assemble  at  a  distance  of  two  leagues  from  the  city, 
they  held  their  meetings  at  Noisy  le  Sec.  In  1606 
Henry  IV  permitted  them  to  build  a  church  at  Charen- 
ton.  During  the  seventeenth  century  the  Reformed 
Church  of  Paris  was  administered  by  the  pastors 


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Dumoulin,  Mestrezat,  Durand,  and  Montigny.  At 
the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685)  Pastor 
Claude  was  compelled  to  leave  Paris;  Pastors  Malzac, 
Giraud,  and  Gi\'ry,  who  endeavoured  despite  the  in- 
vocation to  maintain  a  Protestant  church  at  Paris, 
were  imprisoned  in  1692.  During  the  eighteenth 
century  the  chaplains  attached  to  the  embassies  of 
Protestant  princes  gave  spiritual  assistance  to  the 
Protestants  of  the  city.  Marron,  chaplain  at  the 
Dutch  embassy,  became  pastor  in  Paris  when  Louis 
XVI  promulgated  the  edict  of  toleration  (1787).  A 
decree  of  1802  gave  over  to  the  Protestant  sect  the  old 
church  of  the  Visitandrnes  in  the  Kue  St-Antoine 
(built  by  Mansart);  one  of  1811  gave  them  the  church 
of  the  Oratorians  in  the  Rue  St-Honore,  while  the  July 
Monarchy  gave  them  the  old  Church  of  Notre-Dame- 
de-Pentemont,  which  untler  the  old  regime  had  be- 
longed to  the  Augustinian  Sisters  of  the  Incarnate 
Word  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  At  present  the  Re- 
formed Church  possesses  nineteen  places  of  worship  in 
Paris  and  seventeen  in  the  suburbs;  the  Lutherans, 
eleven  places  of  worship  in  Paris  and  eight  in  the  sub- 
urbs; the  Protestant  Free  Churches,  four  places  of 
worship;  the  Baptists,  four  churches  in  Paris  and  one 
in  the  suburbs.  The  American  Episcopal,  Anglican, 
Scotch,  Congregationalist,  and  Wesleyan  Churches 
conduct  services  in  English.  There  are  in  Paris  about 
50,000  Jews. 

Public  Assistance  and  Public  Charity. — Under 
the  old  regime,  what  is  now  called  "Public  Assistance" 
included  several  distinct  departments:  (1)  that  of  the 
Hotel-Dieu,  one  of  the  oldest  hospitals  in  Europe, 
doubtless  founded  by  the  Bishop  St.  Landry  after  the 
epidemic  of  651.  It  was  at  first  directed  by  the  can- 
ons of  Notre-Dame,  and  after  1505  by  a  commission 
of  citizens  with  whom  Louis  XIV  associated,  together 
with  the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  several  representatives 
of  the  Government  and  of  the  chief  judiciary  bodies. 
Thi.s  ileiiartnient  undertook  the  administration  of  the 
Hospital  for  Incurables,  the  Hospital  of  St.  Louis,  and 
that  of  St.  .Vnnc;  (2)  department  of  the  General  Hos- 
pital, creati'd  by  Louis  XIV  in  1656  for  the  sick,  the 
aged,  children,  and  beggars,  and  with  which  were  con- 
nected the  infirmaries  of  Pitie,  Bicetre,  the  Salpfetriere, 
Vaugirard,  the  foundling  hosjiital,  and  that  of  the 
Holy  Ghost;  (3)  several  indi'|)cndent  hospitals,  e.  g. 
Cochin  Hospital,  founded  in  KisO  hy  the  Abb<5  Cochin, 
pastor  of  St-Jacques,  and  the  Necker  Hospital,  es- 
tablished in  1779  at  the  initiative  of  Mme  Necker;  (4) 
the  Bureau  of  Charity,  dependent  on  the  parishes;  (5) 
the  central  Bureau  of  the  Poor  (grand  bureau  ites 
pauvres),  established  under  Francis  I  for  the  relief 
of  the  indigent.  It  was  presided  over  and  directed  by 
the  procureur  general  of  the  Parlement  and  levied  a 
yearly  "alms  tax"  on  all  the  inhabitants  of  Paris.  It 
administered  the  infirmary  of  Petites  Maisons. 

The  Revolution  effected  a  radical  change  in  this 
system.  The  central  Bureau  des  Pauvres  was  at  first 
replaced  by  forty-eight  beneficent  committees  (comilcs 
de  hienfaisance) ;  these  were  replaced  in  1816  by  twelve 
bureaux  of  charity,  which  in  1830  took  the  name  of 
bureaux  de  hienfaisance  and  number  twenty  since  1860. 
While  in  the  communes  of  France  all  the  hospital  de- 
partments are  under  an  administration  distinct  from 
that  of  the  bureau  of  beneficence,  at  Paris,  in  virtue 
of  the  law  of  10  Jan.,  1849,  the  General  Administra- 
tion of  Public  Assistance  directs  both  the  hospitals 
and  the  departments  for  relief  at  home.  At  present 
the  Department  of  Public  Assistance  directs  31  ho.spi- 
tals,  14  being  general  hospitals,  7  special,  9  children's 
hospitals,  and  1  insane  asylum.  At  the  laicization 
of  the  hospitals,  the  hospital  of  St.  Joseph,  conducted 
by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  was  opened  in 
1884  under  the  patronage  of  the  Archbishop  of  Paris; 
that  of  Notre-Dame-de-Bon-Secours,  in  care  of  the 
Augustines,  was  founded  by  Abbe  Carton,  pastor  of 
St-Pierre-de-iVIontrouge  and  bequeathed  by  him  in 


1887  to  the  Archbishop  of  Paris.     The  hospital  of 

Notre-Dame-de-Perpetuel-Secours  at  Lavallois  is  con- 
ducted by  the  Dominican  Sisters.  The  St-Jacqucs, 
Hahnemann,  St-Frangois,  and  St-Michel  hospitals  arc 
also  in  the  hands  of  congregations.  The  Villepinte 
Institution,  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Marie  Auxilia- 
tricc,  cares  for  chililn-n  and  young  women  suffering 
from  tuberculosis.  The  Marie-Therese  infirmary  was 
founded  for  aged  or  infirm  priests  by  the  wife  of 
Ch&teaubriand.  The  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  have 
nine  houses  in  the  diocese.  The  Brothers  of  St. 
John  of  God  maintain  a  private  hospital  and  an  asy- 
lum for  incurable  young  men.  The  Institution  of  the 
Ladies  of  Calvary,  founded  at  Lyons  in  1842  by  Mme 
Garnier  and  established  at  Paris  in  1874,  is  conducted 
by  widows  for  the  care  of  the  cancerous,  and  receives 
into  its  infirmaries  patients  whom  no  other  hospital 


will  admit;  it  also  has  houses  at  Lyons,  Marseilles,  St- 
Etienne,  and  Rouen.  The  Little  Sisters  of  the  As- 
sumption, nurses  of  the  poor,  who  have  nine  houses  in 
the  diocese,  stay  night  and  day  without  pay  in  the 
houses  of  the  sick  poor.  The  same  is  done  by  the  Sis- 
ters of  Notre-Dame  of  the  Rue  Cassini  in  the  homes 
of  poor  women  in  their  confinement.  Other  orders 
for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  homes  are  the  Francis- 
can nursing  sisters  (7  houses)  and  the  Sisters  Servants 
of  the  Poor  (4  houses). 

Among  the  institutions  now  dependent  on  the  State, 
the  foundation  of  which  was  formerly  the  glory  of  the 
Church,  must  be  mentioned  that  of  Quinze  Vingls 
for  the  blind.  As  early  as  the  eleventh  century  there 
was  a  confraternity  for  the  blind;  St.  Louis  built  for 
it  a  house  and  a  church,  gave  it  a  perpetual  revenue, 
and  decreed  that  the  number  of  the  Quinze  Vingls  (300 
blind)  should  be  maintained  complete.  When  the 
king  was  canonized  in  1297  the  blind  took  him  as  their 
patron  (sec  Education  of  the  Blind).  The  Catholic 
institutions  of  Paris  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  and  the 
ujilifting  of  the  labouring  classes  are  very  numerous. 
For  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  see  Mission, 
Congregation  of  Priests  of  the.  The  Philan- 
thropic Society,  founded  in  1780  under  the  protection 
of  Louis  XVI,  established  dispensaries,  economical 


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492 


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kitphens,  night  shelters,  and  settlement  houses. 
The  Central  Office  of  Charitable  Institutions  investi- 
gates the  condition  of  workmen  and  the  poor,  and 
conducts  emi)loyinent  and  restoration  bureaux.  The 
.Association  of  Ladies  of  Charity,  established  (lf)29) 
in  the  parish  of  St-Sauveur  by  St.  Vincent  dc  Paul 
for  the  visitation  of  the  sick  poor  and  reconsti- 
tuted in  1S4(),  Ikus  given  rise  to  the  Society  for  the 
Sick  Poor,  tlie  Society  for  the  Sick  Poor  in  the  Sub- 
urbs, and  the  Soiicty  for  the  Visitation  of  the  Poor 
in  the  Hospitals.  Mo.st  parishes  have  their  organiza- 
tions of  charitable  women  who,  under  the  pastor's 
supervision,  distribute  clothing  and  visit  the  poor. 
The  Societi  dc  Charite  Maternelte,  which  dates  from 
1784,  when  it  was  patronized  by  Marie  .\ntoinotte, 
assists  married  women  in  their  confinement  without 
regard  to  creed.  In  each  quarter  of  Paris  women 
visitors  determine  the  families  deserving  assistance. 
In  1898  the  society  assisted  2797  women  and  285.3 
cliildren.  The  Association  des  Meres  de  Famille, 
founded  in  1836  by  Mme  Radenier,  assists  at  child- 
birth women  who  do  not  meet  the  conditions  required 
by  the  Socicle  de  Charite  Matcrnelle  or  who  are  num- 
bered among  the  disreputable  poor.  The  (Euvre  des 
Faubourgs,  through  a  number  of  women,  visits  2000 
families  and  8000  children  in  the  Paris  suburbs.  The 
(Euire  de  la  Misericorde  (Work  of  Mercy),  founded  in 
1822,  assists  the  disreputable  poor.  An  organization 
founded  in  1841  by  Mgr  Christophe,  later  Bishop  of 
Soissons,  helps  convalescent  lunatics.  The  objects 
of  the  (Euvre  de  VHospitalite  du  Travail  are  to  offer  a 
free  temporary  shelter  without  distinction  of  creeil  or 
nationality  to  every  homeless  woman  or  girl  who  has 
determined  to  work  for  an  honourable  livelihood,  to 
employ  its  clients  at  useful  tasks,  to  endeavour  to  re- 
vive the  habit  of  working  in  those  who  have  lost  it, 
and  to  assist  them  in  securing  honourable  employment 
which  will  also  enable  them  to  provide  for  the  future. 
This  organization,  founded  in  1881  under  the  direct  ion 
of  Sister  St.  Antoine,  a  member  of  the  Order  of  Cal- 
vary, between  1881  and  1903  gave  shelter  to  70,240 
women.  In  1894  Sister  St.  Antoine  annexed  to  it  the 
(Euvre  du  Travail  a  Domicitc  pour  les  Meres  de  Famille 
(Association  for  procuring  liome-work  for  mothers  of 
families)  which  between  1892  and  1902  assisted  7449 
mothers.  The  Maison  de  Travail  for  men,  founded 
in  1892  by  M.  de  Laubespin,  performs  the  same  ser- 
vice for  unemployed  and  homeless  men,  and  is  also 
in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Calvary. 

The  CathoUcs  of  Paris  have  taken  part  in  the  syndi- 
cate movement  by  the  creation  in  1887  of  the  syn- 
dicate of  commercial  and  industrial  employees,  by  the 
organization  of  the  Aiguille  (a  professional  associa- 
tion of  patronesses  and  women  employees  and  workers 
on  clothing),  and  by  the  Union  Centrnlc,  made  up  of 
five  professional  syndicates  of  working-girls,  business 
employees,  seam.stresses,  servant  girls,  and  nurses, 
with  "La  Ruche  syndicale"  as  their  organ.  The 
great  Society  of  St.  Nicholas,  founded  in  1827  by  Mgr 
de  Bervanger  and  Count  Victor  de  Noailles  and  di- 
rected by  a  staff  of  Catholic  laymen,  has  four  houses 
(Paris,  Issy,  Igny,  and  Buzenval),  where  it  gives  a 
professional  education  to  boys  whom  it  adopts  as 
early  as  their  eighth  year.  The  Society  of  the  Friends 
of  Childhood,  founded  in  1828,  is  concerned  with  the 
education  and  apprenticeship  of  poor  boys.  The 
Ecole  commerciale  de  Francs  Bourgeois,  created  in  1843 
by  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  prepares 
pupils  for  commercial,  industrial,  and  administrative 
professions.  Numerous  homes  and  restaurants  for 
young  working  girls  have  been  founded  by  Catholics. 
The  Charitable  Society  of  St.  Francis  Regis  was 
founded  in  1826  by  M.  Gassin  to  facilitate  the  reli- 
gious and  civil  marriage  of  the  poor  of  the  diocese  and 
the  legitimatization  of  their  natural  children.  The 
day-nurseries,  which  care  for  children  from  1.5  days 
to  3  years  of  age  while  their  mothers  are  employed, 


date  from  M.  Marbeau's  foundation  in  1844.  The 
Sisters  of  St.  Paul  have  founded  in  the  parishes  of  St- 
V'incent-de-Paul  and  St-Si'verin  a  .society  for  the  relief 
of  mothers  who  wish  tlicir  children  to  remain  at 
home.  The  (Euvre  de  I'Adojdiiin  w:is  fouiKled  in  1859 
by  Abb6  Maitrias  to  gather  as  many  orplians  as  pos- 
sible. Out  of  so  many  other  a,s,socia1  ions,  the  following 
must  be  mentioned:  the  -Vssociatioti  des  .Icunes  Eco- 
nomes  which,  under  the  ilircclidti  of  llic  Sisters  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  uses  the  generous  donations  of  a  large 
number  of  young  wonu'u  for  the  apjirent  icing  and 
employment  of  poor  girls;  the  Society  of  St.  Anne, 
founded  in  1824;  the  Society  for  Abandoned  Children, 
founded  in  1803;  the  Society  for  the  Adoption  of 
.Abandoned  Little  Girls,  founded  in  1879  (all  con- 
cerned with  finding  homes  for  orphans);  the  Society 
of  the  Child  Jesus,  which  shelters  during  their  con- 
valescence poor  girls  who  have  been  discharged  from 


There  is  a  recent  tendency  towards  the  complete 
reorganization  of  Catholic  charity  in  a  single  quarter 
by  the  centralization  of  all  charitable  departments  for 
the  development  and  protection  of  family  life.  For 
example  the  Fresh  -Air  Society  for  Mothers  and  Chil- 
dren, founded  by  Mile  Chaptal  in  1901,  includes;  (1) 
a  department  for  the  investigation  of  home  conditions; 
(2)  one  for  free  consultations  for  poor  mothers  and  their 
nursing  children;  (3)  one  for  assisting  mothers  whose 
confinement  takes  place  at  home;  (4)  one  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  tickets  for  meat,  cereal,  or  farinaceous 
food  for  women  who  have  been  confined;  (6)  the  fresh 
air  department,  which  sends  a  number  of  the  women 
of  the  district  into  the  country.  The  Society  of 
Ste-Rosalie  al.so  combines  a  number  of  admirable 
works  which  perpetuate  the  memorj-  of  the  good  done 
in  the  Faubourg  St-Marcel  during  the  .July  Monarchy 
by  Sister  Rosalie  Rendu,  who  worked  in  collabora- 
tion with  Vicomte  Armand  de  Mclun.  The  Working 
Women's  Society  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary  was  the 
nucleus  of  a  flourishing  parish  in  a  district  previously 
deprived  of  all  religious  help.  The  Union  Familiale, 
foimded  at  Charonne  by  Mile  Gahery  in  1899,  has 
completely  transformed  the  district;  it  has  established 
a  Frobelian  nursery  for  the  small  children,  and  re- 
ceives children  after  school  hours;  since  1904  it  as- 
sembles families  in  a  family  educational  circle;  it  or- 
ganizes groups  of  "little  mothers,"  little  girls  of  ten, 
who  every  Thursday  take  care  of  3  or  4  children;  it  has 
gardening  classes  and  a  department  for  trousseaux, 
and  since  1900  it  has  had  vacation  colonies,  known  as 
fre.sh  air  societies.  The  original  congregation  of  the 
Blind  Sisters  of  St.  Paul,  founded  in  1851  by  Abba 
Juge  and  Anne  Bergunion,  looks  after  blind  young 
women. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  Abbe  Fonsagrives  to 
the  Diocesan  Congress  of  1908,  the  Archdiocese  of 
Paris  has  356  Catholic  patronages,  of  which  63  are 
for  male  pupils  of  the  free  schools,  79  for  male  pupils 
of  the  lay  schools,  101  for  female  pupils  of  the  free 
schools,  113  for  female  pupils  of  the  lay  schools.  At 
that  date  lay  patronages  were  only  245.  The  Society 
for  the  Patronage  of  Young  Working  Girls,  founded  in 
1851,  receives  young  girls  after  their  First  Commun- 
ion. The  Sisters  of  the  Presentat  ion  of  Tours  conduct 
the  association  and  society  for  mutual  relief  for  young 
business  women;  the  Sisters  Servants  of  Mary  and 
Sisters  of  the  Cross  secure  situations  for  servants. 
The  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  have  societies  called 
"patronages  internes",  which  shelter  working-girls 
who  are  orphans  or  who  live  at  a  distance  from  their 
families.  The  (Euvre  des  Pelites  Presences  el  le  Vesii- 
aire  des  Petils  Prisonniers,  founded  in  1892  by  the 
Comtesse  de  Biron,  looks  after  the  preservation  of 
young  girls  discharged  from  prison.  The  Catholic 
International  Society  for  the  Protection  of  Young 
Women,  organized  at  Freiburg  in  1897  after  the  Or- 
ganization of  the  Protestant  International  Union  of 


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the  Friends  of  Young  Women,  in  1905  alone  gave 
shelter  to  11,919  young  girls  in  Paris. 

There  is  at  present  a  great  renewal  in  Catholic 
methods  of  charity  and  relief  at  Paris,  the  spirit  of 
which  is  shown  in  the  report  concerning  Catholic 
relief  societies  read  (Aug.,  1910)  at  the  International 
Congress  of  Public  and  Private  Relief  held  at  Copen- 
hagen under  the  presidency  of  President  Loubet: 
"The  great  originality  of  Catholic  relief  work  in  re- 
cent years  consists  in  the  multiplication  of  works 
for  social  education.  This  arises  more  and  more  from 
the  'patriarchal'  conception  of  these  undertakings. 
The  modern  wish  and  tendency  is  to  give  him  who 
suffers  a  share  in  his  own  relief,  to  give  him  a  collabora- 
tive or  directing  part  in  the  effort  which  is  being  made 
to  assist  and  uplift  him.  Henceforth  the  favourite 
works  of  charity  among  Catholics  will  be  those  known 
as  preventive.  To  prevent  misery  by  an  hygienic, 
domestic,  professional  education  is  the  object  of  the 
founders  of  modern  works  of  relief.  They  are  con- 
cerned not  only  with  the  strife  against  the  conse- 
quences of  misery  but  with  that  against  its  production. 
Without  neglecting  individual  alms,  Catholic  charity 
aims  especially  at  social  relief;  it  prefers  to  precede 
misery  to  prevent  it,  rather  than  to  follow  it  to  relieve 
it;  it  prefers  to  uplift  families  rather  than  assist  them, 
to  help  them  when  they  are  stumbling  rather  than  to 
raise  them  up  when  they  have  fallen;  it  prefers  to 
help  them  actively  to  better  working  conditions,  than 
to  relieve  passively  the  results  of  these  evil  conditions. 
All  instruction  imparted  in  organizations  for  Catholic 
youth  and  in  the  Catholic  patronages  of  Paris  is  im- 
pregnated with  this  apparently  new  spirit  which  on 
closer  view  is  seen  to  be  merely  a  return  to  the  Chris- 
tian solidarity  of  the  Middle  Ages." 

Religious  Renewal  of  the  Twentieth  Century. 
— In  190.5  at  the  end  of  the  concordatory  period  the 
Diocese  of  Paris  had  3,599,870  inhabitants,  38  par- 
ishes, 104  succursales,  7  vicariates,  formerly  remuner- 
ated by  the  State.  Since  the  separation  of  Church 
and  State,  the  religious  character  of  Paris  shows  signs 
of  renewal.  Statistics  of  the  religious  and  civil 
burials  from  1883  to  1903,  drawn  up  by  the  Abbe 
Raffin,  afford  a  very  exact  idea  of  the  religious  condi- 
tion of  Paris  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  largest  proportion  of  civil  burials,  23  per  cent, 
was  reached  in  1884.  At  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  proportion  of  civil  burials  had  fallen  to 
18  per  cent;  from  1901  to  1903,  they  showed  a  ten- 
dency to  rise  to  20  per  cent.  Civil  funerals  take  place 
chiefly  among  the  poor.  For  example  in  1888  in  the 
five  most  costly  classes  of  burials  the  number  of 
civil  burials  did  not  exceed  4-5  per  cent;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  ninth  class,  which  is  the  cheapest,  and  the 
free  class  show  25  to  30  per  cent.  At  present  among  the 
wealthy  classes  there  is  a  slight  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  civil  funerals,  and  a  slight  decrease  among  the 
working  classes,  but  the  fact  remains  that,  despite  the 
gratuitousness  of  religious  assistance  in  the  case  of  the 
poor,  the  average  number  of  10,000  civil  funerals 
wliich  take  place  yearly  at  Paris  consists  chiefly  of 
funerals  of  the  poor.  One  reason  for  this  is  the  in- 
sufficiency of  rehgious  assistance  in  the  hospitals. 
Although  more  than  a  third  of  the  Parisians  die  in 
hospitals,  there  are  only  about  thirty  hospital  chap- 
lains, and  these  the  management  does  not  permit  to 
approach  the  sick  unless  they  are  summoned.  An- 
other reason  lies  in  the  excessive  size  of  suburban 
parishes  and  in  the  difficulty  of  reaching  an  immense 
fluctuating  population.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century  Notre-Dame-de-M6nilmontant  had 
70,000,  St-Pierre-de-JMontrouge  83,000,  Notre-Dame- 
de-Clignancourt  120,000  inhabitants.  For  a  long 
time  these  enormous  parishes  had  no  more  priests  than 
the  smaller  ones  in  the  centre  of  Paris.  At  St-Am- 
broise  there  were  8  to  10  priests  for  80,000  souls,  while 
St-Thomas-d'-4quin  had  8  priests  for  14,000,  and  St- 


Sulpice  17  for  38,000  (see  the  report  of  M.  Thureau 
Dangin,  permanent  secretary  of  the  French  Academy, 
concerning  the  (Euvre  des  chapelles  de  secours).  M. 
Thureau  Dangin  calculated  in  1905  that  Paris,  with 
its  522  pastors  or  curates,  had  an  average  of  37,000 
or  38,000  souls  to  a  parish,  while  at  Lyons  there  was  1 
priest  for  every  3000  souls,  at  Antwerp  1  for  every 
500,  at  New  York  1  for  every  1500. 

The  realization  of  this  dearth  and  its  dangers 
caused  the  organization  of  the  (Euvre  des  Seminaires 
as  early  as  1882  to  increase  and  facilitate  vocations, 
and  in  1905  Cardinal  Richard  pointed  out  the  urgent 
necessity  of  the  creation  of  about  thirty  new  parishes 
or  of  chapelles  de  secours.  At  present  the  diocesan 
administration  is  most  actively  engaged  in  the  organ- 
ization of  these  chapelles  de  secours.     Every  year  a 


Triomphe,  Paris 


dignitary  of  the  French  Academy  or  of  the  Institute 
presents  a  report  of  the  progress  made,  MM.  Francois 
Coppee,  Thureau  Dangin,  de  Mun,  d'Haussonville, 
Georges  Picot,  and  Etienne  Lamy  having  been  heard 
in  turn.  The  Christian  Doctrine  Society  {(Euvre  des 
Catechismes)  founded  in  1885  by  Cardinal  Richard  was 
erected  into  a  confraternity  by  Leo  XIII  on  30  May, 
1893,  with  which  all  the  catechetical  societies  of 
France  may  be  affiliated.  This  society  is  formed  of 
voluntary  catechists  and  promoters  paying  dues. 
In  addition  to  the  multiplication  of  places  of  worship, 
special  religious  services  have  been  organized  for  cer- 
tain classes  of  persons.  For  example,  the  missionary 
work  among  young  seamstresses  (Midinettes)  has 
developed  greatly  between  1908  and  1910;  it  consists 
of  short  instructions  between  12.35  and  12. .50  p.  m.,  so 
that  the  young  women  may  return  punctually  to  work. 
More  than  5000  working  girls  have  profited  by  these 
missions.  The  Society  of  Diocesan  Missions,  founded 
in  1886  by  Cardinal  Richard,  supports  from  18  to  20 
missionaries,  who  according  to  the  report  of  their  su- 
perior, the  Abbe  Gibergues,  made  to  the  Diocesan  Con- 
gress of  1908,  have  brought  back  to  the  Church  more 
than  40,000  persons  in  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  century. 
Lastly,  the  Archdiocese  of  Paris  has  assumed  the 
direction  of  the  Cathohc  social  movement.  In  1910 
a  social  secretariat  was  organized,  as  a  bureau  of  infor- 
mation and  headquarters  for  social  undertakings,  and 


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the  archbishop  has  interested  himself  actively  in  the 
abolition  of  the  night-work  of  bakers,  addrossing  a 
letter  to  the  (larochial  committees  to  aroiiso  Catlinlic 
sentiment  in  favour  of  the  claims  of  tlu'se  workmen, 
and  on  21  December,  1908,  presiding  at  the  meeting 
organized  by  the  Jciiiuxtie  cathotiquc  fran^aise  for  tlie 
sui)pression  of  this  work. 

An  interesting  organization  from  the  social  point  of 
view  is  that  of  the  provincial  associations,  formed  at 
Paris  under  Catholic  auspices  to  bring  together  the 
immigrants  from  each  province,  to  assist  them  to 
maintain  close  tics  among  themselves,  and  to  procure 
spiritual  help  in  the  loneliness  of  the  great  city.  In 
1892  was  foundetl  the  society  La  Breiagnc,  and  in 
189.5  the  Union  aiwyronnaise.  The  latter,  which  had 
1(500  members  in  1908.  supports  eight  sisters  who,  in 

1908  alone,  spent  2641  days  or  nights  with  sick  Avey- 
ronnais.  In  imitation  of  this  association  were  founded 
successively  the  Union  lozcrienne,  the  Associalion  des 
Dames  limousines  et  creusoises,  the  Union  lyonnaise 
et  foresienne,  the  Union  pyreneenne,  the  Alliance 
catholique  savoisienne,  and  many  others.  There  is  a 
special  society  for  the  Bretons  residing  at  Paris, 
which  provides  sermons  and  lectures  in  the  Breton 
tongue.  All  the  provincial  unions  are  federated  un- 
der the  presidency  of  the  CathoUc  economist,  M. 
Henri  Joly,  a  member  of  the  Institut.  A  list  of  these 
associations  h;is  been  afii.xed  in  recent  times  to  the 
doors  of  all  the  churches  in  Paris.  All  these  under- 
takings for  the  development  of  Christian  life  in  Paris 
are  studied  and  developed  by  the  Diocesan  Commit- 
tee organized  on  1  March,  1905,  with  a  double  aim: 
(1)  "to  sustain,  promote,  and  unite  under  the  arch- 
bishop's authority  all  movements  concerning  the 
religious,  moral,  social,  and  even  material  welfare  of 
the  diocese;"  (2)  "to  promote  the  formation  of 
parochial  committees  modelled  on  and  connected 
with  itself".  It  is  divided  into  five  commissions, 
dealing  respectively  with  works  of  religion  and  piety, 
instruction  and  education,  perseverance  and  patron- 
age, charitable  and  social  works,  and  with  the  press 
and  propaganda.  At  the  beginning  of  1910  there  were 
67  parochial  committees,  nearly  half  the  parishes 
being  already  provided  with  them.  Since  190.5  dioc- 
esan congresses  have  taken  place  yearly.     That  of 

1909  was  especially  concerned  with  the  labour  of 
women,  with  organizations  for  instruction  of  youth, 
provincial  and  journalistic  organizations.     That  of 

1910  dealt  exclusively  with  liberty  of  teaching,  the 
formation  and  recruiting  of  teachers,  and  with  school 
books. 

Catholic  Instruction  in  Paris  in  the  Twen- 
tieth Century. — The  suppression  of  the  teaching 
congregations  and  the  gradual  but  rapid  closing  of  the 
establishments  directed  by  them  was  a  serious  blow 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  independent  schools  in  the 
Archdiocese  of  Paris.  In  October,  1904,  Cardinal 
Richard  instituted  a  diocesan  committee  of  "free  in- 
struction", which  exhorted  all  the  male  and  female 
teachers  in  private  institutions  to  form  separate  dioc- 
esan associations.  Mutual-aid  societies  were  estab- 
Ushed  in  1909  to  provide  for  the  future  of  these 
teachers,  male  and  female,  and  in  1910  the  diocese 
promulgated  a  regulation  fixing  the  conditions  of 
their  promotion  and  granting  certain  guarantees  for 
their  professional  future.  On  8  December,  1906,  ar- 
rangements were  made  for  the  supervision  of  reli- 
gious instruction  in  the  schools  not  under  the  pubUc 
authorities,  and  in  June,  1908,  a  board  for  the  direc- 
tion of  secondary  and  primary  diocesan  instruction 
was  created.  From  1879  to  1910  the  expeniUture 
for  the  foundation  and  maintenance  of  the  inde- 
pendent schools  was  $8,000,000,  for  which  appeal 
was  made  to  the  charity  of  individuals.  Their  annual 
support  costs  about  §600,000.  Most  of  the  schools 
are  supported  by  a  special  committee  by  means  of 
collections,  subscriptions,  etc.;  some  belong  to  civil 


societies  which  rent  them  to  the  committees,  while 
others  are  wholly  at  the  expense  of  the  pastor.  At  the 
beginning  of  1910  there  were  in  the  102  parishes  of 
Paris  and  its  suburbs  217  independent  schools,  of 
which  only  36  are  still  in  the  hands  of  congrcg.-itions, 
and  these  also  in  virtue  of  the  Associatimis  Law  are 
destined  after  a  short  time  to  be  under  tlic  supervision 
of  lay  Catholics.  The  number  of  pujjiis  frociucnting 
these  schools  is  estimated  to  be  about  42,000.  The 
".Jeunesse  pr(5voyante  du  diocese  de  Paris",  estab- 
lished in  1902, constitutes  a  flourishing  scliool  mutual- 
aid  society.  A  district  union  groups  together  tliirty- 
five  associations  of  former  pupils  of  the  indcpciuient 
schools  (called  Ainicales),  and  is  a  bond  among  4.500 
members.  The  initiative  in  domestic  economy  in 
Paris  was  taken  by  CathoUcs.  Even  before  the 
public  authorities  had  made  sacrifices  for  this  end, 
the  Comtesse  de  Diesbach  had  established  (1.5  ,Iune, 
1902)  a  first  course  in  domestic  economy,  lasting  a 
month.  It  was  succeeded  by  nine  other  courses  in 
1903-05,  attended  by  110  pupils,  60  of  them  religious 
from  14  orders.  In  1905  was  opened  the  Normal  In- 
stitute of  Domestic  Economy  which  in  its  three  first 
years  gave  to  the  independent  schools  150  teachers  of 
domestic  economy.  Higher  Catholic  education  at 
Paris  is  assured  by  a  number  of  institutions  conducted 
by  ecclesiastics,  and  by  the  Bossuet,  Fenolon,  Gerson, 
and  Massillon  schools,  which  send  their  pupils  to  the 
state  lycces. 

For  the  Institut  Catholique,  see  Paris,  Univer- 
sity OF. 

A.  SOURCE.S. — Barrotjx,  Essai  de  bibliogr,  critique  des  ginirali- 
tes  de  I'hist.  de  Paris  (Paris,  1908),  easential;  PoixE,  Les  sources 
de  I'hisl.  de  P.  et  les  historiens  de  P.  in  Revue  Bteue  (18  and  25  Nov., 
1905) :  TouRNEDX,  Bibliogr.  de  Vhist.  de  P.  pendant  la  Revolution 
frantaise  (4  vols.,  Paris,  1S90-1906),  especially  III;  Bull,  de  la 
Soc.  de  I'hist.  de  P.  et  de  file  de  France  (1S74— );  Bull,  du  Comiti 
d'hist.  et  d'arcUol.  du  dioc.  de  P.  (1883-5) ;  Bibliothique  d'hist.  de 
P.  (1909—). 

B.  General. — Lebeuf,  Hist,  de  la  ville  et  de  tout  le  dioc.  de  P. 
(15  vols.,  Paris,  1754-58),  new  ed.  by  Augieh  (5  vols.);  Tables  (.1 
vol..  Paris,  1884);  BouRNON.  Rectifications  el  Additions  d  I'Abbi 
Lebeuf  (4  fascicles,  Paris,  1890-1901) ;  Idem.  P.  hist.,  monuments, 
administration  (Paris,  1888);  Idem,  P.  Atlas  (Paris,  1900);  Cain, 
Promenades  dans  P.,  Pierres  de  P.,  Coins  de  P.  (4  vols..  Paris, 
190.5-10);  Davis.  About  P.  (New  York,  1895);  Hare,  P.  (Lon- 
don, 1896);  Mempes,  P.  (London,  1907);  Okey,  P.  and  its  Story 
(London,  1904);  Franklin,  La  vie  privie  d'autrefois.  Arts  et 
mitiers,  modes,  mceurs,  usages  des  Parisiens  du  XIP  au  X  VII' 
siicle  (27  vols.,  Paris.  1887-1902);  Harrison,  Memorable  P. 
Houses  with  illustrative,  critical,  and  anecdotal  notices  (London, 
1893). 

C.  EccLEBiASTiCAL. — Gallia  Christ.,  VII  (1744),  1-219,  Instru- 
menta.  1-192;  Fisquet,  La  France  pontificale  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1864- 
6) ;  LoNGNON.  L'ancien  dioc.  de  P.  et  ses  subdivisions  in  Bull,  du 
Comiti  d'hiit.  rt  d'arrhcol.  du  dioc.  de  P.,  I  (1883),  pp.  10-19; 
Bernard,  /-'  -  <  /(  .  '-  I'riflise  de  P.,  itablissement  du  ckristia- 
nismedansl'  '  /(.rtj/s  de  P.  (Paris,  1870) ;  Chartier, 
L'ancien  chn I'  '  '.  ;)..me-rfe-P.  e(  sa  ma«(rise  (Paris,  1897); 
Jacnat,  Uisl.  '-  ■  '7  '  ■'  nrchevtques  de  P.  (Paris,  1884);  De- 
POIN,  Essai  sur  (n  rl,riini<ln,}ie  des  eviques  de  P.  de  768  A  IIS8  in 
BulL  histor.  et  philol.  (1906);  F^ret,  L'abbaye  de  Ste-Genevihe  et 
la  congregation  de  France  (Paris,  1883) ;  Bonnard.  Hist,  de  l'abbaye 
roijale  de  I'ordre  des  chanoines  reguliers  de  St- Victor  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1908);  Brouillet,  Les  iglises  paroissiales  de  P.  (monographs, 
Lyons,  1897-1904);  Lonergan,  Historic  Churches  of  P.  (London, 
1896);  MoRTET,  Etude  histor.  et  archiol.  sur  la  cathidrale  et  le 
palais  episcopal  de  P.  au  VI'  et  XII'  Steele  (Paris.  1888) ;  Aubert, 
La  cathedrale  N.-D.-de-P.  (Paris,  1909);  Hiatt,  N.-D.-de-P.,  a 
Short  History  and  Description  of  the  Cathedral  (London,  1902); 
Duplessy,  p.  religieux  (Paris,  1900);  D'Ayzac,  Hist,  de  l'abbaye 
de  St-Denis  en  France  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1860-1) ;  Havet.  Les  origines 
de  St-Dcnis  (Paris,  1890) ;  Paris,  Les  grandes  chroniques  de  France, 
selon  qu'elles  sont  conservies  en  Viglise  de  St-Denis  (6  vols.,  Paris, 
1830-9) ;  ViTRY  AND  Bri iBE,  L  'eglise  abbatiale  de  St-Denis  (Paris, 
1908);  LESfeTRE,  L'Immaculie  Conception  el  VEglise  de  Paris 
(Paris,  1904);  DouMERGtiE.  Paris  protestant  au  XVI'  siicle  in 
Bull,  de  la  Soc.  du  protestantisme  frantais  (1896);  Douen,  La 
Revocation  de  Vedit  de  Nantes  d,  P.  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1894);  Decop- 
PET,  P.  protestant  (Paris,  1876) ;  Robinet,  Le  mouvement  religieux 
A  P.  pendant  la  Revolution,  1789-1801  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1896); 
Delarc,  L'eglise  de  P.  pendant  la  Revolution  fran^aise,  1789-1801 
(3  vols.,  Paris.  IS95-8) ;  Grente,  Le  culte  catholique  A  P.  de  la 
Tcrreur  au  Concordat  (Paris.  1903);  Pisani,  L'iglise  de  P.  sous 
la  Revolution  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1909-10) ;  De  Lanzac  de  Laborie, 
P.  sous  Napoleon,  especially  IV  (Paris.  1907). 

D.  Charities. — Chevalier,  L'h6tel-Dieu  de  P.  et  les  Saurs  Au- 
Ouslines  {650  A  1810)  (Paris,  1901) ;  Brcnet.  La  charitt  paroissiale 
A  P.  au  X  VII'  siicle  d'apris  les  reglements  des  compagnies  de  chariti 
(Caen.  1906) ;  Cahen,  Le  grand  bureau  des  pauvres  de  P.  au  milieu 
du  18'  siicle  (Paris,  1904) ;  Maxime  dd  Camp,  La  chariti  privie  A 
P.  (Paris,  1885) ;  Idem,  P.  bienfaisant  (Paris,  1888) ;  do  ThiI/- 


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LEUL,  L'assistance  pubtique  A  P.,  ses  bienfaiteurs  et  sa  fortune 
mobiliire  (2  vols..  Paris.  1904);  P.  charitable  et  premyant.  pub- 
lished by  the  Central  Office  of  Charitable  Institutions  (3rd  ed., 
Paris,  1904) ;  Manuel  des  (Entires  (new  ed.,  Paris,  1911),  supplies 
the  most  recent  information  and  a  detailed  description  concerning 
all  French  Catholic  charitable  worlis,  especially  those  of  Paris. 

Georges  Gotatj. 

Paris,  UNivERSiTr  of. — Origin  and  Early  Organi- 
zation.— Three  schools  were  especially  famous  at 
Paris,  the  palatine  or  palace  school,  the  school  of 
Notre-Dame,  and  that  of  Sainte-Genevieve.  The  de- 
cline of  royalty  inevitably  brought  about  the  decline 
of  the  first.  The  other  two,  which  were  very  old,  like 
those  of  the  cathedrals  and  the  abbeys,  are  only  faintly 
outlined  during  the  early  centuries  of  their  existence. 
The  glory  of  the  palatine  school  doubtless  eclipsed 
theirs,  until  in  the  course  of  time  it  completely  gave 
way  to  them.  These  two  centres  were  much  fre- 
quented and  many  of  their  masters  were  esteemed  for 
their  learning.  It  is  not  until  the  tenth  century,  how- 
ever, that  we  meet  with  a  professor  of  renown  in  the 
school  of  Ste-Genevieve.  This  was  Hubold,  who,  not 
content  with  the  courses  at  Liege,  came  to  continue 
his  studies  at  Paris,  entered  or  allied  himself  with  the 
chapter  of  Ste-Genevieve,  and  by  his  teaching  at- 
tracted many  pupils.  Recalled  by  his  bishop  to  Bel- 
gium, he  soon  profited  by  a  second  journey  to  Paris  to 
give  lessons  with  no  less  success.  As  to  the  school  of 
Notre-Dame,  while  many  of  its  masters  are  mentioned 
simply  as  having  been  professors  at  Paris,  in  its  later 
history  we  meet  with  a  number  of  distinguished 
names:  in  the  eleventh  century,  Lambert,  disciple  of 
Fulbert  of  Chartres;  Drogo  of  Paris;  ^Ianegold  of 
Germany;  Anselm  of  Laon.  These  two  schools,  at- 
tracting scholars  from  every  country,  produced  many 
illustrious  men,  among  whom  were:  St.  Stanislaus, 
Bishop  of  Cracow;  Gebbard,  Archbishop  of  Salzburg; 
St.  Stephen,  third  Abbot  of  Citeaux ;  Robert  d'Arbrissel, 
founder  of  the  Abbey  of  Fontex'rault  etc.  The  honour 
of  having  formed  similar  pupils  is  indiscriminately 
ascribed  to  Notre-Dame  and  to  Ste-Genevieve,  as  du 
Molinet  has  justly  remarked  (Bibl.  Sainte-Genevieve, 
MS.H.  fr.  21,  in  fob,  p.  .576).  Humanistic  instruction 
comprised  grammar,  rhetoric,  dialect  ii's,  aritliinetic, 
geometry,  music,  and  astronomy  (Iririum  and  qumlri- 
viam).  To  the  higher  instruction  belonged  dogmatic 
and  moral  theology,  whose  source  was  the  Scriptures 
and  the  Fathers,  and  which  was  completed  by  the 
study  of  canon  law.  Three  men  were  to  add  a  new 
splendour  to  the  schools  of  Notre-Dame  and  Ste- 
Genevieve,  namely  William  of  Champeaux,  Abelard, 
and  Peter  Lombard.  A  new  school  arose  which  ri- 
valled those  of  Notre-Dame  and  Ste-Genevieve.  It 
owed  its  foundation  to  the  same  William  of  Champeaux 
when  he  withdrew  to  the  Abbey  of  St-Victor  and  it 
took  the  name  of  that  abbey.  Two  men  shed  special 
radiance  on  this  school,  Hugh  and  Richard,  who  added 
to  their  own  names  that  of  the  abbey  at  which  they 
were  religious  and  professors. 

The  plan  of  studies  expanded  in  the  schools  of  Paris 
as  it  did  elsewhere.  The  great  work  of  a  monk  of  Bo- 
logna, known  as  the  "Decretum  Gratiani",  brought 
about  a  division  of  the  science  of  theology.  Hitherto 
the  discipline  of  the  Church  had  not  been  separate 
from  theology  properly  so-called;  they  were  studied 
together  under  the  same  professor.  But  this  vast 
collection  necessitated  a  special  course,  which  was 
naturallv  undertaken  first  at  Bologna,  where  Roman 
law  was'  taught.  In  France,  first  Orleans  and  then 
Paris  erected  chairs  of  canon  law,  which  except  at 
Paris  were  usually  also  chairs  of  civil  law.  The  capi- 
tal of  the  kingdom  might  thus  boast  of  this  new  pro- 
fessorate, that  of  the  "Decretum  Gratiani",  to  which 
before  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  were  added  the 
Decretals  of  Gerard  (or  CUrard)  La  Pucelle,  Mathieu 
d' Angers,  and  Anselm  (or  Anselle)  of  Paris,  but  civil 
law  was  not  included.  In  the  course  of  the  twelfth 
century  also  medicine  began  to  be  publicly  taught  at 


Paris.  A  professor  of  medicine  is  mentioned  in  this 
city  at  this  time,  namely  Hugo,  "physicus  excellens 
qui  quadrivium  docuit",  and  it  is  to  be  assumed  that 
this  science  was  included  in  his  teaching. 

For  the  right  to  teach,  two  things  were  necessary, 
knowledge  and  appointment.  Knowledge  was  proved 
by  examination,  the  appointment  came  from  the 
examiner  himself,  who  was  the  head  of  the  school, 
and  was  known  as  scholasticus,  capiscol,  and  even- 
tually as  "chancellor".  This  was  called  the  licence 
or  faculty  to  teach.  \\'ithout  this  authorization  there 
was  danger  of  the  chairs  being  occupied  by  ignorant 
persons,  whom  John  of  Salisbury  depicts  as  "chil- 
dren yesterday,  masters  to-day;  yesterday  receiving 
strokes  of  the  ferrule,  to-day  teaching  in  a  long  gown" 
(Metalogicus,  I,  xxv  in  inii.).  The  licence  had  to  be 
granted  gratuitously.  Without  it  no  one  could  teach ; 
on  the  other  hand,  it  could  not  be  refused  when  the 
applicant  deserved  it. 

The  school  of  St-Victor,  which  shared  the  obliga- 
tions as  well  as  the  immunities  of  the  abbey,  conferred 
the  licence  in  its  own  right;  the  school  of  Notre-Dame 
depended  on  the  diocese,  that  of  Ste-Genevieve  on  the 
abbey  or  chajJter.  It  was  the  diocese  and  the  abbey 
or  chapter  which  through  their  chancellor  gave  pro- 
fessorial investiture  in  their  respective  territories,  i.  e. 
the  diocese  in  the  city  intra  pontes  and  other  places 
subject  to  the  ordinary,  the  abbey  or  chapter  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river  as  far  as  its  jurisdiction  reached. 
Consequently,  as  du  Molinet  exiilains,  it  was  incum- 
bent on  the  chancellor  of  Nutre-Dame  and  Ste-Gene- 
vieve to  examine  "those  who  ajjplied  to  teach  in  the 
schools",  to  "license  after  study  those  who  sought  to 
be  masters  and  regents"  (op.  cit.,  58.5).  Besides 
these  three  centres  of  learning  there  were  several 
schools  on  the  "Island"  and  on  the  "Mount". 
"Whoever",  says  Crevier  "had  the  right  to  teach 
might  open  a  school  where  he  pleased,  provided  it  was 
not  in  the  vicinity  of  a  principal  school".  Thus  a 
certain  Adam,  who  was  of  English  origin,  kept  his 
"near  the  Petit  Pont";  another  Adam,  Parisian  by 
birth,  "taught  at  the  Grand  Pont  which  is  called  the 
Pont-au-Change"  (Hist. del'Univers.de  Paris,  I,  272). 

The  number  of  students  in  the  schools  of  the  capital 
grew  constantly,  so  that  eventually  the  lodgings  were 
insufficient.  Among  the  French  students  there  were 
princes  of  the  blood,  sons  of  the  nobility,  and  the  most 
distinguished  youths  of  the  kingdom.  The  courses 
at  Paris  were  considered  so  necessary  as  a  completion 
of  studies  that  many  foreigners  flocked  to  them. 
Popes  Celestine  II  and  Adrian  IV  had  studied  at  Paris, 
Alexander  III  sent  his  nephews  there,  and,  under  the 
name  of  Lothaire,  a  scion  of  the  noble  family  of  Seigny, 
who  was  later  to  rule  the  Church  as  Innocent  III,  be- 
longed to  the  student  body.  Otto  of  Freisingen,  Car- 
dinal Conrad,  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  St.  Thomas  of 
Canterbury,  and  John  of  Salisbury  were  among  the 
most  illustrious  sons  of  Germany  and  England  in  the 
schools  of  Paris;  while  Ste-Genevieve  became  practi- 
cally the  seminary  for  Denmark.  The  chroniclers  of 
the  "time  call  Paris  the  city  of  letters  par  excellence, 
placing  it  above  Athens,  Alexandria,  Rome,  and  other 
cities:  "At  that  time",  we  read  in  the  "Chroniques 
de  St-Denis",  "there  flourished  at  Paris  philosophy 
and  all  branches  of  learning,  and  there  the  seven  arts 
were  studied  and  held  in  such  esteem  as  they  never 
were  at  Athens,  Egypt,  Rome,  or  elsewhere  in  the 
worid"  ("Les  gestes  de  Philii>pe-Auguste").  Poets 
said  the  same  thing  in  their  verses,  and  they  compared 
it  to  all  that  was  greatest,  noblest,  and  most  valuable 
in  the  world. 

To  maintain  order  among  the  students  and  define 
the  relations  of  the  professors,  organization  was  neces- 
sary. It  had  its  beginnings,  and  it  developed  as  cir- 
cumstances permitted  or  required.  Three  features  in 
this  organization  may  be  noted:  first,  the  professors 
formed  an  association,  for  according  to  Matthew  Paris, 


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John  of  Celles,  twenty-first  Abbot  of  St.  Albans,  Eng- 
land, was  admittod  as  a  member  of  the  teaching  corps 
of  Paris  after  h<'  had  followed  the  courses  (Vita  Joaii- 
nis  I,  XXI,  ahhat.  S.  All)an).  Again,  the  masters  as 
well  as  the  students  were  divided  according  to  prov- 
inces, for  as  the  same  historian  states,  Henry  II, 
King  of  England,  in  his  difficulties  with  St.  Thomas 
of  Canterbury,  wished  to  submit  his  cause  to  a  tribunal 
composed  of  professors  of  Paris,  eho.sen  from  various 
produces  (Hist,  major,  Henry  II,  to  end  of  1169). 
This  was  probably  the  germ  of  that  division  according 
to  "nations"  which  was  later  to  play  an  important 
part  in  the  university.  Lastly,  mention  must  be  made 
of  the  privileges  then  enjoyed  by  the  professors  and 
students.  In  virtue  of  a  decision  of  Celestine  III,  they 
were  amenable  only  to  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  Other 
decisions  dispensed  them  from  residence  in  case  they 
possessed  benefices  and  permitted  them  to  receive 
their  revenues. 

These  three  schools  of  Notre-Dame,  Ste-Genevifive, 
and  St-\'ictor  may  be  regarded  as  the  triple  cradle  of 
the  Vnivcrsilas  scholarium,  which  included  masters 
and  students;  hence  the  name  University.  Such  is 
the  common  and  more  probable  opinion.  Denifle 
and  some  others  hold  that  this  honour  must  be 
reserved  to  the  school  of  Notre-Dame  (Chartula- 
rium  Universitatis  Parisiensis),  but  the  reasons  do 
not  seem  convincing.  He  excludes  St-Victor  because, 
at  the  request  of  the  abbot  and  the  religious  of  St- 
Victor,  Gregory  IX  in  1237  authorized  them  to  re- 
sume the  interrupted  teaching  of  theology.  But  the 
university  was  in  large  part  founded  about  1208,  as  is 
shown  by  a  Bull  of  Innocent  III.  Consequently 
the  schools  of  St-Victor  might  well  have  furnished 
their  contingent  towards  its  formation.  Secondly, 
Denifle  excludes  the  schools  of  Ste-Genevieve  because 
there  had  been  no  interruption  in  the  teaching  of 
the  liberal  arts.  Now  this  is  far  from  proved,  and 
moreover,  it  seems  incontestable  that  theology  also 
had  never  ceased  to  be  taught,  which  is  sufficient  for 
our  point.  Besides,  the  role  of  the  chancellor  of  Ste- 
Genevieve  in  the  university  cannot  be  explained  by 
the  new  opinion;  he  continued  to  give  degrees  in  arts, 
a  function  which  would  have  ceased  for  him  when  the 
university  was  organizefi  if  his  abbey  had  no  share  in  its 
organization.  And  while  the  name  Universilas  scho- 
larium is  quite  intelligible  on  the  basis  of  the  common 
opinion,  it  is  incompatible  with  the  recent  (Denifle's) 
view,  according  to  which  there  would  have  been 
schools  outside  the  university. 

Organization  in  the.  Thirteenth  Century. — As  com- 
pleting the  work  of  organization  the  diploma  of  Philip 
Augustus  and  the  statutes  of  Robert  de  Courgon  are 
worthy  of  note.  The  king's  diploma  was  given  "for 
the  security  of  the  scholars  of  Paris",  and  in  virtue  of 
it  from  the  year  1200  the  students  were  subject  only 
to  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.  Hence  the  provost  and 
other  officers  were  forbidden  to  arrest  a  student  for 
any  offence,  and  if  in  exceptional  cases  this  was  done 
it  was  only  to  hand  over  the  culprit  to  ecclesiastical 
authority,  for  in  the  event  of  grave  crime  royal  justice 
was  limited  to  taking  cognizance  of  the  procedure  and 
the  verdict.  In  no  case  could  the  king's  officers  lay 
hands  on  the  head  of  the  schools  or  even  on  a  simple 
regent,  this  being  allowed  only  in  virtue  of  a  mandate 
proceeding  from  ecclesia-sticafauthority.  The  statutes 
of  the  ApostoUc  legate  are  later  by  some  years,  bearing 
the  date  121.5.  They  had  for  their  object  the  moral  or 
intellectual  part  of  the  instruction.  They  dealt  with 
three  principal  points,  the  conditions  of  the  profes.sor- 
ate,  the  matter  to  be  treated,  and  the  granting  of  the 
lieence.  To  teach  the  arts  it  was  necessary  to  have 
reached  the  age  of  twenty-one,  after  having  studied 
these  arts  at  least  six  years,  and  to  take  an  engagement 
as  profes-sor  for  at  least  two  years.  For  a  chair  in 
theologj-  the  candidate  had  to  be  thirty  years  of  age 
with  eight  years  of  theological  studies,  of  which  the  last 


three  years  were  at  the  same  time  devoted  to  special 
cx)urses  of  lectures  in  preparation  for  the  mastership. 
These  studies  hatl  to  be  made  in  the  local  schools  and 
under  the  direction  of  a  master,  for  at  Paris  one  was 
not  regarded  as  a  scholar  unless  he  had  a  particular 
master.  Lastly,  purity  of  morals  was  not  less  requisite 
than  learning.  Priscian's  "Grammar",  Aristotle's 
"Dialectics",  mathematics,  astronomy,  music,  certain 
books  of  rhetoric  and  philosophy  were  the  subjects 
taught  in  the  arts  course;  to  these  might  be  added  the 
Ethics  of  the  Stagyrite  and  the  fourth  book  of  the 
Topics.  But  it  was  forbidden  to  read  the  books  of 
Aristotle  on  Metaphysics  and  Physics,  or  abbreviations 
of  them.  The  licence  was  granted,  according  to  custom, 
gratuitously,  wit  hout  oath  or  condition.  !^Iasters  and 
students  were  permitted  to  unite,  even  by  oath,  in 
defence  of  their  rights,  when  they  could  not  otherwise 
obtain  justice  in  serious  matters.  No  mention  is  made 
either  of  law  or  of  medicine,  probably  because  these 
sciences  were  less  prominent. 

A  denial  of  justice  by  the  queen  brought  about  in 

1229  a  suspension  of  the  courses.  Appeal  was  taken 
to  the  pope  who  intervened  in  the  same  year  by  a  Bull 
which  began  with  a  eulogy  of  the  university.  "Paris", 
said  Gregory  IX,  "mother  of  the  sciences,  is  another 
Cariath-Sepher,  city  of  letters".  He  compared  it  to  a 
laboratory  in  which  wisdom  tested  the  metals  which 
she  found  there,  gold  and  silver  to  adorn  the  Spouse 
of  Jesus  Christ,  iron  to  fashion  the  spiritual  sword 
which  should  smite  the  inimical  powers.  He  commis- 
sioned the  Bishoijs  of  Le  Mans  and  Senlis  and  the 
Archdeacon  of  Ch&lons  to  negotiate  with  the  French 
Court  for  the  restoration  of  the  university.    The  year 

1230  came  to  an  end  without  any  result,  and  Gregory 
IX  took  the  matter  directly  in  hand  by  a  Bull  of  1231 
addressed  to  the  masters  and  scholars  of  Paris.  Not 
content  with  settling  the  dispute  antl  giving  guaran- 
tees for  the  future,  he  sanctioned  and  developed  the 
concessions  of  Robert  de  Courgon  by  empowering  the 
university  to  frame  statutes  concerning  the  discipline 
of  the  schools,  the  method  of  instruction,  the  defence 
of  theses,  the  costume  of  the  professors,  and  the  obse- 
quies of  masters  and  students.  What  was  chiefly 
important  was  that  the  pope  recognized  in  the  univer- 
sity or  granted  it  the  right,  in  case  justice  were  denied 
it,  to  suspend  its  courses  until  it  should  receive  full 
satisfaction.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  the 
schools  of  Paris  not  only  was  the  granting  of  licence 
gratuitous  but  instruction  also  was  free.  This  was  the 
general  rule ;  however,  it  was  often  necessary  to  depart 
from  it.  Thus  Pierre  Le  Mangeur  was  authorized  by 
the  pope  to  levy  a  moderate  fee  for  the  conferring  of 
the  licence.  Similar  fees  were  exacted  for  the  first 
degree  in  arts  and  letters,  and  the  scholars  were  taxed 
two  sous  weekly,  to  be  deposited  in  the  common  fund. 

The  university  was  organized  as  follows:  at  the 
head  of  the  teaching  body  was  a  rector.  The  office 
was  elective  and  of  short  duration.  At  first  it  was 
limited  to  four  or  six  weeks.  Simon  de  Brion,  legate 
of  the  Holy  See  in  France,  rightly  judging  that  such 
frequent  changes  caused  serious  inconvenience,  de- 
cided that  the  rectorate  should  last  three  months,  and 
this  rule  was  observed  for  three  years.  Then  the  term 
was  lengthened  to  one,  two,  and  sometimes  three 
years.  "The  right  of  election  belonged  to  the  procura- 
tors of  the  four  nations.  The  "Nations"  appeared  in 
the  second  half  of  the  twelfth  century;  they  were 
mentioned  in  the  Bull  of  Honorius  III  in  1222  and  in 
another  of  Gregory  IX  in  1231;  later  they  formed  a 
distinct  body.  In  1249  the  four  nations  existed  with 
their  procurators,  their  rights  (more  or  less  well- 
defined),  and  their  keen  rivalries;  and  in  12.')4,  in  the 
heat  of  the  controversy  between  the  university  and 
the  mendicant  orders,  a  letter  was  addressed  to  the 
pope  bearing  the  seals  of  the  four  nations.  These  were 
the  French,  English,  Normans,  and  Picards.  After 
the  Hundred  Years'  War  the  English  nation  was  re- 


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placed  by  the  Germanic  or  German.  The  four  nations 
constituted  the  faculty  of  arts  or  letters.  The  expres- 
sion faculty,  though  of  ancient  usage,  did  not  have  in 
the  beginning  its  present  meaning;  it  then  indicated  a 
branch  of  instruction.  It  is  especially  in  a  Bull  of 
Gregory  IX  that  it  is  used  to  designate  the  professional 
body,  and  it  may  have  had  the  same  meaning  in  a 
university  Act  of  1221  (cf.  "Hist.  Universitatis  Parisi- 
ensis".  III,  106). 

If  the  natural  division  of  the  schools  of  Paris  into 
nations  arose  from  the  native  countries  of  the  students, 
the  classification  of  knowledge  must  quite  as  naturally 
have  introduced  the  division  into  faculties.  Profes.sors 
of  the  same  science  were  brought  into  closer  contact; 
community  of  rights  and  interests  cemented  the  union 
and  made  of  them  distinct  groups,  which  at  the  same 
time  remained  integral  parts  of  the  teaching  body. 
Thus  the  faculties  gradually  arose  and  consequently 
no  precise  account  of  their  origin  can  be  given.  The 
faculty  of  medicine  would  seem  to  be  the  last  in  point 
of  time.  But  the  four  faculties  were  already  formally 
designated  in  a  letter  addressed  in  Feb.,  1254,  by  the 
university  to  the  prelates  of  Christendom,  wherein 
mention  is  made  of  "theology,  jurisprudence,  medi- 
cine, and  rational,  natural,  and  moral  philosophy". 
In  the  celebrated  Bull  "Quasi  Lignum"  (April,  12.55), 
Alexander  IV  speaks  of  "the  faculties  of  theology" 
of  other  "faculties",  namely  those  of  canonists,  physi- 
cians, and  artists.  If  the  masters  in  theology  set  the 
example  in  this  special  organization,  those  in  decretals 
and  medicine  hastened  to  follow  it.  This  is  proved  by 
the  seals  which  the  last-named  adopted  some  years 
later,  as  the  masters  in  arts  had  already  done. 

The  faculties  of  theology,  or  canon  law,  and  medi- 
cine, were  called  "superior  faculties".  The  title  of 
"dean"  as  designating  the  head  of  a  faculty,  was  not 
in  use  until  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
In  this  matter  the  faculties  of  decretals  and  medicine 
seem  to  have  taken  the  lead,  which  the  faculty  of 
theology  followed,  for  in  authentic  acts  of  1268  we 
read  of  the  deans  of  decretals  and  medicine,  while  the 
dean  of  theology  is  not  mentioned  until  1296.  It 
would  seem  that  at  first  the  deans  were  the  oldest 
masters.  The  faculty  of  arts  continued  to  have  four 
procurators  of  its  four  nations  and  its  head  was  the 
rector.  As  the  faculties  became  more  fully  organized, 
the  division  into  four  nations  partially  disappeared  for 
theology,  decretals  and  medicine,  while  it  continued 
in  arts.  Eventually  the  superior  faculties  were  to 
include  only  doctors,  leaving  the  bachelors  to  the 
nations.  At  this  period,  therefore,  the  university  had 
two  principal  degrees,  the  baccalaureate  and  the 
doctorate.  It  was  not  until  much  later  that  the  licen- 
tiate, while  retaining  its  early  character,  became  an 
intermediate  degree.  Besides,  the  university  num- 
bered among  its  members  beadles  and  messengers, 
who  also  performed  the  duties  of  clerks. 

The  scattered  condition  of  the  scholars  in  Paris 
often  made  the  question  of  lodging  difficult.  Recourse 
was  had  to  the  townsfolk,  who  exacted  high  rates 
while  the  students  demanded  lower.  Hence  arose 
friction  and  quarrels,  which,  as  the  scholars  were  very 
numerous,  would  have  developed  into  a  sort  of  civil 
war  if  a  remedy  had  not  been  found.  The  remedy 
sought  was  taxation.  This  right  of  taxation,  included 
in  the  regulation  of  Robert  de  Courgon,  had  passed  on 
to  the  university.  It  was  upheld  in  the  Bull  of  Greg- 
ory IX  of  1231,  but  with  an  important  modification, 
for  its  exercise  was  to  be  shared  with  the  citizens. 
These  circumstances  had  long  shown  the  need  of  new 
arrangements.  The  aim  was  to  offer  the  students  a 
shelter  where  they  would  fear  neither  annoyance  from 
the  owners  nor  the  dangers  of  the  world.  The  result 
was  the  foundation  of  the  colleges  (coltigere,  to  assem- 
ble). This  measure  also  furthered  the  progress  of 
studies  by  a  better  employment  of  time,  under  the 
guidance  sometimes  of  resident  masters  and  out  of  the 
XI.— 32 


way  of  dissipation.  These  colleges  were  not  usually 
centres  of  instruction,  but  simple  boarding-houses  for 
the  students,  who  went  from  them  to  the  schools. 
Each  had  a  special  object,  being  established  for  stu- 
dents of  the  same  nationality  or  the  same  science. 
Four  colleges  appear  in  the  twelfth  century;  they  be- 
came more  numerous  in  the  thirteenth,  and  among 
them  may  be  mentioned  Harcourt  and  the  Sorbonne. 
Thus  the  University  of  Paris,  which  in  general  was  the 
type  of  the  other  universities,  had  already  assumed 
the  form  which  it  afterwards  retained.  It  was  com- 
posed of  seven  groups,  the  four  nations  of  the  faculty 
of  arts,  and  the  three  superior  faculties  of  theology, 
law,  and  medicine.  Ecclesiastical  dignities,  even 
abroad,  seemed  reserved  for  the  masters  and  students 
of  Paris.  This  preference  became  a  general  rule,  and 
eventually  a  right,  that  of  eligibility  to  benefices. 
Such  was  the  origin  and  early  organization  of  the 
University  of  Paris  which  might  even  then,  in  virtue 
of  their  protection,  call  itself  the  daughter  of  kings, 
but  which  was  in  reality  the  daughter  of  the  Church. 
St.  Louis,  in  the  diploma  which  he  granted  to  the 
Carthusians  for  their  establishment  near  Paris,  speaks 
of  this  city,  where  "flow  the  most  abundant  waters  of 
wholesome  doctrine,  so  that  they  become  a  great  river 
which  after  refreshing  the  city  itself  irrigates  the  Uni- 
versal Church".  Clement  IV  uses  a  no  less  charming 
comparison:  "the  noble  and  renowned  city,  the  city 
which  is  the  source  of  learning  and  sheds  over  the 
world  a  light  which  seems  an  image  of  the  celestial 
splendour;  those  who  are  taught  there  shine  bril- 
liantly, and  those  who  teach  there  will  shine  with  the 
stars  for  all  eternity"  (cf.  du  Boulay,  "Hist.  Univers. 
Paris",  III,  360-71). 

Later  History . — Abuses  crept  in;  to  correct  these 
and  to  introduce  various  needed  modifications  in  the 
work  of  the  university  was  the  purpose  of  the  reform 
carried  out  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  Cardinal  d'Es- 
touteville.  Apostolic  legate  in  France.  As  a  whole  it 
was  less  an  innovation  than  a  recall  to  the  better  ob- 
servance of  the  ancient  statutes.  The  reform  of  1600, 
undertaken  by  the  royal  government,  was  of  the  same 
character  with  regard  to  the  three  superior  faculties. 
As  to  the  faculty  of  arts,  the  study  of  Greek  was  added 
to  that  of  Latin,  only  the  best  classical  authors  were 
recommended;  the  French  poets  and  orators  were 
used  along  with  Hcsiod,  Plato,  Demosthenes,  Cicero, 
Virgil,  and  Sallust.  The  prohibition  to  teach  civil  law 
was  never  well  observed  at  Paris.  But  in  1679  Louis 
XIV  authorized  the  teaching  of  civil  law  in  the  faculty 
of  decretals.  As  a  logical  consequence  the  name 
"faculty  of  law"replaced  that  of  "faculty  of  decretals". 
The  colleges  meantime  had  multiplied;  those  of 
Cardinal  Le-Moine  and  Navarre  were  founded  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  The  Hundred  Years'  War  was 
fatal  to  these  establishments,  but  the  university  set 
about  remedying  the  injury. 

Remarkable  for  its  teaching,  the  University  of  Paris 
played  an  important  part:  in  the  Church,  during  the 
Great  Schism;  in  the  councils,  in  dealing  with  heresies 
and  deplorable  divisions;  in  the  State,  during  national 
crises;  and  if  under  the  domination  of  England  it  dis- 
honoured itself  in  the  trial  of  Joan  of  Arc,  it  re- 
habilitated itself  by  rehabilitating  the  heroine  herself. 
Proud  of  its  rights  and  privileges,  it  fought  energetic- 
ally to  maintain  them.  Hence  the  long  struggle 
against  the  mendicant  orders  on  academic  as  well  as 
on  religious  grounds.  Hence  also  the  conflict,  shorter 
but  also  memorable,  against  the  Jesuits,  who  claimed 
by  word  and  action  a  share  in  its  teaching.  It  made 
liberal  use  of  its  right  to  decide  administratively  ac- 
cording to  occasion  and  necessity.  In  some  instances 
it  openly  endorsed  the  censures  of  the  faculty  of  the- 
ology and  in  its  own  name  pronounced  condemnation, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Flagellants. 

Its  patriotism  was  especially  manifested  on  two  oc- 
casions.   During  the  captivity  of  King  John,  when 


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498 


PARIS 


Paris  was  piven  over  to  factions,  the  university  soupht 
enorgotically  to  restore  peace;  and  under  Louis  XIV, 
when  the  Spaniards  had  cros.sc<i  the  Soniine  and 
threatened  the  capital,  it  placed  two  hundred  men  at 
the  kin^i's  disjiosal  and  ofTered  the  Master  of  Arts 
degree  gratuitously  to  scholars  who  should  jiresent 
certificates  of  service  in  the  army  (Jourdain,  "Hist. 
de  I'Univers.  de  Paris  au  XVII"  et  XVIII'' sieele", 
132-34;  "Archiv.  du  ministere  de  rinstruction  pub- 
lique"). 

The  ancient  university  was  to  disappear  with  an- 
cient France  under  the  Revolution.  On  1.5  Sept.,  1793, 
petitioned  by  the  Department  of  Paris  and  several  de- 
partmental groups,  the  National  Convention  decided 
that  indei)en<iently  of  the  primary  schools,  already  the 
objects  of  its  solicitude,  "there  should  be  established 
in  the  Republic  three  progressive  degrees  of  instruc- 
tion; the  first  for  the  knowledge  indispensable  to  ar- 
tisans and  workmen  of  all  kinds;  the  second  for  further 
knowledge  necessary  to  those  intending  to  embrace 
the  other  professions  of  society ;  and  the  third  for  those 
branches  of  instruction  the  study  of  which  is  not 
within  tlic  reach  of  all  men".  Measures  were  to  be 
taken  immediately:  "For  means  of  execution  the  de- 
partment and  the  municipality  of  Paris  are  authorized 
to  consult  with  theComtuitteeof  Public  Instruction  of 
the  National  Convention,  in  order  that  these  establish- 
ments .shall  be  put  in  action  by  1  November  next,  and 
consequently  colleges  now  in  operation  and  the  facul- 
ties of  theology,  medicine,  arts,  and  law  are  sup- 
pressed throughout  the  Republic".  This  was  the 
death-sentence  of  the  university.  It  was  not  to  be  re- 
stored after  the  Revolution  had  subsided,  any  more 
than  those  of  the  provinces.  All  were  replaced  by  a 
single  centre,  viz.,  the  University  of  France.  The 
lapse  of  a  century  brought  the  recognition  that 
the  new  system  was  less  favourable  to  study,  and  it 
was  sought  to  restore  the  old  system,  but  without  the 
faculty  of  theology. 

Rashdall,  Universiiies  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  I  (Oxford, 
1893);  Denifle,  Die  Universitalen  .  .  .  (Berlin.  1SS5);  Deni- 
FLE  AND  CuATELAiN.  ChaTlulaHum  Univ.  Paris  (Paris,  1889-97); 
DU  BouLAY.  Hist.  Univ.  Paris  (Paris,  1665-73) ;  Crevier.  Hist, 
de  I' Univ.  de  P.  (Paris.  1761);  Thurot.  De  I' organisation  de  Ven- 
aeignement  dans  f  Univ.  de  P.  (Paris,  1850);  Jourdain,  Hist,  de 
I' Univ.  de  P.  au  IT  et  au  18'  sieele  (Paris,  1866);  Raleigh,  The 
Univ.  of  Paris  (Oxford.  187.3);  Feret,  La  Faculti  de  thf.ol.  et  ses 
lioeleurs  les  plus  celebres  (Paris,  1894-1909).  See  also  bibliography 
under  University.  P.   FeHET. 

Paris,  Alexis-Paulin,  philologist,  b.  at  Avenay, 
Marne,  France, 25  March,  1800;  d.  13 Feb.,  1881.  Hav- 
ing finished  his  classical  studies  at  Reims,  he  was  sent 
by  his  father  to  Paris  to  study  law,  but  devoted  most 
of  his  time  to  literature.  In  1824  he  published 
"Apologie  de  I'Ecole  Romantique",  in  which  he  ad- 
vocated the  imitation  of  Byron  and  the  study  of 
medieval  art.  Besides  contributing  articles  to  vari- 
ous literary  reviews,  he  translated  Byron's  complete 
works  (13  vols.,  Paris,  1827-32).  In  1828  he  ob- 
tained a  clerkship  in  the  manuscript  department  of 
the  King's  Library  (now  known  as  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale),  and  was  afterwards  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  assistant  librarian.  He  took  advantage  of  his 
position  to  pursue  his  research  work  on  medieval 
literature,  and  publish  a  few  old  epics,  "Berte  aux 
Grans  Pids"  (Paris,  1831),  "Garin  le  Loherain" 
(1835),  and  a  collection  of  popular  songs  under  the 
title  of  "Romancero  Frangais"  (Paris,  1833).  He 
then  turned  to  historical  writings,  publishing  in  1833 
"M6moire  sur  la  Relation  Originale  des  Voyages  de 
Marco  Polo",  and  from  183<)  to  1840,  the  "Grandes 
Chroniques  de  Saint  Denis".  His  most  important 
work  as  a  librarian,  was  his  book  on  "Les  Manuscrits 
Frangais  de  la  Bibliotheque  du  Roi"  (Paris,  1836-48), 
which  is  not  a  mere  catalogue,  but  a  lengthy  disser- 
tation on  the  authors  and  contents  of  the  MSS. 

In  recognition  of  his  achievements,  he  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles-lettres  in 


1.S37  and  soon  after  w;is  iii;ide  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee entrusted  with  the  task  of  continuing  the 
"Ilisloire  lilleraire  de  la  France",  a  most  valuable 
public;itioti,  begun  in  the  eighteenth  century  by  the 
Benedictines.  In  1S.')3  a  chair  of  medieval  literature 
was  created  for  him  in  the  College  de  France,  .ind  for 
nineteen  years  he  lectured  in  a  most  sdiohirly  iiKinner 
on  the  origins  of  the  French  language,  the  old  French 
epics  or  "Chansons  de  Geste",  the  novels  of  the  Round 
Table,  and  the  early  French  theatre.  Medieval 
literature  appealed  to  him,  because  he  found  in  it  a 
naive  but  strong  expression  of  his  rcHgious  faith. 
Busy  as  he  was  with  the  preparation  of  his  lectures,  he 
found  time  to  publish,  with  dissertations  and  anno- 
tations, such  works  as  "Historiettes  de  Tallemand  des 
Reaux"  (9  vols.,  Paris,  IStiO),  "Aventures  de  Mattre 
Renart  et  d'Ysengrin"  (Paris,  1861),  "Recueil  com- 
plet  des  Poemes  de  St-Pavin"  (1861),  "Romans  de  la 
Table  Ronde"  (1868-77),  "Le  Livre  du  Voir  Dit", 
by  Guillaume  de  Machault  (1867).  He  resigned  his 
chair  in  the  College  de  France  in  1872. 

Paris,  Paulin  Paris  ei  la  littcrature  fran^aise  du  moyen  dfje  in 
Romania,  XI  (1882), 

Louis  N.  Delamarre. 

Paris,  Ga.ston-Bruno-Paclin,  a  French  philolo- 
gist, son  of  Pauhn,  b.  at  Avenay  (Marne),  9  August, 
1839;  d.  at  Cannes,  6  March,  1903.  After  graduating 
from  the  College  RoUin,  Paris,  he  studied  at  the 
Universities  of  Gottingen  and  Bonn,  where  he  was  a 
pupil  of  the  celebrated  philologist  Diez.  On  his  re- 
turn, while  taking  courses  at  the  Ecole  des  Chartes,  he 
studied  hiw  :ind  literature  at  the  LTniversity  of  Paris, 
obtaining  the  degree  of  doctor  in  literature  in  1865. 
He  taught  for  a  while  French  grammar  in  a  private 
school,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  languages 
at  the  Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes,  and  soon 
after  was  made  director  of  that  section  of  the  school, 
a  position  he  retained  till  his  death.  In  1872,  he  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  professor  of  medieval  literature  at 
the  College  de  France  and  was  made  director  of  the 
college  in  1895.  A  year  later,  he  was  elected  to  the 
French  Academy,  taking  the  seat  made  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Alexandre  Dumas,  Jr.  For  more  than  thirty 
years  he  was  regarded  as  the  highest  authority  in  France 
on  philology  of  the  Romance  languages.  By  his  vast 
erudition,  his  scientific  methods,  and  his  patient  re- 
searches in  that  new  field,  he  made  his  name  famous 
throughout  Europe.  His  lectures  were  attended  by 
enthusiastic  crowds  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  His  salon,  where  he  used  to  receive  every 
Sunday  his  friends,  pupils,  and  distinguished  foreign 
scholars,  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  Paris. 
Because  of  his  sojourn  in  Protestant  universities  and 
the  influence  of  Renan,  he  lost  for  a  time  his  religious 
faith,  but  towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  returned  to  the 
sentiments  of  his  childhood  and  was  buried  in  the 
Church.  Among  his  numerous  publications,  without 
mentioning  his  contributions  to  the  "Revue  critique" 
and  "Romania",  which  he  founded,  the  former  in 
1865,  the  latter  in  1872,  the  chief  to  be  cited  are: 
"Etude  sur  le  role  de  I'accent  latin  dans  la  langue 
frangaise"  (Paris,  1862);  "De  Pseudo-Turpino" 
(Paris,  1865),  a  Latin  thesis  for  the  doctorate;  "His- 
toire  poetique  de  Charlemagne"  (Paris,  1866);  "La 
vie  de  saint  Alexis"  (texts  of  the  eleventh,  twelfth, 
thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  centuries);  "Dissertation 
critique  sur  le  poeme  latin  Ligurius"  (Paris,  1873); 
"Le  petit  Poucet,  la  grande  Ourse"  (Paris,  1875); 
"Les  contcs  orientaux  dans  la  litterature  du  moyen 
dge"  (Paris,  1875);  "Les  miracles deNotre-Dame  par 
Personnages"  (Paris,  1877);  "Le  myst^re  de  la  Pas- 
sion par  Arnoul  Gr<5ban"  (1878);  "Deux  Redactions 
du  roman  des  sept  sages  de  Rome"  (Paris,  1879); 
"Aucassin  et  Nicolette"  (Paris,  1878);  "Poetes  et 
Penseurs"  (Paris,  1893)  etc. 

Masson,  Diseours  de  riception  d  V Academic  frangaise  (Pans, 
1904);   Romania  (April,  1903);    ToDD,  Gaston  Paris  in  Modern 


PARIS 


499 


PARISH 


Languages  Association   Publications  (Baltimore,  1899) ;  Hoqugs 
AND  Bedier,  Bibl.  des  auvres  de  Gaston  Paris  (Paris,  1905). 

Louis  N.  Delamarre. 

Paris,  Matthew,  Benedictine  monk  and  chroni- 
cler, b.  about  1200;  d.  1259.  There  seems  no  reason  to 
infer  from  the  name  by  which  he  was  commonly  known 
that  this  famous  English  historian  was  directly  con- 
nected with  Paris  either  by  birth  or  education.  He 
became  a  monk  at  St.  Albans  on  21  January,  1217,  and 
St.  Albans  remained  his  home  until  his  death.  We 
know,  however,  that  on  occasion  he  moved  about 
freely,  visiting  London  and  the  Court,  and  one  mem- 
orable episode  of  his  life  took  him  as  visitor  with  full 
powers  to  the  Abbey  of  St.  Benet  Holm  in  Norway 
where  he  remained  nearly  a  year.  Simple  monk  as  he 
was,  Matthew  seems  always  to  have  been  treated  as  a 
personage  of  consideration.  In  his  journey  to  Norway 
he  was  the  bearer  of  letters  from  St.  Louis  of  P'rance  to 
Haakon  IV,  inviting  the  Norwegian  king  to  join  the 
crusade.  Haakon  subsequently  became  his  personal 
friend  and  we  have  much  evidence  in  Matthew's  own 
writings  of  the  intimate  terms  upon  which  he  stood 
with  the  English  king,  Henry  III,  and  with  his  brother 
RiclKwd,  Karl  of  Cornwall.  From  them  and  from  the 
members  of  Micir  hou.sehold  the  chronicler  must  have 
derived  that  wide,  if  not  always  quite  accurate,  ac- 
quaintance with  the  details  of  foreign  contemporary 
history  in  which  Matthew  Paris  stands  unrivalled 
among  medieval  historians.  His  gifts  were  not  merely 
those  of  the  student  and  man  of  letters.  He  was 
famed  as  an  artist  and  an  expert  in  writing  and  he 
probably  executed  with  his  own  hand  many  of  the 
telling  little  drawings  which  illustrate  the  margins  of 
his  manuscripts. 

As  an  histoi'ian  Matthew  holds  the  first  place  among 
English  chroniclers.  For  his  case  of  style,  range  of 
interest  and  information,  vivid  though  prolix  elab- 
oration of  detail,  he  is  much  more  readable  than 
any  of  those  monastic  scholars  who  wrote  either  be- 
fore or  after  him.  His  great  work,  the  "Chronica 
Majora",  extends  from  the  creation  until  12.59,  the 
year  of  his  death.  Down  to  1235  this  is  simply  an  ex- 
pansion and  embellishment  of  the  chronicle  of  his  fel- 
low-monk, Roger  of  Wendover,  but  "he  re-edited 
VV'endover's  work  with  a  patriotic  and  anti-curialist 
bias  quite  alien  to  the  spirit  of  the  earlier  writer" 
(Tout,  451).  P>om  1235  to  1259  Paris  is  a  first-hand 
authority  and  by  far  the  most  copious  source  of  infor- 
mation we  possess.  The  "  Chronica  Majora"  has  been 
admirably  edited,  with  prefaces  and  supplements,  in 
seven  voliunes  by  Dr.  Luard.  A  compendium  of  this 
work  from  10(57  to  1253  was  also  prepared  by  Paris. 
It  is  known  as  the  "Historia  Minor"  and  it  bears  evi- 
dence of  a  certain  mitigation  of  previous  judgments 
which  in  his  later  years  he  deemed  over  severe.  This 
work  has  bci'u  editi'il  by  Sir  F.  Madden.  Other  minor 
works  conncc-tcd  csinTially  with  St.  Albans,  and  a 
short  "]Mv  (if  .Sicplicii  I.angton"  (printed  by  Lieber- 
mann  in  1S70)  are  also  attributed  to  Paris. 

With  regard  to  his  trustworthiness  as  a  source  of 
history  there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  amongst  most 
English  writers,  notably  for  example  J.  R.  Green  or 
Dr.  Luard,  to  glorify  him  as  a  sort  of  national  asset 
and  to  regard  his  shortcomings  with  partisan  eyes. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  Matthew's  allegations 
against  the  friars  and  his  denunciations  of  the  avarice 
and  tyranical  interference  of  the  Roman  Court  should 
be  received  with  extreme  caution.  Lingard  perhaps 
goes  too  far  when,  in  speaking  of  his  "censorious  dis- 
position", he  decLares,  "It  may  appear  invidious  to 
speak  harshly  of  this  famous  historian,  but  this  I  may 
say,  that  when  I  could  confront  his  pages  with  authen- 
tic records  or  contemporary  writers,  I  have  in  most 
instances  foimd  the  discrepancy  between  them  so 
great  as  to  give  his  narrative  the  appearance  of  a  ro- 
mance rather  than  a  history"  (Lingard,  "History", 


II,  479).  But  we  may  rest  content  with  the  verdict  of 
a  more  recent  writer,  open  to  no  suspicion  of  religious 
bias.  "Matthew",  says  Professor  Tout,  "was  a  man 
of  strong  views,  and  his  sympathies  and  his  prejudices 
colour  every  line  he  wrote.  His  standpoint  is  that  of  a 
patriotic  I']iinlislniian,  indignant  at  the  alien  invasions, 
at  the  Miisgdvcrniiicnt  of  the  King,  the  greed  of  the 
curialists  and  (lie  Poitevins,  and  with  a  professional 
bias  against  the  mendicant  friars"  (Polit.  Hist,  of 
Eng.,  Ill,  452). 


The  principal  sources  of  information  regarding  Mattliew  Paris 
have  all  been  gathered  up  in  the  prefaces  of  Dr.  Luard  to  hia 
monumental  edition  of  the  Chronica  Majora  in  the  Rolls  Series 
(1872-83).  On  the  question  of  Matthew's  caligraphy  etc., 
Luard's  views  should  be  compared  with  Sir  F.  Madden's  preface 
to  the  Historia  Minor  in  Rolls  Series  (3  vols.,  1866-69)  and  with 
Sir  T.  DufTus-Hardy's  preface  to  his  Catalogue  of  British  History, 
vol.  Ill  (1871),  equipped  with  many  facsimiles.  See  also  Cam- 
bridge History  of  English  Literature,  I  (Cambridge,  1907),  178-80; 
Tout  in  Political  History  of  England,  III  (London,  1905),  451-53; 
Gasquet,  Henry  III  and  the  Church  (London,  1905);  Berger,  St, 
Louis  et  Innocent  IV  (Paris,  1894);  Idem,  in  his  preface  to  the 
Regesta  Innocentii  Papae  Quarti. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Parish  (L.  parwtHa,  parochia,  Gk.  TrapoiKla,  a  group 
of  neighbouring  dwellings).  I.  General  Notions. — A 
parish  is  a  portion  of  a  diocese  under  the  authority  of  a 
priest  legitimately  appointed  to  secure  in  virtue  of  his 
office  for  the  faithful  dwelling  therein,  the  helps  of  reli- 
gion. The  faithful  are  called  parishioners,  the  priest 
parochiis,  curate,  parish  priest,  pastor  (q,  v.).  To 
form  a  parish  there  must  be  (1)  a  certain  body  of  the 
faithful  over  whom  pastoral  authority  is  exercised; 
the  ordinary  manner  of  de.termining  them  is  by  assign- 
ing a  territory  subject  to  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of 
the  parish  priest.  Uncertainty  of  parish  boundaries 
may  work  harm  and  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess. 
XXIV,  c.  xiii,  de  ref.)  orders  the  boundaries  of  par- 
ishes to  be  defined.  The  faithful  become  parishioners 
by  acquiring  a  domicile  or  a  quasi-domicile  (see  Domi- 
cile) within  the  territory,  or  by  simply  living  in  it  for 
a  month  (Decree,  "Ne  temere",  on  marriage,  2  .Au- 
gust, 1907).  Travellers,  however,  may  address  them- 
selves to  the  parish  priest  of  the  locality,  though  with- 
out detriment  to  the  rights  of  their  own  pastor.  The 
exclusive  attribution  of  a  territory  to  a  parish  and  its 
pastor  is  not  absolutely  necessary;  certain  parishes 
coexist  with  others  in  the  same  territory,  the  respective 
parishes  being  distinguished  by  rite  or  nationality,  e.  g. 
in  the  Orient  or  in  large  American  cities.  There  are 
even  rare  instances  of  parishes  formed  solely  of  fami- 
lies, without  regard  to  territory.  (2)  A  special  priest, 
having  in  virtue  of  his  title  a  mission  and  authority  to 
give  religious  succour  to  the  parishioners,  is  required. 
In  strict  law,  the  care  of  souls  in  a  single  parish  must 
devolve  on  several  priests,  and  in  fact,  such  was  for- 
merly the  case  in  most  chapters  (q.  v.);  but  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  (Sess,  XXIV,  c.  xiii,  de  ref.)  commands 
bishops  to  assign  to  each  parish  its  own  individual 
rector.  If  the  care  of  souls  is  entrusted  to  a  moral 
body,  like  a  chapter,  it  must  be  exercised  by  a  vicar, 
perpetual  as  far  as  possible,  who  is  called  the  "actual" 
curate,  the  chapter  remaining  the  "habitual"  curate, 
without  right  of  interfering  in  any  way  in  the  parochial 
ministry  (Sess.  VII,  c.  vii). 

The  parish  priest  may  have  assistants,  but  the  lat- 
ter exercise  their  ministry  in  dependence  on  him  and 
in  his  name.  If  the  priest,  even  when  alone,  does  not 
exercise  his  office  in  his  own  name,  if  he  is  only  the 
delegate  of  a  higher  authority,  he  is  not  really  a  parish 
priest  and  his  district  is  not  a  true  parish.  That  is 
why  there  are  no  real  parishes  (as  there  are  no  real  dio- 
ceses) but  only  stations  in  vicariates  Apostolic  and 
missionary  countries.  The  same  may  occur  in  dio- 
ceses during  the  provisional  period  which  precedes  the 
erection  of  certain  districts  into  parishes.  But  the 
parish  exists,  when  the  priest  exercises  the  ministry  in 
his  own  name,  whether  his  title  be  perpetual  or  he  be 
removable  at  the  will  of  the  bishop.    From  this  results 


PARISH 


500 


PARISH 


(3)  parochial  law,  1.  c,  the  riM'iprocal  riglits  and  diitios 
of  the  parish  priest  and  parishioners.  'Ihis  constitutes 
the  care  of  souls  {cura  animarum),im  essential  and 
constitutive  element  of  a  parish,  distinfiuisliint;  a  paro- 
chial l)enefiee  from  all  others.  Finally  there  is  re- 
quired (.1)  a  suitable  church  which  must  liave  liesides 
the  liturgical  eijuipment  neces.sary  for  Divine  worsliip, 
a  l)ai)tisinal  font  texception  is  occasionally  made  in 
favour  of  a  cathedral  or  a  mother-church;  hence  in  the 
Middle  .\ges  ))ansh  churches  were  often  called  bap- 
tismal cJuirehes),  a  confessional,  and  a  cemetery.  Rec- 
ords of  the  baptisms,  marriages,  and  burials  must  be 
kept,  while  the  entire  parish  is  the  object  of  a  liber 
status  ariimarum,  prescribed  by  the  Ritual.  I'inally, 
the  parish  has  fixed  or  occasional  contributions 
for  Divine  service,  the  building,  liturgical  furniture, 
parochial  works,  and  all  that  implies  an  administra- 
tion. Ivocal  laws  determine  the  share  of  the  parish- 
ioners or  their  representatives  in  this  administration. 
The  parish  must  Ukewise  furnish  the  parish  priest 
with  his  presbytery  or  dwelling. 

II.  The  Parish  as  a  Benefice. — The  canonical  legisla- 
tion relati\-e  to  parishes  is  part  of  the  legislation  con- 
cerning benefices  (q.  v.).  To  the  care  of  souls  is 
annexed  by  common  law  a  benefice,  by  its  purpose 
distinct  from  any  other.  All  parishes  are  benefices,  at 
least  in  the  wide  acceptation  of  the  term;  according 
to  canon  law,  every  church  should  have  a  stable  in- 
come, especially  land  revenues,  sufficient  to  insure  not 
only  the  Divine  service  but  also  the  support  of  its  clergy. 
Every  parish  priest  ought  to  have  a  fixed  beneficial 
revenue,  his  congrua,  the  minimum  of  which  is  fixed 
by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIV,  c.  .xiii,  de 
ref.),  at  one  hundred  ducats  (about  one  hundred  and 
forty-two  dollars),  a  sum  insufficient  to-day;  the  con- 
grua may  be  replaced  by  contributions  from  the  pub- 
lic treasury,  in  certain  countries,  paid  in  return  for 
former  ecclesiastical  property  now  confiscated.  Par- 
ishes without  fixed  incomes  are  nevertheless  benefices 
in  a  broad  sense  of  the  term,  since  they  insure  a  living 
for  their  parish  priests  by  gifts  and  offerings,  either 
voluntary  or  payable  on  the  occasion  of  certain  acts  of 
the  curial  ministry,  accortling  to  rates  approved  by 
the  bishop.  Parishes,  like  other  benefices,  may  be  di- 
vided into  several  classes.  Most  parishes  are  "free", 
i.  e.  the  bishop  himself  selects  the  incumbent;  but 
others  are  subject  to  the  right  of  patronage;  the  pa- 
trons present  to  the  bishop  their  candidate.  Most 
parishes  are  independent,  but  some  are  united  to  other 
ecclesiastical  bodies:  chapters,  dignities  (high  eccle- 
siastical offices),  monasteries.  By  common  law  they 
are  served  by  the  secular  clergy  and  are  hence  called 
secular  parishes;  but  gome,  united  to  houses  of  reli- 
gious orders,  are  served  by  religious  and  are  conse- 
quently termed  regular.  Those  confided  to  religious 
in  virtue  of  a  personal  title,  are  not  properly  speak- 
ing regular. 

The  care  of  souls  places  parochial  benefices  in  a 
special  category,  and  has  led  to  regulations  peculiar  to 
them  alone.  (1)  Parishes,  to  be  "free",  i.  e.,  freely 
collated,  should  be  conferred  by  the  bishop  within  six 
months  like  other  benefices;  but  his  choice  is  limited 
by  the  concursus  (q.  v.)  ordered  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  (.Se.ss.  XXIV,  c.  xviii,  de  ref.).  (2)  By  common 
law,  a  parochial  benefice,  like  other  benefices,  is  per- 
petual, and  the  beneficiary  irremovable  (see  Irre- 
movability; Decree,  "Maxima  cura",  20  August, 
1910).  According  to  this  Decree  parish  priests  who 
were  heretofore  removable  are  now  withdrawn  from 
purely  administrative  transference.  Irremovable 
parish  priests  may  have  their  faculties  withdrawn, 
without  any  trial  properly  so  called,  when  the  good  of 
BOuLs  demands  it.  The  nine  reasons  given  in  the  afore- 
said Decree  as  grounds  for  this  withdrawal  of  facul- 
ties relate  to  corporal  or  spiritual  defects,  criminal 
conduct,  serious  and  prolonged  neglect  of  duty,  per- 
sistent disobedience;  these  reasons,  however,  are  not 


here  dealt  with  as  crimes,  but  solely  as  obstacles  to  a 
useful  parochial  ministry;  hence  the  parish  priest  on 
being  removed  is  to  be  provided  for.  This  adminis- 
trat  ive  procedure  a<le<iuately  secures  the  right  of  initi- 
ative necessary  for  the  bishop,  and  at  the  same  time 
safeguards  the  inlrrcsls  (jf  the  parish  priest.  It  com- 
prises three  stages:  the  bishop  who  thinks  that  a  par- 
ish i)ricst  is  no  longer  working  faithfully  among  his 
flock,  is  bound  to  select  as  counsellors  two  of  the  syn- 
oilal  or  pro-synodal  examiners,  in  order  of  t  heir  nomina- 
tion, and  explain  the  situation  to  them.  If  the  major- 
ity decides  to  remove  the  parish  priest,  the  bishop 
must  first  officially  request  him  to  resign  within  ten 
days  under  threat  of  pronouncing  a  decree  of  removal. 
The  priest  may  reply  to  the  reasons  alleged  against 
him,  and  his  answer  is  examined  by  this  council;  if  the 
reply  is  deemed  unsatisfactory,  the  bishop  issues  the 
decree  and  notifies  the  priest.  Properly  speaking  the 
latter  cannot  appeal  from  the  decree,  but  he  may 
present  his  case  to  a  new  council,  composed  of  the 
bishop  and  two  parish  priests  as  consultors,  who 
examine  whether  the  reasons  given  for  the  removal 
have  been  proved  and  whether  the  formalities  de- 
manded by  the  decree  have  been  observed;  a  ma- 
jority vote  decides  (see  Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXI, 
c.  vi,  de  ref.). 

(3)  The  same  zeal  for  the  welfare  of  souls  inspires 
special  legislation  for  the  erection  and  division  of  par- 
ishes. The  erection  of  a  parish  takes  place  by  creation 
when  the  district  and  the  faithful  assigned  to  the  new 
parish  did  not  belong  previously  to  any  priest.  This 
case  is  extremely  rare,  as  usually  the  territory  of  each 
diocese  is  divided  into  parishes  more  or  less  exten- 
sive. A  parish  is  created  when  a  centre  of  religious 
activity  becomes  canonically  recognized  as  a  parish, 
as  when  a  vicariate  Apostolic  is  erected  into  a  diocese. 
The  erection  of  parishes  usually  takes  place  by  dis- 
memberment or  division.  While  in  theory  the  divi- 
sion of  benefices  is  looked  on  unfavorably  by  the  law 
(c.  S  de  Praebendis),  it  is  authorized  and  even  necessi- 
tated by  the  welfare  of  the  faithful  in  the  case  of  par- 
ishes. The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXI,  c.  iv,  de  ref.), 
referring  expressly  to  the  Decree  "Ad  audientiam"  of 
Alexander  III  (lib.  Ill,  tit.  48,  c.  3),  desires  bLshops,  if 
necessary  as  delegates  of  the  Apostolic  See,  to  estab- 
lish new  parishes,  in  spite  of  the  parish  priest's  oppo- 
sition, wherever  distance  or  difficulty  of  communica- 
tion does  not  allow  the  faithful  to  frequent  the  church. 
In  cities  an  excessive  increase  of  population  necessi- 
tates the  multiplication  of  parishes.  The  Council  in 
such  a  case  desires  bishops  to  oblige  the  parish  priests 
to  have  sufficient  number  of  assistants;  but  if  the  pop- 
ulation is  too  great  for  the  parish  priest  "  to  know  his 
sheep"  (Sess.  XXI,  c.  i),  the  erection  of  a  new  parish 
is  obligatory  and  the  Congregation  of  the  Council  has 
several  times  recognized  this  as  a  legitimate  reason. 
The  legal  formalities  for  the  erection  of  a  new  parish 
further  require  the  request  either  of  the  parish  priest 
whose  parish  is  to  be  divided,  or  of  other  interested 
persons,  if  there  bo  any  such;  the  consent  of  the  chap- 
ter, unless  custom  has  ruled  otherwise;  finally  the 
guarantee  of  a  sufficient  income  for  the  new  parish, 
either  by  a  partition  of  the  property  of  the  dismem- 
bered parish  or  parishes,  or  at  least  by  the  contribu- 
tions of  the  inhabitants  of  the  new  one.  The  erection 
is  effected  by  an  episcopal  decree.  As  a  rule  a  special 
kinship  exists  between  the  old  and  the  new  parishes; 
the  old  being  called  the  "mother"  and  the  new  the 
"filial"  parish,  the  latter  being  bound  to  make  cer- 
tain offerings  to  the  former,  generally  honorary,  e.  g., 
the  annual  gift  of  a  candle.  Special  "foundations"  of 
the  old  parish,  created  for  the  benefit,  not  of  the  clergy, 
but  of  the  faithful  (alms  for  the  poor)  are  divided  pro 
rata.  Finally,  the  same  procedure  is  observed  for  the 
extinction  or  suppression  of  a  parish,  by  its  union  with 
anot  her,  when  the  number  of  the  faithful  has  decreased 
so  as  no  longer  to  warrant  the  presence  of  a  parish  priest. 


PARISH 


501 


PARISH 


III.  History. — The  first  Christian  communities  were 
founded  in  cities  and  the  entire  Divine  service  was 
carried  on  by  the  bishop  and  his  clergy;  the  few  faith- 
ful outside  the  cities  went  to  the  city  or  were  visited 
from  time  to  time  by  clerics  from  the  presbyteries. 
In  the  fourth  century  we  find  in  the  villages  groups 
sufficiently  large  to  be  served  by  a  resident  clergy. 
Canon  77  of  Elvira  (about  a.  d.  300)  speaks  of  a  dea- 
con in  charge  of  the  people  {diaconus  regens  plebem). 
In  the  East  at  a  very  early  period  the  churches  of  the 
cities  and  of  the  country  districts  were  organized;  the 
Council  of  Neoca!sarea,  about  320  (can.  13),  speaks  of 
country  priests  and  bishops  of  villages,  the  "chorepis- 
copi",  who  had  a  subordinate  clergy.  Such  churches 
and  their  clergy  were  originally  under  the  direct  ad- 
ministration of  the  bishop;  but  soon  they  had  their  own 
resources  and  a  distinct  administration  (Council  of 
Chalcedon,  451,  can.  4,  6,  17).  The  same  change  took 
place  in  the  West,  but  more  slowly.  In  proportion  as 
the  counUw  districts  were  evangelized  (fourth  to  sixth 
centuries),  churches  were  erected,  at  first  in  the  vici 
(hamlets  or  villages),  afterwards  on  church  lands  or 
on  the  property  of  private  individuals,  and  at  least  one 
priest  was  appointed  to  each  church.  The  clergy  and 
property  depended  at  first  directly  on  the  bishop  and 
the  cathedral;  the  churches  did  not  yet  correspond  to 
very  definite  territorial  circumscriptions:  the  centre 
was  better  marked  than  the  boundaries.  Such  was 
the  church  which  the  councils  of  the  sixth  and 
seventh  century  call  ec.clesia  rusticana,  parochilana, 
often  dioecesis,  and  finally  parochia.  By  that  time 
most  of  these  churches  had  become  independent:  the 
priest  administered  the  property  assigned  to  him  by 
the  bisho]3,  and  also  the  property  given  directly  to  the 
church  by  the  pious  faithful;  from  that  moment  the 
priest  became  a  beneficiary  and  had  his  title.  More 
plentiful  resources  required  and  permitted  a  more  nu- 
merous clergy.  The  devotion  of  the  faithful,  espe- 
cially towards  relics,  led  to  the  erection  of  numerous 
secondary  chapels,  oraloria,  basilicce,  marlyria,  which 
also  had  their  clergy.  But  these  lituli  minores  were 
not  parishes;  they  depended  on  the  principal  church 
of  the  viciin,  and  on  the  archpriest  so  often  mentioned 
in  the  councils  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries, 
who  had  authority  over  his  own  clergy  and  those  of 
the  oratories. 

These  secondary  churches  emphasize  the  parochial 
character  of  the  baptismal  churches,  as  the  faithful 
had  to  receive  the  sacraments  and  pay  their  tithes  in 
the  la.tter.  The  monasteries  in  turn  ministered  to  the 
people  grouped  around  them.  From  the  eighth  cen- 
tury parochial  centres  multiplied  on  the  lands  of  the 
churches  and  the  monasteries,  and  the  villce  or 
great  estates  of  the  kings  and  nobles.  Then  the 
villce  were  subdivided  and  the  parish  served  a  cer- 
tain number  of  vill(E  or  rural  districts,  and  thus  the 
parish  church  became  the  centre  of  the  religious  and 
even  the  civil  life  of  the  villages.  This  condition,  es- 
tablished in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries,  has 
scarcely  varied  since,  as  far  as  concerns  the  parochial 
service.  As  benefices,  however,  parishes  have  under- 
gone many  vicissitudes,  owing  to  their  union  with 
monasteries  or  chapters,  and  on  account  of  the  inex- 
tricable complications  of  the  feudal  order.  Parish 
churches  had  ordinarily  attached  to  them  schools  and 
charitable  works,  especially  for  the  poor  enrolled  on 
the  malricula,  or  list  of  those  attached  to  the 
Church.  In  the  episcopal  and  other  cities  the  division 
into  parishes  took  place  much  more  slowly,  the  cathe- 
dral or  the  archipresbyteral  church  being  for  a  long 
time  the  only  parochial  church.  However  numerous 
the  city  churches,  all  depended  on  it  and,  properly 
speaking,  had  no  flock  of  their  own.  At  Rome,  as 
early  as  the  fourth  century,  there  was  a  quasi-paro- 
chial service  in  the  "titles"  and  cemeterial  churches 
(Innocent  I  to  Decentius,  c.  5,  an.  416).  It  is  only 
towards  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century  that  sepa- 


rate urban  parishes  began;  even  then  there  were  limi- 
tations, e.  g.  baptism  was  to  be  conferred  in  the  cathe- 
dral; the  territories,  moreover,  were  badly  defined. 
The  chapters  turned  over  to  the  clergy  of  the  churches 
the  parochial  ministry,  while  the  corporations  (guilds) 
insisted  especially  on  the  granting  of  parochial  rights 
to  the  churches  which  they  founded  and  supported. 

All  manuals  of  canon  law  have  a  chapter  on  the  parish  and  the 
parish  priest;  the  commentators  of  the  Decretals  treat  the  subject 
in  Book  III,  tit.  v,  De  prwhendis,  and  tit.  xxix,  De  parockis  et 
alienis  parochianis:  Bouix,  De  parocho  (Paris,  1867) ;  Ferraris, 
Prompta  bibliotkeca,  s.  v.  Parochia;  Sagmuller,  Lehrbuch  des 
hath.  Kirchenrechts  (Freiburg,  1909).  §§  58,  100;  Thomassin,  P.  I. 
I.  ii,  c.  21  sq. ;  Imbart  de  la  Tour.  Les  paroisses  rurales  du  JV'  au 
VI'  siicle  (Paris,  1900);  Les6the,  La  Paroisse  (Paris,  1908); 
Taunton,  Law  of  Ike  Church  (London.  1906),  s.  v. 

A.    BOUDINHON. 

In  English-speaking  Countries. — In  the  United 
States  and  English-speaking  lands  generally  (with 
the  exception  of  Ireland,  Canada,  and  possibly 
California),  it  has  not  been  found  advisable  as  yet  to 
erect  canonical  parishes.  The  districts  confided  to 
priests  having  the  cure  of  souls  are  technically  desig- 
nated as  missions  or  quasi-parishes,  though  in  common 
parlance  the  word  parish  is  employed.  The  establish- 
ment of  canonical  parishes  in  these  countries  was  not 
found  possible,  owing  either  to  the  devastation 
wrought  in  the  so-called  Reformation  period  or  to  the 
fact  that,  as  new  lands  were  slowly  evangelized  and 
settled,  circumstances  did  not  allow  the  establishment 
of  the  Church's  parochial  system  as  prescribed  in  her 
canon  law. 

A.  The  Missions  or  Quasi-Parishes.  —  Certain 
churches  are  designated  by  the  bishop  which  are  to  be 
regarded  as  parish  churches  (ad  inslar  paraciaruni). 
Over  these  churches  are  placed  priests  provided  with 
the  nece.s.sary  faculties.  They  are  designated  mission- 
ary rectors,  or  quasi-parish  priests,  though  famiUarly 
referred  to  as  pastors  or  parish  priests.  A  certain  dis- 
trict around  each  church  is  then  more  or  less  definitely 
marked  out  by  the  bishop,  within  the  limits  of  which 
the  pastor  is  to  exercise  jurisdiction  over  the  faithful 
and  have  care  of  ecclesiastical  buildings.  Within  the 
limits  of  such  missions  or  quasi-parishes,  the  bishop 
may  institute  new  ecclesiastical  divisions  when  such 
action  becomes  advisable.  If  the  parish  be  held  by 
members  of  a  religious  order,  the  bishop  is  not  thereby 
constrained  to  entrust  the  newly-formed  district  to 
regulars.  The  institution  of  new  quasi-parishes  in 
English-speaking  countries  proceeds  generally  along 
the  same  lines  as  those  prescribed  by  Church  law  for 
the  erection  of  canonical  parishes.  Consequently,  the 
bishop  can  erect  a  new  parish  by  way  of  creation, 
union,  or  division.  If  the  territory  in  question  has  not 
yet  been  assigned  to  any  parish  church,  the  institution 
is  said  to  be  by  way  of  creation.  There  cannot  be  the 
slightest  doubt  that  the  bishop  can  proceed  to  such 
action  in  virtue  of  his  powers  as  ordinary  of  the  diocese. 
In  creating  such  new  parish,  he  is  bound  to  provide  as 
far  as  possible  for  the  proper  support  of  the  new  in- 
cumbent. In  English-speaking  countries  there  is  no 
necessity  of  recurring  to  the  civil  power  for  the  crea- 
tion of  a  new  parish.  When  the  bishop  establishes 
new  quasi-parishes  by  way  of  division,  he  is  not  re- 
quired to  observe  all  the  formalities  prescribed  by  law 
for  the  dismemberment  of  canonical  parishes.  He 
must,  nevertheless,  act  on  the  advice  of  his  consultors, 
and  after  hearing  the  opinion  of  the  pastor  whose  ter- 
ritory is  to  be  divided.  It  is  obvious  that  a  division 
which  would  cripple  or  impoverish  the  church  would 
not  be  in  the  best  interests  of  religion,  yet  the  bishop 
can  proceed  to  such  dismembering  even  against  the 
will  and  advice  of  the  pastor.  In  that  case,  however, 
an  appeal  against  the  decree  of  the  ordinary  can  be 
lodged  with  the  metropolitan  or  the  Holy  See.  It  is  to 
be  noted  that,  while  very  specific  reasons  are  laid 
down  in  canon  law  according  to  which  a  bishop  may 
divide  parishes,  yet  our  bishops  are  not  limited  to  such 


PARISH 


502 


PARISH 


reasons.  Leo  XIII  lays  down  explicitly  in  his  Consti- 
tution " Romanes  Pontifices"  that  our  missions  may 
be  divided  by  the  ordinaries  for  a  greater  number  of 
reiusons  and  for  less  important  ones  than  thos(^  si)eei- 
fied  in  the  common  law  of  the  Church. 

Wlicn  a  parish  committed  to  regulars  is  to  be  di- 
vided, the  bishop  must  hear  the  opinion  of  the  religious 
superior  before  taking  action.  A  right  of  appeal 
against  the  dismemberment  of  the  mission  is  allowed 
both  to  seculars  and  regulars.  In  case  of  the  former, 
generally,  the  ajjjieal  is  to  be  made  to  the  metropoli- 
tan, as  the  bishop  acts  in  virtue  of  his  ordinarj'  juris- 
diction ;  in  case  of  the  latter,  the  appeal  is  to  be  laid 
before  the  Holy  See  .as  the  bishop  is  generally  using  his 
powers  of  papal  delegation.  Xo  appeal,  however,  can 
effect  a  suspension  of  the  bishop's  mandate  but  only 
subject  it  to  reconsideration  by  the  higher  tribunal. 
It  is  possible,  however,  for  the  ordinarj-  to  act  as  dele- 
gate of  the  Holy  See  for  seculars  as  well  as  for  regulars, 
exempt  and  non-exempt.  In  that  case  the  appeal 
must  always  be  made  to  Rome.  Parishes  are  some- 
times formed  by  way  of  union,  that  is,  when  several 
parishes  are  joined  together  so  as  to  form,  either 
strictly  or  loosely,  one  new  parish.  The  united  par- 
ishes are  simply  governed  by  one  pastor  without  any 
further  change  in  their  status  (unio  oeque  principalis); 
we  have  frequently  a  similar  arrangement  in  English- 
speaking  countries,  where  two  or  more  churches  or 
missions  are  served  by  one  priest,  though  otherwise 
independent  of  each  other.  With  us,  however,  such 
union  is  preparatorj'  to  a  division  as  soon  as  the  rev- 
enues of  the  churches  or  the  number  of  priests  allows 
of  it.  As  to  union  by  subjection,  the  usual  form  this 
takes  among  us  is  when  small  mission  stations  are 
made  (for  the  most  part  temporarily)  dependent  on 
some  parish  church.  The  power  possessed  by  the 
bishop  of  disuniting  parishes  formerly  joined  together 
is  frequently  exercised  in  these  countries  in  the  above 
mentioned  cases.  As  a  right  of  patronage  does  not 
exist  in  the  United  States,  the  making  of  new  parishes 
is  never  complicated  by  the  necessity  of  consulting  an 
ecclesiastical  patron.  The  counsel,  which  the  bishop 
must  take  to  ensure  validity  in  the  formation  of  new 
parishes,  must  be  with  his  diocesan  consultors,  where 
such  a  body  is  established,  or  with  the  cathedral  chap- 
ter, when  the  diocese  possesses  such  a  body,  as  in  the 
British  Isles.  The  regulations  of  ecclesiastical  law  by 
which  a  new  parish  or  church  must  pay  a  certain  trib- 
ute as  a  sign  of  dependence  and  respect  to  the  church 
from  which  it  was  separated  (the  relation  of  the  filia  to 
the  ecclesia  matrix,  or  mother-church)  is  generally  un- 
known in  missionarj-  countries. 

B.  Pastors  or  Rectors  of  Churches. — The  rectors  of 
missions  are  not  canonical  parish  priests,  though  they 
have  been  invested  with  nearly  all  the  privileges  of 
canonical  incumbents  by  particular  synods  or  decrees 
of  Roman  congregations.  These  rectors  are  of  two 
kinds,  removable  and  irremovable.  The  common  law 
of  the  Church  requires  that  every  parish  should  have 
an  irremovable  rector,  but  in  countries  where  the 
Church  is  not  canonically  established,  this  is  not  al- 
way.s  feasible,  and  therefore  the  Holy  See  permits  the 
appointment  of  p.astors  who  are  removable  at  the  will 
of  the  ordinarj-  {ad  nntiim  episcopi).  Priests  belonging 
to  religious  orders,  who  are  in  charge  of  parishes,  may 
be  removed  either  by  their  superior  or  by  the  bishop, 
w-ithout  either  being  constrained  to  give  the  reason  for 
his  action  to  the  other.  On  the  removal  of  a  regular, 
his  reUgious  superior  nominates  his  successor.  It  is 
the  expressed  desire  of  the  Holy  See,  that  all  rectors  of 
parishes  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  endowed  with 
the  quality  of  perpetuity  in  their  pastoral  charge  and, 
where  this  is  impossible,  that  at  least  a  certain  number 
of  the  rectors  of  parishes  bo  declared  irremovable. 
The  proportion  of  one  out  of  every  ten  was  determined 
on  as  the  minimum  number  in  American  dioceses. 
When  a  certain  rectorship  has  once  been  declared  irre- 


movable, it  is  not  in  the  jiower  of  the  ordinary  to 
reduce  it  to  the  status  of  a  removable  rect(irslii|).  This 
is  plain  from  the  Third  Council  of  Baltimore  (\o.  .'i4), 
as  well  as  from  the  general  law  of  the  Church,  which 
forbids  ecM'lcsiastii'al  superiors  to  lower  the  status  or 
condition  <if  churches.  When  a  parish  is  declared  an 
irremovable  rectorship,  the  ajipointnient  of  the  first 
rector  lies  with  the  bisliii))  after  hearing  the  diocesan 
consultors.  For  instituting  nil  otlier  irremovable  rec- 
tors, it  is  necessary  tliat  a  written  examination  or  con- 
cursus  be  held,  at  which  the  same  questions  must  be 
proposed  to  all  the  candidates.  From  among  those 
whom  the  examiners  shall  deem  worthy  after  a  con- 
sideration of  their  answers  and  testimonials,  the  bishop 
selects  one  on  whom  he  confers  the  parish.  This  rule 
as  to  a  concursus  does  not  hold,  however,  in  all  Eng- 
lish-speaking countries.  An  appeal  to  a  higher  tri- 
bunal is  not  stopped  by  a  concursus,  for  a  dissatisfied 
candidate  may  lay  his  complaint  before  the  metro- 
politan, either  on  account  of  the  improper  judgment 
of  the  examiners  or  of  the  unreasonable  selection  made 
by  the  ordinary. 

No  examination  is  required  for  the  appointment  of 
pastors  to  removable  rectorships.  \\'hen  a  rector  has 
once  acquired  the  privilege  of  permanency,  he  cannot 
be  removed  against  his  will  except  for  causes  laid 
down  by  ecclesiastical  decrees  or  in  such  cases  as  fall 
under  the  new  Constitution  of  Pius  X,  "Maxima 
Cura"  (20  Aug.,  1910).  Removable  rectors,  though 
they  are  appointed  at  the  will  of  the  bishop,  can- 
not be  removed  except  for  grave  cause,  if  such  re- 
moval would  affect  their  character  or  their  emolu- 
ments, and  in  case  of  grievance  they  may  have 
recourse  to  the  Holy  See.  The  First  Synod  of  West- 
minster (D.  2.5)  warns  priests  that  the  appointment  to 
permanent  rectorships  rests  with  the  bishop,  and  that 
no  right  of  preferment  is  acquired  by  serving  as  assist- 
ant priest  on  a  mission  or  even  administering  it 
temporarily.  On  appointment  to  a  parish,  an  irre- 
movable rector  must  make  a  profession  of  faith. 
Whether  the  same  obligation  rests  on  removable  rec- 
tors is  disputed  by  canonists.  The  profession  of  faith 
is  explicitly  demanded  of  all  rectors  by  the  First 
Council  of  Westminster,  but  there  has  been  no  such 
pronouncement  for  the  United  States.  The  Decree 
of  Pius  X"Sacrorum  Antistitum"  (1  Sept.,  1910)  is, 
of  course,  binding  everywhere.  All  priests  having 
cure  of  souls  are  bound  to  reside  in  their  parishes,  and 
the  statutes  of  some  dioceses  require  the  bishop's  con- 
sent for  one  week's  absence.  As  our  rectors  are  not 
canonical  parish  priests,  they  are  not  bound  to  offer 
up  the  Mass  gratuitously  for  their  people  on  Sundays 
and  holy  days  of  obligation.  In  Ireland  and  Canada, 
however,  this  obligation  rests  on  parish  priests,  though 
dispensations  are  commonly  given  from  offering  this 
Mass  on  suppressed  holy  d.ays. 

The  duty  of  instructing  the  young  in  catechism  is 
insisted  on  by  the  synods  of  Baltimore,  and,  especially 
in  places  where  there  are  no  parochial  schools,  this 
instruction  is  to  be  carried  on  by  means  of  Sunday 
schools.  Pastors  are  obliged  to  establish  parochial 
schools  where  possible,  and  they  are  exhorted  to  visit 
them  frequently  and  see  to  their  efficient  management. 
They  are  also  obliged  to  preach  to  their  people  and 
give  them  facility  for  approaching  the  sacraments. 
The  Westminster  Synod  exhorts  pastors  to  provide 
missions  and  spiritual  retreats  for  their  flocks.  As 
our  rectors  are  quasi-parish  priests,  they  have  juris- 
diction similar  to  that  of  canonical  parish  priests  con- 
ferred on  them  by  various  councils.  As  regards  the 
sacraments,  baptism  should  be  conferred  only  in  the 
parish  to  which  the  person  belongs,  and  the  contrary 
practice  is  strictly  prohibited  (II  Bait.,  No.  227); 
penance  cannot  be  administered,  even  to  his  parishion- 
ers, outside  the  diocese  to  which  the  rector  belongs, 
though  this  would  be  a  prerogative  of  a  canonical 
parish  priest;  the  Paschal  Communion  may  be  made 


PARISH 


503 


PARK 


in  any  public  chapel  or  church,  unless  there  be  special 
legislation  against  it;  Mass  may  be  celebrated  twice  a 
day,  witli  episcopal  permission,  when  otherwise  a  con- 
siderable number  of  persons  would  be  deprived  of 
Mass  on  Sundays  and  holjf  days;  matrimony  is  to  be 
administered  by  one's  own  pastor  for  liceity ;  and  when 
the  contracting  parties  are  of  different  parishes,  it 
is  usual  for  the  bishop  to  designate  the  parish  of  the 
bride  as  the  proper  place  for  the  ceremony.  These 
requirements,  however,  do  not  affect  the  validity  of 
the  sacrament.  As  regards  funeral  rights  of  pastors, 
there  is  no  special  legislation  for  the  United  States, 
but  the  common  law  of  the  Church  is  usually  followed. 
The  administration  of  the  Viaticum  and  extreme 
unction  are  rights  reserved  to  the  pastor,  and  these 
rights  may  not  bo  infringed  without  penalty.  Rectors 
of  parishes  are  required  to  keep  registers  of  baptisms, 
marriages,  confirmations,  and  interments.  They  are 
also  exhorted  to  keep  a  liber  status  animarum  as  far  as 
circumstances  permit  it.  In  some  dioceses,  the  ac- 
ceptance of  a  perpetual  foundation  for  a  daily  or 
anniversary  Mass  is  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
oWinary,  who  is  to  decide  on  the  adequacy  of  the 
endowment. 

C.  Rectors  and  the  Parochial  Temporalities. — Pas- 
tors are  the  administrators  of  the  parochial  property, 
but  their  rights  in  this  regard  are  subordinated  to  the 
episcopal  authority,  for  the  ordinary  is  the  supreme 
administrator  and  guardian  of  the  ecclesiastical 
temporalities  of  his  diocese.  A  financial  statement  of 
the  condition  of  the  parochial  property  must  con- 
sequently be  made  by  the  rector  to  the  bishop  when- 
ever he  requires  it.  Generally,  an  annual  statement 
is  to  be  made.  Whatever  regulations  are  laid  down 
by  the  ordinary  for  the  better  administration  of  the 
temporalities  are  binding  on  the  pastors.  When  lay 
trustees  are  appointed  to  assist  in  the  management  of 
the  parochial  property,  the  rectors  must  obtain  the 
episcopal  consent  for  such  appointment.  In  the 
United  States,  no  outlay  exceeding  three  hundred 
dollars  may  be  made  by  the  trustees  without  the 
bishop's  written  authorization,  if  such  outlay  is  for 
special  objects  other  than  the  ordinary  expenditures. 
The  pastors  must  see  that  lay  trustees  clearly  under- 
stand that  they  are  in  no  sense  owners  of  ecclesiastical 
property  and  that  appropriation  of  it  for  their  own 
use  entails  excommunication.  Alienation  of  all  ec- 
clesiastical property,  movable  and  immovable,  is 
unlawful  without  the  permission  of  the  Apostolic  See, 
when  such  property  is  of  considerable  value.  In  cases 
involving  a  sum  of  not  more  than  five  thousand  dollars 
only  the  bishop's  consent  is  necessary,  provided  he 
has  the  special  faculties  usually  granted  to  American 
bishops  to  that  effect.  The  penalty  for  unlawful 
alienation  is  excommunication  ipso  facto.  The  pastor 
should  make  a  careful  inventory  of  all  the  parochial 
property,  and  file  one  copy  in  the  parish  archives  and 
send  another  to  the  bishop.  In  cases  where  the  civil 
law  would  vest  the  title  to  church  property  in  lay 
trustees,  it  may  be  necessary  that  the  bishop  should 
hold  the  temporalities  in  his  own  name  in  fee  simple. 
It  is  very  undesirable  that  the  same  should  be  done  by 
the  pastors.  As  the  rectors  are  the  immediate  custo- 
dians of  the  parochial  property,  it  is  their  duty  to  keep 
it  in  proper  repair.  The  We.stminstiT  Synods  lay 
down  clear  and  detailed  rules  in  regard  to  the  duty  of 
rectors  concerning  church  property. — "  Whoever  is  set 
over  the  administration  of  a  mission  .  .  .  should  keep  a 
day-book  of  all  the  receipts  and  expenses  of  the  mis- 
sion, both  of  which  should  be  entered  most  accurately 
every  day  in  their  proper  order.  He  should  also  keep 
a  'ledger  to  which  he  will  transfer,  every  month  or 
three  months,  all  the  entries  in  the  other  book  ar- 
ranged in  order,  according  to  the  heads  under  which 
each  sum  received  or  expended  ought  to  be  placed." 
"  Every  administrator  should  keep  an  open  account 
in  some  bank  in  his  own  name  and  in  the  names  of 


two  honest  persons.  Let  these  know  that  they  are 
taken  only  to  prevent  the  money  from  any  peril  of 
loss  and  that  they  must  not  interfere  in  the  admin- 
istration. If  one  fail  from  any  cause  the  two  who 
remain  shall  take  care  to  have  another  elected  by  the 
bishop  to  supply  the  place.  The  administrator 
should  never  keep  for  longer  than  ten  days  on  hand 
more  than  201.  of  money  belonging  to  the  mission 
.  .  .  but  he  should  diligently  place  it  in  the  bank." 
"All  buildings  belonging  to  a  mission  should  be  in- 
sured against  fire  by  an  annual  payment  to  some 
society  for  this  purpose."  "As  soon  as  any  priest 
enters  on  his  mission  let  him  receive  an  inventory  of 
all  things  belonging  to  the  mission  from  the  vicar 
foran  or  from  some  one  deputed  by  the  bishop.  He 
is  bound  to  keep  the  furniture  and  buildings  in  good 
repair,  yea,  rather  to  improve  them,  that  he  may 
deliver  to  his  successors  as  much,  at  least,  as  he  re- 
ceived himself."  "In  every  mission,  the  money  con- 
tributed by  the  faithful  (for  seat  rents,  offertories, 
house  to  house  collections  and  special  collections)  ...  is 
to  be  accounted  church  property  and  not  as  gifts  given 
to  the  priest." — By  the  Constitution  "Romanos 
Pontifices",  regulars  administering  missions  must 
render  an  account  to  the  bishop  of  all  money  given  to 
them  with  a  view  to  the  mission. 

Smith,  Elements  of  Ecclesiastical  Law,  I  (New  York,  1895); 
Taunton.  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London.  1906).  a.  vv.  Missions; 
Rectors;  Col.  Cone.  Lacensis  gives  the  synods  of  English-speaking 
countries. 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Parish  Priest.     See  Pastor. 

Parium,  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Cyzicusin  theHel- 
Icspontus.  The  Acts  of  the  martyr  St.  Onesiphorus 
prove  that  there  was  a  Christian  community  there  be- 
fore 180.  Other  saints  worthy  of  mention  are:  Menig- 
nus,  martyred  under  Decius  and  venerated  on  22 
November;  Theogenes,  bishop  and  martyr,  whose 
feast  is  observed  on  3  January;  Basil,  bishop  and  mar- 
tyr in  the  ninth  century,  venerated  on  12  April.  Le 
Quien  (Oriens  christ.,  I,  787-90)  mentions  14  bish- 
ops, the  last  of  whom  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  An  anonymous  Latin  bishop  is  men- 
tioned in  1209  by  Innocent  III  (Le  Quien,  op.  cit..  Ill, 
945)  and  a  titular  bishop  in  1410  by  Eubel  (Hier. 
Cathol.  med.  a!vi,  I,  410).  At  first  a  suffragan  of 
Cyzicus,  Parium  was  an  autocephalous  archdiocese  as 
early  as  640  (Gelzer,  "Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte", 
535)  and  remained  so  till  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Then  the  Emperor  Andronicus  II  made  it  a 
metropolis  under  the  title  of  llijyoii'  nal  Uapiov.  In  1354 
Pega;  and  Parium  were  suppressed,  the  metropolitan 
receiving  in  exchange  the  See  of  Sozopolis  in  Thrace 
(Miklosich  and  Miiller,  "Acta  patriarchatus  Constan- 
tinopolitani",  I,  109,  111,  132,  300,  330).  This  was 
the  end  of  this  episcopal  see.  The  ruins  of  Parium  are 
at  the  Greek  village  of  Kamares  (the  vaults),  on  the 
small  cape  Tersana-Bournou  in  the  caza  and  sandjak 
of  Bigha. 

Texieb,  Asie  Mineure  (Paris.  1862),  174:  Wachter.  Der  Ver- 
fall  des  Griechenttims  in  Kleinasien  im  XIV  Jahrhundert  (Leip- 
zig. 1903),  49. 

S.  Vailh^. 

Park,  Abbey  of  the,  half  a  mile  south  of  Louvain, 
Belgium,  founded  in  1129  by  Duke  Godfrey,  sur- 
named  "Barbatus",  who  possessed  an  immense  park 
near  Louvain  and  had  invited  the  Xmlicrtines  to  take 
po.ssession  of  a  small  church  he  had  built  there.  Wal- 
ter, Abbot  of  St.  Martin's,  Laon,  brought  a  colony  of 
his  canons  and  acted  as  .their  superior  for  nearly 
three  years.  The  canons,  now  in  sufficient  number, 
elected  Simon,  a  canon  of  Laon,  as  their  abbot.  The 
canons  performed  the  general  work  of  the  ministry  in 
the  district  of  Louvain,  bringing  back  those  seduced 
by  the  errors  of  Tanchelin  (see  Premonstratensian 
Canons).  In  1137  the  abbot  was  able  to  found 
the    Abbey  of   Our    Lady  and   SS.  Cornelius   and 


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-504 


PARLATORE 


Cj-prian  at  Ninove.  Godfrey  made  the  Abbot  of 
the  Park  and  his  succossors  his  arcli-chaplains. 
Simon  (d.  oO  March,  1142)  was  succeeded  by  Philip 
whose  Icarninf;  and  holiness  may  be  jud(;<'d  from 
his  correspoiuleiiee  with  St.  Hildegard  ((].  v.)  in  the 
archives  of  the  I':irk  Abbey.  Philip  and  his  succes- 
sors enlarf^od  the  buildings  and  prepared  the  land  for 
agriculture.  At  the  time  there  was  Uving  at  the  ab- 
bey a  canon,  Blessed  Rabado,  whose  devotion  to  the 
Passion  was  attested  by  miracles.  Abbot  Gerard 
van  Goetsenhoven  (1414-34)  had  much  to  do  with 
the  erection  of  the  University  of  Louvain  (q.  v.),  and 
was  also  delegated  by  Duke  John  to  transact  state 
affairs  witli  the  King  of  England  and  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  Abbot  van  Tulden  (1462-94)  was  suc- 
cessful in  his  action  against  commendatory  abbots 
being  imposed  on  religious  houses  in  Belgium.  Ab- 
bot van  den  Berghe  (1543-58)  managed  the  contribu- 
tions levied  in  support  of  the  Belgian  theologians 
present  at  the  resumed  Council  of  Trent. 

The  abbey  frequently  suffered  during  the  wars 
waged  by  ^^■illiam  of  Orange  and  the  Calvinists,  but 
was  fortimate  to  have  then  at  its  head  men  of  marked 
learning,  zeal,  and  discretion,  such  as  Loots  (1577- 
1583),  van  Vlierden  (1583-1601),  Druys  (1601-1634) 
(q.  v.),  Maes  (1635-1647),  De  Pape  (1648-1682), 
van  Tuycum  (1682-1702).  They  all  favoured  higher 
education  at  the  University  of  Louvain,  and  studies 
were  in  a  flourishing  state  in  the  abbey.  Under  Joseph 
II,  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  abbey  was  confiscated, 
because  Abbot  Wauters  (d.  23  Nov.,  1792)  refused 
to  send  his  religious  to  the  general  seminary  erected  by 
the  emperor  at  Louvain.  A  revolution  against  the 
emperor's  injustices  being  successful,  the  religious  re- 
turned to  their  abbey.  Wauters  was  succeeded  by 
Melchior  Nysmans  (l"79.3-1810).  Under  the  French 
Republic  the  abbey  was  confiscated  again  on  1  Feb., 
1797.  At  the  request  of  the  people  the  church  was 
declared  to  be  a  parish  church  and  was  thus  saved. 
The  abbey  was  bought  by  a  friendly  layman  who 
wished  to  preserve  it  for  the  religious,  in  better  times. 
One  of  the  canons,  in  the  capacity  of  parish  priest, 
remained  in  or  near  the  abbey.  When  Belgium  was 
made  a  kingdom  and  religious  freedom  restored,  the 
Bur\'iving  religious  resumed  the  community  life  and 
elected  Peter  Ottoy,  then  rural  dean  of  Diest,  as 
their  superior. 

In  1897  the  abbey  undertook  the  foundation  of  a 
priory  in  Brazil.  It  counts  at  present  (Jan.,  1911)  48 
religious;  8  of  these  are  doing  missionary  work  in 
Brazil.  The  canons  of  the  Park  Abbey  publish  the 
following  reviews:  (1)  "Analectes  de  I'Ordre  de 
Prdmontre"  (four  times  a  year);  (2)  "Revue  de  I'Or- 
dre de  Pr6montr6  et  de  ses  missions"  (six  times  a 
year);  " 'T  Park's  maandschrif t "   (monthly). 

Annates  Pram.,  8.V.  Parchum;  Libert  De  Pape,  Summaria  chro- 
noloffia  Parchensis  (Louvain,  1662) ;  Raymaekers  in  Rccherches 
hiMoriqueit  sur  I'ancienne  abbaye  de  Pare  (Louvain,  18.58):  Revue 
de  VOrdre  de  PrSmonlr^  &Qd  'T  Park's  maandschrift  (passim),  both 
published  at  the  abbey. 

F.  M.  Geudens. 

Parkinson,  .\nthont,  historian,  b.  in  England, 
1667;  d.  there  ,30  January,  1728.  In  1692  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Franciscan 
Convent  of  Douai ;  the  following  year  he  was  approved 
for  preaching  anrl  hearing  confessions.  He  came  to  the 
ini.ssions  in  England  in  1695  and  was  president  of  the 
Franci.scans  at  Warwick  1698-1701,  of  Birmingham 
1701-10,  Definitor  of  the  province  1707-10.  Parkin- 
son was  also  nominal  guardian  of  Worcester  1704-7, 
of  Oxford  1710-13,  and  twice  governed  the  hidden 
English  Province  as  provincial  1713-6,  and  1722-5. 
As  such  he  a,ssisted  at  the  General  Chapter  of  the 
Order  in  Rome.  M.ay,  1723.  His  chief  work  is  the 
"Collectanea  Anglo-Slinoritica,  or  a  Collection  of  the 
Antiquities  of  the  English  I>anciscans,  or  Friars 
Minors,  commonly  called  Gray  Friars",  two  parts, 


with  an  appendix  concerning  the  English  Nuns  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Clare,  London,  1726,  in  4°.  There  are 
also  extant  some  vmedited  manuscripts. 

THADDEns,  The  Franciscans  in  England  WOO-lSBn  (London, 
189S),  113,  282;  Cooper  in  Did.  A'a(.  Bioi;.,  ed.  Lee,  XLIII  (Lon- 
don, 1895),  312. 

LiVAKius  Olioeii. 

Parlais,  a  titular  see  of  Pisidia,  suffragan  of  Anti- 
ocli.  As  a  Roman  colony  it  was  called  Julia  Augusta 
Parlais,  and  money  was  coined  under  this  title  (Eck- 
hel,  " Historica  vetcruni  nummorum".  III,  33).  Ptol- 
emy (V,  6,  16)  calls  it  Paralais  and  places  it  in  Lyca- 
onia.  Kiepert  identifies  it  with  Barla,  in  the  vilayet 
of  Koniah,  but  Ramsay  (Asia  Minor,  390  sqq.)  be- 
lieves that  it  is  contained  in  the  ruins  known  as  Uzumla 
Monastir.  The  "Notitia^  Episcopatuum"  mention 
the  see  as  late  as  the  thirteenth  century  under  the 
name  Parlaos,  Paralaos,  and  even  Parallos.  Four 
bishops  are  known:  Patricius,  at  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople, 381;  Libanius,  at  Ch.alcedon,  451  (in  the 
decrees  the  see  is  placed  in  Lycaonia) ;  George,  at  Con- 
stantinople, 692;  Anthimus,  at  Constantinople,  879. 
Academius  who  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Nicica,  325, 
was  Bishop  of  Pappa,  not  of  Parlais  as  Le  Quien  claims 
(Oriens  christianus,  I,  1057). 

S.  P^Tniois. 

Parlatore,  Filippo,  Italian  botanist,  b.  at  Pa- 
lermo, 8  Aug.,  1816;  d.  at  Florence,  9  Sept.,  1877, 
a  devout  and  faithful  Catholic.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Palermo,  but  practised  only  for  a  short  time,  his  chief 
activity  being  during  the  cholera  epidemic  of  1837.  Al- 
though at  that  time  he  had  been  an  assistant  professor 
of  anatomy,  a  subject  on  which  he  had  already  written 
(Treatise  on  the  human  retina),  he  soon  gave  up  all 
other  interests  to  devote  his  entire  attention  to  botany. 
He  first  made  a  study  of  the  flora  of  Sicily,  pubhsh- 
ing  in  1838  "Flora  panormitana"  (Palermo);  he  also 
dealt  with  the  Sicihan  flora  in  later  works.  Id  1840 
he  left  home  to  begin  his  extended  botanical  expedi- 
tions. He  travelled  all  through  Italy,  then  into  Swit- 
zerland (where  he  remained  for  a  time  at  Geneva  with 
DecandoUe),  to  France  (where  he  was  at  Paris  with 
Webb,  the  Englishman)  and  to  England,  his  longest 
stay  laeing  at  Kew.  His  part  in  the  Tliird  Congress  of 
Italian  naturahsts  held  at  Florence  in  1841  was  of  sig- 
nificance for  him  and  for  the  development  of  botanical 
studies  in  Italy.  At  this  congress,  in  his  celebrated 
memoir  "Sulla  botanica  in  Italia",  he  proposed, 
among  other  things,  that  a  general  herbarium  be  es- 
tablished at  Florence.  This  proposal  was  adopted. 
Grand  Duke  Leopold  sought  his  assistance  for  this 
herbarium,  gave  him  the  post  of  professor  of  botany 
at  the  museum  of  natural  sciences  (a  chair  which  had 
been  vacant  for  almost  thirty  years),  and  made  him 
director  of  the  botanical  garden  connected  with  the 
museum.  For  more  than  three  decades  Parlatore 
was  most  active  in  fulfilhng  the  duties  of  these  posi- 
tions, one  of  his  principal  services  being  the  contribu- 
tion of  "Collections  botaniques  du  muscle  royale  de 
physique  et  d'histoire  naturelle"  (Florence,  1874)  to 
the  great  collection  entitled  "Erbario  centrale  ita- 
hano".  His  own  private  herbarium  is  now  a  part  of 
the  central  herbarium,  containing  about  1900-2500 
fascicules.  In  1849  he  made  an  investigation  of  the 
flora  of  the  Mont-Blanc  chain  of  the  Alps;  in  1851  he 
explored  those  of  Northern  Europe,  Lapland,  and 
Finland ;  the  re[)orts  of  these  two  expeditions  appeared 
resi)ectively  in  1850  and  18.54. 

lie  jiublished  numerous  treatises  on  botanical  sub- 
jects,— discussing  questions  of  system,  organography, 
physiologj-,  plant  geography,  and  pala-ontology— in 
various  periodicals,  chiefly  in  the  "Giornale  botanico 
Italiano"  (1.844—),  which  he  had  founded.  He  also 
gave  considerable  attention  to  the  history  of  botany 
in  Italy.     His  Ufework  in  botany,  however,  is  "Flora 


FARMA 


505 


PARMA 


Italiana",  of  which  five  volumes  appeared  between 
1848  and  1874;  the  next  five  were  issued  by  T.  Caruel 
(to  1894)  with  the  assistance  of  Parlatore's  MS.  This 
worlc  stands  in  liigh  repute  among  all  botanists. 
Mention  should  also  be  made  of  "Lezioni  di  botanica 
comparata"  (Florence,  1843)  and" Monographiadelle 
fumarie"  (Florence,  1844).  To  the  sixteenth  volume 
of  DecandoUe  s  "Prodromus",  Parlatore  contributed 
the  accounts  of  the  eoniferi  and  gnetaces;  to  Webb's 
"Histoire  naturelle  des  iles  Canaries"  (Paris,  1836- 
50),  the  accounts  of  the  umbelligeri  and  graminae.  In 
1842  Boissier,  the  botanist,  named  a  genus  of  cruciferi 
"Parlatoria". 

Sacardo,  La  botanica  in  Italia,  I,  II  (Venice,  1895,  1901); 
Haynaldo  in  Literar.  Berichte  aus  Ungarn,  III  (Budapest,  1879). 

Joseph  Rompel. 

Parma,  Diocese  of.  Central  Italy.  The  city  is 
situated  on  the  river  of  the  saziie  name,  an  affluent  of 
the  Po,  flowing  through  a  fertile  plain,  where  grain  and 
vines  are  cultivated;  it  also  contains  many  fine  pas- 
tures; the  silk  culture  is  highly  developed,  as  also 
the  cheese,  tobacco,  and  leather  industries. 

The  cathedral  was  begun  in  1060,  to  replace  the 
ancient  one  destroyed  by  fire  two  years  earlier; 
finished  in  1074,  it  was  dedicated  in  1106  by  Pas- 
chal II.  It  is  a  fine  example  of  the  Lombard  style,  in 
the  shape  of  a  Latin  cross,  with  three  naves;  three 
tiers  of  galleries,  supported  by  small  columns,  give  a 
bright  aspect  to  the  fagade;  the  cupola,  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  is  adorned  with  frescoes  by  Cor- 
reggio,  Parmigianino  (Girolamo  Mazzuola),  and  other 
masters;  the  inlaid  work  and  the  carvings  of  the  choir 
and  of  the  sacristy  are  by  Lendinara  and  the  Consor- 
zialis;  there  are  four  .statues  by  Giacomo  and  Dami- 
ano  da  Gonzate;  the  ciborium  of  the  high  altar,  with 
its  beautiful  sculptures,  is  of  the  fifteenth  century;  in 
tlie  crypt  is  the  tomb  of  the  Bishop  St.  Bernardo,  with 
sculptures  by  Prospero  Clementi.  The  baptistery  is 
separate,  in  the  shape  of  an  irregular  octagon,  and 
was  begun  in  1196  by  the  architect  and  sculptor 
Benedetto  Antelami. 

Other  churches  of  note  are:  San  Giovanni  Evan- 
gelista,  formerly  of  the  Benedictines,  founded  in  981, 
restored  in  1510,  fapade  by  Siraone  Aloschino  (1604), 
contains  the  best  paintings  of  Correggio  and  Mazzuola; 
the  Steccata  (1521),  by  Zaocagni,  on  the  plan  of  a 
Greek  cross,  with  a  majestic  cupola,  containing  pic- 
tures by  Parmigianino  and  other  masters;  the  Annun- 
ziata,  in  which  there  are  frescoes  by  Correggio;  Santa 
Maria  del  Quartiere,  the  cupola  of  which  was  painted 
by  Barnabei;  S.  Rocco;  S.  Antonio;  S.  Sepolcro  con- 
tains works  by  Baghoni,  Cignaroli,  and  Mazzola;  and 
the  Oratorio  di  S.  Lodovico,  formerly  the  ducal 
chapel.  Among  the  palaces  are:  del  Giardino  (1.564), 
with  frescoes  by  Carracci;  della  Pilotta  (1.597),  with 
a  museum  of  antiquities,  and  a  gallery  of  paintings 
especially  rich  in  works  by  Correggio;  and  the  Bib- 
lioteca  Palatina,  containing  303,836  volumes,  4770 
manuscripts  and  60,000  copper  engravings.  There 
are  monuments  in  honour  of  Correggio  and  Parmi- 
gianino. The  university,  which  dates  from  1025,  was 
instituted  witli  pontifical  privileges  only  in  1392,  and 
was  developed,  more  especially,  by  Duke  Ferdinando 
di  Borbone;  there  are  several  intermediary  schools, 
besides  the  episcopal  seminary,  a  seminary  for  for- 
eign missions,  an  Accademia  of  the  fine  arts,  and  State 
archives. 

Parma  was  a  city  of  the  Boian  Gauls,  to  which  a 
Roman  colony  was  sent  in  183  B.  c.  In  377,  the  town 
suffered  so  greatly  from  the  barbarians  that  St.  Am- 
brose numbers  it  among  the  ruined  cities.  The  Lom- 
bards took  the  city  in  569  or  570,  but  their  chief  in 
590  placed  himself  under  the  exarch  Callinicus,  who  in 
601  took  possession  of  Parma,  and  imprisoned  the 
Duke  Godiscalc;  the  city  however  soon  returned  to 
the  Lombards  (603).    According  to  the  "Vita  Hadri- 


ani ",  Parma  was  comprised  in  the  donation  of  Pepin  to 
the  Holy  See;  but  in  reality,  it  appears  to  have  be- 
longed to  the  kings  of  Italy,  who,  in  the  tenth  century, 
gave  over  the  government  to  its  bishops,  in  whose 
hands  it  remained  until  St.  Bernardo  resigned  it  in 
1106;  from  which  time  the  city  governed  itself  as  a 
free  commune,  first  under  a  consul,  and  then  under  a 
podesta.  In  1167  it  was  obhged  to  join  the  Lombard 
League.  In  the  thirteenth  century  ( 1 199,  1200,  1204), 
Parma  was  at  war  with  its  neighbour  Piacenza;  later 
it  aroused  the  indignation  of  Innocent  III  by  the  rob- 
bery of  a  pontifical  legate.  In  1218  a  peace  was  estab- 
Hshcd.  In  the  struggle  between  the  popes  and  Frede- 
rick II,  Parma  was  at  first  on  the  side  of  the  emperor; 
but  in  1247,  the  Guelphs  obtained  possession  of  the 
town,  which  Frederick  attempted  in  vain  to  take. 
LTberto  Pallavicino,  a  native  of  Parma  and  a  Ghibelline, 
stood  out  against  Ezzelino,  and  succeeded  in  becoming 
podesta  of  Parma.  In  the  fourteenth  century  (1303- 
16)  Gilberto  da  Correggio  became  lord;  after  him, 
Gianquirico  Sanvitale  and  the  brothers  de'  Rossi  con- 
tended for  the  lordship;  then  came  John  of  Bohemia 
(1331),  Mastino  della  Scala  (1335-41),  the  sons  of 
da  Correggio,  Obizzo  d'Este. 

Finally,  through  purchase,  Parma  was  annexed  to  the 
Duchy  of  Milan,  and  so  remained,  except  for  a  time 
when  it  was  governed  by  the  de'  Rossi  and  by  the  Terzi 
(1404-20),  until  1499,  when  Louis  XII  of  France  took 
possession.  In  1512  Juhus  II  united  Parma  to  the 
Pontifical  States ;  it  should  be  said  that  John  of  Bohemia 
had  previously  held  it  as  a  fief  of  the  Holy  See;  but 
from  1515  to  1521,  the  city  was  again  in  the  hands  of 
the  King  of  France.  In  1545,  Paul  III  erected  Parma 
and  Piacenza  into  a  duchy,  in  favour  of  his  son  Pier- 
luigi  Farnese;  then  began  for  Parma  an  era  of 
splendour,  during  which  Correggio  (Allegri),  Mazzola, 
and  other  famous  masters  showered  treasures  of  art 
upon  it.  Pierluigi,  loved  by  the  people  and  hated  by 
the  nobles,  fell  at  Piacenza,  10  Sept.,  1547,  the  victim 
of  a  conspiracy  directed  by  Ferrante  Gonzaga,  im- 
perial Governor  of  Mil.an.  The  garrison  of  Parma  pre- 
vented the  city  from  falling  into  the  power  of  Ferrante, 
as  Piacenza  fell;  and  after  long  negotiations  with 
the  emperor,  the  son  of  Pierluigi,  Otta\'io,  was  con- 
firnied  in  the  duchy  by  Julius  III  in  15.50.  That 
prince  governed  wisely,  and  a  conspiracy  against  him 
by  Count  Landi  was  happily  frustrated. 

He  was  succeeded  in  1585  by  Alessandro  Farnese, 
who  became  famous  in  the  wars  of  Flanders  and  of 
France,  and  who  died  of  a  wound  at  Arras,  in  1592. 
Ranuccio  enlarged  the  state  and  protected  study, 
founding  a  college  of  nobles;  his  son  Odoardo,  in  1622, 
succeeded  to  the  duchy,  which  was  governed  during 
his  minority  by  his  mother  Margherita  and  his  uncle 
Cardinal  Odoardo,  as  regents.  During  this  reign  there 
arose  the  contention  with  the  Barberini  for  possession 
of  the  Duchy  of  Castro,  an  ancient  fief  of  the  Farnese, 
and  that  strife  ended  in  the  destruction  of  Castro,  in 
1649  under  the  son  of  Ranuccio  II  (1646-94).  Duke 
Francesco,  having  died  without  children,  was  suc- 
ceded  by  his  brother  Antonio  (1727-31),  who  also  died 
without  issue;  and  the  succession  to  the  duchy  com- 
plicated the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  By  the 
treaty  of  Seville,  the  duchy  was  given  to  Charles  of 
Bourbon,  son  of  Philip  V  of  Spain  and  l.sabella  Far- 
nese (daughter  of  Francesco);  and  when  Charles  as- 
ceii(l<>d  tlic  throne  of  Xu]ilcs,  the  Peace  of  Vienna  gave 
Parma  to  Austria  (17:i6;  the  battle  of  Parma,  1734); 
but  the  intrigues  of  Isabella  did  not  cease  until  the 
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  had  given  the  Duchy  of 
Parma  and  Piacenza.  enlarged  with  that  of  Guastalla, 
to  her  other  son  Philip  (1749).  This  prince  inaugu- 
rated a  French  absolutism  in  the  duchy,  especially  at 
the  expense  of  the  Church.  In  1765  he  fell  from  his 
horse,  was  trampled  upon,  and  dogs  tore  him  to  pieces. 
Under  Ferdinando  (1765-1802)  relations  with  the 
Holy  See  grew  still  more  strained;  in  imitation  of  the 


PARMENIANUS 


506 


PARMIGIANO 


French  court,  he  first  concentrated,  and  then  sup- 
pressed tlie  religious  liouses,  and  was  supjiorted 
against  Rome  by  the  otlier  Bourbon  courts.  In  1802 
the  duchy  was  annexed  to  the  French  repubhc,  In 
1814  it  was  given  to  Marie  Louise,  wife  of  Napoleon, 
against  whom  a  revolution  broke  out  in  IS'M,  but 
was  quickly  suppressed  by  Austrian  troops.  Marie 
Louise  was  sviceeeded  by  C;irlo  Lndo%ico,  Duke  of 
Lucca,  against  whom  a  new  re\()lution  broke  out  in 
1848,  and  the  city  was  occupied  by  the  I'iedmontese. 
On  the  other  hand.  Carlo  II  abdicated  in  favour  of  his 
son  Carlo  111  (1S49).  After  the  Piedmontese  defeat 
at  No  vara,  the  Austrians  placed  Carlo  III  on  the 
throne  of  Parma,  but  he  was  stabbed  to  death  in  1854, 
and  in  18.59  his  son  Robert  was  dethroned,  while  the 
annexation  of  his  state  to  Piedmont  was  decreed. 

Tlie  first  known  Bishop  of  Parma  is  Urbanus,  a 
partisan  of  the  antipope  L^rsicinus,  and  deposed  by 
Pope  Damasus  in  378.  Other  bishops  were:  Gra- 
tiosus  (680);  Lantpertus  (827);  Wihbodus  (860-77), 
who  bore  important  charges  from  Louis  II  and  his 
successors;  Aicardus  in  920  restored  the  cathedral, 
which  had  been  destroyed  by  fire;  Sigefredus,  a  former 
chancellor  of  King  Hugo,  accompanied  in  937  Hugo's 
daughter  Berta,  the  promised  bride  of  Constantine 
Porphyrogenitus;  Hucbertus  (961),  to  whom  Rathe- 
rius  di  Verona  dedicated  his  "De  contemptu  cano- 
num";  Cadalous  obtained  his  see  through  simony, 
and  became  the  antipope  Honorius  II,  while  remain- 
ing Bishop  of  Parma;  his  successor,  Everardo  (1073), 
was  a  partisan  of  the  anti-pope  Clement  III,  in  whose 
interest  Everardo  even  resorted  to  arms,  but  was 
defeated  by  the  Countess  Matilda,  near  Sorbara 
(1084) ;  he  was  succeeded  by  another  schismatic,  Wido 
(1085),  in  whose  place  was  put  (1091)  St.  Bcrnardo- 
degli  Uberti,  Abbot  of  Vallombrosa  and  a  cardinal; 
St.  Bernardo,  however,  in  1104,  was  dragged  violently 
from  the  altar,  and  driven  from  his  see,  to  which 
he  was  notable  to  return  peacefully  until  1106;  he 
resigned  the  temporal  power  held  by  the  bishops  of  this 
diocese  and,  ha\-ing  opposed  the  coronation  of  Conrad 
(1127)  was  again  obliged  to  flee  from  Parma,  and  died 
in  1133;  Aicardo,  a  |)artisan  of  Barbarossa,  and  there- 
fore deposed  ( 1 167) ;  Obizzo  Fieschi,  an  uncle  of  Inno- 
cent IV;  Gratian  (1224),  professor  of  law  at  Bologna; 
Alberto  Sanvitale  (1243),  and  his  brother  Obizzo 
(12.59),  nephew's  of  Innocent  IV;  Obizzo  exerted  him- 
self greatly  for  the  reform  of  morals,  favoured  the 
"Milizia  di  Gesil  Cristo",  and  exposed  the  sect  of  the 
Apostolici,  founded  by  the  Parmesan  Gherardo  Se- 
garelli;  Ugolino  Ro.ssi  (1.322)  was  obhged  to  flee  from 
Parma,  with  his  father  Guglielmo,  on  account  of  the 
latter's  political  reverses  (1334);  Gian  Antonio  da 
S.  Giorgio  (1. ")()())  a  learned  cardinal;  Alessandro  Far- 
nese  (1.509),  became  Pope  Paul  III,  he  resigned  the  See 
of  Parma  in  favour  of  his  nephew.  Cardinal  Alessan- 
dro; Ale-ssandro  Sforza  (1560),  who  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  Council  of  Trent;  Ferrante  Farnese,  (1573) 
active  in  the  cause  of  ecclesiastical  reform;  Camillo 
Marazzani  (1711),  who  governed  the  diocese  during 
forty-eight  years;  Adeodato  Turchi  (1788),  a  Capu- 
chin who  wrote  beautiful  pastorals  and  homilies;  Car- 
dinal Francesco  Caselli  (1804),  a  former  superior  of 
the  Servites  and  a  companion  of  Consalvi  during  the 
negotiation  of  the  Concordat  with  Napoleon;  at  the 
national  council  of  Paris  in  1811,  he  defended  the 
rights  of  the  Holy  See. 

The  diocese,  a  sufTragan  of  Milan,  and  later  of  Ra- 
vennaandof  Bologna  (1.582),  depends  immediately  on 
the  Holy  See  since  1815;  it  has  306  pari-shes,  2.32,913 
inhabitants,  9  religious  houses  of  men,  18  of  women,  3 
educational  establishments  for  male  students,  5  for 
girls,  1  bi-weekly  perioflical  (01  Giomale  del  popolo) 
and  2  monthly  magazines  (L'Eco;  Lede  e  Civiltd). 

Cappei.lf.tti,  Le  Chine  d' Italia,  .\V;  Allodi.  Serie  crouologica 
dti  tescori  di  Parma  (2  vols.,  Parma.  18.54-57);  Aff6.  Storia  delta 
cittA  di  Parma  (4  vols.,  Parma.  1792-95).  continued  by  Pezzana 
(5  vols.,  1837-59);  Scababelli,  Storia  dei  ducati  di  Parma,  Pia- 


Antoine-Auoustin  Pa 


eerna,  Ouatlala  (2  vols..  Guastala,  185S):  Benabsi,  Storia  di 
Parma  (4  vols.,  1899);  Archivo  storico  per  le  provincie  parmeriei 
(Parma.  1S92-). 

U.  Benigni. 
Parmenianus.     See  Donatists. 

Parmentier,  Andrew.    See  Bai-er.  Adele. 

Parmentier,  Antoine-Augustin,  agriculturist,  b. 
at  Montdidier,  17  August,  1737;  d.  in  Paris,  13  Dec, 
1813.  Left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  he  wag  com- 
l)elled  before  taking  a  college  course  to  become  a 
pharmacist,  in  which  capacity  he  joined  the  army  of 
Hanover  in  1757. 
Taken  prisoner 
several  times  in 
the  course  of  this 
service,  he  profited 
by  his  captivity  in 
Prussia  to  gain 
knowledge  which 
he  later  put  to 
valuable  use.  He 
r  e  s  u  m  e  d  his 
.studies,  on  his  re- 
turn to  Paris  in 
1774,  and  was  ap- 
pointed pharma- 
cist at  the  Hotel- 
des-Invalides.  At 
this  time,  he  intro- 
duced the  use  of 
potatoes  as  food  in 
France.  He  also 
promoted  the  im- 
proved cultivation 
of  maize  and  chest- 
nuts, and  tried  to 
reform  the  methods  of  baking.  During  the  Rev- 
olution he  had  charge  of  the  preparation  of  salted 
provisions,  and  manufactured  a  sea-biscuit.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  books  on  horticultural  and  agricultural 
topics,  which  betray  his  lack  of  early  education. 
Andre  Parmentier  (17S0-1S30),  who  attained  distinc- 
tion as  a  horticulturist  in  the  United  States,  was  a 
collateral  relative. 

SiLVESTRE,  Notice  biog.  sur  Parmentier  (Paris,  1815) ;  Mutel, 
Vie  de  Parmentier  (Paris,  1819);  Mouchon,  Notice  hist,  sur  Par- 
mentier (Lyons.  1843). 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Parmigiano,  II  (The  Parmesan),  the  cur- 
rent name  of  Francesco  Mazzuola,  Mazzola, 
Mazzuoli,  or  Mazzoli,  Italian  painter,  b.  at  Parma, 
1504;  d.  at  Casal  Maggiore,  1540.  He  was  the  son  of 
Filippo  Mazzuola,  a  painter,  also  known  as  Filippo 
dell  Erbette,  who  died  in  1.505.  Francesco's  uncles, 
Michele  and  Pierilario,  brought  him  up.  With  a 
strong  taste  for  painting,  the  boy  developed  a  par- 
ticular enthusiasm  for  Correggio,  the  founder  of  the 
Parmesan  School.  His  "St.  Bernard",  painted  for 
the  Observantines  of  Parma,  and  other  early  works  of 
his,  show  him  to  have  been  an  eager  follower  of  Cor- 
reggio. At  twenty,  longing  to  study  the  master- 
pieces of  Michelangelo,  he  set  out  for  Rome,  where 
his  precocious  talent  soon  won  renown.  According 
to  Vasari,  it  was  a  saying  at  Rome,  that  "the  soul 
of  Raphael  had  passed  into  the  Parmesan's  body". 
Clement  VII  commissioned  him  to  paint  a  "Circuni- 
cision".  But  the  sack  of  Rome  (1.527)  checked  this 
bright  beginning.  Mazzuola  fled  to  Bologna,  where 
he  painted  many  altar-pieces,  notably,  the  "Virgin 
and  Child",  "St.  John",  "St.  Margaret  and  St. 
Jerome"  (now  in  the  Louvre).  For  San  Petronio  he 
executed  a  "St.  Roch".  He  was  in  Parma  in  1531, 
since  his  contract  with  the  Confraternity  of  tlie  Stec- 
cata  is  dated  10  May  of  that  year.  He  frescoed  the 
arcade  of  the  choir  in  that  church,  where  his  chiaro- 
scuro, "Moses  breaking  the  Tables  of  the  Law",  is 
one  of  the  masterpieces  of  his  school.     Unfortunately, 


PARNASSUS 


507 


PARCECOPOLIS 


he    never    finished    the    Steccata    commission.     His  Parnassus,  a  titular  see  in  Cappadocia  Secunda, 

passion  for  alchemy  not  only  cost  him  time,  money,  suffragan  of  Mocessus.    Situated  between  Ancyra  and 

and  health,  but  prevented  him  from  keeping  his  en-  Archclais,  it  was  formerly  important.    Another  route 

gagements.     As  he  had  been  paid  part  in  advance,  the  led  to  Nyssa.    It  is  mentioned  by  Polybius  (XXV,  iv) 

Steccata  Confraternity,  weary  of  waiting,   had  him  and  the  Itineraries;  in  the  sixth  century  by  Hierocles, 

prosecuted  and  condemned  to  prison  in  1537.     Re-  "Synecdemus"  (700,  7).     Hamilton  places  it  at  Kotch 

leased  upon  promise  to  finish  the  work,  he  again  de-  Hissar,  near  Touz  Gheul  (ancient  Lake  Tatta),  vilayet 

faulted,    and   made   his   escape   to   Casal    Maggiore,  of  Angora;  Ramsay  (Asia  Minor,  29S),  north-east  of 


where  he  died.     He  was  buried  in  the  church  of  the 
Ser\'ites. 

Brief  as  was  his  career,  II  Parmigiano  has  left  a 
very  large  number  of  works:  at  Bologna  (Pinacotheca), 
"Virgin  and  Child  with  Saints",  "St.  Margaret", 
"Martha  and  Mary";  at  Florence  (Pitti),  "La  Ma- 
donna del  CoUo  Longo",  (Uffizi)  portrait  of  himself, 
and  "Holy  Family";  at  Genoa  (Palazzo  Rosso), 
"Marriage  of  St.  Catharine";  at  Modena  (Museum), 
"Apollo  and  Marsyas";  at  Naples  (Museum), "Annun- 
ciation", "Holy  Family",  "St.  Sebastian",  "Lu- 
cretia",  and  some  portraits;  at  Parma  (Museum), 
"St.  Catherine  with  Angels",  "Madonna  with 
Saints";  (Annunziata)  "Baptism  of  Christ",  "St. 
Bernardino",  "Holy  Family",  "Entry  of  Christ  into 
Jerusalem",  besides  the  Stec- 
cata frescoes,  several  paint- 
ings in  San  Giovanni  Evan- 
gelista,  and  a  "History  of 
Diana",  in  the  Villa  Sanvi  tale; 
at  Rome  (Barberini  Palace), 
"Marriage  of  St.  Catherine"; 
(Borghese  Palace),  portrait 
of  Cesare  Borgia  (formerly 
attributed  to  Raphael  and 
then  to  Bronzino)  and  St. Cat  li- 
erine;  at  Berlin  (Mu.seuMi), 
' '  Baptism  of  Christ  " ;  at  Dres- 
den (Museum),  "Virgin  and 
Child",  "Madonna  of  the 
Rose";  in  London  (National 
Gallery),  "Vision  of  St.  Je- 
rome"; at  Madrid  (Prado), 
"Holy  Family",  "St.  Bar- 
bara", "Cupid",  and  two  por- 
traits; in  Paris  (Louvre),  two 
"Holy  Families" ;  at  St .  Peters- 
burg (Hermitage),  "Burial  of 
Christ";  at  Vienna  (Belve- 
dere) "Cupid  with  Bow",  "St. 
Catherine",  his  own  portrait, 
and  several  others.  He  also  left  some  engravings, 
among  them  seven  Holy  Families,  a  Resurrection, 
"Judith  wilh  till'  H(  .ad  of  Holophernes",  and  "Sts. 
Peter  and  John  Healing  the  Lame  Man". 

Parmigiano  developed  the  germ  of  decay  latent  in 
Correggio's  work.  He  delighted  his  contemporaries 
with  ingenious  contrasts,  elegant  mannerisms,  and 
sensual  frivolity.  His  religious  pictures  are  de- 
ficient in  gravity  and  sincerity,  being,  in  many  cases — 
like  the  "IMadonna  del  Collo  Longo" —  types  of  false 
distinction  and  pretentious  affectation.  "His  St. 
Catherine  (Borghese  Palace)  declines  the  compli- 
ments of  the  angels  with  an  air  of  good  breeding  which 
is  beyond  description"  (Burckhardt).  These  faults 
are  less  pronounced  in  such  profane  works  as  the 
frescoes  of  the  Villa  Sanvitale;  and  in  portraiture, 


GiROLAMO   Fh 

Portrait  by  hi] 


NCESco  Maria  Ma: 
"  II  Parmigiano  " 
iSelf,  bevelled  mirror 


this  lake  on  the  left  bank  of  Kizil  Irmak  (ancient 
Halys),  near  Tchikin  Aghyl.  The  see  first  depended 
on  Cssarea;  under  Valens  it  passed  to  Cappadocia  Se- 
cunda; and  about  5.36  was madesuffragan  of  Mocessus. 
The  "Notitiae  Episcopatuum"  mention  it  in  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus,  I,  415) 
mentions  nine  bishops:  Pancratius,  at  the  Arian  Coun- 
cil of  Philippopolis,  344;  Hypsius,  replaced  by  the 
Arian  Ecdicius  in  the  time  of  St.  Basil;  Olympius,  at 
the  Council  of  Constantinople,  381;  Eustathius,  at 
Ephesus,  341,  deposed  as  a  Nestorian,  retracted,  as- 
sisted at  Constantinople  (448)  and  Chalcedon  (451); 
and  signed  in  458  the  letter  of  the  bishops  of  Cappa- 
docia Secunda  to  the  Emperor  Leo;  Pelagius,  at  Con- 
stantinople, 538;  Eustathius,  at  the  Council  "in 
Trullo",  692;  Stephanus,  at 
Nica?a,  787 ;  and  Theognostus, 
at  Constantinople,  869. 

S.    PETRlnfes. 

Parochial    Mass . — The 

parish  is  established  to  pro- 
vide the  parishioners  with  the 
helps  of  religion,  especially 
with  Mass.  The  parochial 
Mass  is  celebrated  for  their 
welfare  on  all  Sundays  and 
holidays  of  obligation,  even 
when  suppressed.  The  par- 
ish priest  is  not  obliged  to  say 
it  personally;  but  if  he  does 
not,  he  must  offer  his  own 
iMass  for  that  intention. 
Parishioners  now  fulfil  their 
duty  by  assisting  at  Mass  in 
any  church;but  formerly  they 
had  at  least  to  hear  a  Mass 
in  the  parish  church  (ch. 
"Vices",  2,  "De  treuga  et 
pace"  in  "E.\trav.  Comm." 
of  Sixtus  IV  in  1478).  This 
obligation  fell  into  desuetude  owing  to  the  privi- 
leges granted  to  the  religious  orders;  the  Council  of 
Trent  (Sess.  XXII,  "De  observ.  et  evit.  in  celebr. 
miss."  and  Sess.  XXIV,  c.  iv,  de  ref .),  treats  it  only  as 
a  counsel;  and  notwithstanding  certain  provincial  and 
diocesan  regulations  of  the  si.xteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  the  obfigation  ceased  (Bened.  XIV,  "De 
syn.",  XI,  xiv).  The  Mass  not  being  strictly  con- 
ventual, it  is  not  obligatory  by  common  law  for  it  to 
be  sung,  but  it  may  be,  and  frequently  this  is  pre- 
scribed by  the  statutes  or  custom.  It  is  then  preceded 
by  the  blessing  and  aspersion  of  water  on  Sundays. 
Even  if  not  sung,  it  is  celebrated  with  additional  so- 
lemnity, with  more  than  two  candles  on  the  altar,  and 
two  servers  (S.  Rit.  C,  6  Feb.,  18.58,  n.  3065).  What 
is  characteristic  of  it  is  the  instruction,  with  its  special 


where  he  is  inspired  by  no  factitious  ideal,  they  dis-     prayers,  the  announcements  made  to  the  congregation, 


appear  altogether.  "The  very  name  of  Parmigia- 
nino",  says  Ch.  Blanc,  "which  the  Italians  like  to 
write  in  the  diminutive  foi-m,  seems  to  say  that  this 
master  has  his  amiable  failings,  and  is  a  great  master 
diminished"  (grand  matlre  diminue). 

Vasari.  Le  vile  de'  piu  eceelhnli  pillori.  t-d.  MiLANESi,  V  (Flor- 
ence, 1880),  217-42;  AFFn.  I,  ,  :.  /•  w.,,;„„„tno  (Parma.  1784); 
Lanzi,  tr.  RoscoE,   Hist.,:  ,         /  ,1/1   Italy,   II   (London, 

1847),  402;  Blanp,  //i.'^^M>'  ■:■  '         /-  u>utes  les  Ecoles:  Eeole 

lombarde  (Paris,  186.5-77);  I'.'  k.  Kii-iini  >  m>  Bode,  Le  Cicerone, 
French  tr.  Gerard,  II  (Paria,  1892),  718;  MuNTZ,  Histoire  de 
VArt  pendant  la  Renaissance,  III  (Paris,  180.5).  .581-82. 

Gaston  Sortais. 


the  publication  of  banns  of  marriage,  and  finally 
the  familiar  sermon  or  homily.  (See  Mass;  also 
Pa.-;tor.) 

a.  boudinhon. 

Parochial  Schools.    See  Schools. 

Parcecopolis,  a  titular  see  of  Macedonia,  suffragan 
of  Thc.s.salonica.  It  is  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  (III,  13, 
30)  as  being  in  Sintice,  a  part  of  Macedonia,  and  by 
Phlegon  "Fragm.  histor.  gr."  ed.  Didot,  III,  609). 
Hierocles  (Synecdemus,  639,  8)  and  Constantine  Por- 


PAROUSIA 


508 


PARSIS 


phjTOgenitus  (Dc  thoinatibus,  2)  call  it  Parthicopn- 
lis,  but  the  second  locates  it  in  Thrace.  Stephanas 
Byzantius  calls  it  Parthenopolis  and  relates  accord- 
ing to  Theagenes  the  legend  of  its  foundation  by  Cic- 
nrstus,  son  of  Mygdoii,  said  to  have  named  the  city 
in  honour  of  his  (wo  daughters.  Phny  (IV,  xi)  has  the 
same  name,  but  places  it  in  Thrace.  Its  bishop,  Jonas 
or  John,  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Sardiea  (342  or 
343)  ;  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  there  was 
present  John  " Parthicopolis  prima;  Macedoni;c"  (Le 
Quien,  "Oriens  christianus",  II,  75).  This  see  is  not 
mentioned  in  any  of  the  Greek  "NotitiiE  episcopa- 
tuum". 

S.    PETRIDfcs 

Parousia.    See  Second  Advent. 

Parrenin,  Dominique,  b.  at  Russey,  near  Besan^on, 
1  Sept .,  IGO.') ;  d.  at  Pekin,  29  Sept.,  1741 .  He  entered 
the  Jesuit  order  1  September,  1685,  and  in  1697  was 
sent  to  China;  At  Peking  (1698)  he  attracted  the 
attention  of  K'ang-hi.  His  varied  knowledge,  and 
familiar  use  of  the  court  languages,  Chinese  and 
Tatar-Manchu,  gained  him  the  good-will  of  the  em- 
peror. Father  Parrenin  utilized  this  favour  in  the 
Interest  of  religion  and  science.  While  satisfying  the 
extraordinary  curiosity  of  K'ang-hi,  especially  about 
physics,  medicine,  and  the  history  of  Europe,  he  dem- 
onstrated how  the  scientific  culture  of  the  West  was 
due  to  Christianity.  Obliged  to  travel  with  the  em- 
peror, he  visited  the  native  Christians.  Well  liked 
by  important  personages  at  the  court  and  the  highest 
dignitaries  of  the  empire,  he  led  them  to  look  with 
fa^'our  on  the  spreading  of  Christianity.  In  the 
"Lettres  edifiantes,"  he  has  written  of  the  admirable 
examples  set  by  the  princes  of  the  Sounou  family, 
whose  conversion,  begun  by  Father  Suarez,  he  com- 
pleted. He  rendered  the  greatest  services  to  religion 
during  the  reign  of  Yong-tching  (1723-35),  son  of 
K'ang-hi.  The  new  emperor  soon  made  known  his 
aversion  for  Christianity  and  only  his  consideration 
for  the  missionaries  at  Peking,  principally  for  Father 
Parrenin,  prevented  the  extermination  of  Christianity 
in  China.  This  emperor  respected  the  missionaries, 
not  for  their  scientific  knowledge,  but  for  their  char- 
acters and  virtues.  He  demanded  services  of  more 
tangible  importance,  notably  at  audiences  granted  to 
the  ambassadors  of  Russia  and  Portugal  and  during 
the  long  negotiations,  both  commercial  and  political, 
with  the  former  of  the  two  powers.  The  Chinese 
ministers  needed  the  missionaries,  not  only  as  conscien- 
tious and  trusty  interpreters,  but  men  capable  of  dis- 
pelling Chinese  ignorance  of  European  matters  and  of 
inspiring  confidence.  Parrenin,  who  had  served  the 
Government  of  K'ang-hi  so  capably  in  this  dual  role, 
was  no  less  serviceable  under  Yong-tching.  He  was 
assisted  by  his  confreres,  Fathers  Mailla  and  Gaubil. 
The  mission  at  Peking  continued  to  exist  amid  most 
violent  persecutions,  and  became  the  salvation  of  the 
Christians  of  the  provinces:  as  long  as  Christianity  sus- 
tained itself  at  the  capital,  its  position  in  the  rest  of 
the  empire  w;is  not  hopeless;  subaltern  persecutors 
hesitated  to  apply  the  edicts  in  all  their  rigour  against  a 
religion  which  the  emperor  tolerated  in  his  capital, 
and  against  men  who.se  confreres  the  emperor  treated 
with  honour. 

Science  is  indebted  to  Parrenin  for  his  services  in 
drawing  up  the  great  map  of  China  (see  Regis,  Jean- 
Baptiste).  He  roused  in  K'ang-hi  a  desire  to  see  his 
entire  domain  represented  by  methods  more  exact 
than  those  of  the  Chinese  cartographers.  Father 
Parrenin  had  a  hand  in  the  preparations  for  the  making 
of  this  maj)  in  the  Provinces  of  Pechili,  Shan-tung, 
and  Liao-tung.  He  also  collaborated  on  a  map  of 
Peking  and  environs,  which  the  emperor  caused  to  be 
made  in  1700.  He  tran.slated  into  the  Tatar-Man- 
chu language  for  K'ang-hi  several  of  the  works  pub- 
lished in  the  "M4moire8  de  I'Acad^mie  des  Sciences" 


at  Paris.  In  1723  Dortous  de  Mairan,  of  the  Acade- 
mic des  Sciences,  and  Freret.  perpetual  .secretary  of 
the  Academic  des  Inscriptions,  sent  him  their 
"doubts"  about  the  history,  chroiiology,  and  astron- 
omy of  the  Chinese.  His  answers  led  to  other  ques- 
tions, and  this  scientific  correspondence  continued 
until  1740.  Father  Parrenin's  conduct  m.ay  not  have 
been  always  above  reproach  during  the  agitation 
caused  in  the  Chinese  missions  by  tlic  famous  con- 
troversy about  the  rites  (see  China;  'I'hk  (Juertion 
OF  Rites).  But  his  whole  life  contrailicls  the  oilious 
character  attributed  to  him  by  writers  who  ciiitcd  with 
more  passion  than  truth  the  "  Menioircs  liistoii((ues  du 
Cardinal  de  Tournon"  and  the  "Anecdotes  sur  I'Etat 
de  la  Religion  dans  la  Chine". 

LeUres  edifiantes  el  curieuses.  26'  Recueil,  Pri/nce  ei  Leitre  du  P. 
Chalier  (Paris,  1753) ;  Lettre  du  P.  Antoinc  Gaubil  on  the  death  of  P. 
Parrenin,  MS.  12225  in  the  Biblioth^que  Nationalc,  witli  the 
letters  of  Parrenin  to  Mairan  and  Freret  (1729-60),  unedited; 
LeUres  de  M.  de  Mairan  au  R.  P.  Parrenin,  conlenant  diverses  ques- 
tions sur  la  Chine  (Paris,  1759-70);  Bhuckeh.  La  Mis.-!sion  de 
Chine  de  1723  a  1735  in  Revue  des  questions  historiques,  XXIX,  491 
(1881);  Idem,  Correspondance  scienlifinue  d'un  missionairc  fran- 
qais  d  Peking,  au  X  VIII'  Sikcle  in  Revue  du  Monde  catholique, 
LXXVI,  701  (1883);  De  Bacher-Sommervoqel,  Bibliotheque  dea 
ecrivains  de  la  C.  de  J.,  VI,  284-90,  IX,  757;  Cokdier,  BiUiolheca 
Siyiica. 

Joseph   Bruckek. 

Parsis  (Parsees)  a  small  community  in  India,  ad- 
herents of  the  Zoroastrian  religion  and  originally  emi- 
grants from  Persia.  According  to  the  census  of  1881 
their  total  number  in  India  was  85,397,  to  whicli  must 
be  added  for  sake  of  completeness  about  3, ()()()  scat- 
tered about  various  other  countries  and  .-ilso  about 
8,000  in  various  parts  of  Persia — thus  liriiigiiig  uji  the 
total  of  Zoroastrians  in  the  world  to  sonjetliing  under 
100,000.  Of  the  85,397  in  India,  82,091  were  by  the 
same  census  found  in  the  Bombay  presidency,  and 
3,306  scattered  over  the  rest  of  the  country.  Of  those 
in  the  Bombay  presidency  more  than  half  (48,507) 
resided  in  Bombay  City.  ti,227  in  Surat,  and  3,088  in 
Broach;  about  10,000  being  in  X;itive  States,  and  the 
rest  in  other  parts,  chiefly  of  Ciuzerat.  The  census  of 
1901  reveals  a  rise  to  a  total  of  94,190  in  India,  of 
whom  78,800  are  in  the  Bombay  presidency,  not  in- 
clusive of  8,409  found  in  Baroda  State.  In  Persia 
the  Zoroastrians  (called  Iranis  to  distinguish  them 
from  those  in  India)  are  chiefly  found  in  Yezd  and 
the  twenty-four  surrounding  villages,  where  according 
to  figures  collected  in  1854,  there  were  a  thousand 
families,  comprising  6,658  souls — a  few  merchants,  the 
remainder  artisans  or  agriculturalists.  At  Kerman 
there  were  also  about  4.5(3;  and  at  Teheran,  the  capi- 
tal of  Persia,  about  fifty  of  the  merchant  class.  They 
were  formerly  much  more  numerous;  they  now  show  a 
constant  tendency  to  decline. 

History. — This  small  community  owes  its  origin  to 
those  few  Persians  who,  when  Khalif  Omar  subjugated 
Persia  in  a.  d.  641,  resisted  the  efforts  of  the  conquer- 
ors to  impose  on  them  the  Moslem  faith.  Escaping 
to  the  coast  they  found  a  first  refuge  in  the  Island  of 
Ormuz,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Persian  (Julf;  but  having 
here  little  permanent  chance  of  safety  or  sustenance  for 
any  large  number,  they  began  a  series  of  emigrations 
acro.ss  the  sea,  landing  first  at  Diu  on  the  Kathiawar 
coast  some  time  about  A.  D.  700.  After  remaining  here 
for  nineteen  years  they  were  led,  by  an  omen  in  the 
stars,  to  cross  the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  After  suffering 
shipwreck  they  landed  at  Sanjan,  some  twenty-five 
miles  south  of  Daman  on  the  Guzerat  coast,  where  the 
local  ruler,  Jadi  Rfina,  on  hearing  their  pathetic  story 
and  an  account  of  their  religious  liclicfs,  .allciwiMl  tlieni 
to  settle  on  condition  that  they  wouhl  learn  the  lan- 
guage of  the  country,  abstain  from  the  use  of  arms, 
dress  and  conduct  their  marriages  in  the  Hindu  man- 
ner etc.  A  spirit  of  accommodation  to  surroundings 
has  characterized  the  Parsis  throughout  their  history, 
and  accounts  at  once  for  many  of  their  usages  in  dress 
and  manners,  and  for  their  subsequent  success  in  in- 


PARTICULAR 


509 


PARTNERSHIP 


duBtrial  arts  and  trades.  They  thus  became  a  regular 
part  of  the  population  of  Sanjan,  adopted  the  Guzerati 
language  as  their  vernacular,  and  erected  their  first 
fire  temple  in  A.  D.  721.  Here  they  remained  for  over 
five  centuries  of  uneventful  history,  till  in  1305  the  in- 
cursion of  the  Moslems  forced  them  to  take  refuge 
elsewhere.  Partly  by  further  emigrations  from  Persia, 
and  partly  by  spreading  from  their  centre  at  Sanjan, 
they  gradually  settled  in  various  other  localities  such 
as  Canibray,  Ankleshwar,  Variav,  Vankaner,  Broach, 
Surat,  Thana,  Chaul  etc.,  and  traces  of  them  are 
found  even  as  far  as  Delhi.  When  in  the  sixteenth 
century  the  Portuguese  at  Thana  brought  moral 
pressure  to  bear  in  order  to  make  them  Christians, 
they  managed  by  a  subterfuge  to  escape  to  Kalyan, 
only  returning  in  177-1  when  Thana  had  fallen  under 
British  rule.  The  advent  of  the  English  to  Surat  in 
1612  opened  up  new  connexions  for  industry  and 
trade,  so  that  Surat,  as  well  as  Broach,  soon  became 
two  of  their  chief  settlements.  Finally,  when  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  East  India  Company  was  (in  166S) 
transferred  to  Bombay,  the  Parsis  followed  and  soon 
began  to  occupy  posts  of  trust  in  connexion  with  Gov- 
ernment and  public  works  in  Bombay.  Gradually 
certain  families  acquired  wealth  and  prominence  (So- 
rabji,  Modi,  Kama,  Wadia,  Jeejeebhoy,  Readymoney, 
Dadyset,  Petit,  Patel,  Mehta,  AUbless,  Tata  etc.), 
many  of  whom  are  noted  for  their  participation  in  the 
public  life  of  the  city,  and  for  their  various  educational, 
industrial,  and  charitable  enterprises.  The  Parsis  had 
formerly  a  domestic  tribunal  called  the  Panchayat, 
which  possessed  judicial  control  and  the  power  of  ex- 
communication; but  for  nearly  a  century  back  its  in- 
fluence has  been  curtailed,  so  that  at  present  it  is  little 
more  than  a  trust  for  the  administration  of  public 
charitable  funds. 

The  education  movement  began  among  the  Parsis  in 
1849.  Parsi  schools  since  then  have  been  multiplied, 
but  other  schools  and  colleges  are  also  freely  frequented. 
In  18.54  they  started  the  "Persian  Zoroastrian  Ame- 
lioration Fund,"  which,  after  long  efforts  lasting  till 
1882,  succeeded  in  obtaining  for  their  poor  Irani  breth- 
ren in  Persia  a  remission  of  the  Jazia  tax,  besides  in- 
augurating schools  and  charitable  institutions  among 
them.  Many  of  these  Persians  come  over  to  India 
and  set  up  cheap  restaurants,  which  on  that  account 
are  familiarly  known  as  "Irani  shops." 

The  Parsis  are  divided  into  two  sects,  the  Shehan- 
chais  or  old,  and  the  Kadmis  or  new  party — not  on 
any  point  of  religion,  but  merely  on  a  question  of 
chronology  (like  that  of  the  "old"  and  "new  style"  in 
Europe).  The  old  party  follow  the  Indian,  and  the 
new  party  the  Persian  way  of  framing  the  calendar, 
which  makes  a  difference  of  about  one  month  in  the 
observance  of  their  "New  Year's  day."  Among 
salient  peculiarities  should  be  mentioned:  worship 
in  fire  temples  (which  contain  nothing  remark- 
able except  a  vase  of  sandalwood  kept  perpetually 
alight);  praying  on  the  sea  shore  to  the  rising  and 
setting  sun;  celebration  of  marriages  in  public  assem- 
bly; exposure  of  their  dead  to  birds  of  prey,  in  what 
are  called  "  towers  of  silence  " ;  exclusiveness  as  regards 
marriage;  refusal  to  incorporate  aliens  into  religious 
membership;  the  rule  of  never  uncovering  the  head; 
and  of  never  smoking.  But  they  are  free  from  the 
Hindu  trammels  of  caste,  have  no  religious  restric- 
tions about  food,  are  free  to  travel  and  take  their 
meals  with  other  races  etc.  It  should  be  remarked 
that  their  "worship"  of  fire,  as  explained  by  them- 
selves, is  not  open  to  the  charge  of  idolatry,  but  is  re- 
ducible to  a  relative  veneration  of  that  element  as  the 
highest  and  purest  symbol  of  the  Divinity.  The 
Parsis  have  remained  faithful  to  their  Zoroastrian 
faith  and  are  proud  of  their  racial  purity.  And  al- 
though the  colour  among  many  families,  chiefly  of 
the  lower  classes,  reveals  the  effect  of  mixed  marriages, 
the  community  as  a  whole  is  unmixed,  and  marriage 


with  outsiders  is  rare.  In  very  recent  times  the  influ- 
ence of  Western  ideas  has  led  to  a  relaxing  of  the  old 
reUgious  and  social  bonds,  so  that  many  are  now 
merely  nominal  believers,  while  others  dabble  in  theos- 
ophy  and  religious  eclecticism,  and  adopt  such  habits 
as  smoking,  the  uncovering  of  the  head,  and  even 
marrying  European  women  etc.  For  an  account  of 
their  religion  see  Avesta. 

K  M^M,  >,   /,'.  Inry  o/  the  Parsis  (London,  18S4);   II  m    .,   A'     ivs 
/  l.iindon,  1878):  Harrobsowitz,  /.(  / 

/  in    (Leipzig):   Statesman's    Year-fi  ' 

<  ,,'(■'(/,,"/  r'f  I  he  Eastern  Iranians  (London,  iss;.'.  I  i<  i- \  im,  y 
Fk.\mjer,  The  Parsees,  their  History,  Manners,  Cu.-iloms  and  Re- 
ligion (Loudon,  1858). 

Ernest  R.  Hull. 

Particular  Ezamen.  See  Examin.ition  of  Con- 
science. 

Partnership,  an  unincorporated  association  of  two 
or  more  persons,  known  as  partners,  having  for  its 
object  the  carrying  on  in  common  by  the  partners  of 
some  predetermined  occupation  for  profit,  such  profit, 
according  to  the  usual  definition,  to  be  shared  by 
the  several  partners.  "The  terms  partnership  and 
partner",  remarks  Lindley  (The  Law  of  Partnership, 
7th  ed.,  London,  1905,  10),  "are  evidently  derived 
from  to  pari  in  the  sense  of  to  divide  amongstorshare", 
and  the  use  of  the  word  "co-partnership"  in  the  gen- 
eral sense  of  "co-ownership"  is  now  obsolete  (Queen 
against  Robson,  English  Law  Reports,  16  Queen's 
Bench  Division,  140).  Lindley,  however,  .suggests 
that  an  association  might  be  deemed  according  to  the 
English  Common  Law  a  partnership  even  though  its 
object  were  the  application  of  profits  to  other  use 
than  the  use  of  the  partners  (op.  cit.,  where  numerous 
definitions  of  partnership  are  quoted). 

The  Roman  Civil  Law  treated  elaborately  of  part- 
nership under  the  name  of  Socielas  (Pothier,  "Pan- 
dectae  Justinianea;",  LXVII,  Tit.  II).  And  arch®- 
ologists  claim  to  have  ascertained  its  existence  "in 
a  highly  developed  state"  in  ancient  Babylon  (Johns, 
"Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Laws",  New  York,  1904, 
287,  290,  291). 

Partnerships  in  the  Roman  Law  were  included 
among  consensual  contracts,  those  which  required  no 
certain  form,  nor  any  writing,  but  which  became 
effectual  by  simple  consent,  qui  nudo  consensu  per- 
ficiuntur,  "Pandectffi",  supra,  "The  Commentaries 
of  Gains"  ,  III  (Cambridge,  1874),  135,  136. 

And  in  like  manner  by  the  English  Common  Law, 
the  basis  of  the  law  of  the  several  States  of  the  United 
States,  except  Louisiana,  as  well  as  the  basis  of  the 
law  of  all  British  possessions,  except  those  acquired 
from  France,  Holland,  and  Spain  (Burge,  "Commen- 
taries on  Colonial  and  Foreign  Laws",  new  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1907,  1,  7,  8),  partnership  may  be  formed  by 
verbal  agreement,  although  it  is  usually  evidenced  by 
written  articles  (see  as  to  Statute  of  Frauds  rendering 
a  WTitten  agreement  necessary,  116  New  York  Court 
of  Appeals  Reports,  97). 

The  contract  of  partnership  can  be  legally  entered 
into  only  by  persons  who  are  competent  to  con- 
tract. Accordingly,  a  partnership  could  not  be  formed 
at  Common  Law  between  husband  and  wife  (Bow- 
ker  against  Bradford,  140  Massachusetts  Supreme 
Court  Reports,  521). 

The  English  Law  of  partnership  was  itself  to  a  great 
extent  founded  on  what  was  known  as  the  "  Law  Mer- 
chant", and  thus  "on  foreign  ideas  as  to  matters  of 
trade  and  the  customs  of  merchants  drawn  frequently 
from  the  Lombard  or  Jew  traders  of  the  Continent'  , 
which  became  "by  Statute  Law,  custom  or  court  de- 
cision .  .  .  such  a  considerable  body  of  the  English 
law  a.s  to  have  a  name  to  itself"  (Stimson,  "Popular 
Law-making",  New  Yorkj  1910,  90. 

Profit  or  gain  is  the  object  of  the  relation;  but  not 
necessarily  profit  or  gain  to  result  from  buying  or  sell- 
ing of  goods.     Lawyers,  for  example,  may  enter  into 


PARUTA 


510 


PAEUTA 


partnership  (Kent,  "Commentaries  on  American 
Law",  111.  2S).  But  since  the  pursuit  of  gain  is 
essential  to  the  legal  notion  of  parliiersliii),  therefore, 
a"Voung  Men's  Christian  Associatiuu"  (Itliuiiig  its 
object  to  be  "the  extension  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  among  young  men,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  their  spiritual  life  and  mental  powers", 
has  been  held  to  be  not  suoh  an  association  as  the 
law  deems  to  be  a  partnership  (Queen  against  Robson, 
supra).  The  title  of  the  association,  the  partnership 
or  firm  name,  if  not  prescribed  by  express  agreement, 
may  be  acquired  by  usage. 

The.se  expressions  "firm"  and  "partnership"  are 
frequently  employed  synonymously.  Originally,  how- 
ever, the  word  firm  signified  "the  partners  or  members 
of  the  partnership  taken  collectively"  (Parsons,  "A 
treatise  on  the  Law  of  partnership",  4th  ed.,  Boston, 
1893,  1).  In  the  English  Partnership  Law  of  1890 
"partners  are  called  collectively  a  firm"  (Lindley,  op. 
cit.,  10);  a  .u  Parsons  (op.  eit.,  2)  remarks  that  "the 
business  world"  regards  the  firm  "as  a  body  which  has 
independent  rights  against  its  members  as  well  as 
against  strangers".  This  distinction  sanctioned  by 
the  law  of  Louisiana,  and  also  by  the  law  of 
those  European  countries  whose  jurisprudence  is 
based  on  the  Roman  Civil  Law,  has  not  always 
been  so  clearly  recognized  by  the  English  Courts  (ibid, 
3;  Lindley,  op.  cit.,  127,  128).  According  to  the 
Common  Law,  the  property,  or  stock  in  trade,  of  the 
firm  is  owned  by  the  partners  in  joint  tenancy,  but 
without  the  right  of  sur\-ivorship  which  ownership  in 
joint  tenancy  usually  implies;  "and  this",  remarks 
Kent,  op.  cit..  Ill,  30,  "according  to  Lord  Coke  was 
part  of  the  law  merchant  for  the  advancement  and 
continuance  of  commerce  and  trade". 

It  is  of  the  essence  of  the  contract  that  each  partner 
shall  "engage  to  bring  into  the  common  stock  some- 
thing that  is  valuable";  but  one  of  the  partners  may 
advance  funds  and  another  skill  (ibid,  24,  25).  And 
tlu^  proportions  of  their  respective  interests  in  the  firm 
property  are  such  as  they  may  have  agreed  (Parsons, 
op.  cit.,  138). 

In  the  coiu-se  of  the  business  of  the  partnership 
and  within  its  scope,  every  partner  "is  virtually  both 
a  principal  and  an  agent"  (Cox  against  Hickman,  8 
House  of  Lords  cases,  312,  313).  As  principal,  each 
partner  binds  himself,  and,  as  agent,  binds  the  part- 
nership, or  more  properly,  the  firm  (Parsons,  op.  cit., 
3,  Cox  against  Hickman  supra).  The  firm  is  bound 
by  a  sale  which  one  of  the  partners  may  effect  of  part- 
nership property,  disposition  of  the  property  being 
the  object  of  the  partnership  (Parsons,  op.  cit.,  134). 
And  so,  purchase  of  property  by  a  partner  binds  the 
firm,  if  the  purchase  be  made  "in  the  course  and 
within  the  scope  of  the  regular  business  of  the  firm" 
(ibid,  139). 

Death  of  a  partner  dissolves  the  firm,  unless  the 
partnership  agreement  provide  to  the  contrary  (ibid, 
431,  432,  note).  In  the  absence  of  such  a  provision 
the  surviving  partners  have,  indeed,  a  right  to  the  pos- 
session and  management  of  the  property  and  business, 
"but  only  for  the  purpose  of  selling  and  closing  the 
same"  (ibid.,  443). 

.Vnd  dissolution  of  a  partnership  before  the  lapse 
of  a  period  agreed  upon  for  its  continuance  may  result 
from  some  event  other  than  the  death  of  a  partner. 
The  relation  being  one  of  mutual  and  personal  confi- 
dence and  of  "exuberant  trust"  (Bell,  "Principles  of 
the  Law  of  Scotland"  10th  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1899,  sec. 
3.58),  no  partner  may  introduce,  whether  voluntarily 
or  involuntarily,  a  substitute  for  him.self.  On  assign- 
ment by  an  insolvent  partner  for  benefit  of  his  credi- 
tors, the  a.s.signec  becomes  entitled  to  an  accounting, 
but  without  becoming  a  partner.  .And  a  like  result 
follows  bankruptcy  of  a  partner.  (Kent,  op.  cit.,  59). 
Bankruptcy  of  the  finn  works  its  dissolution,  the 
property  vesting  in  an  assignjee  or  other  statutory 


ollicial  who  cannot  carry  on  the  business  (ib.,  58).  So, 
according  to  the  ("cinuiKin  Law,  marriage  of  a  female 
partnei  (lis,si)l\((l  ihr  pMrlner.ship,  "  because  her  capac- 
ity to  ail  ciascs  and  she  becomes  subject  to  the  con- 
trol of  her  husband"  (,ibid,  55). 

If  at  any  time  dissensions  among  the  partners  de- 
stroy mutual  trust  and  confidence,  there  seems  to  be 
great  doubt,  at  least,  whether  the  discordant  partners 
ought  to  be  compelled  to  continue  in  partnership  (Par- 
sons,  op.  cit.,  371,  390,  note  c). 

"  The  law  merchant  gave  a  right  for  an  accounting 
by  the  representatives  of  a  deceased  partner  against 
the  survivor"  (Street,  "Foundations  of  legal  liabil- 
ity". New  York,  1906,  II,  334),  and  whenever  the 
partnership  is  to  be  dissolved  and  its  affairs  settled, 
each  partner  or  his  legal  representative  is  entitled  to 
"his  distributive  share  after  the  partnership  accounts 
are  settled  and  the  debts  paid  "  (Parsons,  op.  cit., 
231,  508). 

Lindley.  The  Lam  of  Partnership  (7th  ed..  Lonclon,  190.';);  Par- 
sons,  .1    Trealise  on  the  Law  oj  Partnership    (4th  ed.,   Boston, 

1893).  Charle.s  W.  Sloanb. 

Paruta,  Paolo,  Venetian  historian  and  statesman, 
b.  at  Venice,  14  May,  1540;  d.  there,  6  Dec,  1598.  Of 
a  Luccan  family,  he  was  devoted  from  youth  to  litera- 
ture and  philosophy,  also  the  composition  of  poetry. 
He  applied  himself  especially  to  historj^  and  political 
science,  and  was  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
what  Macchiavelli,  though  in  a  different  way,  was  at 
the  beginning.  He  belonged  intellectually  to  the 
group  of  recently  ennobled  men  who  met  at  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Morosini  to  discuss  politics,  which  party 
(it  may  be  called  the  liberal  party)  came  into  author- 
ity in  1582.  Previous  to  this  he  occupied  positions  of 
secondary  importance;  in  1562  he  accompanied  the 
ambassador  Michele  Suriano  to  the  Court  of  Maxi- 
milian II,  and  acted  as  official  historiographer  of  the 
Republic,  during  which  office  he  delivered  the  funeral 
oration  for  those  killed  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto  (1572) ; 
after  the  change  of  government  he  w  as  made  Savio  di 
TeTTaferma,  and  became  a  senator;  he  was  Commis- 
ario  del  Cadore  (1589),  Governor  of  Brescia  (1590-92), 
ambassador  to  Rome  (1592-95),  procurator  of  St. 
Mark  (1596),  next,  in  dignity  after  the  doge,  and  Prov- 
veditorc  dclle  Forlezze  (1597). 

His  chief  works  are  the  "Guerra  di  Cipro"  (1570- 
72)  and  the  "Storia  Veneziana",  a  continuation  of 
Bembo's  history,  embracing  the  years  1513  to  1551, 
works  composed  at  the  request  of  the  Government, 
but  written  with  truth  and  impartiality,  showing  es- 
pecially the  connexion  between  the  current  events  of 
Venice  and  the  general  history  of  P^urope.  His  "De- 
spatches" from  Rome  and  the  "Rclazione"  written  at 
the  end  of  his  diplomatic  mission  reveal  his  great  polit- 
ical foresight,  by  his  accurateestimateof  men  and  affairs 
at  Rome,  and  which  are  equal  to  those  of  the  great- 
est Venetian  ambassadors.  Of  hispolitical  writings,  the 
"  Delia  perfezionedella  vita  politica" in  dialogue  form, 
written  between  1572  and  1579,  has  a  somewhat  didac- 
tic and  academic  tone,  and  treats  principally  of  the 
relative  superiority  of  the  active  and  contemplative 
life,  a  problem  he  decides  in  favour  of  the  active  life 
on  account  of  its  contributing  more  to  the  welfare  of 
the  Repubfic.  It  was  supposed,  not  without  reason,  to 
have  been  written  to  controvert  the  ide.as  contained 
in  Bellarmine's  "De officio  principis  christiaiii".  His 
"Discorsi  politici"  were  not  published  till  after  his 
death.  The  first  book  treats  of  the  greatness  and  de- 
cadence of  the  Romans;  the  second  of  modern  govern- 
ments, especially  Venice,  being  really  an  .iiKilugy  for 
the  latter's  policy.  Though  Paruta  is  an  independent 
thinker,  Macchiavelfi's  influence  is  notable.  The  pol- 
icy of  Italian  equilibrium,  which  a  century  later  de- 
veloped into  that  of  European  equilibrium,  was  clearly 
foreseen  by  him.  In  his  |)olitical  views  economy  is  not 
an  important  part,  and  therein  he  is  inferior  to  his 
contemporary,  the  Piedmontese  Botero. 


PASCAL 


511 


PASCAL 


Flamini,  It  Cinque  cento  in  StoHa  delta  Letteratura  italiana 
(Milan,  1894),  458;  Cohanio,  Le  dottrine  politiche  di  P.  Paruta. 

U.  Benigni. 

Pascal,  Blaise,  b.  at  Clermont-Ferrand,  19  June, 
1623;  (1.  in  Paris,  19  August,  1662.  He  was  the  son  of 
Eticunc  Pascal,  advocate  at  the  court  of  Aids  of 
Ck-rrnont,  and  of  Antoinette  Bcgon.  His  father,  a 
man  of  fortune,  went  with  his  children  (1631)  to  live 
in  Paris.  He  tauKht  his  son  grammar,  Latin,  Span- 
ish, and  mathriMatics,  all  according  to  an  original 
method.  In  his  twelfth  year  Blaise  composed  a  trea- 
tise on  the  communication  of  sounds;  at  sixteen  an- 
other treatise,  on  conic  sections.  In  1639  he  went  to 
Rouen  with  his  father,  who  had  been  appointed  in- 
tendant  of  Normandy,  and,  to  assist  his  father  in  his 
calculations,  he  invented  the  arithmetical  machine. 
He  repeated  Torricelli's  vacuum  experiments  and 
demonstrated,  against  Pere  Noel,  the  weight  of  air 
(cf.  Mathieu,  "Revue  de  Paris",  1906 ^  Abel  Lefranc, 
"Revue  Bleue",  1906;  Strowski,  "Pascal",  Paris, 
1908).  He  published  works  on  the  arithmetical  tri- 
angle, on  wagers  and  the  theory  of  probabilities,  and 
on  the  roulette  or  cycloid. 

Meanwhile,  in  1646,  he  had  been  won  over  to  Jan- 
senism, and  induced  his  family,  especially  his  sister 
JacqueUne,  to  follow  in  the  same  direction.  In  1650, 
after  a  sojourn  in  Auvergne,  his  family  returned  to 
Paris.  On  the  advice  of  physicians  Pascal,  who  had 
always  been  ailing  and  who  now  suffered  more  than 
ever,  relaxed  his  labours  and  mingled  in  society,  with 
such  friends  as  the  Due  de  Roannez,  the  Chevalier 
Mere,  the  poet  Desbarreaux,  the  actor  Miton.  This 
was  what  has  been  called  the  worldly  period  of  his 
hfe,  during  which  he  must  have  written  the  "Dis- 
cours  sur  les  passions  de  I'amour",  inspired,  it  is  said, 
by  Mile  de  Roannez.  But  the  world  soon  became  dis- 
tasteful to  him,  and  he  felt  more  and  more  impelled 
to  abandon  it.  During  the  night  of  23  November, 
16.54,  his  doubts  were  settled  by  a  sort  of  vision,  the 
evidence  of  which  is  in  a  writing,  always  subsequently 
carried  in  the  hning  of  his  coat,  and  called  "Pascal's 
talisman".  After  this  he  practised  the  most  severe 
asceticism,  renounced  learning,  and  became  the  con- 
stant guest  of  Port  Royal.  In  1656  he  undertook 
the  defence  of  Jansenism,  and  published  the  "Provin- 
ciales".  This  polemical  work  was  nearing  completion 
when  Pascal  had  the  joy  of  seeing  his  friends,  the 
Due  de  Roannez  and  the  jurisconsult  Domat,  eon- 
verted  to  Jansenism,  as  well  as  his  niece  Marguerite 
Perier,  who  had  been  cured  of  a  fistula  of  the  eye  by 
contact  with  a  relic  of  the  Holy  Thorn  preserved  at 
Port  Royal.  Thenceforth,  although  exhausted  by 
illness,  Pascal  gave  himself  more  and  more  to  God. 
He  multiplied  his  mortifications,  wore  a  cincture  of  nails 
which  he  drove  into  his  flesh  at  the  slightest  thought  of 
vanity,  and  to  be  more  like  Jesus  crucified,  he  left  his 
own  house  and  went  to  die  in  that  of  his  brother-in- 
law.  He  wrote  the  "Mystere  de  Jesus",  a  sublime 
memorial  of  his  transports  of  faith  and  love,  and  he 
laboured  to  collect  the  materials  for  a  great  apologetic 
work.  He  died  at  the  age  of  thirty-nine,  after  having 
received  in  an  ecstasy  of  joy  the  Holy  Viaticum,  for 
which  he  had  several  times  asked,  crying  out  as  he 
half  rose  from  his  couch:  "May  God  never  abandon 
me!" 

Pascal  left  numerous  scientific  works,  among  which 
must  be  mentioned  "Essai  sur  les  coniques"  (1640); 
"Avis  a  ceux  qui  verront  la  machine  arithm^tique 
(1645);  "Recit  de  la  grande  experience  de  l'6quilibre 
des  hqueurs"  (1648);  "Trait6  du  triangle  arith- 
mctique"  (1654).  He  shows  himself  a  determined 
advocate  of  the  ex-perimental  method,  in  opposition 
to  the  mathematical  and  mechanical  method  of  Des- 
cartes. In  his  "Traite  sur  la  vide",  often  reprinted 
with  the  "Pens<''es"  under  the  title  "De  I'autorite 
en  matiere  de  philosophie",  Pascal  clearly  puts  the 
question    regarding    progress,    which    he    answers, 


boldly  yet  prudently,  in  "L'esprit  g^ometrique", 
where  he  luminously  distinguishes  between  the  geo- 
metrical and  the  acute  mind,  and  establishes  the 
foundations  of  the  art  of  persuasion.  As  to  his 
authorship  of  the  "Discours  sur  les  passions  de 
I'amour",  that  essay  at  least  contains  certain  theories 
familiar  to  the  author  of  the  "Pensik-s"  on  the  part 
played  by  intuition  in  sentiment  and  aesthetic,  and 
its  style  for  the  most  part  resembles  that  of  Pascal. 
The  "Entretien  avec  M.  de  Saci  sur  Eijictete  et  Mon- 
taigne" gives  the  key  to  the  "Pensces";  psychology 
serving  as  the  foundation  and  criterion  of  apolo- 
getics, various  philosophies  solving  the  problem  only 
in  one  aspect,  and  Christianity  alone  affording  the 
complete  solution. 

But  Pascal's  two  masterpieces  are  the  "Provin- 
ciales"  and  the  "Pensees".  The  occasion  of  the 
"Provinciales"  was  an  accident.  The  Due  de  Lian- 
court,  a  friend  of 
Port  Royal,  hav- 
ing been  refuserl 
absolution  by  the 
cure  of  S  a  i  n  t 
Sulpice.  Antoine 
Arnauld  wrote  two 
letters  which  were 
censured  by  the 
So r bonne.  He 
wished  to  appeal 
to  the  public  in  a 
pamphlet  which  he 
submitted  to  his 
friends,  but  they 
found  it  too  heavy 
and  theological. 
He  then  said  to 
Pascal:  "You, who 
are  young,  must 
do  sometliing." 
The  next  day  (23  Jan.,  1666,  Pascal  brought  the  first 
"Provinciale".  The  "Petitis  lettres"  followed  to 
the  number  of  nineteen,  the  last  unfinished,  from 
January,  1656,  to  March,  1657.  Appearing  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Louis  de  Montalte,  they  were  published 
at  Cologne  in  1657  as  "Les  Provinciales,  ou  Lettres 
6crites  par  Louis  de  Montalte  k  un  provincial  de  ses 
amis  et  au  RR.  PP.  J6suites  sur  le  sujet  de  la  morale 
et  de  la  politique  de  ces  peres".  The  first  four 
treat  the  dogmatic  question  which  forms  the  basis  of 
Jansenism  on  the  agreement  between  grace  and  hu- 
man liberty.  Pascal  answers  it  by  practically,  if  not 
theoretically,  denying  sufficient  grace  and  liberty. 
The  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  letters  take  up  the 
same  questions,  but  with  noteworthy  qualifications. 
From  the  fourth  to  the  sixteenth  Pascal  censures  the 
Jesuit  moral  code,  or  rather  the  casuistry,  first,  by 
depicting  a  naif  Jesuit  who,  through  silly  vanity,  re- 
veals to  him  the  pretended  secrets  of  the  Jesuit 
policy,  and  then  by  direct  invective  against  the  Jes- 
uits themselves.  The  most  famous  are  the  foiu'th,  on 
sins  of  ignorance,  and  the  thiilcciilh,  on  linniicide. 

That  Pascal  intended  tliis  to  lie  a  useful  work, 
his  whole  life  bears  witness,  as  do  his  deathbctl  declara- 
tions. His  good  faith  cannot  seriously  be  doubted, 
but  some  of  his  methods  are  more  questionable. 
V/ithout  ever  seriously  altering  his  citations  from  the 
casuists,  as  he  has  sometimes  been  wrongfully  accused 
of  doing,  he  arranges  them  somewhat  disingenuously; 
he  simplifies  complicated  questions  excessively,  and, 
in  setting  forth  the  solutions  of  the  casuists  sometimes 
lets  his  own  bias  interfere.  But  the  gravest  reproach 
against  him  is,  first,  that  he  unjustly  blamed  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus,  attacking  it  exclusively,  and  attributing 
to  it  a  desire  to  lower  the  Christian  ideal  and  to  soften 
down  the  moral  code  in  the  interest  of  its  pohcy ;  then 
that  he  discredited  casuistry  itself  by  refusing  to  re- 
cognize its  legitimacy  or,  in  certain  cases,  its  necessity. 


PASCAL 


ai2 


PASCH 


80  that  not  only  the  Jesuits,  but  religion  itself  suffered 
by  this  strife,  which  rontributod  to  hasten  the  eondem- 
nation  of  certain  lax  tlicories  by  the  Cluinh.  And, 
without  wisliing  or  even  knowinj;  it,  Pasi-ai  tiiniislicd 
weapons  on  the  one  hand  to  unbchevers  and  adversa- 
ries of  the  Church  and  on  the  other  to  the  partisans  of 
independent  morality.  As  to  their  literary  form,  tlie 
"Provinciales"  are,  in  point  of  time,  the  first  pro.se 
masterpiece  of  the  Frcncli  language,  in  their  satirical 
hinnour  and  passionate  eloquence. 

The  "I'ensees"  are  an  tmfinished  work.  From  his 
conversion  to  Jansenism  Pa,scal  nourisheii  tlic  pnijcct 
of  writing  an  apology  for  the  Christian  Religion  which 
the  increasing  number  of  libertines  rendered  so  neces- 
sary at  that  time.  He  had  elaborated  the  plan,  and 
at  intervals  during  his  illness  he  jotted  down  notes, 
fragments,  and  meditations  for  his  book.  In  1670 
Port  Koyal  issued  an  incomplete  edition.  Condorcet, 
on  the  advice  cif  Voltaire,  attempted,  in  1776,  to  con- 
nect Pascal  with  the  Philosophic  party  by  means  of 
a  garbled  edition,  which  was  opposed  by  that  of  the 
Abbe  Bossuet  (1779).  After  a  famous  report  of  Cousin 
on  the  MS.  of  the  "Pen.sees"  (1842),  Faugere  pub- 
lished the  first  critical  edition  (1844),  followed  since 
then  by  a  host  of  others,  the  best  of  which  is  undoubt- 
edly that  of  Michaut  (Basle,  1896),  which  reproduces 
the  original  MS.  pure  and  simple.  What  Pascal's  plan 
was,  can  never  be  determined,  despite  the  information 
furnished  by  Port  Royal  and  by  his  sister.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  his  method  of  apologetics  must  have  been  at 
once  rigorous  and  original;  no  doubt,  he  had  made  use 
of  the  traditional  proofs — notably,  the  historical  argu- 
ment from  prophecies  and  miracles.  But  as  against 
adversaries  who  did  not  admit  historical  certainty, 
it  w;is  a  stroke  of  genius  to  produce  a  wholly  psycho- 
logical argument  and,  by  starting  from  the  study  of  the 
human  soul,  to  arrive  at  God.  Man  is  an  "incompre- 
hensible monster",  says  he,  "at  once  sovereign  great- 
ness and  sovereign  misery."  Neither  dogmatism  nor 
Pyrrhonism  will  solve  this  enigma:  the  one  explains 
the  greatness  of  man,  the  other  his  misery;  but  neither 
e.xplains  both.  We  must  listen  to  God.  Christianity 
alone,  through  the  doctrine  of  the  Fall  and  that  of  the 
Incarnation,  gives  the  key  to  the  mystery.  Chris- 
tianity, therefore,  is  truth.  God  being  thus  appre- 
hended and  felt  by  the  heart — which  "has  its  reasons 
that  the  mind  knows  not  of",  and  which,  amid  the  con- 
fusion of  the  other  faculties,  is  never  mistaken — it  re- 
mains for  us  to  go  to  Him  through  the  will,  by  making 
acts  of  faith  even  before  we  have  faith. 

Another  curious  argument  of  Pascal's  is  that  which 
is  known  as  the  argument  of  the  wager.  God  exists 
or  He  does  not  exist,  and  we  must  of  necessity  lay  odds 
for  or  against  Him. 

If  I  wager /or  \  '^^'J  ^od  is-infinite  gain; 
^     ■'       (  and  God  is  not — no  loss. 

Tf  I  „.„„„- „,-„„)    i  and  God  is — infinite  loss; 

If  I  wager  against   ^  ^^^  (-,^^  j^  not-neither  loss 

nor  gain. 
In  the  second  case  there  is  an  hypothesis  wherein 
I  am  exposed  to  the  loss  of  everything.  Wisdom, 
therefore,  counsels  me  to  make  the  wager  which  in- 
sures my  winning  all  or,  at  worst  losing  nothing.  In- 
numerable works  were  devoted  to  Pascal  in  the  second 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Poets,  critics,  ro- 
mance-writers, theologians,  philosophers  have  drawn 
their  iaspiration  from  him  or  made  him  the  subject  of 
discussion.  As  M.  Hourget  has  said,  he  is  not  only  one 
of  the  princes  of  style,  but  he  represents  the  religious 
soul  in  its  most  tragic  and  terrified  aspects.  More- 
over, the  problems  which  he  presents  are  precisely 
those  which  confront  us  nowadays. 

Saiste-Beuvf.,  Port-Royal,  I,  II.  Ill  (Paris,  1860);  Vinet, 
Eludes  fur  BlaUe  Pascal  (Paris,  1848);  Sully-Prudhomme,  La 
trnif.  relit/ion  selon  Pascal  (Paris,  1909) ;  BBUNETlfeHE,  Etudes 
crMinif.  eer.  1.  3,4;  /list.  H  liuh-ature,  II  (Paris,  1880-1903); 
Michaut.  Leg  epoquesde  la  pcnstcde  Pascal  (Paris,  1897) ;  Giraud, 
Pascal:  Vhommet  /'flfupre,  Vinfiuence  (Paris,  1905);  BouTBOuxin 


Coll.  des  orands  icrivains  frani^ais  (Paris,  1900);  Strowski,  Pascal 
el  son  temps  (Paris,  1909)  (especially  important);  Taylor,  Pascal's 
Thoughts  on  Relifjion  and  Philosophy  (London,  1894) ;  Janssens, 
La  philosophic  et  Vapologltique  de  P.  (Louvain,  1896). 

J.  Lataste. 

Pascal    Baylon,   Saint,  b.  at  Torre-Hermosa,  in 

the  Kingdom  of  Ar.agon,  24  May,  1.540,  on  the  Fe.ast 
of  Pentecost,  called  in  Spain  "the  Pasch  of  the  Holy 
Ghost",  whence  the  name  of  Paschal;  d.  at  Villa 
Reale,  1.5  May,  1.592,  on  Whitsunday.  His  parents, 
Martin  Baylon  and  Elizabetli  Jubera,  were  virtuous 
peasants.  The  child  began  very  early  to  display 
signs  of  that  surpassing  devotion  towards  the  Holy 
Eucharist,  which  forms  the  salient  feature  of  his 
character.  From  his  seventh  to  his  twenty-fourth 
year,  he  led  the  life  of  a  shepherd,  and  during  the 
whole  of  that  period  exercised  a  salutary  influence 
upon  his  companions.  He  was  then  received  as  a 
lay-brotlier  amongst  the  Franciscan  friars  of  the  Al- 
cantarine  Reform.  In  the  cloister,  Paschal's  life  of  con- 
templation and  self-sacrifice  fulfilled  the  promise  of 
his  early  years.  His  charity  to  the  poor  and  afflicted, 
and  his  unfailing  courtesy  were  remarkable.  On 
one  occasion,  in  the  course  of  a  journey  through 
France,  he  triumphantly  defended  the  dogma  of  the 
Real  Presence  against  the  blasphemies  of  a  Calvin- 
ist  preacher,  and  in  consequence,  narrowly  escaped 
death  at  the  hands  of  a  Huguenot  mob.  Although 
poorly  educated,  his  counsel  was  sought  for  by 
people  of  every  station  in  life,  and  he  was  on  terms 
of  closest  friendship  with  personages  of  eminent 
sanctity.  Pascal  was  beatified  in  1618,  and  canon- 
ized in  1690.  His  cultus  has  flourished  particularly 
in  his  native  land  and  in  Southern  Italy,  and  it  was 
widely  diffused  in  Southern  and  Central  America, 
through  the  Spanish  Conquests.  In  his  Apostolic 
letter,  Providentissimus  Deus,  Leo  XIII  declared  St. 
Pascal  the  especial  heavenly  protector  of  all  Eu- 
charistic  Congresses  and  Associations.  His  feast  is 
kept  on  17  May.  The  saint  is  usually  depicted  in 
adoration  before  a  vision  of  the  Host. 

Stanifobth,  The  Saint  of  the  Eucharist  (London,  1908) ;  Lines 
and  Saints  of  the  three  orders  of  Saint  Francis  (London.  1886); 
XlMENES.  Chronicles  (Valencia,  1600);  D'Arta.  Supplement  to 
above  work  (Rome,  1672);  DePokrentrvy,  Saint  Paschal  Baylon 
(Paris,  1899) 

Oswald  Stanxforth. 
Pascendi,  Dominici  Gregis.    See  Modernism. 

Pasch  or  Passover. — Jews  of  all  classes  and  ways 
of  thinking  look  forward  to  the  Passover  holidays  with 
the  same  eagerness  as  Christians  do  to  Christmas- 
tide.  It  is  for  them  the  great  event  of  the  year.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Temple  sacrifices,  their  manner  of 
observing  it  differs  but  little  from  that  which  obtained 
in  the  time  of  Christ.  Directions  for  keeping  the 
feast  were  carefully  laid  down  in  the  L.aw  (see  Exod., 
xii,  xiii,  etc.),  and  carried  out  with  great  exactness 
after  the  Exile. 

The  feast  of  the  Passover  begins  on  the  fourteenth 
day  of  Nisan  (a  lunar  month  which  roughly  corre- 
sponds with  the  latter  part  of  March  and  the  first  part 
of  April)  and  ends  with  the  twenty-first.  The  .lews 
now,  as  in  ancient  times,  make  elaborate  preparations 
for  the  festival.  Every  house  is  subjected  to  a 
thorough  spring  cleaning.  The  Saturday  preceding 
the  day  of  the  Pasch  (fifteenth)  is  called  a  "Great 
Sabbath",  because  it  is  supposed  that  the  tenth  day 
of  the  month  Abib  (or  Nisan),  when  the  IsraeUtes 
were  to  select,  the  P:ischal  lambs,  before  their  deliver- 
ance from  10gyi>t,  fell  on  a  Sabbath.  On  this  Sabbath, 
the  day  of  the  following  week  on  which  the  Passover 
is  to  fall  is  solemnly  announced.  Some  days  before 
the  feast,  culinary  and  other  utensils  to  be  used  during 
the  festival  are  carefully  and  legally  purified  from  all 
contact  with  leaven,  or  leavened  bread.  They  are 
then  said  to  be  kosher.  Special  sets  of  cooking  and 
table  utensils  are  not  unf  requently  kept  in  every  house- 


PASCH 


513 


PASCH 


hold.  On  the  evening  of  the  thirteenth,  after  dark, 
the  head  of  the  house  makes  the  "search  for  leaven" 
according  to  the  manner  indicated  in  the  Mishna 
(Tractate  "Pesachim",  i),  which  is  probably  the  cus- 
tom followed  by  the  Jews  for  at  least  two  thousand 
years.  The  search  is  made  by  means  of  a  lighted 
wax  candle.  A  piece  of  ordinary,  or  leavened,  bread 
ia  left  in  some  conspicuous  place,  generally  on  a  win- 
dow-sill. The  search  begins  by  a  prayer  containing 
a  reference  to  the  command  to  put  away  all  leaven 
during  the  feast.  The  place  of  the  piece  of  bread  just 
mentioned  is  first  marked  to  indicate  the  beginning  of 
the  search.  The  whole  house  is  then  carefully  exam- 
ined, and  all  fragments  of  leaven  are  carefully  col- 
lected on  a  large  spoon  or  scoop  by  means  of  a  brush 
or  bundle  of  quills.  The  search  is  ended  by  coming 
back  to  the  piece  of  bread  with  which  it  began.  This, 
also  is  collected  on  the  scoop.  The  latter,  with  its 
contents,  and  the  brush  are  then  carefully  tied  up  in  a 
bundle  and  suspended  over  a  lamp  to  prevent  mice 
from  scattering  leaven  during  the  night  and  necessitat- 
ing a  fresh  search.  The  master  of  the  house  then  pro- 
claims in  Aramaic  that  all  the  leaven  that  is  in  his 
house,  of  which  he  is  unaware,  is  to  him  no  more  than 
dust.  During  the  forenoon  of  the  next  day  (four- 
teenth) all  the  leaven  that  remains  is  burnt,  and  a  sim- 
ilar declaration  made.  From  this  time  till  the  evening 
of  the  22nd,  when  the  feast  ends,  only  unleavened 
bread  is  allowed.  The  legal  time  when  the  use  of 
leavened  bread  was  prohibited  was  understood  to  be 
noon  on  the  fourteenth  Nisan;  but  the  rabbis,  in  order 
to  run  no  risks,  and  to  place  a  hedge  around  the  Law, 
anticipated  this  by  one  or  two  hours. 

On  this  day,  the  fourteenth,  the  first-born  son  of 
each  family,  if  he  be  above  thirteen,  fasts  in  memory 
of  the  deliverance  of  the  first-born  of  the  Israelites, 
when  the  destroying  angel  passed  over  Egypt.  On  the 
evening  of  the  fourteenth  the  male  members  of  the 
family,  attired  in  their  best,  attend  special  services  in 
the  synagogue.  On  their  return  home  they  find  the 
house  lit  up  and  the  Seder,  or  Paschal  Table,  prepared. 
The  head  of  the  family  takes  his  place  at  the  head  of 
the  table,  where  there  is  an  arm-chair  prepared  for 
him  with  cushions  or  pillows.  A  similar  chair  is  also 
ready  for  the  mistress  of  the  house.  The  meal  is 
called  Seder  by  the  Ashkenazaie  Jews,  and  Hagc/adah 
(because  of  the  story  of  the  deliverance  recited  during 
it)  by  the  Sephardic  Jews.  All  the  members  of  the 
Jewish  family,  including  servants,  sit  round  the  table. 
In  front  of  the  head  of  the  family  is  the  Seder-dish, 
which  is  of  such  a  kind  as  to  allow  three  unleavened 
cakes  or  matzoth,  each  wrapped  in  a  napkin,  to  be 
placed  in  it  one  above  the  other.  A  shank  bone  of 
iamb  (with  a  small  portion  of  meat  attached)  which 
has  been  roasted  on  the  coals  is  placed,  together  with 
an  egg  that  has  been  roasted  in  hot  ashes,  on  another 
dish  above  the  three  unleavened  cakes.  The  roasted 
shank  represents  the  paschal  lamb,  and  the  roasted 
egg  the  chagigah,  or  free-will  offerings,  made  daily  in 
the  Temple.  Bitter  herbs,  such  as  parsley  and  horse- 
radish, a  kind  of  sop  called  charoselh,  consisting  of 
various  fruits  pounded  into  a  mucilage  and  mixed 
with  vinegar,  and  salt  water,  are  arranged  in  different 
vessels,  sometimes  disposed  like  candelabra  above  the 
unleavened  bread.  The  table  is  also  furnished  with 
wine,  and  cups  or  glasses  for  each  person,  an  extra 
cup  being  always  left  for  the  prophet  Elias,  whom  they 
expect  as  the  precursor  of  the  Messiah. 

When  all  are  seated  around  the  table  the  first  cup  of 
wine  is  poured  out  for  each.  The  head  of  the  house  rises 
and  thanks  God  for  the  fruits  of  the  vine  and  for  the 
great  day  which  they  are  about  to  celebrate.  He  then 
sits  down  and  drinks  his  cup  of  wine  in  a  reclining 
posture,  leaning  on  his  left  arm.  The  others  drink 
at  the  same  time.  In  the  time  of  the  Temple  the 
poorest  Jew  was  to  drink  four  cups  of  wine  during  this 
joyful  meal;  and  if  he  happened  to  be  too  poor,  it  was 
XI.— 33 


to  be  supplied  out  of  public  funds.  Though  four  cups 
are  prescribed,  the  quantity  is  not  restricted  to  that 
amount.  Some  water  is  generally  added  to  the  wine. 
In  early  days  red  wine  was  used ;  but,  on  account  of  the 
fear  of  fostering  the  groundless  blood  accusations 
against  the  Jews,  this  usage  was  discontinued.  Un- 
fermented  raisin  wine  or  Palestinian  wine  is  now  gen- 
erally used.  After  drinking  the  first  cup  the  master 
rises  and  washes  his  hands,  the  others  remaining 
seated,  and  Edersheini  is  of  opinion  that  it  was  at  this 
point  of  the  supper  that  Christ  washed  the  disciples' 
feet.  After  washing  his  hands,  the  head  of  the  family 
sits  down,  takes  a  small  quantity  of  bitter  herbs,  dips 
them  in  salt  water,  and  eats  them,  reclining  on  his  left 
elbow.  Jewish  interpreters  say  that  only  the  first 
Passover  was  to  be  eaten  standing,  and  with  circum- 
stances of  haste.  During  the  Passovers  commemora- 
tive of  the  first  they  reclined  "like  a  king  [or  free 
man]  at  his  ease,  and  not  as  slaves" — in  this  probably 
following  the  example  of  the  independent  Romans 
with  whom  they  came  into  contact.  After  the  head 
of  the  family  has  eaten  his  portion  of  bitter  herbs, 
he  takes  similar  portions,  dips  them  in  salt  water, 
and  hands  them  round  to  be  eaten  by  the  others. 
He  then  takes  out  the  middle  unleavened  cake,  breaks 
it  in  two,  and  hides  away  one-half  under  a  pillow  or 
cushion,  to  be  distributed  and  eaten  after  supper.  If 
this  practice  existed  in  the  time  of  Christ,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  it  was  from  this  portion,  called 
afikoman,  that  the  Eucharist  was  instituted.  As  soon 
as  this  portion  is  laid  aside,  the  other  half  is  replaced, 
the  dish  containing  the  unleavened  cakes  is  uncovered, 
and  all,  standing  up,  take  hold  of  the  dish  and  solemnly 
lift  it  up,  chanting  slowly  in  Aramaic:  "This  is  the 
bread  of  affliction  which  our  fathers  ate  in  Egypt.  .  .  . 
This  year  here,  next  year  in  Jerusalem.  This  year 
slaves,  next  year  free."  The  dish  is  then  replaced, 
and  the  shank  bone,  roasted  egg,  etc.  restored  to 
their  places  above  it.  All  sit  down,  and  the  youngest 
son  asks  why  this  night  above  all  other  nights  they 
eat  bitter  herbs,  unleavened  bread,  and  in  a  reclining 
posture.  The  head  of  the  house  then  tells  how  their 
fathers  were  idolaters  when  God  chose  Abraham,  how 
they  were  slaves  in  Egypt,  how  God  delivered  them, 
etc.  God  is  praised  and  blessed  for  His  wondrous 
mercies  to  their  nation,  and  this  first  part  of  the  cere- 
mony is  brought  to  a  close  by  their  breaking  forth 
with  the  recitation  of  the  first  part  of  the  Hallel  (Pss., 
cxiii  and  cxiv)  and  drinking  the  second  cup  of  wine, 
which  is  triumphantly  held  aloft  and  called  the  cup 
of  the  Haggadah  or  story  of  deliverance. 

The  ceremony  so  far  has  been  only  introductory. 
The  meal  proper  now  begins.  First,  all  wash  their 
hands;  the  president  then  recites  a  blessing  over  the 
unleavened  cakes,  and,  after  having  dipped  small 
fragments  of  them  in  salt  water,  he  eats  them  re- 
clining. He  next  distributes  pieces  to  the  others. 
He  also  takes  some  bitter  herbs,  dips  them  in  the 
charoselh,  and  gives  them  to  the  others  to  be  eaten. 
He  next  makes  a  kind  of  sandwich  by  putting  a 
portion  of  horse-radish  between  two  pieces  of  un- 
leavened bread  and  hands  it  round,  saying  that  it  is 
in  memory  of  the  Temple  and  of  Hillel,  who  used  to 
wrap  together  pieces  of  the  paschal  lamb,  unleavened 
bread,  bitter  herbs,  and  eat  them,  in  fulfilment  of  the 
command  of  Ex.,  xii,  8.  The  supper  proper  is  now 
served,  and  consists  of  many  courses  of  dishes  loved  by 
Jews,  such  as  soup,  fish,  etc.,  prepared  in  curious  ways 
unknown  to  Gentiles.  At  the  end  of  the  meal  some  of 
the  children  snatch  the  afikoman  that  has  been  hidden 
away,  and  it  has  to  be  redeemed  by  presents — a  cus- 
tom probably  arising  from  a  mistranslation  of  the 
Talmud.  It  is  then  divided  between  all  present  and 
eaten.  Oesterley  and  Box  think  that  this  is  a  survival 
from  an  earlier  time  when  a  part  of  the  paschal  lamb 
was  kept  to  the  end  and  distributed,  so  as  to  be  the 
last  thing  eaten.     When  the  afi.koman  is  eaten  the 


PASCHAL 


514 


PASCHAL 


third  cup  is  filled;  and  grace  after  meals  is  said,  and  the 
third  cup  drunk  in  a  reclining  posture.  A  cup  of 
wine  is  now  poured  out  for  the  prophet  Elias,  in  a 
dead  silence  which  is  maintained  for  some  time, 
and  the  door  is  opened.  Imprcc-ations  against  un- 
believers, taken  from  the  Psalms  and  Lamentations, 
are  then  reciteti.  Those  were  introduced  only  during 
the  Middle  Ages.  After  this  the  fourth  cup  is  filled 
and  the  great  Hallel  (Pss.,  c.w-c.wiii)  and  a  prayer  of 
praise  are  recited.  Before  drinking  the  fourth  cup, 
the  Jews  of  some  countries  recite  five  poetical  pieces, 
and  then  the  fourth  cup  is  drunk.  At  the  end  a 
prayer  asking  God  to  accept  what  they  have  done  is 
added.  Among  the  German  and  Polish  Jews  this 
prayer  is  followed  by  popular  songs. 

The  same  ceremonies  are  observed  the  next  even- 
ing. According  to  the  Law  the  fifteenth  and  twenty- 
first  were  to  be  kept  as  solenm  festivals  and  days 
of  rest.  At  present  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth,  the 
twenty-first  and  twenty-second  are  whole  holidays,  a 
custom  introduced  among  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion 
to  make  sure  that  they  fulfilled  the  precepts  of  the 
Law  on  the  proper  day.  The  other  days  are  half- 
holidays.  Special  services  are  held  in  the  synagogues 
throughout  the  Passover  week.  Formerly  the  date 
of  the  Pasch  was  fixed  by  actual  observation  [Schiirer, 
" History  of  the  Jewish  People"  (Edinburgh,  1902), 
I,  II,  Append.  3].  It  is  now  deduced  from  astronomi- 
cal calculations. 

Oestebley  .\nd  Box,  Religion  and  Worship  of  the  Synagogue 
(London,  1907);  Dembitz,  Jewish  Services  in  the  Synagogue  and 
Home  (Philadelphia,  1898);  LESfeTRE  in  Vigouroux,  Diet,  de  la 
Bible,  8.  V.  Paque:  Jewish  Encycl.;  Ginsbdrg  in  Kitto,  Cyclop. 
of  Bibl.  Lit.;  Abrahams  in  Hastings,  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  a.  v. 
Passover;  Smith,  Bibl.  Diet.:  Zangwill,  Dreamers  of  the  Ghetto 
(London);  Jacobs,  Jewish  Year  Book  (London,  annual) ;  Eders- 
HEiM,  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah,  11  (London,  1900), 
479. 

C.  Aherne. 

Paschal  I,  Pope  (817-824),  the  date  of  his  birth  is 
unknown;  he  died  in  April,  May,  or  June,  824.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Roman  named  Bonosus.  While 
still  young  he  joined  the  Roman  clergy  and  was  taken 
into  the  papal  patriarchate  (Lateran  Palace)  where  he 
was  instructed  in  the  Divine  Service  and  the  Holy 
Scripture.  Leo  III  having  appointed  him  superior 
of  the  monastery  of  St.  Stephen  near  the  Basilica  of 
St.  Peter  in  the  Vatican,  he  took  care  of  the  pilgrims 
who  came  to  Rome.  On  the  death  of  Stephen  IV  (24 
January,  817)  Paschal  was  unanimously  chosen  as 
his  successor.  On  the  following  day  he  was  conse- 
crated and  enthroned.  He  entered  into  relations  with 
Emperor  Louis,  sending  him  several  ambassadors  in 
rapid  succession.  In  817  he  received  from  the  em- 
peror a  document,  "Pactum  Ludovicianum",  con- 
firming the  rights  and  possessions  of  the  Holy  See. 
This  document  with  later  amendments  is  still  extant 
(cf.  especially  Sickel,  "Da.s  Privileg  Ottos  I  fUr  die 
romischeKirche",  Innsbruck,  1883,  50sqq.,  174  sqq.). 
Paschal  remained  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Prankish 
nobility  and  sent  a  special  legation  with  rich  gifts 
to  the  marriage  of  King  Lothair  I,  son  of  Emperor 
Louis.  In  spring,  823,  Lothair  went  to  Rome  and  on  5 
April  he  was  solemnly  crowned  emperor  by  Paschal. 
Although  the  pope  himself  opposed  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Prankish  emperors  over  Rome  and  Roman  terri- 
tory, high  officials  in  the  papal  palace,  especially 
Primicerius  Theodore  and  his  son-in-law  Leo  No- 
menculator,  were  at  the  head  of  the  party  which  sup- 
ported the  Franks,  and  advocated  the  supremacy  of 
the  emperor.  Shortly  after  the  departure  of  King 
Lothair  in  823,  both  these  officials  were  blinded  and 
killed  by  the  pope's  servants.  Paschal  himself  was 
accused  of  being  the  originator  of  this  deed,  but  he 
cleared  himself  of  suspiinon  by  an  oath.  The  am- 
bassadors sent  to  Rome  by  Emperor  Louis  to  investi- 
gate the  affair  could  not  punish  the  perpetrators,  aa 
the  pope  aeclared   the  miu'dered  officials  guilty  of 


troa.son.  Paschal  .supported  new  missionary  expedi- 
tions which  went  out  from  the  Fr^inkish  I'liiipirc.  He 
sent  a  letter  of  iatniduftion  tc  liislicp  llalilgar  of 
Cambria,  and  appointed  .VrchbislHjp  ICbo  of  Rheims 
.•IS  papal  legate  to  the  pagan  countries  in  Northern 
Euro])e. 

In  814  under  Leo  the  Armenian,  the  Iconoclastic 
controversy  broke  out  with  renewed  violence  in  the 
Byzantine  Empire.  Theodore  of  Studium,  the  great 
champion  of  orthodoxy,  wrote  repeatedly  to  Pope 
Paschal,  who  encouraged  him  to  persevere.  At  the 
same  time  Theodosius  of  Constantinople,  unlawfully 
made  patriarch  by  Emperor  Leo,  sent  a  legation  to 
the  pope.  The  latter,  however,  remained  loyal  to 
the  cause  of  Theodore  of  Studium,  and  dispatched 
legates  to  Leo  to  win  him  from  the  Iconoclasts, 
but  without  success.  Numerous  monks  who  had 
been  driven  out  of  Greece  by  Leo  came  to  Rome 
where  the  pope  received  them  kindly,  assigning 
them  places  in  the  newly-erected  monasteries, 
such  as  St.  Praxedis,  St.  Cecilia,  Sts.  Sergius  and 
Bacchus,  near  the  Lateran  Palace.  Paschal  was 
very  active  in  completing,  restoring,  and  beautifying 
churches  and  monasteries.  The  basilicas  of  St. 
Praxedis,  St.  Cecilia,  and  S.  Maria  in  Dominica  were 
completely  rebuilt  by  him.  The  mosaics,  which  at 
that  time  ornamented  the  apses  of  these  three  churches 
as  well  as  the  chapel  of  St.  Zeno  in  St.  Praxedis,  dem- 
onstrate to-day  the  deterioration  of  this  art.  In  St. 
Peter's  he  erected  chapels  and  altars,  in  which  the  re- 
mains of  martyrs  from  the  Roman  catacombs,  es- 
pecially those  oil  Sts.  Processus  and  Marinianus,  were 
placed.  He  also  placed  the  relics  of  many  Roman 
martyrs  in  the  church  of  St.  Praxedis  where  their 
names  are  still  legible.  The  discovery  of  the  relics 
of  St.  Cecilia  and  companions,  and  their  translation 
to  the  new  church  of  St.  Cecilia  in  Trastevere,  are  well 
described  in  "Liber  Pontificalis"  (cf.  Kirsch,  "Die 
hi.  Cacilia  in  der  romischen  Kirche  des  Altertums", 
Paderborn,  1910).  He  made  great  improvements  in 
the  choir  of  the  church  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore.  Pas- 
chal was  interred  in  the  church  of  St.  Praxedis,  and 
is  honoured  as  a  saint  on  14  May. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Duchesne,  II,  52  sqq.;  Einhardi  Annala 
in  Mon.  Germ-,  hist.:  Script.,  I,  124  sqq.;  Jaff£,  Regesta  Rom, 
Pont.,  2nd  ed.,  I  (Leipzig,  1885),  318  sqq.;  Simson,  Jahrbiicher  der 
deutschen  Reiches  unter  Ludwig  dem  Frommen  (Leipzig,  1S74-76); 
Duchesne,  Les  premiers  temps  de  VEtat  pontifical  in  Revue  d'hist, 
et  de  litter,  religeuses,  I  (Paris.  1896),  297  sqq.;  Hahtmann,  Ge- 
schichle  Italiens  im  Mittelalter,  III,  pt.  i  (Gotha,  1908);  Mahuc- 
CHI,  Basiliques  el  eglises  de  Rome  (Rome,  1902). 

J.  P.  Kirsch. 

Paschal  II,  Pope  (Rainerius),  succeeded  LTrban 
II,  and  reigned  from  13  Aug.,  1099,  till  he  died  at 
Rome,  21  Jan.,  1118.  Born  in  central  Italy,  he  was 
received  at  an  early  age  as  a  monk  in  Cluny.  In  his 
twentieth  year  he  was  sent  on  business  of  the  monas- 
tery to  Rome,  and  was  retained  at  the  papal  court  by 
Gregory  VII,  and  made  Cardinal-Priest  of  St.  Clem- 
ent's church.  It  was  in  this  church  that  the  conclave 
met  after  the  death  of  Pope  Urban,  and  Cardinal 
Rainerius  was  the  unanimous  choice  of  the  sacred  col- 
lege. He  protested  vigorously  against  his  election, 
maintaining,  with  some  justice,  that  his  monastic 
training  had  not  fitted  him  to  deal  with  the  weighty 
problems  which  confronted  the  papacy  in  that  trou- 
blous age.  His  protestations  were  disregarded  by  his 
colleagues,  and  he  was  consecrated  the  following  day 
in  St.  Peter's.  Once  pope,  he  betrayed  no  further 
hesitation  and  wielded  the  sceptre  with  a  firm  and 
prudent  grasp.  The  main  lines  of  his  policy  had  been 
laid  by  the  master  minds  of  Gregory  and  Urban,  in 
whose  footsteps  he  faithfully  followed,  while  the  un- 
usual length  of  his  pontificate,  joined  to  a  great  amia- 
bility of  character,  made  his  reign  an  important  factor 
in  the  development  of  the  medieval  papal  domin- 
ion. Urban  II  had  lived  to  witness  the  complete  suc- 
cess of  his  wonderful  movement  for  the  Uberation  of 


PASCHAL 


515 


PASCHAL 


the  Holy  Land  and  the  defence  of  Christendom.  He 
had  died  a  fortnight  after  Jerusalem  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  crusaders.  To  continue  the  work  inaugurated 
by  Urban  remained  the  fi.xed  policy  of  the  Holy  See  for 
many  generations.  Paschal  laboured  vigorously  by 
synods  and  journeys  through  Italy  and  France  to  keep 
alive  the  crusading  spirit.  Of  more  vital  importance 
was  the  Investiture  Conflict  (see  Investiture,  Con- 
flict of)  .  It  was  fortunate  that  the  antipope,  Guibert 
(Clement  III),  died  a  few  months  after  the  elevation 
of  Paschal.  Three  other  antipopcs,  Theodoric  (1100), 
Aleric  (1102),  and  Maginulf,  who  took  the  name  of 
Sylvester  IV  (1105),  were  offered  by  the  imperialistic 
faction ;  but  the  schism  was  practically  ended.  Two  of 
these  pretendants  were  sent  by  Paschal  to  do  penance 
in  monasteries;  the  third  had  little  or  no  following. 
Henry  IV,  broken  by  his  previous  conflicts,  had  no 
desire  to  renew  the  struggle  He  obstinately  refused 
to  abjure  his  claim  to  imperial  investitures,  and, 
consequently,  was  again  e.xcommunicated,  and  died 
at  Liege,  7  Aug.,  1106. 

His  death  and  the  accession  of  his  son  were  of  du- 
bious advantage  to  the  papal  cause;  for  although  he 
had  posed  as  the  champion  of  the  Church,  he  soon 
showed  himself  as  unwilling  as  his  father  had  been  to 
relinquish  any  of  the  pretensions  of  the  crown.  Since 
the  pope  continued  to  denounce  and  anathematize  lay 
investitures  in  the  synods  over  which  he  presided,  the 
chief  of  which  were  at  Guastalla  (1106)  and  Troyes 
(1107),  and  since  Henry  persisted  in  bestowing  bene- 
fices at  pleasure,  the  friendly  relations  between  the 
two  powers  soon  became  strained.  Paschal  decided  to 
change  his  proposed  journey  to  Germany,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  France,  where  he  was  received  enthusiastic- 
ally by  King  Philip  (who  did  penance  for  his  adultery 
and  was  reconciled  to  the  Church)  and  by  the  French 
people.  Henry  resented  the  discussion  of  a  German 
question  on  foreign  soil,  though  the  question  of  In- 
vestitures was  one  of  universal  interest ;  and  he 
threatened  to  cut  the  knot  with  his  sword,  as  soon  as 
circumstances  permitted  his  going  to  Rome  to  receive 
the  imperial  crown.  In  August,  1110,  he  crossed  the 
Alps  with  a  well-organized  army,  and,  what  empha- 
sized the  entrance  of  a  new  factor  in  medieval  politics, 
accompanied  by  a  band  of  imperialistic  lawyers,  one  of 
whom,  David,  was  of  Celtic  origin.  Crushing  out  op- 
position on  his  way  through  the  peninsula,  Henry  sent 
an  embassy  to  arrange  with  the  pontiff  the  prehmi- 
naries  of  his  coronation.  The  outcome  was  embodied 
in  the  Concordat  of  Sutri.  Before  receiving  the  im- 
perial crown,  Henry  was  to  abjure  all  claims  to  in- 
vestitures, whilst  the  pope  undertook  to  compel  the 
prelates  and  abbots  of  the  empire  to  restore  all  the 
temporal  rights  and  privileges  which  they  held  from 
the  crown. 

When  the  compact  was  made  public  in  St.  Peter's  on 
the  date  assigned  for  the  coronation,  12  Feb.,  1111, 
there  arose  a  fierce  tumult  led  by  the  prelates  who  by 
one  stroke  of  the  pen  had  been  degraded  from  the  es- 
tate of  princes  of  the  empire  to  beggary.  The  indigna- 
tion was  the  more  intense,  because  the  rights  of  the 
Roman  See  had  been  secured  from  a  similar  confisca- 
tion. After  fruitless  wrangling  and  three  days  of  riot- 
ing, Henry  carried  the  pope  and  his  cardinals  into  cap- 
tivity. Abandoned  as  he  was  by  everyone,  Paschal, 
after  two  months  of  imprisonment,  yielded  to  the  king 
that  right  of  investiture  against  which  so  many  heroes 
had  contended.  Henry's  violence  rebounded  upon 
himself.  All  Christendom  united  in  anathematizing 
him.  The  voices  raised  to  condemn  the  faint^hearted- 
ness  of  Paschal  were  drowned  by  the  universal  denun- 
ciation of  his  oppressor.  Paschal  humbly  acknowl- 
edged his  weakness,  but  refused  to  break  the  promise 
he  had  made  not  to  inflict  any  censure  upon  Henry  for 
his  violence.  It  was  unfortunate  for  Paschal's  mem- 
ory that  he  should  be  so  closely  associated  with  the 
episode  of  Sutri.  As  head  of  the  Church,  he  <leveloped 


a  far-reaching  activity.  He  maintained  discipline  in 
every  corner  of  Europe.  The  greatest  champions  of 
rehgiou,  men  like  St.  Anselm  of  Canterbur}',  looked  up 
to  him  with  reverence.  He  gave  his  approval  to  the 
new  orders  of  Citeaux  and  Fontevrauld.  On  his  nu- 
merous journeys  he  brought  the  papacy  into  direct 
contact  with  the  people  and  dedicated  a  large  number 
of  churches.  If  it  was  not  given  to  him  to  solve  the 
problem  of  Investitures,  he  cleared  the  way  for  his 
more  fortunate  successor. 

DncHESNE,  Lib.  Pont,  II,  296  sqq.l  Gregorovius,  The  His- 
torians of  the  City  of  Rome;  Hefele,  Concilieng.,  V,  ed.  voN  Red- 
mont;  Hergenrother,  Kircheng.,  II,  378;  Artand  de  Montob, 
Hist,  of  the  Popes  (New  York,  1S67). 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Paschal  III  (Guido  of  Crema),  second  antipope 
in  the  time  of  Alexander  III.  He  was  elected  in  1 1(34 
to  succeed  Cardinal  Octavian,  who,  under  the  name 
of  Victor  IV,  had  warred  so  many  years  against  Alex- 
ander III.  To  meet  the  demands  of  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa,  he  canonized  Charlemagne  in  1 165,  but  this 
action  was  never  ratified  by  the  Church  (see  Charle- 
magne).    He  died  in  1168. 

Paschal,  Albert.    See  Prince  Albert,  Diocese 

OF. 

Paschal  Candle. — The  blessing  of  the  "paschal 
candle",  which  is  a  column  of  wax  of  exceptional  size, 
usually  fixed  in  a  great  candlestick  specially  destined 
for  that  purpose,  is  a  notable  feature  of  the  service  on 
Holy  Saturday.  The  blessing  is  performed  by  the  dea- 
con, wearing  a  white  dalmatic.  A  long  Eucharistic 
prayer,  the  " Pra>conium  paschale "  or  " Exniltet "  (q.  v.) 
is  chanted  by  him,  and  in  the  course  of  this  chant- 
ing the  candle  is  first  ornamented  with  five  grains  of 
incense  and  then  lighted  with  the  newly  blessed  fire. 
At  a  later  stage  in  the  service,  during  the  blessing  of 
the  font,  the  same  candle  is  plunged  three  times  into 
the  water  with  the  words:  "Descendat  in  hanc  pleni- 
tudinem  fontis  virtus  Spiritus  Sancti"  (Alay  the 
power  of  the  Holy  Spirit  come  down  into  the  fulness 
of  this  fountain).  From  Holy  Saturday  until  Ascen- 
sion Day  the  paschal  candle  is  left  with  its  candle- 
stick in  the  sauctuary,  standing  upon  the  Gospel  side 
of  the  altar,  and  it  is  lighted  during  high  Mass  and 
solemn  Vespers  on  Sundays.  It  is  extinguished  after 
the  Gospel  on  Ascension  Day  and  is  then  removed. 

The  results  of  recent  research  seem  all  to  point  to 
the  necessity  of  assigning  a  very  high  antiquity  to  the 
paschal  candle.  Dom  Germain  Morin  (Revue  Bene- 
dictine, Jan.,  1891,  and  Sept.,  1892)  has  successfully 
vindicated,  against  Mgr  Duchesne  and  others,  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  let  tcr  of  St.  Jerome  to  Presidius,  dea- 
con of  Placentia  (Migne,  P.  L.,  XXX,  188),  in  which 
the  saint  replies  to  a  request  that  he  woukl  compose  a 
carmen  cerei,  in  other  words,  a  form  of  blessing  like  our 
"Exultet".  Clearly  this  reference  to  a  carmen  cerei 
(poem  of  the  candle)  must  presuppose  the  existence,  in 
384,  of  the  candle  itself  which  was  to  be  blessed  by  the 
deacon  with  such  a  form,  and  the  saint's  reply  makes  it 
probable  that  the  practice  was  neither  of  recent  intro- 
duction nor  peculiar  to  the  church  of  Placentia. 
Again  St.  Augustine  (De  Civit.  Dei,  XV,  x.xii)  men- 
tions casually  that  he  had  composed  a  laus  cerei  in 
verse;  and  from  specimens  of  similar  compositions — 
all  of  them,  however,  bearing  a  close  family  resem- 
blance to  our  "Exultet" — which  are  found  in  the  works 
of  Ennodius  (Opu.sc.,  14  and  81),  it  appears  that  there 
can  be  no  sufllcient  ground  for  doubting  the  correct- 
ness of  this  statement.  Moreover,  Mgr  Mercati  has 
now  shown  good  reason  for  believing  that  the  existing 
"Pra;conium  paschale"  of  the  Ambrosian  Rite  was 
composed  in  substance  by  St.  Ambrose  himself  or  else 
founded  upon  hymns  of  which  he  was  the  author  (see 
"Studi  e  Testi",  XII,  37-.3S).  There  is,  therefore,  no 
occasion  to  refuse  to  Pope  Zosimus  (c.  417)  the  credit 
of  having  conceded  the  use  of  the  paschal  candle  to  the 


PASCHAL 


516 


PASCHAL 


Buburbicirian  churchos  of  Homo,  although  the  men- 
tion of  this  fait  is  only  founil  in  tlie  second  edition  of 
the  "Liber  rontiticalis".  Mgr  Duelicsne  urges  that 
this  institution  has  left  no  trace  in  the  earliest  purely 
Roman  Ordines,  such  as  the  Einsiedcln  Ordo  and  that 
of  Saint-Amand;  but  these  speak  of  two  faculm 
(torches)  which  were  carried  to  the  font  before  the 
pope  and  were  plunged  into  the  water  as  is  now  done 
with  the  paschal  candle.  The  question  of  size  or  num- 
ber does  not  seem  to  be  very  vital.  The  earliest  coun- 
cil which  speaks  upon  the  subject,  viz.,  the  Fourth  of 
Toledo  (\.  D.  63.3,  cap.  ix),  seems  to  couple  together 
the  blessing  of  the  lucerna  and  ccreus  as  of  equal  im- 
portance and  seems  also  to  connect  them  both  sym- 
bolically with  some  sacramentiim,  i.  e.  mystery  of  bap- 
tismal illumination  and  with  the  Resurrection  of  Christ. 
And  undoubtedly  the  paschal  candle  must  have  de- 
rived its  origin  from  the  splendours  of  the  celebration 
of  Easter  Eve  in  the  early  Christian  centuries.  As 
pointed  out  in  the  article  Holy  Week,  our  present 
morning  service  on  Holy  Saturday  can  be  shown  to 
represent  by  anticipation  a  service  which  in  primitive 
times  took  place  late  in  the  evening,  and  which  cul- 
minated in  the  blessing  of  the  font  and  the  baptism 
of  the  catechumens,  followed  immediately  by  Mass 
shortly  after  midnight  on  Easter  morning.  Already  in 
the  time  of  Constantine  we  are  told  by  Eusebius  (De 
Vita  Constantini,  IV,  xxii)  that  the  emperor  "trans- 
formed the  night  of  the  sacred  vigil  into  the  brilliancy 
of  day,  by  lighting  throughout  the  whole  city  pillars 
of  wax  (xr/poC  Klovas),  while  burning  lamps  illuminated 
everj'  part,  so  that  this  mystic  vigil  was  rendered 
brighter  than  the  brightest  daylight".  Other  Fathers, 
like  St.  Gregory  Nazianzus  and  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
also  give  vivid  descriptions  of  the  illumination  of  the 
Easter  vigil,  p'urther,  it  is  certain,  from  evidence 
that  stretches  back  as  far  as  TertuUian  and  Justin 
Martyr,  that  upon  this  Easter  eve  the  catechumens 
were  baptized  and  that  this  ceremony  of  baptism  was 
spoken  of  as  (puTi<r/ios,  i.  e.,  illumination.  Indeed,  it 
seems  highly  probable  that  this  is  already  referred  to 
in  Heb.,  x,  22,  where  the  words  "being  illuminated" 
seem  to  be  used  in  the  sense  of  being  baptized  (cf. 
St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Cat.  i,  n.  15).  Whether  con- 
sciously designed  for  that  purpose  or  not,  the  paschal 
candle  tiT^ified  Je.sus  Christ,  "the  true  light  which  en- 
lighteneth  every  man  that  cometh  into  this  world", 
surrounded  by  His  illuminated,  i.  e.  newly  baptized 
disciples,  each  holding  a  smaller  light.  In  the  virgin 
wax  a  later  symbolism  recognized  the  most  pure  flesh 
which  Christ  derived  from  His  blessed  Mother,  in  the 
wick  the  human  soul  of  Christ,  and  in  the  flame  the 
divinity  of  the  Second  Person  of  the  Blessed  Trinity. 
Moreover,  the  five  grains  of  incense  set  cross-wise  in 
the  candle  recalled  the  sacred  wounds  retained  in 
Christ's  glorified  body,  and  the  lighting  of  the  candle 
with  new  fire  itself  served  as  a  lively  image  of  the 
resurrection. 

Of  the  practice  of  medieval  and  later  times  regard- 
ing the  paschal  candle  much  might  be  said.  We  learn 
on  the  authority  of  Bede,  speaking  of  the  year  701, 
that  it  was  usual  in  Rome  to  inscribe  the  date  and 
other  particulars  of  the  calendar  either  upon  the  can- 
dle itself  or  on  a  parchment  affixed  to  it.  Further,  in 
many  Italian  biisilicas  the  paschal  candlestick  was  a 
marble  construction  which  was  a  permanent  adjunct 
of  the  ambo  or  pulpit.  Several  of  these  still  survive, 
as  in  San  Lorenzo  fuori  della  mura  at  Rome.  Naturally 
the  medieval  t<Tidency  was  to  glorify  the  paschal  can- 
dle by  making  it  bigger  and  bigger.  At  Durham  we 
are  told  of  a  magnificent  erection  with  dragons  and 
ehielrl.s  and  seven  branches,  which  wiissobig  that  it  had 
to  stanci  in  the  centre  of  the  choir.  The  Sarum  Pro- 
cessional of  l.'jl?  directs  that  the  pa-schal  candle,  no 
doubt  that  of  Salisbury  cathedral,  is  to  be  thirly-six 
feet  in  height,  while  we  learn  from  Machyn's  diaryt  hat 
in  1.5.5H,  under  Queen  Mary,  three  hundred  weight  of 


wax  was  used  for  the  paschal  candle  of  Westminster 
Abbey.  In  England  these  great  candles,  after  they 
had  been  used  for  the  last  time  in  blessing  the  font  on 
Whitsun  Eve,  were  generally  melted  down  and  made 
into  tapers  to  be  used  gratuitously  at  the  funerals  of 
the  poor  (see  Wilkins,  "Concilia",  I,  571,  and  II,  298). 
At  Rome  the  Agnus  Deis  (q.  v.)  were  made  out  of  the 
remains  of  the  paschal  candles,  and  Mgr  Duchesne 
seems  to  regard  these  consecrated  discs  of  wax  as 
likely  to  be  even  older  than  the  paschal  candle  itself. 
Berli^re  in  Messager  des  Fidiles  (Maredsoua.  1888),  107  sqq.; 
MuHLBAUER.  Geschichte  und  Bedeutung  der  Wachstichter  bei  den 
hirch.  Funktionen,  184  sqq.;  Morin  in  Revue  BhiHxctine  (Mared- 
sous.  Jan.,  1891.  and  Sept.,  1892);  Idem  in  Rassegna  Gregoriana, 
II  (Rome.  1903),  193-194;  Mercati  in  Studi  e  Tesli,  No.  XII 
(Rome,  1904),  24-43,  where  is  also  printed  an  Hispano-Visigothio 
formula  of  the  Pra-conium  Paschate  belonging  to  the  seventh  cen- 
tur>".  Cabrol,  Le  Livre  de  la  Priire  Antique  (Paris,  1902) ;  Thcrs- 
TON  in  The  Month  (London),  April,  1896;  Idem.  Levt  and  Haly 
Week  (London,  1904);  MartI:ne,  De  antiquis  ecclesia:  rilibus,  IV, 
xxiv. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Paschal  Controversy.  See  Easter  Contro- 
versy. 

Paschal    Cycle.      See    Calendar,    Christian; 

Easter. 

Paschal  Lamb.     See  Lamb. 

Paschal  Precept.  See  Commandments  op  the 
Church. 

Paschal  Tide. — I.  Liturgical  Aspect.  The  fifty 
days  from  Easter  Sunday  to  Pentecost  are  called  by 
the  older  liturgists  "Quinquagesima  paschalis"  or 
"Quin.  lajtitia"".  The  octave  of  Easter  which  closes 
after  Saturday  has  its  own  peculiar  Office  (see  Eas- 
ter). Since  this  octave  is  part  and  complement  of 
the  Easter  Solemnity,  Paschal  Tide  in  the  liturgical 
books  commences  with  the  First  Vespers  of  Low  Sun- 
day and  ends  before  the  First  Vespers  of  Trinity  Sun- 
day. On  Easter  Sunday  the  .Vrmenian  Church  keeps 
the  Commemoration  of  .\11  the  Faithful  Departed  and 
on  Saturday  of  Easter  Week  the  Decollation  of  St. 
John.  The  Greek  Church  on  Friday  of  Easter  Week 
celebrates  the  feast  of  Our  Lady,  the  Living  Fountain 
(shrine  at  Constantinople). 

The  Sundays  from  Easter  to  Ascension  Day,  besides 
being  called  the  First,  Second  (etc.)  Sunday  after 
Easter,  have  their  own  peculiar  titles.  The  first 
is  the  "Dominica  in  albis",  or  Low  .Sunday  (see  Low 
Sunday).  In  the  Dioceses  of  Portugal  and  Brazil 
(al.so  in  the  province  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.)  on  the  Monday 
after  Lo%v  Sunday  is  celebrated  the  feast  of  the  Joys 
or  Exultation  of  Mary  at  the  Resurrection  of  her  Son 
(double  of  the  second  class).  The  Russians,  on  Tues- 
day of  this  week,  go  in  procession  to  the  cemeteries 
and  place  Easter  eggs  on  the  graves  (Maltzew,  "Fas- 
ten- und  Blumen-  Triodion"  (Beriin,  1899),  791]. 
In  the  Latin  Church  the  second  Sunday  is  called 
from  its  Gospel  the  Sunday  of  the  Good  Shepherd 
and  from  the  Introit  " Misericordias  Domini";  in 
many  dioceses  (Seville,  Capuchins)  it  is  called  the  feast 
of  Our  Lady,  Mother  of  the  Good  Shepherd  (d.  2nd  cl.) ; 
at  Jerusalem  and  in  the  churches  of  the  Franciscans 
it  is  called  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  of  Christ;  in 
the  Greek  Church  it  is  called  Wi-  Mvpo<t>kpuv  (Sunday 
of  the  women  who  brought  ointments  to  the  sepulchre 
of  Christ) ;  the  Armenians  celebrate  on  this  Sunday 
the  dedication  of  the  first  Christian  church  on  Mount 
Sion.  The  third  Sunday  is  called  from  the  Introit 
"Jubilate"  and  the  Latin  Church  has  assigned  to  it 
the  feiist  of  the  Patronage  of  St.  Joseph  (d.  2nd  cl.); 
the  Greeks  call  it  the  Sunday  of  the  Paralytic,  from 
its  Gospel.  The  Oriental  Churches  on  Wednesday 
after  the  third  Sunday  celebrate  with  a  very  solemn 
Office  and  an  octave  the  MeaoireprtKoaT-fi,  the  com- 
pletion of  the  first  half  of  Paschal  Tide;  it  is  the  feast 
of  the  manifestation  of  the  Messiah,  the  victoiy  of 
Christ  and  the  Church  over  Judaism  ["Zeitschnft 


PASCHASinS 


517 


PASCHASIUS 


fur  katholische  Theologie"  (1896),  169-177];  the 
Slav  nations  in  this  day  have  a  solemn  procession  and 
benediction  of  their  rivers  (Nilles,  "Kal.",  II,  361): 
The  fourth  Sunday  is  called  "Cantate";  by  the  Ori- 
entals it  is  called  Sunday  of  the  Samaritan  Woman. 
The  fifth  Sunday,  "Vocem  jucunditatis";  in  the 
Orient,  Sunday  of  the  Man  Bom  Blind.  In  the  Latin 
Church  follow  the  Rogation  Days  (q.  v.) ;  in  the  Greek 
Church  on  Tuesday  is  kept  the  airdSoin!  or  conclusion 
of  the  feast  of  Easter.  The  Greeks  sing  the  Canons 
of  Easter  up  to  this  Tuesday  in  the  same  manner  as 
during  Easter  Week,  whilst  in  the  Latin  Church  the 
specific  Easter  Office  terminates  on  Saturday  following 
the  feast.  Thursday  is  the  feast  of  the  Ascension 
(see  Ascension).  The  Friday  of  this  week,  in  Ger- 
many, is  called  "Witterfreitag";  the  fields  are  blessed 
against  frost  and  thunderstorms.  Sunday  within  the 
octave  of  Ascension  is  called  "Exaudi"  from  the  In- 
troit;  in  some  dioceses  it  is  called  Feast  of  Our  Lady, 
Queen  of  theApostles  (double  major)  or  of  the  Cenacle 
(Charleston  and  Savannah,  first  class);  in  Rome  it 
was  called  Sunday  of  the  Roses  ("Pascharosarum"or 
"rosatum"),  since  in  the  Pantheon  rose-leaves  were 
thrown  from  the  rotunda  into  the  church  ;  in  the 
Greek  and  Russian  Churches  it  is  the  feast  of  the  318 
Fathers  of  the  first  Nicene  Council;  the  Armenians 
call  it  the  "second  feast  of  the  flowers",  a  repetition 
of  Palm  Sunday.  By  older  liturgists  the  week  be- 
fore Pentecost  is  called  "Hebdomada  expectationis", 
week  of  the  expectation  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  On  the 
Vigil  of  Pentecost  the  baptismal  water  is  blessed  in 
the  Latin  Church;  in  the  Oriental  Churches  this  Sat- 
urday is  the  ^vxoffa^^aTov  (All  Souls'  Day);  on 
this  day  the  Greeks  bless  wheat  cakes  and  have  pro- 
cessions to  the  cemeteries.     (See  Whitsunday.) 

Paschal  Tide  is  a  season  of  joy.  The  colour  for  the 
Office  de  tempore  is  white;  the  Te  Deum  and  Gloria 
are  recited  every  day,  even  in  the  ferial  Office.  On 
Sundays  the  "Asperges"  is  replaced  by  the  "Vidi 
Aquam"  which  recalls  the  solemn  baptism  of  Easter 
eve.  There  is  no  feast  day  from  Easter  until  As- 
cension. The  Armenians  during  this  period  do  away 
even  with  the  abstinence  on  Fridays.  Prayers  are 
said  standing,  not  kneeling.  Instead  of  the  "Ange- 
lus"  the  "Regina  Cccli"  is  recited.  From  Easter  to 
Ascension  many  churches,  about  the  tenth  cent.,  said 
only  one  Nocturn  at  Matins;  even  some  particular 
churches  in  the  city  of  Rome  adopted  this  custom 
from  the  Teutons  (Bjiumer,  "Gesch.  des  Breviers", 
312).  Gregory  VII  limited  this  privilege  to  the  week 
of  Easter  and  of  Pentecost.  Some  dioceses  in  Ger- 
many, however,  retained  it  far  into  the  nineteenth 
century  for  40  days  after  Easter.  In  every  Nocturn 
the  three  psalms  are  said  under  one  antiphon.  The 
Alleluia  appears  as  an  independent  antiphon;  an 
Alleluia  is  also  added  to  all  the  antiphons,  respon- 
sories,  and  versicles,  except  to  the  versicles  of  the 
pares  at  Prime  and  Compline.  Instead  of  the  "suf- 
fragia  sanctorum  "  in  the  semidouble  and  ferial  Offices 
a  commemoration  of  the  Holy  Cross  is  used.  The 
iambic  hymns  have  a  special  Easter  doxology.  The 
feasts  of  the  holy  Apostles  and  martyrs  have  their 
own  cninmune  from  Easter  to  Pentecost.  At  Mass 
the  .-Alleluia  is  added  to  the  Introit,  Offertory,  and 
Communion;  in  place  of  the  Gradual  two  Alleluias  are 
sung  followed  by  two  versos,  each  with  an  Alleluia; 
there  is  also  a  special  Preface  for  Paschal  Time. 

II.  In  Canon  Law  Paschal  Tide  is  the  period  dur- 
ing which  every  member  of  the  faithful  who  has  at- 
tained the  years  of  discretion  is  bounfl  by  the  positive 
law  of  the  Church  to  receive  Holy  Communion  (Eas- 
ter duty).  During  the  early  Middle  Ages  from  the 
time  of  the  Synod  of  .Vgdc  (.508)  it  was  customary  to 
receive  Holy  Communion  at  least  three  times  a  year, 
Christmas,  Easter,  and  Pentecost.  A  positive  pre- 
cept was  issued  by  the  IV  Lateran  Council  (121.5)  and 
confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIII,  can. 


ix).  According  to  these  decrees  the  faithful  of  either 
sex,  after  coming  to  the  age  of  discretion,  must  re- 
ceive at  least  at  Easter  the  Sacrament  of  the  Eucharist 
(unless  by  the  advice  of  the  parish  priest  they  abstain 
for  a  while).  Otherwise  during  life  they  are  to  be  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  church  and  when  dead  are 
to  be  denied  Christian  burial.  The  paschal  precept 
is  to  be  fulfilled  in  one's  parish  church.  [Taunton, 
"The  Law  of  the  Church"  (London  and  St.  Louis, 
1906),  391,  474.)  Although  the  precept  of  the  IV 
Lateran  to  confess  to  the  parish  priest  fell  into  disuse 
and  permission  was  given  to  confess  anywhere, 
the  precept  of  receiving  Easter  Communion  in  the 
parish  church  is  still  in  force  where  there  are  canon- 
ieally-erected  parishes.  The  term  Paschal  Tide  was 
usually  interpreted  to  mean  the  two  weeks  between 
Palm  and  Low  Sundays  (Synod  of  Avignon,  1337); 
by  St.  Antonine  of  Florence  it  was  restricted  to  Easter 
Sunday,  Monday,  and  Tuesday;  by  Angelo  da  Chia- 
vasso  it  was  defined  as  the  period  from  Maundy 
Thursday  to  Low  Sunday.  Eugene  IV,  8  July,  1440, 
authoritatively  interpreted  it  to  mean  the  two  weeks 
between  Palm  and  Low  Sundays  [G.  Allmang,  "Kol- 
ner  Pastoralblatt "  (Nov.,  1910),  327  sq.].  In  later 
centuries  the  time  has  been  variously  extended:  at 
Naples  from  Palm  Sunday  to  Ascension;  at  Palermo 
from  Ash  Wednesday  to  Low  Sunday.  In  Germany, 
at  an  earlj  date,  the  second  Sunday  after  Easter  ter- 
minated Paschal  Tide,  for  which  reason  it  was  called 
"Predigerkirchweih",  because  the  hard  Easter  labour 
was  over,  or  "Buch  Sunday",  the  obstinate  sinners 
putting  off  the  fulfillment  of  the  precept  to  the  last 
day.  In  the  United  States  upon  petition  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  First  Provincial  Council  of  Baltimore 
Paschal  Tide  was  extended  by  Pius  VIII  to  the  period 
from  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent  to  Trinity  Sunday  (II 
Plen.  Coun.  Bait.,  n.  2.57);  in  England  it  lasts  from 
Ash  Wednesday  until  Low  Sunday;  in  Ireland  from 
Ash  Wednesday  until  the  octave  of  SS.  Peter  and 
Paul,  6  July  (O'Kane  "Rubrics  of  the  Roman  Ritual", 
n.  737;  Slater,  "JMoral  Theology",  .578,  599);  in  Can- 
ada the  duration  of  the  Paschal  'Tide  is  the  same  aa 
in  the  United  States. 

Kirchenlei.,  a.  v.,  Oesterliche  Zeil;  Nilles,  Kal.  man.,  II,  337 
eqq.  :  TONDINI,  C'alendrier  liturgiquc  de  In.  nation  armcnienne 
(Rome,  1906) ;  IJaumstark,  Festbrevier  utid  Kirchenjahr  der  syri^ 
schen  Jakobiten  (Paderborn,  1910). 

F.   G.   HOLWECK. 

Paschasius,  Saint,  deacon  of  the  Roman  Church 
about  500;  d.  after  511.  Almost  all  that  is  known  of 
Paschasius  is  related  by  Gregory  the  Great  in  his 
"  Dialogues"  (IV,  xl).  According  to  Gregory  he  was  a 
man  of  extraordinary  sanctity,  and  a  father  of  the 
poor.  Until  his  death  he  was  a  firm  adherent  of  the 
antipope  Laurentius  (498-50.5;  d.  before  514).  This, 
however,  was  not  the  result  of  malice  but  of  error  and 
ignorance.  He  died  during  the  reign  of  Pope  Symma- 
chus  (498-514),  and  after  his  death  a  demoniac  was 
healed  by  touching  his  dalmatic.  Long  after  this, 
Paschasius  appeared  to  BLshop  Germanus  of  Capua  at 
the  hot  springs  of  Angulus  (Angelum);  he  told  Ger- 
manus that  he  had  to  do  penance  in  these  baths  for  his 
former  mistake,  and  begged  the  bishop  to  i)ray  for  him. 
This  Germanus  did  with  great  zeal,  and  after  some 
days  no  longer  found  him  at  the  springs.  Gregory  re- 
marks that  Paschasius  had  left  books  on  the  Holy 
Spirit  that  were  correct  in  all  i)artic,ulars  and  perfectly 
intelligible.  Asamattcr  of  fact  two  books  "Despiritu 
sancto"  are  assigned  to  Paschasius  in  several  manu- 
scripts, and  until  lately  were  printed  under  his  name. 
Engelbrecht,  not  long  ago,  denied  his  authorship  of 
them,  assigned  thoni  to  Bishop  Faustus  of  Riez,  and 
has  publislicd  them  in  the  works  of  Faustus.  If  this  is 
correct,  then  the  work  ofPaschasius  has  di.sappeared. 
A  letter  written  by  him  to  Eugippius  (511)  has  been 
preserved.  The  latter  had  begged  his  venerated  arul 
dearly  loved  friend  Paschasius,  who  had  great  literary 


PASCHASinS 


518 


PASSAGLIA 


skill,  to  write  a  bioprajihy  of  St .  Scvoriims  from  the  ac- 
counts of  the  siiint  which  he  (Hujjippius)  had  put  to- 
gether in  crude  and  inartistic  form.  Pivschasius,  how- 
ever, replied  that  the  acts  and  miracles  of  the  saint 
could  not  be  described  better  than  had  been  done  by 
Euftippius.  The  feast  of  Paschasius  is  celebrated  on 
31  May. 

MioNE.  P.  L..  LXII,  9-40.  1167-70;  LXXVII,  397-98;  Enoei^ 
BBECHT,  Studien  Qber  die  Schriflen  dfs  Bischofs  von  Reii  Faustus 
(VioDDa,  I8S9),  28-46:  Corpus  scriptorum  ecdesiasticorum  latino- 
rum.  XXI  (Vienna.  1891);  Paschnsii  rpislola  ad  Eugippium,  ibid., 
IX  (ISSB).  u,  68-70;  Berqmann.  Der  handschrifllich  bezeugle 
Nacltlass  des  Fatulwi  von  Reji  (Leipzig,  1898),  35-55;  Acta  SS., 
May,  VII,  438-40;  Daniell  in  Dia.  Christ.  Biog..  a.  v. 

Klemens  Lofplbr. 

Paschasius  Radbertus,  Saint,  theologian,  b.  at 
Soissons,  TStiid.  in  the  Monastery  of  Corbie,  c.  860  (the 
date  805  is  improbable).  As  a  child  he  was  exposed, 
but  was  taken  in  and  brought  up  by  Bencflictine  Nuns 
at  Soissons.  He  entered  the  Benedictine  Order  at  Cor- 
bie under  Abbot  Adalard,  and  was  for  many  years  in- 
structor of  the  young  monks.  In  822  he  accompanied 
Abbot  Adalard  into  Saxony  for  the  purpose  of  found- 
ing the  monastery  of  New  Corvey  (Westphalia).  He 
saw  four  abbots,  namely  Adalard,  Wala,  Heddo,  and 
Isaac  pass  to  their  reward  and  on  the  death  of  Abbot 
Isaac,  Paschasius  was  made  Abbot  of  Corbie,  though 
only  a  deacon;  through  humiUty  he  refused  to  allow 
himself  to  be  ordained  priest.  On  the  occasion  of  a 
disagreement  he  resigned  his  office  after  about  seven 
years  and  was  thus  enabled  to  devote  himself  to  study 
and  hterature. 

He  wrote  a  learned  commentarj'  on  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew,  "Commcntarii  in  Matt,  libri  XII";  an  ex- 
position of  the  44th  Psalm,  "Expos,  in  Ps.  44  hbri 
III"  and  a  similar  work  on  Lamentations,  "Expos, 
in  Lament,  hbri  V";  and  a  life  of  Abbot  Adalard  (cf. 
Holland.,  2  Jan.).  His  biography  of  the  Abbot  Wala 
is  a  work  of  greater  usefulness  as  an  historical  source 
(cf.  Rodenburg,  "Die  Vita  Wala;  als  historische 
Quelle",  Marburg,  1877).  Herevisedthe  "PassioRu- 
fini  et  Valerii".  His  earliest  work  in  dogmatic  theol- 
ogj- was  a  treatise,  "  De  fide,  spe  et  caritate"  (first  pub- 
hshed  in  Pez,  "Thesaur.  Anecdot.",  I,  2,  Augsburg, 
1721);  he  next  wrote  two  books  "De  Partu  Virginis  , 
in  which  he  defended  the  perpetual  virginity  of  Mary, 
the  Mother  of  God. 

The  most  important  of  his  works  is:  "De  corpore  et 
sanguine  Domini",  in  Martene,  "Vet.  scriptor.  et 
monum.  amplis.sima  Collectio",  t.  IX,  written  in  831 
for  his  pupil  Placidus  Varinus,  Abbot  of  New  Corvey, 
and  for  the  monks  of  that  monastery,  revised  by 
the  author  and  sent  in  844  to  Emperor  Charles  the 
Bald.  The  emperor  commissioned  the  Benedictine 
Ratramnus  of  Corbie  to  refute  certain  questionable  as- 
sertions of  Pa-schasius,  and  when  Rabanus  Maurus 
joined  in  the  discussion  (cf.  Ep.  iii  ad  Egilem,  P.  L., 
CXII,  1.51.'i)  there  occurrred  the  first  controversy  on 
the  Eucharist,  which  continued  up  to  the  tenth  century 
and  even  later,  for  both  the  followers  of  Berengarius 
of  Tours  in  the  eleventh  century  and  the  Calvinists  in 
the  sixteenth  century  vigorously  assailed  the  work, 
because  they  thought  that  they  had  found  the  real 
source  of  iloctrinal  innovations,  especially  in  regard  to 
the  Catholic  dogma  of  Transubstantiation.  His  pri- 
mary object  herein  was  to  give  in  accordance  with  the 
doctrine  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  (e.  g.  Ambrose, 
Augustine,  and  Chrj-.sostom),  the  clearest  and  most 
comprehensible  explanation  of  the  Real  Presence.  In 
carrj'ing  out  his  plan  he  made  the  mistake  of  emphasiz- 
ing the  identity  of  the  Eucharistic  Body  of  Christ  with 
His  natural  (historical)  Body  in  such  exaggerated 
terms  that  the  difference  between  the  two  modes  of 
existence  wa.s  not  sufficiently  brought  out. 

In  opposition  to  his  a,ssertion  that  the  Eucharistic 
Body  of  Christ  is  "non  alia  plane  caro,  quam  qu;e  nata 
est  de  Maria  et  passa  in  cruce  et  resurrexit  de  sepul- 
chre" (loc.  cit.),  Ratramnus  thought  it  necessary  to 


insist  that  the  Body  of  Christ  in  the  Sacred  Host — 
notwithstanding  its  essential  identity  with  the  histori- 
cal Body — is  present  by  a  spiritual  iikkIc  of  existence 
and  consequently  as  an  "invisible  substance",  and 
hence  that  our  eyes  cannot  immediately  perceive  the 
Body  of  Christ  in  the  form  of  bread.  It  is  difficult 
to  admit  that  Paschasius  really  believed  what  is  here 
inferred:  his  narration,  however,  of  certain  Eucharistic 
miracles  may  have  given  some  foundation  for  the 
suspicion  that  he  inclined  towards  a  grossly  carnal, 
Capharnaite-like  apprehension  of  the  nature  of  the 
Eucharist.  His  opponents  also  reproached  him  with 
having,  in  direct  contradiction  to  his  fundamental 
viewpoint,  simultaneously  introduced  the  notions  of 
a.figura  and  of  a  Veritas,  thus  jjlacing  side  by  side  with- 
out any  reconciliation  the  symbolic  and  the  realistic 
conceptions  of  the  Eucharist.  The  accusation  seems 
altogether  unwarranted;  for  hy  figure  he  understood 
merely  that  which  appears  outwardly  to  the  senses, 
and  by  Veritas,  that  which  Faith  teaches  us.  At 
bottom  his  doctrine  was  as  orthodox  as  that  of  his 
opponents.  He  defended  himself  with  some  skill 
against  the  attacks  of  his  critics,  especially  in  his 
"Epistola  ad  Frudegardum".  But  a  more  thorough 
vindication  of  St.  Paschasius  was  made  by  Gerbert, 
afterwards  Pope  Sylvester  II  (d.  1003),  who,  in  a 
work  bearing  the  same  title  "De  corpore  et  sanguine 
Domini",  contended  that  the  doctrine  of  St.  Pascha- 
sius was  correct  in  every  particular.  The  scientific 
advantage  which  accrued  to  theology  from  this  first 
controversy  on  the  Eucharist  is  by  no  means  unim- 
portant. For,  through  the  accurate  distinction  made 
between  the  Eucharistic  Body  of  Christ  and  its  exte- 
rior sensible  appearances,  the  way  was  cleared  for  a 
deeper  understanding  of  the  Eucharistic  species  or 
accidents  in  distinction  from,  and  in  opposition  to,  the 
invisible  Body  of  Christ  hidden  under  them.  Hence 
also  the  difficult  notion  of  Transubstantiation  gained 
much  in  clearness,  distinctness,  and  precision. 

St.  Paschasius  was  first  buried  in  the  Church  of 
St.  John  at  Corbie.  When  numerous  miracles  took 
place  at  his  grave  under  Abbot  Fulco,  his  remains 
were  solemnly  removed  by  order  of  the  pope,  12  July, 
1073,  anti  interred  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  Corbie. 
His  feast  is  on  26  April. 

The  collected  Opera  Pa.^chasii  were  first  published  by  SlE- 
MOND  (Paris.  1018) ;  tbe.-^e  were  republished  with  numerous  addi- 
tions in  P.L..  CXX.  Hi.f  letters  are  in  Pertz,  Moji.  Ger.  Hist.: 
Epist..  VI.  132  sq.;  his  poems  in  Pertz.  Poet,  lal..  Ill,  38  sqq., 
746  sq.;  Das  Epitaphium  Arsenii  (pseudonym  for  Wala),  ed. 
DuMMLER  in  Abhandlungen  der  Berliner  Akademie  (1900);  Vita 
Paschasii  is  given  in  Mabillon,  Acta  SS.  O.S.B.,  IV  (Lucca, 
1735),  2,  122  sq.;  and  in  Pertz,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.,  XV, 
452  sq.;  Hausherr,  Der  hi.  Paschasius  Radbertus  (Mainz,  1862); 
Sardemann,  Der  theol.  Lehrgehalt  der  Schriften  des  Paschasius 
(^Ia^burg,  1877);  Ernst,  Die  Lehre  des  Paschasius  Radbertus  von 
der  Eucharistie  mit  besonderer  Riicksicht  der  Stellung  des  Rabanus 
Maurus  und  des  Ratramnus  (Freiburg,  1896);  Choisy,  Paschase 
Radbert  (Geneva,  1889) ;  NiaLE,  Ratramnus  und  die  hi.  Eucharis- 
tie, zugleich  eine  dogmatisch-kistorische  Wurdigung  des  ersten 
Abendmahlsireites  (Vienna,  1903);  Schnitzer,  Berengar  von  Tours 
(Stuttgart,  1892),  127  sq.;  Bach.  Dogmengeschichte  des  MittelaU 
ters,  I  (Vienna,  1873);  Ebert,  Allgemeine  Geschichle  der  Literatur 
des  Millelatlers,  II  (Leipzig.  1880),  230  sq.;  GbTz,  Die  heulige 
Abendmahlsfrage  in  ihrer  geschichtlichen  Entwickelung  (2nd  ed., 
Leipzig.  1908). 

J.  POHLB. 

Passaglia,  Carlo,  b.  at  Liioca,  9  May,  1812;  d.  at 
Turin,  12March,  1887.  HeenteredtheSociety  of  Jesus 
in  1827 :  when  scarcely  thirty  years  old,  he  was  teaching 
at  the  Sapienza,  and  was  prefect  of  studies  at  the  Ger- 
man College.  In  1845  he  took  the  solemn  vows  and 
became  professor  of  dogmatic  theology  at  the  Grego- 
rian University.  In  1850  he  took  a  leading  part  in 
preparing  the  definition  of  the  dogma  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  on  which  he  wrote  three  large  vol- 
umes. He  showed  in  his  works  a  rare  knowledge  of 
the  theological  literature  of  all  times.  His  historico- 
linguistic  method  met  with  criticism.  It  was  said  that 
"he  substituted  grammar  for  dogma".  His  chief 
works  are:    an  edition  of  the  "Enchiridion"  of  St. 


PASSAU 


519 


PASSAU 


Augustine,  with  copious  notes  (Naples,  1847);  "De 
prEerogativis  b.  Petri"  (Rome,  1850);  "Conferences" 
given  at  the  Gesu  and  published  in  "Civilt^  Catto- 
lioa"  (1851);  "  Commentariorum  theologicorum  partes 
3"  (1  vol.,  Rome,  1850-51);  "De  eoclesia  Christi" 
(3  vols.,  Ratisbon,  1853 — incomplete);  "De  setemi- 
tate  poenarum"  (Ratisbon,  1854). 

The  trouble  between  Passaglia  and  his  superiors 
grew  steadily  more  serious ;  he  finally  left  the  Society 
in  1859.  Pius  IX  gave  him  a  chair  at  the  Sapienza. 
Then  he  came  in  contact  with  the  physician  Panta- 
leoni,  Cavour's  agent;  Cavour  summoned  him  to 
Turin  for  a  personal  interview  (February,  1861). 
Afterwards,  at  Rome,  he  held  several  conferences  with 
Cardinal  Santucci,  and,  persuaded  that  the  ground 
was  ready,  he  wrote  "Pro  causa  italica"  (1861),  which 
was  placed  on  the  Index.  Passaglia  fled  to  Turin, 
where  he  held  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  until 
his  death.  Ignorant  of  the  world  and  men,  he  be- 
lieved that  the  opponents  of  temporal  power  were 
guided  by  the  best  of  intentions.  He  founded  the 
weekly,  "  II  Medicatore"  (1862-66),  in  which  he  wrote 
long  articles  full  of  undigested  erudition,  and  to  which 
he  welcomed  the  contribution  of  any  priest  with  a 
grievance.  From  1863  to  1864  he  edited  the  daily, 
"La  Pace",  and  in  1867  "II  Gcrdir',  a  weekly  theo- 
logical review.  He  could  not  say  Mass  at  Turin,  and 
put  off  the  clerical  dress.  But  as  regards  dogma,  he 
never  swerved  from  the  true  Faith;  nevertheless  he 
criticized  the  Syllabus.  We  have  still  to  mention  his 
book,  "Sul  divorzio"  (1861),  and  his  refutation  of 
Renan  (1864).  In  1867  the  Bishops  of  Mondovi  and 
Clifton  tried  to  reconcile  him  with  the  Church,  but 
he  did  not  retract  imtil  a  few  months  before  his  death. 

BiGlNELLi,  Biografia  del  sacerdnte  C.  Passaglia  (Turin,  1887); 
d'Ercole,  C.  Passaglia  in  Anrtu/uio  delV  Universitd  di  Torino 
(1887-88). 

U.  Benigni. 

Passau,  Diocese  of  (Passaviensis),  in  Bavaria, 
suffragan  of  Munich-Freising,  including  within  its 
boundaries  one  district  and  one  parish  in  Upper 
Bavaria  and  the  City  of  Passau  and  10  districts  in 
Lower  Bavaria  (see  Germany,  Map). 

History. — The  Diocese  of  Passau  may  be  con- 
sidered the  successor  of  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Lorch 
{Laureacum).  At  Lorch,  a  Roman  station  and  an  im- 
portant stronghold  at  the  junction  of  the  Enns  and  the 
Danube,  Christianity  found  a  foothold  in  the  third 
century,  during  a  period  of  Roman  domination,  and  a 
Bishop  of  Lorch  certainly  existed  in  the  fourth.  Dur- 
ing the  great  migrations,  Christianity  on  the  Danube 
was  completely  rooted  out,  and  the  Celtic  and  Roman 
population  was  annihilated  or  enslaved.  In  the  region 
between  the  Lech  and  the  Enns,  the  wandering  Baju- 
vari  were  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  seventh 
century,  while  the  Avari,  to  the  east,  remained  pagan. 
The  ecclesiastical  organization  of  Bavaria  was  brought 
about  by  St.  Boniface,  who,  with  the  support  of  Duke 
Odilo,  erected  the  four  sees  of  Freising,  Ratisbon, 
Passau,  and  Salzburg.  He  confirmed  as  incumbent  of 
Passau,  Bishop  Vivilo,  or  Vivolus,  who  had  been  or- 
dained by  Pope  Gregory  III,  and  who  was  for  a  long 
time  the  only  bishop  in  "Bavaria.  Thenceforth,  Vivilo 
resided  permanently  at  Passau,  on  the  site  of  the  old 
Roman  colony  of  Batavis.  Here  was  a  church,  the 
founder  of  which  is  not  known,  dedicated  to  St. 
Stephen.  To  Bishop  Vivilo's  diocese  was  annexed  the 
ancient  Lorch,  which  meanwhile  had  become  a  small 
and  unimportant  place.  By  the  duke's  generosity,  a 
cathedral  was  soon  erected  near  the  Church  of  St. 
Stephen,  and  here  the  bishop  lived  in  common  with 
his  clergy.  The  boundaries  of  the  diocese  extended 
westwards  to  the  Isar,  and  eastwards  to  the  Enns.  In 
ecclesiastical  affairs  Passau  was  probably,  from  the 
beginning,  suffragan  to  Salzburg.  Through  the  favour 
of  Dukes  Odilo  and  Tassilo,  the  bishopric  received 
many  costly  gifts,  and  several  monasteries  arose — e.  g. 


Niederalteich,  Niebernburg,  Mattsee,  Kremsmiinster 
— which  were  richly  endowed.  Under  Bishop  Walt- 
reich  (774-804),  after  the  conquest  of  the  Avari,  who 
had  assisted  the  rebellious  Duke  Tassilo,  the  district 
between  the  Enns  and  the  Raab  was  added  to  the 
diocese,  which  thus  included  the  whole  eastern  part 
(Ostmark)  of  Southern  Bavaria  and  part  of  what  is 
now  Hungary.  The  first  missionaries  to  the  pagan 
Hungarians  went  out  from  Passau,  and  in  866  the 
Church  sent  missionaries  to  Bulgaria. 

Passau,  the  outermost  eastern  bulwark  of  the  Ger- 
mans, suffered  most  from  the  incursions  of  the  Hun- 
garians. At  that  time  many  churches  and  monasteries 
were  destroyed.  When,  after  the  victory  of  Lech,  the 
Germans  pressed  forward  and  regained  the  old  Ost- 
mark, Bishop  Adalbert  (946-971)  hoped  to  extend  his 
spiritual  jurisdiction  over  Hungary.  His  successor 
Piligrim  (971-91),  who  worked  zealously  and  success- 
fully for  the  Christianization  of  Pannonia,  aspired  to 
free  Passau  from  the  metropolitan  authority  of  Salz- 
burg, but  was  completely  frustrated  in  this,  as  well  as 
in  his  attempt  to  assert  the  metropolitan  claims  which 
Passau  was  supposed  to  have  inherited  from  Lorch, 
and  to  include  all  Hungary  in  his  diocese.  By  found- 
ing many  monasteries  in  his  diocese  he  prepared  the 
way  for  the  princely  power  of  later  bishops.  It  is  im- 
doubtedly  to  his  credit  that  he  built  many  new 
churches  and  restored  others  from  ruins.  His  suc- 
cessor, Christian  (991-1002)  received  in  999  from 
Otto  III  the  market  privilege  and  the  rights  of  coin- 
age, taxation,  and  higher  and  lower  jurisdiction. 
Henry  II  granted  him  a  large  part  of  the  North 
Forest.  Henceforward,  indeed,  the  bishops  ruled  as 
princes  of  the  empire,  although  the  title  was  used  for 
the  first  time  only  in  a  document  in  1193.  Under 
Berengar  (1013-45)  the  whole  district  east  of  the 
Viennese  forest  as  far  as  Letha  and  March  was  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Passau.  During  his  time  the 
cathedral  chapter  made  its  appearance,  but  there  is 
little  information  concerning  its  beginning  as  a  dis- 
tinct corporation  with  the  right  of  electing  a  bishop. 
This  right  was  much  hampered  by  the  exercise  of 
imperial  influence. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Conflict  of  Investures,  St. 
Altmann  (q.  v.)  occupied  the  see  (1065-91)  and  was 
one  of  the  few  German  bishops  who  adhered  to  Greg- 
ory VII.  Ulrich  I,  Count  of  Hofft  (1092-1121),  who 
was  for  a  time  driven  from  his  see  by  Henry  IV,  fur- 
thered the  monastic  reforms  and  the  Crusades.  Re- 
ginmar (1121-38), Reginbert,Count  of  Hegenau  (1136- 
47)  who  took  part  in  the  crusade  of  Conrad  III,  and 
Conrad  of  Austria  (1 149-64),  a  brother  of  Bishop  Otto 
of  Freising,  were  all  much  interested  in  the  foundation 
of  new  monasteries  and  the  reform  for  those  already 
existing.  Ulrich,  Count  of  Andechs  (1215-21),  was 
formally  recognized  as  a  prince  of  the  empire  at  the 
Reichstag  of  Nuremberg  in  1217.  The  reforms  which 
were  begun  by  Gebhard  von  Plaien  (1221-32)  and 
Riidiger  von  Rodeck  (1233-12.50)  found  a  zealous  pro- 
moter in  Otto  von  Lonsdorf  (12.54-65),  one  of  the 
greatest  bishops  of  Passau.  He  took  stringent  meas- 
ures against  the  relaxed  monasteries,  introduced  the 
Franciscans  and  Dominicans  into  his  diocese,  pro- 
moted the  arts  and  sciences,  and  collected  the  old 
documents  which  had  survived  the  storms  of  the  pre- 
ceding period,  so  that  to  him  we  owe  almost  all  our 
knowledge  of  the  early  history  of  Passau.  (See 
Schmidt,  "Otto  von  Lonsdorf,  Bischof  zu  Passau", 
Wiirzburg,  1903.)  Bi.shop  Peter,  formerly  Canon  of 
Breslau,  contributed  much  to  the  greatness  of  the 
House  of  Habsburg  by  bestowing  episcopal  fiefs  on  the 
sons  of  King  Rudolph.  Under  Bernhard  of  Brambach 
(1285-1313)  began  the  struggles  of  Passau  to  become 
a  free  imperial  city.  After  an  uprising  in  May,  1298, 
the  bishop  granted  the  burghers,  in  the  municipal 
ordinance  of  1299,  privileges  in  conformity  with  what 
was  called  the  Bernhardine  Charter.    The  cathedral 


PASSAU 


520 


PASSAU 


haviiiK  liiTii  burned  down  in  12S1,  ho  built  a  new  cu- 
tlu'ilnil  which  hislcl  until  Ui()2.  AIIhiI  111  von  VVinkcl 
(13ti.'i-St))  \v;is  particularly  active  in  the  strugslo  with 
the  burghers  and  in  resislint;  the  robher-knights.  The 
Black  Death  visited  the  bishopric  under  (lotlfried  II 
von  Weitzenbeck  (13 f2-li2).  George-  1  von  Ilohenlohe 
(KiSS-llL'l),  who,  after  1418,  was  imperial  chancellor, 
energeticallv  opposed  the  Hussites.  During  the  time 
of  ririeh  ll"l  von  Nussdorf  (Mol-TO)  the  diocese  suf- 
fered its  lirst  great  curtailment  by  the  formation  of  the 
new  Diocese  of  Vienna  (14(jS).  'i'his  diocese  was  after- 
warils  further  enlarged  at  the  expense  of  Passau  by 
Sixtus  IV.  Towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  conflict  between  an  Austrian  candidate  for  the  see 
and  a  Bavarian  brought  about  a  state  of  war  in  the 
diocese. 

The  Reformation  was  kept  out  of  all  the  Bavarian 
part  of  the  dioce-se,  except  the  Count  ship  of  Orten- 
burg,  by  the  efforts  of  Ernest  of  Bavaria  who,  though 
never  consecrated,  ruled  the  diocese  from  1517  to  1.541. 
The  new  heresy  found  many  adherents,  however,  in 
the  Austrian  portion.  Wolfgang  I  Count  of  Sahn 
(1540-.5.5)  and  Urban  von  Trennbach  (1561-98)  led 
the  counter-Reformation.  Under  Wolfgang  the  Peace 
of  Passau  was  concluded,  in  the  summer  of  1552  (see 
Charles  V).  The  last  Bavarian  prince-bishop  was 
Urban,  who  in  his  struggles  during  the  Reformation 
received  substantial  aid  for  the  Austrian  part  of  the 
diocese  from  Albert  V,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  and,  after 
1576,  from  Emperor  Rudolph  II.  All  the  successors 
of  Urban  were  Austrians.  Bishop  Leopold  I  (1598- 
1625)  (also  Bishop  of  Strasburg  after  1607)  was  one  of 
the  first  to  enter  the  Catholic  League  of  1609.  In  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  he  was  loyal  to  his  brother.  Em- 
peror Ferdinand  II.  Leopold  II  Wilhelm  (162.5-62), 
son  of  Ferdinand  II,  a  pious  prince  and  a  great  bene- 
factor of  the  City  of  Passau,  especially  after  the  great 
conflagration  of  1682,  finally  united  five  bishoprics. 
Count  Wenzelaus  von  Thun  (1664-73)  began  the  new 
cathedral  which  wm  completed  thirty  years  later  by 
Paul  Philip  of  Lamberg.  He  and  his  nephew  Joseph 
Dominicus,  his  mediate  successor  (1723-62),  became 
cardinals.  When  Vienna  was  raised  to  an  archdio- 
cese in  1722,  he  relinquished  the  parishes  beyond  the 
Viennese  Forest,  hence  was  exempted  from  the  metro- 
politan authority  of  Salzburg,  and  obtained  the  pallium 
for  himself  and  his  successors.  Leopold  Ernst,  Count 
of  Firmian  (1763-83),  created  cardinal  in  1772,  estab- 
lished an  institute  of  theology  at  Passau  and,  after 
the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  founded  a  lyceum. 
Under  Joseph,  Count  of  Auersperg  (1783-95),  Em- 
peror Joseph  II  took  away  two-thirds  of  the  diocese 
to  form  the  two  dioceses  of  Linz  and  St.  Polten  (see 
LiNz).  The  last  prince-bishop,  Leopold  von  Thun 
(179(i-1826),  saw  the  .secularization  of  the  old  bish- 
opric in  1803;  the  City  of  Passau  and  the  temporalities 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Inn  and  the  right  bank  of  the 
llz  w(mt  to  Bavaria,  wdiile  the  territory  on  the  left 
banks  of  the  Danube  and  of  the  llz  went  to  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Tu.scany  and  afterwards  to  Austria.  On  22 
February,  1803,  when  the  Bavarians  marched  into 
Piissau,  the  prince-bishop  withdrew  to  his  estates  in 
Bohemia,  and  never  revisited  his  former  residence. 

By  the  Concordat  of  1818,  the  diocese  was  given  the 
boundaries  which  it  still  ha.s.  After  the  death  of  the 
lii-st  i)rince-bishop,  Passau's  exemption  from  metro- 
politan power  ceased,  and  the  diocese  became  suffra- 
gan of  Munich-Frei.sing.  Bishop  Charles  Joseph  von 
Riccabona  (1820-38)  turned  his  attention  to  the  care 
of  the  rising  generation  of  clergy.  With  the  support 
of  King  Ixjuis  I,  he  founded  a  preparatory  course  and 
then  reopened  the  lyceum  with  a  faculty  of  law  and  of 
theology.  Henry  von  Hofstiitter  (1839-75)  estab- 
lished a  complete  theological  seminary,  and  a  school 
for  boys.  The  former  of  these  found  a  great  benefac- 
tor in  Bishop  Franz  von  Weckert  (1875-79);  the 
latter,  in  Michael  von  Ilampf  (1889-1901),  who  for 


sixteen  years  h.ad  been  vicar-general  of  the  Archdio- 
cese of  ^lunich-l'riising.  lie  was  followed  by  Anto- 
nius  von  'I'hoiiia  (iM arch-October,  1889),  who  was 
promoted  to  the  archiepiscopal  See  of  Munieli,  and 
succeeded  by  Antonius  von  Ilenle  (1901-l)t;),  who  was 
transferred  to  Ratisbon.  The  ])n'scnt  diocesan,  Sigis- 
niiuid  Felix  von  ()w-l''elldorf,  was  ai)iiointcd  11  Jan- 
uary, 1906,  aii<l  consecrated  on  24  I'ebruary,  1906. 

Actual  Ciinditio.ns. — The  diocese  is  <hvided  into 
a  city  connnission  anil  19  rural  deaneries.  In  1910  it 
numbered  222  parishes,  and  102  other  benefices  and 
(Xiiosiliinii,  607  clerics,  of  whom  219  were  parish 
priests,  49  were  eng.aged  at  the  cathedral  and  in  dio- 
cesan edui-ational  institutions,  and  t)7  were  regulars. 
The  resilient  Catholic  jKjpulation  was  354,200  The 
cathedral  chai)ter  consists  of  a  catheilral  provost, 
a  dean,  8  canons,  6  vicars,  1  preacher,  and  1  pre- 
centor (DomkapeUmeister) .  The  diocesan  institu- 
tions are  the  seminary  for  clerics,  dedicated  to  St. 
Stephen,  with  95  alumni,  and  the  boys'  seminary 
at  Passau;  the  state  institutions  are  a  gymnasium 
at  Passau,  2  homes  for  priests,  1  home  for  super- 
annuated priests.  There  is  a  state  lyceum  at 
Passau  with  8  religious  professors,  where  candidates 
for  the  priesthood  study  philosophy  and  theology. 
The  following  orders  and  congregations  were  estab- 
lished in  the  diocese:  Benedictine  Missionaries  of  St. 
Ottilien,  a  missionary  seminary  with  9  fathers  and  20 
brothers;  Capuchins,  5  monasteries,  54  fathers,  24 
tertiary  clerics,  and  65  lay  brothers;  Redemptorists, 
1  monastery  with  3  fathers  and  3  brothers.  Fe- 
male orders:  Benedictines,  1  convent,  46  sisters; 
Cistercians,  1  house,  48  sisters;  English  Ladies,  3 
mother-houses,  30  affiliated  institutions,  866  mem- 
bers; Poor  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  from  the 
mother-house  at  Mrmich,  7  institutions,  with  35  sis- 
ters; Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  from 
the  mother-house  at  Munich,  18  houses  with  79  sis- 
ters; Sisters  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer,  from  Nei- 
derbronn,  Alsace,  2  institutions  with  9  sisters;  Sisters 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  from  Mallersdorf, 
Lower  Bavaria,  25  institutions  with  125  sisters.  The 
English  Ladies  and  the  School  Sisters  devote  them- 
selves to  the  education  of  girls,  while  those  in  most  of 
the  remaining  institutions  of  the  diocese  (the  Benedic- 
tines and  Cistercians  being  contemplatives)  are  occu- 
pied with  the  care  of  the  sick.  Among  the  pious  organ- 
izations of  the  diocese  may  be  mentioned  the  Society 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the  Society  of  St.  Elizabeth, 
the  Brotherhood  for  the  Perpetual  Adoration  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  the  Society  of  St.  Cecilia,  the 
Societies  of  Catholic  Workmen,  the  Volksvercin  of 
Catholic  Germany.  The  most  important  Catholic 
periodicals  are  "Die  Donauzeitung"  and  "Die  Theo- 
logisch-praktische  Monatschrift",  both  published  at 
Passau. 

The  cathedral,  with  the  exception  of  the  choir  and 
the  transept  built  in  1407.  was  rebuilt  after  the  fire  of 
1662  by  the  Italians  Lorago  and  Carlone,  in  the 
baroque  style;  its  two  towers  were  tini.shed  in  18915-98 
by  Heinr.  von  Schmidt.  From  Gothic  times  date  the 
parish  church  of  the  city  of  N<-uiitting  (14.50-80),  the 
cathedral  at  Altotting  (fourteenth  and  fifteenth  cen- 
turies) with  the  tombs  of  Karlmann  and  of  I'illy,  the 
Herrenkapelle  near  the  cathedral  at  Passau  (1414); 
Renaissance  and  Baroque  are  the  former  Cistercian 
church  at  Aldersbach  (1700-34),  the  Church  of  the 
Premonstratensians  at  Osterhofen  (completed  in 
1740),  the  parish  church  at  Niederalteich,  formerly  the 
church  of  a  Benedictine  abbey  (1718-26).  The  dio- 
cese contains  the  most  famous  place  of  pilgrimage  in 
all  Bavaria:  the  Chapel  of  Our  Lady  at  Altotting, 
which  is  visited  each  year  by  from  200,000  to  300,000 
pilgrims.  In  this  chapel  the  hearts  of  the  Bavarian 
royal  family  have  been  preserved  opposite  the  miracu- 
lous picture,  since  the  time  of  the  Elector  Maximil- 
ian 1. 


PASSERAT 


521 


PASSIONISTS 


BuceiNGER.  Geschichte  des  Furslenlums  Passau  (Munich,  1816- 
24) ;  SchOller,  Geschichte  dcr  Bischo/e  von  Passau  (Passau,  1844) ; 
Eruard,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Passau  (Passau,  1862,  1864)  (the 
bishops  especially  are  treated  ia  the  first  volume) ;  Schrodl,  Pas- 
Bavia  sacra:  Geschichte  des  Bistums  Passau  bis  zur  Sdkularisation 
des  Furstentums  Passau  (Passau,  1879);  Rottmayer.  Statistische 
Beschreibung  des  Bistums  Passau  (Passau,  1S67) ;  Rohm,  Das  his- 
torische  Alter  der  Diazese  Passau  (Passau.  1880) ;  Die  bischoflichcn 
Seminarien  der  Diozese  Passau  (1S93) ;  Heinwieser,  Die  rechtliche 
Stellung  der  Stadt  Passau  bis  zur  Stadthcrrschaft  der  Bischofc  (Pas- 
sau, mO);  Schematismus  fllr  das  Jahr  1010  (Passau.  1910);  Vcr- 
handlungen  des  Histarischen  Vereins  fur  Nicderbayern  (Landshut, 
1846 — ).  The  traditioDS  of  the  diocese  are  treated  in  Bitterauf, 
Necrologia  von  Fastlinger,  On  the  Peace  of  Passau,  KuHNS, 
Geschichte  des  Passauer  Vertrags  (Giessen,  1907)  and  Bonwetsch, 
Geschichte  des  Passauischen  Vertrags  von  1562  ((jlottingen.  1907). 

Joseph  Lins. 

Passerat,  Venerable  Joseph,  b.  .30  April,  1772,  at 
Joinvillc,  France;  d.  30  October,  1S5S.  The  diffi- 
culties he  had  to  surmount  in  following  his  vocation 
to  the  priesthood  were  great.  He  was  driven  from 
the  seminary,  imprisoned,  and  forced  to  serve  in  the 
army  from  1788  to  1792.  Owing  to  his  lofty  stature 
he  was  made  drum-major,  and  later  quarter-master. 
At  the  first  opportunity  he  left  the  service  and  en- 
tered the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer 
in  Warsaw.  Bl.  Clement  M.  Hotbauer  (q.  v.) 
trained  him  for  the  religious  life  and  priesthood,  and 
he  in  turn  trained  new-comers.  Later  with  great 
difficulty  owing  to  the  circumstances  of  the  times 
he  established  houses  outside  of  Poland.  After  the 
death  of  Bl.  Clement,  Venerable  Passerat  succeeded 
him  as  vicar-general  over  all  the  transalpine  commu- 
nities. While  thus  engaged  (1820-48)  he  founded 
houses  in  the  United  States,  in  Bavaria,  Prussia, 
Switzerland,  Belgium,  France,  Portugal,  Holland,  and 
England.  IDifficulties  were  many  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  Europe  the  danger  of  suppression  was 
imminent,  but  never  wavering,  he  communicated 
his  confidence  in  God  to  his  subjects.  He  used  to 
say:  "Console  yourselves,  we  are  seed,  be  it  that 
we  are  reduced  to  ten,  these  like  grains  of  corn 
reduced  to  dust  under  the  earth  will  one  day  give  a 
rich  harvest".  The  growth  of  the  congregation 
verified  his  prediction.  He  governed  his  numerous 
family  with  zeal,  wisdom,  and  tenderness.  When 
the  revolution  decreed  the  destruction  of  the  Re- 
demptorists,  he  said  to  his  subjects:  "Fear  not: 
stand  courageously.  Let  it  not  be  said  of  us  that  we 
have  failed  to  meet  martyrdom,  but  that  martyrdom 
has  failed  to  meet  us".  On  6  April,  1848,  he  was 
driven  out  of  Vienna  with  his  community  without  the 
bare  necessaries  of  life.  After  much  hardship  he 
reached  Belgium.  Worn  out  with  old  age  and  la- 
bour he  resigned  his  office  and  became  director  of  the 
Redemptoristines  at  Bruges.  The  ordinary  process 
for  his  beatification  was  begun  at  Tournai  in  1892, 
and  the  introduction  of  the  cause  of  this  venerable 
servant  of  God  was  approved  by  Leo  XIII  on  13 
May,  1901.  The  ApostoUc  Process  is  already  com- 
pleted. 

Desurmont,  Joseph  Passerat  et  sous  sa  conduite  Les  Redemp- 
loristes  pendant  les  guerres  de  V Empire  (Montreuit-sur-Mer,  1893) : 
GiROUlLLE.  Vn  grand  serriteur  de  Dieu,  Le  Rev.  Pkre  Joseph 
Passerat  (Montreuil-sur-Mer,  1893).  See  Redemptoristines; 
Clement  Mart  Hofbauer,  Blessed. 

J.  Magnier. 

Passignano,  Domenico  (known  as  II  Cresti,  or  II 
Passignano,  Cresti  being  his  family  name),  Venetian 
painter,  b.  at  Passignano,  near  F'lorence,  in  15,58;  d.  at 
Florence,  1638.  Although  a  Florentine  by  birth,  he 
belongs  to  the  Venetian  s<-hool.  He  appears  to  have 
lived  for  a  while  at  Florence,  and  afterwards  at  Pisa, 
but  going  to  Venice,  he  accepted  the  \'enetian  tradi- 
tions which  he  followed  through  the  rest  of  his  career. 
Personally,  he  was  a  man  of  charming  manners,  de- 
lightful in  conversation.  Pope  Clement  VIII  knighted 
him  and  gave  him  many  commissions,  and  Turban  \'III 
added  to  his  honours  and  emoluments.  He  returned 
to  Florence,  where  he  was  greatly  beloved  and  re- 
garded as  the  chief  member  of  its  Academy,  although 


recognized  by  all  his  companions  as  Venetian  in  style 
and  out  of  sympathy  with  the  Florentine  methods.  He 
painted  with  extraordinary  facility,  and  so  rapidly  as 
to  be  nicknamed  Passu  Ognuno.  This  name  has  been 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  play  upon  the  name  of  his  birth- 
place, and  one  author  asserts  that  the  name  Passig- 
nano was  derived  from  it;  but  there  appears  to  be  no 
authority  for  this.  According  to  the  custom  of  the 
time,  the  artist  would  derive  his  familiar  cognomen 
from  his  birthplace. 

Passignano's  drawing  was  not  particularly  correct, 
but  his  ideas  of  composition  were  ingenious  and 
clever.  He  regarded  Tintoretto's  work  with  very  high 
favour,  and  many  of  his  own  paintings  closely  resem- 
ble those  of  the  great  master.  But  his  desire  to  paint 
rapidly  caused  him  to  use  his  colours  so  thinly  that 
many  of  his  important  works  have  for  this  very  reason 
perished.  He  was  responsible  for  the  street  decora- 
tions in  Florence  on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of 
the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand  I  with  Christina  of  Lor- 
raine, and  the  frescoes  of  the  church  of  San  Andrea  at 
Rome  were  very  largely  his  work.  His  own  portrait 
is  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery  at  Florence,  and  the  same  city 
contains  several  of  his  best  works.  He  is  also  to  be 
studied  in  Paris,  London,  and  Vienna. 

Vasari  (various  editions) ;  L.\nzi,  Storia   Pillorica   (Bassano, 

1809)-  George  Charles  Williamson. 

Passing  Bell.     See  Bells. 

Passio  (Passionale,  Passion arium)  .  See  Leg- 
ends OP  THE  Saints;  Martyrs,  Acts  op  the. 

Passionei,  Domenico,  cardinal,  theologian,  b.  at 
Fossombrone,  2  Dec,  1682;  d.  5  July,  1761.  Educated 
in  the  Clementine  College  at  Rome,  later  he  joined 
the  household  of  his  brother  Guido,  afterwards  secre- 
tary of  the  Sacred  College,  devoting  himself  to  higher 
studies  at  the  Sapienza.  He  was  soon  made  a  prelate 
and  in  1706  was  sent  to  Paris  to  present  the  nuncio 
with  the  red  hat,  but  he  there  acquired  the  Jansen- 
istic  tendencies  which  he  never  entirely  eradicated. 
In  1708  he  was  sent  on  a  confidential  mission  to  The 
Hague;  in  1712  he  was  present  at  L'trecht  as  official 
representative  of  the  Holy  See  and  successfully  main- 
tained the  cause  of  Ruiswych  concerning  religion. 
His  efforts  were  less  successful  at  Baden  (1714)  and  at 
Turin.  He  was  later  sent  to  Malta  as  inquisitor 
(1717-19);  he  became  Secretary  of  Propaganda,  Sec- 
retary of  Latin  Letters,  and  in  1721  nuncio  in  Swit- 
zerland, where  he  wrote  "Acta  Apostolicae  Lega- 
tionis  Helvetia;  1723-29"  (Zurich,  1729;  Rome, 
1738).  He  blessed  the  marriage  of  Maria  Theresa 
and  was  instrumental  in  converting  Friedrich  Lud- 
wig.  Prince  of  Wiirtemberg.  Later  on  he  was  hostile 
to  Austria. 

After  his  return  to  Rome  he  became  secretary  of 
briefs  and  cardinal  of  the  title  of  S.  Bernardo.  In 
1755  he  succeeded  Quirini  as  librarian  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Church.  Although  a  member  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Berlin,  he  pubhshed  little.  But  he  carried  on 
a  learned  correspondence  with  the  most  distinguished 
literati.  He  protected  the  Jansenists  and  encouraged 
them  to  pubhsh  Arnauld's  works.  His  library  of 
32,000  volumes  was  open  to  all;  it  was  acquired  by 
the  Augustinians.  His  character  was  impetuous  and 
haughty,  especially  towards  the  Romans.  He  was 
compelled  to  confirm  the  decree  prohibiting  the 
"Exposition  de  la  doctrine  chretienne"  of  Masenguy, 
his  protege,  but  this  so  afflicted  him  as  to  hasten  his 
death. 

Galletti.  Memnrie  per  servire  nlln  storia  del  card.  Dom.  Pas- 
sionei (Rome,  1762);  Gofjet.  Elogc  hi.-!t.  du  card.  Passionei  (The 
HaRue.  1763):  letters  in  Outrages  posthumes  de  Mabillon  (Paris, 
1724);  Norn  acta  historico-ecdesiastica,  IX  (Weimar.  1769). 

U.  Benigni. 

Passionists.— The  full  title  of  the  Passionist  in- 
stitute is:  The  Congregation  of  Discalced  Clerks 
OF  the  Most  Holy  Cross  and  Passion  of  Our  Lord 
Jes0s  Christ. 


PASSIONISTS 


522 


PASSIONISTS 


Foundation. — The  founder  was  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross, 
called  in  the  world  Paul  Francis  Danei.  The  saint 
was  born  3  Jan.,  1694,  at  Ovada,  a  small  town  in  the 
then  Republic  of  Genoa.  He  spent  his  youth  at  Cas- 
tellazzo,  in  Lonibardy,  where  his  parents  had  taken  up 
their  residence  when  Paul  was  only  ten  years  old. 
This  was  his  father's  native  place.  It  is  to  Castellazzo 
we  have  to  turn  our  thoughts  for  the  beginnings 
of  the  Passionist  Congregation.  There  Paul  received 
his  inspirations  concerning  the  work  for  which  God 
destined  him.  There  he  was  clothed  by  his  bishop  in 
the  habit  of  the  Passion,  and  there  wrote  the  Rules  of 
the  new  institute. 

The  Rules  were  written  by  St.  Paul  while  yet  a  lay- 
man and  before  he  assembled  companions  to  form  a 
community.  He  narrates,  in  a  statement  written  in 
obeflience  to  his  confessor,  how  Our  Lord  inspired  him 
with  the  design  of  founding  the  congregation,  and  how 
he  wrote  the  Rules  and  Constitutions.  "I  began",  he 
says,  "to  write  this  holy  rule  on  the  second  of  Decem- 
ber in  the  year  1720,  and  I  finished  it  on  the  seventh 
of  the  same  month.  And  be  it  known  that  when  I 
was  writing,  I  went  on  as  quickly  as  if  somebody  in  a 
professor's  chair  were  there  dictating  to  me.  I  felt 
the  words  come  from  my  heart"  (see  "Life  of  St. 
Paul  of  the  Cross",  H,  v,  Oratorian  Series).  In 
1725  when  on  a  visit  to  Rome  with  his  brother  John 
Baptist,  his  constant  companion  and  co-operator 
in  the  foundation  of  the  institute,  Paul  received  from 
Benedict  XIII  viva  vocis  oraculo,  permission  to  form  a 
congregation  according  to  these  Rules.  The  same 
pope  ordained  the  two  brothers  in  the  Vatican  ba- 
silica 7  June,  1727.  After  serving  for  a  time  in  the 
hospital  of  St.  Gallicano  they  left  Rome  with  permis- 
sion of  the  Holy  Father  and  went  to  Mount  Argen- 
taro,  where  they  established  the  first  house  of  the 
institute.  They  took  up  their  abode  in  a  small  hermit  - 
age  near  the  summit  of  the  mount,  to  which  was  at- 
tached a  ehapcl  dedicated  to  St.  Anthony.  They  were 
soon  joined  by  three  companions,  one  of  whom  was  a 
priest,  and  the  observance  of  community  life  according 
to  the  rules  began  there  and  is  continued  there  to  the 
present  day.  This  was  the  cradle  of  the  congregation, 
and  we  may  date  the  foundation  of  the  Passionists 
from  this  time. 

Formation  and  Development. — By  an  Apostolic  re- 
script of  15  May,  1741,  Benedict  XIV  approved  the 
Rules  of  the  institute,  whose  object,  being  to  awaken 
in  the  faithful  the  memory  of  the  Passion  of  Christ, 
commended  itself  in  a  special  manner  to  him,  and  he 
was  heard  to  say,  after  signing  the  rescript,  that  the 
Congregation  of  the  Passion  had  come  into  the  world 
last,  whereas  it  ought  to  have  been  the  first.  Clement 
XIV  confirmed  the  Rules  and  approved  the  institute 
by  the  Bull  Supremi  Apostolatus  of  16  Nov.,  1769, 
which  concedes  to  the  Passionist  Congregation  all  the 
favours  and  privileges  granted  to  other  religious  or- 
ders. The  .same  pope  afterwards  gave  to  St.  Paul  and 
his  companions  the  Church  of  Sts.John  and  Paul  in 
Rome,  with  the  large  house  annexed  to  it  on  Monte 
Celio,  and  this  remains  the  mother-house  of  the 
congregation  to  the  present  day.  Before  the  holy 
founder's  death  the  Rules  and  the  institute  were  again 
solemnly  confirmed  and  approved  by  a  Bull  of  Pius 
VI,  "  Pra;clara  virtutum  exempla",  15  Sept.,  1775. 
These  two  Bulls  of  Clement  XI\'  and  Pius  VI  gave 
canonical  stability  to  the  institute,  and  are  the  basis 
and  authority  of  its  rights  and  privileges. 

After  the  congregation  had  been  approved  by  Ben- 
edict XIV  many  associates  joined  St.  Paul,  some  of 
whom  were  priests;  and  the  new  disciples  gave  them- 
selves up  to  such  a  life  of  fervent  penance  and  prayer 
that  upon  Mount  Argentaro  the  .sanctity  of  the  ancient 
anchorites  was  revived.  Before  the  death  of  the 
founder  twelve  houses  or  "retreats"  of  the  congrega- 
tion wereestablished  throughout  Italy  and  formed  into 
three  provinces,   fully   organized  according   to   the 


Rules — a  general  over  the  entire  congregation,  a 
provincial  over  each  province,  rectors  over  the  several 
houses,  a  novitiate  in  each  province.  These  superiors 
were  to  be  elected  in  provincial  chapters  held  every 
three  years  and  general  chapters  every  six  years. 

Distinciive  Spirit. — The  congregation  embraces  both 
the  contemplative  and  the  active  life,  as  applied  to  re- 
ligious orders.  The  idea  of  the  founder  was  to  unite  in 
it  the  solitary  life  of  the  Carthusians  or  Trappists  with 
the  active  life  of  the  Jesuits  or  Lazarists.  The  Passion- 
ists are  reckoned  among  the  mendicant  orders  in  the 
Church.  They  have  no  endowments,  nor  are  they  al- 
lowed to  possess  property  either  in  private  or  in  com- 
mon, except  their  houses  and  a  few  acres  of  land 
at  t  ached  to  each .  Thej'  t  heref  ore  depend  upon  thei  r  la- 
bours and  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the  faithful. 

The  end  of  the  congregation,  as  stated  in  the  Rules, 
is  twofold:  first,  the  sanctification  of  its  members;  and 
secondly,  the  sanctification  of  others.  This  twofold 
end  is  to  be  secured  by  means  of  their  distinctive 


spirit,  namely  the  practice  and  promotion  of  devotion 
to  the  Passion  of  Our  Lord  as  the  most  efficacious 
means  for  withdrawing  the  minds  of  men  from  sin  and 
leading  them  on  to  Christian  perfection.  To  this  end 
the  Passionists  at  their  profession  add  to  the  three 
usual  religious  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedi- 
ence, a  fourth — to  promote  to  the  utmost  of  their 
power,  especially  by  such  means  as  their  rules  point 
out,  a  devotion  to  the  Passion  of  Our  Divine  Saviour. 
Recruiting  and  Training  of  Members. — The  Passion- 
ists have  no  colleges  for  the  education  of  seculars,  and 
have  no  young  men  or  boys  under  their  care,  except 
those  who  wish  to  become  members  of  the  congre- 
gation, and  those  who  are  novices  and  professed  stu- 
dents. They  depend  therefore  for  their  subjects  upon 
the  attraction  which  the  spirit  and  work  of  the  con- 
gregation exercise  upon  youths  who  come  to  know 
them.  The  congregation  admits  of  two  classes  of  re- 
ligious: choir  brothers  and  lay  brothers.  The  former, 
unless  priests  already,  are  to  give  themselves  to  study 
for  the  priesthood.  The  latter  are  charged  with  the 
domestic  duties  of  the  retreat.  The  conditions  for  the 
reception  of  novices  are,  besides  those  common  to  all 
religious  orders:  (1)  that  they  be  at  least  fifteen  years 
of  age,  and  not  over  twenty-five  (from  this  latter  the 
father  general  can  dispense  for  any  just  and  sufficient 
reason) ;  (2)  that  they  show  special  aptitude  for  the  life 
of  a  Passionist;  (3)  if  they  are  to  be  received  as  clerics 
they  must  have  made  due  progress  in  their  studies  and 
show  the  usual  signs  of  vocation  to  the  priesthood. 
After  profession  and  the  completion  of  their  classical 
and  intermediate  studies,  the  students  take  a  seven 
years'  course  of  ecclesiastical  studies  >mder  the  direc- 
tion and  tuition  of  professors,  or  lectors  as  they  are 
called,  in  philosophy,  theology.  Holy  Scripture  etc., 
and  when  they  have  passed  the  required  examinations 


PASSIONISTS 


523 


PASSIONISTS 


they  are  promoted  to  Holy  orders  sub  tilulo  Pauperta- 
lis. 

The  vows  made  in  the  congregation  are  simple,  not 
solemn  vows,  and  they  are  perpetual,  or  for  life,  so  that 
no  religious  can  leave  the  congregation  of  his  own  ac- 
cord after  profession,  and  no  one  can  be  dismissed  ex- 
cept for  some  grave  and  canonical  reason.  For  the 
sanctification  of  its  members  and  the  maintenance  of 
the  spirit  of  the  congregation  in  their  community  life, 
besides  practising  the  austerities  and  mortifications 
prescribed  by  Rule  and  familiar  only  to  themselves,  the 
Passionists  spend  five  hours  every  day  in  choir  chant- 
ing the  Divine  Office  or  in  meditation.  They  rise  at 
midnight  and  spend  one  hour  and  a  half  chanting 
Matins  and  Lauds.  They  abstain  from  flesh  meat 
three  days  in  the  week  throughout  the  year,  and  dur- 
ing the  whole  of  Lent  and  Advent;  but  in  cold  and 
severe  climates,  such  as  the  British  Isles,  a  dispensation 
is  usually  granted  allowing  the  use  of  flesh  meat  two 
or  three  times  a  week  during  those  seasons.  They 
wear  only  sandals  on 
their  feet.  Their 
habit  is  a  coarse  wool- 
len tunic .  They  sleep 
on  straw  beds  with 
straw  pillows.  They 
spend  the  time  free 
from  choir  and  other 
public  acts  of  obser- 
vance in  study  and 
spiritual  reading,  and, 
that  they  may  ha\-e 
Our  Lord's  Sacred 
Passion  continually 
before  their  mind, 
they  wear  upon  Ihcii- 
breasts  and  nKUitli^ 
the  badge  of  tlu'  con- 
gregation on  which 
are  inscribed  the 
words  Jesu  XPl  Pan- 
sio  (Passion  of  Jesus 
Christ). 

Aclil'ilies    or     Mis-  Church  and  Monastery  of 

sionary  Lahourx. — For  the  spiritual  good  of  others, 
the  second  end  of  their  institute,  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries they  do  not  ordinarily  undertake  the  cure  of 
souls  or  the  duties  of  parish  priests,  but  endeavour 
to  assist  parish  i)rie.sts  of  the  places  where  their  houses 
are  established,  especially  in  the  confessional.  In  non- 
Catholic  countries,  and  in  countries  where  the  popu- 
lation is  mixed,  that  is,  made  up  of  Catholics  and  non- 
Catholics,  the  Rule  provides  for  such  circumstances, 
and  they  may  undertake  ordinary  parochial  duties 
and  the  cure  of  souls  when  requested  to  do  so  by  the 
bishops  or  ordinaries,  and  this  is  the  case  in  England, 
in  the  United  States  of  America,  and  in  Australia. 
Otherwise  the  congregation  could  not  have  been  estab- 
lished or  maintained  in  these  countries.  Wherever 
houses  and  churches  of  the  congregation  exist,  the 
fathers  are  always  ready  to  preach,  to  instruct, 
and  to  hear  the  confessions  of  all  persons  who  may 
have  recourse  to  them.  They  also  receive  into  their 
houses  priests  or  laymen  who  wish  to  go  through 
a  course  of  spiritual  exercises  under  their  direction. 

The  principal  means,  however,  employed  by  the 
Passionists  for  the  spiritual  good  of  others,  is  giving 
missions  and  retreats,  whether  to  public  congregations 
in  towns  or  country  places,  or  to  religious  communi- 
ties, to  colleges,  seminaries,  to  the  clergy  assembled 
for  this  purpose,  or  to  particular  sodalities  or  classes 
of  people,  and  even  to  non-Catholics,  where  this 
can  be  done,  for  the  purpose  of  their  conversion. 
In  their  missions  and  retreats,  in  general,  they 
follow  the  practice  of  other  missioners  and  accom- 
modate themselves  to  the  exigencies  of  the  locality 
and  of  the  people;  a  special  feature,  however,  of  their 


4.A.*.jfc*.' 

^  1 

r     ,        ■ 

iKI^:%i 

work  is  that  every  day  they  give  a  meditation  or  a 
simple  instruction  on  the  Passion  of  Our  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ;  in  some  form  or  other  this  subject  must 
invariably  be  introduced  in  public  missions  and  pri- 
vate retreats.  The  Passionists  make  no  particular  vow, 
like  that  of  the  Jesuits,  to  be  ready  to  go  on  foreign  mis- 
sions among  the  infidels  or  wherever  the  pope  may 
send  them,  but  their  Rules  enjoin  them  to  be  thus 
ready  and  at  the  disposal  of  the  pope  or  of  the  Sa- 
cred Congregation  of  Propaganda ;  and  accordingly 
Passionist  bishops  and  missioners  have  been  engaged 
in  propagating  the  faith  and  in  watching  over  the 
faithful  in  Rumania  and  Bulgaria  almost  since  the 
time  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross.  At  an  early  period  also 
a  few  Italian  Passionists  went  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
the  aborigines  of  Australia,  but  they  had  to  abandon 
that  mission  after  many  trials  and  sufferings  and  the 
missioners  were  scattered.  Some  of  them  returned  to 
Italy  and  rejoined  their  brethren  (see  Moran,  "His- 
tory of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Australasia"). 

In  respect  to  mis- 
sionary work  and  la- 
bours for  the  good  of 
souls  the  Passionists 
profess  to  serve  every- 
one, never  to  refuse 
their  services  in  any 
department  of  Our 
Lord's  Vineyard, 
whether  the  place  to 
which  they  are  sent 
be  the  meanest  and 
poorest,  or  the  people 
with  whom  they  have 
to  deal  be  the  most 
thankless  or  intracta- 
ble, and  even  though 
they  may  have  to  ex- 
pose their  lives  by  at- 
tending to  those  af- 
fected by  pestilential 
diseases. 

Growth  and  Extent. 
SS.  John  and  Paul,  Rome  -Before  the  death  of 

its  founder  twelve  retreats  of  the  institute  had  been 
established  in  different  parts  of  Italy,  and  between  the 
year  of  his  death  (1775)  and  1810  several  others  had 
been  founded,  but  all  in  Italy.  These  were  all  closed  in 
the  general  suppression  of  religious  inst  itutes  by  order  of 
Napoleon.  For  the  Passionists,  who  had  no  house  out- 
side Italy,  this  meant  total  suppression,  as  the  whole 
of  that  country  was  under  the  tyrant's  sway.  After 
the  fall  of  Napoleon  and  the  return  of  Pius  VII  to 
Rome  and  to  his  possessions,  the  religious  orders  were 
speedily  restored.  The  first  of  the  orders  to  attract 
the  pope's  attention  was  the  Congregation  of  the  Pas- 
sion, although  it  was  the  smallest  of  all.  They  were 
the  first  to  resume  the  religious  garb  and  community 
life  in  their  Retreat  of  Sts.  John  and  Paul.  This 
event  took  place  on  J6  June,  1814.  They  soon  re- 
gained their  former  retreats  and  new  ones  were  in  a 
short  time  founded  in  the  Kingdoms  of  Naples  and 
Sardinia,  in  Tuscany,  and  elsewhere. 

From  the  time  of  the  restoration  of  the  congrega- 
tion under  Pius  VII  it  has  continued  without  inter- 
ruption to  increase  in  numbers  and  influence.  It  has 
branched  into  many  and  distant  countries  outside 
Italy.  At  present,  retreats  of  the  Congregation  exist 
in  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Belgium,  France  (in 
this  country  the  communities  have  been  disbanded 
since  1903  by  the  Republican  Government),  Spain, 
United  States  of  America,  Argentine  Repubhc,  Chile, 
Mexico,  and  Australia;  and  Passionist  missioners  con- 
tinue their  labours  under  two  Passionist  bishops  in 
Bulgaria. 

The  Anglo-Hihernian  Province. — The  first  founda- 
tion in  English-speaking  countries  in  the  order  of 


PASSIONISTS 


524 


PASSIONISTS 


time  is  the  Anplo-Hibprniiin  Province  of  St.  Joseph. 
The  Piissionists  were  introduced  into  England  by 
Fatlier  Dominic  of  the  Mother  of  (iod  (Harberi)  who 
arrived  at  Oscott  College,  HiriMinghiiin,  for  this  pur- 
pose with  onlv  one  conipaiiion,  I'ather  Aina<leus  (7 
Oct.,  1S41 ).  They  came  in  the  .spirit  of  .\poslles  with- 
out gold  or  .silver,  without  scrip  or  staff  or  shoes  or 
two  coats.  They  had.  however,  three  ecclesiastical 
friends  who  receive<l  them  kindly  and  encouraged 
them  in  their  enterpri.se  by  advice  and  patronage. 
Thc.sewere:  Dr.  Walsh,  Bi.shopof  theMidland  District ; 
Dr.  Wiseman,  then  his  coadjutor  bishop;  and  Father 
Ignatius  Spencer,  who  joined  the  congregation  in  1847 
and  laboured  as  one  of  its  most  saintly  and  devoted 
sons  until  his  death  in  18().5.  Father  Dominic  and  his 
coinpani<in  took  possession  of  Aston  Hall,  near  Stone, 
StatTordshircoM  17  Feb.,  1842,  and  there  established 
the  fii-st  community  of  I'a.ssionists  in  England.  At  the 
time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Passionists  there  were  only 
otiO  priests  in  England  and  the  distressful  state  of  the 
Church  there  may  be  learned  from  the  Catholic 
Director}'  of  1840. 

The  Pas.sionists  with  Father  Dominic  at  their  head 
soon  revived  without  commotion  several  Catholic 
i-ustoins  and  practices  which  had  died  out  since  the 
Reformation.  Thej'  were  the  first  to  adopt  strict 
community  life,  to  wear  their  habit  in  public,  to  give 
missions  and  retreats  to  the  people,  and  to  hold  public 
religious  processions.  "They  gloried  in  the  disgrace 
of  the  Cross,  were  laughed  at  by  Protestants,  warned 
by  timid  Catholics,  but  encouraged  always  by  Cardi- 
nal Wiseman.  Their  courage  became  infectious,  so 
that  in  a  short  time  almost  every  order  now  in  England 
followed  their  example.  There  were  two  or  three 
Fathers  of  Charity  then  in  England,  but  they  were 
engaged  teaching  in  colleges  until  they  might  become 
proficient  in  the  language.  Father  Dominic,  after  he 
had  given  his  first  mission,  wrote  to  Dr.  Gentili  and 
begged  him  and  his  companions  to  start  a  missionary 
career.  Thev  did  so  and  the  memory  of  their  labours 
is  not  yet  dead"  (MS.  by  P"ather  Pius  Devine,  1882). 
Father  Dominic  laboured  only  for  seven  years  in 
England,  during  which  he  founded  three  houses  of  the 
congregation.  He  died  in  1849.  For  fourteen  years 
after  its  introduction  into  England,  the  progress  of 
the  congregation  had  been  slow.  In  the  beginning 
of  18.56  there  were  only  nine  native  priests  and  three 
laj'-brothers;  the  rest,  to  the  number  of  sixteen  or  sev- 
enteen, were  foreigners. 

Foundation  in  Ireland. — It  was  during  this  year 
they  secured  their  first  foundation  in  Ireland,  which 
was  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  of  progress  for  the 
Passionists  at  home  and  beyond  the  seas.  Father 
Vincent  Grotti,  then  acting-provincial,  invited  and 
encouraged  by  Cardinal  CuUcn,  in  18.56  purchased  the 
house  and  property  called  Mount  .\rgus,  near  Dublin, 
where  their  grand  monastery  and  church  now  stand. 
A  community  was  soon  formed  there.  Father  Paul 
Mary  (Hon.  Reginald  Pakenham,  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Longford)  was  the  first  rector  of  the  retreat,  and  died 
there  1  March,  18.57.  This  remarkable  scion  of  a 
noble  house,  first  an  officer  in  the  army,  received  into 
the  Catholic  Church  by  Cardinal  Wiseman  at  the  age 
of  twenty-nine,  entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Pas- 
sion in  1851,  lived  for  six  years  an  austere  and  peni- 
tential life  according  to  its  Rule,  and  died  in  the  odour 
of  sanctity. 

In  course  of  time  other  houses  were  founded  in 
England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Wales.  In  1887  four 
priests.  Fathers  Alphonsus  O'Xeill,  Marcellus  Wright, 
Patrick  Fagan,  Colman  Nunan,  and  Brother  Law- 
rence Carr,  at  the  invitation  of  Cardinal  Moran, 
went  from  this  province  to  establish  the  congregation 
in  Australia.  Soon  three  houses  of  the  institute  were 
founded  at  Sydney,  Cioulborn,  and  Adelaide  re- 
spectively. All  three  remain  united  to  the  home 
province.    In  1862  a  house  was  founded  in  Paris 


(which  became  afterwards  known  as  St.  Joseph's 
(■hur<li  in  the  .V venue  Hoche)  for  the  benefit  of  Eng- 
li.sh-spcaking  ( 'al holies,  and  it  has  remained  the  cen- 
tre of  spiritual  ministrations  for  the  purpo.se  far  which 
it  was  fduncled  lo  the  present  time,  though  .secularized 
in  li)():i  by  the  Republican  Government. 

This  province  of  St.  .lo.seph,  including  Australia, 
l)OS.ses.ses  twelve  houses  or  retreats.  It  numbers  106 
l)riests,  :Ui  i)rofes.sed  students  (24  of  whom  are  reading 
theology),  12  novices,  and  27  professed  lay-brothers; 
in  all  isi  members. 

//( Ihi  I  'nilnl  Sl(iles.~ln  1852  Dr.  O'Connor,  Bishop 
of  Pittsburg,  obtained  from  the  general  of  the  Pas- 
sionists three  fathers  and  a  lay-brother  to  start  a 
branch  of  the  congregation  in  his  diocese.  The  mis- 
sionaries were  Fathers  Anthony,  Albimis,  and  Stanis- 
laus. They  were  totally  ignorant  of  the  I'liiglish 
language  and,  humanly  speaking,  most  unlikely  men 
to  succeed  in  Apostolic  labours  in  .America.  They 
were  at  first  housed  in  the  bishojj's  palace,  but  a  re- 
treat was  soon  built  for  them,  and  these  three  Passion- 
i.sts  soon  attracted  others  to  be  their  companions  and, 
in  the  space  of  twenty  years,  were  able  to  build  up  a 
flourishing  province.  In  that  period  as  Father  Pius 
writes;  "Five  splendid  houses  of  our  Congregation 
graced  and  beautified  the  States:  a  basilica  has  arisen 
in  Hoboken;  Cincinnati,  Dunkirk,  Baltimore,  and 
Louisville  can  testify  how  these  poor  men  increased 
and  midtiplied,  and  how  their  poor  beginnings  came 
to  have  such  splendid  results.  They  have  built  two 
e.\tra  churches  in  Pittsburg,  and  two  more  in  New 
Jersey.  Recently  a  foundation  has  been  made  in  the 
Diocese  of  Brooklyn  at  Shelter  Island.  It  will  be 
used  as  a  house  of  studies  for  novices  and  as  a  summer 
retreat  for  the  priests.  The  American  Province  is  more 
numerous  and  flourishing  than  any  other  in  the  order 
at  present.  Not  only  have  they  supplied  their  own 
wants,  but  they  have  sent  offshoots  to  Mexico,  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  Chile  to  be  seeds  of  future  provinces  which 
may  one  day  vie  with  their  own"  (1882,  MS.). 

The  number  of  the  religious  and  of  the  houses  of 
the  congregation  increased  gradually  until  the  prov- 
ince became  so  extended  that  the  superiors  deemed  it 
advisable  to  form  a  new  province  in  the  States. 
Accordingly,  as  a  branch  from  the  old  and  first  ijrov- 
ince,  a  second  was  founded,  under  the  title  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  by  the  authority  of  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  in  1906.  There  are  there- 
fore at  present  two  Passionist  provinces  in  the  United 
States,  namely,  the  Province  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross 
and  that  of  the  Holy  Cross.  The  former  comprises  6 
retreats,  113  professed  priests  and  students,  and  26 
lay-brothers;  the  latter  has  5  retreats,  76  priests  and 
students,  and  19  lay-brothers. 

According  to  the  general  catalogue  issued  in  1905, 
the  whole  congregation  includes  12  provinces,  94  re- 
treats, and  V.SH7  religious.  A  retreat  of  the  congrega- 
tion, dedicated  to  St.  Martha,  was  founded  at  Beth- 
any, near  Jerusalem,  in  1903. 

The  Congregation  of  the  Passion  has  never  had  a 
regular  cardinal  protector,  as  is  the  case  with  other 
religious  orders.  The  sovereign  pontiffs  have  always 
retained  it  under  their  own  immediate  protection,  an<l 
have  always  been  ready,  according  to  the  spirit  and 
the  words  of  Clement  XIV,  to  assist  it  by  their 
authority,  protection,  and  favour  (letter  to  the 
founder,  21  April,  1770),  and  Pius  VII  by  a  special 
Rescript  in  1801  declared  the  congregation  to  be 
under  the  immediate  protection  of  the  pope. 

IlElMBUCHEB.  Ordeii  u.  Kongregationen,  8.  v.  Pnssiojnuten: 
Pics  a  Spibitu  Sancto,  The  Life  of  SI.  Paul  of  the  Croat  (Dublin, 
1868) ;  H#,I.YOT-MlONE,  Did.  des  ordres  religieuT,  IV  (Paris,  1859). 
supplement,  1044  sq. 

Passionist  Nuns. — In  the  "Life  of  St.  Paul  of  the 
Cross"  by  Venerable  Strambi,  we  have  evidence  of  his 
design  from  the  beginning  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Passion  to  found  an  institute  in  which  women,  conse- 


PASSION 


525 


PASSION 


crated  to  the  service  of  God,  should  devote  themselves 
to  prayer  and  meditation  on  our  Lord's  Passion.  It 
was  not  until  towards  the  end  of  his  life  that  he  wrote 
the  rules  of  the  institute  which  were  approved  by  a 
Brief  of  Clement  XIV  in  1770.  St.  Paul  had  as  co- 
operatrix  in  the  foundation  of  the  Passionist  nuns,  a  re- 
ligious, known  as  Mother  Mary  of  Jesus  Crucified, 
whose  secular  name  was  Faustina  Gertrude  Costantini. 
She  was  born  at  Corneto,  18  August,  1713.  In  youth 
she  placed  herself  under  the  direction  of  St.  Paul  of  the 
Cross,  and  became  a  Benedictine  in  her  native  city, 
iwaiting  the  establishment  of  a  Passionist  convent. 
Through  the  generosity  of  her  relatives,  Dominic  Cos- 
tantini, Nicolas  his  brother,  and  Lucia  his  wife,  a  site 
was  obtained  for  the  first  convent  of  the  new  institute 
in  Corneto,  and  a  suitable  house  and  chapel  were  built. 
On  the  Feast  of  the  Holy  Cross,  1771,  Mother  Mary  of 
Jesus  Crucified,  with  the  permission  of  Clement  XIV, 
with  ten  postulants,  was  clothed  in  the  habit  of  the 
Passion  and  cnt  ercd  t  he  first  convent  of  Passionist  nuns, 
solemnly  opened  by  the  vicar  capitular  of  the  diocese. 
St.  Paul,  detained  by  illness,  was  represented  by  the 
fir.st  consultor  general  of  the  order.  Father  J<jlin  IMary. 
Mary  of  Jesus  Crucified  became  the  first  mother  su- 
perior of  her  order  and  remained  so  until  her  death  in 
1787.  The  spirit  of  the  institute  and  its  distinctive 
character  is  devotion  to  the  Passion  of  Christ,  to  which 
the  sisters  bind  themselves  by  vows.  Their  life  is  aus- 
tere, but  in  no  way  injurious  to  health.  Postulants 
seeking  admission  must  have  a  dowry.  Their  con- 
vents are  stri<-tly  enclosed.  The  sisters  chant  or  recite 
the  Divine  Office  in  common  and  spend  the  greater 
part  of  the  day  in  prayer  and  other  duties  of  piety. 
They  attend  to  the  domestic  work  of  the  convent,  and 
occupy  themselves  in  their  cells  with  needlework, 
making  vestments  etc.  With  the  approbation  of  Pius 
IX  a  house  was  established  at  Mamers  in  the  Diocese 
of  le  Mans,  France,  in  1872,  and  continued  to  flourish 
until  suppressed  with  other  religious  communities  in 
1903  by  the  Government.  There  is  also  a  Passionist 
convent  at  Lucca  whose  foundation  was  predicted  by 
Gemma  Galganino,  the  twentieth-century  mystic.  On 
5  May,  1910,  five  Passionist  nuns  from  Italy  arrived  in 
Pittsburg  to  make  the  first  foundation  of  their  insti- 
tute in  the  United  States. 

Sisters  of  the  Most  Holt  Cross  and  Passion. — 
This  second  Order  of  Passionist  nuns  was  founded  in 
England  in  18.50  when  Father  Gaudentius,  one  of  the 
first  Passionists  who  joined  Father  Dominic  in  that 
country,  formed  a  plan  of  providing  a  home  forfactory 
girls  in  Lancashire.  With  the  sanction  and  appro- 
bation of  Dr.  Turner,  then  Bishop  of  Salford,  and 
his  vicar-general,  a  house  was  secured  for  a  convent 
and  home  in  Manchester  in  1851.  The  first  superior 
was  Mother  Mary  Joseph  Paul.  The  community  pros- 
pered and  rules  were  drawn  up.  The  sisters  took  the 
name  of  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  and  in  course  of 
time  became  aggregated  to  the  Congregation  of  the 
Passionists  (although  immediately  subject  to  the 
bishop  of  the  dioce.se)  under  the  name  of  Sisters  of  the 
Most  Holy  Cross  and  Passion.  The  institute  under 
this  title  and  its  rules  were  approved  by  Pius  IX  on  2 
July,  1876  per  moriiim  experimenti  ad  dccennium  and 
received  its  final  approbation  from  Leo  XIII,  by  a  De- 
cree dated  21  June,  1887.  The  institute  had  its  origin 
chiefly  in  the  lamentable  state  of  female  operatives  in 
the  large  towns  of  England,  who,  though  constantly 
exposed  to  the  greatest  dangers  to  faith  and  morals, 
had  no  special  guardians  or  instructors  save  the  clergy. 
To  protect  and  maintain  these  women,  and,  if  erring, 
to  help  them  reform,  are  the  special  tasks  of  the  sis- 
ters. The  Passionist  spirit  of  the  institute  may  be 
known  from  their  approved  rules.  "As  this  congre- 
gation is  affiliated  to  and  bears  the  same  name  as  the 
Congregation  of  Clerks  of  the  Most  Holy  Cross  and 
Passion  of  Jesus  Christ  .  .  .  let  them  in  a  particular 
manner  strive  to  keep  alive  in  their  hearts  the  memory 


of  Jesus  Crucified,  and  cultivate  an  ardent  and  tender 
devotion  to  His  most  holy  Passion  and  Death,  so  that 
they  may  imbibe  His  spirit,  learn  His  virtues,  and 
faithfully  imitate  them.  Although  the  Sisters  are  not 
bound,  as  are  the  above  named  Clerks,  by  a  special 
vow,  they  should,  nevertheless,  with  all  eagerness  pro- 
mote the  same  salutary  devotion  in  the  hearts  of  those 
whose  education  they  undertake"  (Rules,  ch.  I).  The 
sisters  have  founded  Houses  of  Refuge  and  Homes  for 
factory  girls;  they  also  teach  parochial  schools,  and 
have  boarding  schools  for  secondary  education.  They 
instruct  converts  and  others,  visit  the  sick,  and  per- 
form all  the  duties  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  and  Charity. 
Since  their  final  approbation  they  have  increased  rap- 
idly and  now  have  two  provinces  with  18  convents 
in  England,  3  in  Ireland,  and  3  in  Scotland,  2  train- 
ing colleges  for  teachers,  and  large  parochial  schools 
wherever  their  houses  are  established,  9  homes  for 
factory  girls;  the  sisters  number  430. 

A  similar  Society  was  established  in  Chili  by  the 
Passionists  a  few  years  ago  and  these  are  now,  by  their 
own  request,  to  be  aggregated  to  the  Anglo-Hibernian 
sisterhood.  Another  active  community  of  Passionist 
Sisters  was  established,  and  existed  in  Lourdes  until 
1903. 

A.  Devine. 

Passion  Music. — Precisely  when,  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  liturgy,  the  history  of  the  Passion  of  Our 
Lord  ceased,  during  Holy  Week,  to  be  merely  read  and 
became  a  solemn  recitation,  has  not  yet  been  ascer- 
tained. As  early  as  the  eighth  century  the  deacon  of 
the  Mass,  in  alb,  solemnly  declaimed,  in  front  of  the 
altar,  on  a  fixed  tone,  the  history  of  the  Passion.  The 
words  of  our  Lord  were,  however,  uttered  on  the  gos- 
pel tone,  that  is,  with  inflections  and  cadences.  The 
original  simplicity  of  having  the  whole  allotted  to  one 
person  gave  way  in  the  twelfth  century  to  a  division 
into  three  parts  assigned  to  three  different  persons,  the 
prie-st,  or  celebrant,  the  deacon,  and  the  sub-deacon. 
To  the  priest  were  assigned  the  words  of  our  Lord,  the 
deacon  assumed  the  role  of  the  Evangelist,  or  chro- 
nisla,  while  the  sub-deacon  represented  the  crowd,  or 
turl)a,  and  the  various  other  persons  mentioned  in  the 
narrative.  The  interrelation  of  the  alternating  voices, 
their  relative  pitch,  and  the  manner  of  interpreting  the 
part  allotted  to  each  have  come  down  to  us  and  may 
be  heard  in  Holy  Week  in  almost  any  city  church,  the 
only  change  since  the  early  times  being  that  all  three 
parts  are  now  generally  sung  by  priests.  The  juxta- 
posed melodic  phrases  extend  over  an  ambitus,  or 
compass  of  the  whole  of  the  fifth  and  two  tones  of  its 
plagal,  or  the  sixth  mode.  The  evangelist,  or  chronista, 
moves  between  the  tonic  and  the  dominant,  while  the 
suprema  vox,  representing  the  crowd,  etc.,  moves  be- 
tween the  dominant  and  the  upper  octave.  The  tones 
upon  which  the  words  of  our  Lord  are  uttered  are  the 
lower  tetra-chord  of  the  fifth  mode  with  two  tones  of 
thesixth.  Laterthefourth  tone  of  the  fifth  mode,  b,  was 
altered  into  b  flat,  to  avoid  the  tritonus  between  the 
tonic  and  the  fourth.  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages 
the  Passion  was  the  theme  most  frequently  treated  in 
mystery  plays  and  sacred  dramas.  'I'he  indispensable 
music  in  these  performances  was  either  the  plain  chant 
or  liturgical  melodies  or  religious  folk-songs.  It  was 
not  until  toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  that 
the  whole  narrative  received  harmonic  treatment. 

Jacobus  Hobrecht,  or  Obrecht  (14.50-1.505),  was  the 
first  composer,  so  far  as  is  known,  who  presented  the 
subject  in  the  form  of  an  extended  motet,  a  departure 
which  laid  the  foundation  for  a  rich  and  varied  litera- 
ture of  passion  music.  In  Obrecht's  composition  the 
three  melodic  phrases  are,  in  a  most  ingenious  manner, 
made  to  serve  as  canti  fermi ,  and,  by  skilful  combin- 
ing of  the  various  voices  and  letting  them  unite,  as  a 
rule,  only  on  the  utterances  of  the  iurba,  variety  is 
maintained.    The  work  must  have  become  known  in  a 


PASSION 


526 


PASSION 


comparatively  short  time,  for  it  soon  found  imitators, 
not  only  among  Catholic  composers,  of  almost  every 
country  in  Europe,  but  also  at  the  hands  of  those  in 
Germany,  who  joine<l  the  Reformation.  Besides  the 
choral,  or  motet,  form,  of  which  Obrecht's  work  has 
remained  the  type,  another  speries  of  setting  came 
into  vogue  in  which  the  three  original  chanters  were 
retained,  and  the  chorus  participation  was  mainly  con- 
fined to  the  utterances  of  the  lurha.  Both  forms  were 
cultivated  simultaneously,  according  to  the  predilec- 
tion of  the  composer,  for  almost  a  century  and  a  half. 
Among  the  more  noted  Catholic  masters  who  have 
left  settings  of  the  passion  texts  must  be  mentioned 
Metre  Jehan  (Jean  le  Cock,  d.  before  1543),  choir-mas- 
ter at  the  Court  of  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  who  wrote  a 
work  for  from  two  to  six  voices.  Cyprian  de  Rore  (b. 
1516),  left  a  setting  for  two,  four,  and  six  voices.  Lu- 
dovicus  Daser  (1525-89),  Orlandus  Lassus's  prede- 
cessor as  choir-master  at  the  ducal  Court  of  Bavaria 
wrote  one  for  four  voices.  Lassus  himself  gave  to  pos- 
terity four  different  interpretations  which  are  notable 
for  the  fact  that  the  master  frequently  substitutes  ori- 
ginal melodies  for  the  liturgical  ones  and  sometimes 
the  chorus  is  employed  to  give  expression  to  the  texts 
belonging  to  a  single  person.  The  turba  is  always  rep- 
resented by  a  five  part  chorus.  Probably  the  most 
important  musical  interpretations  of  this  text  are  the 
two  by  Tomas  Luis  da  Vittoria  (1540-1613).  Vit- 
toria  retains  the  plain-chant  melodies  for  single  per- 
sons and  makes  them  serve,  after  the  manner  of 
Obrecht,  as  caiiti  fermi  in  the  ensemble.  The  value  of 
these  works  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  for  more  than 
three  hundred  years  they  have  formed  part  of  the  rep- 
ertory of  the  Sistine  Chapel  choir  for  Holy  Week. 
Giovanni  Matteo  Asola  (d.  1609),  in  his  three  different 
settings,  ignored  the  traditional  custom  of  employing 
the  chorus  for  the  iurba  only,  but  used  it  indiscrimi- 
nately. The  Spanish  master,  Francisco  Guerrero 
(1527-99),  in  two  works,  is  quite  free  in  his  treatment 
and  replaces  the  Roman  by  Mozarabic  plain-chant 
melodies,  while  William  Byrd's  creation  for  soprano, 
alto,  and  tenor,  still  further  departs  from  the  accus- 
tomed form,  not  only  by  limiting  his  vocal  means  to 
the  three  high  voices,  but  also  by  substituting  for  the 
liturgical  melody  recitatives  of  his  own  invention,  all 
of  which  gives  the  composition  a  character  lyric  rather 
than  dramatic.  Jacobus  Gallus,  or  Jacob  Handl 
(1550-91),  wrote  three  settings,  one  for  four  and  five 
voices,  one  for  six,  and  the  third  for  eight  voices  in 
which,  in  a  general  way  he  follows  Obrecht's  model. 

The  passion  texts  seemed  to  have  particular  at- 
traction for  many  of  the  composers  who  cast  their  lot 
with  the  Reformation.  For  a  considerable  period  they 
adhered  in  their  manner  of  treatment  to  the  original 
Catholic  model,  inasmuch  as  they  used  the  Latin  text 
and  retained  the  liturgical  melodies.  Between  1520 
and  1.5.50,  the  Lutheran  Johannes  Galliculus  (Hjihnel) 
produced  at  Leipzig  a  work,  resembling  Obrecht's  in 
many  ways,  which  constitutes  the  beginning  of  a  long 
series  of  works  important  not  only  as  music,  but  more 
particularly  on  account  of  the  role  they  played  in  the 
development  of  Protestant  worship.  While  Joachi- 
mus  von  Burgk  (1.540-1610),  whose  real  name  was 
MoUer,  was  the  first  to  discard  the  Latin  text  and  com- 
pose passion  music  to  the  German  vernacular,  it  was 
Johann  Walther  (1496-1570),  Luther's  friend,  whose 
four  settings,  though  retaining  most  of  the  Catholic 
form,  voiced  more  than  any  other  works  the  new  spirit. 
They  retained  their  hold  upon  German  Protestants 
for  more  than  a  hundred  years.  Bartholomeus 
Gesius's  (1555-1613)  two  settings,  one  for  five,  the 
other  for  six  voices,  are  modelled  on  Obrecht  and  Gal- 
liculus, but  Christoforus  Demantius  (1567-1643)  in  a 
BIX  part  composition,  in  addition  to  adopting  the 
German  vernacular,  abandons  the  liturgical  for 
original  melodies  and  shows  those  chromatic  and 
dramatic  elements  which  find  expression  with  Hcin- 


rich  Schiitz  (1585-1672),  who,  in  his  epoch-making 
"Historia  der  frohhgen  und  siegrcichen  Auferstehung 
unseres  Herrn  Jesu  Christi",  for  from  two  to  nine 
voices,  abandons  the  fl  CO /)p('//(i  style  in  which  all  pre- 
vious passion  music  had  lieeii  written  and  calls  into 
service  stringed  instruments  and  a  figured  bass  to  be 
played  on  the  organ.  Johann  8cbastiani  (1622-83) 
anticipated  Schutz  by  the  employment  of  a  single 
violin  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  chorales  sung  by 
the  congregation  during  the  performance,  a  custom 
he  also  originated  and  which  became  such  a  great 
feature  in  later  Protestant  works,  but  it  was  Schiitz 
who  assigned  to  the  instruments  an  integral  part  in 
the  harmonic  structure. 

With  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  (1685-1750)  whose 
monument  al  work  ' '  Passion  according  to  St .  M  at  the  w  " 
for  soli,  eight  part  chorus,  a  choir  of  boys,  orchestra, 
and  organ  is  the  creation  of  a  great  genius  imbued  with 
profound  faith,  the  form  reaches  its  highest  develop- 
ment. Only  one  other  similar  work  by  a  Protes- 
tant writer,  Karl  Heinrich  Graun's  (1701-59)  "Tod 
Jesu",  has  enio}'ed  as  great  popularity  in  Protestant 
Germany.  Schiitz's  passion  music  as  arranged  for 
performance  by  Karl  Riedel,  Bach's  "Passion  ac- 
cording to  St.  Matthew",  and  Graun's  "Tod  Jesu" 
continue  to  be  to  non-Catholic  Germanj'  what  Han- 
del's "  Messiah"  still  is  to  the  English-speaking  world. 
While  the  source  resorted  to  by  non-Catholic  com- 
posers for  the  last  mentioned  great  works  seems  to 
have  been  exhausted,  no  similar  compositions  ap- 
pearing for  more  than  a  century,  three  Catholics  have 
essayed  the  form:  Joseph  Haydn  and  Th(''odore  Dubois 
have  interpreted  "The  Seven  Last  Words  on  the 
Cross"  and  Lorenzo  Perosi  has  set  to  music  the 
"Passion  according  to  St.  Mark",  but  these  composi- 
tions partake  of  the  form  of  the  oratorio.  Settings 
in  which  the  utterances  of  the  Iurba,  in  falso-bordone 
style,  alternate  with  the  liturgical  melodies  are  numer- 
ous. Among  the  more  noted  are  those  by  Caspar  Ett 
(1788-1847),  Ignatius  Mitterer,  Franz  Nekes,  Emil 
Nikel,  and  others. 

Spitta.  Die  PassionsmusiJcen  von  J.  Sebastian  Back  und  Hein- 
rich Schutz  (Hamburg,  1893);  Ambros,  Gesch.  der  Musik,  III 
(Leipzig,  1881) ;  Kade,  Die  iLltere  Passionskomposition  bis  zum 
Jahre  1631  (Gulcrsloh,  1893). 

Joseph  Otten. 


Passion  of  Christ,  Commemoration  of  the,  a 
feast  kept  on  the  Tuesday  after  Sexagesima.  Its  ob- 
ject is  the  devout  remembrance  and  honour  of  Christ's 
sufferings  for  the  redemption  of  mankind.  Whilst  the 
feast  in  honour  of  the  instruments  of  Christ's  Passion 
— the  Holy  Cross,  Lance,  Nails,  and  Crown  of  Thorns 
— called  "Arma  Christi",  originated  during  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  this  commemoration  is  of  more  recent  origin. 
It  appears  for  the  first  time  in  the  Breviary  of  Meissen 
(1517)  as  a  festum  simplex  for  15  Nov.  The  same 
Breviary  has  a  feast  of  the  Holy  Face  for  15  Jan.,  and 
of  the  Holy  Name  for  15  March  [Grotefend,  "Zeit- 
rechnung"  (Hanover,  1892),  II,  118  sqq.).  These 
feasts  disappeared  with  the  introduction  of  Lutheran- 
ism.  As  found  in  the  appendix  of  the  Roman  Brev- 
iary, it  was  initiated  by  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross  (d. 
177.5).  The  Office  was  composed  by  Thomas  Struz- 
zieri.  Bishop  of  Todi,  the  faithful  associate  of  St.  Paul. 
This  Office  and  the  corresponding  feast  were  approved 
by  Pius  VI  (1775-99)  for  the  Discalced  Clerics  of 
the  Holy  Cross  and  the  Passion  of  Christ  (commonly 
called  Passionists),  founded  by  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross. 
The  feast  is  celebrated  by  them  as  a  double  of  the  first 
class  with  an  octave  (Nilles,  "Kal.  man.",  II,  69).  At 
the  same  time  Pius  VI  approved  the  other  Offices  and 
feasts  of  the  Mysteries  of  Christ's  Passion:  the  feast  of 
the  Prayer  of  Our  Lord  in  the  Garden  (Tuesday  after 
Septuagesima) ;  the  Crown  of  Thorns  (Friday  after 
Ash-Wednesday) ;  the  Holy  Lance  and  Nails  (Friday 
after  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent) ;  and  for  the  following 


PASSION 


527 


PASSION 


Fridays;  the  feasts.  <>f  the  Holy  Winding  Sheet,  the 
Five  Wounds,  and  the  Precious  Blood  of  Christ  (cf. 
appendix  to  Roman  Brev.).  These  feasts  were,  at 
least  in  part,  readily  adopted  by  many  dioceses  and 
religious  orders.  Most  of  them  are  found  in  the  -pro- 
prium  of  Salerno  (a.  1798),  as  also  is  the  feast  of  the 
Passion  (a  double  of  the  first  class  with  an  octave). 
This  latter  feast  is  celebrated  with  an  octave  in  all  the 
dioceses  of  the  former  Kingdom  of  Naples.  On  30 
Aug.,  1809,  the  privilege  of  the  feast  (double  major) 
was  granted  to  the  Diocese  of  Leghorn  for  the  Friday 
before  Passion  Sunday.  In  the  old  St.  Louis  Ordo 
(1824)  it  was  assigned  to  Friday  after  Ash- Wednesday, 
which  day  it  still  retains  in  the  Baltimore  Ordo.  The 
seven  Offices  of  the  Mysteries  of  the  Passion  of  Christ 
were  adopted  by  the  City  of  Rome  in  1831  (Corresp. 
de  Rome,  1S48,  p.  30)  and  since  then  all  the  dioceses 
that  have  the  feast  of  the  Passion  of  Christ  in  their 
calendar  keep  it  on  the  Tuesday  after  Sexagesima. 
By  permission  of  Leo  XIII  (8  May,  1884)  the  octave 
in  the  calendar  of  the  Passionists  is  privileged  and 
admits  only  feasts  of  the  first  and  second  class.  By 
a  decree  of  5  July,  1883,  the  votive  Office  of  the  Pas- 
sion of  Christ  may  be  said  every  Friday  which  is  not 
taken  up  by  a  semi-double  or  a  double  Office,  except 
during  the  period  from  Passion  Sunday  to  Low  Sun- 
day and  from  18  December  to  13  January.  The  Office 
composed  by  Struzzieri  is  very  rich  and  full  of  pious 
sentiment;  the  hymns,  however,  are  rather  modern. 
NiLLEs.  Kal.  man.  (2nded.,  Innsbruck.  1897):  Kirchmlez..  a.  v. 
Ilymnus;  Schulte,  Die  Hymnen  des  Breviers  (2nd  ed.,  Paderborn, 
1906). 

Frederick  G.  Holweck. 

Passion  Offices. — The  recitation  of  these  offices, 
called  also  Of  the  Instruments  of  the  Passion,  was  first 
granted  collectively  to  the  Congregatio  Clericorum 
Passionis  D.N.J.C.,  or  the  Passionist  Fathers,  whose 
special  aim  is  to  spread  the  devotion  to  the  Sacred 
Passion  of  Our  Lord.  Soon  other  religious  commu- 
nities and  dioceses  obtained  a  similar  concession. 
They  were  granted  to  the  United  States  12  December, 
1840,  on  petition  of  the  Fourth  Provincial  Council  of 
Baltimore.  The  offices  are  affixed  to  the  days  speci- 
fied and  cannot  be  transferred.  In  case  of  special  in- 
dult,  as  in  the  United  States,  they  may  be  transferred, 
but  not  beyond  Lent;  they  have  the  rank  of  a  sec- 
ondary double  major  and  give  place  to  feasts  of  higher 
rank  and  to  primary  ones  of  the  same  rank.  The 
offices  are  (1)  For  Tue.sday  after  Septuagesima:  Of 
the  Prayer  of  Our  Lord  on  Mount  Olivet;  (2)  For 
Tuesday  after  Sexagesima:  Of  the  Passion;  (3)  First 
Friday  of  Lent:  Of  the  Crown  of  Thorns,  first  cele- 
brated on  the  occasion  of  the  solemn  introduction  of 
the  sacred  crown  into  Paris,  under  Louis  IX  in  1241 
and  thence  spread  into  Germany  and  France  (Nilles, 
11,95);  (4)  Second  Friday:  Of  the  Spear  and  Nails, 
permitted  by  Innocent  VI,  13  February,  1353  for 
Germany  and  Bohemia  at  the  request  of  Charles  IV 
(Nilles,  II,  122);  granted  to  some  places  for  Friday 
after  Low  Sunday;  (5)  Third  Friday:  Of  the  Winding- 
sheet,  first  allowed  1606  to  the  church  of  Chambcryin 
Savoy  by  Julius  II,  and  soon  extended  to  the  entire 
-kingdom  (Nilles,  II,  126);  (6)  Fourth  Friday:  Of  the 
Five  Holy  Wounds;  (7)  Fifth  Friday:  Of  the  Most 
Precious  Blood.  Besides  these  a  special  second  feast 
of  the  Precious  Blood  was  granted  to  the  world  for  the 
first  Sunday  of  July  by  Pius  IX,  10  Augu.st,  1849. 
Moreover,  by  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Rites  of  6  July,  1883,  Leo  XIII  permitted  the  reci- 
tation of  a  votive  Office  of  the  Passion  for  every  Fri- 
day not  impeded  according  to  rules  there  laid  down. 
The  Greeks  have  no  special  offices  of  the  Passion,  but 
on  the  night  between  Maundy  Thursday  and  Good 
Friday  they  hold  a  very  elaborate  series  of  exercises  in 
its  honour. 

Nilles,  Kalendarium  manunle  uiriusque  ecclesice,  II  (Innsbruck. 
1897);  Moroni,  Dizionario  (Venice,  1840-61),  XXXVII,  91-2. 


LXVI.  188-95.  LXVIII,  91-2;  Kerker  in  Kirchenlex.,  s.  v.  Dor- 
nenkrone;  Schrod,  ibid.,  s.  w.  Lame,  Sindoti. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Passion  of  Jesus  Christ,  Devotion  to  the.— The 
sufferings  of  Our  Lord,  which  culminated  in  His  death 
upon  the  cross,  seem  to  have  been  conceived  of  as  one 
inseparable  whole  from  a  very  early  period.  Even  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (i,  3)  St.  Luke  speaks  of  those 
to  whom  Christ  "shewed  himself  alive  after  his  pas- 
sion" (liera  rb  TraBdv  avToxi).  In  the  Vulgate  this  has 
been  rendered  posl  passioncm  suam,  and  not  only 
the  Reims  Testament  but  the  Anglican  Authorized 
and  Revised  Versions,  as  well  as  the  medieval  English 
translation  attributed  to  Wyclif,  have  retained  the 
word  "passion"  in  English.  Passio  also  meets  us  in 
the  same  sense  in  other  early  writings  (e.  g.  TertuUian, 
"Adv.  Marcion.",  IV,  40)  and  the  word  was  clearly 
in  common  use  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  as 
in  Cyprian,  Novatian,  and  Commodian.  The  last 
named  writes: 

"Hoc  Deus  hortatur,  hoc  lex,  hoc  passio  Christi 
Ut  resurrecturos  nos  credamus  in  novo  sseclo." 

St.  Paul  declared,  and  we  require  no  further  evidence 
to  convince  us  that  he  spoke  truly,  that  Christ  cruci- 
fied was  "unto  the  Jews  indeed  a  stumbling-block,  and 
unto  the  Gentiles  foolishness"  (I  Cor.,  i,  23).  The 
shock  to  Pagan  feeling,  caused  by  the  ignominy  of 
Christ's  Passion  and  the  seeming  incompatibility  of 
the  Divine  nature  with  a  felon's  death,  seems  not  to 
have  been  without  its  effect  upon  the  thought  of  Chris- 
tians themselves.  Hence,  no  doubt,  arose  that  prolific 
growth  of  heretical  Gnostic  or  Docetic  sects,  which 
denied  the  reality  of  the  man  Jesus  Christ  or  of  His 
sufferings.  Hence  also  came  the  tendency  in  the  early 
Christian  centuries  to  depict  the  countenance  of  the 
Saviour  as  youthful,  fair,  and  radiant,  the  very  an- 
tithesis of  the  vir  dolorum.  familiar  to  a  later  age  (cf. 
Weis  Libersdorf,  "Christus-  und  Apostel-bilder",  31 
sq.)  and  to  dwell  by  preference  not  upon  His  sufferings 
but  upon  His  works  of  mercifulness,  as  in  the  Good 
Shepherd  motive,  or  upon  His  works  of  power,  as  in 
the  raising  of  Lazarus  or  in  the  resurrection  figured  by 
the  history  of  Jonas. 

But  while  the  existence  of  such  a  tendency  to  draw 
a  veil  over  the  physical  side  of  the  Passion  may  readily 
be  admitted,  it  would  be  easy  to  exaggerate  the  effect 
produced  upon  Christian  feeling  in  the  early  centuries 
by  Pagan  ways  of  thought.  Harnack  goes  too  far 
when  he  declares  that  the  Death  and  Passion  of  Christ 
were  regarded  by  the  majority  of  the  Greeks  as  too 
sacred  a  mystery  to  be  made  the  subject  of  contempla- 
tion or  speculation,  and  when  he  declares  that  the  feel- 
ing of  the  early  Greek  Church  is  accurately  repre- 
sented in  the  following  passage  of  Goethe:  "We  draw 
a  veil  over  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  simply  because  we 
revere  them  so  deeply.  We  hold  it  to  be  reprehensible 
presumption  to  play,  and  trifle  with,  and  embellish 
those  profound  mysteries  in  which  the  Divine  depths 
of  suffering  lie  hidden,  never  to  rest  until  even  the 
noblest  seems  mean  and  tasteless"  (Harnack,  "His- 
tory of  Dogma",  tr..  Ill,  30G;  cf.  J.  Reil,  "Die  friih- 
christlichen  Darstellungen  der  Kreuzigung  Christi", 
5).  On  the  other  hand,  while  Harnack  speaks  with 
caution  and  restraint,  other  more  popular  writers  give 
themselves  to  reckless  generalizations  such  as  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  following  passage  from  Archdeacon 
Farrar:  "The  aspect",  he  says,  "in  which  the  early 
Christians  viewed  the  cross  was  that  of  triumph  and 
exultation,  never  that  of  moaning  and  misery.  It  was 
the  emblem  of  victory  and  of  rapture,  not  of  blood  or 
of  anguish."  (See  "The  Month",  May,  1895,  89.) 
Of  course  it  is  true  that  down  to  the  fifth  century  the 
specimens  of  Christian  art  that  have  been  preserved 
to  us  in  the  catacombs  and  elsewhere,  exhibit  no  traces 
of  any  sort  of  representation  of  the  crucifixion.    Even 


PASSION 


528 


PASSION 


the  simple  cross  is  rarely  found  before  the  time  of 
Constantino  (see  Cross),  and  when  the  figure  of  the 
Divine  \'ictim  comes  to  be  indicated,  it  at  first  appears 
most  commonly  under  some  symbolical  form,  e.  g. 
that  of  a  lamb,  and  there  is  no  attempt  as  a  rule 
to  represent  the  crucifixion  realistically.  Again,  the 
Christian  literature  which  has  survived,  whether 
Greek  or  Latin,  does  not  dwell  upon  the  details  of  the 
Passion  or  very  frequently  fall  back  upon  the  motive 
of  our  Saviour's  sufferings.  The  tragedy  known  as 
"Christus  Pations",  which  is  printed  with  the  works 
of  St.  Gregory  Nazianzus  and  was  formerly  attrib- 
uted to  him,  is  almost  certainly  a  work  of  much  later 
date,  probably  not  earlier  than  the  eleventh  century 
(see  Krumbacher,  "Byz.  Lit.",  746). 

In  spite  of  all  this  it  would  be  rash  to  infer  that  the 
Passion  was  not  a  favourite  subject  of  contemplation 
for  Christian  ascetics.  To  begin  with,  the  Apostolical 
writings  preserved  in  the  New  Testament  are  far  from 
leaving  the  sufferings  of  Christ  in  the  background  as 
a  motive  of  Christian  endeavour;  take,  for  instance, 
the  words  of  St.  Peter  (I  Pet.,  ii,  19,21,23):  "For  this 
is  thankworthy,  if  for  conscience  towards  God,  a  man 
endure  sorrows,  suffering  wrongfully  " ;  "  For  unto  this 
are  you  called:  because  Christ  also  suffered  for  us, 
leaving  you  an  example  that  you  should  follow  his 
steps";  "Who,  when  he  was  reviled,  did  not  revile", 
etc.;  or  again:  "Christ  therefore  having  suffered  in 
the  flesh,  be  you  also  armed  with  the  same  thought" 
(ibid.,  iv,  1).  So  St.  Paul  (Gal.,  ii,  19) :  "with  Christ  I 
am  nailed  to  the  cross.  And  I  live,  now  not  I;  but 
Christ  livethinme";  and(ibid.,  v,  24):  "they  that  are 
Christ's,  have  crucified  their  flesh,  with  the  vices  and 
concupiscences"  (cf.  Col.,  i,  24);  and  perhaps  most 
strikingly  of  all  (Gal.,  vi,  14):  "God  forbid  that  I 
should  glor3',  save  in  the  cross  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ;  by  whom  the  world  is  crucified  to  me,  and  I 
to  the  world."  Seeing  the  great  influence  that  the 
New  Testament  exercised  from  a  very  earh'  period 
upon  the  leaders  of  Christian  thought,  it  is  impos.sible 
to  believe  that  such  passages  did  not  leave  their  mark 
upon  the  devotional  practice  of  the  West,  though  it 
is  easy  to  discover  plausible  reasons  why  this  spirit 
should  not  have  displayed  itself  more  conspicuously 
in  literature.  It  certainly  manifested  itself  in  the 
devotion  of  the  martyrs  who  died  in  imitation  of  their 
Master,  and  in  the  spirit  of  martyrdom  that  charac- 
terized the  early  Church. 

Further,  w'e  do  actually  find  in  such  an  Apostolic 
Father  as  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  who,  though  a  Syr- 
ian by  birth,  wrote  in  Greek  and  was  in  touch  with 
Greek  culture,  a  very  continuous  and  practical  re- 
membrance of  the  Passion.  After  expressing  in  his 
letter  to  the  Romans  (cc.  iv,  ix)  his  desire  to  be  mar- 
tyred, and  by  enduring  many  forms  of  suffering  to 
prove  himself  the  true  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ,  the 
saint  continues:  "Him  I  seek  who  dies  on  our  behalf; 
Him  I  desire  who  rose  again  for  our  sake.  The  pangs 
of  a  new  birth  are  upon  me.  Suffer  me  to  receive  the 
pure  light.  When  I  am  come  thither  then  shall  I  be  a 
man.  Permit  me  to  be  an  imitator  of  the  Passion  of 
my  God.  If  any  man  hath  Him  within  himself,  let 
him  understand  what  I  desire,  and  let  him  have  fel- 
low-feeling with  me,  for  he  knoweth  the  things  which 
straiten  me."  And  again  he  says  in  his  letter  to  the 
Smyma;an8  (c.  iv) :  "near  to  the  sword,  near  to  God 
(i.  e.  Jesus  Christ),  in  company  with  wild  beasts,  in 
company  with  God.  Only  let  it  be  in  the  name  of 
Jmus  Christ.  So  that  we  may  suffer  together  with 
Him"  (eh  ri  (jvinraBtlv  ai5T(J!). 

Moreover,  t  aking  the  Syrian  Church  in  general — and 
rich  as  it  was  in  the  traditions  of  Jerusalem  it  was  far 
from  being  an  uninfluential  part  of  Christendom — we 
do  find  a  pronounced  and  even  emotional  form  of  de- 
votion to  the  PiLssion  established  at  an  early  period. 
Already  in  the  second  ccnturv  a  fragment  preserved 
to  us  of  St.  MeUto  of  Sardis  speaks  as  Father  Faber 


might  have  spoken  in  modern  times.  Aposf  rophisitig 
the  people  of  Israel,  he  says:  "Thou  slewest  thy  Lord 
and  He  was  lifted  up  upon  a  tree  and  a  tablet  was 
fixed  up  to  denote  who  He  was  that  was  put  to  fleath — 
And  who  was  this? — Listen  while  ye  tremble: — He  on 
whose  account  the  earth  quaked:  lie  tliat  suspciuled 
the  earth  was  hanged  up;  Hethat  lixed  the  heavens 
was  fixed  with  nails;  He  that  supported  the  earth  was 
sujiported  upon  a  tree;  the  Lord  was  exposed  to  ig- 
nominy with  a  naked  body;  God  put  to  death;  the 
King  of  Israel  slain  by  an  Israelitish  right  hand.  Ah! 
the  fresh  wickedness  of  the  fresh  murder!  The  Lord  was 
exposed  with  a  naked  body,  He  was  not  deemed 
worthy  even  of  covering,  but  in  order  that  He  might 
not  be  seen,  the  lights  were  turned  away,  and  the  day 
became  dark  because  they  were  slaying  God,  who  wiis 
naked  upon  the  tree"  (Cureton,  "Spicilcgium  Syria- 
cum",  55). 

No  doubt  the  Syrian  and  Jewish  temperament  was 
an  emotional  temperament,  and  the  tone  of  their  lit- 
erature may  often  remind  us  of  the  Celtic.  But  in 
any  case  it  is  certain  that  a  most  realistic  presentation 
of  Our  Lortl's  sufferings  found  favour  with  the  Fathers 
of  the  Syrian  Church  apparently  from  the  beginning. 
It  would  be  easy  to  make  long  quotations  of  this  kind 
from  the  works  of  St.  Kphraem,  St.  Isaac  of  Antioch, 
and  St.  James  of  Sarugh.  Zingerle  in  the  "Thcolo- 
gische  Quartalschrift"  (1S70  and  1871)  has  collected 
many  of  the  most  striking  passages  from  the  last  two 
writers.  In  all  this  literat\ire  we  find  a  rather  turgid 
Oriental  imagination  emhniidering  almost  every  de- 
tail of  the  history  of  the  Passion.  Christ's  elevation 
upon  the  cross  is  likened  by  Isaac  of  Antioch  to  the 
action  of  the  stork,  which  builds  its  nest  upon  the  tree- 
tops  to  be  safe  from  the  insidious  approach  of  the 
snake;  while  the  crown  of  thorns  suggests  to  him  a 
wall  with  which  the  safe  asylum  of  that  nest  is  sur- 
rounded, protecting  all  the  children  of  God  who  are 
gathered  in  the  nest  from  the  talons  of  the  hawk  or 
other  winged  foes  (Zingerle,  ibid.,  1870,  108).  More- 
over St.  Ephraem,  who  wrote  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
fourth  century,  is  earlier  in  date  and  even  more  copi- 
ous and  realistic  in  his  minute  study  of  the  physical 
details  of  the  Passion.  It  is  difficult  to  convey  in 
a  short  quotation  any  true  impression  of  the  effect 
produced  by  the  long-sustained  note  of  lamentation,  in 
which  the  orator  and  poet  follows  up  his  theme.  In 
the  Hymns  on  the  Pas.sion  (Ephraem,  "  Syri,  Hymni  et 
Sermones,"  ed.  Lamy,  I)  the  writer  moves  hke  a  devout 
pilgrim  from  scene  to  scene,  and  from  object  to  object, 
finding  everywhere  new  motives  for  tenderness  and 
compassion,  while  the  seven  "Sermons  for  Holy 
Week"  might  both  for  their  spirit  and  treatment  have 
been  penned  bj'  any  medieval  mystic.  "Glory  be  to 
Him,  how  much  he  suffered!"  is  an  exclamation  which 
bursts  from  the  preacher's  lips  from  time  to  time.  To 
illustrate  the  general  tone,  the  following  passage  from 
a  description  of  the  scourging  must  suffice: 

"After  many  vehement  outcries  against  Pilate,  the 
all-mighty  One  was  scourged  like  the  meanest  crim- 
inal. Surely  there  must  have  been  commotion  and 
horror  at  the  sight.  Let  the  heavens  and  earth  stand 
awestruck  to  behold  Him  who  swayeth  the  rod  of  fire. 
Himself  smitten  with  scourges,  to  behold  Him  who 
spread  over  the  earth  the  veil  of  the  .skies  and  who  set 
fast  the  foundations  of  the  mountains,  who  poised  the 
earth  over  the  waters  and  sent  down  the  blazing  light- 
ning-flash, now  beaten  by  infamous  wretches  over  a 
stone  pillar  that  His  own  word  had  created.  They, 
indeed,  stretched  out  His  limbs  and  outraged  Him 
with  mockeries.  A  man  whom  He  had  formed  wielded 
the  scourge.  He  who  su.stains  all  creatures  with  His 
might  submitted  His  back  to  their  stripes;  He  who  is 
the  Father's  right  arm  yielded  His  own  arms  to  be  ex- 
tended. The  pillar  of  ignominy  was  embraced  by 
Him  who  bears  up  and  sustains  the  heaven  and  the 
earth  in  all  their  splendour"  (Lamy,  1, 511  sq.).    The 


PASSION 


529 


PASSION 


same  strain  is  continued  over  several  pages,  and 
amongst  otlicr  quaint  fancies  St.  Ephraem  remarks: 
"The  very  column  must  have  quivered  as  if  it  were 
alive,  the  cold  stone  must  have  felt  that  the  Master 
was  bound  to  it  who  had  given  it  its  being.  The  col- 
umn shuddered  knowing  that  the  Lord  of  all  creatures 
was  being  scourged".  .And  he  adds,  as  a  marvel, 
witnessed  even  in  his  own  day,  that  the  "column  had 
contracted  with  fear  beneath  the  Body  of  Christ". 

In  the  devotional  atmosphere  represented  by  such 
contemplations  as  these,  it  is  easy  to  comprehend  the 
scenes  of  touching  emotion  depicted  by  the  pilgrim 
lady  of  Galicia  who  visited  Jerusalem  (if  Dr.  Mees- 
ter's  protest  may  be  safely  neglected)  towards  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century.  At  Gethsemane  she  describes 
how  "that  passage  of  the  Gospel  is  read  where  the 
Lord  was  apprehended,  and  when  this  passage  has 
been  read  there  is  such  a  moaning  and  groaning  of  all 
the  people,  with  weeping,  that  the  groans  can  be 
heard  almost  at  the  city".  While  during  the  three 
hours'  ceremony  on  Good  Friday  from  midday  onwards 
we  are  told:  "At  the  several  lections  and  prayers 
there  is  such  emotion  displayed  and  lamentation  of 
all  the  people  as  is  wonderful  to  hear.  For  there  is  no 
one,  great  or  small,  who  does  not  weep  on  that  day 
during  those  three  hours,  in  a  way  that  cannot  be 
imagined,  that  the  Lord  should  have  suffered  such 
things  for  us"  (Peregrinatio  Sylviae  in  "Itinera  Hier- 
osolymitana",  ed.  Geyer,  87,  S9).  It  is  difficult  not  to 
suppose  that  this  example  of  the  manner  of  honouring 
Our  Saviour's  Passion,  which  was  traditional  in  the 
very  scenes  of  those  sufferings,  did  not  produce  a 
notable  impression  upon  Western  Europe.  The  lady 
from  Galicia,  whether  we  call  her  Syhda,  ^theria,  or 
Egeria,  was  but  one  of  the  vast  crowd  of  pilgrims  who 
streamed  to  Jerusalem  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  tone  of  St.  Jerome  (see  for  instance  the  letters  of 
Paula  and  Eustochium  to  Marcella  in  A.  D.  38(5;  P.  L., 
XXII,  491)  is  similar,  and  St.  Jerome's  words  pene- 
trated wherever  the  Latin  language  was  spoken.  An 
early  Christian  prayer,  reproduced  by  Wessely  (Les  plus 
anciens  mon.  de  Chris.,  206),  shows  the  same  spirit. 

We  can  hardly  doubt  that  soon  after  the  relics  of  the 
True  Cross  had  been  carried  by  devout  worshippers 
into  all  Christian  lands  (we  know  the  fact  not  only  from 
the  statement  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  himself  but  also 
from  inscriptions  found  in  North  Africa  only  a  little 
later  in  date)  that  some  ceremonial  analogous  to  our 
modern  "adoration"  of  the  Cross  upon  Good  Friday 
was  introduced,  in  imitation  of  the  similar  veneration 
paid  to  the  relic  of  the  True  Cross  at  Jerusalem.  It 
was  at  this  time  too  that  the  figure  of  the  Crucified 
began  to  be  depicted  in  Christian  art,  though  for  many 
centuries  any  attempt  at  a  realistic  presentment  of 
the  sufferings  of  Christ  was  almost  unknown.  Even 
in  Gregory  of  Tours  (De  Gloria  Mart.)  a  picture  of 
Christ  upon  the  cross  seems  to  be  treated  as  something 
of  a  novelty.  Still  such  hymns  as  the  "Pange  lingua 
gloriosi  prailium  certaminis",  and  the  "Vexilla  regis", 
both  by  Venantius  Fortunatus  (c.  570),  clearly  mark  a 
growing  tendency  to  dwell  upon  the  Passion  as  a  sepa- 
rate object  of  contemplation.  The  more  or  less  dra- 
matic recital  of  the  Passion  by  three  deacons  represent- 
ing the  "Chronista",  "Christus",  and  "Synagoga", 
in  the  Office  of  Holy  Week  probably  originated  at  the 
same  period,  and  not  many  centuries  later  we  begin  to 
find  the  narratives  of  the  Passion  in  the  Four  Evangel- 
ists copied  separately  into  books  of  devotion.  This, 
for  example,  is  the  case  in  the  ninth-century  English 
collection  known  as  "the  Book  of  Cerne".  An  eighth- 
century  collection  of  devotions  (MS.  Harley  2965) 
contains  pages  connecterl  with  the  incidents  of  the 
Passion.  In  the  tenth  century  the  Cursus  of  the  Holy 
Cross  was  added  to  the  monastic  Office  (see  Bishop, 
"Origin  of  the  Prymer",  p.  x.xvii,  n.). 

Still  more  striking  in  its  revelation  of  the  develop- 
ments of  devotional  imagination  is  the  existence  of 
XL— 34 


such  a  vernacular  poem  as  Cynewulf's  "Dream  of  the 
Hood  ",  in  which  the  tree  of  the  cross  is  conceived  of  as 
telling  its  own  story.  A  portion  of  this  Anglo-Saxon 
poem  still  stands  engraved  in  runic  letters  upon  the 
celebrated  Ruthwell  Cross  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland. 
The  italicized  lines  in  the  following  represent  portions 
of  the  poem  which  can  still  be  read  upon  the  stone: 

I  had  power  all 

his  foes  to  fell, 

but  yet  I  stood  fast. 

The7i  the  young  hero  prepared  himself, 

That  was  Almighty  God, 

Strong  and  firm  of  mood, 

he  mounted  the  lofty  cross 

courageously  in  the  sight  of  many, 

when  he  willed  to  redeem  mankind. 

I  trembled  when  the  hero  embraced  me, 

yet  dared  I  not  bow  down  to  earth, 

fall  to  the  bosom  of  the  ground, 

but  I  was  compelled  to  stand  fast, 

a  cross  was  I  reared, 

/  raised  the  powerful  King 

The  lord  of  the  heavens, 

I  dared  not  fall  down. 

They  pierced  me  w^th  dark  nails, 

on  me  are  the  wounds  visible. 
Still  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  St.  Bernard  and  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi  that  the  full  developments  of  Chris- 
tian devotion  to  the  Passion  were  reached.  It  seems 
highly  probable  that  this  was  an  indirect  result  of  the 
preaching  of  the  Crusades,  and  the  consequent  awaken- 
ing of  the  minds  of  the  faithful  to  a  deeper  realization 
of  all  the  sacred  memories  represented  by  Calvary  and 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  When  Jerusalem  was  recaptured 
by  the  Saracens  in  1 187,  worthy  Abbot  Samson  of  Bury 
St.  Edmunds  was  so  deeply  moved  that  he  put  on  hair- 
cloth and  renounced  flesh  meat  from  that  day  forth — 
and  this  was  not  a  solitary  case,  as  the  enthusiasm 
evoked  by  the  Crusades  conclusively  shows. 

Under  any  circumstances  it  is  noteworthy  that  the 
first  recorded  instance  of  stigmata  (if  we  leave  out  of 
account  the  doubtful  case  of  St.  Paul)  was  that  of  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi.  Since  his  time  there  have  been  over 
320  similar  manifestations  which  have  reasonable 
claims  to  be  considered  genuine  (Poulain,  "Graces  of 
Interior  Prayer",  tr.,  175).  Whether  we  regard  these 
as  being  wholly  supernatural  or  partly  natural  in  their 
origin,  the  comparative  frequency  of  the  phenomenon 
seems  to  point  to  a  new  attitude  of  Catholic  mysticism 
in  regard  to  the  Passion  of  Christ,  which  has  only 
established  itself  since  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  testimony  of  art  points  to  a  similar 
conclusion.  It  was  only  at  about  this  same  period 
that  realistic  and  sometimes  extravagantly  contorted 
crucifixes  met  with  any  general  favour.  The  people, 
of  course,  lagged  far  behind  the  mystics  and  the  reli- 
gious orders,  but  they  followed  in  their  wake;  and  in 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  we  have  innu- 
merable illustrations  of  the  adoption  by  the  laity  of 
new  practices  of  piety  to  honour  Our  Lord's  Passion. 
One  of  the  most  fruitful  and  practical  was  that  type  of 
spiritual  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Places  of  Jerusalem, 
which  eventually  crystallized  into  what  is  now  known 
to  us  as  the  "Way  of  the  Cross"  (q.  v.).  The 
"Seven  Falls"  and  the  "Seven  Bloodsheddings"  of 
Christ  may  be  regarded  as  variants  of  this  form  of 
devotion.  How  truly  genuine  was  the  piety  evoked 
in  an  actual  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land  is  made  very 
clear,  among  other  documents,  by  the  narrative  of  the 
journeys  of  the  Dominican  Felix  Fabri  at  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  and  the  immense  labour  taken 
to  obtain  exact  measurements  shows  how  deeply 
men's  hearts  were  stirred  by  even  a  counterfeit  pil- 
grimage. Equally  to  this  period  belong  both  the 
popularity  of  the  Little  Offices  of  the  Cross  and  "De 
Passione",  which  are  found  in  so  many  of  the  Horae, 
manuscript  and  printed,  and  also  the  introduction  of 


PASSION 


&30 


PASSION 


new  Masses  in  honour  of  the  Passion,  such  for  example 
as  those  which  are  now  almost  universally  celebrated 
upon  the  Frid;iys  of  Lent.  Lastly,  an  inspection  of  the 
prayer-books  compiled  towards  the  close  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  for  the  use  of  the  laity,  such  as  the  "Horse 
Beata'  Maria;  Virginis",  the  "Hortulus  Anima;",  the 
"Paradisus  Anima;"  etc.,  shows  the  existence  of  an 
immense  number  of  prayers  either  connected  with 
incidents  in  the  Passion  or  addressed  to  Jesus  Christ 
upon  the  Cross.  The  best  known  of  these  perhaps 
were  the  fifteen  prayers  attributed  to  St.  Bridget,  and 
described  most  commonly  in  English  as  "the  Fifteen 
O's",  from  the  exclamation  with  which  each  began. 

In  modern  times  a  vast  literature,  and  also  a  hyra- 
nology,  has  grown  up  relating  directly  to  the  Passion  of 
Christ.  Many  of  the  innumerable  works  produced  in 
the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries 
have  now  been  completely  forgotten,  though  some 
books  like  the  medieval"  Life  of  Christ "  by  the  Carthu- 
sian Ludolphus  of  Saxony,  the  "Sufferings  of  Christ" 
by  Father  Thomas  of  Jesus,  the  Carmelite  Guevara's 
"Mount  of  Calvary",  or  "the  Passion  of  Our  Lord" 
by  Father  de  La  Palma,  S.J.,  are  still  read.  Though 
such  writers  as  Justus  Lipsius  and  Father  Gretser,  S.J., 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  Dom  Calmet, 
O.S.B.,  in  the  eighteenth,  did  much  to  illustrate  the 
history  of  the  Passion  from  historical  sources,  the  gen- 
eral tendency  of  all  devotional  literature  was  to  ignore 
Buch  means  of  information  as  were  provided  by  archa;- 
ology  and  science,  anfl  to  turn  rather  to  the  revelations 
of  the  mystics  to  supplement  the  Gospel  records. 

Amongst  these,  the  Revelations  of  St.  Bridget  of 
Sweden,  of  Maria  Agreda,  of  Marina  de  Escobar  and, 
in  comparatively  recent  times,  of  Anne  Catherine 
Emmerich  are  the  most  famous.  Within  the  last  fifty 
years,  however,  there  has  been  a  reaction  against  this 
procedure,  a  reaction  due  probably  to  the  fact  that  so 
many  of  these  revelations  plainly  contradict  each 
other,  for  example  on  the  question  whether  the  right 
or  left  shoulder  of  Our  Lord  was  wounded  by  the 
weight  of  the  cross,  or  whether  Our  Saviour  was  nailed 
to  the  cross  standing  or  lying.  In  the  best  modern 
lives  of  Our  Saviour,  such  as  those  of  Didon,  Fouard, 
and  Le  Camus,  every  use  is  made  of  subsidiary  sources 
of  information,  not  neglecting  even  the  Talmud.  The 
workofPereOllivier,  "The Passion"  (tr.,  190.5),  follows 
the  same  course,  but  in  many  widely-read  devotional 
works  upon  this  subject,  for  example:  Faber,  "The 
Foot  of  the  Cross";  Gallwey,  "The  Watches  of  the 
Passion";  Coleridge,  " Passiontide "  etc.;  Groenings, 
"Hist,  of  the  Passion"  (Eng.  tr);  Belser,  D'Gesch. 
d.  Leidens  d.  Hernn;  Grimm,  " Leidengeschichte 
Christi",  the  writers  seem  to  have  judged  that  his- 
torical or  critical  research  was  inconsistent  with  the 
aecetical  purpose  of  their  works. 

Herbert  Thurston. 

Passion  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the  Four  Gospels. — 

We  have  in  the  Gospels  four  separate  accounts  of  the 
Passion  of  Our  Lord,  each  of  which  supplements  the 
others,  so  that  only  from  a  careful  examination  and 
comparison  of  all  can  we  arrive  at  a  full  and  clear 
knowledge  of  the  whole  story.  The  first  three  Gospels 
resemble  each  other  very  closely  in  their  general  plan, 
80  closely  indeed  that  some  sort  of  literary  connexion 
among  them  may  be  !is.sumed;  but  the  fourth  Gospel, 
although  the  writer  was  evidently  familiar  at  least 
with  the  general  tenor  of  the  story  told  by  the  other 
three,  gives  us  an  independent  narrative. 

If  we  begin  by  marking  in  any  one  of  the  Synoptic 
Gospels  those  verse.s  which  occur  in  substance  in  both 
of  the  other  two,  and  then  read  these  verses  contin- 
ously,  we  shall  find  that  we  have  in  them  a  brief  but  a 
complete  narrative  of  the  whole  passion  story.  There 
are  of  course  very  few  details,  but  all  the  essentials 
of  the  story  are  there.  In  St.  Mark's  Gospel  the 
marked  verses  will  be  as  follows:  xiv,  1,  10-14,  1&-18, 


21-23,  26,  30,  32,  35-«,  41,  43,  45,  47-9,  53-4,  65  to 
XV,  2,  9,  11-15,  21-2,  26-7,  31-33,  .37-9,  41,  43.  46-7. 
Verbal  alterations  would  be  required  to  make  the 
verses  run  consecutively.  Sometimes  the  division 
will  not  quite  coincide  with  the  verse.  It  is  po.ssible 
that  this  nucleus,  out  of  which  our  present  accounts 
seem  to  have  grown,  represents  more  or  less  exactly 
some  original  and  more  ancient  narrative,  whether 
written  or  merely  oral  matters  little,  compiled  in  the 
earliest  days  at  Jerusalem.  This  original  narrative, 
so  far  as  we  can  judge  from  what  is  common  to  all  the 
three  Synoptics,  included  the  betrayal,  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  Paschal  Supper,  the  Last  Supper  with  a 
brief  account  of  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist,  the 
Agony  in  the  Garden,  the  arrest  and  taking  of  Our 
Lord  before  Caiphas,  with  His  examination  there 
and  condemnation  for  blasphemy.  Then  follow 
Peter's  denials,  and  the  taking  of  Our  Lord  before 
Pilate.  Next  comes  Pilate's  question:  "Art  thou  the 
king  of  the  Jews?"  and  Our  Lord's  answer,  "Thou 
eayest  it",  with  Pilate's  endeavour  to  set  Him  free  on 
account  of  the  feast,  frustrated  by  the  demand  of  the 
people  for  Barabbas.  After  this  Pilate  weakly  yields 
to  their  in.sistence  and,  having  scourged  Jesus,  hands 
Him  over  to  be  crucified.  The  story  of  the  Crucifix- 
ion itself  is  a  short  one.  It  is  confined  to  the  casting 
of  lots  for  the  garments,  the  accusation  over  the  head, 
the  mocking  of  the  chief  priests,  the  supernatural 
darkness,  and  the  rending  of  the  Temple  veil.  After 
the  death  we  have  the  confession  of  the  centurion,  the 
begging  of  the  body  of  Jesus  from  Pilate,  and  the 
burial  of  it,  wrapped  in  a  clean  linen  cloth,  in  Joseph's 
new  tomb  hewn  out  in  the  rock  close  by. 

In  order  to  distinguish  what  is  pecuhar  to  eachEvan- 
gelist  we  must  notice  a  remarkable  series  of  additional 
passages  which  are  found  both  in  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Mark.  There  are  no  similar  coincidences  between  St. 
Matthew  and  St.  Luke,  or  between  St.  Mark  and 
St.  Luke.  These  passages  taken  as  they  occur  in  St. 
Mark,  are  as  follows:  Mark,  xiv,  15,  19-20,  24-28,  31, 
33-4,  37-40,  42,  44,  46,  50-2,  55-S,  6a  4,  xv,  3-8,  10, 
16-20,  23-4,  29-30,  34-6,  40,  42.  They  have  the 
character  rather  of  expansions  than  of  additions.  Still 
some  of  them  are  of  considerable  importance,  for  in- 
stance, the  mocking  of  Our  Lord  by  the  soldiers  in  the 
Prajtorium,  and  the  cry  from  the  Cross,  "My  God, 
my  God,  why  hast  thou  forsaken  me?"  Possibly 
this  series  also  formed  part  of  an  original  narrative 
omitted  by  St.  Luke,  who  had  a  wealth  of  special  infor- 
mation on  the  Passion.  Another  explanation  would 
be  that  St.  Mark  expanded  the  original  narrative, 
and  that  his  work  was  then  used  by  St.  Matthew. 

The  passages  found  in  St.  Mark  alone  are  quite  un- 
important. The  story  of  the  young  man  who  fled 
naked  has  very  generally  been  felt  to  be  a  personal 
reminiscence.  Mark  alone  speaks  of  the  Temple  as 
"made  with  hands",  and  he  is  also  the  only  one  to 
note  that  the  false  witnesses  were  not  in  agreement  one 
with  another.  He  mentions  also  that  Simon  the  Cyre- 
nian  was  "father  of  Alexander  and  of  Rufus",  no 
doubt  because  these  names  were  well  known  to  those 
for  whom  he  was  writing.  Lastly,  he  is  the  only  one 
who  records  the  fact  that  Pilate  asked  for  proof  of  the 
death  of  Christ.  In  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  the  peculi- 
arities are  more  numerous  and  of  a  more  distinctive 
character.  Naturally  in  his  Gospel,  written  for  a 
Jewish  circle  of  readers,  there  is  insistence  on  the  posi- 
tion of  Jesus  as  the  Christ.  There  are  several  fresh 
episodes  possessing  distinctive  and  marked  character- 
istics. They  include  the  washing  of  Pilate's  hands, 
the  dream  of  Pilate's  wife,  and  the  resurrection  of  the 
saints  after  the  death  of  Christ,  with  the  earthquake 
and  the  rending  of  the  tombs.  The  special  features 
by  which  St,  Luke's  passion  narrative  is  distinguished 
are  very  numerous  and  important.  Just  as  St. 
Matthew  emphasizes  the  Messianic  character,  so 
St.   Luke  lays  stress  on  the  universal  love  mani- 


PASSION 


531 


PASSION 


fested  by  our  Lord,  and  sets  forth  the  Passion  as  the 
great  act  by  which  the  redemption  of  mankind  was 
accomplished.  He  is  the  only  one  who  records  the 
statement  of  Pilate  that  he  found  no  cause  in  Jesus; 
and  also  the  examination  before  Herod.  He  alone 
tells  us  of  the  angel  who  came  to  strengthen  Jesus  in 
his  agony  in  the  garden,  and,  if  the  reading  is  right, 
of  the  drops  of  blood  which  mingled  with  the  sweat 
which  trickled  down  upon  the  ground.  To  St.  Luke 
again  we  owe  our  knowledge  of  no  less  than  three  of 
the  seven  words  from  the  Cross:  the  prayer  for  His 
murderers;  the  episode  of  the  penitent  thief;  and  the 
last  utterance  of  all,  "Father,  into  thy  hands  I  com- 
mend my  spirit".  Finally  it  is  St.  Luke  alone  who 
tells  us  of  the  effect  produced  upon  the  spectators, 
who  so  short  a  time  before  had  been  so  full  of  hatred, 
and  how  they  returned  home  "striking  their  breasts". 

The  traditional  character  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  as 
having  been  written  at  a  later  date  than  the  other 
three,  and  after  they  had  become  part  of  the  religious 
possession  of  Christians  generally,  is  entirely  borne 
out  by  a  study  of  the  passion.  Although  almost  all 
the  details  of  the  story  are  new,  and  the  whole  is 
drawn  up  on  a  plan  owing  nothing  to  the  common 
basis  of  the  Synoptists,  yet  a  knowledge  of  what  they 
had  written  is  presupposed  throughout,  and  is  almost 
necessary  before  this  later  presentment  of  the  Gospel 
can  be  fully  understood.  Most  important  events, 
fully  related  in  the  earlier  Gospels,  are  altogether 
omitted  in  the  Fourth,  in  a  way  which  would  be  very 
perplexing  had  we  not  thus  the  key.  For  instance, 
there  is  no  mention  of  the  institution  of  the  Holy 
Eucharist,  the  agony  in  the  garden,  or  the  trial  and 
condemnation  before  Caiphas.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  have  a  great  number  of  facts  not  contained  in  the 
Synoptists.  For  instance,  the  eagerness  of  Pilate  to 
release  our  Lord  and  his  final  yielding  only  to  a  definite 
threat  from  the  Jewish  leaders;  the  presence  of  our 
Lady  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross,  and  Jesus'  last  charge  to 
her  and  to  St.  John.  Most  important  of  all  perhaps,  is 
the  piercing  of  the  side  by  the  soldier's  spear,  and  the 
flowing  forth  of  blood  and  water.  It  is  St.  John  alone, 
again,  who  tells  us  of  the  order  to  break  the  legs  of  all, 
and  that  Jesus  Christ's  legs  were  not  broken,  because 
he  was  already  dead. 

There  seems  at  first  sight  a  discrepancy  between  the 
narrative  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  and  that  of  the  Syiiop- 
tists,  namely,  as  to  the  exact  day  of  the  crucifixion, 
which  involves  the  question  whether  the  Last  Supper 
was  or  was  not,  in  the  strict  sense,  the  Paschal  meal.  If 
we  had  the  Synoptists  only  we  should  almost  certainly 
decide  that  it  was,  for  they  speak  of  preparing  the 
Pasch,  and  give  no  hint  that  the  meal  which  they  de- 
scribe was  anything  else.  But  St.  John  seems  to 
labour  to  show  that  the  Paschal  meal  itself  was  not  to 
be  eaten  till  the  next  day.  He  points  out  that  the 
Jews  would  not  enter  the  court  of  Pilate,  because  they 
feared  pollution  which  might  prevent  them  from  eat- 
ing the  Pasch.  He  is  so  clear  that  we  can  hardly  mis- 
take his  meaning,  and  certain  passages  in  the  Synop- 
tists seem  really  to  point  in  the  same  direction. 
Joseph,  for  instance,  was  able  to  buy  the  linen  and  the 
spices  for  the  burial,  which  would  not  have  been  pos- 
sible on  the  actual  feast-day.  Moreover,  one  passage, 
which  at  first  sight  seems  strongest  in  the  other  direc- 
tion, has  quite  another  meaning  when  the  reading  is  cor- 
rected. "  With  desire  I  have  desired",  said  Jesus  to  His 
Apostles,  "to  eat  this  pasch  with  you,  before  I  suffer. 
For  I  say  to  you,  that  from  this  time  I  will  not  eat  it, 
till  it  be  fulfilled  in  the  kingdom  of  God"  (Luke,  xxii, 
15).  When  the  hour  for  it  had  fully  come  He  would 
have  been  already  dead,  the  type  would  have  passed 
away,  and  the  Kingdom  of  God  would  have  already 
come.  ARTHaH  S.  Barnes. 

Passion  Plays. — The  modem  drama  does  not 
originate  in  the  ancient,  but  in  the  religious  plays 


of  the  Middle  Ages,  themselves  an  outcome  of  the 
liturgy  of  the  Church.  Ecclesiastical  worship  was 
thoroughly  dramatic,  particularly  the  Holy  Mass, 
with  its  progressive  action,  its  dialogue  between  the 
priests  and  their  ministers  at  the  altar,  or,  on  feast- 
days,  between  the  officiating  priest  and  his  assistants, 
with  the  choir  of  singers,  and  the  people.  Often 
— e.  g.  at  Christmas,  Epiphany,  and  Easter — the 
text  of  the  Gospel  called  for  a  variety  of  roles.  The 
celebration  of  the  feasts  was  as  rich  and  varied  as 
they  were  numerous;  poetry  and  music,  in  particular, 
helped  to  impress  properly  on  the  laity  the  full  signifi- 
cance of  the  great  events  commemorated.  The  Ben- 
edictines of  St.  Gall,  in  Switzerland,  in  the  tenth  cen- 
tury wrote  sequences,  hymns,  litanies,  and  tropes  and 
set  them  to  music.  The  tropes — elaborations  of  parts 
of  the  Liturgy,  particularly  the  Introit,  fine  musical 
settings — found  universal  acceptance  and  remained  in 
use  in  various  forms  until  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  These  tropes  were  dramatic  in  construction 
and,  as  their  musical  settings  prove,  were  sung  alter- 
nately by  two  choirs  of  men  and  boys,  or  by  two  half- 
choirs.  The  history  of  the  ecclesiastical  drama 
begins  with  the  trope  sung  as  Introit  of  the  Mass  on 
Easter  Sunday.  It  has  come  down  to  us  in  a  St. 
Gall  manuscript  dating  from  the  time  of  the  monk 
Tutilo  (tenth  century). 

The  conversation  held  between  the  holy  women  and 
the  angels  at  the  sepulchre  of  our  Lord  forms  the  text 
of  this  trope,  which  is  comprised  in  the  four  sentences: 
"Quem  qua;ritis  in  sepulchro,  o  christicote? — Jesum 
Nazarenum,  o  ccclicolae — Non  est  hie.  Surrexit, 
sicut  pra^dixerat.  Itenuntiate,  quia  surrexit  de  sepul- 
chro.— Resurrexi,  postquam  factus  homo,  tua  jussa 
patcrna  peregi." — The  first  three  sentences  are  found 
in  many  liturgical  books  dating  from  the  tenth  to  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  trope,  however,  did  not 
develop  into  a  dramatic  scene,  until  it  was  brought 
into  connexion  with  the  Descent  from  the  Cross, 
widely  commemorated  in  Continental  monasteries, 
but  which  appears  first  in  a  Ritual  of  English  origin, 
attributed  to  St.  Dunstan  (967).  In  giving  directions 
for  public  services,  the  Ritual  refers  to  this  custom, 
particularly  as  observed  at  Fleury-sur-Loire  and 
Ghent.  On  Good  Friday,  after  the  morning  services, 
a  crucifix  swathed  in  cloth  was  laid  in  a  sort  of  grave 
arranged  near  the  altar,  where  it  remained  until  Easter 
morning.  On  Easter  morning,  after  the  third  re- 
sponsory  of  the  Matins,  one  or  two  clerics  clothed  in 
albs,  and  carrying  ])alms  in  their  hands,  went  to  the 
grave  and  seated  themselves  there.  Thereupon  three 
other  priests  vested  in  copes,  and  carrying  censers 
representing  the  three  holy  women,  joined  them. 
Upon  their  arrival  the  angel  asked  them :  "  Whom  seek 
ye?  "  The  women  answered ;  they  hear  from  the  angel 
the  message  of  the  Resurrection  and  were  told  to  go 
forth  and  announce  it.  Then  they  intoned  the  anti- 
phon:  "Surrexit  enim,  sicut  dixit  dominus.  Alle- 
luia". The  choir  finished  Matins  with  the  "Te 
Deum". 

This  simplest  form  of  liturgical  Easter  celebration 
was  elaborated  in  many  ways  by  the  addition  of 
Biblical  .-ifnlcnces,  hymns,  and  sequences,  in  particu- 
lar the  "  Victimie  paschali",  which  dates  from  the  first 
half  of  the  eleventh  century;  also  by  the  representa- 
tion of  St.  Peter  and  St.  John  running  to  the  grave,  and 
by  the  appearance  of  the  Lord,  who  thenceforth  be- 
comes the  central  figure.  The  union  of  these  scenes 
in  one  concerted  action  (the  dialogue),  rendered  in 
poetic  form  (hymns,  sequences)  or  in  prose  (Bible 
texts),  and  the  participation  of  a  choir  gave  to  the 
Nuremberg  Easter  celebration  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury the  character  of  a  short  chanted  drama.  Such 
celebrations,  however,  remained  parts  of  the  liturgy 
as  late  as  the  eighteenth  century.  They  were  inserted 
between  Matins  and  Lauds,  and  served  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  people,  whose  hearts  and  minds  were 


PASSION 


532 


PASSION 


more  deeply  impressed  by  reproductions  of  the  Resur- 
rect ion  of  the  Ijord,  wliich  appealed  to  the  senses,  than 
by  a  sermon.  The  Latin  text  was  no  iibstaole,  since 
the  separate  parts  of  the  i)lays  were  known  or  were 
previou.sly  explained,  'i'lu^  wide  ditTiision  of  these 
liturgical  plays,  in  which  priests  took  the  dilTcrent 
parts,  is  proof  of  their  popularity.  Lange,  to 
whom  we  owe  sonic  tlioroupli  studies  on  this  sub- 
ject, proves  the  <"xistcncc  of  '22i  Latin  lOastcr  dniinas, 
of  which  l.VJ  were  found  in  tlcrniany,  .Vi  in  Fnuicc, 
and  the  rest  in  Italy,  Spain,  Holland,  and  Knuland. 

The  popular  t;iste  for  dramatic  productions  was 
fed  by  these  Eii-ster  celebrations.  The  clergy  empha- 
sized more  and  more  the  dramatic  nicniicnts,  nftcn 
merely  hinted  at  in  the  nule  orittiiKil  rcliluMtinns,  :itii1 
added  new  subjects,  among 
them  some  of  a  secular 
nature.  They  intniduccd 
the  characters  of  Filatc, 
the  Jews,  and  the  soldiers 
guarding  the  sepulchn 
added  the  figure  of  an 
ointment-vender  bargain- 
ing with  the  holy  women, 
and  other  features  which 
did  not  contribute  to  the 
edification  or  instruction 
of  the  people,  though  thc>' 
satisfied  their  love  of  nov- 
elty and  amusement.  In 
this  way  the  early  Easter 
celebrations  became  real 
dramatic  performances, 
known  as  the  Easter  Plays. 
Since  the  element  of 
worldly  amusement  pre- 
dominated more  and  more 
(a  develoiiment  of  which 
Gerhoh  of  Reichersberg 
complained  as  early  as  the 
twelfth  century),  the  ec- 
clesiastical authorities  be- 
gan to  prohibit  the  pro- 
duction of  Easter  Plays  in 
the  churches.  It  Iki-ihh' 
necessary  to  separat (■  tlicjn 
from  church  services,  l>r- 
causeof  their  lengtli,  wliirh 
increa.sed  greatly,  parlii'u- 
larly  after  the  introducl  ion 
of  t  he  storj'  of  the  Passion .  Fragments  of  an  Easter  Play 
in  Latin  dating  from  the  thirteenth  century  are  found 
in  the  Benedictbeum  Easter  Play,  also  in  that  of 
Klostemeuburg,  both  of  which,  probably,  go  back  to 
the  same  source  as  the  Mystery  of  Tours,  composed  as 
late  as  the  twelfth  century,  and  which,  better  than 
any  other,  offers  an  insight  into  the  development  of 
the  Easter  Plays  from  the  Latin  Easter  celebrations. 

When,  in  course  of  time,  as  shown  in  the  Easter 
Play  of  Trier,  German  translations  were  added  to  the 
original  texts  as  sung  and  spoken,  the  popularizing  of 
the  Easter  Play  had  begun.  That  of  the  monastery 
of  Muri,  in  Switzerland,  belongs  to  this  period,  and 
is  written  entirely  in  German.  But  it  was  only  after 
the  popular  element  had  asserted  itself  strongly  in 
all  departments  of  poetry,  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  that  the  popular  German  religious 
drama  was  developed.  This  was  brought  about 
chiefly  by  the  strolling  players  who  were  certainly 
responsible  for  the  introduction  of  the  servant,  of 
the  ointment-vender  (named  Rubin),  whose  duty  it 
was  to  entertain  the  peo|)le  with  coarse  jests  (Wolfen- 
biittel,  Inn.sbruck,  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Mecklenburg 
Ea.ster  Plays,  1464).  The  Latin  Easter  Plays,  with 
their  solemn  texts,  were  still  produced,  as  well  lus  the 
German  plays,  but  gradually,  being  displaced  by  the 
latter,  the  Latin  text  was  confined  to  the  meagre 


Sorn( 
in  oil 


.r  th. 
rsthi 


Ka.stcr  I'hi 


Biblical  element  of  the  plays  and  the  player's  direc- 
tions. The  clergy  still  retained  the  right  to  direct 
these  i)roductions,  even  after  the  plays  reflected  the 
spirit  and  opinions  of  the  times.  Popular  poetry, 
gro.ss  and  worldly,  dominated  in  the  plays,  particularly 
susceptible  to  (he  influence  of  the  ("arnival  plays. 

The  Ivisler  Plays  represented  in  llieirday  tlie  high- 
est de\elii])Mienl  of  the  seeidar  drania;  nevertlu-less 
this  most  iniiiortant  event  in  the  life  of  the  Cod-Man 
did  not  sufliee:  the  people  wished  to.sce  His  whole  life, 
particularly  the  story  of  His  Passion.  Thus  :i  series 
of  dramas  originated,  which  were  e.-dled  Pa.ssion  Plays, 
the  sutTerings  of  Jesus  Ix'ing  their  principal  subject, 
end  with  the  entombment  of  Christ; 
ivas  added,  in  order  to  show 
the  Saviour  in  His  glory; 
others  again  close  with  the 
Ascension  or  with  the  dis- 
persion of  the  Apostles. 
But,  since  the  persecution 
of  t  he  Saviour  is  intelligible 
only  in  the  light  of  His 
work  as  teacher,  this  part 
(if  the  life  of  Christ  was 
also  added,  while  some  au- 
thors of  these  plavs  went 
back  to  the  Old  Testament 
for  s  y  in  b  o  1  i  c  a  1  scenes, 
which  they  added  to  the 
Passion  Plays  as  "prefigu- 
rations  " ;  or  the  plays  begin 
with  the  Creation,  the  sin 
of  .Adam  and  Eve,  and  the 
fall  of  the  Angels.  Again 
two  short  dramas  were  in- 
serted: the  Lament  of  Mary 
and  the  Mary  Magdalene 
Play.  Tlicse(iucnce"Planc- 
tus  ante  nescia",  which 
was  brought  to  German}- 
from  France  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  twelfth 
cent  ury,  is  the  basis  for  the 
Lamentations  of  Mary. 
This  .sequence  is  merely  a 
monologue  of  Mary  at  the 
foot  of  the  Cross;  by  the 
introduction  of  John,  the 
Saviour,  and  the  bystand- 
ers as  taking  part  in  the 
lamentations,  a  dramatic  scene  was  developed  which 
became  a  part  of  almost  all  Passion  Plays  and  has 
been  retained  even  in  their  latest  survivor.  The 
Magdalene  Play  represents  the  seduction  of  Mary 
Magdalene  by  the  devil  and  her  sinful  hfe  up  to  her 
conversion.  In  Magdalene's  sinfulness  the  people 
saw  a  picture  of  the  depraved  condition  of  man- 
kind after  the  sin  of  the  Garden,  from  which  it  could 
be  redeemed  only  through  the  sacrifice  of  Christ.  This 
profound  thought,  which  could  not  be  effaced  even 
by  the  coarse  reproduction  of  Magdalene's  life,  ex- 
plains the  presence  of  this  little  drama  in  the  Passion 
Play. 

The  evolution  of  the  Passion  Play  was  about  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Easter  Play.  It  originated  in  the 
ritual  of  the  Church,  which  prescribes,  among  other 
things,  that  the  Gospel  on  Good  Friday  should  be 
sung  in  parts  divided  among  various  persons.  Later 
on,  Passion  Plays,  properly  so  called,  made  their 
appearance,  first  in  Latin,  then  in  German;  contents 
and  form  were  adapted  more  and  more  to  popular 
ideas  until,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  popular  re- 
ligious plays  had  developed.  Thus  the  Benedict  heurn 
Passion  Play  (thirteenth  century)  is  still  largely  com- 
posed of  Latin  ritual  sentences  in  prose  and  of  church 
hymns,  and,  being  designed  to  be  sung,  resembles  an 
oratorio.     Yet  even  this  oldest  of  the  Passion  Plays 


THE  Cross 


PASSION 


533 


PASSION 


already  shows,  by  the  interpolation  of  free  transla- 
tions of  church  hymns  and  of  German  verses  not 
pertaining  to  such  hymns,  as  well  as  by  the  appearance 
of  the  Mother  of  Jesus  and  Mary  Magdalene  in  the 
action,  a  tendency  to  break  away  from  the  ritual  and 
to  adopt  a  more  popular  form.  From  these  humble 
beginnings  the  Passion  Play  must  have  developed  very 
rapidly,  since  in  the  fourteenth  century  we  see  it  at 
a  stage  of  development  which  could  not  have  been 
reached  except  by  repeated  practice.  From  this 
second  period  we  liave  the  V'ienna  Passion,  the  St. 
Gall  Passion,  the  oldest  Frankfort  Passion,  and  the 
Maestricht  Passion.  All  four  Plays,  as  they  are 
commonly  called,  are  written  in  rhyme,  principally 
in  German.  The  Vienna  Passion  embraces  the  entire 
history  of  the  Redemption,  and  begins  with  the  revolt 
and  fall  of  Lucifer;  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  play  as 
transmitted  to  us  ends  with  the  Last  Suj )]  )i  t.  The  oldest 
Frankfort  Passion  play,  that  of  Caniiu  Haldemar  von 
Peterwell  (1350-80),  the  production  of  which  required 
two  days,  was  more  profusely  elaborated  than  the 
other  Passion  Plays  of  this  period.  Of  this  play  only 
the  "Urdo  sive  Registrum"  has  come  down  to  us,  a 
long  roll  of  parchment  for  the  use  of  the  director,  con- 
taining directions  and  the  first  words  of  the  dialogues. 
The  plays  b;ised  on  this  list  of  directions  lead  us  to  the 
period  in  which  the  Passion  Play  reached  its  highest 
development  (1400-1515).  During  this  period  the 
later  Frankfort  Passion  Play  (1467),  the  Alsfelder,  and 
the  Friedberger  (1514)  originated.  Connected  with 
this  group  are  the  Eger,  theDonaueschingen,  Augsburg, 
Freising  and  Lucerne  Passion  Plays,  in  which  the 
whole  world  drama,  begirming  with  the  creation  of 
man  and  brought  down  to  the  coming  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  is  exhibited,  and  which  was  produced  with  great 
splendour  as  late  as  1.583. 

Nearly  all  these  Passion  Plays  have  some  relation 
to  those  coming  from  the  Tyrol,  some  contributing  to, 
others  taking  from,  that  source.  These,  again,  are 
founded  upon  the  Tyrolese  Passion  Play  which  origi- 
nated during  the  transition  period  of  the  fourteenth 
to  the  fifteenth  century.  Wackernell,  with  the  aid 
of  the  plays  that  have  reached  us,  has  reconstructed 
this  period.  In  the  Tyrol  the  Passion  Plays  received 
elaborate  cultivation;  at  Bozen  they  were  presented 
with  great  splendour  and  lasted  seven  days.  Here, 
too,  the  innovation  of  placing  the  female  roles 
in  the  hands  of  women  was  introduced,  which  inno- 
vation did  not  become  general  until  during  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  magnificent  productions  of 
the  Passion  Plays  during  tlie  fifteenth  century  are 
closely  connected  with  the  growth  and  increasing 
self-confidence  of  the  cities,  which  found  its  expression 
in  noble  buildings,  ecclesiastical  and  municipal,  and 
in  gorgeous  public  festivals.  The  artistic  sense  and 
the  love  of  art  of  the  citizens  had,  in  co-operation  with 
the  clergy,  called  these  plays  into  being,  and  the  wealth 
of  the  citizens  provided  for  magnificent  productions 
of  them  on  the  public  squares,  whither  they  migrated 
after  expulsion  from  the  churches.  The  citizens  and 
civil  authorities  considered  it  a  point  of  honour  to 
render  the  production  as  rich  and  diversified  as  possi- 
ble. Ordinarily  the  preparations  for  the  play  were 
in  the  hands  of  a  spiritual  brotherhood,  the  play  itself 
being  considered  a  form  of  worship.  People  of  the 
most  varied  classes  took  part,  in  the  production,  and 
frequently  the  number  of  actors  was  as  high  as  two 
hundred  and  even  greater.  It  was  undoubtedly  no 
small  task  to  drill  the  performers,  particularly  since 
the  stage  arrangements  were  still  very  primitive. 

The  stage  was  a  wooden  structure,  almost  as  broad 
as  it  was  long,  elevated  but  slightly  above  the  ground 
and  open  on  all  sides.  A  house  formed  the  back- 
ground; a  balcony  attached  to  the  house  represented 
Heaven.  Under  the  balcony  three  crosses  were 
erected.  Sometimes  the  stage  was  divided  into  three 
sections  by  doors.     Along  the  sides  of  the  stage,  taken 


lengthwise,  stood  the  houses  required  for  the  produc- 
tion; they  were  indicated  by  fenced-in  spaces,  or  by 
four  posts  upon  which  a  roof  rested.  The  entrance 
into  liell  was  pictured  by  the  mouth  of  a  monster, 
through  which  the  devil  and  the  souls  captured  or 
released  during  the  plays  passed  back  and  forth. 
Tlie  actors  entered  in  solemn  procession,  led  by  musi- 
cians or  by  a  precursor  (herald),  and  took  their  stand 
at  the  places  appointed  them.  They  remained  on 
the  stage  all  through  the  performance;  they  sat  on  the 
barriers  of  their  respective  divisions,  and  were  per- 
mitted to  leave  their  places  only  to  recite  their  lines. 
As  each  actor  finished  speaking,  he  returned  to  his 
place.  The  audience  stood  around  the  stage  or  looked 
on  from  the  windows  of  neighbouring  houses.  Occa- 
sionally platforms,  called  "bridges",  were  erected 
around  the  stage  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre. 

The  scenery  was  as  simple  as  the  stage.  There 
were  no  side  scenes,  and  consequently  no  stage  per- 
spective. Since  an  illusion  of  reality  could  not  be  had, 
indications  were  made  to  suffice.  Thus  a  cask  stand- 
ing on  end  represents  the  mountain  on  which  Christ  is 
tempted  by  the  devil;  thunder  is  imitated  by  the  re- 
port of  a  gun;  in  order  to  signify  that  the  devil  had 
entered  into  him,  Judas  holds  a  bird  of  black  plumage 
before  his  mouth  and  makes  it  flutter.  The  suicide  of 
Judas  is  an  execution,  in  which  Beelzebub  performs 
the  hangman's  duty.  He  precedes  the  culprit  up  the 
ladder,  and  draws  Judas  after  him  by  a  rope.  Judas 
has  a  black  bird  and  the  intestines  of  an  animal  con- 
cealed in  the  front  of  his  clothing,  and  when  Satan 
tears  open  the  garment  the  bird  flies  away,  and  the 
intestines  fall  out,  whereupon  Judas  and  his  executioner 
slide  down  into  hell  on  a  rope.  A  painted  picture, 
representing  the  soul,  is  hung  from  the  mouth  of  each  of 
the  two  thieves  on  the  cross ;  the  angel  takes  the  soul  of 
the  penitent,  the  devil  that  of  the  impenitent  thief. 
Everything  is  presented  in  the  concrete,  just  as  the 
imagination  of  the  audience  pictures  it,  and  the  scenic 
conditions,  resembling  those  of  the  antique  theatre, 
demand.  All  costume,  however,  is  contemporary, 
historical  accuracy  being  ignored. 

The  Passion  Plays  of  the  fifteenth  century,  with 
their  peculiar  blending  of  religious,  artistic,  and 
popular  elements,  gave  a  true  picture  of  German  city 
life  of  those  times.  Serious  thought  and  lively  humour 
were  highly  developed  in  these  plays.  When,  how- 
ever, the  patricians,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  with- 
drew more  and  more  from  the  plays,  these,  left  to  the 
lower  classes,  began  to  lose  their  serious  and  (in  spite 
of  the  comic  traits)  dignified  character.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  Carnival  plays  (Faslnachtspiele)  was  felt 
more  and  more.  Master  Grobianus  with  his  coarse 
and  obscene  jests  was  even  introduced  into  the  Passion 
Plays.  In  time  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  forbade 
the  production  of  the  plays.  Thus  the  Bishop  of 
Havelberg  commanded  his  clergy,  in  1471,  to  suppress 
the  Passion  Plays  and  legend  plays  in  their  parish 
districts  because  of  the  disgraceful  and  irrelevant 
farces  interspersed  through  the  productions.  In  a 
similar  manner  the  Synod  of  Strasburg  (1549)  opposed 
the  religious  plays,  and  the  year  previous  (1548),  the 
Parliament  of  Paris  forbade  the  production  of  "  the 
Mystciics  (if  the  Passion  of  our  Redeemer  and  other 
Spiritual  Mysteries".  One  consequence  was  that  the 
secular  plays  were  separated  from  the  religious,  and, 
as  Carnival  plays,  held  the  public  favour.  The 
Passion  Plays  came  to  be  presented  more  rarely,  par- 
ticularly as  the  Reformation  was  inimical  to  them. 

School  dramas  now  came  into  vogue  in  Catholic 
and  Protestant  schools,  and  frequently  enough  be- 
came the  battle-ground  of  religious  controversies. 
When,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  splendidly 
equipped  Jesuit  drama  arose,  the  Passion  Plays  were 
relegated  to  out-of-the-way  villages  and  to  the  monas- 
teries, particularly  in  Bavaria  and  Austria.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  during  the  so-called 


PASSIONS 


534 


PASSIONS 


age  of  enlightenment,  efforts  were  made  in  Catholic 
Germany,  particuliirly  in  Bavaria  and  the  Tyrol,  to 
destroy  "even  thi-  ri-iiiii;ints  of  the  tradition  of  incdii'- 
val  plays.  I'ublio  interest  in  tlio  Passion  Play  awolve 
anew  during  the  last  decades  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, and  since  then  Brixlegg  and  Vorderthiersee  in 
the  Tyrol,  Iloritz  in  soutliern  Bohemia,  and  above 
all,  Obcrammergau  in  Upper  Bavaria  attract  thou- 
sands to  their  plays.  The  text  of  the  play  of  Vor- 
derthiersee (Gespiel  in  der  Vorderen  Thicrsec)  dates 
from  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  is 
entirely  in  verse,  and  comprises  in  five  acts  tlic  events 
recorded  in  the  Gospel,  from  the  Last  Supper  to  the 
Kntombraent.  A  prelude  (Vorgespicl),^  on  the  Good 
Shepherd,  precedes  the  play.  After  being  repeatedly 
remoilelled,  the  text  received  its  present  classical  form 
from  the  Austrian  Benedictine,  P.  Weissenhofer.  Pro- 
ductions of  the  play,  which  came  from  Bavaria  to 
the  Tyrol  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, were  arranged  at  irregular  intervals  during 
the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century;  since  1855 
they  have  taken  place  at  regular  intervals,  at  Brix- 
legg everj'  ten  years.  The  Horitz  Passion  Play,  the 
present  text  of  which  is  from  the  pen  of  Provost 
Landsteiner,  has  been  produced  every  five  years, 
since  1893. 

The  chief  survival,  however,  of  former  times  is  the 
Passion  Play  of  Oberammergau.  The  first  mention 
we  find  of  it  is  in  1633,  when  it  is  referred  to  in  con- 
nexion with  a  vow  made  to  obtain  relief  from  the 
Black  Death,  when  the  people  of  Ammergau  vowed 
to  produce  the  play  every  ten  years.  As  early  as 
16.34  the  Passion  was  enacted  (tragiert).  Since 
this  Passion  Play  was  then  well-known,  productions 
must  have  taken  place  before  that  date.  The  oldest 
text  still  in  existence  was  written  about  1600  and  con- 
tains traces  of  two  older  dramas,  one  of  which  was 
preserved  at  St.  Ulric,  the  other  at  St.  Afra,  Augsburg. 
In  1662  a  Passion  te.xt  by  the  Augsburg  Meistersinger, 
Sebastian  Wild,  was  woven  into  it,  together  with  parts 
of  the  VVeilheim  Passion  Play  of  Rector  Johann  Aelbel 
(c.  1600).  About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  text  was  revised  by  the  Benedictine  Rosner,  after 
the  model  of  the  Jesuit  drama;  in  1780  this  bombastic 
version  was  again  reduced  to  a  simpler  form  by  the 
Benedictine  Knipfelberger.  Finally,  P.  Otmar  Weiss 
and  M.  Daisenberger  gave  it  its  present  simple  and 
dignified  form,  and  transcribed  the  verse  into  prose. 
Stage  and  costuming  are  adapted  to  modern  require- 
ments. The  music  is  by  Rochus  Dedler.  (See  also 
Miracle  Plats  and  Mysteries.) 

Wbight,  English  Mysteries  (London,  1838);  Pollahd,  English 
Miracle  Plays  (London.  1904) ;  Chambers.  The  MediiFval  Stage 
(Oxford,  1903);  Tunison.  Dramatic  Traditions  of  the  Dark  Ages 
(Cincinnati,  1907);  Schelling,  Hist,  of  English  Drama  (Boston, 
1908) ;  Collier,  Hist,  of  English  Dramatic  Poetry  (London,  1879) ; 
Do  M^RIL,  Thealri  liturgici  (Paris.  1849) ;  Coussemakeh.  Drames 
liturgiques  du  moyen  &ge  (Rennes,  1860) ;  Griffith,  Origin  of  Cits- 
toms  of  Easter  Day  in  Potter's  Am.  Mag,  X  (1878),  306;  Hampson, 
Medii ^vi Kalendarium('LoTidon,  1847);  Mone,  AUdeutsche Schau- 
apiele  (Quedlinburg,  1847);  Idem,  Schatispiele  des  Mittelalters 
(Karlsruhe,  1846);  Devrient.  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Schau- 
spielkunst,  I  (Leipzig,  1848) ;  Holland,  Die  Entwicklung  des  deut- 
schen Schau«vieles  im  Mitlelalter  und  das  Ammergauer  Passions- 
spiel  (Munich,  1861);  Wilken,  Geschichte  der  geistlichen  Spicle 
in  DeuUchland  (Gottingcn,  1872);  Callenberg,  Das  geistliche 
Schauspiel  des  Mittelalters  in  Frankreich  (Mtihihausen,  1875); 
^Iilchback,  Die  Oster-  und  Pasaionsspiele  (Wolfenbuttel,  1880) ; 
Gactieb.  Histoire  de  la  poisie  liturgique  an  moyen  Age  (Paris, 
1886);  Lanoe,  Die  Laleinischen  Oslerfeitrn  (Munich,  1887); 
Creizenach.  Geschichte  des  neueren  Dramas,  I  (Halle,  1893); 
Fboniso.  Das  Drama  des  Mittelalters  (Berlin,  a.  d.);  Wirth,  Die 
Osier-  und  PassionsspieU  bis  rum  IS  Jahrhundert  (Halle,  1889); 
Wackebsell,  AUdeutsche  Passionsspiele  aus  Tirol  (Graz,  1897) ; 
Wilmotte,  Les  passions  allemands  du  Rhin  dans  leurs  rapports 
avec  I'ancien  thi&tre  fran^ais  (Paris,  1898) ;  Trautmann,  Oberam- 
mergau undsein  Passionsspiel  (Bamberg,  1890);  Text  des  Oberam- 
mergauer  Passionaspieles  (Munich,  1910);  Heinzel,  Abhandlungen 
rum  altdeutschen  Drama  (Vienna,  189.5);  Haoffen,  Ueber  das 
Hdriizer  Passionsspiel  (Prague,  1894);  Text  des  Hdritzer  Passions- 
apieles  f,StuttKart,  1908) :  Text  des  Passionsspieles  in  Vorderthiersee 
(ilunich,  1905);  Weber,  Geistliches  Schauspiel  und  christliche 
Kurut  (Stuttgart,  1894). 

Anselm  Salzer. 


Passions. — By  passions  we  are  to  understand  here 
motions  of  the  sensitive  appetite  in  man  which  tend 
towards  the  attainment  of  some  re.al  or  apparent  good, 
or  the  avoidance  of  some  evil.  The  more  intensely 
the  object  is  desired  or  abhorred,  the  more  vehement 
is  the  passion.  St.  Paul  thus  speaks  of  them:  "When 
we  were  in  the  flesh,  the  passions  of  sin,  which  were 
by  the  law,  did  work  in  our  members,  to  bring  forth 
fruit  unto  death"  (Rom.,  vii,  5).  They  .are  called 
passions  because  they  cause  a  transformation  of  the 
normal  condition  of  the  body  and  its  organs  which 
often  appears  externally.  It  may  also  be  noted  that 
there  is  in  man  a  rational  appetite  as  well  as  a  sen- 
sitive appetite.  The  rational  appetite  is  the  will ;  and 
its  acts  of  love,  joy,  and  sorrow  are  only  called  pas- 
sions metaphorically,  because  of  their  likeness  to  the 
acts  of  the  sensitive  appetite.  They  are  classified  by 
St.  Thomas  and  the  Schoolmen  as  follows:  The  sensi- 
tive appetite  is  twofold,  concupiscible  and  irascible, 
specifically  distinct  because  of  their  objects.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  concupiscible  is  real  or  apparent  good,  and 
suitable  to  the  sensitive  inclination.  The  object  of 
the  irascible  appetite  is  good  qualified  by  some  spe- 
cial difficulty  in  its  attainment.  The  chief  passions 
are  eleven  in  number:  Six  in  the  concupiscible  ap- 
petite— namely,  joy  or  delight,  and  sadness,  desire 
and  aversion  or  abhorrence,  love  and  hatred — and 
five  in  the  irascible — hope  and  despair,  courage  and 
fear,  and  anger. 

To  explain  the  passions  in  their  relation  to  virtue  it 
is  necessary  to  consider  them  first  in  the  moral  order. 
Some  moralists  have  taught  that  all  passions  are  good 
if  kept  under  subjection,  and  all  bad  if  unrestrained. 
The  truth  is  that,  as  regards  morality,  the  passions 
are  indifferent,  that  is,  neither  good  nor  bad  in  them- 
selves. Only  in  so  far  as  they  are  voluntary  do  they 
come  under  the  moral  law.  Their  motions  may  some- 
times be  antecedent  to  any  act  of  the  will ;  or  they  may 
be  so  strong  as  to  resist  every  command  of  the  will. 
The  feelings  in  connexion  with  the  passions  may  be 
lasting,  and  not  always  under  the  control  of  the  will, 
as  for  example  the  feelings  of  love,  sorrow,  fear,  and 
anger,  as  experienced  in  the  sensitive  appetite;  but 
they  can  never  be  so  strong  as  to  force  the  consent 
of  our  free  will  unless  they  first  run  away  with  our 
reason. 

These  involuntary  motions  of  the  passions  are  neither 
morally  good  nor  morally  bad.  They  become  volun- 
tary in  two  ways:  (1)  by  the  command  of  the  will, 
which  can  command  the  inferior  powers  of  the  sensi- 
tive appetite  and  excite  its  emotions;  (2)  by  non- 
resistance,  for  the  will  can  resist  by  refusing  its  con- 
sent to  their  promptings,  and  it  is  bound  to  resist 
when  their  promptings  are  irrational  and  inordinate. 
When  voluntary,  the  passions  may  increase  the  in- 
tensity of  the  acts  of  the  will,  but  they  may  also  lessen 
their  morality  by  affecting  its  freedom. 

In  regard  to  virtue  the  passions  may  be  considered 
in  the  three  stages  of  the  spiritual  life:  first,  its  ac- 
quisition; secondly,  itsincrease;  thirdly,  its  perfection. 
When  regulated  by  reason,  and  subjected  to  the 
control  of  the  will,  the  passions  may  be  considered 
good  and  used  as  means  of  acquiring  and  exercising 
virtue.  Christ  Himself,  in  whom  there  could  be  no 
sin  nor  shadow  of  imperfection,  admitted  their  influ- 
ence, ;for  we  read  that  He  was  sorrowful  even  unto 
death  (Mark,  xiv,  34),  that  He  wept  over  Jerusalem 
(Luke,  xix,  41),  and  at  the  tomb  of  Lazarus  He  groaned 
in  the  spirit,  and  troubled  Himself  (John,  xi,  33).  St. 
Paul  bids  us  rejoice  with  them  that  rejoice,  and  weep 
with  them  that  weep  (Rom.,  xii,  15).  The  sensitive 
appetite  is  given  to  man  by  God,  and  therefore  its  acta 
have  to  be  employed  in  His  service.  Fear  of  death, 
judgment,  and  hell  prompts  one  to  repentance,  and  to 
the  first  efforts  in  acquiring  virtue.  Thoughts  of  the 
mercy  of  God  produce  hope,  gratitude,  and  correspon- 
dence.    Reflection  on  the  sufferings  of  Christ  moves 


PASSION 


535 


PASSOS 


to  sorrow  for  sin,  and  to  compassion  and  love  for  Him 
in  His  suffering. 

The  moral  virtues  are  to  regulate  the  passions 
and  employ  them  as  aids  in  the  progress  of  spirit- 
ual life.  A  just  man  at  times  experiences  great  joy, 
great  hope  and  confidence,  and  other  feelings  in 
performing  duties  of  piety,  and  also  great  sensible 
sorrow,  as  well  as  sorrow  of  soul,  for  his  sins,  and  he 
is  thus  confirmed  in  his  justice.  He  can  also  merit 
constantly  by  restraining  and  purifying  his  passions. 
The  saints  who  have  reached  the  exalted  state  of  per- 
fection, have  retained  their  capacity  for  all  human 
emotions  and  their  sensibility  has  remained  subject 
to  the  ordinary  laws;  but  in  them  the  love  of  God  has 
controlled  the  mental  images  which  excite  the  pas- 
sions and  directed  all  their  emotions  to  His  active 
service.  It  has  been  justly  said  that  the  saint  dies, 
and  is  born  again:  he  dies  to  an  agitated,  distracted, 
and  sensual  life,  by  temperance,  continency,  and  au,s- 
terity,  and  is  born  to  a  new  and  transformed  life. 
He  passes  through  what  St.  John  calls  "the  night  of 
the  senses",  after  which  his  eyes  are  opened  to  a 
clearer  light.  "The  saint  will  return  later  on  to 
sensible  objects  to  enjoy  them  in  his  own  way,  but 
far  more  intensely  than  other  men"  (H.  Joly,  "Psy- 
chology of  the  Saints",  128).  Accordingly  we  can 
understand  how  the  passions  and  the  emotions  of  the 
sensitive  appetite  may  be  directed  and  devoted  to  the 
service  of  God,  and  to  the  acquisition,  increase,  and 
perfection  of  virtue. 

All  admit  that  the  passions,  unless  restrained,  will 
carry  a  man  beyond  the  bounds  of  duty  and  honesty, 
and  plunge  him  into  sinful  excesses.  Unbridled 
passions  cause  all  the  moral  ruin  and  most  of  the 
physical  and  social  evils  which  afflict  men.  There  are 
two  adverse  elements  in  man  contending  for  the  mas- 
tery, and  designated  by  St.  Paul  as  "the  flesh"  and 
"the  spirit"  (Gal.,  v,  17).  These  two  are  often  at 
variance  with  each  other  in  inclinations  and  desires. 
To  establish  and  preserve  harmony  in  the  individual, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  spirit  rule,  and  that  the  flesh 
be  made  obedient  to  it.  The  spirit  must  set  itself 
free  from  the  tyranny  of  the  passions  in  the  flesh.  It 
must  free  itself  by  the  renunciation  of  all  those  un- 
lawful things  wliich  our  lower  nature  craves,  that 
right  order  may  be  established  and  preserved  in  the 
relations  of  our  higher  and  lower  nature.  The  flesh  and 
its  appetites,  if  allowed,  will  throw  everything  into 
confusion  and  vitiate  our  whole  nature  by  sin  and  its 
conseqviences.  It  is  therefore  man's  duty  to  control 
and  regulate  it  by  reason  and  a  strong  will  aided  by 
God's  grace. 

Cronin,  The  Science  of  Ethics  (Dublin,  1909);  Devine,  Manual 
of  Mystical  Theology  (London,  1903);  JoLY,  Pyschology  of  the 
Saints;  Maher,  Psychology  (London,  1890);  St.  John  of  the 
Cross,  The  Dark  Night  of  the  Soul;  Scaramelli, /f  Direttorrio 
Mystico  (Venice,  1765);  Billuart,  Sumffia  Summce  S.  ThonKE  de 
Passionibus  (Paris,  1884). 

Arthur  Devine. 

Passion  Sunday,  the  fifth  Sunday  of  Lent,  a  Sun- 
day of  the  first  class,  not  permitting  the  celebration  of 
any  feast,  no  matter  of  what  rank,  but  allowing  a 
commemoration  of  feasts  which  are  not  transferred.  It 
is  called  Dominica  de  Passione  in  the  Roman  Missal, 
and  Dominica  Passionis  in  the  Breviary.  Durandus 
and  other  liturgical  writers  speak  of  it  as  Dominica  in 
Passione,  or  simply  Passio,  or  Passio  Domini.  It  is 
also  known  as  Judica  Sunday,  from  the  first  word  of 
the  Introit  of  Ma.ss;  Isti  sunt,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  first  response  in  the  Matins;  Octava  mediana,  it 
being  the  eighth  day  after  Lcelare  Sunday,  called 
sometimes  Mediana,  or  Middle  of  Lent;  Rcpiis,  an 
abbreviation  of  repositus,  i.  e.  abscondilus,  or  hidden 
from  the  veiling  of  the  Crosses  (Du  Cange,  "Glo.ssar." 
s.  V.  repositus).  Among  the  Slavs  it  is  the  Nedela 
strastna  (pain,  suffering,  terrible),  muki  (painful,  or 
sorrowful),  gluha  (deaf  or  silent),  tiha  (quiet),  smer- 
telna  (relating  to  death),  or  also  cerna  (black),  which 


appellation  is  also  found  in  some  parts  of  Germany 
as  Schwartzer  Sonntag.  Since  after  this  Sunday  there 
are  not  many  more  days  of  the  Lenten  season  the 
Greek  Church  admonishes  the  faithful  to  special 
mortifications,  and  places  before  them  the  example 
of  the  penitent  St.  Mary  of  Egypt. 

Butler,  Movable  Feasts  and  Fasts  (New  Yorlt) ;  Guerangeb, 
The  Liturgical  Year,  Lent. 

Francis  Mekshman. 

Passiontide,  the  two  weeks  between  Passion  Sun- 
day and  I'laster.  The  last  week  is  Holy  Week,  while 
the  first  is  called  by  the  Latins  "  Hebdomas  Passionis", 
by  the  Greeks  "Week  of  the  palms"  (from  the  Sunday 
following).  During  this  time  the  monks  of  the  East, 
who  had  chosen  the  desert  for  a  severer  mode  of  life, 
returned  to  their  monasteries  (Cyril  of  Scythopolis  in 
"Life  of  St.  Euthymius",  n.  11).  The  rubrical  pre- 
scriptions of  the  Roman  Missal,  Breviary,  and  "Ca?re- 
moniale  Episcoporum"  for  this  time  are:  before 
Vespers  of  Saturday  preceding  Passion  Sunday  the 
crosses,  statues,  and  pictures  of  Our  Lord  and  of  the 
saints  on  the  altar  and  throughout  the  church,  with 
the  sole  exception  of  the  crosses  and  pictures  of  the 
Way  of  the  Cross,  are  to  be  covered  with  a  violet 
veil,  not  translucent,  nor  in  any  way  ornamented. 
The  crosses  remain  covered  until  after  the  solemn  de- 
nudation of  the  principal  crucifix  on  Good  Friday. 
The  statues  and  pictures  retain  their  covering,  no 
matter  what  feast  may  occur,  until  the  Gloria  in 
Excelsis  of  Holy  Saturday.  According  to  an  answer 
of  the  S.  R.  C.  of  14  May,  1878,  the  practice  may  be 
tolerated  of  keeping  the  statue  of  St.  Joseph,  if  out- 
side the  sanctuary,  uncovered  during  the  month  of 
March,  which  is  dedicated  to  his  honour,  even  during 
Passiontide.  In  the  Masses  de  tempore  the  Psalm 
Judica  is  not  said;  the  Gloria  Patri  is  omitted  at  the 
A.sperges,  the  Introit,  and  the  Lavabo;  only  two 
orations  are  recited  and  the  Preface  is  of  the  Holy 
Cross.  In  the  Dominical  and  ferial  offices  of  the 
Breviary  the  doxology  is  omitted  in  the  Invitatorium 
and  in  the  responses,  whether  long  or  short.  The 
crosses  are  veiled  because  Christ  during  this  time  no 
longer  walked  openly  among  the  people,  but  hid  him- 
self. Hence  in  the  papal  chapel  the  veiling  formerly 
took  place  at  the  words  of  the  Gospel:  "Jesus  autcm 
abscondebat  se."  Another  reason  is  added  by  Du- 
randus, namely  that  Christ's  divinity  was  hidden 
when  he  arrived  at  the  time  of  His  suffering  and  death. 
The  images  of  the  saints  also  are  covered  because  it 
would  seem  improper  for  the  servants  to  appear  when 
the  Master  himself  is  hidden  (Nilles,  "Kal.",  II,  188). 

In  some  places  the  crosses  were  covered  on  Ash 
Wednesday ;  in  others  on  the  first  Sunday  of  Lent.  In 
England  it  was  customary  on  the  first  Monday  of 
Lent  to  cover  up  all  the  crucifixes,  images  of  every 
kind,  the  reliquaries,  and  even  the  cup  with  the 
Blessed  Sacrament.  The  cloths  used  were  of  white 
linen  or  silk  and  marked  with  a  red  cross  (Rock,  infra, 
IV,  258).  The  two  beautiful  hymns  of  the  season, 
"  Vexilla  Regis"  and  "Range  lingua  gloriosi",  are  the 
work  of  Venantius  Fortunatus  (q.  v.).  Bishop  of  Poi- 
tiers. On  the  Friday  of  Passion  Week  the  Church  very 
appropriately  honours  the  Seven  Dolours  of  Our  Lady. 
On  Saturtiay  the  Greeks  commemorate  the  resuscitar- 
tion  of  Lazarus. 

Rock,  The  Church  of  Our  Fathers  (London,  1904);  Nilles,  Kal. 
man.  (Innsbruck,  1897). 

Francis  Mershman. 

Passos  (or,  more  fully,  Santos  Passos),  the  Portu- 
guese name  locally  used  to  designate  certain  pious 
exercises,  including  representations  of  the  Sacred 
P;ussion,  practised  annually  during  Lent  at  Goa  and 
in  other  Catholic  communities  in  India.  The  repre- 
sentations of  the  Passion  are  made  by  means  of  images 
and  figures,  although  at  one  period  in  the  past,  living 
beings  also  took  part  in  them.     According  to  Father 


PASSOVER 


536 


PASTEUR 


Fraiirisro  do  Soiiza,  the  chronicler  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  India,  their  origin  wjis  as  follows:  Father 
Gaspar  Barzeo,  .S.J.,  having  returned  to  Goa  from 
his  mission  to  Ormuz  in  October,  1551,  was  entrusted 
with  the  publication  of  the  lii-st  plenary  jubilee  for 
India,  granted  at  the  rcciuest  of  .St.  Ignatius  and  St. 
Francis  Xavier.  Father  Harzeo  preached  every  day 
with  such  good  etTcct  that  Goa  seemed  another 
Ninive  converted.  In  order  to  keep  up  this  devotion 
and  reformation  of  manners,  Father  Harzeo  instituted 
a  procession  of  flagellants,  who  every  Friday  ;isseml)li-d 
in  t  he  church,  singing  the  htanies,  and  listening  to  a  ser- 
mon on  the  words  of  the  Psalmist:  "Multa  flagella 
peccatoris".  At  the  end  of  the  sermon  there  was  a 
period  of  silence,  during  which  each  penitent  medi- 
tated on  his  past  life.  The  preacher  then  spoke  for 
another  half-hour  on  some  passage  of  the  Passion 
of  Christ,  after  which  a  crucifix  was  displayed  to  the 
people,  who  shed  abundant  tears  and  scourged  them- 
selves. From  this  beginning,  the  sermons,  representa- 
tions, and  processions  became  a  regular  custom  during 
Lent.  At  the  close  of  the  Lenten  weekly  sermon,  a 
representation  of  some  scene  from  the  Passion  was 
displayed  on  a  stage  in  the  church,  after  which  there 
was  a  procession. 

At  first  leather  Barzeo  encountered  opposition  from 
the  other  religious  orders,  but  they  afterwards  saw 
the  wisdom  of  following  his  example.  Thus  the  prac- 
tice spread  through  India  and  the  missions  in  other 
parts  of  Asia.  In  some  places  these  representations 
are  said  to  have  greatly  helped  forward  the  work 
of  conversion.  But  as  time  went  on,  many  abu.ses 
crept  in.  These  abuses  were  at  various  times  checked 
by  the  archbishops  and  the  synods  of  Goa.  At  last, 
after  continuing  for  over  two  centuries,  the  processions 
of  flagellants  were  abolished  by  Archbishop  Francisco 
d'Assump^ao  e  Brito,  in  1775,  penitents  being  forbid- 
den to  scourge  themselves.  Other  subsequent  pro- 
hibitions were:  the  taking  down  of  the  image  from  the 
cross  on  Palm  Sunday;  artificial  movements  of  the 
image  in  the  representations;  the  carrying  of  a  woman 
in  the  procession  to  represent  the  Blessed  Virgin; 
Veronica  wiping  the  face  of  Our  Lord;  the  supper 
on  Maundy  Thursday  with  the  figures  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles;  the  placing  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  a 
dark  sepulchre  on  Good  Friday;  the  use,  in  the  scene 
of  the  Descent  from  the  Cross,  of  men  wearing  long 
beards,  Moorish  headgear,  etc.  to  represent  -Jews; 
the  carrying  of  the  images  over  flights  of  steps  to 
represent  those  of  the  houses  of  Caiphas,  Pilate,  etc.; 
the  sprinkling  of  red  fruit-juice  over  the  images  to 
represent  blood ;  the  carrying  in  the  procession  of 
figures  of  Adam  with  a  hoe  or  spade,  and  Eve  with  a 
distaff,  of  the  Serpent,  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  others; 
the  representation  of  the  scenes  in  a  temporary  struc- 
ture outside  the  church. 

With  the  omission  of  these  details,  the  representa- 
tions now  take  place  in  almost  all  the  churches  of  Goa, 
in  other  parts  of  India,  and  in  other  Asiatic  missions. 
On  a  stated  day  (generally  Sunday)  of  each  week  in 
Lent,  a  sermon  is  preached  on  some  passage  of  the 
Passion.  A  curtain  is  then  raised,  and  the  representa- 
tion of  the  same  passage  is  displayed  on  a  movable 
stage  before  the  high  altar,  only  the  image  of  Christ 
being  .shown.  The  representations  are  made  in  the 
following  order:  Chri.st  in  the  Garden  of  Gethsemani; 
Christ  in  prison;  the  Scourging;  the  Crowning  with 
Thorns;  the  Ecce  Homo;  the  Carrying  of  the  Cross; 
lastly  (on  Good  Friday),  the  Crucifixion.  At  the 
end  of  each  representation  there  is  a  procession  with 
singing.  On  Palm  Sunday,  the  image  of  Christ  car- 
rj-ing  the  Cross  is  taken  "from  the  .><tage  and  borne 
in  procession;  and  on  Good  Friday,  after  the  figure  is 
devoutly  taken  down  from  the  Cross  ^invariably  behind 
the  curtain)  it  is  carried  in  the  procession,  the  image 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  also  accompanying  on  both 
these  days.     On  the  last  two  occasions  the  procession 


is  always  interrupted  by  a  sermon  preached  from  a 

piilpii   .  nilnl  outside  the  church. 

I'  -11  '  h  i,  ntc  i\mqu\stado;  D'Albuqukrqub,  Decretos  do 
I  i.M,i,-  O  Oriciile  Purluaucl,  II  (1905),  noB.  1,2;  O 

A'      ■-!  ,  :'.■,.■  i7  .\pril,  1SS7). 

A.  X.  D'SouzA. 
Passover.     .See  Pasch. 

Pasteur,  Lons,  chemist,  founder  of  physio-chem- 
istrv,  falhcr  of  liarlciinldgy.  inventor  of  bio-therapeu- 
tics'; 1).  ;il  Dole,  .luia,  France,  27  Dec,  1822,  d.  near 
.Sevres,  2S  Sept.,  l.S'J5.  His  father  was  a  poor  tanner 
who  moved  to  Arbois  when  his  sun  was  but  two  months 
old.  Pasteur  received  his  early  education  at  the  Col- 
lege Commimal  of  Arbois,  but  pairl  little  attention  to 
his  books,  devoting  him.self  to  fishing  and  sketching. 
For  a  time  it  seemed  as  though  he  would  become  a 
painter.  When  science  was  reach('<l  in  the  course  he 
grew  interested.  He  received  his  degree  at  Besangon 
and  then  in  order  to  devote  himself  to  science  went  to 
Paris  to  study  under  Dumas,  Balard,  and  Biot.  His 
father  helped  him,  but  he  had  to  support  himself 
partly  by  his  own  labours.  His  first  original  work  was 
done  on  crystals.  Mitscherlich  announced  that  two 
tartaric  acids,  apparently  identical  in  cluiiiical  quali- 
ties and  in  crystalline  form,  acted  dilTercntly  in  .solu- 
tion toward  polarized  light.  Refusing  to  accept  this 
dictum,  Pasteur  demon.st  rated  th.at  the  crj-stals  thought 
to  be  similar  were  different,  and  explained  the  seeming 
inconsistency. 

His  discovery  attracted  wide  attention.  As  a  result 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  what  he  called  dis- 
symmetry, pointing  out  that  inorganic  substances  are 
not  dissymmetrical  in  their  crystallization,  while  all 
the  products  of  vegetable  and  animal  life  are  dissym- 
metric. He  concluded  that  there  was  some  great 
biological  principle  underlying  this.  As  the  result  of 
his  discovery  he  was  made  (1848)  professor  of  physics 
at  the  Lycce  of  Dijon;  three  months  later  he  became 
deputy  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  University  of 
Strasburg,  and  full  professor  in  1852;  in  1854  dean 
and  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  new  University  of 
Lille;  in  IS.jli  the  iMiglish  Royal  .Society  conferred  on 
him  the  Kumford  Medal  for  researches  on  the  polari- 
zation of  light  with  hemihedrism  of  crystals;  in  18.57 
he  became  director  of  scientific  studies  at  the  Paris 
Ecole  Normal,  in  1863  professor  of  geology  and 
chemistry  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  in  1867  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  at  the  .Sorbonne,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1889,  when  he  became  the  Director  of  the 
Pasteur  Institute,  founded  in  his  honour. 

His  early  chemical  studies  led  him  to  the  investiga- 
tion of  fermentation  and  putrefaction,  which  he 
showed  were  due  to  living  germs  of  various  kinds. 
From  this  the  demonstration  that  spontaneous  gen- 
eration does  not  take  place  was  but  a  step.  He  showed 
that  in  highly-organized  material,  if  the  living  germs 
are  all  destroyed,  and  if  further  access  of  germs  be 
prevented,  even  though  air  may  be  allowed  free  access, 
fermentation  or  putrefaction  does  not  take  place.  A 
piece  of  cotton  wool,  or  a  mere  bending  of  the  neck  of 
the  flask  to  keep  germs  from  entering,  is  sufficient  after 
sterilization  to  keep  organic  solutions  quite  sterile. 
The  study  of  fermentations  led  Pasteur  to  studies  in 
vinegar,  wine,  and  beer.  As  the  result  of  his  successful 
invest igation  of  ferments  he  was  asked  by  the  Empress 
Eugenie  whether  he  would  not  now  devote  himself  to 
the'organization  of  great  manufacturing  industries  for 
the  benefit  of  IVance.  He  replied  that  he  considered 
it  quite  beneath  the  dignity  of  a  scientist  to  give  up  his 
time  to  commerce,  and  while  he  was  willing  that  others 
should  take  advantage  of  his  discoveries  he  wanted  to 
push  on  to  further  scientific  work. 

This  was  a  fortunate  decision.  His  successful  inves- 
tigations led  the  French  Government  to  appeal  to  him 
to  study  the  silk-worm  disease.  This  had  produced 
such  ravages  in  the  silk  industry  in  France  that  the 
end  of  it  seemed  not  far  off.     Many  expedients  and 


LOUIS   PASTEUR  IN   HIS   LABORATORY 

PAINTING   BY   A.  EDELFELT 


PASTO 


537 


PASTOR 


supposed  remedies  had  been  tried.  Fresh  sillc-worms 
had  been  brouglit  from  Cliina  on  a  number  of  occa- 
sions, but  they  succumbed  to  the  disease,  or  their 
progeny  became  affected  by  it.  Nothing  availed  and 
the  case  seemeil  hopeless.  Pasteur  found  the  silk- 
worm had  been  suffering  from  two  diseases,  pebrine 
and  flacherie,  and  that  the  spread  of  these  diseases 
could  be  prevented  by  careful  segregation  of  healthy 
worms  from  those  diseased.  The  announcement 
seemed  too  good  to  be  true  and  was  scouted.  Pasteur 
demonstrated  its  absolute  truth  and  his  practical 
ability  by  taking  charge  of  the  villa  of  the  French 
Prince  Imperial,  where  the  silk  industry  had  been 
ruined.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  sale  of  cocoons  gave 
a  net  profit  of  26,000,000  francs  (over  $.5,000,000). 

Naturally  Pasteur  proceeded  to  the  study  of  diseases 
of  animals  and  human  beings.  He  demonstrated  the 
bacterial  cause  of  anthrax,  which  had  made  serious  rav- 
ages among  cattle  in  France.  The  organism  was  dis- 
tributed by  contact,  real  contagion.  Earthworms,  he 
showed,  carry  it  up  from  the  bodies  of  animals  buried 
in  shallow  graves  to  infect  grazing  animals.  He  found 
furtherthathecouldby  heat  reduce  the  vitality  of  thean- 
thrax  microbe,  so  that  it  produced  but  a  mild  form  of 
the  disease  which  would  protect  cattle  against  the  fatal 
form.  Then  he  discovered  the  cause  of  fowl  cholera. 
He  cultivated  it  artificially  and  after  a  time  his  cul- 
tures would  not  produce  the  disease  in  fowl,  though  it 
served  to  protect  them  against  injections  of  virulent 
cultures  which  would  kill  "  control "  fowl.  The  dis- 
coveries of  vaccinating  viruses  for  these  two  diseases 
saved  France  millions  of  dollars  every  year. 

Pasteur  proceeded  with  the  development  of  bac- 
teriology and  its  relation  to  disease.  Having  studied 
many  eases  of  child-bed  fever  at  the  hospitals,  he  de- 
clared before  a  medical  society  that  he  had  seen  its 
cause,  and  challenged  he  drew  a  picture  resembling  a 
rosary  of  what  we  now  know  as  a  streptococcus,  or 
chain  coccus.  He  discovered  other  coccus  (berry) 
forms  of  pathological  microbes,  some  of  them  arranged 
in  bunches  Uke  grapes,  thence  called  staphylococci. 
Finally  came  his  work  on  rabies.  Unable  to  find  the 
cause  of  the  disease,  which  has  not  yet  been  discovered, 
he  succeeded  in  making  from  the  dessicated  spinal 
cords  of  animals  dead  from  the  disease  a  vaccinating 
virus,  which  protects  human  beings  bitten  by  a  rabid 
animal  against  the  development  of  rabies.  This 
treatment  met  with  great  opposition.  The  Germans 
talked  sneeringly  of  "a  remedy  of  which  we  know 
nothing  for  a  disease  of  which  we  know  less".  With 
time  Pasteur's  vindication  came.  The  Russians,  who 
suffered  severely  frOTn  rabies,  from  the  bites  of  mad 
wolves  on  the  steppes,  found  it  of  great  service, 
and  the  tsar  honoured  Pasteur  by  a  personal  visit. 
Next  the  British  in  India  found  it  wonder-working. 
Other  countries  adopted  it.  Finally  the  German 
Government  established  Pasteur  Institutes,  and  ac- 
claimed the  discovery. 

Many  honours  came  to  Pasteur.  Besides  the  Rum- 
ford  and  Copley  Medals  (1856-1874),  in  1868  the 
Austrian  Government  gave  him  a  prize  of  10,000 
francs  for  his  work  on  silk-worms;  in  1873  the  French 
Soci^t6  d'Encouragement,  a  prize  of  12,000  francs; 
the  Russian  Society  of  Rural  Economy, a  medal  (1882); 
the  Albert  medal  (1882);  the  Bressa  Prize,  5000  francs 
(Turin  Academy,  1888);  the  French  Government,  an 
annual  pension  of  12,000  francs  (1874),  increased  in 
188.3  to  25,000  francs,  and  besides  all  the  degrees  of 
the  Legion  of  Honour  orders  were  conferred  on  him 
by  Russia,  Denmark,  Greece,  Brazil,  Sweden,  Turkey, 
Norway,  and  Portugal.  Oxford  gave  him  a  D.C.L., 
Bonn,  an  honorary  M.D.,  the  English  Royal  Society, 
foreign  membership,  and  the  French  Academy,  its 
membership  (1881).  He  was  made  Perpetual  Secre- 
tary of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1887.  There  was 
a  magnificent  celebration  of  his  jubilee  on  his  seven- 
tieth birthday,  27  Dec,  1892,  to  which  contributions 


were  sent  from  every  civilized  country  and  all  the 
gre.it  iiislitulions  of  learning. 

Pasteur'.-'  faith  was  as  genuine  as  his  science.  In 
his  panegyric  of  Littre,  whose /awteui/ he  took,  hesaid: 
"  Ha|)|)y  the  man  who  bears  within  him  a  divinity,  an 
ideal  n\'  hi  auty  and  obeys  it;  an  ideal  of  art,  an  ideal  of 
science,  an  ideal  of  country,  an  ideal  of  the  virtues  of 
the  Gospel".  These  words  are  graven  above  his 
tomb  in  the  Institut  Pasteur.  In  his  address  Pasteur 
said  further  "These  are  the  living  springs  of  great 
thoughts  and  great,  actions.  Everything  grows  clear 
in  the  reflections  from  tlie  Infinite".  Some  of  his  let- 
ters to  his  children  breathe  profound  simple  piety. 
He  declared  "The  more  I  know,  the  more  nearly  is  my 
faith  that  of  the  Breton  peasant.  Could  I  but  know 
all  I  would  have  the  faith  of  a  Breton  peasant  woman." 
What  he  could  not  above  all  understand  is  the  failure 
of  scientists  to  recognize  the  demonstration  of  the  ex- 
istence of  the  Creator  that  there  is  in  the  world  around 
us.  He  died  with  his  rosary  in  his  hand,  after  listening 
to  the  Life  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  which  he  had  asked 
to  have  read  to  him,  because  he  thought  that  his  work 
like  that  of  St.  Vincent  would  do  much  to  save  suffer- 
ing children. 

Pasteur's  principal  works  are:  "Etudes  sur  le  Vin", 
(1866);  "Etudes sur  leVinaigre"  (1868);  "Etudes sur 
la  Maladie  des  Vers  h,  Sole"  (2  vols.,  1870) ;  "Quelques 
Reflexions  sur  la  Science  en  France"  (1871);  "Etudes 
sur  la  Biere"  (1876);  "Les  Microbes  organises,  leur 
role  dans  la  Fermentation,  la  Putrefaction  et  la  Con- 
tagion" (1878);  "Discours  de  Reception  de  M.  L. 
Pasteur  a  I'Academie  Frangaise"  (1882);  "Traite- 
ment  de  la  Rage"  (1886). 

Vallery-Radot,  Life  of  PnslF.ur  (fr.  New  York,  19021;  Dd- 
CLAUX,  Pasteur:  Histoire  d'uii  e^:pril  (P;irisi.  IKOt'il:  V'nirHOW, 
Bert.  Klin.  Wochmschr.  (Ism:,!  'il,"  I  lii-.t.i  i-.n,  /'./  /.„;■  i  Mew 
York.  1900);    Herter.  /-;//  '  .'  <.tence 

(New  York,    1904);    Jubii^  '■:     I  .     I'^iria, 

1893);   Walsh,  Makers  of  ,1;../.,,,    ',;.-/,.:.:-    i\.v,   Vuk,  i;i07). 
James  J.  Wal.sh. 

Pasto,  Diocese  op  (Pastensis,  Pastopolitana), 
a  Colombian  see,  suffragan  of  Popaydn,  from  which  it 
was  separated  by  the  Bull  of  Pius  IX,  "In  excelsa 
mihtantibusecclesia",  10  April,  1859.  Situated  in  the 
State  of  Cauca,  it  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Dioceses  of  Garzon  and  Popayjln,  and  on  the  south  by 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Napo,  Ecuador.  The  present 
bishop,  Mgr  Adolfo  Perea,  b.  1853  in  the  Diocese  of 
Popaydn,  elected  16  December,  1907,  succeeded  Mgr 
Ezequiel  Moreno,  O.S.A.  (b.  at  Alfaro,  Tarazona,  9 
April,  1838,  made  titular  Bishop  of  Pinara,  23  October, 
1893,  transferred  to  Pasto,  2  December,  1893).  The 
diocese  contains  315,640  Catholics,  41,000  pagan  In- 
dians, 68  parishes,  90  secular  and  23  regular  priests, 
133  churches  or  chapels.  The  town  of  Pasto,  contain- 
ing about  12,000  inhabitants,  is  well  built  and  is  a 
bu.sy  trade  centre  between  Colombia  and  Ecuador. 
It  is  situated  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  volcano  La 
Galera  at  an  altitude  of  8650  feet.  Founded  in  1539, 
it  was  captured  by  Bolivar  during  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence in  1822,  and  suffered  severely  from  an 
earthquake  in  1834.  It  contains  many  churches,  a 
seminary,  a  .Jesuit  college,  and  an  hospital  under  the 
care  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  On  23  December, 
1904,  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Caquetd  (q.  v.)  was 
separated  from  Pasto. 

Gkoot,  lift.  -,7.M<f,s/£(7i  y  cipi7  de  Nueva  Granada  (1869); 
CiEzA  DE  I.K..N.  r,,;,,,™  .W  Peru.  I  (Antwerp,  1554);  Pethe,  The 
ReputAicofCihimtna  (I.cjndou,  1906). 

A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Pastor. — This  term  denotes  a  priest  who  has  the 
cure  of  souls  {ciira  nnimariim),  that  is,  who  is  bound  in 
virtue  of  his  office  to  promote  the  spiritual  welfare  of 
the  faithful  by  preaching,  administering  the  sacra- 
ments, and  exercising  certain  powers  of  external  gov- 
ernment, e.  g.,  the  right  of  supervision,  giving  precepts, 
imposing  light  corrections — powers  rather  paternal  in 


PASTOR 


538 


PASTOR 


their  nature,  and  differing  from  those  of  a  bisho]), 
which  are  legislative,  judici.al,  and  coactive.  A  pas- 
tor is  properly  called  a  parish-priest  (paroclnts)  when 
he  exercises  tlie  cure  of  souls  in  his  own  name  with 
regard  to  a  determined  number  of  subjects,  wlio  are 
obUged  to  appl.y  to  him  for  the  reception  of  certain 
sacraments  specified  in  the  law.  In  this  article 
"parish-priest"  is  always  taken  in  this  strict  sense. 
Pastors  (whether  parisli-pricsts  or  not)  are  either  ir- 
removable (iiuimovihilcs)  or  movable  (amovihilcs  ad 
nutum).  An  irremovable  pastor  or  rector  is  one 
whose  office  gives  him  the  right  of  perpetuity  of  tenure; 
that  is,  he  cannot  be  removed  or  transferred  except 
for  a  canonical  reason,  viz.,  a  reason  laid  down  in  the 
law,  and,  in  the  case  of  a  criminal  charge,  only  after 
trial.  (See  Irremov.\bii.ity.)  A  movable  pastor  or 
rector  is  one  whose  office  does  not  give  him  this  right; 
but  the  bishop  m\ist  have  some  just  and  proportionate 
reason  for  dismissing  or  transferring  hira  against  his 
will,  and,  should  the  priest  believe  himself  wronged  in 
the  matter,  he  may  have  recourse  to  the  Holy  See,  or 
to  its  representative  where  there  is  one  having  power 
in  such  cases.  Moreover,  according  to  some  canonists, 
even  movable  pastors  in  case  of  a  criminal  charge 
cannot  be  absolutely  removed  from  their  office  without 
a  trial  (cf.  PierantoncUi,  "Pra.xis  Fori  Ecclesiastici," 
tit.  iv;  Smith,  "Elements  of  Ecclesiastical  Law",  n. 
418.)  This,  certainly,  is  the  case  in  the  United  States 
of  America  (Decrees  of  Propaganda,  28  March,  and 
20  May,  1887). 

The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIV,  cap.  xiii,  de  Ref .) 
shows  it  to  be  the  mind  of  the  Church  that  dioceses 
should,  wherever  it  is  possible,  be  divided  into  canoni- 
cal parishes  (see  Parish),  to  be  governed  by  irremov- 
able parish-priests.  In  places,  therefore,  where  the 
Tridentine  law  cannot  be  fully  carried  out,  bishops 
adopt  measures  which  fulfil  this  requirement  as  nearly 
as  circumstances  allow.  One  such  measure  was  the 
erection  of  quasi-parishes,  districts  with  defined  limits, 
ordered  for  the  United  States  in  1868  (Second  Plenary 
Council  of  Baltimore,  n.  124).  Another  such  was  the 
institution  of  irremovable  rectors  (pastors  with  the 
right  of  perpetuity  of  tenure),  ordered  for  England 
in  1852  (First  Provincial  Council  of  Westminster, 
Deer,  xiii),  and  for  the  United  States  in  1886  (Third 
Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  n.  33). 

The  power  to  appoint  pastors  is  ordinarily  vested 
in  the  bishop.  Among  the  candidates  possessed  of 
the  necessary  qualifications  the  appointment  should 
fall  on  the  one  who  is  best  fitted  for  the  office.  More- 
over, according  to  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  XXIV, 
cap.  xviii,  de  Ref)  candidates  for  the  office  of  parish- 
priest  should  (a  few  cases  excepted)  pass  a  competi- 
tive examination  {concursus).  This  provision  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  is  .sometimes  by  particular  enact- 
ments applied  in  the  selection  of  candidates  for  the 
office  of  irremovable  rectors,  as  happens  in  the 
United  States  (Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
tit.  ii,  cap.  vi). 

With  regard  to  the  faculties  and  powers  of  pastors, 
those  of  pari.sh-priests  are  sufficiently  defined  by  the 
law,  and  hence  are  ordinary,  not  delegated.  Of  these 
faculties  some  are  called  rights  strictly  parochial,  be- 
cause in  a  parish  they  belong  exclusively  to  the  parish- 
priest,  so  that  their  subjects  cannot  with  regard  to 
them  have  recourse  to  another  priest,  except  with  his 
or  the  bishop's  con.scnt.  These  rights  are  the  follow- 
ing: the  right  of  administering  baptism,  holy  viati- 
cum, and  extreme  unction  in  all  cases  where  there  is  no 
urgent  necessity;  the  right  of  administering  paschal 
communion,  of  proclaiming  the  banns  of  marriage,  and 
of  blessing  marriages.  To  the  parish-priest  are  also 
reserved  the  celebration  of  funerals  (except  in  certain 
cases  specified  in  the  law),  and  the  imparting  of  certain 
blessings,  the  chief  one  being  blessing  of  the  bap- 
tismal font.  To  pastors,  who  are  not  parish-priests, 
the  right  of  assisting  at  marriages  is  given  by  the  law 


as  to  parish-priests.  The  other  rights  usually  are 
granted  to  them  by  the  bishops  and  arc  defined  in  the 
particular  laws;  such  is  very  coninioiiiy  the  case  in  the 
United  States,  England,  and  Scotland,  with  regard  to 
baptism,  holy  viaticum,  extreme  unction,  antl  funerals. 
Mention  should  be  made  here  of  the  custom  which 
exists  in  certain  dioceses  of  the  United  States,  whereby 
the  faithful  of  one  district  are  permitted  to  receive 
such  sacraments  from  the  pastor  of  another  district  if 
they  rent  a  pew  in  his  church  (Second  Plenary  Council 
of  Baltimore,  nn.  117,  124,  227,  and  the  statutes  of 
several  diocesan  synods).  Rights  not  strictly  paro- 
chial are  those  which  belong  by  law  to  parish-priests, 
but  not  exclusively.  .Such  are  the  faculties  of  preach- 
ing, celebrating  Mass,  low  or  solemn,  hearing  confes- 
sions, administering  Holy  Communion.  Pastors  who 
are  not  parish-priests  receive  these  faculties  from  their 
bishop. 

Pastors  are  naturally  entitled  to  a  salary.  This  is 
furnished  by  the  revenues  of  the  parochial  benefice, 
should  there  be  one;  otherwise,  it  is  taken  from  the 
revenues  of  the  church  or  from  the  offerings.  Such 
offerings  as  the  faithful  contribute  of  their  own  ac- 
cord, without  specifying  the  purpose  of  their  donation, 
belong  to  the  pastor.  This  assertion  is  based  on  the 
presumption  that  these  gifts  are  meant  to  show  the 
gratitude  of  the  faithful  towards  the  priests  who  spend 
their  lives  in  caring  for  the  souls  committed  to  their 
charge.  This  presumption,  however,  ceases  wherever 
custom  or  law  provides  that  at  least  a  certain  portion 
of  these  offerings  should  belong  to  the  church.  This  is 
generally  the  case  where  churches,  not  possessing  other 
sources  of  income,  depend  entirely  on  the  offerings. 
An  illustration  of  such  laws  is  to  be  found  in  the  eighth 
decree  of  the  Second  Provincial  Council  of  Westmin- 
ster, approved  by  Leo  XIII  in  the  Constitution  "Ro- 
manos  Pontifices"  of  8  May,  1881.  Accordingly,  in 
countries  where  this  is  in  force,  the  usual  collections 
taken  up  in  the  churches  belong  to  each  mission,  in 
addition  to  the  pew-rents,  and  it  is  from  these  reve- 
nues that  the  salaries  of  pastors  and  assistants  are  or- 
dinarily drawn. 

Pastors,  besides  having  rights,  have  also  obliga- 
tions. They  must  preach  and  take  care  of  the  religious 
instruction  of  the  faithful,  especially  of  the  young, 
supply  their  spiritual  needs  by  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments,  reside  in  their  parish  or  mission,  ad- 
minister diligently  the  property  entrusted  to  their 
care,  watch  over  the  moral  conduct  of  their  parish- 
ioners, and  remove,  as  far  as  possible,  all  hindrances 
to  their  salvation.  Moreover,  parish-priests  must 
make  a  profession  of  faith  and  take  the  oath 
prescribed  by  Pius  X  in  his  "  Motu  Proprio ", 
1  Sept.,  1910;  they  must  also  offerthe  Holy  Sacrifice 
on  behalf  of  their  flock  on  Sundays  and  certain 
holydays  set  down  in  the  law.  When  the  number 
of  the  faithful  entrusted  to  the  care  of  the  pastor  is  so 
large  that  he  alone  cannot  fulfil  all  the  duties  incum- 
bent on  his  office,the  bishop  has  the  right  to  order  him 
to  take  as  many  priests  to  help  him  as  may  be  neces- 
sary. These  are  called  assistants  or  auxiliary  priests, 
and  differ  both  from  coadjutors  who  are  given  to  pas- 
tors for  other  reasons  determined  by  the  law,  and  from 
administrators  who  take  charge  of  a  parish  during  its 
vacancy,  or  the  absence  of  its  pastor. 

Positive  law  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XXI,  cap.  iv, 
de  Ref.),  modified  in  some  countries  by  custom,  re- 
serves to  the  parish-priest  the  right  to  choose  his  assist- 
ants, a  choice,  however,  which  is  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  bishop,  and  it  is  also  from  the 
bishop  that  assistants  receive  their  faculties.  The 
amount  of  their  salary  is  likewise  to  be  determined 
by  the  bishop,  and,  as  to  its  source,  the  same  rules 
hold  as  those  already  mentioned  with  regard  to 
pastors.  As  to  their  removal,  (a)  when  their  nom- 
ination belongs  by  law  to  the  parish-priest,  they 
can  be  removed  either  by  him  or  by  the  bishop,  (b) 


PASTORAL 


539 


PASTOUREAUX 


when  their  nomination  belongs  to  the  bishop,  he  alone 
can  remove  them;  in  any  case  a  reasonable  cause  is 
necessary,  at  least  for  the  lawfulness  of  the  act,  and 
the  assistant  who  believes  that  he  has  been  wronged 
may  have  recourse  to  higher  authorities,  as  mentioned 
above  with  regard  to  movable  pastors.  Their  office, 
however,  does  not  cease  with  the  death  of  the  priest  or 
bishop  who  appointed  them,  unless  this  was  clearly 
expressed  in  the  letters  of  appointment.  For  the 
recent  legislation  regarding  the  removal  of  parish- 
priests,  see  P,\RisH,  section  II,  2. 

Baaht,  Legal  Formulary  (4th  ed.,  New  York),  nn.  86-113; 
Bouix.  De  Parocho  (3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1SS9)  ;  Ferkaris,  Biblio- 
theca  Canonica  etc.  (Rome.  1885-99) ;  Nardi,  Dei  Parrochi 
(Peaaro,  1829-60) ;  Santi,  Pra:lectiones  juris  canonici  (New  York, 
1905);  Scherer.  Handbuch  des  Kirchenrechts  (Graz.  1886),  xcii- 
iii;  Smith,  Elements  of  Ecclesiastical  Law,  I  (9th  ed.,  New  York, 
1893),  nn.  639-70;  Wbrnz,  Jus  Decretalium  (Rome,  1899),  tit. 
xxxix;  Raymundi  Antonii  Episcopi,  Instructio  Pastoralis  (5th 
ed.,  Freiburg,  1902) ;  Aichner,  Compendium  juris  eccl.  (6th  ed., 
Brixen,  1887),  426^1;  Cronin,  The  New  Matrimonial  Legislation 
(Rome,  1908).  HecTOB  Papi. 

Pastoral  Letters.    See  Letters,  Ecclesiastical. 
Pastoral  Staff.     See  Crosier. 
Pastoral  Theology.     See  Theology. 

Pastoureaux,  Crusade  of  the,  one  of  the  most 
curious  ( >f  t  he  •  I II  ipular  movements  inspired  by  adesire  to 
deliver  tlie  Holy  Land.  St.  Louis,  King  of  France,  had 
gone  on  the  Crusade  (1248),  leaving  the  regency  to  his 
mother,  Blanche  of  Castile.  Defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Mansourah  (8  Feb.,  12.50)  and  taken  prisoner,  he  re- 
gained his  freedom  by  surrendering  Damietta,  em- 
barked for  Saint-Jean  il'Acre,  and  sent  his  brothers  to 
France  to  obtain  relief.  But  Blanche  of  Castile  en- 
deavoured in  vain  to  send  him  reinforcements,  neither 
nobles  nor  clergy  showing  good  will  in  this  respect.  At 
this  juncture  the  shepherds  and  labourers  rose  up,  an- 
nouncing that  they  would  go  to  the  king's  rescue. 
About  Easter  (16  April),  12.51,  a  mysterious  person 
whose  real  name  is  unknown  but  who  was  soon  called 
the  "Master  of  Hungary",  began  to  preach  the  Cru- 
sade in  the  name  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  to  the  shepherds 
in  the  north  of  France.  He  was  sixty  years  of  age  and 
aroused  wonder  by  his  long  beard,  his  thin  face,  and 
his  always-closed  hand,  which  held,  it  was  said,  the 
map  given  to  him  by  the  Blessed  Virgin.  He  drew 
crowds  by  his  eloquence,  and  distributed  the  Cross 
among  them  without  authorization  from  the  Church. 

The  movement  spread  rapidly — from  Picardy  to 
Flanders,  then  to  Brabant,  Hainault,  Lorraine,  and 
Burgundy.  Soon  an  army  of  30,000  men  was  formed, 
carrying  a  banner  on  which  was  depicted  the  Blessed 
Virgin  appearing  to  the  Master  of  Hungary.  The 
movement  was  equally  successful  in  the  towns,  and 
the  citizens  of  Amiens  furnished  provisions  to  the 
army.  However  the  Pastoureaux  soon  showed  them- 
selves hostile  to  the  clergy,  especially  to  the  Friars 
Preachers,  whom  they  accused  of  having  induced  St. 
Louis  to  go  to  Palestine.  Moreover,  a  host  of  idlers, 
robbers,  cut-throats,  and  fallen  women  joined  their 
ranks,  and  thenceforth  with  growing  audacity  they 
slew  clerics  and  preached  against  the  bishops  and  even 
the  pope.  Blanche  of  Castile  seems  to  have  imagined 
that  she  could  send  the  Pastoureaux  to  the  relief  of  St. 
Louis,  and  summoning  the  master  to  her  she  ques- 
tioned him  and  dismissed  him  with  gifts. 

Emboldened  by  this  reception  the  Pastoureaux  en- 
tered Paris,  and  the  grand-master,  wearing  a  mitre, 
preached  from  the  pulpit  of  St.  Eustache.  Clerics 
and  monks  were  hunted,  slain,  and  thrown  into  the 
Seine,  the  Bishop  of  Paris  was  insulted,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  was  compelled  in  its  own  defence  to 
close  the  Petit-Pont  between  the  Cit6  and  the  left 
bank  of  the  Seine.  The  Pastovireaux  then  left  Paris 
and  divided  into  several  armies  which  spread  terror 
everywhere,  ki  Rouen  the  archbishop  and  his  clergy 
were  expelled  from  the  cathedral  (4  June,  1251).    At 


Orleans  a  large  number  of  university  clerics  were 
killed  and  thrown  into  the  Loire  (11  June).  At  Tours 
the  Pastoureaux  took  by  storm  the  convent  of 
the  Dominicans  and  desecrated  the  churches.  The 
credulous  populace  regarded  them  as  saints  and 
brought  them  the  sick  to  be  cured.  At  last  Blanche  of 
Castile  realized  that  she  had  been  mistaken  and  com- 
manded the  royal  officers  to  arrest  and  destroy  them. 
When  they  reached  Bourges  the  clerics  and  priests  had 
fled,  whereupon  they  seized  the  possessions  of  the 
Jews,  sacked  the  synagogues,  and  pillaged  the  city. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  imprison  them,  but  they 
broke  down  the  gates.  A  troop  of  citizens  pursued 
and  halted  them  near  Villeneuve-sur-Cher.  The  Mas- 
ter of  Hungary  was  slain,  together  with  a  large  num- 
ber of  his  followers.  Some  reached  the  valley  of  the 
Rhone  and  even  Marseilles;  others  went  to  Bordeaux, 
whence  they  were  driven  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl 
of  Leicester  and  Governor  of  Guienne  in  the  name  of 
the  King  of  England,  who  caused  their  leader  to  be 
thrown  into  the  Gironde. 

Another  leader  went  to  England  and  assembled 
some  shepherds  who,  learning  that  the  Pastoureaux 
were  excommunicated,  killed  him.  Henry  II  ordered 
the  Lord  Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports  to  take 
measures  to  prevent  their  invasion  of  his  king- 
dom. Some  of  them  submitted,  and  after  having  re- 
ceived the  Cross  at  the  hands  of  clerics  set  out  for  the 
Holy  Land.  Ecclesiastical  chroniclers  assert  that  the 
Pastoureaux  had  concluded  with  the  sultan  a  secret 
treaty  to  subject  Christianity  to  Mohammedanism. 
"It  is  said  that  they  have  resolved  first  to  exterminate 
the  clergy  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  then  to  suppress 
the  religious,  and  finally  to  fall  upon  the  knights  and 
nobles  in  order  that  the  country  thus  deprived  of  de- 
fence may  more  easily  be  delivered  up  to  the  errors 
and  incursions  of  the  pagans"  (Letter  from  the  Guar- 
dian of  the  Paris  Friars  Minor  to  his  brethren  at  Ox- 
ford; Chartularium  Univ.  Parisiensis,  Paris,  1889,  I, 
225).  This  is  obviously  a  fable,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
tliis  popular  movement,  sincere  and  somewhat  mysti- 
cal in  origin,  soon  acquired  an  anarchistic  character. 

The  same  is  true  of  the  second  movement  of  the 
Pastoureaux  in  1320  during  the  reign  of  Philip  V.  In 
the  north  of  France  a  suspended  priest  and  unfrocked 
monk  preached  the  Crusade  to  a  band  of  peasants, 
thundering  against  the  indifference  of  the  king  and  the 
nobles  with  regard  to  the  deliverance  of  Palestine.  As 
in  1251,  the  ignorant  mystics  were  soon  joined  by  ruf- 
fians of  every  description  whose  object  was  to  profit  by 
their  simplicity.  Clad  in  rags  and  armed  with  sticks 
and  knives  they  marched  on  Paris,  liberated  the  pris- 
oners in  the  Chdtelet,  and  defied  the  king,  who  merely 
intrenched  himself  in  the  palace  of  the  Cite  and  in  the 
Louvre.  From  Paris  they  went  to  Berry,  thence  to 
Saintonge  and  Aquitaine  to  the  number  of  40,000,  pil- 
laging as  they  went.  At  Verdun-sur-Garonne  five 
hundred  Jews  imprisoned  in  a  dungeon  strangled  one 
another  so  as  not  to  fall  into  their  hands.  They  were 
often  aided  by  the  people  of  the  cities  and  even  the  mid- 
dle-class citizens  applauded  the  massacre  of  the  Jews. 
In  reply  to  the  papal  excommunication  they  marched  to 
Avignon,  and  then  resolved  to  embark  like  St.  Louis 
at  Aigues-Moretes.  But  the  Scnescliul  of  Carcassonne 
assembled  his  men  at  arms,  closr<l  the  gates  of  the  city 
against  them,  and  drove  them  into  the  neighbouring 
marshes,  where  hunger  dispersed  them.  The  soldiers 
then  organized  hunting  parties  which  resulted  in  the 
hanging  of  thousands  of  the  Pastoureaux,  but  for  a 
long  time  a  number  of  their  bands  continued  to  lay 
waste  the  south  of  France. 

Chroniques  de  St.  Denis  in  Hist,  de  Pr.,  XXI,  1 15  sq.;  Bergbr, 
Hist,  de  Blanche  de  Caslille  (Paris.  1895),  392-402;  Bemont, 
Simon  de  Montfort.  Vomtp  dc  Leicester  (Paris,  1884);  Rohricht, 
Die  Pa.itorellen  in  Zril.  fllr  Kirchengesch.  (1884),  290-96;  ViDAL, 
V^mmte  des  Pa^lonreauT  en  l^£0  in  Annates  de  St.  Louis  des 
Frarifai-i  (1899),  121-74;  Lehuqueur,  Hist,  de  Philippe  le  Long 
(Paris,  1897),  417-21.  LoDIS   BllfiHIER. 


PATAGONIA 


540 


PATAGONIA 


Patagonia  is  tlic  name  given  to  the  southernmost 
extremity  of  South  America.  Its  boundary  on  the  nort  h 
is  about  44°  S.  lat.,  and  on  the  south  the  Straits  of 
Magellan.  On  the  west  it  extends  to  the  Cordilleras 
and  Chile,  and  on  the  east  to  the  South  Atlantic.  It 
has  an  area  of  about  300,000  square  miles.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  IMapellan  in  1520,  although  as  early  as 
1428  a  map  of  the  world  described  by  Antonio  Galvao 
showed  the  Straits  of  Magellan  under  the  title  of  the 
Dragon's  Tail.  Magellan  is  supposed  to  have  called 
the  inhabitants  "Patagoas"  on  account  of  the  large- 
ness of  their  feet.  To  this  day  they  wear  coltskin 
shoes  which  project  far  beyond  their  toes,  which  ac- 
counts for  their  size  and  his  mistake. 

The  surface  of  the  country  is  very  varied.  Track- 
less pampas  (plains)  rise  in  gently  graduated  terraces 
to  the  lofty  ranges  of  the  Andes,  between  which  there 
is  a  mighty  network  of  lakes  and  lagoons.  From  the 
south  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  stretch  these  pampas  in 
ever-rolling  waves  of  tussock  grass,  tliorn  bushes, 
guanacos,  and  mirages.  On  the  western  rim  the  Cor- 
dilleras rise  against  the  sky,  holding  in  their  jagged 
bosoms  glaciers  and  icy  blue  lakes.  On  the  flanks  of 
these  mountains  are  to  be  found  thousands  of  square 
miles  of  shaggy,  primeval  forests,  only  the  bare  edges 
of  which  have  up  to  the  present  been  explored.  On  the 
eastern  coast  the  Chubut,  the  Deseado,  the  Southern 
Chico  (which  joins  the  Santa  Cruz  in  a  wide  estuary 
before  emptying  its  waters  into  the  South  Atlantic), 
and  the  Gallegos,  are  the  only  really  important  rivers. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  eastern  part  of  Pata- 
gonia is  level  and  treeless,  with  few  bays,  whilst  the 
west,  really  the  Chilian  seaboard,  is  everywhere 
pierced  with  fiords,  and  has  many  headlands  covered 
with  dark,  thick  forests,  jutting  out  into  the  sea. 

The  climate  in  the  north  of  Patagonia  is  not  so 
severe  as  in  the  south.  Very  little  ice  is  seen  there, 
except  in  the  mountains,  and  snow  seldom  remains 
long  on  the  ground.  In  the  south  it  is  very  cold,  the 
ground  being  covered  with  snow  in  winter,  and  the 
lakes  and  rivers  choked  with  ice.  For  at  least  six 
months  in  the  year  there  are  strong  gales  of  wind,  and 
rain  is  prevalent  all  over  the  country.  In  the  south 
there  is  practically  no  summer,  whilst  in  the  north 
there  is  a  mild  season  which  lasts  for  several  months. 

The  principal  settlements  are:  Gallegos,  3000  in- 
habitants, on  the  Gallegos  River;  Punta  Arenas, 
11,000  inhabitants;  and  the  smaller  WeLsh  ones  at 
Trelew,  Rawson,  Gaimon  Colhaupi  near  Lake  Mus- 
ters, and  Chubut.  The  original  inhabitants  are  all 
descended  from  the  Araucanian  race.  They  are 
mostly  tall  and  muscular,  averaging  at  least  six  feet, 
and  are  splendidly  developed.  In  the  interior  are  to 
be  found  the  Pampas  Indians  and  the  tribes  of  the 
Tehuelches.  The  latter  are  very  lazy,  and  among.st 
those  whom  the  missionaries  have  not  yet  evangelized; 
it  is  said  that  wives  are  still  bought  and  sold.  There  is 
the  tribe  of  the  Alacalufe  in  the  south,  and  the  warlike 
Onas  who  inhabit  Tierra  del  I^uego.  The  natives  are 
nomadic  in  their  habits,  and  live  principally  on  the 
products  of  the  chase.  They  hunt  the  pampa  fox,  the 
ostrich  (rhea  Darwini),  the  guanaco  or  wild  llama,  and 
the  puma.  Some  of  the  tribes,  however,  are  not  suffi- 
ciently civilized  to  understand  the  use  of  the  bow  and 
arrow.  They  live  in  (oWo.s,  or  tents  made  of  raw  hide. 
Agriculture  is  unknown  among  them.  They  arc  ruled 
by  military  governors  from  Chili  or  Argentina,  accord- 
ing to  the  territory  in  which  they  live.  These  gover- 
nors reside  in  the  larger  settlements,  such  as  Punta 
Arenas,  Gallegos,  and  Chubut.  They  are  each  at  the 
head  of  a  small  military  force,  to  be  used  if  necessary 
in  punitive  exT>edition8. 

Their  religion  is  the  cnidest  form  of  Dualism.  They 
believe  in  a  bad  spirit  called  Gualicho,  and  in  an  infe- 
rior good  spirit.  The  latter  is  iiiurh  neglcrlfd,  whilst 
the  former,  with  his  attendant  <lcvils,  rcciuirc.f  a  great 
deal  of  propitiation.    Their  notion  of  ifcaven  is  a  very 


elementary  one,  and  consists  in  a  kind  of  happy  hunt- 
ing ground.  Their  language  is  guttural  and  harsh. 
It  is  very  deficient  in  words,  one  sound  having 
frequently  to  do  duty  for  a  large  number  of  ideas". 
Owing,  however,  to  their  intercourse  with  the  whites, 
many  of  them  have  acquired  a  sufficient  knowledge  of 
Spanish  to  make  themselves  understood.  Ancient 
remains  have  been  discovered  in  the  country,  at  about 
44°  S.  lat.  Skulls  and  flint  arrow-heads  and  knives 
have  been  found,  also  the  mummy  of  a  female,  which 
has  been  presented  to  the  Smithsonian  Institute. 
There  is  no  industry  to  be  found  in  Patagonia,  except 
among  the  European  settlers.  They  are  largely  en- 
gaged in  sheep  breeding,  and  in  cattle  and  horse 
raising. 

The  government  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Pata- 
gonia is  divided  into  two  parts,  northern  and  southern. 
The  Vicariate  of  Northern  Patagonia  was  founded  in 
1883,  and  canonically  approved  by  Decree  on  20  Jan., 
1902.  Monsignor  Giovanni  Cagliero,  S.C.,  titular 
Archbishop  of  Sebaste,  and  Apostolic  Delegate  of 
Costa  Rica,  is  at  its  head,  with  the  Very  Rev.  Father 
Stefano  Pagliere,  S.C.,  as  his  vicar-general  for  the 
missions.  The  entire  vicariate  is  under  the  control 
and  direction  of  the  Salesian  Congregation.  There  are 
now  in  it  about  fifty  priests  and  a  large  number  of 
brothers,  engaged  in  mission  work  and  in  the  various 
institutes  and  schools.  In  the  beginning  the  pioneer 
work  was  done  by  Monsignor  Cagliero,  F'athers  Fa- 
gnano,  Costamagna,  Rabagliati,  and  Espinosa,  who 
formed  a  small  band  of  missionaries,  carefully  trained 
under  the  eye  of  the  founder  of  the  congregation, 
Don  Bosco.  So  far  there  has  been  no  synod,  the  spe- 
cial conditions  of  the  situation  rendering  it  unneces- 
sary. Besides  the  priests  who  are  sent  on  the  mission 
from  Europe,  there  are  many  undergoing  training  in 
the  institutes  and  houses  establishefl  in  the  xicariate. 
Each  house  is  a  centre  from  which  the  natives  are 
visited  in  their  settlements.  There  are  at  present 
nineteen  centres,  which  are  situated  as  follows: — 

The  Institute  of  Don  Bosco  of  the  Holy  Family,  the 
parish  church  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  and  the  subordi- 
nate church  and  Institute  of  Our  Lady  of  Pity,  all  in 
the  same  settlement  of  Bahia  Blanca;  the  Mission  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  at  Choele-Choel ;  the 
parish  church  of  Our  Lady  Immaculate,  at  Chos- 
malal;  the  church  and  Institute  of  St.  Lawrence,  at 
Conesa-Sur;  the  Institute  of  St.  Peter,  at  Fortin 
Mercedes;  the  parish  and  Institute  of  Mary  Immacu- 
late, at  General  Acha;  the  parish  of  St.  Rose  of  Toay, 
at  Guardia  Pringles;  the  parish  and  Institute  of  Our 
Lady  of  Snow,  at  Junin  de  los  Andes;  the  parish  of 
Our  Lady  of  Carmel  and  the  Institute  of  St.  Joseph, 
at  Patagones;  the  parish  and  Institute  of  St.  Michael, 
and  St.  Joseph's  School  of  Agriculture,  at  Roca;  the 
parish  and  Institute  of  Mary  Help  of  Christians,  at 
Victorica;  the  parish  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  and  the 
Institute  of  Arts  and  Trades,  dedicated  to  St.  Francis 
de  Sales,  at  Viedma;  the  Michael  Rua  Institute  and 
the  Mission  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  at  Puerto 
Madryn,  Chubut;  the  parish  and  Institute  of  Our 
Lady  of  Sorrows,  at  Rawson;  and  St.  Dominic's 
Institute,  at  Trelew. 

The  Prefecture  of  Southern  Patagonia  was  founded 
in  1883,  and  received  canonical  approval  by  Decree 
dated  20  Jan.,  1902.  The  prefect  Apostolic  is  Mon- 
signor Fagnano,  S.C.  This  prefecture  is  also  vmder 
the  control  of  the  Salesian  Congregation,  all  its  mis- 
sions and  institutes  being  in  the  hands  of  its  members. 
There  are  about  twenty-four  priests  engaged  in  mis- 
sion and  teaching  work,  and  there  are  also  many 
brothers  being  prepared  for  the  same  field  of  labour. 
In  this  southern  part  of  Patagonia  the  pioneer  work 
was  done  by  Monsignor  Fagnano,  with  Fathers  Heau- 
voir,  Borga'tello,  and  Diamond;  the  latter  afterwards 
foundcfl  the  Mission  of  Our  Lady  Star  of  the  Sea,  at 
Port  Stanley,  J^alkland  Islands,  in  1888. 


PATARA 


541 


PATEN 


There  are  at  present  ten  centres,  which  are  situated 
as  follows: — The  Mission  of  Our  Lady  of  Candelaria, 
at  Cabo  Pefia;  the  Mission  of  St.  Agnes,  at  Cabo 
Santa  Ines;  the  Mission  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and 
that  of  St.  Raphael,  on  Dawson  Island;  the  parish  and 
Institute  of  Our  Lady  of  Lujin,  Gallegos,  on  the  River 
Gallegos;  the  church  and  Institute  of  Our  Lady  Star 
of  the  Sea,  at  Port  Stanley,  Falkland  Islands;  the 
Institute  of  St.  Joseph,  at  Punta  Arenas,  and  the 
dependent  parish  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  at  Porvenir; 
the  parish  and  Institute  of  the  Holy  Cross,  at  Santa 
Cruz ;  and  the  Church  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  at 
Ushaia,  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

In  both  Northern  and  Southern  Patagonia  the 
entire  religious  and  educational  work  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  Salesian  Congregation,  and  the  Sisters  of  Mary 
Help  of  Christians.  There  is  no  other  religious  order 
at  present  in  Patagonia,  and  no  native  missionaries. 
Many  Indian  youths  have  been  received  as  students, 
but  so  far  not  one  has  been  raised  to  the  dignity  of  the 
priesthood. 

The  principal  work  of  the  Sisters  of  Mary  Help  of 
Christians  is  the  care  of  children,  especially  during 
the  winter  time.  In  fact  this  is  the  only  period  of  the 
year  when  the  children  can  be  instructed  in  the  Cath- 
olic religion,  as  during  the  summer  months  they  are 
away  with  their  parents  on  their  nomadic  excursions. 
The  children  in  the  institutes,  which  are  attached  to 
nearly  every  one  of  the  Salesian  Missions,  are  fed, 
clothed,  and  taught  by  the  nuns.  A  few  of  the  girls 
have  been  admitted  into  the  order,  where  they  are 
working  for  their  compatriots. 

The  Sodality  of  the  Children  of  Man,',  among  the 
girls,  the  Guild  of  St.  Aloysius,  among  the  boys,  and 
the  Confraternity  of  the  Sacred  Heart  among  the 
adults,  are  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Slowly  and 
steadily,  as  far  as  it  can  be  done,  the  Catholic  paro- 
chial system  and  life  are  being  introduced  and  devel- 
oped among  these  poor  and  uncivilized  natives. 

Reid.  Patagonian  Antiquities:  Pritch.ihd,  Through  the  Heart 
of  Patagonia  (London,  1902) ;  Darwin.  Origin  of  Species  (London, 
L8.S8),  xi.  xii;  Idem.  The  Voyage  of  the  Beagle  (London,  1839 — ); 
Snow,  A  Two  Years^  Cruise  off  .  ,  .  Patagonia;  Musters,  At 
Home  with  the  Patagonians  (London,  1873):  Cunningham,  Natu- 
ral History  nf  the  Strait  of  Magellan  (Edinburgh,  1878);  Moreno, 
Viage  d  la  Patagonia;  LiSTA,  Mis  esploraciones  .  ,  ,  en  la  Pata- 
gonia (Buenos  .\yres,  1880);  BovE.  Patagonia,  Tierra  del  Fuego; 
Onelli,  a  trovers  les  Andes;  The  Salesian  Bulletin;  Catalogue  of 
the  Salesian  Congregation  (1910).  ErNEST    MaRSH. 

Fatara,  titular  see  of  Lycia,  suffragan  of  Myra, 
formerly  a  large  commercial  town,  opposite  Rhodes. 
Founded  perhaps  by  the  Phoenicians,  it  received  later 
a  Dorian  colony  from  Crete;  a  legend  traces  its  found- 
ation to  Patarus,  son  of  Apollo.  Renowned  for  its 
wealth,  it  was  more  so  for  its  temple  of  Apollo  where 
the  oracles  of  the  god  were  rendered  during  the  winter. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus  extended  it,  naming  it 
Arsinoe.  On  his  third  missionary  journey  St.  Paul 
embarked  from  here  for  Tyre  (Acts,  xxi,  1-3).  The 
"  NotitisB  Episcopatuum  "  menf  ion  it  among  the  suffra- 
gans of  Myra  as  late  as  the  thirteenth  century.  Lc 
Quien  (Orienschristianus,  1, 977)  names  seven  bishops: 
St.  Methodius,  more  probably  Bishop  of  Olympus;  Eu- 
demus,  at  Nica;a,  325;  Eutychianus,  at  Seleucia,  359; 
Eudemus,  at  Constantinople,  381;  Cyrinus,  at  Chalce- 
don,  451,  signed  the  letter  of  the  bishops  of  Lycia 
to  Emperor  Leo,  458;  Licinius,  at  Constantinople, 
536;  Theodulus,  at  the  Photian  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople, 879.  Its  ruins  are  still  visible  near  Djelemish, 
vilayet  of  Koniah;  they  consist  of  the  remains  of  a 
theatre  built  by  Antoninus  Pius,  public  baths  of  the 
time  of  Vespasian,  temples,  and  tombs.  The  port 
is  choked  with  sand. 

Smith.  Dirt,  of  Creek  and  Roman  Geog.,8.v.:  Beaufort,  Kara- 
mania,  II,  6:  Fellows,  An  account  of  Discoveries  in  Lycia  (London, 
1841),  222:  .Spratt  and  Forbes,  Travels  in  Lycia  (London.  1847), 
I,  30,  II,  189;  Benndorf  and  Niemann,  Reisen  in  Lykien  und- 
Karien  (Vienna.  1884),  I.  114  aq.,  II,  118;  Hill,  Catalogue  of  the 
Greek  Coins  of  Lycia,  25-27.  g.  P^TRIofcs. 


Paten. — The  eucharistic  vessel  known  as  the  palen 
is  a  small  shallow  plate  or  disc  of  precious  metal  upon 
which  the  element  of  bread  is  offered  to  God  at  the 
Offertory  of  the  Mass,  and  upon  which  the  consecrated 
Host  is  again  placed  after  the  Fraction.  The  word 
paten  comes  from  a  Latin  form  patina  or  palena,  evi- 
dently imitated  from  the  Greek  Trardi'i;.  It  seems 
from  the  beginning  to  have  been  used  to  denote  a  flat 
open  vessel  of  the  nature  of  a  plate  or  dish.  Such 
vessels  in  the  first  centuries  were  used  in  the  service 
of  the  altar,  and  probably  served  to  collect  the  offer- 
ings of  bread  made  by  the  faithful  and  also  to  dis- 
tribute the  consecrated  fragments  which,  after  the 
loaf  had  been  broken  by  the  celebrant,  were  brought 
down  to  the  communicants,  who  in  their  own  hands 
received  each  a  portion  from  the  palina.  It  should  be 
noted,  however,  that  Duchesne,  arguing  from  the  lan- 
guage of  the  earliest  Orchnes  Romani  (q.  v.),  believes 
that  at  Rome  white  linen  bags  were  used  for  this  pur- 
pose (Duchesne,  "Lib.  Pont.",  I,introduct.,  p.  cxliv). 
We  have,  however,  positive  evidence  that  silver 
dishes  were  in  use,  which  were  called  palinos  ministe- 
riales,  and  which  seem  to  be  closely  connected  with 
the  cnlices  minisierialcs  in  which  the  consecrated  wine 
was  brought  to  the  people.  Some  of  these  patincE,  as 
we  learn  from  the  inventories  of  church  plate  in  the 
"Liber  Pontificalis"  (I,  pp.  202,  271  etc.),  weighed 
twenty  or  thirty  pounds  and  must  have  been  of  large 
size.  In  the  earliest  times  the  patens,  like  the  chalices, 
were  probably  constructed  of  glass,  wood,  and  copper, 
as  well  as  of  gold  and  silver;  in  fact  the  "Liber  Ponti- 
ficalis" (I,  61  and  139)  speaks  of  glass  patens  in  its 
notice  of  Pope  Zephyrinus  (a.  d.  198-217). 

When  towards  the  ninth  century  the  zeal  of  the 
faithful  regarding  the  frequent  reception  of  Holy 
Communion  very  much  declined,  the  system  of  conse- 
crating the  bread  offered  by  the  faithful  and  of  dis- 
tributing Communion  from  the  patinm  seems  grad- 
ually to  have  changed,  and  the  use  of  the  large  and 
proportionately  deep  palina  ministeriales  fell  into 
abeyance.  It  was  probably  about  the  same  time 
that  the  custom  grew  up  for  the  priest  himself  to  use  a 
paten  at  the  altar  to  contain  the  sacred  Host,  and 
obviate  the  danger  of  scattered  particles  after  the 
Fraction.  This  paten,  however,  was  of  much  smaller 
size  and  resembled  those  with  which  we  are  now 
familiar.  Some  rather  doubtful  specimens  of  the  old 
ministerial  patens  are  preserved  in  modern  times. 
The  best  authenticated  seems  to  be  one  discovered  in 
Siberia  in  1867  (see  de  Rossi  in  "Boll,  di  Archeol. 
Crist.",  1871,  153),  but  this  measures  less  than  seven 
inches  in  diameter.  Another,  of  gold,  of  oblong  form, 
was  found  at  Gourdon.  There  is  also  what  is  believed 
to  be  a  Byzantine  paten  of  alabaster  in  the  treasury 
of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice.  Some  of  these  patens  are 
highly  decorated,  and  this  is  what  we  should  expect 
from  the  accounts  preserved  in  the  "Liber  Pontifi- 
calis". In  the  altar  patens  of  the  medieval  period  we 
usually  find  a  more  marked  central  depression  than  is 
now  customary.  This  well  or  depression  is  usually 
set  round  with  ornamental  lobes,  seven,  ten,  or  more 
in  number.  At  the  present  day  hardly  any  ornament 
is  used  or  permitted. 

The  paten,  like  the  bowl  of  the  chalice,  must  be 
of  gold  or  silver  gilt,  and  it  cannot  be  used  before  it 
has  been  consecrated  with  chrism  by  a  bi.shop.  The 
formula  employed  s[)e:iks  of  the  vessel  as  blessed  "for 
the  administration  of  the  Eucharist  of  Jesus  Christ, 
that  the  Body  of  our  Lord  may  be  broken  upon  it", 
and  also  as  "the  new  sepulchre  of  the  Body  and  Blood 
of  Jesus  Christ".  In  the  Oriental  liturgies  there  is 
placed  upon  the  altar  a  vessel  called  the  discus, 
analogous  to  the  paten,  but  it  is  of  considerably 
larger  size. 

IvRULLin  Kbaus.  Rcnhr.  ,  •  ■  '•  ■  Christ.  Alt.:  de  Fledrt. 
La  Mcsse,  IV  (Paris,  ISS.  i  I  .  <■.  .  ■nli  the  plate.**  thereto  be- 
longing, which  supply  tin  I,,  t  .^  nl  ilil,.  eoUection  of  ilhistra- 
tiona;  Otte,   Ilandb,   dcr  l\inj,.  Kwi.-t-Archdologic,  1  (Leipzig, 


PATENSON 


542 


PATHOLOGY 


1883),  231:  Aldenkibchen,  Drci  liturg.  Schaaselnd.  M.A.  (Bonn, 
1883):  Kaufmann,  //amii>.  d.c.Archtol.  (Paderborn,  1901),  503 
eq.;  KleiNSCHMIDT  in  Thcal.  Prak.  Quarlatschrifl  (1901),  32, 
(1902).  289. 

Herbert  Thdrston. 

Patenson,  William,  Venerable,  English  mar- 
tyr, b.  in  Yorkshire  or  Durham;  d.  at  Tyburn,  22 
January,  1591-2.  Admitted  to  the  English  College, 
Reims,  1  May,  15S4,  he  was  ordained  priest  Sep- 
tember, 1587,  and  left  for  the  English  mission  17 
January,  1588-9.  On  the  third  Sunday  of  Advent, 
1.591,  he  said  Mass  in  the  house  of  Mr.  Lawrence 
Mompesson  at  Clerkenwell,  and  while  dining  with 
another  priest,  James  Young,  the  priest-catchers  sur- 
prised them.  Y'oung  found  a  hitling-place,  but  Pat- 
enson was  arrested  and  condemned  at  the  Old  Bai- 
ley after  Christmas.  According  to  Y'oung,  while  in 
prison  he  converted  and  reconciled  three  or  four 
thieves  before  their  death.  According  to  Richard 
Vcrstegan,  he  converted,  the  night  before  his  martyr- 
dom, six  out  of  seven  felons,  who  occupied  the  con- 
demned cell  with  him.  On  this  account  he  was  cut 
down  while  still  conscious. 

Pollen.  Acts  of  the  English  Martyrs  (London.  1891),  115-7; 
English  Martyrs  1384-1603  (London,  190S),  208.  292;  Ch.iI/- 
LONER.  Missionary  Priests,  I,  no.  94;  Knox,  Douay  Diaries  (Lon- 
don, 1878),  201,  217,  222. 

John  B.  Wainewright. 

Pathology,  Mental. — I.  Localization  of  Men- 
tal F.^culties. — In  the  cerebral  cortex — that  is,  the 
thin  covering  which  envelopes  the  entire  surface  of  the 
brain — are  distinguished  various  areas,  connected  by 
long  nerve  tracts  with  the  organs  of  sense,  the  skin,  the 
muscles,  and  in  fact  with  the  entire  surface  of  the  body. 
These  connexions  constitute  what  is  known  as  the  Pro- 
jection System.  There  are  other  areas  which  are  not 
connected  with  the  outer  world,  but  are  related  in  the 
closest  manner  by  numerous  nerve  fibres  one  with 
another,  and  with  the  areas  of  the  projection  system. 
These  constitute  the  Association  System.  In  the  for- 
mer, definite  elementary  psycho-physiological  func- 
tions are  accurately  localized.  There  are  sharply 
defined  centres  for  the  movements  of  the  individual 
members  (the  tongue  etc.),  for  the  sensations  (taste 
etc.),  for  hearing,  sight  etc.  In  the  left  cerebral  hemi- 
sphere (in  the  right  for  left-handed  persons),  there  is  a 
specifically  human  centre,  that  for  speech;  destruc- 
tion of  this  definite  portion  of  the  brain  cortex  causes 
a  loss  of  the  power  of  speech  and  of  the  understanding 
of  spoken  words,  even  though  there  be  no  deafness, 
paralysis  of  the  tongue,  mental  disorder,  or  anything 
of  this  order. 

The  higher  and  specifically  psychical  functions,  and 
indeed  all  psychical  processes  (attention,  mental 
moods,  will,  etc.)  are  localized  in  the  association  cen- 
tres, the  entire  massive  frontal  lobes  serving  exclu- 
sively aa  such.  Modern  attempts  to  localize  the 
individual  mental  faculties  are  as  little  successful  as 
Gall's  endeavours  to  deduce  scientifically  defects  or 
developments  from  the  formation  of  the  skull. 

The  external  forms  of  normal  psychical  conduct 
have  a  normally  functionating  foundation — a  healthy 
brain  cortex;  unhealthy  changes  in  this  latter  dis- 
turb the  normal  psychical  processes,  that  is,  they  lead 
to  mental  disease. 

II.  Causes  of  Mental  Disturbances. — The  nor- 
mal mechanism  of  the  eorebr;il  cortex  may  be  impaired 
in  a  variety  of  ways.  Impairment  may  result  from  the 
originally  insufficient  or  defective  construction  of  the 
entire  brain  (a.s  in  congenital  dementia,  idiocy),  or  by 
the  destruction  of  extensive  nortions  of  the  normally 
developed  brain  by  injurj',  inflammation,  softening, 
malignant  new  growths  etc.  In  very  many  cases  it  is 
due  to  the  action  of  poisons,  which  either  temporarily 
or  permanently  affect  the  activities  of  the  sound  and 
well-proportioned  elements  of  the  cortex.  The  num- 
ber and  variety  of  such  active  poisons  is  extremely 


great;  among  them  are  alcohol,  morphine,  cocaine, 
hashish,  lead,  poison  products  of  microscopically  .small 
organisms  or  bacteria  (fever  deliria),  :il)ii()nii.i'l  pnid- 
ucts  of  metabolism  coming  from  the  gastro-inlcsliniil 
tract  (gastro-intestinal  auto-intoxication — h:dlucina- 
tory  confused  states),  syphilis  (in  general  ])aresis), 
poisons  from  the  disturbance  of  important  glandu- 
lar organs  (e.  g.  disease  of  the  thyroid  glands  in  the 
dementia  of  cretinism).  In  other  ca.ses,  a  disease  pro- 
cess of  the  blood-vessel  system  affects  also  (he  blood 
vessels  of  the  brain,  and  thus  injures  the  cerebral 
cortex  (mental  diseases  due  to  the  calcification  of  the 
blood  vessels,  arterio-scelerotic  psychosis). 

One  and  the  same  poisonous  agent  (e.  g.  alcohol) 
may  be  taken  within  definite  limits  and  withstood  by 
one  individual,  whereas  another  individual's  reaction 
to  the  drug  may  occasion  a  nervous  or  mental  disease. 
The  personal  predisposition  plays  an  important  causa- 
tive factor.  This  individual  constitution  (i.  e.  inferi- 
ority, lower  capacity  for  resistance)  of  the  central 
nervous  system  is  for  the  most  part  congenital  and 
hereditary,  just  as  temperament,  talent  etc.  Mental 
diseases  due  to  alcoholism  or  nervousness  are  doubly 
severe  in  persons  to  whom  a  corresponding  taint 
has  been  transmitted  by  their  ancestors.  In  some  in- 
stances this  inferiority  may  be  induced  in  previously 
healthy  and  normally  constituted  nervous  systems  by 
sunstroke,  concussion  of  the  brain  etc.  Injuries  to  the 
head,  especially  those  accompanied  by  concussion  of 
the  brain,  cause  not  only  an  increased  disposition  to 
mental  diseaise,  but  are  not  infrequently  its  direct 
cause.  A  chronic  state  of  exhaustion  produces  psy- 
choses, severe  and  protracted  luemorrhages,  weakness 
due  to  chronic  purulent  disease,  malignant  new 
growths,  etc.  Occasionally  the  mental  disturbance 
bears  a  direct  relation  to  phases  of  the  female  sexual 
life  (menstruation,  pregnancy,  labour,  suckling,  change 
of  fife). 

In  some  markedly  predisposed  individuals,  very 
intense  bodily  pain  or  continuous  physical  irritations 
may  occasion  attacks  of  mental  disturbance  (confused 
states  in  migraine,  toothache,  polypi  in  the  ear,  worms 
in  the  intestines  etc.).  In  very  many  instances  we  are 
entirely  ignorant  of  any  direct  cause,  and  can  only 
interpret  the  unstable  disposition  as  due  to  a  strong 
hereditary  taint.  In  many  forms  of  mental  disease 
we  know  absolutely  nothing  concerning  the  causes. 

It  is  striking  that  psychical  factors  themselves 
(worry,  care,  shock  etc.)  as  sole  and  direct  causes  of 
mental  disease  play  a  very  minor  role — a  fact  in  strik- 
ing contrast  to  the  popular  notion.  Only  in  extremely 
hysterical  individuals,  i.  e.  those  already  disposed  to 
disease,  do  violent  psychical  emotions  frequently  give 
rise  to  rapidly-passing  attacks  of  mental  disorder. 
Furthermore,  long-continued  excitement,  trouble,  and 
the  like,  work  only  indirectly  in  the  a;tiology  of  the 
psychoses — e.  g.  by  reducing  the  power  of  resistance 
of  the  central  nervous  system,  that  is,  by  giving  rise  to 
an  increased  disposition  to  nervous  and  mental  dis- 
ease, which  itself  is  transmissible  to  posterity.  Alco- 
holics make  up  a  third,  paretics  almost  two-thirds  of 
all  the  mentally  diseased.  If  the  teachings  of  Chris- 
tianity were  to  be  generally  followed,  there  would 
very  rarely  be  a  paretic,  since  for  the  most  part 
syphilis  is  acquired  only  from  illegitimate  intercour.se; 
there  would  be  no  alcoholism;  and  the  untold  distress 
caused  by  mental  disturbance  would  be  spared  man- 
kind. 

With  reference  to  the  question  whether  one  may 
through  one's  own  fault  bring  on  psychoses  [as  was  ex- 
pressly taught  by  the  Protestant  psychiatrist  Hein- 
roth  (d. 1843)1,  modern  psychiatry  teaches  as  follows:  as 
has  been  said  above,  there  are  many  purely  bodily  causes 
of  mental  disease,  in  connexion  with  which  there  can 
be  no  question  raised  as  to  personal  responsibility. 
In  the  ca.se  of  alcoholism  the  matter  is  not  so  simple. 
While  it  is  certain  that  the  abuse  of  alcohol  is  one  of 


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543 


PATHOLOGY 


the  most  important  causes  of  mental  disease,  it  is  also 
certain  that  a  great  proportion,  even  the  majority,  of 
habitual  drinkers  are  severely  burdened  by  heredity, 
and  start  as  psychopathic  inferiors.  They  are  not 
degenerate  because  they  drink,  but  they  drink  because 
they  are  degenerate,  and  alcohohsm  merely  destroys 
an  already  ailing  nervous  system.  The  true  cause  of 
drunkenness  lies  primarily  in  the  individual's  constitu- 
tion, and  may  frequently  be  traced  to  the  ancestors. 
The  sins  of  the  fathers  are  visited  upon  the  sons,  even 
to  the  third  and  fourth  generation.  In  so  far  as  illegiti- 
mate intercourse  is  a  sin,  syphilis  and  its  attendant 
paresis  may  be  regarded  as  one's  own  fault.  It  should 
not,  however,  be  forgotten  that  syphilis  can  be  ac- 
quired in  other  ways  (e.  g.  by  drinking  from  an  infec- 
ted glass).  One  finds  the  accusations  of  conscience 
and  self-reproach  in  wholly  irresponsible  melancholic 
patients,  and  unrepentant  criminals  often  live  a  long 
hfe  without  developing  insanity.  In  short,  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  soul  through  its  passions  or  burdens 
can  make  itself  diseased  must  in  general,  according  to 
modern  experience,  be  answered  negatively,  or  the 
possibility  of  such  causative  combinations  may  be 
acknowledged  only  with  important  reservations  and 
the  greatest  restrictions. 

III.  Varieties  of  Insanity. — The  forms  that  men- 
tal disease  may  assume,  according  to  their  symptoms, 
their  course,  and  their  results,  are  extraordinarily 
complex.  Only  those  of  most  importance  will  be 
touched  upon. 

(1)  Melancholia. — The  most  important  feature  here 
is  a  primary  {sc.  not  induced  by  external  events),  sad, 
and  anxious  depression,  with  retardation  of  the 
thought  processes.  The  patients  feel  themselves 
deeply  unhappy,  are  tired  of  life,  and  overwhelm 
themselves  with  self-reproaches  that  they  are  unable 
to  work,  are  lazy,  stupid,  wicked,  or  unamiable.  In 
many  cases  the  patients  themselves  can  give  no  reason 
for  their  depression;  they  often  cite  in  explanation 
long-forgotten  sins  of  youth,  all  kinds  of  more  or  less 
unimportant  occurrences  and  circumstances,  the  cares 
of  daily  life  %vhich  are  treated  as  a  matter  of  course  in 
times  of  health,  or  the  very  symptoms  of  their  illness. 
Because  they  take  no  pleasure  in  anything,  in  prayer 
or  in  the  presence  of  their  families,  they  accuse  them- 
selves of  impiety  and  want  of  affection.  In  other 
instances  pure  delusions  arise.  The  patients  accuse 
themselves  of  crimes  which  they  have  never  commit- 
ted: they  have  made  everybody  unhappy,  have  dese- 
crated the  Host,  and  have  given  themselves  up  to  the 
Devil.  Many  cases  of  da?monomania  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  of  the  times  of  the  Reformation  belong  to 
this  category,  as  was  clearly  recognized  by  many  eccle- 
siastics. Regino,  Abbot  of  Priim  (892-99),  Gregory 
VII  (1074)  etc.  protested  energetically  against  the 
execution  of  witches;  the  Jesuit  Friedrich  von  Spee 
(d.  1675),  in  his  "Cautio  criminalis",  condemned  the 
trying  of  witches  as  an  institution  opposed  to  human- 
ity, science,  and  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  patients  often  feel  a  terrible  anxiety,  fear  a 
cruel  martyrdom;  sleep  suffers,  bodily  nutrition  fails, 
and  painful  centres  of  pressure  are  often  found  in  dif- 
ferent nerve  tracts.  The  danger  of  suicide  is  extremely 
great.  The  greater  number  of  all  suicides  occurs  as  a 
result  of  recognized  melancholia;  other  conditions, 
such  as  an  intense  state  of  anxiety,  may  often  render 
such  patients  dangerous  also  to  others.  The  self- 
accusations  are  uninfluenced  by  any  words  of  com- 
fort; a  hundred  times  confessed,  they  return  again 
and  again.  The  severest  cases  end  in  a  condition  of 
inability  to  speak  or  to  move  (stupor). 

(2)  Mania. — By  this  we  understand  a  primor]/  (i.e. 
not  caused  by  external  influences),  happy,  elated 
mood  subject  to  very  rapid  variations,  especially 
to  impulsive,  wrathful  emotions.  Self-conscious- 
ness is  increased,  the  flow  of  ideas  is  precipitate  and 
rambling;  there  is  over-talkativeness  and  excessive 


restlessness.  The  severest  cases  end  in  flighty  ideas, 
confusion,  and  frenzy.  But  even  the  mild  cases  are 
disastrous  for  the  patients  and  for  their  surroundings. 
Abnormal  sensuality  shows  itself;  individuals  of  pre- 
viously high  moral  standards  give  themselves  up  to 
violent  alcohohc  excesses,  and  practise  all  kinds  of 
sexual  crimes.  The  patients  are  senselessly  lavish, 
are  guilty  of  deceits  and  thefts,  and,  by  reason  of  their 
irritabihty,  quarrel  with  their  associates,  superiors 
etc.,  insult  them,  and  disturb  the  public  peace,  commit 
violence,  are  arrogant,  quarrelsome,  contentious,  and 
delight  in  intolerable  hair-splitting.  Sleep  is  badly 
broken,  the  eyes  shine,  the  play  of  the  countenance  is 
full  of  expression  and  vivacious;  many  patients  re- 
semble persons  slightly  intoxicated.  Very  frequently 
maniacal  and  melancholic  states  occur  with  character- 
istically regular  alternations,  and  repeat  themselves  in 
one  and  the  same  individual,  who  during  the  intervals 
is  mentally  normal  (circular  insanity  with  lucid 
intervals). 

(3)  General  Paresis. — This  disease  leads  with 
gradually  increasing  mental  and  physical  decay  to 
dementia,  paralysis,  and  death.  Frequently,  in  the 
early  stages  maniacal  states,  antecedent  to  severe 
dementia,  are  already  observable.  The  patients  are 
not  only  distracted  and  forgetful,  but  above  all 
irritable,  sleepless,  brutal,  shameless,  sensual,  lavish, 
extravagant  etc.,  exactly  like  true  maniacs,  only  in  a 
still  more  coarse  and  unrestrained  fashion,  because  of 
the  simultaneously  appearing  dementia.  Very  often 
one  finds  the  most  grotesque  and  changeable  ideas 
of  grandeur  (megalomania) ;  the  patients  believe 
themselves  immeasurably  rich,  are  emperors,  opera- 
singers,  even  God  Himself;  they  have  discovered  per- 
petual motion,  know  all  languages,  have  thousands 
of  wives,  etc.  In  other  cases  there  are  hypochon- 
driacal delusions  (the  patients  complain  they  are 
dead,  or  putrescent,  etc.).  Not  infrequently  the 
delusions  are  permanent,  and  the  patients  simply 
grow  less  rational  from  day  to  day.  On  the  physical 
side,  one  observes  most  frequently  a  characteristic 
difficulty  in  speech;  the  speech  becomes  stutter- 
ing, uncertain,  and  finally  an  unintelligible  babble. 
The  pupils  of  the  eyes  lose  their  circular  form,  are 
often  unequal  (e.  g.  the  right  narrow,  the  left  very 
wide),  and  do  not  contract  on  exposure  to  light 
(Argyll-Robertson  pupil).  Very  frequently  transi- 
tory apoplectic  or  epileptic  attacks  occur.  In  the  last 
stages  the  patients  are  quite  insane,  prostrated,  con- 
fined to  bed,  and  pass  their  excretions  involuntarily 
until  death  intervenes.  In  the  earlier  stages,  almost 
at  any  stage  in  fact,  marked  and  continued  improve- 
ment and  stationary  periods  may  take  place  at  any 
moment. 

(4)  Juvenile  Insanity  {Dementia  proecox). — This 
disease  process  usually  sets  in  after  the  years  of  pu- 
berty, and  gradually  leads  to  a  condition  of  dementia. 
Quite  frequently  only  the  ethical  side  of  the  psyche  is 
at  first  affected.  Boys  and  girls  who  have  been 
active  will  suddenly  develop  a  dislike  to  work,  become 
irritable  and  headstrong,  give  themselves  up  to  coarse 
excesses,  go  about  in  bad  company,  lose  every  family 
sense,  etc.  After  a  year  or  more  the  loss  of  intelli- 
gence becomes  unmistakable.  At  times  the  initial 
stages  take  on  a  hypochondriacal  colouring.  Natures 
previously  healthy  and  full  of  the  joy  of  life  begin  to 
observe  themselves  with  anxiety,  go  from  physician 
to  physician,  have  recourse  to  quacks,  etc.  They 
found  their  complaints  on  all  kinds  of  foolish  notions; 
there  must  be  an  animal,  or  a  sore,  in  their  stomachs, 
etc.  Very  frequently  in  the  further  course  of  the 
disease  (occasionally  at  the  beginning),  hallucinations 
of  hearing  and  of  sight  occur.  Conditions  of  con- 
fusion, delusions  of  persecution,  of  poisoning,  of 
megalomania  of  varying  types  occur.  Peculiar  so- 
called  catatonic  states  of  muscular  tension  develop,  in 
which  the  patients  remain  expressionless  and  motion- 


PATHOLOGY 


544 


PATHOLOGY 


less  in  all  sorts  of  positions.  Set  forms  of  speech, 
eertaiii  sonRS  anil  motions  are  repeated  in  a  stereo- 
typed manner.  .\11  of  these  states  can  change  witli 
ureal  rapidity.  \  ery  often  a  remarkably  sudden  im- 
provement sets  in,  leading  one  to  expect  a  recovery. 
Little  by  little  a  state  of  incurable  dementia  becomes 
established. 

(.5)  Senile  Dementia. — On  a  basis  of  a  general 
breakdown  due  to  okl  age,  there  develops  incicasiiig 
dementia,  cliieHy  cliaracterized  by  a  disturbaiicr  of 
memory.  In  the  mild  eases  the  patients  remember 
the  occurrences,  jiersons,  and  names  from  their  early 
years,  but  cannot  retain  in  their  memory  anything 
recent.  In  the  severe  cases  the  patients  live  entirely 
in  the  past,  speak  of  their  parents  as  still  living,  think 
themselves  from  twenty  to  thirty  years  old,  do  not 
know  where  they  are,  nor  what  is  going  on  about  them. 
As  a  result  such  patients  are  easily  led,  are  suggesti- 
hle;  they  do  not  know,  for  instance,  what  they  have 
done  in  the  morning,  but  declare,  on  being  questioned, 
that  they  have  been  to  school.  Married  women 
recall  only  the  names  of  their  parents  and  forget  that 
they  have  had  children.  As  a  result  of  forgetting 
many  words,  their  speech  also  is  often  very  character- 
istic. Many  nouns  having  escaped  them,  they  help 
themselves  out  by  frequent  repetitions  of  stop-gap 
expressions,  such  as  "what-d'ye-call-it",  etc.,  or  they 
use  tiresome  circumlocutions  (e.  g.  instead  of  key, 
they  say,  "a  thing  that  one  opens  things  with"). 
The  patients  are  irritable,  hypochondriacal,  sus- 
picious, believe  that  their  pockets  have  been  picked, 
or  that  they  have  been  poisoned.  As  in  general  paresis 
and  dementia  prcecox,  it  is  especially  important  to 
remember  that  marked  loss  of  the  moral  sense  may 
for  some  time  precede  the  loss  of  intelligence.  Sexual 
desire  especially  mounts  up  again  in  unhealthy  fashion 
in  these  old  people,  and  leads  with  special  frequency 
to  immoral  attacks  upon  small  children.  Very  fre- 
quently, in  the  early  stages  of  senile  dementia,  there 
maybe  observed  silly,  intense  ideas  of  jealousy,  whose 
object  is  often  the  aged  wife  with  whom  the  patient 
has  lived  for  many  decades  in  the  happiest  of  wedlock. 
By  reason  of  the  disturbance  of  memory  and  the 
above-mentioned  suggestibility,  these  patients  often 
fall  victims  to  unprincipled  scoundrels,  who  swindle 
them  out  of  their  entire  fortunes,  induce  them  to  make 
foolish  wills,  etc. 

(6)  Chronic  Delusion  (Paranoia). — Certain  pa- 
tients develop  ever-increasing  fixed  delusions  with 
clear  consciousness  and  without  any  weakening  of  the 
intellect.  The  individual  stages  of  this  disorder  may 
usually  be  distinguished.  At  first,  these  patients 
believe  themselves  to  be  under  observation,  to  be 
pursued  by  enemies.  Everything  that  is  done  has 
a  deliberate  reference  to  themselves;  people  slander 
them,  spy  upon  them,  or  watch  them.  Hallucinations 
of  hearing  develop  (e.  g.  mocking,  abusive  voices). 
The  circle  of  their  persecutors  gradually  enlarges;  it 
is  no  longer  a  definite  person  (an  enemy,  a  rival, 
a  business  competitor,  etc.)  who  is  the  originator  of 
this  persecution  and  slander,  but  entire  classes  or 
bodies  (Freemasons,  Jesuits,  political  parties,  the 
entire  Civil  Service,  the  members  of  the  royal  house- 
hold, etc.).  As  their  grandiose  ideas  develop,  the 
patients  believe  themselves  the  victims  of  widespread 
intrigues  and  persecutions,  because  others  are  envious 
of  them,  or  because  of  their  importance.  The  con- 
crete content  of  the  delusions  varies  greatly  in 
different  cases,  but  remains  fixed  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual. One  believes  himself  to  be  an  important 
inventor;  another,  a  reformer;  a  third,  a  legitimate 
successor  to  the  throne;  a  fourth,  the  Messias.  In 
addition  to  the  hallucinations  of  hearing,  different 
bodily  hallucinations  develop.  The  patients  feel  them- 
selves electrified,  penetrated  with  the  rontgen  rays, 
etc.  In  the  initial  stages  the  patients  are  very  often 
well  able  to  hide  their  delusional  ideas  in  case  of 


necessity,  and  to  pretend  that  they  no  longer  believe  iu 
them  (dissinmlation).  By  reivson  of  the  obstinacy  of 
the  ideas  of  penseculion,  and  especially  because  of 
their  clearness  of  thought  in  other  respcds,  1he.se 
patients  may  become  very  dangerous,  attacking  those 
about  them  with  violence,  taking  their  revenge  by 
killing,  or  by  well-planned  murders  of  their  supposed 
persectutors. 

In  many  cases  the  apinirent  sanity  of  these  patients, 
and  the  fanaticism  with  wliicli  they  inomulgute  their 
ideas,  deceive  an  uncritical  following,  so  that  healthy 
but  undiscriminating  people  share  in  their  tlelusions 
(induced  insanity).  Many  cases  of  so-called  psychic 
epidemics,  of  perversely  abstruse  religious  sects,  be- 
long to  this  category.  In  some  cases  the  ideas  of  perse- 
cution are  based  on  real  or  imaginary  legal  injustice 
suffered  by  the  patient,  who  then  beUeves  that  all 
advocates,  judges,  and  administrative  authorities  are 
in  league  against  him  {Paranoia  qiiervlans,  litigious 
paranoia).  Traces  of  this  are  seen  in  the  cases  of  ob- 
stinate litigants,  who  spend  large  amounts  of  money 
on  lawyers  to  recover  absurdly  insignificant  sums. 
When  their  complaints  are  dismissed  everywhere,  they 
commit  a  crime  merely  in  order  to  come  before  a  jury 
and  be  thus  enabled  to  renew  their  old  suit. 

(7)  Alcoholic  Mental  Disease. — In  addition  to  what 
has  already  been  said  of  alcoholism,  it  may  be  added 
that  in  chronic  drinkers  there  often  arise  character- 
istic, motiveless  delusions  of  jealousy  (alcoholic  para- 
noia), which,  by  reason  of  the  habitual  brutality  of  the 
drinker,  lead  to  continuous  cruelty,  and  at  times  to 
assault  and  murder  of  the  wife. 

Pathological  intoxication  is  another  important  dis- 
ease, in  which  the  symptoms  of  ordinary  drunken- 
ness do  not  appear,  but  which  constitutes  a  true  psy- 
chosis. This  is  usually  of  short  duration ;  the  patients 
are  for  the  most  part  unusually  violent,  are  entirely 
confused,  and  on  recovery  have  no  memory  whatever 
of  their  mental  disturbance.  In  delirium  tremens,  in 
addition  to  the  marked  tremor,  sweating,  and  absolute 
sleeplessness,  one  finds  vivid  hallucinations  of  sight 
(of  numberless  small  animals,  mice,  vermin,  men, 
fiery  devils,  etc.),  confusion,  and  feverish  activity,  dur- 
ing which  the  patients  go  about  restlessly,  working 
with  imaginary  tools.  In  other  cases  active  hallucina- 
tions of  hearing  take  place.  They  hear  threatening 
and  abusive  voices,  which  may  make  the  patient  so 
anxious  as  to  lead  him  to  impulsive  suicide. 

(8)  Epileptic  Psychosis.- — Mild  but  permanent  psy- 
chical anomalies  are  observed  in  very  many  epileptics. 
These  patients  are  for  the  most  part  extremely  sensi- 
tive and  irritable,  and,  in  contrast  with  this,  may 
often  simultaneously  showan  exaggeratedly  tender  and 
pathetic  pietism.  Not  infrequently  one  observes  char- 
acteristic periodic  variations  in  the  mood.  P'rom  time 
to  time  the  patients  themselves  feel  an  incomprehen- 
sible internal  unrest,  anxiety,  or  sadness;  some  seek  to 
mitigate  this  condition  by  taking  strong  nerve  poisons, 
at  times  in  excessive  doses  (many  eases  of  dipsomania 
belong  to  this  class) ;  others  have  recourse  to  debauch- 
ery; a  thinl  cla.ss  go  off  like  tramps  for  days;  while  a 
fourth  attempt  suicide.  In  other  cases  we  meet  with 
moodini'.ss,  which  is  not  sad  but  irritable  and  angry, 
and  consequently  differs  from  the  regiilur  irrital)ility 
of  the  epileptic;  it  frequently  leads  to  most  violent 
attacks  upon  those  about  them.  Such  conditions  may 
often  be  traced  even  to  earliest  childhood. 

In  connexion  with  eclampsia,  or  even  in  its  place, 
there  often  take  place  characteristic  mental  disturb- 
ances which  begin  very  suddenly  (dream  or  twilight 
states),  last  but  a  short  time  and  pass,  usually  leaving 
no  trace  in  the  memory.  These  attacks  show  them- 
selves outwardly  in  characteristic  impulsive  acts — as 
for  instance  in  aimless  wanderings  (many  cases  of  niil- 
itary  desertion  are  due  to  such  attacks),  or  in  delirious 
confused  conditions,  mostly  of  a  horrifying  nature 
(fire,  blood,  ghosts,  etc.).    Such  patients  are  often  very 


PATHOLOGY 


545 


PATHOLOGY 


dangerous,  for  in  their  blind  anxiety  they  assail  those 
about  them,  no  matter  wlio  they  may  be.  The  cases 
among  the  Malays  of  "running  amuck"  are  of  this 
nature.  In  other  cases  of  frequent  occurrence  the 
patients  have  visionary,  ecstatic  dehria;  they  sing 
psalms  aloud,  believe  that  they  see  the  heavens  open, 
see  the  Last  Judgment,  speak  with  God,  etc.  (Moham- 
med was  an  epileptic).  Often  the  attacks  occur  only 
at  night  (epileptic  night-walkers,  somnambulists). 

(9)  Hysterical  Psychosis. — Many  hysterical  patients 
are  at  the  same  time  permanently  abnormal  from  the 
psychical  point  of  view;  they  are  egregiously  selfish, 
irritable,  and  untruthful.  Conscious  simulation  and 
diseased  imagination  run  into  one  another  so  as  to  be 
indistinguishable.  The  mental  disturbances  of  the 
hysterical  show  many  superficial  resemblances  to  those 
of  the  epilei^tic ;  the  latter  however  are  spontaneous, 
while  the  former  are  due  to  definite  psychical  causes, 
fright,  anger,  and  the  Uke;  the  sexual  life  also  plays 
here  an  important  role.  Visionary  ecstatic  dreamy 
conditions  occur,  whereby  an  hysterical  person  can 
psychically  infect  hundreds  of  others  (cf.  the  epi- 
demics of  the  Middle  Ages  of  flagellants,  dancers,  etc. ; 
superstitious  "miracles"  of  modern  times;  speakers 
of  foreign  tongues,  and  the  like,  where  no  sharp  boun- 
dary exists  between  conscious  swindling  and  patho- 
logical suggestibility). 

On  the  physical  side  one  meets  with  strange  paraly- 
ses, cramps,  blindness,  isolated  anaesthetic  spots  [thus 
explaining  the  notorious  "mark  of  the  devil"  in  the 
"Malleus  Maleficarum"  (1489),  met  with  in  ancient 
witch  trials).  All  of  these  symptoms  can  disappear 
just  as  suddenly  as  they  come.  The  majority  of  the 
wonder-cures  by  charms  or  similar  superstitions  are 
possible  only  in  the  case  of  hysterical  persons,  in  whom 
the  imagination  causes  both  the  disease  and  the  cure. 

In  modern  times  hysteria  plays  a  large  role  in  in- 
juries— traumatic  neurosis,  "railway  spine" — which 
is  a  combination  of  symptoms  following  a  railway  col- 
lision, or  after  accidents  during  employment. 

(10)  Imbecility,  Weakmindedness. — The  severer 
forms  (idiocy)  and  also  those  of  moderate  severity  are 
easily  recognized,  even  by  the  layman.  The  milder 
forms,  however,  may  be  overlooked  very  readily,  since 
the  mechanical  accomplishments  of  memory  may  be 
very  good,  although  the  judgment  (i.  e.  independent 
critical  thought)  is  lacking.  The  weak-minded  know 
only  what  they  have  committed  to  memory,  but  not 
the  why  and  wherefore;  they  cannot  draw  conclu- 
sions, cannot  adapt  acquired  knowledge  to  suit  new 
and  unaccustomed  circumstances;  they  are  at  a  loss 
when  confronted  by  questions  demanding  intelligence. 
The  weak-minded  child,  for  instance,  can  learn  a  poem 
by  heart,  but  cannot  by  himself  perceive  its  signifi- 
cance; he  can  name  the  holidays,  but  does  not  under- 
stand their  meaning;  he  can  calculate  well  (i.  e. 
mechanically)  9  +  3,  but  does  not  understand  the 
question:  "I  think  of  a  number,  add  3  to  it,  and  the 
answer  is  12;  what  is  the  number  I  thought  of?"  By 
reason  of  their  inability  to  think  independently,  such 
individuals  are  blindly  led  by  the  authority  of  others 
for  good  or  evil.  Because  of  the  impossibility  of  re- 
flecting upon  anything  exactly,  they  often  commit, 
not  only  very  foolish,  but  also  dangerous  and  criminal 
acts,  to  free  themselves  from  a  momentarily  unpleas- 
ant situation.  Their  emotional  life  is  characterized  by 
unreasonableness  and  irrepressibility.  On  the  physi- 
cal side  one  finds  deformations  of  the  skull,  defects  of 
speech,  squint-eyes  etc.  One  of  the  most  important 
causes  is  alcoholic  excess  on  the  part  of  the  parents; 
brain  disease  during  childhood  or  before  birth  is  also 
sometimes  responsible.  In  many  cases  the  defect  in- 
volves that  side  of  psychical  life  which  is  called  the 
moral  or  .social  side,  which  cannot  be  acquired  by 
intellectual  means  but  is  essentially  connected  with 
sentiment.  Without  moral  sensibility,  moral  conduct 
is  impossible.     Hence  arises  the  sad  picture  of  the 

XI.— 35 


incorrigible  reprobates  who  cannot  be  reached  by  edu- 
cational influences,  who  in  spite  of  kindness  or  stern- 
ness, in  spite  of  the  best  example  and  breeding  at 
home,  are  criminally  inclined  from  childhood,  and 
later  become  lazy  vagabonds,  prostitutes,  or  habitual 
criminals. 

These  children,  when  hardly  past  infancy,  are  con- 
spicuous for  their  unusual  unruliness,  .selfishness,  and 
lack  of  family  affection.  They  show  a  characteristic 
malice  and  cruelty,  maltreat  animals  in  the  most  re- 
fined ways,  and  take  a  truly  diabolical  delight  in  tor- 
menting their  brothers,  sisters,  and  comrades.  They 
have  a  kind  of  ex-plosive  irritabihty  and  impulsive  sen- 
suousness,  shown  especially  in  an  uncontrollable  appe- 
tite for  sweets,  to  satisfy  which  they  have  recourse  even 
to  theft  and  violence.  They  take  to  drinking  when 
very  young,  and  practise  various  other  forms  of  immor- 
ality. Shamelessness,  absolute  laziness,  and  an  ex- 
treme mendacity  always  characterize  these  persons. 
Their  mendacity  appears  not  only  in  lies  told  to  escape 
punishment  or  to  obtain  something  desirable,  but  also 
in  fantastic  romancing  {pseudologia  phanlaslica) .  We 
also  usually  observe  in  these  patients  a  variety  of 
bodily  malformations  and  combinations  of  epilepsy 
and  hysteria.  As  causes  may  be  mentioned :  heredity 
(especially  from  alcoholism),  infantile  brain  disease 
(severe  epilepsies),  injury  to  the  infantile  skull  during 
childbirth,  cerebral  concussion,  etc. 

(11)  Coynpulsory  Ideas. — Even  in  patients  whose 
intelligence  is  intact,  certain  ideas  recur  over  and  over 
again  against  their  will,  cannot  be  banished,  and  hin- 
der and  cross  the  normal  flow  of  ideas,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  their  folly  and  senselessness  are  always 
clearly  recognized.  The  number  of  these  impulsive 
ideas  is  very  great.  For  the  clergy  the  knowledge  of 
certain  forms  is  important,  especially  those  that  occur 
fairly  frequently  among  rehgious  persons,  and  are 
highly  troublesome  and  painful.  Such  people,  for 
instance,  although  they  are  believers,  are  forced  con- 
stantly to  brood  over  such  questions  as:  "Who  is 
God?  "  "Is  there  a  God?  "  Others  have  fancies  of  the 
lowest  and  most  obscene  character,  which  annoy  them 
only  during  prayer,  and  return  with  the  greater  per- 
sistency according  as  the  patient  is  more  anxious  to 
dispel  them.  Such  patients  require  hours  to  say  a 
simple  Paler  nosier,  because  they  believe  they  have 
profaned  the  prayer  by  a  sudden  obscene  fancy  and 
must  therefore  begin  all  over  again.  The  reassuring 
words  of  the  confessor  make  little  impression,  save  for 
the  moment.  Such  sufferers  torment  themselves  and 
their  confessor  incessantly  by  the  endless  repetition  of 
their  religious  scruples,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
they  clearly  recognize  the  disordered  compulsion  (i.  e. 
the  involuntary  nature  of  their  ideas).  But  they  can- 
not help  themselves;  the  thoughts  return  against  their 
will. 

(12)  Menstrual  Psychosis. — A  few  words  may  be 
added  about  a  mental  disturbance,  which  is  of  impor- 
tance to  jurists  and  to  the  clergy.  In  nervous  women 
a  menstrual  psychosis  occurs,  i.  e.  mental  anomalies 
which  appear  only  at  the  time  of  the  catamenia  (usu- 
ally a  few  days  earlier)  in  individuals  otherwise 
healthy.  Conditions  of  confusion,  unfounded  ideas 
of  jealousy,  or  excited  states  with  marked  excitability 
or  sexual  excitement  manifest  themselves.  In  women 
just  delivered,  excited  and  confused  states  occur  in 
which  the  patient  kills  the  new-born  child ;  afterwards 
there  is  complete  loss  of  memory  of  the  deed. 

(13)  Impulsive  Psychosis. — By  this  is  meant  the 
occurrence  of  an  irresistible  impulse  to  steal  (klepto- 
mania), to  burn  (pyromania),  to  wander  about  (porio- 
mania), the  diseased  nature  of  the  action  being  espe- 
cially recognizable  in  the  complete  lack  of  motive  (no 
need,  no  satisfaction,  -etc.).  The  stolen  articles,  for 
instance,  will  not  be  used  or  sold,  but  carelessly  and 
immediately  thrown  away  after  the  theft  has  been 
committed;    the  thief  often  enjoys  good  social  and 


PATMORE 


546 


PATMORE 


material  position.  Such  impulsive  inclinations  often 
exist  throughout  life,  but  oftencr  occur  at  intervals — 
as  for  instance  during  puberty;  in  women,  not  infre- 
quently only  (iuriiiK  menstruation,  or  during  preg- 
nancy. In  all  these  forms,  as  also  in  rases  of  so-calleil 
moral  insanity,  one  must  he  unusually  sceptical  if  one 
is  to  avoid  favouring  the  introduction  of  the  mo.st 
dangerous  abtises  into  the  administration  of  justice. 

(14)  Sexual  PsijchtiiHtlhy.  Anixualkx  of  the  Sexual 
Life. — The  pathological  abnormalities  of  the  sexual 
impulse  belong  to  the  most  melancholy  chapters  of 
psychn-jiathology,  and  the  horror  that  ari,ses  from  the 
study  of  llie.-'e  occurrences  can  only  be  mitigated  by 
the  knowledge  that  what  is  so  frequent  is  not  always 
a  disgusting  vice  and  depravity,  but  often  a  mental 
disorder.  But,  as  has  been  already  said,  we  should  be 
exceedingly  cautious  in  assuming  the  existence  of 
mental  disturbance  in  cases  which  naturally  lead  to 
criminal  prosecution,  and  where  there  is  of  course  fre- 
quently a  tendency  to  simulation. 

IV.  Fkeedom  of  the  Will  and  Responsibility. — 
In  the  question  of  moral  responsibility  or  liability 
(from  the  theological  or  legal  standpoint)  a  further 
and  very  important  question  arises.  Mental  sound- 
ness implies  freedom  of  the  will,  while  mental  disease 
destroys  it.  In  nature,  however,  there  are  no  rigid, 
definite  boundaries  between  disease  and  health,  but 
only  gradual  transitions.  We  meet  with  so-called 
"border-land"  cases  between  health  and  disease,  a 
well-recognize<l  example  being  weakmindedness. 
While  the  difTcrence  between  the  two  ex-tremes  (an 
animal-like  idiot,  on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other, 
a  Newton,  a  Pasteur,  etc.)  is  at  once  palpable  to  all, 
where  are  the  sharp  boundaries  between  the  moder- 
ately serious  and  mild  forms  of  imbecility,  between 
these  latter  and  the  very  mildest  forms,  and  finally 
between  the.se  and  simple,  but  in  no  wise  pathological, 
stupidity?  The  same  may  be  said  of  moral  imbeciUty, 
which  passes  by  insensible  gradations  from  the  un- 
doubtedly healthy  to  the  irresponsible,  superficial, 
sensual,  and  violent  individual.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  menstrual  psychosis,  which  shows  its  physio- 
logical roots  in  the  increased  general  nervousness  of 
every  woman  at  the  menstrual  period.  In  short,  in 
the  entire  domain  of  psycho-pathology  one  often  meets 
with  these  borderland  conditions,  and  the  question  of 
freedom  of  will  cannot  be  answered  by  a  simple  yes  or 
no,  but  requires  a  strictly  individual  weighing  of  all  of 
the  conditions  of  the  concrete  act.  Not  infrequently 
the  psychopathic  changes  constitute,  not  indeed  a 
total  exculpation,  but  a  mitigating  circumstance.  Or 
the  matter  may  be  such  that  one  and  the  same  indi- 
vidual, by  reiison  of  his  mental  abnormality,  may  be 
completely  responsible  for  one  crime,  and  irresponsible 
for  another.  \  kleptomaniac,  for  instance,  certainly 
commits  a  theft  in  a  condition  of  irresponsibility;  he 
must  be  held  to  answer,  however,  for  another  type  of 
crime,  for  instance,  an  act  of  immorality.  Even  indi- 
viduals, who  are  continuously  free  from  characteristic 
psj'chopathic  traits  of  a  general  nervous  order,  may  by 
a  combination  of  a  number  of  definite  external  dis- 
turbances develop  psissing  conditions  of  irrcsponsi- 
biht}'.  The  so-called  ■pnlhuhfiiral  affects  belong  to 
this  class.  By  reason  of  the  simultaneous  combina- 
tion of  long-continued  depressing  influences  (trouble, 
care,  etc.),  of  fatigue,  sleeplessness,  exhaustion,  hun- 
ger, digestive  disturbances,  and  pain,  a  normal  emo- 
tional activity  may  reach  a  pathological  or  diseased 
height,  accompanied  by  impulsive  violence,  and  fol- 
lowed by  dreamy  or  incomplete  memory. 

V.  P.\THOLOGICAL  ChANOES  IN  THE  BraIN  STRUC- 
TURE.— Constant  and  definite  changes  in  the  brain  we 
know  to  be  proved  at  the  present  time  only  in  such 
forms  of  mental  disease  as  accompany  defective  states, 
either  of  congenital  (e.  g.  idiocy)  or  acquired  origin 
(e.  g.  senihtj',  paresis  etc.).  The  weight  of  the  brain 
remains  considerably  under  normal  in  these  condi- 


tions. In  contrast  to  the  average  of  13G0  grammes  for 
males,  and  1230  grammes  for  females  (the  weight  of 
tiauss's  brain  was  1492  grammes;  of  TwigenielT's, 
2120  grammes),  in  full-grown  idiots  we  find  weights  of 
417  to  720  grammes  (in  one  case  only  21)0),  and  in 
paretics  weights  of  about  1000  granunes.  \\  ith  the 
naked  eye  one  can  sei>  in  jKircsis,  in  .s<'nile  dementia 
etc.,  the  great  diminution  and  disappearance  of  the 
cerebral  cortex,  adhesions  between  the  cortex  and  the 
brain  coverings,  oedema  of  the  ventricles,  scars, 
shrinkages,  softenings,  changes  in  the  blood-vessels, 
etc.  In  idiots  one  observes  in  addition  the  most  vari- 
ous congenital  malformations  (re.-;eml)laiii('  to  lower 
animals,  or  jiersistence  of  embryonal  stages,  etc.),  the 
remains  of  intiammatory  processes,  etc.  The  patho- 
logical lindings  by  t  he  microscope  of  fine  changes  in  the 
brain  cortex  (in  the  ganglion  cells,  nerve  fibres,  etc.) 
are  even  richer. 

In  all  the  other  forms  of  mental  disease  pathological 
anatomy  has  failed  to  give  us  any  information. 
Autopsy  either  reveals  no  abnormal  conditions  in  the 
brain,  or  the  changes  that  are  found  are  either  incon- 
stant or  have  no  particular  relation  to  the  psychosis, 
as  for  example  the  very  fine  alterations  of  the  cortical 
cells,  which  modern  microscopy  has  proved  to  exist  in 
acute  psychosis,  can  be  induced  also  by  other  bodily 
diseases  which  cause  death.  Our  knowledge  in  this 
field  is  still  very  hazy. 

Marie.  Traite  international  de  psychologie  pathotogique  (Paris, 
1910);  Kraepelin,  Lelirbucli  der  Psyctiiatrie  (8th  eel.,  Leipzig. 
1909);  PiLcz,  Letirbucti  der  gerichtlictien  Psyctiiatrie  (Vienna. 
1908) ;  Bessmer,  Stiirungen  im  Seelenleben  (2nd  ed..  Freiburg  im 
Br.,  1907).  A.    PiLCZ. 

Patmore,  Coventry,  one  of  the  major  poets  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  in  spite  of  the  small  bulk  of  his 
verse,  b.  at  Woodford,  Essex,  23  July,  1823;  d.  at 
Lymington,  26 
Nov.,  1896.  His 
father  was  a  man 
of  letters,  and  a 
writer  of  ability 
and  fancy,  who 
lived  among  writ- 
ers, making  one 
of  the  compan\- 
that  included 
Lamb,  Hazlitt, 
Leigh  Hunt, 
"Barry  Corn- 
wall", and  others 
of  less  well-re- 
membered names. 
Meeting  with 
financial  reverses 
late  in  life,  P.  G. 
Patmore  unavoid- 
ably left  his  son 
carefully  educatec 
but  unprepared 
for  any  profession,  Coventry  Patmore 

to  gain  a  difficult  livelihood.  Coventry  Pat  more  mar- 
ried, in  his  early  twenties,  Emily  Augusta  Andrews, 
daughter  of  a  Nonconformist  clergyman  who  was  Rus- 
kin'stutorin  Greek  berore  the  young  student  went  to 
the  university.  Monckton  Milnes  (later  Lord  Hough- 
ton), meeting  Coventry  Patmore  at  Mrs.  Proctor's 
house,  and  interested  by  his  intellectual  face  and  his 
evident  poverty,  recommended  him  for  emplf)yment  in 
the  Hril  ish  Museum  Library,  and  this  it  was  that  made 
hismarriagei)ossil)le.  Coventry Patmore'searly poems 
were  ijublished  by  the  zeal  of  his  father,  and  gained 
prophecies  of  future  greatness  from  Leigh  Hunt  and 
others.  In  18,'')3  was  published  his  first  mature  work, 
"Tamerton  Church  Tower  and  other  Poems",  and  in 
18.54  appeared  the  first  part  of  a  more  deliberate  work, 
"The  Angel  in  the  House",  a  versified  love-story  of 
great  simplicity,  interspersed  with  brief  meditations, 


PATMOS 


547 


PATRAS 


now  grave,  now  epigrammatically  witty,  on  the 
profounder  significances  of  love  in  marriage.  The 
book  became  quickly  famous.  In  1862  the  poet's 
wife  died,  leaving  him  with  six  young  children.  As 
happy  love  had  been  his  earlier,  the  grief  of  loss  be- 
came in  great  measure  his  later  theme;  poignantly 
touching  and  also  mo.st  sublime  thoughts  upon  love, 
death,  and  immortality  are  presented  under  greatly 
poetic  imagery  in  the  odes  of  "The  Unknown  Eros". 
Coventry  Patmore  became  a  Catholic  in  Rome  very 
soon  after  his  first  wife's  death.  His  second  wife, 
Marianne  Byles,  was  of  the  same  faith.  She  was  a 
woman  of  considerable  fortune  as  well  as  beauty. 
Bringing  him  no  children,  she  died  after  some  twenty 
years  of  marriage,  and  the  poet,  somewhat  late  in 
life,  made  a  third  alliance,  his  wife  being  Miss  Harriet 
Robson,  also  a  Catholic;  she  became  the  mother  of 
one  son. 

Patmore's  prose  works  are  the  essays  collected  under 
the  title  "Principle  in  Art",  and  "Rod,  Root,  and 
Flower".  They  belong  to  the  latter  half  of  his  life. 
The  volume  named  second  is  in  great  part  deeply 
and  loftily  mystical.  During  the  period  of  his  first 
marriage  Patmore  had  lived  in  the  intimacy  of  Ruskin, 
Browning,  Tennyson,  Dobell,  Millais,  Woolner,  Ros- 
setti,  and  Holman  Hunt,  and  was  associated  with  the 
Pre-Raphaelites,  especially  in  the  production  of  the 
"Germ",  to  which  he  contributed  poetry  and  prose. 
During  his  last  years  he  withdrew  into  the  country, 
and  gave  his  time  almost  entirely  to  meditation.  His 
unique  lot  was  to  be  at  first  the  most  popular,  and  later 
the  least  popular  of  poets.  Between  the  periods  of 
composition  occurred  long  spaces  of  silence.  Yet 
there  was  no  change  in  the  spirit  of  the  poet.  He 
smiled  to  see  such  different  estimation  wait  upon 
poetry  that  was  as  starry  and  divine  in  the  trivial- 
seeming  and  much-read  "Angel"  as  in  the  "Unknown 
Eros",  hardly  opened  by  the  pubhc,  and  only  now 
beginning  to  take  its  place  as  a  great  English  classic 
in  the  minds  of  students. 

Alice  Meynell. 

Patmos,  a  small  volcanic  island  in  the  ^gean  Sea, 
off  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  to  the  south  of  Samos  and 
west  of  Miletus,  in  lat.  .37°  20'  N.  and  long.  26°  3.5' 
E.  Its  length  is  about  ten  miles,  its  breadth  six  miles, 
and  its  coast-line  thirty-seven  miles.  The  highest  point 
is  Hagios  Elias  (Mt.  St.  Elias),  rising  to  over  1050  feet. 
The  island  was  formerly  covered  with  luxuriant  palm- 
groves,  which  won  it  the  name  of  Palmosa;  of  these 
groves  there  remains  but  a  clump  in  the  valley  called 
"The  Saint's  Garden".  The  ancient  capital  occupied 
the  northern  (Ruvali)  i.sthmus.  The  modern  town 
of  Patmns  li<'s  in  the  miildle  part  of  the  island.  Above 
it  lowers  the  I)at1  Iniicnts  of  St.  John's  monastery, 
fountled  in  lOSS  by  St.  Christobulus.  The  Island  of 
Patmos  is  famous  in  history  as  the  place  of  St.  John's 
exile:  "I,  John  .  .  .  was  in  the  island,  which  is  called 
Patmos,  for  the  word  of  God,  and  for  the  testimony  of 
Jesus"  (Apoc.,  i,  9);  there  according  to  general  belief 
the  Beloved  Disciple  wrote  the  Apocalypse,  the  im- 
agery of  which  was  in  part  inspired  by  the  scenery  of 
the  island.  The  spot  where  St.  John  was  favoured 
with  his  revelations  is  pointed  out  as  a  cave  on  the 
slope  of  the  hill,  half  way  between  the  shore  and  the 
modern  town  of  Patmos. 

Clahk.  Travels  (London.  1818);  Mdrrat,  Handbook  to  Asia 
Minor  (London) ;  TozER,  The  Islands  of  the  Mgean  (London, 
1890);  Gu^RiN,  Description  de  Vile  de  Patmos  (Paris,  1856);  La- 
CROix,  Les  lies  de  la  Grkce  (Paris,  1853) ;  Le  Camub,  Voyage  aux 
pays  bibliques  (Paris,  1890) ;  Ross,  Reisen  auf  den  griechischen 
Inseln  (Stuttgart,  1840). 

Charles  L.  Souvat. 

Patna.     See  Allahabad,  The  Diocese  of. 

Patras,  metropolitan  see  in  Achaia.  It  was  one 
of  the  twelve  ancient  cities  of  Achaia,  built  near 
Mount  Panachaicon  (now  Voidia),  and  formed  of 
three  small  districts,  Aroe,  Antheia,  and   Meaatis. 


After  the  Dorian  invasion  Patreus  established  there  a 
colony  from  Laconia,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  city.  In 
the  Peloponnesian  War  it  took  sides  with  Athens,  and, 
in  419  B.  c,  Alcibiades  advised  the  construction  of 
long  walls  to  connect  the  town  with  its  harbour.  Re- 
verses having  reduced  it  to  extreme  misery,  Augustus 
restored  it  after  the  victory  at  Actium  by  a  military 
colony,  called  Aroe  Patren.sis,  the  existence  of  which 
till  the  reign  of  CJordianus  III  is  attested  by  coins.  It 
became  very  prosperous  through  its  commerce  and 
especially  through  its  weaving  industry.  In  the 
sixth  century  it  suffered  from  an  earthquake  (Pro- 
copius,  "Bell.  Goth.",  IV,  xxv),  and  afterwards  from 
the  ravages  of  the  Slavs.  In  807,  however,  it  re- 
sisted the  attacks  of  the  Slavs  and,  in  return,  received 
the  title  of  metropolitan  see  from  the  Emperor  Nice- 
phorus  I.  Patras  was  dependent  on  Rome  until  733, 
when  it  became  subject  to  the  Pat  riarchate  of  Constan- 
tinople. Nothing  is  known  of  the  beginning  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  city,  unless  we  accejit  tlie  tradition  that 
it  was  evangelized  by  the  Apo.-itle  St.  .\nilr(>w.  A 
celebrated  Stylite  lived  there  in  th<>  tenth  century,  to 
whom  St.  Luke  the  Younger  went  to  be  trained 
(P.  G.,  CXI,  451).  In  1205  William  of  Champlitte 
took  possession  and  installed  canons;  they  in  turn 
elected  Anthelme,  a  monk  of  Chmy,  as  archbishop. 
The  territory  formed  a  barony  subject  to  the  A'cman 
family  and  included  in  the  principality  of  Morea  or 
Achaia.  The  Latin  archbishops  held  it  from  the 
second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  till  1408,  when 
they  sold  it  to  Venice.  In  1429  it  again  fell  into  the 
power  of  the  Greeks,  and  was  taken  by  the  Turks 
in  1460.  Under  the  Ottoman  dominion  Patras 
became  the  capital  of  the  pashalik  of  Morea,  and 
underwent  severe  trials.  In  1532  it  was  captured  by 
Andrea  Doria;  in  1571,  at  the  time  of  the  Battle  of 
Lepanto,  the  Greek  metropolitan  aroused  the  popu- 
lace on  behalf  of  the  Venetians  and  was  cut  to  pieces 
by  the  Turks.  It  was  burnt  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1595;  pillaged  by  the  Maltese  in  1603,  and  captured 
by  the  Venetians  on  24  July,  1687,  and  kept  by  them 
for  thirty  years.  In  1770,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Russians,  the  city  revolted,  and  was  sacked  by  the 
Turks.  On  4  April,  1821,  it  rose  unsuccessfully 
against  the  Ottomans,  who  held  it  until  it  was  de- 
livered by  General  Maison  on  5  October,  1828.  It  is 
now  the  capital  of  the  nome  Achaia,  and  has  38,000 
inhabitants. 

The  Greek  see,  first  dependent  on  Corinth,  became 
a  metropolitan  see  in  the  ninth  century.  It  had  four 
suffragans  (Gelzer,  "Ungedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der 
Notiti;o  episcopatuum",  5.57);  then  five  about  940 
(Gelzer,  "Georgii  Cyprii  Descriptio  orbis  Romani", 
77);  after  1453  it  had  only  two,  which  successively 
disappeared  (Gelzer,  op.  cit.,  634).  Its  titulars  were 
called  Metropolitans  of  Patras  from  the  ninth  century 
until  the  Middle  Ages,  Metropolitans  of  Old  Patras 
until  1833,  Bishops  of  Achaia  until  1852,  Archl)isho])8 
of  Patras  and  Eleia  from  that  time.  The  list  of  its 
titulars  has  been  compiled  bv  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christ., 

II,  177-82),  Gelzer  (in  Gerland,  "Neue  Qurllcn  zur 
Geschichte  des  lateinischen  Erzbistums  Patras", 
Leipzig,  1903),  247-5.5,  Pargoire  (in  "  Iv'hos  cl'(  )rieiit  ", 
VII,  10.3-07).  The  Latin  archdiocese,  crcati'd  in  1205, 
lasted  until  1441,  when  it  became  a  titular  see.  It 
had  five  suffragans,  Andravida,  AmycUe,  Modone, 
Corone,  and  Cephalonia-Zante;  even  when  Modone 
and  Corone  belonged  to  the  Venetians  they  continued 
to  depend  on  Patra-s.  The  list  of  Latin  titulars  has 
been  drawn  up  by  Le  Quien  (op.  cit..  Ill,  1023-32), 
Eubel  (Hierarchia  cath.  med.  a?vi,  I,  412;  II,  236; 

III,  289),  and  Gerland  (op.  cit.,  244-46).  In  1640  the 
Jesuits  established  themselves  at  Patras,  and  in  1687 
the  Franciscans  and  Carmelites.  In  the  nineteenth 
century  the  pope  confided  the  administration  of  the 
Peloponnesus  to  the  Bishop  of  Zante,  in  1834  to  the 
Bishop  of  Syra.    Since  1874  the  city  has  formed  a 


PATRIARCH 


548 


PATRIARCH 


part  of  the  Apostolic  Delegation  of  Athens.  It  con- 
tains from  8000  to  10,000  Catholics.  The  jiarish 
work  is  in  charge  of  secular  priests.  There  is  a  con- 
vent of  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  Ivrca. 

Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  (leoiiraphi/,  II,  ,5.")7;  Gerland, 
op.  cit.;  Thomopoulos,  History  of  the  town  of  Patras  (Athens, 
188S),  in  Greek. 

S.   VAILHfi. 

Patriarch,  TraTpidpxv^. — The  word  patriarch  as 
applioii  to  Biblical  personages  comes  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint  vert^ion,  where  it  is  used  in  a  broad  sense, 
including  religious  and  civil  officials  (e.  g.  I  Par., 
xxiv,  31 ;  xxvii,  22).  In  the  more  restricted  sense  and 
common  usage  it  is  ajiplicd  to  the  antediluvian  fathers 
of  the  hmnan  race,  and  more  particularly  to  the  three 
great  progenitors  of  Israel:  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob.  In  the  New  Testament  the  term  is  extended 
also  to  the  sons  of  Jacob  (Acts,  vii,  8-9)  and  to  King 
David  (ibid.,  ii,  29).  For  an  account  of  these  later 
patriarchs  see  articles  Abraham;  Isaac;  Jacob;  etc. 
The  earlier  patriarchs  comprise  the  antediluvian 
group,  and  those  who  are  placed  between  the  Flood 
and  the  birth  of  Abraham.  Of  the  former  the  Book 
of  Genesis  gives  a  twofold  hst.  The  first  (Gen.,  iv, 
17-18,  passage  assigned  by  critics  to  the  so-called  "J" 
document)  starts  with  Cain  and  gives  as  his  descend- 
ants Henoch,  Irad,  Maviael,  Mathusael,  and  Lamech. 
The  other  list  (Gen.,  v,  3-31,  ascribed  to  the  priestly 
writer,  "P")  is  far  more  elaborate,  and  is  accompanied 
by  minute  chronological  indications.  It  begins  with 
Seth  and,  strange  to  say,  it  ends  likewise  witli  Lanioch. 
The  intervening  names  are  Enos,  Cainan,  Malaleel, 
Jared,  Henoch,  and  JMathusala. 

The  fact  that  both  lists  end  with  Lamech,  who  is 
doubtle.ss  the  same  person,  and  that  some  of  the  names 
common  to  both  are  strikingly  similar,  makes  it 
probable  that  the  second  list  is  an  amplification  of  the 
first,  embodying  material  furnished  by  a  divergent 
tradition.  Nor  should  this  seem  surprising  when  we 
consider  the  many  discrepancies  exhibited  by  the  two- 
fold genealogy  of  the  Sa\-iour  in  the  First  and  Third 
Gospels.  The  himian  personages  set  forth  in  these 
hsts  occupy  a  place  held  by  the  mythical  demi-gods  in 
the  storj'  of  the  i)rehistoric  beginnings  of  other  early 
nations,  and  it  may  well  be  that  the  chief  value  of  the 
inspired  account  given  of  them  is  didactic,  destined  in 
the  mind  of  the  sacred  writer  to  inculcate  the  great 
truth  of  monotheism  which  is  so  distinctive  a  feature 
of  the  Old  Testament  writings.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
the  acceptance  of  this  general  view  helps  greatly  to 
simplify  another  difficult  problem  connected  with  the 
Biblical  account  of  the  early  patriarchs,  viz.  their 
enormous  longevity.  The  earlier  account  (Gen.,  iv, 
17-18)  gives  only  the  names  of  the  patriarchs  there 
mentioned,  with  the  incidental  indication  that  the 
city  built  by  Cain  was  called  after  his  son  Henoch. 
The  later  narrative  (Gen.,  v,  3-31)  gives  a  definite 
chronology  for  the  whole  periofi.  It  states  the  age  at 
which  each  patriarch  begot  his  first-bom  son,  the 
number  of  years  he  livetl  after  that  event,  together 
with  the  sum  total  of  the  years  of  his  life.  Nearly  all 
of  the  antediluvian  fathers  are  represented  as  living 
to  the  age  of  900  or  thereabouts,  Mathusala,  the 
oldest,  reaching  969. 

These  figures  have  always  constituted  a  most  difficult 
problem  for  commentators  and  Bible  readers;  and 
those  who  defend  the  strict  historical  character  of  the 
passages  in  question  have  put  forward  various  ex- 
planations, none  of  which  are  considered  convincing 
by  modem  Biblical  scholars.  Thus  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  the  years  mentioned  in  this  connex- 
ion were  not  of  ordinary  duration  but  of  one  or  more 
months.  There  is,  however,  no  warrant  for  this 
assumption  in  the  Scripture  itself,  where  the  word  year 
has  a  constant  signification,  and  is  always  clearly 
distinguished  from  the  minor  periods.  It  has  also 
been  suggested  that  the  ages  given  are  not  those  of 


individuals,  but  signify  epochs  of  antediluvian  history, 
and  that  each  is  named  after  its  most  ilhistrious  rep- 
resentative. The  hypothesis  may  be  ingcnidus,  but 
even  a  superficial  reading  of  the  text  sufiiccs  to  show 
that  such  was  not  the  meaning  of  the  sacred  writer. 
Nor  does  it  help  the  case  much  to  jioint  out  a  few 
exceptional  instances  of  persons  who  in  more  modern 
times  are  alleged  to  have  lived  to  the  age  of  1.50  or 
even  180.  For  even  admitting  these  as  facts,  and  that 
in  primitive  times  men  lived  longer  tlian  at  in-cscnt 
(an  assumption  for  which  we  find  no  warrant  in  his- 
toric times),  it  is  still  a  long  way  from  180  to  900. 

Another  argument  to  corroborate  the  historical 
accuracy  of  the  Biblical  account  has  been  deduced 
from  the  fact  that  the  legends  of  many  people  assert 
the  great  longevity  of  their  early  ancestors,  a  circum- 
stance which  is  said  to  imply  an  original  tradition  to 
that  effect.  Thus  the  first  seven  Egyptian  kings  are 
said  to  have  reigned  for  a  period  of  12,300  years, 
making  an  average  of  about  1757  years  for  each,  and 
Josephus,  who  is  preoccupied  with  a  desire  to  justify 
the  Biblical  narrative,  quotes  Ephorus  and  Nicolaus 
as  relating  "  that  the  ancients  lived  a  thousand  years". 
He  adds,  however,  "But  as  to  these  matters,  let  every 
one  look  upon  them  as  he  thinks  fit".  (Antiq.,  I,  iii, 
in  fine).  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  maintained  that  as 
a  matter  of  fact  there  is  no  trustworthy  historic  or 
scientific  evidence  indicating  that  the  average  span 
of  human  life  was  greater  in  primitive  than  in  modern 
times.  In  this  connexion  it  is  customary  to  cite 
Gen.,  vi,  3,  where  God  is  represented  as  decreeing  by 
way  of  punishment  of  the  universal  corruption  which 
was  the  occasion  of  the  Flood,  that  henceforth  the 
days  of  man  "shall  be  a  hundred  and  twenty  years". 
This  is  taken  as  indicating  a  point  at  which  the  physi- 
cal deterioration  of  the  race  resulted  in  a  marked 
decrease  in  longevity.  But  apart  from  critical  con- 
siderations bearing  on  this  passage,  it  is  strange  to 
note  further  on  (Gen.,  xi)  that  the  ages  of  the  subse- 
quent patriarchs  were  by  no  means  limited  to  120 
years.  Sem  lived  to  the  age  of  600,  Arphaxad  338 
(Massoretic  Text  408),  Sale  433,  Heber  464  etc. 

The  one  ground  on  which  the  accuracy  of  all  these 
figures  can  be  defended  is  the  a  priori  reason  that 
being  contained  in  the  Bible,  they  must  of  a  necessity 
be  historically  correct,  and  this  position  is  maintained 
by  the  older  commentators  generally.  Most  modern 
scholars,  on  the  other  hand,  are  agreed  in  considering 
the  genealogical  and  chronological  lists  of  Gen.,  v, 
and  xi,  to  be  mainly  artificial,  and  this  view  seems  to 
be  confirmed,  they  say,  by  a  comparison  of  the  figures 
as  they  stand  in  the  Hebrew  original  and  in  the  an- 
cient versions.  The  Vulgate  is  in  agreement  with  the 
former  (with  the  exception  of  Arphaxad),  showing 
that  no  substantial  alteration  of  the  figures  has  been 
made  in  the  Hebrew  at  least  since  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century  a.  d. 

But  when  we  compare  the  Massoretic  Text  with 
the  Samaritan  version  and  the  Septuagint,  we  are 
confronted  by  many  and  strange  discrepancies  which 
can  hardly  be  the  result  of  mere  accident.  Thus  for 
instance,  with  regard  to  the  antediluvian  patriarchs, 
while  the  Samaritan  version  agrees  in  the  main  with 
the  Massoretic  Text,  the  age  at  which  Jared  begot  his 
first-bom  is  set  down  as  62  instead  of  the  Hebrew  162. 
Mathusala,  likewise,  who  according  to  the  Hebrew 
begot  his  first-born  at  the  age  of  187,  was  only  67 
according  to  the  Samaritan;  and  though  the  Hebrew 
places  the  same  event  in  the  case  of  Lamech  wlien  he 
was  182,  the  Samaritan  gives  him  only  53.  Similar 
discrepancies  exist  between  the  two  texts  as  regards 
the  total  number  of  years  that  these  patriarchs  lived, 
viz.  Jared,  Heb.  962,  Sam.  847;  Mathusala,  Hcb.  960, 
Sam.  720;  Lamech,  Heb.  777,  Sam.  6.53.  Comparing 
the  Massoretic  Text  with  the  Septuagint,  we  find 
that  in  the  latter  the  birth  of  the  first-born  in  the  case 
of  Adam,  Seth,  Enos,  Cainan,  Malaleel,  and  Henoch 


PATRIARCH 


549 


PATRIARCH 


was  at  the  respective  ages  of  230,  205,  190,  170,  165, 
and  165,  as  against  130,  105,  90,  70,  65,  and  65  as 
stated  in  the  Hebrew,  and  the  same  systematic  dif- 
ference of  100  years  in  the  period  before  the  birth 
of  the  first-born  appears  likewise  in  the  hves  of 
the  postdiluvian  patriarchs,  Arphaxad,  Sale,  Heber, 
Phaleg,  Reu,  and  Sarug.  For  this  list,  however,  the 
Samaritan  agrees  with  the  Septuagint  as  against  the 
Massoretio  Text. 

As  regards  the  list  of  the  antediluvians,  the  Hebrew 
and  Septuagint  agree  as  to  the  sum  total  of  each 
patriarch's  life,  since  the  Greek  version  reduces  reg- 
ularly by  a  hundred  years  the  period  between  the 
birth  of  the  first-born  and  the  patriarch's  death. 
These  accumulated  differences  result  in  a  wide  diver- 
gence when  the  duration  of  the  entire  patriarchal 
period  is  considered.  Thus  the  number  of  years 
which,  elapsed  from  the  beginning  down  to  the  death 
of  Lamech  is,  according  to  the  Hebrew,  1651,  while 
the  Samaritan  gives  1307,  and  the  Septuagint  2227. 
These  are  but  a  few  of  the  peculiarities  exhibited  by 
the  comparison  of  these  perplexing  genealogical  lists. 
That  the  divergences  are  for  the  most  part  inten- 
tional seems  to  be  a  necessary  inference  from  their 
systematic  regularity,  and  the  implied  manipulation 
of  the  figures  by  the  early  translators  goes  far  to  make 
probable  the  more  or  less  artificial  character  of  these 
primitive  chronologies  as  a  whole. 

Von  Hummelaueh,  Comment,  in  Genesim  (Paris.  1895) ;  Gigot, 
Special  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Old  Testament,  I  (New 
York,  1901),  184  sq.;  Vigouroux,  Livres  Saints  et  Critique 
RatioTialiste,  IV  (Paris,  1891),  224  sq.;  Idem,  Manuel  Bibligue.  II 
(Paris,  1880),  n.  333;  Kaulen  in  Kirchenlexikon,  8.  v.;  see  also 
Chhonologt,  Biblical.  James  F.   DriscOLL. 

Patriarch  and  Patriarchate,  names  of  the  high- 
est ecclcsiasticiil  dignitaries  after  the  pope,  and  of 
the  territory  tliey  rule. 

I.  Origin  OF  THE  Title. — Patriarch (Gr.xaTpiipx'?'; 
Lat.  patriarcha)  means  the  father  or  chief  of  a  race 
{iraTpid,  a  clan  or  family).  The  word  occurs  in 
the  Septuagint  for  the  chiefs  of  the  tribes  (e.  g.  I 
Par.,  xxiv,  31;  xxvii,  22,  narpiipxai  tGiv  (pvXQi';  cf. 
II  Par.,  xxiii,  20  etc.);  in  the  New  Testament  (Heb., 
vii,  4)  it  is  applied  to  Abraham  as  a  version  of  his 
title  "father  of  many  nations"  (Gen.,  xvii,  4),  to 
David  (Acts,  ii,  29),  and  to  the  twelve  sons  of  Jacob 
(Acts,  vii,  8-9).  This  last  became  the  special  mean- 
ing of  the  word  when  used  of  Scriptural  characters. 
The  heads  of  the  tribes  were  the  "Twelve  Patriarchs", 
though  the  word  is  used  also  in  a  more  general  sense 
for  the  fathers  of  the  Old  Law  in  general,  e.  g.  the  in- 
vocation in  the  litany,  "All  ye  holy  Patriarchs  and 
Prophets". 

Names  of  Christian  dignitaries  were  in  early  days 
taken  sometimes  from  civil  life  (iirlcKOTro^,  SlAkovos), 
sometimes  bcirrowcd  from  the  Jews  (Trpecrpirepo!). 
The  name  pat  riarih  is  one  of  the  latter  class.  Bishops 
of  special  dignity  wrre  called  patriarchs  just  as  deacons 
were  called  levites,  because  their  place  corresponded 
by  analogy  to  those  in  the  Old  Law.  All  such  titles 
became  technical  terms,  official  titles,  only  gradually. 
At  first  they  were  used  loosely  as  names  of  honour 
without  any  strict  connotation;  but  in  all  such  cases 
the  reality  existed  before  any  special  name  was  used. 
There  were  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  with  all  the  rights 
and  prerogatives  of  patriarchs  in  the  first  three  cen- 
turies; but  the  official  title  does  not  occur  till  later. 
As  a  Christian  title  of  honour  the  word  patriarch 
appears  first  as  applied  to  Pope  Leo  I  in  a  letter  of 
Theodosius  II  (408-50;  Man.si,  VI,  68).  The  bish- 
ops of  the  Byzantine  jurisdiction  apply  it  to  their 
chief,  Acacius  (471-89;  Evagrius,  "H.  E.",  Ill,  9). 
But  it  was  still  merely  an  honourable  epithet  that 
might  be  given  to  any  venerable  bishop.  St.  Greg- 
ory of  Nazianzus  says:  "the  elder  bishops,  or  more 
rightly,  the  patriarchs"  (Orat.,  xlii,  23).  Socrates 
says  that  the  Fathers  of  Constantinople  I  (381)  "set 


up  patriarchs",  meaning  apparently  metropolitans 
of  provinces  (H.  E.,  V,  viii).  As  late  as  the  fifth  and 
sixth  centuries  Celidonius  of  Besan5on  and  Nicetius 
of  Lyons  are  still  called  patriarchs  (Acta  SS.,  Feb., 
Ill,  742;  Gregory  of  Tours,  "Hist.  Francorum",  V, 
xx). 

Gradually  then — certainly  from  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries — the  word  becomes  an  official  title, 
used  henceforth  only  as  connoting  a  definite  rank  in 
the  hierarchy,  that  of  the  chief  bLshops  who  ruled  over 
metropolitans  as  metropolitans  over  their  suffragan 
bishops,  being  themselves  subject  only  to  the  first 
patriarch  at  Rome.  During  these  earlier  centuries 
the  name  appears  generally  in  conjunction  with 
"archbishop",  "archbishop  and  patriarch",  as  in  the 
Code  of  Justinian  (Gelzer,  "Der  Streit  iiber  den 
Titel  des  okumen.  Patriarchen"  in  "Jahrbuch  fUr 
protest.  Theol.",  1887).  The  dispute  about  the 
title  (Ecumenical  Patriarch  in  the  sixth  century  (see 
John  the  Faster)  shows  that  even  then  the  name 
was  receiving  a  technical  sense.  Later  medieval  and 
modern  developments,  schisms,  and  the  creation  of 
titular  and  so-called  "minor"  patriarchates  have  pro- 
duced the  result  that  a  great  number  of  persons  now 
claim  the  title ;  but  in  all  cases  it  connotes  the  idea  of 
a  special  rank — the  highest,  except  among  Catholics 
who  admit  the  still  higher  papacy. 

Patriarchate  (Gr.  TraTpiapx^a;  Lat.  patriarchatus)  is 
the  derived  word  meaning  a  patriarch's  office,  see,  reign, 
or,  most  often,  the  territory  he  governs.  It  corre- 
sponds to  episcopacy,  episcopate,  and  diocese  in  rela- 
tion to  a  bishop. 

II.  The  Three  Patriarchs. — The  oldest  canon 
law  admitted  only  three  bishops  as  having  what 
later  ages  called  patriarchal  rights — the  Bishops  of 
Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch.  The  successor  of 
St.  Peter  as  a  matter  of  course  held  the  highest  place 
and  combined  in  his  own  person  all  dignities.  He 
was  not  only  bishop,  but  metropolitan,  primate,  and 
patriarch;  Metropolitan  of  the  Roman  Province,  Pri- 
mate of  Italy,  and  first  of  the  patriarchs.  As  soon  as 
a  hierarchy  was  organized  among  bishops,  the  chief 
authority  and  dignity  were  retained  by  the  Bishop  of 
Rome.  The  pope  combines  the  above  positions  and 
each  of  them  gives  him  a  special  relation  to  the  faith- 
ful and  the  bishops  in  the  territory  corresponding. 
As  pope  he  is  visible  head  of  the  whole  Church; 
no  Christian  is  outside  his  papal  jurisdiction.  As 
Bishop  of  Rome  he  is  the  diocesan  bishop  of  that  dio- 
cese only;  as  metropolitan  he  governs  the  Roman 
Province;  as  primate  he  governs  the  Italian  bishops; 
as  patriarch  he  rules  only  the  West.  As  patriarch 
the  Roman  pontiff  has  from  the  beginning  ruled  all 
the  Western  lands  where  Latin  was  once  the  civilized, 
and  is  still  the  liturgical  language,  where  the  Roman 
Rite  is  now  used  almost  exclusively  and  the  Roman 
canon  law  (e.  g.  celibacy,  our  rules  of  fasting  and 
abstinence,  etc.)  obtains.  To  Christians  in  the  East 
he  is  supreme  pontiff,  not  patriarch.  Hence  there 
has  always  been  a  closer  relation  between  Western 
bishops  and  the  pope  than  between  him  and  their 
Eastern  brethren,  just  as  there  is  a  still  closer  relation 
between  him  and  the  suburban  bishops  of  the  Roman 
Province  of  which  he  is  metropolitan.  Many  laws 
that  we  obey  are  not  universal  Catholic  laws,  but 
those  of  the  Western  patriarchate.  Before  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nica!a  (325)  two  bishops  in  the  East  had  the 
same  patriarchal  authority  over  large  territories, 
those  of  Alexandria  and  Antioch.  It  is  diflicult  to 
say  exactly  how  they  obtained  this  position.  The 
organization  of  provinces  tmder  metropolitans  fol- 
lowed, as  a  matter  of  obvious  convenience,  the  or- 
ganization of  the  empire  arranged  by  Diocletian 
(Fortescue,  "Orthodox  Eastern  Church",  21-23). 
In  this  arrangement  the  most  imi)ortant  cities  in  the 
East  were  Alexandria  of  Egypt  and  Antioch  of  Syria. 
So  the  Bishop  of  Alexandria  became  the  chief  of  all 


PATRIARCH 


550 


PATRIARCH 


Egyptian  bishops  and  metropolitans;  the  Bishop  of 
Antioch  held  the  same  place  over  Syria  and  at  the 
same  time  extended  his  sway  over  Asia  Minor,  Greece, 
and  the  rest  of  the  East.  Diocletian  liad  divided 
the  empire  into  four  great  prefectures.  Three  of 
these  (Italy,  Gaul,  and  lUjTieum)  made  up  the  Roman 
patriarchate,  the  other,  the  "East"  (Pra-fectura 
Orientis)  had  five  (civil)  "dioceses" — Thrace,  Asia, 
Pontus,  the  Diocese  of  the  East,  and  Ejjypt.  Egypt 
was  the  .Vlexandrinc  patriarchate.  The  Antiocliene 
patriarchate  embraced  the  civil  "Diocese"  of  the 
East.  The  other  three  civil  divisions  of  Thrace, 
Asia,  and  Pontus  would  have  probably  developed 
into  separate  patriarchates,  but  for  the  rise  of  Con- 
stantinople (ibid.,  22-2.5).  Later  it  became  a  popular 
idea  to  connect  all  three  patriarchates  with  the  Prince 
of  the  Apostles.  >St.  Peter  had  also  reigned  at  An- 
tioch; he  had  founded  the  Church  of  Alexandria  by 
his  disciple  St.  Mark.  At  any  rate  the  Council  of 
Nicxa  in  325  recognizes  the  supreme  place  of  the 
bishops  of  these  three  cities  as  an  "ancient  custom" 
(can.  vi).  Rome,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch  are  the 
three  old  patriarchates  whose  unique  position  and 
order  were  disturbed  by  later  developments. 

III.  The  Five  Patriarch.^tes. — When  pilgrims 
began  to  flock  to  the  Holy  City,  the  Bishop  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  guardian  of  the  saeretl  shrines,  began  to  be 
considered  as  more  than  a  mere  suffragan  of  Ca'sarea. 
The  Council  of  Nica-a  (.325)  gave  him  an  honorary 
primacy,  saving,  however,  the  metropolitical  rights  of 
Ca^sarea  (can.  vii).  Juvenal  of  Jerusalem  (420-58) 
succeeded  finally,  after  much  dispute,  in  changing 
this  honorary  position  into  a  real  patriarchate.  The 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (451)  cut  away  Palestine  and 
Arabia  (Sinai)  from  Antioch  and  of  them  formed 
the  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem  (Sess.  VII  and  VIII). 
Since  that  time  Jerusalem  has  always  been  counted 
among  the  patriarchal  sees  as  the  smallest  and  last 
(ibid.,  25-28).  But  the  greatest  change,  the  one  that 
met  most  opposition,  was  the  rise  of  Constantinople 
to  patriarchal  rank.  Because  Constantine  had  made 
Byzantium  "New  Rome",  its  bishop,  once  the  hum- 
ble sufTragan  of  Heraclea,  thought  that  he  should  be- 
come second  only,  if  not  almost  equal,  to  the  Bishop 
of  Old  Rome.  For  many  centuries  the  popes  op- 
posed this  ambition,  not  bccau.se  any  one  thought  of 
disputing  their  first  place,  but  because  they  were  un- 
willing to  change  the  old  order  of  the  hierarchy.  In 
381  the  Council  of  Constantinople  declared  that: 
"The  Bishop  of  Constantinople  shall  have  the  pri- 
macy of  honour  after  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  because 
it  is  New  Rome"  (can.  iii).  The  popes  (Damasus, 
Gregory  the  Great)  refused  to  confirm  this  canon. 
Nevertheless  Con.'^tantinople  grew  by  favour  of  the 
emperor,  whose  centralizing  policy  found  a  ready  help 
in  the  authority  of  his  court  bishop.  Chalcedon  (451) 
established  Constantinople  as  a  patriarchate  with  ju- 
risdiction over  Asia  Minor  and  Thrace  and  gave  it 
the  second  place  after  Rome  (can.  xxviii).  Pope 
Leo  1  (440-61)  refused  to  admit  this  canon,  which 
was  made  in  the  absence  of  his  legates;  for  centuries 
Rome  still  refused  to  give  the  second  place  to  Con- 
stantinople. It  wa.s  not  until  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council  (1215)  that  the  Latin  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople was  allowed  this  place;  in  1439  the  Council  of 
Florence  gave  it  to  the  Greek  patriarch.  Neverthe- 
less in  the  East  the  emperor's  wish  was  powerful 
enough  to  obtain  recognition  for  his  patriarch;  from 
Chalcedon  we  must  count  Constantinople  as  practi- 
cally, if  not  legally,  the  second  patriarchate  (ibi<l., 
28-47).  So  we  have  the  new  order  of  five  patriarchs 
— Rome,  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jeru- 
salem— that  seemed,  to  Eastern  theologians  espe- 
cially, an  essential  clement  of  the  constitution  of  the 
Church  [see  (ibid.,  46-47)  the  letter  of  Peter  III  of 
Antioch,  c.  10.54). 

IV.  Further   Development. — At  the  time  of 


Cerularius's  schism  (1054)  the  great  Church  of  the 
empire  knew  practically  these  five  [)atriarchs  only, 
though  "minor"  patriarchates  had  already  begun  in 
the  West.  The  Eighth  Cieneral  Council  (Con.stan- 
tinople  IV,  in  869)  had  solemnly  allirmed  their  po.si- 
tion  (can.  xxi).  The  schism,  and  further  distinctions 
that  would  not  have  exi.sted  but  for  it,  considerably 
augmented  the  number  of  bishops  who  claimed  the 
title.  But  before  the  great  schism  the  earlier  Ne.s- 
torian  and  Monophysite  .separations  had  resulted  in 
the  existence  of  various  heretical  patriarchs.  To  be 
under  a  patriarch  had  come  to  be  the  normal,  appar- 
ently necessary,  condition  for  any  Church.  So  it  was 
natural  that  these  heretics  when  they  broke  from  the 
Catholic  patriarchs  should  sooner  or  later  set  up  ri- 
vals of  their  own.  But  in  most  cases  they  have 
been  neither  consistent  nor  logical.  Instead  of  being 
merely  an  honourable  title  for  the  occupants  of  the 
five  chief  sees,  the  name  patriarch  was  looked  upon 
as  denoting  a  rank  of  its  own.  So  there  was  the  idea 
that  one  might  be  patriarch  of  any  place.  We  shall 
understand  the  confusion  of  this  idea  if  we  imagine 
some  sect  setting  up  a  Pope  of  London  or  New  York 
in  opposition  to  the  Poi)e  of  Rome.  The  Nestorians 
broke  away  from  Antioch  in  the  fifth  century.  They 
then  called  their  catholieus  (originally  a  vicar  of  the 
Antiochene  pontiff),  patriarch;  though  he  has  never 
claimed  to  be  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  which  alone  would 
have  given  a  reason  for  his  title.  Baba;us  (Bab- 
Hai,  498-503)  is  said  to  be  the  first  who  usurped  the 
title,  as  Patriarch  of  .Seleucia  and  Ctesiphon  (Asse- 
mani,  "Bibl.  Orient.",  Ill,  427).  The  Copts  and 
Jacobites  have  been  more  con.sistent.  During  the 
long  Monophysite  quarrels  (fifth  to  seventh  cent.) 
there  were  continually  rival  or  alternate  Catholic  and 
Monophysite  patriarchs  of  Alexandria  and  .\ntioch. 
Eventually,  since  the  Moslem  conquest  of  Egj'iJt  and 
Sj'ria,  rival  lines  were  formed.  So  there  is  a  line  of 
Coptic  patriarchs  of  Alexandria  and  of  Jacobite  pa^ 
triarchsof  Antioch  as  rivals  to  the  Melchiteones.  But 
in  this  case  each  claims  to  represent  the  old  line  and 
refuses  to  recognize  its  rivals,  which  is  a  possible 
position. 

The  Armenian  Church  has  made  the  same  mistake 
as  the  Nestorians.  It  has  now  four  so-called  pa- 
triarchs, of  which  two  bear  titles  of  sees  that  can- 
not by  any  rule  of  antiquity  claim  to  be  patriarchal 
at  all,  and  the  other  two  have  not  even  the  pretence  of 
descent  from  the  old  lines.  The  Armenian  Catholieus 
of  Etchmiadzin  began  to  call  himself  a  patriarch  on 
the  same  basis  as  the  Nestorian  primate — simply  as 
head  of  a  large  and,  after  the  Monophysite  schism 
(Synod  of  Duin  in  527),  independent  Church.  It  is 
difficult  to  say  at  what  date  he  a.ssumed  the  title. 
Armenian  writers  call  all  their  catholici  patriarchs, 
back  to  St.  Gregory  the  Illuminator  (fourth  cent.). 
Silbemagl  counts  Nerses  I  (353-73?)  first  patriarch 
(Verfassung  u.  gegenw.  Bestand,  216).  But  a  claim 
to  patriarchal  rank  could  hardly  have  been  made 
at  a  time  when  Armenia  was  still  in  union  with 
and  subject  to  the  See  of  Ca-sarea.  The  Catho- 
licus's  title  is  not  local;  he  is  "Patriarch  of  all  Arme- 
nians." In  1461  Mohammed  II  set  up  an  Armenian 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  to  balance  the  Orthodox 
one.  A  temporary  schism  among  the  Armenians  re- 
sulted in  a  Patriarchate  of  Sis,  and  in  the  seventeenth 
century  the  Armenian  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  began  to 
call  himself  patriarch.  It  is  clear  then  how  entirely 
the  Armenians  ignore  what  the  title  really  means. 

The  next  multiplication  of  patriarchs  was  produced 
by  the  Crusades.  The  crusaders  naturally  refused  to 
recognize  the  claims  of  the  old,  now  schismatical, 
patriarchal  lines,  whose  representatives  moreover  in 
most  cases  fled;  so  they  .set  up  Latin  patriarchs  m 
their  place.  The  first  Latin  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem 
was  Dagobert  of  Pisa  (1099-1107);  the  Orihodox 
rival  (Simon  II)  had  fled  to  Cyi>ru8  in  1099  and  died 


PATRIARCH 


551 


PATRIARCH 


there  the  same  year  (for  the  hst  of  his  successors  see 
LeQuien,  III,  1241-68).  It  was  not  till  1142  that 
the  Orthodox  continued  their  broken  line  by  electing 
Arsenios  II,  who  like  most  Orthodox  patriarchs  at 
that  time  lived  at  Constantinople.  At  Antioch,  too, 
the  crusaders  had  a  scruple  against  two  patriarchs  of 
the  same  place.  They  took  the  city  in  1098,  but  as 
long  as  the  Orthodox  patriarch  (John  IV)  remained 
there  they  tried  to  make  him  a  Catholic  instead  of  ap- 
pointing a  rival.  However,  when  at  last  he  fled  to 
Constantinople  they  considered  the  see  vacant,  and 
Bernard,  Bishop  of  Arthesia,  a  Frenchman,  was 
elected  to  it  (the  succession  in  Le  Quien,  III,  1154- 
84). 

In  1167  Amaury  II,  King  of  Jerusalem,  captured 
Alexandria,  as  did  Peter  I,  King  of  Cyprus,  in  1365. 
But  both  times  the  city  was  given  back  to  the  Mos- 
lems at  once.  Nor  were  there  any  Latin  inhabitants  to 
justify  the  establishment  of  a  Latin  patriarchate.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Orthodox  patriarch,  Nicholas  I 
(c.  r210-after  1223;  Le  Quien,  II,  490)  was  well  dis- 
posed towards  reunion,  wrote  friendly  letters  to  the 
pope,  and  was  invited  to  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council 
(1215).  There  was  then  a  special  reason  for  not  set- 
ting up  a  Latin  rival  to  him.  Eventually  a  Latin 
patriarchate  was  established  rather  to  complete  what 
had  been  done  in  other  cases  than  for  any  practical 
reason.  Giles,  Patriarch  of  Cirado,  a  Dominican,  was 
made  first  Latin  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  by  Clement 
V  in  1310.  An  earlier  Latin  Athanasius  seems  to  be 
mythical  (Le  Quien,  III,  1143).  For  the  list  of  Giles's 
line  see  Le  Quien  (III,  1141-1151).  When  the  Fourth 
Crusade  took  Constantinople  in  1204,  the  patriarch 
John  X  fled  to  Nicaea  with  the  emperor,  and  Thomas 
Morosini  was  made  Latin  patriarch  to  balance  the 
Latin  emperor  (Le  Quien,  III,  793-836).  It  will  be 
seen  then  that  the  crusaders  acted  from  their  point  of 
view  correctly  enough.  But  the  result  was  for  each 
see  double  lines  that  have  continued  ever  since.  The 
Orthodox  lines  went  on;  the  Latin  patriarchs  ruled  as 
long  as  the  Latins  held  those  lands.  When  the  cru- 
saders' kingdoms  came  to  an  end  they  went  on  as  titu- 
lar patriarchs  and  have  been  for  many  centuries  dig- 
nitaries of  the  papal  court.  Only  the  Latin  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem  was  sent  back  in  1847  to  be  the  head  of 
all  Latins  in  Palestine.  By  that  time  peoi)lc  were  so 
accustomed  to  see  different  patriarchs  of  the  same 
place  ruling  each  his  own  "nation"  that  this  seemed  a 
natural  proceeding. 

The  formation  of  Uniat  Churches  since  the  six- 
teenth century  again  increased  the  number  of  patri- 
archates. These  people  could  no  longer  obey  the  old 
schismatical  lines.  On  the  other  hand  each  group 
came  out  of  a  corresponding  schismatical  Church; 
they  were  accustomed  to  a  chief  of  their  own  rite, 
their  own  "nation"  in  the  Turkish  sense.  The  only 
course  seemed  to  be  to  give  to  each  a  LIniat  patriarch 
corresponding  to  his  schismatical  rival.  Moreover,  in 
many  cases  the  line  of  Uniat  patriarchs  comes  from  a 
disputed  succession  among  the  schismatics,  one  claim- 
ant having  submitted  to  Rome  and  being  therefore 
deposed  by  the  schismatical  majority.  The  oldest  of 
these  Uniat  patriarchates  is  that  of  the  Maronitcs. 
In  680  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Macarius,  was  de- 
posed by  the  Sixth  General  Council  for  Monotheletism. 
The  Monothelctes  then  grouped  themselves  around 
the  hegumenos  of  the  Maronite  monastery,  John  (d. 
707).  This  begins  the  separated  Maronite  (at  that 
time  undoubtedly  Monothelete)  Church.  John  made 
himself  Patriarch  of  Antioch  for  his  followers,  who 
wanted  a  head  and  were  in  communion  with  neither 
the  Jacobites  nor  the  Melchites.  At  the  time  of  the 
crusades  the  Maronites  united  with  Rome  (1182  and 
again  in  1216).  They  are  allowed  to  keep  their  Patri- 
arch of  Antioch  as  head  of  their  rite;  but  he  in  no  way 
represents  the  old  line  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Ignatius. 
The  next  oldest  Uniat  patriarchate  is  that  of  Babylon 


for  the  Chaldees  (converted  Nestorians).  It  began 
with  the  submission  of  the  Nestorian  patriarch,  John 
Sulaga  (d.  15.55).  There  has  been  a  complicated  series 
of  rivalries  and  schisms  since,  of  which  the  final  curi- 
ous result  is  that  the  present  Uniat  patriarch  repre- 
sents the  old  Nestorian  line,  and  his  Nestorian  rival 
the  originally  Catholic  line  of  Sulaga.  The  title  of 
"Babylon"  was  not  used  till  Pope  Innocent  XI  con- 
ferred it  in  1681.  The  Melchite  patriarchate  dates 
from  1724  (Cyril  VI,  1724-17.59).  It  began  again 
with  a  disputed  succession  to  the  old  patriarchal  See 
of  Antioch;  the  Melchite  occupant  has  quite  a  good 
claim  to  represent  the  old  line.  The  Uniat  Byzantine 
Sees  of  Alexandria  and  Jerusalem  are  for  the  present 
considered  as  joined  to  that  of  Antioch;  the  Melchite 
patriarch  uses  all  three  titles  (see  Melchites).  The 
Uniat  Armenians  have  a  patriarch  who  resides  at  Con- 
stantinople, but  does  not  take  his  title  from  that  city. 
His  line  began  with  a  disputed  election  to  Sis,  one  of 
the  secondary  Armenian  patriarchates,  in  1739.  He 
is  called  Patriarch  of  Cilicia  of  the  Armenians.  In 
1781  Ignatius  Giarve,  Jacobite  Bishop  of  Aleppo,  was 
elected  canonically  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  He  then 
made  his  submission  to  Rome  and  the  heretical  bish- 
ops deposed  him  and  chose  a  Monophysite  as  patriarch. 
From  Giarve  the  line  of  Uniat  Syrian  patriarchs  of 
Antioch  descends.  Lastly,  in  1895,  Pope  Leo  XIII 
erected  a  Uniat  Coptic  Patriarchate  of  Alexandria  for 
the  many  Copts  who  were  at  that  time  becoming 
Catholics.  This  exhausts  the  list  of  Uniat  patriarchs. 
In  three  cases  (the  Chaldees,  Melchites,  and  Syrians) 
the  Uniat  patriarch  has,  on  purely  historical  grounds, 
at  least  as  good  a  claim  as  his  schismatical  rival,  if  not 
better,  to  represent  the  old  succession.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  existence  of  several  Catholic  patriarchs  of 
the  same  see,  for  instance,  the  Melchite,  Jacobite, 
Maronite,  and  Latin  titulars  of  Antioch,  is  a  conces- 
sion to  the  national  feeling  of  Eastern  Christians,  or, 
in  the  case  of  the  Latin,  a  relic  of  the  crusades  that 
archseologically  can  hardly  be  justified. 

It  is  curious  that  there  is  no  Uniat  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  There  was  for  a  time,  however  brief, 
a  new  patriarchate  among  the  Orthodox.  In  the  six- 
teenth century  the  Church  of  Russia  had  become  a 
very  large  and  flourishing  branch  of  the  Orthodox 
communion.  The  Russian  Government  then  thought 
the  time  had  come  to  break  its  dependence  on  Con- 
stantinople. In  1589  the  Tsar  Feodor  I  (1.581-98) 
made  the  Metropolitan  See  of  Moscow  into  an  inde- 
pendent patriarchate.  In  1591  the  other  patriarchs  in 
synod  confirmed  his  arrangement  and  gave  Moscow 
the  fifth  place,  below  Jerusalem.  Orthodox  theolo- 
gians were  delighted  that  the  sacred  pentarchy,  the 
classical  order  of  five  patriarchs,  was  thus  restored; 
they  said  that  God  had  raised  up  Moscow  to  replace 
fallen  Rome.  But  their  joy  did  not  last  long.  Only 
ten  Russian  patriarchs  reigned.  In  1700  the  last  of 
these,  Adria,  died.  Peter  the  Great  did  not  allow  a 
successor  to  be  elected,  and  in  1721  replaced  the  patri- 
archate by  the  Holy  Directing  Synod  that  now  rules 
the  Russian  Church.  But  many  Russians  who  resent 
the  present  tyranny  of  State  over  Church  in  their 
country  hope  for  a  restoration  of  the  national  patri- 
archate as  the  first  step  towards  better  things. 

There  remain  only  the  so-called  "minor"  patri- 
archates in  the  West.  At  various  times  certnin  West- 
ern sees,  too,  have  been  called  patriarchal.  But  there 
is  a  fundamental  difTerence  between  these  and  any 
Eastern  patriarchate.  Namely,  the  pope  is  Patriarch 
of  the  West ;  all  Western  bishops  of  whatever  rank  are 
subject  not  only  to  his  papal  but  also  to  his  patriarchal 
jurisdiction.  But  a  real  patriarch  cannot  be  subject 
to  another  patriarch;  no  patriarch  can  have  another 
under  his  patriarchal  jurisdiction,  just  as  a  diocesan 
ordinary  cannot  have  another  ordinary  in  his  diocese. 
Eastern  patriarchs  claim  independence  of  any  other 
patriarch  as  such;   the  Catholics  obey  the   pope  as 


PATRIABCH 


652 


PATRIARCH 


pope,  the  Orthodox  recognize  the  civil  headship  of 
Constantinople,  the  Armenians  a  certain  primacy  of 
honour  in  thoir  catholicus.  But  in  every  case  the  es- 
sence of  a  patriarcli's  iliKnity  is  that  he  has  no  other 
patriarch  over  him  a.i  palriarch.  On  the  other  hand, 
these  Western  minor  patriarchs  have  never  been  su])- 
posod  to  be  exempt  from  tlie  Roman  patriardiate. 
They  have  never  had  fragments  cut  away  from  Rome 
to  make  patriarchates  for  them,  as  for  instance  Jeru- 
salem was  formed  of  a  fragment  detached  from 
Antioch. 

Indeed,  none  of  them  has  ever  had  any  patriarchate 
at  all.  It  may  be  said  that  the  origin  of  the  title  in 
the  West  was  an  imitation  of  the  East.  But  legally 
the  situation  was  totally  different.  The  Western 
patriarchates  have  never  been  more  than  mere  titles 
conveying  no  jurisdiction  at  all.  The  earliest  of  them 
was  Aquileia  in  Illyricum.  It  was  an  important  city 
in  the  first  centuries;  the  see  claimed  to  have  been 
founded  by  St.  Mark.  During  the  rule  of  the  Goths  in 
Italy  (fifth  to  sixth  centuries)  the  Bishop  of  Aquileia 
was'  called  patriarch,  though  the  name  was  certainly 
not  used  in  any  technical  sense.  It  is  one  more  exam- 
ple of  the  looser  meaning  by  which  any  venerable 
bishop  might  be  so  called  in  earlier  times.  However, 
the  Bishop  of  Aquileia  began  to  use  his  complimen- 
tary title  in  a  more  definite  sense.  Though  Illyricum 
undoubtedly  belonged  legally  to  the  Roman  Patri- 
archate, it  was  long  a  fruitful  source  of  dispute  with 
the  East  (Orth.  Eastern  Church,  44-45) ;  Aquileia  on 
the  frontier  thought  itself  entitled  to  some  kind  of 
independence  of  either  Rome  or  Constantinople.  At 
first  the  popes  resolutely  refused  to  acknowledge  this 
new  claim  in  any  form.  Then  came  the  quarrel  of  the 
Three  Chapters. 

When,  however,  Pope  Vigilius  had  yielded  to  the 
second  Council  of  Constantinople  (553),  a  number  of 
North  Italian  bishops  went  into  formal  schism,  led 
by  Macedonius  of  Aquileia  (539-56).  From  this 
time  the  Bishops  of  Aquileia  call  themselves  patri- 
archs, as  heads  of  a  schismatical  party,  till  700.  Pau- 
linas of  Aquileia  (557-71)  moved  his  see  to  Grado,  a 
sm^all  island  opposite  Aquileia,  keeping,  however,  the 
old  title.  This  line  of  bishops  in  Grado  became  Catho- 
lics about  606;  their  schismatical  suffragans  then 
restored  the  old  see  at  Aquileia  as  a  schismatical  patri- 
archate. The  popes  seem  to  have  allowed  or  toler- 
ated the  same  title  for  the  Bishops  of  Aquileia-Grado. 
The  Synod  at  Aquileia  in  700  put  an  end  to  the 
schism  finally. 

From  that  time,  however,  there  were  two  lines  of 
so-called  patriarchs,  those  of  Aquileia  and  of  Grado 
(where  the  bishop  now  kept  the  title  of  Grado  only). 
Neither  had  more  than  metropolitical  jurisdiction. 
Both  these  titles  are  now  merged  in  that  of  the  Patri- 
arch of  Venice.  The  See  of  Venice  absorbed  Grado  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  The  city  of  Aquileia  was  over- 
thrown by  an  earthquake  in  1348,  but  the  line  of  patri- 
archs continued  at  Udine.  It  came  thus  entirely  in 
the  power  of  the  Venetian  Republic;  the  patriarch  was 
always  a  Venetian.  Eventually  Benedict  XIV,  in 
1751,  changed  the  title  to  that  of  Pairiarch  of  Venice. 

The  discovery  of  America  added  a  vast  territory  to 
the  Church,  over  which  it  seemed  natural  that  a  patri- 
arch should  reign.  In  1520  Leo  X  created  a  "Patri- 
archate of  the  West  Indies"  among  the  Spanish  clergy. 
In  1572  Pius  V  joined  this  rank  to  the  office  of  chief 
chaplain  of  the  Spanish  army.  But  in  this  case,  too, 
the  dignity  is  purely  titular.  In  1644  Innocent  X  gave 
the  patriarch  some  jurisdiction,  but  expressly  in  his 
quality  of  chaplain  only.  He  has  no  income  as  patri- 
arch and  is  often  also  bishop  of  a  Spanish  diocese.  In 
1716  Clement  XI,  in  answer  to  a  petition  of  King  John, 
who,  in  return  for  help  in  fighting  Turks,  wanted  a 
patriarch  like  the  King  of  Spain,  erected  a  titular 
Patriarchate  of  Lisbon  at  the  king's  chapel.  The  city 
was  divided  between  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Arch- 


bishop of  Lisbon  and  the  new  patriarch.  In  1740 
Benedict  XIV  joined  the  archbishopric  to  the  patri- 
archate. The  Patriarch  of  Lisbon  has  certain  i)rivi- 
leges  of  honour  that  make  his  court  an  imitation  of 
that  of  the  pope.  His  chapter  has  three  orders  like 
those  of  the  College  of  Cardinals;  he  himself  is  always 
made  a  cardinal  at  the  first  consistory  after  his  pre- 
conization  and  he  uses  a  tiara  (without  the  keys)  over 
his  arms,  but  he  has  no  more  than  metropolitical  juris- 
diction over  seven  suffragans.  Lastly,  Leo  XI 11,  in 
1880,  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  Patriarchate  of  the 
West  Indies,  erected  a  titular  Patriarchate  of  the  East 
Indies  attached  to  the  See  of  Goa. 

At  various  times  other  Western  bishops  have  been 
called  patriarchs.  In  the  Middle  Ages  those  of  Lyons, 
Bourges,  Canterbury,  Toledo,  Pisa  were  occasionally 
BO  called.  But  there  was  never  any  legal  claim  to 
these  merely  complimentary  titles. 

V.  Existing  Patriarchs. — We  give  first  a  com- 
plete list  of  all  persons  who  now  bear  the  title.  A. 
Catholics. — The  pope  as  Patriarch  of  the  West  (this  is 
the  commonest  form;  "Patriarch  of  Rome",  or  "Latin 
Patriarch"  also  occur)  rules  all  Western  Europe  from 
Poland  to  Illyricum  (the  Balkan  Peninsula),  Africa 
west  of  Egypt,  all  other  lands  (America,  Australia) 
colonized  from  these  lands  and  all  Western  (Latin) 
missionaries  and  dwellers  in  the  East.  In  other  words, 
his  patriarchal  jurisdiction  extends  over  all  who  use 
the  Western  (Roman,  Ambrosian,  Mozarabic)  rites, 
and  over  the  Byzantine  Uniats  in  Italy,  Corsica,  and 
Sicily.  As  patriarch  he  may  hold  patriarchal  synods 
and  he  frequently  makes  laws  (such  as  ritual  laws  and 
our  form  of  clerical  celibacy)  for  the  Western  patri- 
archate alone. 

The  Uniat  Catholic  patriarchs  are  as  follows:  (1) 
Melchite  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Jerusalem, 
and  all  the  East,  ruling  over  all  Melchites  (q.  v.);  (2) 
the  Syrian  Patriarch  of  Antioch  and  all  the  East;  (3) 
the  Maronite  Patriarch  of  Antioch  and  all  the  East; 
(4)  the  Coptic  Patriarch  of  Alexandria;  (5)  the  Patri- 
arch of  Cilicia  of  the  Armenians;  (6)  the  Patriarch  of 
Babylon  of  the  Chaldees.  These  rule  over  all  mem- 
bers of  their  rite,  except  that  the  Armenian  has  no 
jurisdiction  in  Austria  or  the  Crimea,  where  the  Ar- 
menian Bishops  of  Lemberg  and  Artwin  are  exempt, 
being  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See. 

Of  the  Latin  patriarchs  only  one  has  jurisdiction: 
the  Latin  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  (over  all  Latins  in 
Palestine  and  Cyprus).  All  the  others  are  titular, 
namely:  the  Latin  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  An- 
tioch and  Jerusalem,  ornaments  of  the  papal  court  at 
Rome;  the  "minor"  Patriarchs  of  Venice,  Lisbon,  the 
West  Indies,  the  East  Indies.  It  should  be  noted  that 
the  modem  Roman  hsts  (e.  g.  the  "Gerarchia  Catto- 
lica")  ignore  the  difference  between  those  who  have 
jurisdiction  and  the  titular  patriarchs  and  count  all 
who  bear  the  title  of  one  of  the  old  patriarchates  (Con- 
stantinople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jerusalem)  a,s  ma- 
jor, all  others  (including  Babylon  and  Cilicia)  as 
minor. 

B.  Non-Catholics. — Non-Catholics  who  bear  the 
title  now  are  the  Orthodox  Patriarchs  of  Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  Jerusalem;  the  Nestorian 
patriarch  at  Kuchanis  (his  title  is  now  "Catholicus 
and  Patriarch  of  the  East");  the  Copric  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria;  the  Jacobite  Patriarch  of  Antioch;  four 
Armenian  patriarchs,  the  "Catholicus  and  Patriarch 
of  all  Armenians"  at  Etchmiadzin  and  those  of  Con- 
stantinople, Sis,  and  Jerusalem.  The  rights,  dignity, 
and  duties  of  patriarchs  form  part  of  the  canon  law  of 
each  Church.  They  are  not  the  same  in  all  cases.  As 
a  general  principle  it  may  be  said  that  the  fundamen- 
tal notion  is  that  a  patriarch  has  the  same  authority 
over  his  metropolitans  as  they  have  over  their  suffra^ 
gan  bishops.  Moreover,  a  patriarch  is  not  himself 
subject  to  another  patriarch,  or  rather  he  is  not  sub- 
ject to  any  one's  patriarchal  jurisdiction.    But  there 


PATRIARCHS 


553 


PATRICIAN 


is  here  a  difference  between  Catholics  and  the  others. 
All  Catholics,  including  patriarchs,  obey  the  supreme 
(papal)  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiff;  further  we 
must  except  from  our  consideration  the  merely  titular 
patriarchs  who  have  no  authority  at  all.  In  the  case 
of  the  Eastern  Churches  the  general  principle  is  that  a 
patriarch  is  subject  to  no  living  authority  save  that 
of  a  possible  general  council.  But  here  again  we  must 
e.xcept  the  Armenians.  Their  catholicus  had  for  many 
centuries  authority  over  all  his  Church  very  like  that 
of  the  pope.  It  is  diminished  now;  but  still  one  can 
hardly  say  that  the  other  patriarchs  are  quite  inde- 
pendent of  him.  He  alone  may  summon  national 
synods.  The  lArmenian)  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
has  now  usurped  most  of  his  rights  in  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire. One  of  these  two  ordains  all  bishops.  The  Patri- 
arch of  Sis  may  not  even  consecrate  chrism,  but  is  sup- 
pUed  from  Etchmiadzin.  A  somewhat  similar  case  is 
that  of  the  Orthodox.  Since  the  Turkish  conquest  the 
(Ecumenical  Patriarch  has  been  the  civil  head  of  all 
the  Orthodox  in  the  Turkish  Empire.  He  has  contin- 
ually tried  and  still  to  a  great  extent  tries  to  turn  his 
civil  headship  into  supreme  ecclesiastical  authority, 
to  be  in  short  an  Orthodox  pope.  His  attempts  are 
always  indignantly  rejected  by  the  other  patriarchs 
and  the  national  Churches,  but  not  always  success- 
fully. Meanwhile  he  has  kept  at  least  one  sign  of  au- 
thority. He  alone  consecrates  chrism  for  all  Orthodox 
bishops,  except  for  those  of  Russia  and  Rumania. 

In  the  East  the  general  principle  is  that  the  patri- 
arch ordains  all  bishops  in  his  own  territory.  This  is  a 
very  old  sign  of  authority  in  those  countries.  He  is 
elected  by  his  metropolitans  or  (permanent)  synod, 
ordained,  as  a  rule,  by  his  own  suffragans,  makes  laws, 
and  has  certain  rights  of  confirming  or  deposing  his 
bishops,  generally  in  conjunction  with  his  synod,  and 
may  summon  patriarchal  (temporary)  synods.  The 
question  of  the  deposition  of  patriarchs  among  the 
non-Catholics  is  difficult.  Among  the  Orthodox  they 
have  been  and  are  constantly  deposed  by  their  metro- 
politans or  synod.  They  nearly  always  refuse  to 
acknowledge  their  deposition  and  a  struggle  follows 
in  which  Constantinople  always  tries  to  interfere. 
Eventually  the  Turk  settles  it,  generally  in  favour  of 
deposition,  since  he  gets  a  large  bribe  for  the  new  patri- 
arch's berat.  The  special  rights  and  duties  of  the 
patriarchs  of  the  various  Eastern  Churches  are  given 
in  Silbernagl  (infra). 

In  the  Catholic  Church  since  Eugene  IV  (1431- 
47)  cardinals  have  precedence  over  patriarchs. 
Uniat  patriarchs  are  elected  by  a  synod  of  all  the 
bishops  of  the  patriarchate  and  confirmed  by  the  Holy 
See.  They  must  send  a  profession  of  Faith  to  the 
pope  and  receive  the  pallium  from  him.  Their  rights 
are  summed  up  by  a  Constitution  of  Benedict  XIV 
("ApostoUca",  14  Feb.,  1742),  namely:  to  summon 
and  preside  at  patriarchal  synods  (whose  acts  must 
be  confirmed  at  Rome),  to  ordain  all  bishops  of  their 
territory  and  consecrate  chrism,  to  send  the  omopho- 
rion  to  their  metropolitans,  receive  appeals  made 
against  the  judgments  of  these,  and  receive  tithes  of 
all  episcopal  income;  in  synod  they  may  depose  their 
.  bishops.  They  bear  their  patriarchal  cross  not  only 
throughout  their  own  territory,  but,  by  a  special  con- 
cession, everywhere  except  at  Rome.  All  have  a  per- 
manent representative  at  Rome.  They  must  visit 
all  their  dioceses  every  third  year  and  may  not  resign 
without  the  pope's  consent.  The  Bull  "Reversurus" 
of  Pius  IX  (1867)  made  further  laws  first  for  the  Ar- 
menian patriarch;  then  with  modifications  it  has  been 
extended  to  other  I'niats.  The  precedence  among 
patriarchs  is  determined  by  the  rank  of  their  see,  ac- 
cording to  the  old  order  of  the  five  patriarchates, 
followed  by  Cilicia,  then  Babylon.  Between  several 
titulars  of  the  same  see  but  of  different  rites  the  order 
is  that  of  the  date  of  their  preconization. 

The  titular  Latin  patriarchs  have  only  certain  cere- 


monial prerogatives.  The  Roman  patriarchia  are  five 
basilicas,  one  the  pope's  own  cathedral,  the  others 
churches  at  which  the  other  patriarchs  officiated  if 
they  came  to  Rome,  near  which  they  dwelt.  The 
papal  palriarchium  was  originally  the  "  Domus  Pudcn- 
tiana";  since  the  early  Middle  Ages  it  is  the  Basihca 
of  Saint  Saviour  at  the  Lateran  (St.  John  Lateran). 
The  others  are,  or  were,  St.  Peter  for  Constantinople, 
St.  Paul  Without  the  Walls  for  Alexandria,  St.  Mary 
Major  for  Antioch,  St.  Lawrence  for  Jerusalem. 
These  are  now  only  titles  and  memories. 

LeQuien,  Oriens  christiajius  (Paris,  1740);  Bingham,  Onflines 
ecclesiasticcB,  I  (London,  1708-22),  232  sq.;  Lubeck,  Reichsein- 
teilung  u.  kirchliche  Hierarchie  des  Orients  bis  zum  Ausgang  des 
vierten  Jahrhunderts  (Mijnster,  1900);  Hinschics,  System  des 
katholischen  KiTchenrechts,  I  (1869);  Kattenbusch,  Lehrbueh 
der  vergleichenden  Konfessionskunde,  I  (Freiburg,  1892);  Silber- 
N.\GL,  Ver/assung  und  gegenwHrtiger  Bestand  sdmtticher  Kirchen 
des  Orients  (Ratisbon,  1904);  FORTESCUE,  The  Orthodox  Eastern 
Church  (London,  1907),  i. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Patriarchs,  Testaments  op  the  Twelve.  See 
Apocrypha,  sub-title  II. 

Patrician  Brothers  (or  Brother.s  of  Satnt 
Patrick). — This  Brotherhood  was  founded  by  the 
Right  Rev.  Dr.  Daniel  Delancy,  Bishop  of  Kildare 
and  Leighlin,  at  TuUow,  in  the  County  of  Carlow,  Ire- 
land, on  the  feast  of  the  Purification  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary,  in  ISOS,  for  the  religious  and  literary 
education  of  youth  and  the  instruction  of  the  faithful 
in  Christian  piety.  Catholic  Ireland  was  at  this 
period  just  emerging  from  the  troubled  times  of  the 
penal  laws.  These  laws  made  it  treasonable  for  a 
Catholic  parent  to  procure  for  his  child  a  religious  and 
secular  education  in  consonance  with  his  belief,  and 
consequently  not  only  were  the  young  deprived  of  the 
means  of  instruction,  but  adults  also  were  in  a  state 
of  enforced  ignorance  of  Christian  doctrine  and  its 
practices.  Bishop  Delancy  set  about  the  good  work 
of  founding  the  Religious  Congregation  of  the  Broth- 
ers of  Saint  Patrick  in  his  diocese,  for  the  purpose  of 
affording  his  people  that  education  of  which  they  had 
been  so  long  deprived.  He  chose  from  among  the  cate- 
chetical instructors  of  the  Sunday  schools  seven  young 
men  who  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  new  order,  and 
under  the  personal  instruction  of  the  bishop,  and 
direction  of  his  successor,  the  illustrious  Dr.  Doyle, 
the  congregation  was  established  as  a  diocesan  institu- 
tion. In  succeeding  years  filiations  were  established 
in  other  dioceses  of  Ireland,  and  the  Brothers  were 
invited  by  several  Australian  and  Indian  bishops  to 
these  distant  countries.  Several  foundations  were 
made,  among  them  those  of  Sydney,  to  which  arch- 
diocese the  Brothers  were  invited  by  Cardinal  Moran; 
and  that  of  Madras  in  India,  undertaken  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  late  prelate  of  that  diocese.  Bishop 
Stephen  Fennelly. 

In  1885  the  Brothers  made  application  to  the  Holy 
See  for  the  approval  of  the  congregation,  for  constitut- 
ing a  central  government  and  for  establishing  a  common 
novitiate.  The  request  was  granted.  After  taking 
the  opinions  of  the  bishops  in  whose  dioceses  the 
Brothers  were  labouring,  Pope  Leo  XIII  provisionally 
approved  the  congregation  for  five  years  by  a  Rescript 
dated  6  January,  1888,  and  on  8  September,  189.3, 
issued  a  decree  of  final  confirmation,  highly  commend- 
ing the  good  work  hitherto  accomplished  by  the 
Brothers,  approving  of  their  rules  and  constitutions, 
granting  them  all  the  facilities  and  powers  necessary 
for  carrying  on  the  duties  of  their  congregation,  con- 
stituting India  and  .Australia  separate  provinces,  and 
imparting  to  the  institute  the  Apostolic  Benediction. 
The  houses  of  the  order,  which  had  hitherto  been  inde- 
pendent and  separate  communities,  were  united  under 
a  superior  general  whe  with  four  assistants  governs 
the  congregation. 

A  general  chapter  of  the  Patrician  communities  aa- 
eemblea  every  six  years.     As  a  result  of  the  confirma- 


PATRICK 


554 


PATRICK 


tion  of  the  instituto  the  Hrotlicrs  have  been  enabled  to 
perfect  and  extend  their  coiiKreKation  in  Ireland,  and 
to  open  new  colleties,  .'iehoois,  and  orphanages  in  the 
above-mentioned  foreign  count  ries.  The  scope  of  their 
work,  which  embraces  jirimary,  intermediate,  and 
university  education,  luus  been  much  extended  in  re- 
cent years.  The  introduction  of  a  scheme  of  technical 
and  scientific  study  by  tlie  ditTercnt  educational  de- 
partments has  been  warmly  su))ported  by  Uie  lirothcr- 
hood;  while  by  their  management  of  orjilianagcs  and 
industrial  schools  they  aid  thousands  of  youths  to 
raise  themscKes  to  a  higher  place  in  the  social  scale. 
Their  resid(-nlial  colleges  and  secondary  day-schools 
equip  the  students  for  responsible  positions  in  life. 
The  colleges  of  the  Brothers  in  India  are  affiliated  to 
the  Allahabad  and  Calcutta  Universities,  in  which 
their  students  have  distinguished  themselves;  while 
in  Australia,  notwithstanding  that  the  Brothers  re- 
ceive no  State  aid,  their  pupils  compete  successfully 
with  those  of  the  highly  subsidized  Government 
schools  for  positions  in  the  civil  service.  On  the  occa- 
sion of  the  centenary  in  1908,  His  Holiness  Pope  Pius 
X  bestowed  on  the  order  many  favours  and  special 
indulgences.  The  superior  general  and  his  assistants 
reside  at  the  mother-house,  TuUow,  Ireland,  where  are 
also  the  novitiate  and  house  of  studies. 

Jerome  F.  Byrne. 

Patrick,  Saint,  Apostle  op  Ireland,  b.  at  Kil- 
patrick,  near  Dumbarton,  in  Scotland,  in  the  year  387; 
d.  at  Saul,  Downpatrick,  Ireland,  17  March,  493.  He 
had  for  his  parents  Calphurnius  and  Conchessa.  The 
former  belonged  to  a  Roman  family  of  high  rank  and 
held  the  office  of  decurio  in  Gaul  or  Britain.  Con- 
chessa was  a  near  relative  of  the  great  patron  of  Gaul, 
St.  Martin  of  Tours.  Kilpatrick  still  retains  many 
memorials  of  Saint  Patrick,  and  frequent  pilgrimages 
continued  far  into  the  Middle  Ages  to  perpetuate 
there  the  fame  of  his  sanctity  and  miracles.  In  his 
sixteenth  year,  Patrick  was  carried  off  into  captivity 
by  Irish  marauders  and  was  sold  as  a  slave  to  a  chief- 
tain named  Milchu  in  Dalaradia,  a  territory  of  the 
present  county  of  Antrim  in  Ireland,  where  for  six 
years  he  tended  his  master's  flocks  in  the  valley  of  the 
Braid  and  on  the  slopes  of  Slemish,  near  the  modern 
town  of  Ballymena.  He  relates  in  his  "Confessio" 
that  during  his  captivity  while  tending  the  flocks  he 
prayed  many  times  in  the  day:  "the  love  of  God",  he 
added,  "and  His  fear  increased  in  me  more  and  more, 
and  the  faith  grew  in  me,  and  the  spirit  was  roused, 
80  that,  in  a  single  day,  I  have  said  as  many  as  a  hun- 
dred prayers,  and  in  the  night  nearly  the  same,  so  that 
whilst  in  the  woods  and  on  the  mountain,  even  before 
the  dawn,  I  was  roused  to  prayer  and  I  felt  no  hurt 
from  it,  whether  there  was  snow  or  ice  or  rain;  nor  was 
there  any  slothfulness  in  me,  such  as  I  see  now,  be- 
cause the  spirit  was  then  fervent  within  me."  In 
the  ways  of  a  benign  Providence  the  six  years  of 
Patrick's  captivity  became  a  remote  preparation  for 
his  future  apostolate.  He  acquired  a  perfect  knowl- 
edge of  the  Celtic  tongue  in  which  he  would  one  day 
announce  the  glad  tidings  of  Redemption,  and,  as 
his  master  Milchu  was  a  druidical  high  priest,  he  be- 
came familiar  w^ith  all  the  details  of  Druidism  from 
whose  bondage  he  was  destined  to  liberate  the  Irish 
race. 

Admonished  by  an  angel  he  after  six  years  fled  from 
his  cruel  master  and  bent  his  steps  towards  the  west. 
He  relates  in  his  "Confe.ssif)"  that  he  had  to  travel 
about  200  miles;  and  his  journey  was  probably 
towards  Killala  Bay  and  onwards  thence  to  Westport. 
He  found  a  ship  ready  to  set  sail  and  after  some  re- 
buffs was  allowed  on  board.  In  a  few  days  he  was 
among  his  friends  once  more  in  Britain,  but  now  his 
heart  was  set  on  devoting  himself  to  the  service  of 
God  in  the  sacred  minist^,^  We  meet  with  him  at  St. 
Martin's  monastery  at  Tours,  and  again  at  the  island 


sanctuary  of  L6rins  which  was  just  then  ac(|uiring 
widespread  renown  for  learning  and  piety;  and  wher- 
ever lessons  of  heroic  perfection  in  the  exercisi!  of 
Christian  life  could  be  acquired,  thither  the  fervent 
Patrick  was  sure  to  liend  his  steps.  No  sooner  had 
St.  Germain  entered  on  his  great  mission  at  Auxerre 
than  Patrick  put  himself  under  his  guidance,  and  it 
was  at  that  great  bishop's  hands  that.  Irelatxl's  future 
apostle  was  a  few  years  later  pnnnoled  to  the  priest- 
hood. It  is  the  tradition  in  the  territory  of  the  Morini 
that  Patrick  under  St.  tJcrmain's  guidance  for  some 
years  was  engaged  in  missionary  work  among  them. 
When  (Jermain  commissioned  by  the  Holy  .See  pro- 
ceeded to  Britain  to  combat  the  erroneous  teachings  of 
Pelagius,  he  chose  Patrick  to  be  one  of  his  missionary 
companions  and  thus  it  was  his  privilege  to  be  a.ssoci- 
ated  with  the  representative  of  Rome  in  the  triumphs 
that  ensued  over  heresy  and  Paganism,  and  in  the 
many  remarkable  events  of  the  expedition,  such  as 
the  miraculous  calming  of  the  tempest  at  sea,  the  visit 
to  the  relics  at  St.  Alban's  shrine,  and  the  Alleluia 
victory.  Amid  all  these  scenes,  however,  Patrick's 
thoughts  turned  towards  Ireland,  and  from  time  to 
time  he  was  favoured  with  visions  of  the  childriTi  from 
Focluth,  by  the  Western  sea,  who  cried  out  to  him: 
"O  holy  youth,  come  back  to  Erin,  and  walk  once 
more  among.st  us." 

Pope  St.  Celestine  I  (q.  v.),  who  rendered  immortal 
service  to  the  Church  by  the  overthrow  of  tlie  Pelagian 
and  Nestorian  heresies,  and  by  the  imperishable 
wreath  of  honour  decreed  to  the  lilessed  Virgin  in  the 
General  Council  of  Ephesus,  crowned  his  pontificate 
by  an  act  of  the  most  far-reaching  consequences 
for  the  spread  of  Christianity  and  civilization,  when 
he  entrusted  St.  Patrick  with  the  mission  of  gathering 
the  Irish  race  into  the  one  fold  of  Christ.  Palladius 
(q.  V.)  had  already  received  that  commission,  but 
terrified  by  the  fierce  opposition  of  a  Wicklow  chief- 
tain had  abandoned  the  sacred  enterprise.  It  was  St. 
Germain,  Bishop  of  Auxerre,  who  commended  Patrick 
to  the  pope.  'The  writer  of  St.  Germain's  Life  in 
the  ninth  century,  Heric  of  Auxerre,  thus  attests 
this  important  fact:  "Since  the  glory  of  the  father 
shines  in  the  training  of  the  children,  of  the  many 
sons  in  Christ  whom  St.  Germain  is  believed  to  have 
had  as  disciples  in  religion,  let  it  suffice  to  make 
mention  here,  very  briefly,  of  one  most  famous, 
Patrick,  the  special  Apostle  of  the  Irish  nation,  as  the 
record  of  his  work  proves.  Subject  to  that  most 
holy  discipleship  for  18  years,  he  drank  in  no  little 
knowledge  in  Holy  Scripture  from  the  stream  of  so 
great  a  well-spring.  Germain  sent  him,  accompanied 
by  Segetius,  his  priest,  to  Celestine,  Pope  of  Rome, 
approved  of  by  whose  judgment,  supported  by  whose 
authority,  and  strengthened  by  whose  blessing,  he 
went  on"  his  way  to  Ireland."  It  was  only  shortly 
before  his  death  that  Celestine  gave  this  mission  to 
Ireland's  apostle  and  on  that  occasion  bestowed  on 
him  many  relics  and  other  spiritual  gifts,  and  gave 
him  the  name  "Patercius"  or  "Patritius",  not  a,s  an 
honorary  title,  but  as  foreshadowing  the  fruitfulness 
and  merit  of  his  apostolate  whereby  he  became  pater 
civium  (the  father  of  his  people).  Patrick  on  his  re- 
turn journey  from  Rome  received  at  Ivrea  the  tidings 
of  the  death  of  Palladius,  and  turning  aside  to  the 
neighbouring  city  of  Turin  received  episcopal  conse- 
cration at  the  hands  of  its  great  bishop,  St.  Maximus, 
and  thence  hastened  on  to  Auxerre  to  make  under  the 
guidance  of  St.  Germain  due  preparations  for  the 
Irish  mission. 

It  was  probably  in  the  summer  months  of  the  year 
433,  that  Patrick  and  his  companions  landed  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Vantry  River  close  by  Wicklow  IleafI 
The  Druids  were  at  once  in  arms  against  him.  But 
Patrick  was  not  disheartened.  The  intrepid  mission- 
ary resolved  to  search  out  a  more  friendly  territory 
in  which  to  enter  on  his  mission.     First  of  all,  however, 


PATRICK 


555 


PATRICK 


he  would  proceed  towards  Dalaradia,  where  he  had 
been  a  slave,  to  pay  the  price  of  ransom  to  his  former 
master,  and  in  exchange  for  the  servitude  and  cruelty 
endured  at  his  hands  to  impart  to  him  the  blessings 
and  freedom  of  God's  chikiren.  He  rested  for  some 
days  at  the  islands  off  the  Skerries  coast,  one  of  which 
still  retains  the  name  of  Inis-Patrick,  and  he  probably 
visited  the  adjoining  mainland,  which  in  olden  times 
was  known  as  Holm  Patrick.  Tradition  fondly  points 
out  the  impression  of  St.  Patrick's  foot  upon  the 
hard  rock — off  the  main  shore,  at  the  entrance  to 
Skerries  harbour.  Continuing  his  course  northwards 
he  halted  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Boyne.  A  num- 
ber of  the  natives  there  gathered  around  him  and 
heard  with  joy  in  their  own  sweet  tongue  the  glad 
tidings  of  Redemption.  There  too  he  performed 
his  first  miracle  on  Irish  soil  to  confirm  the  honour 
due  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the  Divine  birth  of 
our  Saviour.  Leaving  one  of  his  companions  to  con- 
tinue the  work  of  instruction  so  auspiciously  be- 
gun, he  hastened  forward  to  Strangford  Lough  and 
there  quitting  his  boat  continued  his  journey  over 
land  towards  Slemish.  He  had  not  proceeded  far 
when  a  chieftain,  named  Dichu,  appeared  on  the  scene 
to  prevent  his  further  advance.  He  drew  his  sword 
to  smite  the  saint,  but  his  arm  became  rigid  as  a 
statue  and  continued  so  until  he  declared  himself 
obedient  to  Patrick.  Overcome  by  the  saint's  meek- 
ness and  miracles,  Dichu  usketl  for  instruction  and 
made  a  gift  of  a  large  sdlilmll  (barn),  in  which  the 
sacred  mysteries  were  offi'red  uj).  This  was  the  first 
sanctuary  dedicated  by  St.  Patrick  in  Erin.  It  be- 
came in  later  years  a  chosen  retreat  of  the  saint. 
A  monastery  ami  church  were  erected  there,  and  the 
hallowed  site  retains  the  name  Sabhall  (pronounced 
Saul)  to  the  present  day.  Continuing  his  journey 
towards  Slemish,  the  saint  was  struck  with  horror  on 
seeing  at  a  distance  the  fort  of  his  old  master  Milchu 
enveloped  in  flames.  The  fame  of  Patrick's  marvel- 
lous power  of  miracles  had  preceded  him.  Milchu, 
in  a  fit  of  frenzy,  gathered  his  treasures  into  his  man- 
sion and  setting  it  on  fire,  cast  himself  into  the  flames. 
An  ancient  record  adds:  "His  pride  could  not  endure 
the  thought  of  being  vancjuished  by  his  former  slave". 
Returning  to  Saul,  St.  Patrick  learned  from  Dichu 
that  the  chieftains  of  Erin  had  been  summoned  to 
celebrate  a  special  feast  at  Tara  by  Leoghaire,  who  was 
the  Ard-Righ,  that  is.  Supreme  Monarch  of  Ireland. 
This  was  an  opportunity  which  Patrick  would  not  fore- 
go; he  would  present  himself  before  the  assembly,  to 
strike  a  decisive  blow  against  the  Druidism  that  held 
the  nation  captive,  and  to  secure  freedom  for  the  glad 
tidings  of  Redemption  of  which  he  was  the  herald. 
As  he  journeyed  on  he  rested  for  some  days  at  the 
house  of  a  chieftain  named  Secsnen,  who  with  his 
household  joyfully  embraced  the  Faith.  The  youth- 
ful Benen,  or  Benignus,  the  son  of  the  chief,  was  in  a 
special  way  captivated  by  the  Gospel  doctrines  and 
the  meekness  of  Patrick.  Whilst  the  saint  slumbered 
he  would  gather  sweet-scented  flowers  and  scatter 
them  over  his  bosom,  and  when  Patrick  was  setting 
out,  continuing  his  journey  towards  Tara,  Benen  clung 
to  his  feet  declaring  that  nothing  would  sever  him 
from  him.  "Allow  him  to  have  his  way",  said  St. 
Patrick  to  the  chieftain,  "he  shall  be  heir  to  my  sacred 
mission."  Thenceforth  Benen  was  the  inseparable 
companion  of  the  saint,  and  the  prophecy  was  ful- 
filled, for  Benen  is  named  among  the  "comhards"  or 
successors  of  St.  Patrick  in  Armagh.  It  was  on  26 
March,  Easter  Sunday  in  433,  that  the  eventful  as- 
sembly was  to  meet  at  Tara,  and  the  decree  went  forth 
that  from  the  preceding  day  the  fires  throughout  the 
kingdom  should  be  extinguished  until  the  signal  blaze 
was  kindled  at  the  royal  mansion.  The  chiefs  and  Bre- 
hons  came  in  full  numbers  and  the  druids  too  would 
muster  all  their  strength  to  bid  defiance  to  the  herald 
of  good  tidings  and  to  secure  the  hold  of  their  super- 


stition on  the  Celtic  race,  for  their  demoniac  oracles 
had  announced  that  the  messenger  of  Christ  had  come 
to  Erin.  St.  Patrick  arrived  at  the  hill  of  Slane.  at  the 
opposite  extremity  of  the  valley  from  Tara,  on  Easter 
Eve.  in  that  year  the  feast  of  the  Annunciation,  and 
on  the  smnmit  of  the  hill  kindled  the  Paschal  fire. 
The  druids  at  once  raised  their  voice.  "OKing",  (they 
said)  "live  for  ever;  this  fire,  which  has  been  lighted 
in  defiance  of  the  royal  edict,  will  blaze  for  ever  in  this 
land  unless  it  be  this  very  night  extinguished."  By 
order  of  the  king  and  the  agency  of  the  druids.  re- 
peated attempts  were  made  to  extinguish  the  blessed 
fire  and  to  punish  with  death  the  intruder  who  had 
disobeyed  the  royal  command.  But  the  fire  was  not 
extinguished  and  Patrick  shielded  by  the  Divine  power 
came  unscathed  from  their  snares  and  assaults.  On 
Easter  Day  the  missionary  band  having  at  their  head 
the  youth  Benignus  bearing  aloft  a  copy  of  the  Gos- 
pels, and  followed 
by  St.  Patrick  who 
with  mitre  and 
crozier  was  arrayed 
in  full  episcopal  at- 
tire, proceeded  in 
processional  order 
to  Tara.  The  druids 
and  magicians 
put  forth  all  their 
strength  and  em- 
ployed all  their  in- 
cantations to  main- 
tain theirsway  over 
the  Irish  race,  but 
theprayer  and  faith 
of  Patrick  achieved 
a  glorious  triumph. 
The  druids  by  their 
incantations  over- 
spread the  hill  and 
surrounding  plain  II 
with  a  cloud  of  ™ 
worse  than  Egyp- 
tian darkness.  Pat- 
rick defied  them  to 
remove  that  cloud, 
and  when  all  their  efforts  were  made  in  vain,  at  his 
prayer  the  sun  sent  forth  its  rays  and  the  bright- 
est sunshine  lit  up  the  scene.  Again  by  demoniac 
power  the  Arch-Druid  Lochru,  like  Simon  Magus 
of  old,  was  lifted  up  high  in  the  air,  but  when  Pat- 
rick knelt  in  prayer  the  druid  from  his  flight  was 
dashed  to  pieces  upon  a  rock.  Thus  was  the  final 
blow  given  to  paganism  in  the  presence  of  all  the 
assembled  chieftains.  It  was,  indeed,  a  momentous 
day  for  the  Irish  race.  Twice  Patrick  pleaded  for  the 
Faith  before  Leoghaire.  The  king  had  given  orders 
that  no  sign  of  respect  was  to  be  extended  to  the 
strangers,  but  at  the  first  meeting  the  youthful  Ere, 
a  royal  page,  arose  to  show  him  reverence;  and  at  the 
second,  when  all  the  chieftains  were  assembled,  the 
chief-bard  Dubhtach  showed  the  same  honour  to  the 
saint.  Both  these  heroic  men  became  fervent  disci- 
ples of  the  Faith  ami  bright  ornaments  of  the  Irish 
Church.  It  was  on  this  .second  solenui  occasion  that 
St.  Patrick  is  said  to  have  plucked  a  shamrock  from 
the  sward,  to  explain  by  its  triple  leaf  and  single  stem, 
in  some  rough  way,  to  the  assembled  chieftains,  the 
great  doctrine  of  the  liles,sed  Trinity.  On  that  bright 
Easter  Day,  the  triumph  of  religion  at  'I'ara  was  ccim- 
plete.  The  .Ard-Kigh  granted  piTmissiiin  to  Patrick 
to  preach  the  Fuitli  throughout  tlie  length  and  breadth 
of  Erin,  and  the  druidical  iirii]ihecy  like  the  words  of 
Balaam  of  old  would  be  fulfilled:  the  sacred  fire  now 
kindled  by  the  saint  would  never  be  extinguished. 

The  beautiful  prayer  of  St.  Patrick,  popularly 
known  as  "St.  Patrick's  Breast-Plate",  is  supposed  to 
have  been  composed  by  him  in  preparation  for  this 


St.  Patrick's  Bell. 
National  Museum,  Dublii 


PATRICK 


556. 


PATRICK 


victory  over  Paganism.     The  following  is  a  literal 
translation  from  the  old  Irish  text: — 

I  bind  to  myself  to-day 

The  strong  virtue  of  the  Invocation  of  the  Trin- 
ity: 
I  believe  the  Trinity  in  the  Unity 
The  Creator  of  the  Universe. 

I  bind  to  myself  to-day 

The  virtue  of  the  Incarnation  of  Christ  with  His 
Baptism, 

The  virtue  of  His  crucifixion  with  His  burial, 

The  virtue  of  His  Resurrection  with  His  Ascen- 
sion, 

The  virtue  of  His  coming  on  the  Judgment  Day. 

I  bind  to  myself  to-day 

The  virtue  of  the  love  of  seraphim, 

In  the  obedience  of  angels. 

In  the  hope  of  resurrection  unto  reward, 

In  prayers  of  Patriarchs, 

In  predictions  of  Prophets, 

In  preaching  of  Apostles, 

In  faith  of  Confessors, 

In  purity  of  holy  Virgins, 

In  deeds  of  righteous  men. 

I  bind  to  myself  to-day 
The  power  of  Heaven, 
The  light  of  the  sun, 
The  brightness  of  the  moon, 
The  splendour  of  fire, 
The  flashing  of  lightning. 
The  swiftness  of  wind. 
The  depth  of  sea, 
The  stability  of  earth. 
The  compactness  of  rocks. 

I  bind  to  myself  to-day 

God's  Power  to  guide  me, 

God's  Might  to  uphold  me, 

God's  Wisdom  to  teach  me, 

God's  Eye  to  watch  over  me, 

God's  Ear  to  hear  me, 

God's  Word  to  give  me  speech, 

God's  Hand  to  guide  me, 

God's  Way  to  lie  before  me, 

God's  Shield  to  shelter  me, 

God's  Host  to  secure  me, 

Against  the  snares  of  demons. 

Against  the  seductions  of  vices. 

Against  the  lusts  of  nature. 

Against  everyone  who  meditates  injury  to  me. 

Whether  far  or  near, 

Whether  few  or  with  many. 

I  invoke  to-day  all  these  virtues 

Against  every  hostile  merciless  power 

Which  may  assail  my  body  and  my  soul, 

Against  the  incantations  of  false  prophets. 

Against  the  black  laws  of  heathenism. 

Against  the  false  laws  of  heresy. 

Against  the  deceits  of  idolatry. 

Against  the  spells  of  women,  and  smiths,  and 

druids. 
Against  every  knowledge  that  binds  the  soul  of 

man. 

Christ,  protect  me  to-day 
Against  every  poison,  against  burning. 
Against  drowning,  against  death-wound. 
That  1  may  receive  abundant  reward. 

Christ  with  me,  Christ  before  me, 
Christ  behind  me,  Christ  within  me, 
Christ  beneath  me,  Christ  above  me, 
Christ  at  my  right,  Christ  at  my  left, 
Christ  in  the  fort, 
Christ  in  the  chariot  seat. 


Christ  in  the  poop, 

Christ  in  the  heart  of  everyone  who  thinks  of  me, 

Christ  in  the  mouth  of  everyone  who  speaks  to  me, 

Christ  in  every  eye  that  sees  me, 

Christ  in  every  ear  that  hears  me. 

I  bind  to  myself  to-day 

The  strong  virtue  of  an  invocation  of  the  Trin- 
ity, 
I  believe  the  Trinity  in  the  Unity 
The  Creator  of  the  Universe. 

St.  Patrick  remained  during  Easter  week  at  Slane 
and  Tara,  unfolding  to  those  around  him  the  lessons 
of  Divine  truth.  Meanwhile  the  national  games  were 
being  celebrated  a  few  miles  distant  at  Taillten  (now 
Telltown)  in  connexion  with  the  royal  feast.  St. 
Patrick  proceeding  thither  solemnly  administered 
Baptism  to  Conall,  brother  of  the  Ard-Righ  Leoghaire, 
on  Wednesday,  5  April.  Benen  and  others  had  al- 
ready been  privately  gathered  into  the  fold  of  Christ, 
but  this  was  the  first  public  administering  of  bap- 
tism, recognized  by  royal  edict,  and  hence  in  the  an- 
cient Irish  Kalendars  to  the  fifth  of  April  is  assigned 
"the  beginning  of  the  Baptism  of  Erin".  This  first 
Christian  royal  chieftain  made  a  gift  to  Patrick  of  a 
site  for  a  church  which  to  the  present  day  retains  the 
name  of  Donagh-Patrick.  The  blessing  of  heaven 
was  with  Conall's  family.  St.  Columba  is  reckoned 
among  his  descendants,  and  many  of  the  kings  of 
Ireland  until  the  eleventh  century  were  of  his  race. 
St.  Patrick  left  some  of  his  companions  to  carry  on  the 
work  of  evangelization  in  Meath,  thus  so  auspiciously 
begun.  He  would  himself  visit  the  other  territories. 
Some  of  the  chieftains  who  had  come  to  Tara  were 
from  Focluth,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Killala,  in 
Connaught,  and  as  it  was  the  children  of  Focluth  who 
in  vision  had  summoned  him  to  return  to  Ireland, 
he  resolved  to  accompany  those  chieftains  on  their  re- 
turn, that  thus  the  district  of  Focluth  would  be  among 
the  first  to  receive  the  glad  tidings  of  Retlemption. 
It  affords  a  convincing  proof  of  the  ditlicultics  that  St. 
Patrick  had  to  overcome,  that  tliough  full  liberty  to 
preach  the  Faith  throughout  Erin  was  granted  by  the 
monarch  Leoghaire,  nevertheless,  in  order  to  procure 
a  safe  conduct  through  the  intervening  territories 
whilst  proceeding  towards  Connaught  he  had  to  pay 
the  price  of  fifteen  slaves.  On  his  way  thither,  passing 
through  Granard  he  learned  that  at  Magh-Slecht,  not 
far  distant,  a  vast  concourse  was  engaged  in  offering 
worship  to  the  chief  idol  Crom-Cruach.  It  was  a 
huge  pillar-stone,  covered  with  slabs  of  gold  and  silver, 
with  a  circle  of  twelve  minor  idols  around  it.  He  pro- 
ceeded thither,  and  with  his  crosier  smote  the  chief 
idol  that  crumbled  to  dust;  the  others  fell  to  the 
ground.  At  Killala  he  found  the  whole  people  of  the 
territory  assembled.  At  his  preaching,  the  king  and 
his  six  sons,  with  12,000  of  the  people,  became  docile 
to  the  Faith.  He  spent  seven  years  visiting  every 
district  of  Connaught,  organizing  parishes,  forming 
dioceses,  and  instructing  the  chieftains  and  people. 
On  the  occasion  of  his  first  visit  to  Rathcrogan,  the 
royal  seat  of  the  kings  of  Connaught,  situated  near 
Tulsk,  in  the  County  of  Roscommon,  a  remarkable 
incident  occurred,  recorded  in  many  of  the  authentic 
narratives  of  the  saint's  life.  Close  by  the  clear  foun- 
tain of  Clebach,  not  far  from  the  royal  abode,  Patrick 
and  his  venerable  companions  had  pitched  their  tents 
and  at  early  dawn  were  chanting  the  praises  of  the  Most 
High,  when  the  two  daughters  of  the  Irish  monarch — 
Ethne,  the  fair,  and  Fedelm,  the  ruddy — came  thither, 
as  was  their  wont,  to  bathe.  Astonished  at  the  vision 
that  presented  itself  to  them,  the  royal  maidens  cried 
out:  "Who  are  ye,  and  whence  do  ye  come?  Are  ye 
phantoms,  or  fairies,  or  friendly  mortals?  "  St.  Patrick 
said  to  them:  "It  were  better  you  would  adore  and 
worship  the  one  true  God,  whom  we  announce  to  you, 


PATRICK 


557 


PATRICK 


than  that  you  would  satisfy  your  curiosity  by  such 
vain  questions."  And  then  Ethne  broke  forth  into 
the  questions: — 

"Who  is  God?" 

"And  where  is  God?" 

"Where  is  His  dwelling?" 

"Has  He  sons  and  daughters?" 

"Is  He  rich  in  silver  and  gold?" 

"Is  He  everlasting?  is  He  beautiful?" 

"Are  His  daughters  dear  and  lovely  to  the  men  of 
this  world?  " 

"  Is  He  in  the  heavens  or  on  earth?  " 

"In  the  sea,  in  rivers,  in  mountains,  in  valleys?" 

"Make  Him  known  to  us.  How  is  He  to  be  seen? 
How  is  He  to  be  loved?     How  is  He  to  be  found?" 

"Is  it  in  youth  or  is  it  in  old  age  that  He  may  be 
found?" 

But  St.  Patrick,  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  made 
answer: 

"God,  whom  we  announce  to  you,  is  the  Ruler  of  all 
things." 

"The  God  of  heaven  and  earth,  of  the  sea  and  the 
rivers." 

"The  God  of  the  sun,  and  the  moon,  and  all  the 
stars." 

"The  God  of  the  high  mountains  and  of  the  low- 
lying  valleys." 

"The  God  who  is  above  heaven,  and  in  heaven,  and 
under  heaven." 

"His  dwelling  is  in  heaven  and  earth,  and  the  sea, 
and  all  therein." 

"He  gives  breath  to  all." 

"He  gives  life  to  all." 

"He  is  over  all." 

"He  upholds  all." 

"He  gives  light  to  the  sun." 

"He  imparts  splendour  to  the  moon." 

"He  has  made  wells  in  the  dry  land,  and  islands  in 
the  ocean." 

"He  has  appointed  the  stars  to  serve  the  greater 
lights." 

"His  Son  is  co-eternal  and  co-equal  with  Himself." 

"The  Son  is  not  younger  than  the  Father." 

"And  the  Father  is  not  older  than  the  Son." 

"And  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  them." 

"The  Father  and  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  are 
undivided." 

"But  I  desire  by  Faith  to  unite  you  to  the  Heavenly 
King,  as  you  are  daughters  of  an  earthly  king." 

The  maidens,  as  if  with  one  voice  and  one  heart, 
said: 

"Teach  us  most  carefully  how  we  may  believe  in  the 
Heavenly  King;  show  us  how  we  may  behold  Him 
face  to  face,  and  we  will  do  whatsoever  you  shall  say 
to  us." 

And  when  he  had  instructed  them  he  said  to  them: 

"Do  you  beUeve  that  by  baptism  you  put  off  the 
sin  inherited  from  the  first  parents." 

They  answered:     "We  believe." 

"Do  you  believe  in  penance  after  sin?" 

"We  believe." 

"Do  you  believe  in  life  after  death?  Do  you  be- 
lieve in  resurrection  on  the  Day  of  Judgment?" 

"We  believe." 

"Do  you  believe  in  the  unity  of  the  Church?" 

"We  believe." 

Then  they  were  baptized,  and  were  clothed  in  white 
garments.  And  they  besought  that  they  might  be- 
hold the  face  of  Christ.  And  the  saint  said  to  them: 
"You  cannot  see  the  face  of  Christ  unless  you  taste 
death,  and  unless  you  receive  the  sacrifice."  They 
answered:  "Give  us  the  sacrifice,  so  that  we  may  be 
able  to  behold  our  Spouse."  And  the  ancient  nar- 
rative adds:  "when  they  received  the  Eucharist  of 
God,  they  slept  in  death,  and  they  were  placed  upon 
a  couch,  arrayed  in  their  white  baptismal  robes." 

In  440  St.  Patrick  entered  on  the  special  work  of  the 


conversion  of  Ulster.  Under  the  following  year,  the 
ancient  annalists  relate  a  wonderful  spread  of  the 
Faith  throughout  that  province.  In  444  a  site  for  a 
church  was  granted  at  Armagh  by  Daire,  the  chieftain 
of  the  district.  It  was  in  a  valley  at  the  foot  of  a  hill, 
but  the  saint  was  not  content.  He  had  special  design^ 
in  his  heart  for  that  district,  and  at  length  the  chief- 
tain told  him  to  select  in  his  territory  any  site  he  would 
deem  most  suitable  for  his  religious  purpose.  St. 
Patrick  chose  that  beautiful  hill  on  which  the  old 
cathedral  of  Armagh  stands.  As  he  was  marking  out 
the  church  with  his  companions,  they  came  upon  a  doe 
and  fawn,  and  the  saint's  companions  would  kill  them 
for  food;  but  St.  Patrick  would  not  allow  them  to  do 
so,  and,  taking  the  fawn  upon  his  shoulders,  and  fol- 
lowed by  the  doe,  he  proceeded  to  a  neighbouring  hill, 
and  laid  down  the  fawn,  and  announced  that  there,  in 
future  times,  great  glory  would  be  given  to  the  Most 
High.  It  was  precisely  upon  that  hill  thus  fixed  by 
St.  Patrick  that,  a  few  years  ago,  there  was  solemnly 
dedicated  the  new  and  beautiful  Catholic  cathedral 
of  Armagh.  A  representative  of  the  Holy  See  pre- 
sided on  the  occasion,  and  hundreds  of  priests  and  bish- 
ops were  gathered  there;  and,  indeed,  it  might  truly 
be  said,  the  whole  Irish  race  on  that  occasion  offered 
up  that  glorious  cathedral  to  the  Most  High  as  a  trib- 
ute of  their  united  faith  and  piety,  and  their  never- 
failing  love  of  God.  From  Ulster  St.  Patrick  probably 
proceeded  to  Meath  to  consolidate  the  organization 
of  the  communities  there,  and  thence  he  contin- 
ued his  course  through  Leinster.  Two  of  the  saint's 
most  distinguished  companions,  St.  Auxilius  and  St. 
Iserninus,  had  the  rich  valley  of  the  Liffey  assigned  to 
them.  The  former's  name  is  still  retained  in  the 
church  which  he  founded  at  Killossy,  while  the  latter 
is  honoured  as  first  Bishop  of  Kilcullen.  As  usual, 
St.  Patrick's  primary  care  was  to  gather  the  ruling 
chieftains  into  the  fold.  At  Naas,  the  royal  residence 
in  those  days,  he  baptized  the  two  sons  of  the  King  of 
Leinster.  Memorials  of  the  saint  still  abound  in  the 
district — the  ruins  of  the  ancient  church  which  he 
founded,  his  holy  well,  and  the  hallowed  sites  in  which 
the  power  of  God  was  shown  forth  in  miracles.  At 
Sletty,  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Carlow, 
St.  Fiacc,  son  of  the  chief  Brehon,  Dubthach,  was  in- 
stalled as  bi.shop,  and  for  a  considerable  time  that 
see  continued  to  be  the  chief  centre  of  religion  for  all 
Leinster.  St.  Patrick  proceeded  through  Gowran  into 
Ossory ;  here  he  erected  a  church  under  the  invocation 
of  St.  Martin,  near  the  present  city  of  Kilkenny,  and 
enriched  it  with  many  of  the  precious  relics  which  he 
had  brought  from  Rome.  It  was  in  Leinster,  on  the 
borders  of  the  present  counties  of  Kildare  and  Queen's, 
that  Odhran,  St.  Patrick's  charioteer,  attained  the 
martyr's  crown.  The  chieftain  of  that  district  hon- 
oured the  demon-idol,  Crom  Cruach,  with  special 
worship,  and,  on  hearing  of  that  idol  being  cast  down, 
vowed  to  avenge  the  insult  by  the  death  of  our  apos- 
tle. Passing  through  the  territory,  Odhran  overheard 
the  plot  that  was  being  organized  for  the  murder  of 
St.  Patrick,  and  as  they  were  setting  out  in  the  chariot 
to  continue  their  journey,  asked  the  saint,  as  a  favour, 
to  take  the  reins,  and  to  allow  himself,  for  the  day,  to 
hold  the  place  of  honour  and  rest.  This  was  granted, 
and  scarcely  had  they  set  out  when  a  well-directed 
thrust  of  a  lance  pierced  the  heart  of  the  devoted 
charioteer,  who  thus,  by  clianging  places,  saved  St. 
Patrick's  life,  and  won  for  himself  the  martyr's  crown. 
St.  Patrick  next  proceeded  to  Munster.  As  usual, 
his  efforts  were  directed  to  combat  error  in  the  chief 
centres  of  authority,  knowing  well  that,  in  the  paths 
of  conversion,  the  kings  and  chieftains  would  soon  be 
followed  by  their  subjects.  At  "  Cashel  of  the  Kings  " 
he  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm,  the  chiefs  and 
Brehons  and  people  welcoming  him  with  joyous  ac- 
claim. While  engaged  in  the  baptism  of  the  royal 
prince  Aengus,  son  of  the  King  of  Munster,  the  saint, 


PATRICK 


558 


PATRICK 


leanine  on  his  crosier,  pierced  with  its  sharp  point  the 
prince  8  foot.  Aengiis  bore  the  pain  unmoved.  When 
bt.  Patrick,  at  the  dose  of  the  ceremony,  saw  the 
blood  flow,  and  a.sked  liim  why  he  had  been  silent,  lie 
replied,  with  genuine  heroism,  that  he  thought  it 
might  be  part  of  the  ceremony,  a  penalty  for  the  joy- 
ous blessings  of  the  Faith  that  were  imparted.  The 
saint  admired  his  heroism,  and,  taking  the  chieftain's 
shield,  inscribed  on  it  a  cro.s.s  witli  the  same  point  of 
the  crozier,  and  proini.scd  tliat  that  shield  would  be 
the  signal  of  countless  spiritual  and  temporal  tri- 
umphs. Our  apostle  sjient  a  considerable  time  in  the 
present  County  of  Limerick.  The  fame  of  his  mira- 
cles and  sanctity  had  gone  before  him,  and  the  inhab- 
itants of  Thomond  and  northern  Munster,  crossing 
the  Shannon  in  their  frail  coracles,  hastened  to  receive 
his  instruction.  When  giving  his  blessing  to  them  on 
the  summit  of  the  hill  of  Finnime,  looking  out  on  the 
rich  plains  before  him,  he  is  said  to  have  prophesied 
the  coming  of  St.  Senanus:  "To  the  green  island  in 
the  West,  at  the  mouth  of  the  sea  (i.  e.,  Inis-Cathaigh, 
now  Scattery  Island,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Shannon, 
near  Kilrush],  the  lamp  of  the  people  of  God  will 
come;  he  will  be  the  head  of  counsel  to  all  this  terri- 
tory." At  Sangril  (now  Singland),  in  Limerick,  and 
also  in  the  district  of  Garryowen,  the  holy  wells  of  the 
Baint  are  pointed  out,  and  the  slab  of  rock,  which 
served  for  his  bed,  and  the  altar  on  which  every  day 
he  offered  up  the  Holy  Sacrifice.  On  the  banks  of 
the  Suir,  and  the  Black  water,  and  the  Lee,  wherever 
the  saint  preaclicd  during  the  seven  years  he  spent  in 
Munster,  a  hearty  welcome  awaited  him.  The  an- 
cient Life  attests:  "After  Patrick  had  founded  cells 
and  churches  in  Munster,  and  had  ordained  persons  of 
every  grade,  and  healed  the  sick,  and  resuscitated  the 
dead,  he  bade  them  farewell,  and  imparted  his  bless- 
ing to  them."  The  words  of  this  blessing,  which  is 
said  to  have  been  given  from  the  hills  of  Tipperary, 
as  registered  in  the  saint's  Life,  to  which  I  have  just 
referred,  are  particularly  beautiful : — 

"A  blessing  on  the  Munster  people — 

Men,  youths,  and  women; 

A  blessing  on  the  land 

That  yields  them  fruit. 

"A  blessing  on  every  treasure 

That  shall  be  produced  on  their  plains, 

Without  any  one  being  in  want  of  help, 

God's  blessing  be  on  Munster. 

"A  blessing  be  on  their  peaks, 

On  their  bare  flagstones, 

A  blessing  on  their  glens, 

A  blessing  on  their  ridges. 

"Like  the  sand  of  the  sea  under  ships. 

Be  the  number  of  their  hearths; 

On  slopes,  on  plains. 

On  mountains,  on  hills,  a  blessing." 

St.  Patrick  continued  until  his  death  to  visit  and 
watch  over  the  churches  which  he  had  founded  in  all 
the  provinces  of  Ireland.  He  comforted  the  faithful 
in  their  difficulties,  strengthened  them  in  the  Faith 
and  in  the  practice  of  virtue,  and  appointed  pastors  to 
continue  his  work  among  them.  It  is  recorded  in  his 
Life  that  he  consecrated  no  fewer  than  3.50  bishops.  He 
appointed  St.  Jxjman  to  Trim,  which  rivalled  Armagh 
itself  in  its  abundant  harvest  of  piety.  St.  Guasach, 
son  of  his  former  master,  Milchu,  became  Bishop  of 
Granard,  while  the  two  daughters  of  the  same  pagan 
chieftain  founded  close  by,  at  Clonbroney,  a  convent 
of  pious  virgins,  and  merited  the  aureola  of  sanctity. 
St.  Mel,  nephew  of  our  apostle,  had  the  charge  of  Ar- 
dagh;  St.  Mar(^artlicm,  who  appears  to  have  been 
particularly  l)el()ve<l  by  St.  Patrick,  was  made  Bishop 
of  Clogher.  The  narrative  in  the  ancient  Life  of  the 
saint  regarding  his  visit  to  the  district  of  Costello,  in 
the  County  of  Mayo,  serves  to  illustrate  his  manner 


of  dealing  with  the  chieftains.  He  found,  it  says,  the 
chief,  Ernasc,  and  his  son,  Loarn,  sitting  imder  a  tree, 
"with  whom  he  remained,  together  with  his  twelve 
companions,  for  a  week,  and  they  received  from  him 
the  doctrine  of  salvation  with  attentive  ear  and  mind. 
Meanwhile  he  instructed  Loarn  in  the  rutliments  of 
learning  and  piety."  A  church  was  erected  (here, 
and,  in  after  years,  Loarn  was  appointed  to  its  charge. 
The  manifold  virtues  by  which  the  early  saints 
were  distingui.slied  .shone  forth  in  all  their  perfection 
in  the  life  of  St.  Patrick.  When  not  engaged  in  the 
work  of  the  sacred  ministry,  his  whole  time  was  spent 
in  prayer.  Many  times  in  the  day  he  armed  himself 
with  the  sign  of  the  Cross.  He  never  icla.xed  his 
penitential  exercises.  Clothed  in  rough  luiir-shirt,  he 
made  the  hard  rock  his  bed.  His  disinterestedness  is 
specially  commemorated.  Countless  converts  of  high 
rank  would  cast  their  precious  ornaments  at  his  feet, 
but  all  were  restored  to  them.  He  had  not  come  to 
Erin  in  search  of  material  wealth,  but  to  enrich  her 
with  the  priceless  treasures  of  the  Catholic  Faith. 
F'rom  time  to  time  he  withdrew  from  the  spiritual 
duties  of  his  apostolate  to  devote  himself  wholly  to 
prayer  and  penance.  One  of  his  chosen  places  of 
solitude  and  retreat  was  the  island  of  Lough  Dergh, 
which,  to  our  own  day,  has  continued  to  be  a  favourite 
resort  of  pilgrims,  and  is  known  as  St.  Patrick's  Pur- 
gatory. Another  theatre  of  his  miraculous  povtfer  and 
piety  and  penitential  austerities  in  the  west  of  Ireland 
merits  particular  attention.  In  the  far  west  of  Con- 
naught  there  is  a  range  of  tall  mountains,  which,  ar- 
rayed in  rugged  majesty,  bid  defiance  to  the  waves 
and  storms  of  the  Atlantic.  At  the  head  of  this  range 
arises  a  stately  cone  in  solitary  grandeur,  about  4000 
feet  in  height,  facing  Crew  Bay,  and  casting  its  shadow 
over  the  adjoining  districts  of  Aghagower  and  West- 
port.  This  mountain  was  known  in  pagan  times  as 
the  Eagle  Mountain,  but  ever  since  Ireland  was  en- 
lightened with  the  light  of  Faith  it  is  known  as  Croagh 
Patrick,  i.  e.  St.  Patrick's  mountain,  and  is  honoured 
as  the  Holy  Hill,  the  Mount  Sinai,  of  Ireland.  St. 
Patrick,  in  obedience  to  his  guardian  angel,  made  this 
mountain  his  hallowed  place  of  retreat.  In  imitation 
of  the  great  Jewish  legislator  on  Sinai,  he  spent  forty 
days  on  its  summit  in  fasting  and  prayer,  and  other 
penitential  exercises.  His  only  shelter  from  the  fury 
of  the  elements,  the  wind  and  rain,  the  hail  and  snow, 
was  a  cave,  or  recess,  in  the  solid  rock ;  and  the  flag- 
stone on  which  he  rested  his  weary  limbs  at  night  is 
still  pointed  out.  The  whole  purpose  of  his  prayer 
was  to  obtain  special  blessings  and  mercy  for  the  Irish 
race,  whom  he  evangelized.  The  demons  that  made 
Ireland  their  battlefield  mustered  all  their  strength 
to  tempt  the  saint  and  disturb  him  in  his  solitude,  and 
turn  him  away,  if  possible,  from  his  pious  purpose. 
They  gathered  around  the  hill  in  the  form  of  vast 
flocks  of  hideous  birds  of  prey.  So  dense  were  their 
ranks  that  they  seemed  to  cover  the  whole  mountain, 
like  a  cloud,  and  they  so  filled  the  air  that  Patrick 
could  see  neither  sky  nor  earth  nor  ocean.  St.  Pat- 
rick besought  God  to  scatter  the  demons,  but  for  a 
time  it  would  seem  as  if  his  prayers  and  tears  were 
in  vain.  At  length  he  rang  his  sweet-sounding  bell, 
symbol  of  his  preaching  of  the  Divine  truths.  Its 
sound  was  heard  over  the  valleys  and  hills  of  Erin, 
everywhere  bringing  peace  and  joy.  The  flocks  of 
demons  began  to  scatter.  He  flung  his  bell  among 
them ;  they  took  to  precipitate  flight,  and  cast  them- 
selves into  the  ocean.  So  complete  was  the  saint's 
victory  over  them  that,  as  the  ancient  narrative  adds, 
"for  seven  years  no  evil  thing  was  to  be  found  in  Ire- 
land." The  saint,  however,  would  not,  as  yet,  de- 
scend from  the  mountain.  He  had  vanquished  the 
demons,  but  he  would  now  wrestle  with  God  Himself, 
like  .Jacob  of  old,  to  secure  the  spiritual  interests  of  his 
people.  The  angel  had  announced  to  him  that,  to 
reward  his  fidehty  in  prayer  and  penance,  as  many  of 


PATRIMONY 


559 


PATRIZI 


his  people  would  be  gathered  into  heaven  as  would 
cover  the  land  and  sea  as  far  as  his  vision  could 
reach.  Far  more  ample,  however,  were  the  aspirations 
of  the  saint,  and  he  resolved  to  persevere  in  fasting 
and  prayer  until  the  fullest  measure  of  his  petition 
was  granted.  Again  and  again  the  angel  came  to 
comfort  him,  announcing  new  concessions;  but  all 
these  would  not  suffice.  He  would  not  relinquish  his 
post  on  tlie  mountain,  or  relax  his  penante,  until  all 
were  granted.  At  length  the  message  came  that  his 
prayers  were  heard:  (1)  many  souls  would  be  freed 
from  the  pains  of  purgatory  through  his  intercession; 

(2)  whoever  in  a  spirit  of  penance  would  recite  his 
hymn  before  death  would  attain  the  heavenlj'  reward; 

(3)  barbarian  hordes  would  never  obtain  sway  in  his 
Church;  (4)  seven  years  before  the  Judgment  Day, 
the  sea  would  spread  over  Ireland  to  save  its  people 
from  the  temptations  and  terrors  of  Antichrist;  and 
(5)  greatest  blessing  of  all,  Patrick  himself  would  be 
deputed  to  judge  the  whole  Irish  race  on  the  last  day. 
Such  were  the  extraordinary  favours  which  St.  Pat- 
rick, with  his  wrestling  with  the  Most  High,  his  un- 
ceasing prayers,  his  unconquerable  love  of  heavenly 
things,  and  his  unremitting  penitential  deeds,  ob- 
tained for  the  people  whom  he  evangelized. 

It  is  sometimes  supposed  that  St.  Patrick's  aposto- 
late  in  Ireland  was  an  unbroken  series  of  peaceful 
triumphs,  and  yet  it  was  quite  the  reverse.  No  storm 
of  persecution  was,  indeed  stirred  up  to  assail  the  in- 
fant Church,  but  the  saint  himself  was  subjected  to 
frequent  trials  at  the  hands  of  the  druids  and  of  other 
enemies  of  the  Faith.  He  tells  us  in  his  "Confessio" 
that  no  fewer  than  twelve  times  he  and  his  companions 
were  seized  and  carried  off  as  captives,  and  on  one 
occasion  in  particular  he  was  loaded  with  chains,  and 
his  death  was  decreed.  But  from  all  these  trials  and 
sufferings  he  was  liberated  by  a  benign  Providence. 
It  is  on  account  of  the  many  hardships  which  he  en- 
dured for  the  Faith  that,  in  some  of  the  ancient  Mar- 
tyrologies,  he  is  honoured  as  a  martyr.  St.  Patrick, 
having  now  completed  his  triumph  over  Paganism, 
and  gathered  Ireland  into  the  fold  of  Christ,  prepared 
for  the  summons  to  his  reward.  St.  Brigid  came  to 
him  with  her  chosen  virgins,  bringing  the  shroud  in 
which  he  would  be  enshrined.  It  is  recorded  that 
when  St.  Patrick  and  St.  Brigid  were  united  in  their 
last  prayer,  a  special  vision  was  shown  to  him.  He 
saw  the  whole  of  Ireland  lit  up  with  the  brightest  rays 
of  Divine  Faith.  This  continued  for  centuries,  and 
then  clouds  gathered  around  the  devoted  island,  and, 
little  by  little,  the  religious  glory  faded  away,  until, 
in  the  course  of  centuries,  it  was  only  in  remotest 
valleys  that  some  glimmer  of  its  light  remained.  St. 
Patrick  prayed  that  that  light  would  never  be  extin- 
guished, and,  as  he  prayed,  the  angel  came  to  him  and 
said:  "Fear  not;  your  apostolate  shall  never  cease." 
As  he  thus  prayed,  the  glimmering  light  grew  in  bright- 
ness, and  ceased  not  until  once  more  all  the  hills  and 
valleys  of  Ireland  were  lit  up  in  their  pristine  splen- 
dour, and  then  the  angel  announced  to  St.  Patrick: 
"Such  shall  be  the  abiding  splendour  of  Divine  truth 
in  Ireland."  At  Saul  (Sabhall),  St.  Patrick  received 
the  summons  to  his  reward  on  17  March,  493.  St. 
Tassach  administered  the  last  sacraments  to  him. 
His  remains  were  wrapped  in  the  shroud  woven  by  St. 
Brigid's  own  hands.  The  bishops  and  clergy  and 
faithful  people  from  all  parts  crowded  around  his  re- 
mains to  pay  due  honour  to  the  Father  of  their  I^aith. 
Some  of  the  ancient  Lives  record  that  for  several  days 
the  light  of  heaven  shone  around  his  bier.  His  re- 
mains were  interred  at  the  chieftain's  Dun  or  Fort  two 
miles  from  Saul,  where  in  after  times  arose  the  cathe- 
dral of  Down. 

Writings  of  St.  Patrick. — The  "Confessio"  and 
the  "Epistola  ad  Coroticum"  are  recognized  by  all 
modern  critical  writers  as  of  unquestionable  genuine- 
ness.    The  best  edition,  with  text,  translation,  and 


critical  notes,  is  by  Rev.  Dr.  White  for  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy,  in  1905.  The  34  canons  of  a  synod 
held  before  the  year  460  by  St.  Patrick,  Auxilius,  and 
Isserninus,  though  rejected  by  Todd  and  Haddan, 
have  been  placed  by  Professor  Bury  beyond  the  reach 
of  controversy.  Another  series  of  31  ecclesiastical 
canons  entitled  "Synodus  secunda  Patritii",  though 
unquestionably  of  Irish  origin  and  dating  before  the 
close  of  the  seventh  century,  is  generally  considered  to 
be  of  a  later  date  than  St.  Patrick.  Two  tracts  (in 
P.  L.,  LIII),  entitled  "De  abusionibus  saecuU",  and 
"De  tribus  habitaculis",  were  composed  by  St. 
Patrick  in  Irish  and  translated  into  Latin  at  a  later 
period.  Passages  from  them  are  assigned  to  St. 
Patrick  in  the  "CoUectio  Hibernensis  Canonum", 
which  is  of  unquestionable  authority  and  dates  from 
the  year  700  (Wasserschleben,  2nd  ed.,  1885).  This 
"Collectio  Hibernensis"  also  assigns  to  St.  Patrick  the 
famous  sy nodical  decree:  "Si  qua  quaestiones  in  hac 
insula  oriantur,  ad  Sedem  Apostolieam  referantur." 
(If  any  difficulties  arise  in  this  island,  let  them  be  re- 
ferred to  the  Apostolic  See).  The  beautiful  prayer, 
known  as  "I^aeth  Fiada",  or  the  "Lorica  of  St. 
Patrick"  (St.  Patrick's  Breast-Plate),  first  edited  by 
Petrie  in  his  "History  of  Tara",  is  now  universally 
accepted  as  genuine.  The  "  Dicta  Sancti  Patritii ",  or 
brief  sayings  of  the'saint,  preserved  in  the  "Book  of 
Armagh",  are  accurately  edited  by  Fr.  Hogan,  S.J., 
in  "Documenta  de  S.  Patritio"  (Brussels,  1884).  The 
old  Irish  text  of  "The  Rule  of  Patrick"  has  been 
edited  by  O'Keeffe,  and  the  translation  by  Archbishop 
Healy  in  the  appendix  to  his  Life  of  St.  Patrick  (Dub- 
lin, 1905).  It  is  a  tract  of  venerable  antiquity,  and 
embodies  the  teaching  of  the  saint. 

The  Trias  thaumaturga  (fol.,  Louvain.  1647)  of  the  Franciscan 
CoLGAN  is  the  most  complete  collection  of  the  ancient  Lives  of  the 
saint.  The  Kenmare  Life  of  SI.  Patrick  (Cusack,  Dublin.  1S69) 
presents  from  the  pen  of  Hennessy  the  translation  of  the  Irish 
Tripartite  Life,  with  copious  notes.  Whitley  Stokes,  in  the 
Rolls  Series  (London,  1887),  has  given  the  text  and  translation  of 
the  Vita  Tripartita,  together  witfi  many  original  documents  from 
the  Book  of  Armagh  and  other  sources.  The  most  noteworthy 
works  of  later  vears  are  Shearman.  Loca  Patriciana  (Dublin, 
1870);  Todd,  St.  Patrick,  Apostle  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1864); 
BiiHY,  Life  of  St.  Patrick  (London,  1905) ;  Healy,  The  Life  and 
Writings  of  St.  Patrick  (Dublin,  1905). 

Patrick  Francis  Cardinal  Mcean. 

Patrimony  of  Saint  Peter.  See  States  of  the 
Church. 

Patripassians.     See  Monarchians. 

Patristics.     See  Fathers  of  the  Church;  Pa- 

TROLOGY. 

Patrizi,  Francis  Xavier,  Jesuit  exegete,  b.  at 
Rome,  19  June,  1797;  d.  there  23  April,  1881.  He  was 
the  eldest  son  and  heir  of  the  Roman  Count  Patrizi, 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  12  Nov.,  1814,  was 
ordained  priest  in  1824,  and  soon  became  professor 
of  Sacred  Scripture  and  Hebrew  in  the  Roman  College. 
The  revolution  of  1848  caused  Patrizi  and  his  fellow 
professor  Perrone  to  take  refuge  in  England.  Here, 
and  afterwards  at  Louvain,  Patrizi  taught  Scripture 
to  the  Jesuit  scholastics.  When  peace  was  restored  at 
Rome,  he  again  began  to  lecture  in  the  Roman  College. 
The  revolution  of  1870  ended  his  career  as  a  teacher, 
and  he  found  a  home  in  the  German-Hungarian 
College  of  Rome,  remaining  there  till  death. 

He  wrote  twenty-one  Biblical  and  ascetical  works. 
Of  the  former  the  most  important  are:  "De  interpre- 
tationescripturarum  sacrarum"  (2  vols.,  Rome,  1844); 
"  De  consensu  utriusque  libri  Machaba;orum"  (Rome, 
18.56);  "DeEvangeliis"  (3  vols.,  Freiburg  im  BreLsgau, 
1853);  "In  Joannem  commentarium"  (Rome,  18.57); 
"In  Marcum  commentarium"  (Rome,  1862);  "In 
actus  Apostolorum  commentarium"  (Rome,  1867); 
"Cento  salmi  tradotti  letteralmente  dal  testo  ebraico 
e  commentati"  (Rome,  1875);  "  De  interpretatione 
oraculorum  ad  Christum  pertinentium  "  (Rome,  1853) ; 
"De   immaculata    Marise    origine"    (Rome,    1853); 


PATROLOGT 


560 


PATRON 


"Delle  parole  di  San  Paolo:  In  quo  omnes  peccave- 
runt"  (Rome,  1870).  His  Latin  is  classic,  but  only  the 
earnest  Biblical  student  apiireciates  the  immense  eru- 
dition of  his  heavily  bunleiied  sentences.  No  one  has 
better  stated  the  rules  of  sane  interpretation  and  illus- 
trated those  rules  in  practice.  His  master-work  on 
intcr]>retation  has  gone  through  many  editions.  The 
Gospel  conunentaries  are  meant  especially  to  refute 
the  rationalistic  errors  of  the  time. 

HnRTER  in  Kirchenleiikon,  a.  v.;  Sommervoqel,  Bibliolhique 
de  la  C.  de  J.,  VI,  360-69;  Civilld  CaUolica,  11th  series,  VI,  4B1. 

Walter  Drum. 

Patrology,  the  study  of  the  writings  of  the  Fa- 
thers of  the  Church,  has  more  commonly  been  known 
in  England  as  "patristics",  or,  more  commonly  still, 
as  "patristic  study".  Some  writers,  chiefly  in  Ger- 
many, have  distinguished  between  patrologia  and 
patristica:  Fessler,  for  instance,  defines  patrologia  as  the 
science  which  provides  all  that  is  necessary  for  the  us- 
ing of  the  works  of  the  Fathers,  dealing,  therefore, 
with  their  authority,  the  criteria  for  judging  their 
genuineness,  the  difficulties  to  be  met  ^\'ith  in  them, 
and  the  rules  for  their  use.  But  Fessler's  own  "In- 
stitutiones  Patrologiie"  has  a  larger  range,  as  ha\-e 
similar  works  entitled  Patrologies,  of  which  the  most 
serviceable  is  that  of  Bardenhewer  (tr.  Shahan,  Frei- 
burg, 1908).  On  the  other  hand,  Fessler  describes 
patrisHca  as  that  theological  science  by  which  all  that 
concerns  faith,  morals,  or  discipUne  in  the  writings  of 
the  Fathers  is  collected  and  sorted.  Lastly,  the  lives 
and  works  of  the  Fathers  are  described  by  another 
science:  literary  history.  These  distinctions  are  not 
much  observed,  nor  do  they  seem  very  necessary; 
they  are  nothing  else  than  aspects  of  patristic  study 
as  it  forms  part  of  fundamental  theology,  of  positive 
theology,  and  of  literary  history.  Another  meaning 
of  the  word  patrologia  has  come  to  it  from  the  title  of 
the  great  collections  of  the  complete  works  of  the 
Fathers  pubhshed  by  the  Abb6  Migne  (q.  v.),  "Patro- 
logia Latina",  221  vols.,  and  " Patrologia Graeca",  161 
vols. 

For  bibliography  see  Fathers  of  the  Church. 

John  Chapman. 

Patronage  of  Our  Lady,  Feast  of  the. — It  was 
first  permitted  by  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  Rites,  6  May,  1679,  for  all  the  provinces  of  Spain,  in 
memory  of  the  victories  obtained  over  the  Saracens, 
heretics,  and  other  enemies  from  the  sixth  centurv  to 
the  reign  of  Philip  IV.  Benedict  XII  ordered  it  to  be 
kept  in  the  Papal  States  on  the  third  Sunday  of 
November.  To  other  places  it  is  granted,  on  request, 
for  some  Sunday  in  November,  to  be  designated  by 
the  ordinary.  The  Office  is  taken  entirely  from  the 
Common  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  the  Mass  is  the 
"Salve  sancta  parens".  In  many  places  the  feast  of 
the  Patronage  is  held  with  an  additional  title  of  Queen 
of  All  Saints,  of  Mercy,  Mother  of  Graces.  The 
Greeks  have  no  feast  of  this  kind,  but  the  Ruthenians, 
followed  by  all  the  Slavs  of  the  Greek  Rite,  have  a 
feast,  called  "Patrocinii  sanctissimEe  DomiuEe"  etc., 
or  Pokrov  Bogorodicy,  on  1  October,  which,  however, 
would  seem  to  correspond  more  with  our  Feast  of 
the  Scapular. 

XiLLEs.  Kalendarium  Manuale.  II,  532;  Benedict  XIV  De 
feslit,  II.  §§173,  174;  Mabti.nov,  Precis  historiques  (1858),  July. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Patronage  of  St.  Joseph,  Feast  op  the.  See 
Joseph,  Saint. 

Patron  and  Patronage.— I.  By  the  right  of  pat- 
ronage {iui  patronatvs)  is  understood  a  determinate 
sum  of  rights  and  oblig.ations  entailed  upon  a  definite 
person,  the  patron,  especially  in  connexion  with  the 
assignment  and  administration  of  a  benefice;  not  in 
virtue  of  his  hierarchical  position,  but  by  the  legally 
regulated   grant   of   the   Church,   out   of.  gratitude 


towards  her  benefactor.  Inasmuch  as  the  rights  of  the 
patron  pertain  to  the  spiritual  order,  the  right  of 
patronage  is  designated  in  the  decretals  as  ins  spiri- 
luali  anncxum,  and  is  therefore  subject  to  ecclesiastical 
legislation  and  jurisdiction.  Since,  however,  the  ques- 
tion of  property  rights  is  also  involved,  a  far-reaching 
influence  is  wielded  to-day  by  civil  laws  and  civil 
courts  in  matters  pertaining  to  patronage. 

II.  In  the  Oriental  Church  the  founder  of  a  church 
was  permitted  to  nominate  an  administrator  for  the 
temporal  goods  and  indicate  to  the  bishop  a  cleric 
suitable  for  appointment  (L.  46,  C.  de  episc.  I,  3. 
Nov.  LVII,  c.  2).  In  the  Western  Church  the  Synod 
of  Orange  (441)  granted  such  a  right  of  presentation 
to  a  bishop  who  had  built  a  church  in  another  diocese 
(c.  i,  C.  XVI,  q.  5)  and  the  Synod  of  Toledo  (655)  gave 
a  layman  this  privilege  for  each  church  erected  by  him 
(c.  32,  C.  XVI,  q.  7).  But  the  founder  had  no  proprie- 
tary rights  (c.  31,  C.  XVI,  q.  7).  In  the  countries 
occupied  by  the  Germanic  tribes,  on  the  basis  of  the 
individual  temple  and  church  rights  found  in  their 
national  laws,  the  builder  of  a  church,  the  feudal  lord, 
or  the  administrator  possessed  full  right  of  disposal 
over  the  church  founded  or  possessed  bj'  him,  as  his 
own  church  (ecclesia  propria)  and  over  the  ecclesiastics 
appointed  by  him,  whom  he  could  dismiss  at  pleasure. 
To  ob\'iate  the  drawbacks  connected  with  this,  the 
appointment  and  dismissal  of  ecclesiastics  at  least 
formally  was  made  subject  to  the  consent  of  the  bishop 
(c.  37,  C.  XVI,  q.  7).  In  the  course  of  the  Conflict  of 
Investitures,  however,  the  private  right  over  churches 
was  abolished,  although  to  the  lord  of  the  estate,  as 
patron,  was  conceded  the  right  as  ius  spiriluali  an- 
nexum  of  presenting  a  cleric  to  the  bishop  {ius  prce- 
sentandi)  on  the  occasion  of  a  vacancy  in  the  church 
(c.  13,  C.  XVI,  q.  7;  C.  5,  16,  X  de  iure  patronatus, 
III,  .38). 

III.  The  right  of  patronage  may  be:  personal  {ius 
patronatus  personate)  or  real  {reale);  spiritual  (eccle- 
siasticiim;  clericale),  or  lay  {laicale),  or  mixed  (mixtum); 
hereditarj'  {hcereditarium) ,  or  restricted  to  the  family, 
or  even  to  a  definite  person  {fannliare;  personalissi- 
mian);  individual  {singularc)  or  shared  {ius  compa- 
tronatus);  complete  {plenum)  or  diminished  {minu^ 
plenum).  A  personal  right  of  patronage  is  peculiar  to 
a  person  as  such,  while  a  real  right  of  patronage  be- 
longs to  one  in  possession  for  the  time  being  of  some- 
thing with  which  a  patronage  is  connected,  provided 
of  course  that  he  is  qualified  for  the  possession  of  the 
right  of  patronage.  A  spiritual  patronage  is  one  be- 
longing to  the  incumbent  of  an  ecclesiastical  office,  or 
established  by  the  foundation  ef  a  church  or  a  benefice 
out  of  ecclesiastical  funds,  or  instituted  by  a  layman 
and  later  presented  to  the  Church.  Thus  the  patron- 
ages in  possession  of  secularized  bishoprics,  monas- 
teries, and  ecclesiastical  foundations  are  regarded  as 
spiritual.  A  lay  patronage  is  established  when  an 
ecclesiastical  office  is  endowed  by  anyone  out  of  pri- 
vate means.  A  patronage  is  mixed  when  held  in 
common  by  the  incumbent  of  an  ecclesiastical  office 
and  a  layman. 

IV.  Any  church  benefice,  with  the  exception  of  the 
papacy,  the  cardinalate,  the  episcopate,  and  the  prela- 
tures  of  cathedral,  collegiate,  and  monastic  churches, 
may  be  the  object  of  the  right  of  patronage.  All  per- 
sons and  corporate  bodies  may  be  subject  to  the  right 
of  patronage.  But  persons,  besides  being  capable  of 
exercising  the  right,  must  be  members  of  the  Church. 
Thus  heathens,  Jews,  heretics,  schismatics,  and  apos- 
tates are  ineligible  for  any  sort  of  patronage,  even  real. 
Nevertheless  in  Germany  and  Austria  it  has  become 
customary  as  a  result  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  for 
Protestants  to  possess  the  rights  of  patronage  over 
Catholic,  and  Catholics  over  Protestant  church  offices. 
In  modern  concordats  Rome  has  repeatedly  granted 
the  right  of  patronage  to  Protestant  princes.  Entirely 
inehgible  for  pjatronage  are  the  excommunicati  vitandi 


PATRON 


561 


PATRON 


(the  cxcommunicaii  iolerali  are  able  at  least  to  acquire 
it),  and  those  who  are  infamous  according  to  ecclesias- 
tical or  civil  law.  On  the  other  hand,  illegitimates, 
children,  minors,  and  women  may  acquire  patronages. 

V.  A  right  of  patronage  comes  into  existence  or  is 
originally  acquired  by  foundation,  privilege,  or  pre- 
scription. Under  foundation  or  fundatio  in  the 
broader  sense  is  included  the  granting  of  the  necessary 
means  for  the  erection  and  maintenance  of  a  benefice. 
Thus,  granting  that  a  church  is  necessary  to  a  bene- 
fice, three  things  are  requisite:  the  assignment  of  land 
{fundatio  in  the  narrow  sense),  the  erection  of  the 
church  at  one's  private  expense  (adificalio),  and  the 
granting  of  the  means  necessary  for  the  support  of  the 
church  and  beneficiaries  (dolalio).  If  the  same  person 
fulfils  all  three  requirements,  he  becomes  ipso  jure 
patron,  unless  he  waives  his  claim  (c.  25,  X  de  iure 
patr.  Ill,  38).  Whence  the  saying:  Paironum  faciunt 
dos,  ccdificatio,  fundus.  Different  persons  performing 
these  three  acts  become  co-patrons.  It  is  an  accepted 
theory  that  one  who  is  responsible  for  only  one  of  the 
three  acts  mentioned,  the  other  two  conditions  being 
fulfilled  in  any  manner  whatsoever,  becomes  a  patron. 
It  is  possible  to  become  a  patron  also  through  the 
recedificatio  ecclesicc  and  redotatio  beneficii.  A  second 
manner  in  which  a  patronage  may  be  acquired  is 
through  papal  privilege.    A  third  is  by  prescription. 

VI.  Derivatively,  a  patronage  may  be  obtained 
through  inheritance  ex  leslmnento  or  ex  intestato,  in 
which  case  a  patronage  may  easily  become  a  co-pa- 
tronage; by  presentation,  in  which  a  lay  patron  must 
have  the  sanction  of  the  bishop  if  he  desires  to  transfer 
his  right  to  another  layman,  but  an  ecclesiastic  re- 
quires the  permission  of  the  pope  to  present  it  to  a  lay- 
man, or  that  of  the  bishop  to  give  it  to  another  ecclesi- 
astic (c.  un.  Extrav.  comm.  de  rebus  eccl.  non  alien. 
Ill,  4).  Furthermore  an  already  existing  right  of  pat- 
ronage may  be  acquired  by  exchange,  by  purchase,  or 
by  prescription.  In  exchange  or  purchase  of  a  real 
patronage  the  price  of  the  object  in  question  may  not 
be  raised  in  consideration  of  the  patronage;  the  right 
of  patronage  being  a  ius  spiriiuali  atinexum,  such  a 
thing  would  be  simony.  That  the  ruler  of  a.  country 
may  acquire  the  right  of  patronage  in  any  of  the  three 
ways  mentioned,  like  any  other  member  of  the  Church, 
goes  without  saying.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would 
be  false  to  teach,  as  did  the  Josephinists  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  "lUuminati",  that  the  sovereign 
possesses  the  right  of  patronage  merely  by  being  ruler 
of  the  country,  or  that  he  receives  the  patronage  of 
bishoprics,  monasteries,  and  ecclesiastical  foundations 
through  secularization.  Yet  this  question  is  now  gen- 
erally settled  in  Germany,  Austria,  etc.  by  agreement 
between  the  civil  Governments  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  pope  or  bishops  on  the  other. 

VII.  The  rights  involved  in  patronage  are:  the  right 
of  presentation,  honorary  rights,  utilitarian  rights,  and 
the  cura  beneficii. 

(a)  The  right  of  presentation  {ius  prasenlandi) , 
the  most  important  privilege  of  a  patron,  consists  in 
this,  that  in  case  of  a  vacancy  in  the  benefice,  he  inay 
propose  {prasenlare)  to  the  ecclesiastical  superiors 
empowered  with  the  right  of  collation,  the  name  of  a 
suitable  person  {persona  idonea),  the  result  being  that 
if  the  one  suggested  is  available  at  the  time  of  presen- 
tation, the  ecclesiastical  superior  is  bound  to  bestow 
on  him  the  office  in  question.  Co-patrons  with  the 
right  of  presentation  may  take  turns,  or  each  may  pre- 
sent a  name  for  himself,  or  it  may  be  decided  by  vote. 
In  the  case  of  juridical  persons  the  presentation  may 
be  made  according  to  statute,  or  by  turns,  or  by  deci- 
sion of  the  majority.    The  drawing  of  lots  is  excluded. 

With  regard  to  the  one  to  be  presented,  in  the  case 
of  a  benefice  involving  the  cure  of  souls,  the  ecclesias- 
tical patron  must  choose  from  among  the  candidates 
for  presentation  the  one  he  believes  the  most  suitable, 
judging  from  the  parish  concursus.  The  lay  patron 
XL— 36 


has  only  to  present  the  name  of  a  candidate  who  is 
suitable  in  his  opinion.  In  case  this  candidate  has  not 
passed  the  parish  concursus,  he  must  undergo  an  ex- 
amination before  the  synodal  examiners.  In  the  case 
of  a  mixed  patronage,  the  rights  of  which  are  exercised 
in  common  by  an  ecclesiastical  and  a  lay  patron,  the 
same  rule  holds  as  in  the  case  of  a  lay  patronage. 
Here  it  is  the  rule  to  deal  with  the  mixed  patronage, 
now  as  a  spiritual  and  again  as  a  lay  patronage,  ac- 
cording as  it  is  most  pleasing  to  the  patrons.  If  the 
prerogatives  of  the  mixed  patronage  are  exercised  in 
turn,  however,  it  is  considered  as  a  spiritual  or  a  lay 
patronage,  as  suits  the  nature  of  the  case.  The  patron 
cannot  present  his  own  name.  Co-patrons  may,  how- 
ever, present  one  of  their  own  number.  If  through  no 
fault  of  the  patron,  the  name  of  an  ineligible  person  is 
presented,  he  is  granted  a  certain  time  of  grace  to 
make  a  new  presentation.  If,  however,  an  ineligible 
person  has  been  knowingly  presented,  the  spiritual 
patron  loses  for  the  time  being  the  right  of  presenta- 
tion, but  the  lay  patron,  so  long  as  the  first  interval 
allowed  for  presentation  has  not  expired,  may  make 
an  after-presentation.  Thus  the  presentation  of  the 
spiritual  patron  is  treated  more  after  the  manner  of 
the  episcopal  collation.  On  that  account  the  spiritual 
patron  is  not  permitted  an  after-presentation  or  a 
variation  in  choice,  which  is  permitted  the  lay  patron, 
after  which  the  bishop  has  the  choice  between  the  sev- 
eral names  presented  {ius  variandi  cumulativum,  c.  24, 
X  de  iure  patr.  Ill,  38). 

A  presentation  may  be  made  by  word  of  mouth  or 
in  writing.  But  under  penalty  of  nullity  all  expres- 
sions are  to  be  avoided  which  would  imply  a  bestowal 
of  the  office  (c.  5,  X  de  iure  patr.  Ill,  38).  A  simoni- 
acal  presentation  would  be  invalid.  The  time  allowed 
for  presentation  is  four  months  to  a  lay  patron,  and 
six  to  a  spiritual  patron;  six  months  is  stipulated  for  a 
mixed  patronage  when  exercised  in  common,  four  or 
six  months  when  turn  is  taken  (c.  22,  X  de  iure  patr. 
Ill,  38).  The  interval  begins  the  moment  announce- 
ment is  made  of  the  vacancy.  For  one  who  through 
no  fault  of  his  own  has  been  hindered  in  making  a  pres- 
entation, the  time  does  not  expire  at  the  end  of  the 
period  mentioned.  When  his  candidate  has  been  un- 
justly rejected  by  the  bishop,  the  patron  may  appeal, 
or  make  an  after  presentation. 

(b)  The  honorary  rights  {iura  honorifica)  of  the  pa- 
tron are:  precedence  in  procession,  a  sitting  in  the 
church,  prayers  and  intercessions,  ecclesiastical  men- 
tions, burial  in  the  church,  ecclesiastical  mourning, 
inscriptions,  special  incensing,  the  asperges  (holy 
water),  ashes,  palms,  and  the  Pax. 

(c)  The  utilitarian  rights  {iii/ra  utilia)  of  the  patron 
consist  essentially  in  this:  that  in  so  far  as  he  is  a  de- 
scendant of  the  founder  he  is  entitled  to  an  allowance 
sufficient  for  his  maintenance  from  the  superfluous 
funds  of  the  church  connected  with  the  patronage,  if, 
through  no  fault  of  his  own,  he  has  been  reduced  to 
such  straits  as  to  be  unable  to  support  himself,  and  no 
one  else  is  under  any  obligation  to  assist  him  (c.  2.5,  X 
de  iure  patr.  Ill,  38).  To  draw  any  other  material  ad- 
vantages from  the  church  connected  with  the  patron- 
age, as  so  frequently  happened  in  the  Middle  Ages,  it 
is  requisite  for  this  condition  to  have  been  made  at  the 
time  of  fovmdation  with  the  consent  of  the  bishop,  or 
that  it  be  subsequently  stipulated  (c.  23,  X  de  iure 
patr.  Ill,  38.  C.  un.  Extrav.  comm.  de  rebus  eccl.  non 
alien.  Ill,  4). 

(d)  The  right  or  important  duty  {iura  onerosa)  of 
the  patron  is,  in  the  first  place  the  crira  beneficii,  the 
care  to  preserve  unimpaired  the  status  of  the  benefice 
and  the  conscientious  discharge  of  the  obligations  con- 
nected therewith.  He  must  not,  however,  interfere  in 
the  administration  of  t4ie  property  of  the  benefice  or 
the  discharge  of  the  spiritual  duties  on  the  part  of  the 
holder  of  the  benefice.  This  cura  beneficii  entitles  the 
patron  to  have  a  voice  in  all  changes  in  the  benefice 


PATRON 


662 


PATRON 


and  the  property  belonging  to  it.  Again,  on  the  pa- 
tron is  incumbent  the  dcfensio  or  the  advncatia  bcncfirii 
(c.  23,24,  X  (ie  iuro  patr.  HI,  38).  In  the  prostnt  ud- 
ministnition  of  justice,  liowever,  this  oblinatiun  Ims 
practically  ttisappearcil.  Lastly,  the  patron  has  the 
subsidiary  duty  of  building  (Trent,  Sess.  XXI,  "de 
ref.",  c.  vii). 

Vlll.  The  right  of  patronage  lapses  ipso  iure  at 
the  suppression  of  the  subject  or  oliject.  If  the  church 
connected  with  the  patronuKe  is  threatened  with  total 
ruin,  or  the  endowment  with  a  deficit,  if  those  first 
bound  to  restore  it  are  not  at  hand,  the  bishop  is  to  ex- 
hort the  patron  to  rebuild  {recFdificandum)  or  renew 
the  endowment  {ad  redolandum).  His  refusal  forfeits 
him  the  right  of  patronage,  at  least  for  himself  per- 
sonally. Furthermore,  the  right  of  patronage  is  lost 
upon  express  or  tacit  renunciation.  And  lastly,  it 
lapses  in  ca.sesof  apo.stasy,  heresy,  schism,  simoniacal 
ahenation,  usurpation  of  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
over  the  patronal  church  or  appropriation  of  its 
goods  and  revenues,  murder  or  mutilation  of  an  eccle- 
siastic connected  with  the  church. 

HiNSCHlcs,  Das  Kircbenrecht  der  Katholiken  und  ProtcstanUn  in 
Deutschland.  II  (Berlin,  1878),  618  sqq.;  Zhishman,  Das  Sli/ler- 
rechl  in  der  morgenlUndischen  Kirche  (Vienna,  1888);  Wahbmund, 
Das  Kirchenpatronatsrecht  und  seine  Entwicklung  in  Oesterreich 
(Vienna.  1894);  Stutz,  Ceschichte  des  kirchlichen  Benefizialwesens 
(Berlin.  1S95) ;  Thomas.  Le  droit  de  propriety  des  lalques  au  moyen 
Age  (Paris.  1906);  Poschl,  Bischofsgut  und  mensa  episcopatis,  I 
(Bonn,  1898),  32  sqq. 

Johannes  Baptist  Sagmijllbr. 

Patron  Saints. — A  patron  is  one  who  has  been 
assigned  by  a  venerable  tradition,  or  chosen  by  elec- 
tion, as  a  special  intercessor  with  God  and  the  proper 
advocate  of  a  particular  locality,  and  is  honoured  by 
clergj'  and  people  with  a  special  form  of  religious  ob- 
servance. The  term  "patron",  being  wider  in  its 
meaning  than  that  of  "titular",  may  be  applied  to  a 
church,  a  district,  a  countrj',  or  a  corporation.  The 
word  "titular"  is  applied  only  to  the  patron  of  a 
church  or  institution.  Both  the  one  and  the  other, 
according  to  the  legislation  now  in  force,  must  have 
the  rank  of  a  canonized  saint. 

Patrons  of  Churches. — Origin. — During  the  first 
three  centuries  of  the  Church's  history,  the  faithful  as- 
sembled for  worship  in  private  houses,  in  cemeteries,  or 
other  retired  places.  At  intervals  it  had  been  possible 
to  erect  or  adapt  buildings  for  the  sacred  rites  of  reli- 
gion. Such  buildings,  however,  were  not  dedicated  to 
the  saints,  but  w'ere  spoken  of  as  the  House  of  God,  the 
House  of  Prayer,  and  sometimes  as  the  Temple  of  God. 
They  were  also  known  as  Kyriaca,  Dominica,  or  Ora- 
loria.  Larger  structures  received  the  name  of  basil- 
icas, and  the  term  church  (ecclesia)  was  constantly 
employed  to  designate  the  place  where  the  faithful 
assembled  to  hear  the  word  of  God  and  partake  of 
the  sacraments.  After  peace  had  been  given  to  the 
Church  by  Constant  ine,  sacred  edifices  were  freely 
erected,  the  emperor  setting  the  example  by  the  char- 
acter and  magnificence  of  his  own  foundations.  The 
Christians  had  always  held  in  deep  reverence  the  mem- 
ory of  the  heroes  who  had  sealed  with  blood  the  pro- 
fession of  their  faith.  The  celebration  of  the  solemn 
rites  had  long  been  intimately  associated  with  the 
places  where  the  bodies  of  the  martyrs  reposed,  and 
the  choice  of  sites  for  the  new  edifices  was  naturally 
determined  by  the  scene  of  the  martyrs'  sufferings,  or 
by  the  spot  where  their  sacred  remains  lay  enshrined. 
The  great  basilicas  founded  by  Constantine,  or  during 
his  lifetime,  illustrate  this  tendency.  The  churches  of 
St.  Peter,  St.  Paul  outside  the  walls,  St.  Lawrence  in 
Agro  Wrano,  St.  Sebastian,  St.  Agnes  on  the  Via 
Nomentana  were  all  cemeterial  ba.silicas,  i.  e.  they 
were  built  over  the  spot  where  the  bodies  of  each  of 
these  saints  lay  buried.  The  same  practice  finds  illus- 
tration in  the  churches  of  SS.  Domitilla  and  Gene- 
rosa,  SS.  Xereus  and  .Vchilleus,  St.  Felix  at  Nola,  and 
others.    From  this  custom  of  rendering  honour  to  the 


relics  of  the  martyrs  were  derived  the  names  of  Memo- 
riir  (memorial  churches),  Martyria,  or  Confessio,  fre- 
quently given  to  churches.  The  name-  of  "Title" 
{Tiliilii.-<)  has  from  the  earliest  times  been  employed 
with  reference  to  the  name  of  the  saint  by  which  a 
church  is  known.  The  practice  of  placing  the  body  or 
some  relics  of  a  martyr  under  the  alt;u'  of  sacrifice  has 
been  perpetuated  in  the  Church,  but  the  dedication 
w:is  early  extended  to  confessors  :inil  holy  women  who 
were  not  martyrs.  The  underlying  doctrine  of  patrons 
is  that  of  the  communion  of  s;iints,  or  the  bond  of  spir- 
itual union  existing  between  God's  servants  on  earth, 
in  heaven,  or  in  purgatory.  The  saints  are  thereby 
reg:ir(led  as  the  advocates  and  intercessors  of  those 
who  arc  nuiking  their  earthly  iiilgrimage. 

Cliiiirr  iif  I'dlrons. — Down  to  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury po])ular  devotion,  under  the  guidance  of  ecclesias- 
tical authority,  chose  as  the  titulars  of  churches  those 
men  or  women  renowned  for  their  miracles,  the  .saint- 
linessof  their  lives,  or  their  apostolic  ministry  in  con- 
verting a  nation  to  the  Gospel.  Urban  VIII  (23 
March,  1(538)  laid  down  the  rules  that  should  guide 
the  faithful  in  the  future  selection  of  patrons  of 
churches,  cities,  and  countries,  without,  however,  inter- 
fering with  the  traditional  patrons  then  venerated 
(Acta  S.  Sedis,  XI,  292).  As  during  the  days  of  perse- 
cution the  most  illustrious  among  the  Christians  were 
those  who  had  sacrificed  their  lives  for  the  faith,  it  was 
to  be  expected  that  during  the  fourth  century  the 
selection  of  the  names  of  martyrs  as  titulars  would 
everywhere  prevail.  But  with  the  progress  of  the 
Church  in  times  of  comparative  peace,  with  the  de- 
velopment of  the  religious  life,  and  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospel  in  the  different  countries  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  bishops,  priests,  hermits,  and  nuns  displayed 
in  their  lives  lofty  examples  of  Christian  holiness. 
Churches,  therefore,  began  to  be  dedicated  in  their 
honour.  The  choice  of  a  particular  patron  has  de- 
pended upon  many  circumstances.  These,  as  a  rule, 
have  been  one  or  other  of  the  following:  (1)  The  pos- 
session of  the  body  or  some  important  relic  of  the 
saint;  (2)  his  announcement  of  the  Gospel  to  the 
nation;  (3)  his  labours  or  death  in  the  locality;  (4)  his 
adoption  as  the  national  patron;  (5)  the  special  devo- 
tion of  the  founder  of  the  church;  (6)  the  spirit  of 
ecclesiastical  devotion  at  a  given  time.  Leo  XIII 
enumerated  (28  Nov.,  1897)  as  characteristic  religious 
movements  of  our  time: — devotion  to  the  Sacred 
Heart,  to  Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary,  to  St.  Joseph,  and 
to  the  Blessed  iSacrament.  It  should  be  clearly  under- 
stood that  a  church  is,  and  always  has  been,  dedicated 
to  God:  other  dedications  are  annexed  on  an  entirely 
different  plane.  Thus  a  church  is  dedicated  to  God  in 
honour  (for  example)  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the 
saints.  A  typical  form  is  the  following:  "Deo  sacrum  in 
honorem  deiparie  immaculatae  et  SS.  Joannis  BaptistiB 
et  Evangelista?."  In  1190  a  collegiate  church  in  Dub- 
lin was  dedicated  "to  God,  Our  Blessed  Lady,  and  St. 
Patrick".  .Sometimes  out  of  several  who  are  men- 
tioned the  patron  is  expressly  designated,  as  in  the 
dedication  of  a  chaplainry  in  Arngask  (Scotland)  in 
1.527,  "for  the  praise,  glory, and  honour  of  the  indivisi- 
ble Trinity,  the  most  glorious  Virgin  and  St.  Columba, 
abbot,  our  patron  of  the  parish".  The  celestial  pat- 
ronage here  considered  will  be  restricted  in  the  first 
instance  to  churches  and  chapels.  Patrons  in  different 
countries  generally  present  a  distinctly  national  col- 
ouring; but  the  principles  which  have  governed  the 
selection  of  names  will  be  made  apparent  by  the 
examination  of  a  few  instances.  In  comparing  place 
with  place,  the  rank  or  precedence  of  patrons  should 
be  kept  in  view.  A  convenient  arrangement  will  be 
the  following:  Dedications  (1)  to  God  and  the  .'^.acred 
Humanitv  of  Christ  or  its  emblems;  (2)  to  the  Mother 
of  God;  (3)  to  the  Angels:  (4)  to  the  holy  personages 
who  introduced  the  New  Law  of  Christ;  (5)  to  the 
Apostles  and  Evangehsts;   (6)  to  other  saints. 


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563 


PATRON 


Rome. — Rome  is  illustiious  for  churches  named 
after  its  local  martyrs.  The  most  important  are  the 
basilicas  of  St.  Peter,  of  St.  Paul  Outside  the  Walls, 
of  St.  Lawrence,  St.  Sebastian,  and  of  St.  Agnes  in  the 
Via  Nomentana.  Other  churches  have  received  their 
title  from  the  fact  of  being  constructed  in  connexion 
with  houses  belonging  to  the  martyrs  in  question: 
St.  Clement's,  St.  Pudentiana's,  St.  Alexius's,  St. 
Cecilia's,  St.  Praxedes's,  St.  Bartholomew's,  Sts.  John 
and  Paul,  St.  Frances's  of  Rome.  Santa  Croce  recalls 
St.  Helen  ;  the  Domine  quo  vadis  chapel  refers  to  the 
meeting  of  Our  Lord  and  St.  Peter  on  the  Appian  Way ; 
San  Pietro  in  Carcere  is  erected  above  the  Mamer- 
tine  prison;  San  Pietro  in  Montorio  adjoins  the  place 
of  St.  Peter's  martyrdom;  San  Pietro  in  Vincoli  con- 
tains the  actual  chains  with  which  St.  Peter  was 
bound.  St.  John  Lateran's  was  first  dedicated  to 
Our  Saviour,  but  the  title  was  changed  in  the  twelfth 
century;  St.  Gregory  on  the  Coelian  recalls  the  home 
of  St.  Gregory  antl  the  site  of  the  church  he  built  in 
honour  of  St.  Andrew;  St.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso  re- 
calls its  founder.  Pope  Damasus.  There  are  thirty- 
four  churches  dedicated  to  the  Mother  of  God,  dis- 
tingui.shed  often  topographically  (as  Sta  Maria  in  Via 
lata,  or  Sta  Maria  in  Trastevere)  and  also  in  other 
ways  (a.s  Sta  Maria  Maggiore,  so  called  in  relation  to 
other  Roman  cliuri-hes  of  Our  Lady,  Sta  Maria  della 
Pace,  Sta  Maria  dcU'Anima,  etc.).  The  formal  dedi- 
cations to  God  consist  of  Trinit^,  dei  Pellegrini,  Tri- 
nita  dei  Monti,  S.  Spirito  in  Sassia,  S.  Salvatore  in 
Lauro,  S.  Salvatore  in  Thermis,  and  the  Gesu.  There 
are  no  dedications  to  the  Angels  nor  (until  recently)  to 
St.  Joseph,  the  Sacred  Heart,  All  Saints,  or  All  Souls. 
In  a  few  instances  titulars  occur  more  than  once: 
Lawrence,  6;  Peter,  4;  Paul,  Andrew,  Charles,  John, 
Nicholas,  3  each  (see  Rome). 

England. — St.  Augustine  and  his  companions 
brought  with  them  to  England  the  Roman  customs 
and  traditions  respecting  the  naming  and  dedication 
of  churches.  Altars  were  consecrated  with  the  ashes 
of  the  martyrs.  One  of  the  earliest  dedication  prayers 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church  runs  thus:  "Tibi,  sancta 
Dei  genitrix,  virgo  Maria  (vel  tibi,  sancte  J.  B.  Do- 
mini, .  .  .  vel  martyres  Christi,  vel  confessores 
Domini)  tibi  commendamus  hanc  curam  templi  hujus, 
quod  consecravimus  Domino  Deo  nostro,  ut  hie  inter- 
cessor existas;  preces  et  vota  offerentium  hie  Domino 
Deo  offeras;  odoramenta  orationum  plebis  .  .  . 
adpatris  thronumconferas",etc.  (Lingard,  "The  His- 
tory and  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church",  II, 
40).  Among  the  titulars  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  period 
are  found:  Christ  Church  (Canterbury),  St.  Mary's 
de  Comeliis,  St.  Mary's  of  Huntingdon,  and  of  Lym- 
ing,  All  Hallows  (Lincoln),  Peter  (to  whom  the  greater 
part  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  churches  were  dedicated), 
Peter  and  Paul  (Canterbury),  Paul  (Jarrow),  Andrew 
(Rochester),  Martin  (near  Canterbury),  Pancratius 
(Canterbury).  Accepting  the  figures  of  F.  A.  Foster 
in  her  "Stuclies  in  Church  Dedications",  and  with- 
out drawing  a  line  between  pre-Reformation  and 
post-Reformation  English  churches  (not  now  Cath- 
olic), we  get  the  following  enumeration  of  titulars: 
Christ  373,  Holy  Cross  or  Holy  Rood  83,  Michael,  or 
Michael  the  Archangel,  or  St.  Michael  and  the  Angels 
721  (one  in  six  of  the  churches,  ancient  and  modern, 
now  attached  to  the  Eslablislicd  Church  hears  the 
name  of  Our  Lady  or  one  of  her  lilies,  flic  total  being 
2162,  and  the  proportion  in  prc-Rcforniation  times 
was  still  larger),  John  Baptist,  .570;  Peter,  936;  Peter 
and  Paul,  277;  Paul,  329;  Holy  Innocents,  15;  Helen, 
117;  Augustine  of  Canterbury,  57;  Thomas  of  Canter- 
bury, 70 ;  Nicholas,  397 ;  Lawrence,  228.  The  Catholic 
Church  in  England  at  the  present  time  has  shown  the 
same  .spirit  of  conservatism  and  of  independence  which 
is  everywhere  manifested  in  the  choice  of  patrons. 
Among  the  cliii^f  of  the  170  dedications  to  God  of  the 
churches  and  chapels  (not  counting  religious  houses, 


colleges,  or  institutions),  the  numbers  are:  Holy  Trin- 
ity, 16;  Holy  Cross,  15;  Sacred  Heart,  90.  Consecra- 
tions in  honour  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  maintain  their 
ancient  pre-eminence,  reaching  a  total  of  374.  The 
simple  designation  of  St.  Mary's  is  the  most  frequent 
appellation.  The  form  "Our  Lady"  occurs  usually  in 
combination  with  other  titles.  Among  the  numerous 
sjX'cial  titles  are  the  following:  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion, ( )ur  Lady  of  Sorrows,  Help  of  Christians,  Star  of 
tlie  Sea,  Assumption,  Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary.  One 
church  only  bears  the  title  of  the  Transfiguration,  and 
one  only  is  distinguished  by  each  of  the  following  titles: 
Our  Lady  of  Refuge,  of  England,  of  Pity,  of  Paradise, 
of  Reparation,  of  Reconciliation,  Spouse  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  Most  Pure  Heart  of  Mary.  The  angels  are  not 
favoured,  Michael  standing  almost  alone,  but  with  38 
dedications.  St.  John  Baptist  has  20,  while  the  name 
of  Joseph  appears  as  titular  in  no  fewer  than  145 
churches.  Apostles  and  Evangelists  reach  a  total  of 
153 :  Peter  leads  the  way  with  43;  the  Beloved  Disciple 
counts  his  30,  Peter  and  Paul  follow  with  17.  Each  of 
the  remaining  Apostles  has  at  least  2  churches  under 
his  invocation,  except  Matthias,  Barnabas,  and  Mark, 
who  have  but  1.  Among  the  mal<- saints:  Anthony 
of  Padua,  Charles,  Edward,  ICdmund,  George,  and 
Richard  have  each  between  10  and  20;  but  Patrick, 
with  46,  heads  the  list;  then  follow  Augustine  22, 
Benedict  19,  Cuthbert  18,  and  Francis  of  Assisi  21. 
A  special  interest  attaches  to  names  which  occur  but 
once,  for  frequently  they  are  dedications  to  a  local 
saint,  as  in  the  instances  of  Birinus  (Dorchester), 
Dubritius  (Treforest),  Gwladys  (Newport,  Mon.),  la 
(St.  Ives),  Neot  (Liseard),  Oswin  (Tynemouth),  Prian 
(Truro),  Teilo  (Tenby),  Simon  Stock  (Faversham), 
Frideswide  (Abingdon),  and  Walstan  (Cossey).  Noth- 
ing could  have  been  more  appropriate  than  the  saints' 
names  selected  in  the  northern  dioceses  correspond- 
ing with  the  ancient  Northumbria.  There  we  meet 
with  dedications  to  Aidan,  Bede,  Bennet,  Columba, 
Cuthbert,  Ninian,  Hilda,  Oswald,  etc.  Among  the 
female  saints  Anne,  the  mother  of  Our  Lady,  occupies 
a  position  of  eminence  with  30  churches,  Winefrid 
ranks  next  with  10,  and  Catherine  follows  with  8. 
The  Saxon  virgins  and  widows  are  honoured  in  the 
localities  which  they  hallowed  by  their  saintly  lives, 
thus:  Begh  (Northumbria) ;  Etheldreda  (Ely);  Hilda 
(Whitby);  Mildred  (Minster);  Modwena  (Burton- 
on-Trent);  Osberg  (Coventry);  Wereburg  (Chester); 
Winefrid  (Holywell). 

Scotland. — Celtic  and  Medieval. — In  the  days  of  the 
Picts,  St.  Peter  was  held  in  preference,  from  a.  d.  710 
when  Roman  usages  were  adopted,  but  Andrew 
claimed  the  greater  number  of  dedications  from  the 
time  his  relics  had  been  brought  to  the  coast  by  St. 
Regulus.  As  instances  of  double  titulars,  native  and 
foreign,  the  following  may  be  taken:  St.  Mary  and  St. 
Mancliar  (( )ld  Aberdeen);  St.  Mary  and  St.  Boniface; 
Sts.  Mary  and  Peter;  Madrustus  and  John  Baptist; 
Stephen  and  Moanus.  In  pre-Reformation  times  Holy 
Trinity  occurred  less  frequently  than  in  England;  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  met  with  three  times;  many  churches 
bore  the  title  of  Christ  (Kilchrist,  Kildomine);  Holy 
Blood  and  IIolv  Rood  are  found  in  several  instances. 
A  ch.tpcl  styled  "Teampull-Cro-Naomh"  (Temple  of 
the  Holy  Heart)  once  stood  on  the  shore  at  Gauslan  in 
Lews.  Numerous  churches  bore  Our  Lady's  name 
(Lady  Kirk) ;  the  Assumption  is  found  as  early  as  1290, 
and  a  church  is  de<licated  to  Our  Ladv  of  Loreto  in 
15.30.  Many  churches  had  St.  Michael  forpatron  (Kil- 
michael).  St.  Anne  is  the  titular  in  several  places,  and 
an  altar  to  the  Thiec  Kin^s  existed  in  almost  every 
church.  St.  Joseph  is  nowhere  found  as  a  church  titu- 
lar, though  he  held  t  Ik  p.  isit  ion  of  joint  titular  of  an  al- 
tar in  1518.  The  ])rcs<'nt  day. — The  choice  of  titulars 
in  the  Catholic  churches  of  Scotland  at  the  present 
time  displays  the  same  twofold  direction  that  we  find 
elsewhere;  the  honour  of  the  saints  of  Scotland  and  of 


PATRON 


564 


PATRON 


other  lands,  and  the  promi)tings  of  modern  devotion. 
The  Sacred  Heart  has  S  dedications,  the  Holy  Rood  3. 
The  Apostles  rocoivo  the  spocial  lummir  of  3i)  churches, 
John  being  the  patron  of  13,  and  Andrew  of  7.  77 
churches  are  dedicateil  to  the  Blessed  \'irgin,  of  which 
11  celebrate  the  Ininiaculate  Conception,  7  bear  the 
title  of  Star  of  the  !Sea;  Our  Lady  of  the  Waves  and 
Our  Lady  of  Good  Aiil  stand  alone.  Churches  with 
the  titles  of  modern  saints  are  in  a  minority,  for  Pat- 
rick takes  the  lead  with  12;  Ninian,  Scotland's  first 
apostle,  has  6;  Coluniba  .'>;  Mungo  4;  David  3;  and 
Margaret  2.  Many  Celtic  saints  occur  but  once,  as  for 
example,  Bean,  Br<n(hui,  Cadoc,  Columbkille,  P'illian, 
Kessog,  Kieran,  Miiin,  and  Winning. 

Ireland. — The  history  of  the  patron  saints  of  Ire- 
land luis  yet  to  be  written.  The  country  has  passed 
through  long  periods  of  trouble  and  oppression,  yet 
several  of  the  Celtic  dedications  have  been  preserved 
and  linger  in  some  districts  even  to  this  day.  The 
Catholic  church  is  often  knowm  simply  by  the  name  of 
the  street  in  which  it  is  situated,  as  the  Cathedral, 
Marlborough  St.,  Dublin,  or  the  Jesuit  church  in 
Gardiner  Street.  A  similar  instance  occurs  in  Dubhn 
■with  regard  to  the  church  dedicated  to  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi,  but  always  styled  "Adam  and  Eve",  from  the 
fact  that  when  the  building  was  erected  in  the  seven- 
teenth centurj-,  there  swung  at  the  end  of  the  alley,  in 
which  the  chapel  was  situated,  a  public-house  sign 
with  the  full  figures  of  our  first  parents.  The  two  reli- 
gious edifices  in  a  town  are  sometimes  called  the 
"Cathedral"  and  the  "Old  Chapel".  In  the  days  of 
persecution,  when  churches  and  endowments  had  alike 
been  confiscated,  the  conditions  of  Catholic  worship 
recalled  the  secrecy  of  the  catacombs.  During  the 
nineteenth  century  the  old  "barns"  that  had  so  long 
served  for  chapels  were  replaced  by  beautiful  and 
spacious  churches  for  which  Irish  saints  were  fre- 
quently selected  as  patrons;  but  as  a  rule  the  choice 
has  been  determined  by  the  tendencies  of  modern 
devotion.  There  are  dedications  to  the  Sacred  Heart, 
to  Our  Lady  under  her  various  titles,  and  to  many  of 
the  more  recently  canonized  saints,  such  as  St.  Vin- 
cent and  St.  Francis  de  Sales.  Still  the  people  con- 
tinue to  refer  to  the  churches  by  the  names  of  the 
streets.  In  Celtic  times  many  churches  were  dedi- 
cated to  Our  Lady  and  called  Kilmurray.  All  the 
Donaghmore  {Dominica  Major)  churches  were  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Patrick,  because  they  had  been  founded 
by  him.  Other  dedications  include  Bridget  (Kil- 
bride), Peter  (Kilpedder),  Paul  (Kilpool),  Catherine 
of  Alexandria  (Killadreenan,  Kilcatherine).  The 
Holy  Sepulchre  found  a  place  among  the  oldest  dedi- 
cations. In  Dublin  or  the  neighbourhood  the  titles  of 
Peter,  Bride,  Martin,  Kevin,  McTail  (St.  Michael-le- 
Pole),  Nichohis  within  and  Nicholas  without  the  walls, 
were  to  be  met  with.  Then  there  were  churches  under 
the  patronage  of  All  Hallows,  Macud  (Kilmacud), 
Machonna,  Fintan,  Brendan  (Carrickbrenan),  Bcgnet 
(St.  Bega,  Kilbegnct),  Gobhain  (Kilgobbin),  Tiernan 
(Kilter,  Kilternan).  Bern's  church  was  so  called  be- 
cause founded  by  a  priest  of  Byrne's  clan.  The  title  of 
Cell-Ingen-Leinin  (Church  of  the  five  daughters  of 
Leinin,  whence  the  name  Killiney)  was  so  called  from 
its  founders.  New  names  were  introduced  by  the 
Normans,  as  Audven  (Dubhn),  being  St.  Ouen  of 
Rouen.  The  colony  from  Chester,  brought  over  to 
repeople  Dublin  which  had  been  decimated  by  the 
plague  at  the  end  of  the  tw'elfth  century,  erected  a 
church  dedicated  to  their  patroness,  St.  Werburg. 

CorUinental  Europe. — With  regard  to  the  patrons  of 
churches  on  the  continent  of  Europe  it  must  suffice  to 
mention  that  in  France  alone  there  are  3000  dedica- 
tions under  the  invocation  of  St.  Martin,  and  then  to 
take  a  glance  at  the  single  diocese  of  Bruges  in  Bel- 
gium: Bruges  is  the  diocese  of  an  old  country  that  has 
never  lest  the  faith.  Its  churches  have  9.5  titulars 
which  are  distributed  as  follows:    Holy  Trinity  1; 


Holy  Redeemer  2;  Sacred  Heart  3;  Exaltation  of  the 
Holy  Cross  3;  Our  Lady  (Notre  Dame)  24;  Immacu- 
late Concepf  ion  4;  Assumption  6;  Nativity  4.  Michael 
holds  the  ])atronage  of  7  churches,  Jo.seph  of  5,  and 
John  the  Baptist  of  IC.  Seven  of  the  Apostles  are 
honoured  with  63  dedications:  Peter  has  23;  Peter's 
Chains  3;  Paul  5;  Conversion  of  Paul  2;  Bartholomew 
0 ;  James  0 ;  and  John  only  3.  Every  town  and  district 
of  Belgium  is  hallowed  with  the  traditions  of  the  holy 
men  and  women  of  ancient  days,  so  that  the  devotion 
shown  to  the  saints  of  other  countries  is  not  a  little 
remarkable.  Out  of  57  male  saints  adopted  as  titu- 
lars Martin  has  the  highest  number,  namely  20; 
Nicholas  13;  Lawrence  8;  Blaise  6.  Aniand,  Apostle  of 
the  Flemings,  has  been  chosen  patron  of  19  churches, 
Audomar  of  8;  Bavo,the  hermit  of  Ghent,  of  7;  Eligius 
of  10;  Medard  of  6;  and  Vaast  of  4. 

United  States. — The  fourteen  ardidioceses  of  the 
United  States  have  been  examined  as  affording 
suitable  material  for  a  study  of  local  piety,  namely, 
Baltimore,  Boston,  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Dubuque, 
Milwaukee,  New  Orleans,  New  York,  Oregon  City, 
Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  St.  Paul,  San  Francisco,  and 
Santa  Fc.  Over  tliis  area  are  found  some  300  churches 
under  dedications  of  the  first  rank,  the  principal  ones 
being  here  enumerated:  Most  Holv  Trinity  27; 
Holy  Ghost  10;  Holy  Redeemer  11;  Sacred  Heart  109; 
Blessed  Sacrament  (including  Corpus  Christi  4,  Holy 
Eucharist  1)  14;  Holy  Name  12;  Holy  Cross  19.  The 
hfe  of  Christ  is  adequately  represented,  thus:  In- 
carnation 3;  Nativity  9;  Epiphany  3;  Transfiguration 
4;  Resurrection  3;  Ascension  9.  Other  titles  maybe 
mentioned :  Holy  Spirit  3 ;  Gesu  2 ;  Atonement,  Good 
Shepherd,  Holy  Comforter,  Holy  Saviour,  Provi- 
dence of  God,  St.  Sauveur,  and  Sacred  Hearts  of 
Jesus  and  Mary  1  each.  With  the  increasing  reali- 
zation of  the  gifts  of  the  Incarnation  which  appears 
in  modern  devotions,  it  will  excite  little  wonder  that 
some  500  or  more  churches  are  dedicated  to  the 
Mother  of  God  under  one  or  other  of  her  many  titles, 
the  principal  being:  St.  Mary  148;  Immaculate  Con- 
ception 105;  Assumption  36;  Holy  Rosary  19;  Annun- 
ciation 12;  Visitation  10;  Star  of  the  Sea  9;  Presenta- 
tion 6;  Nativity  5;  Holy  Name  of  Mary  3;  Maternity 
3;  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  2;  Purification  2;  Most 
Pure  Heart  of  Mary  1.  Titles  from  the  Litany  of 
Loreto  attract  in  so  far  as  they  represent  the  more 
recent  expressions  of  Catholic  devotion,  thus:  Mother 
of  God  2;  Mother  of  Divine  Grace  1;  Our  Lady  of 
Good  Counsel  10;  Gate  of  Heaven  1;  Help  of  Chris- 
tians 13;  Queen  of  the  Angels  1  ;Our  Lady  of  the  Angels 
6;  Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary  11.  With  the  foregoing 
list  certain  derivative  titles  may  be  connected:  Our 
Lady  of  Consolation  6;  of  Good  Vovage  1 ;  of  Grace  3; 
of  Help2;  of  Mercy4;  of  PerpetualHelp  10;  of  Pity  2; 
of  Prompt  Succour  1 ;  of  Refuge  1 ;  of  Solace  1 ;  of  Sor- 
rows 6;  of  the  Lake  5;  of  the  Sacred  Heart  3;  of  the 
Seven  Dolours  5 ;  of  the  Snow  1 ;  of  Victory  8.  The 
following  geographical  determinations  occur:  Our 
Lady  of  Czentochowa  4:  of  Guadalupe  8;  of  Hungary 
2;  of  Loreto  4;  of  Mount  Carmel  22;  of  Lourdes  14; 
of  Pompeii  4;  of  Vilna  2.  Notre  Dame  de  Bon  Port, 
du  Bon  Secours,  de  Chicago,  de  la  Paix,  Nuestra 
Senora  de  Belen,  del  Pilar,  Sancta  Maria  Addolorata, 
and  Sancta  Maria  Incoronata,  1  each,  suggest  French 
Spanish,  and  Italian  affiliations. 

The  list  of  male  saints  in  the  fourteen  dioceses  com- 
prises 156  names,  and  the  female  41.  For  the  sake  of 
convenience  these  have  been  divided  into  groups.  10 
churches  are  dedicated  to  All  Saints,  the  Apostles  in 
general  have  1;  Peter,  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles,  58; 
James  26;  Andrew  15;  Thomas  11;  Matthias  5;  Philip 
5;  Barnabas  3;  Bartholomew  2;  Jude  1;  the  Evangel- 
ists have:  John  59;  Matthew  13:  Mark  9;  Luke  6. 
St.  Paul  is  honoured  with  26  dedications;  Peter  and 
Paul  have  28;  Philip  and  James  3;  John  and  James  1. 
Michael  the  Archangel  has  57;  the  Holy  Angels  6;  the 


PATRON 


565 


PATRON 


Guardian  Angels  7;  Gabriel  7;  Raphael  10.  In  the 
long  list  of  male  saints  Joseph  heads  the  list  with  183 
dedications,  followed  by  Patrick  who  counts  83,  and 
then  in  numerical  order:  John  the  Baptist  and  An- 
thony 43  each;  Francis  of  Assisi  and  Stephen  23  each; 
Augustine  and  Vincent  19  each;  Francis  de  Sales, 
Francis  Xavier,  and  Lawrence  16  each;  Bernard, 
Ignatius,  and  Thomas  Aquinas  15  each;  Aloysius, 
Charles,  and  Louis  14  each;  Alphonsus  and  Nicholas 
11  each;  Leo  and  Martin  10  each;  Dominic  9;  Ed- 
ward 8;  Ambrose,  Clement,  Jerome,  and  Joachim 
7  each;  IJenedict  and  Pius  6;  Gregory  5;  Anselm,  Atha- 
nasius,  Bonaventure,  Denis,  Hubert,  Maurice,  Peter 
Claver,  and  Philip  Neri  3  each;  Dionysius,  Eloi, 
Ferdinand,  Francis  Borgia,  Gall,  Hyacinth,  Isidore, 
Liborius,  Nicholas  of  Tolentino,  Sebastian,  Vincent 
Ferrer,  and  William  2  each;  Albert,  Alphonsus  Turi- 
bius,  Anthony  the  Hermit,  Basil,  Bride,  Canicius, 
Cyprian,  Cj'ril,  David,  Donatus,  Edmund,  Engelbert, 
Eustachius,  Florian,  Fidelis,  Francis  Solano,  Fred- 
erick, Irenaeus,  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle,  John  Berch- 
mans,  John  Capistrano,  John  Chrysostom,  John 
Francis  Regis,  John  the  Martyr,  Kyran,  Landry, 
Lazarus,  Leander,  Leon,  Leonard  of  Port  Maurice, 
Luis  Bertrand,  Maron,  Martin  of  Tours,  Maurus, 
Nicholas  of  Myra,  Napoleon,  Norbert,  Raymund, 
Rock,  Theodore,  Thomas  of  Canterbury,  Thomas  of 
Villanova,  Timothy,  Valentine,  Viator,  Victor,  Wille- 
brod,  Zephj'rin,  1  each. 

The  female  patronesses  are  41  in  number,  those 
whose  names  appear  more  frequently  being:  Anne  36; 
Rose  22;  the  three  Catherines  21;  Teresa  14;  Agnes  13; 
Cecilia  12;  Margaret  10;  Ehzabeth  9;  Monica  8; 
Genevieve  6;  Philomena  5;  Clare,  Gertrude,  and 
Mary  Magdalen  4  each;  Agatha,  Helen,  and  Veronica 
3  each;  Anastasia,  Angela,  and  Lucy  2  each;  Barbara, 
Cunegunde,  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,  Eulalia,  Frances 
of  Rome,  Madeline,  Mary  Magdalen  de  Pazzi,  Scho- 
lastica,  Sylvia,  Ursula,  Victoria,  Walburga,  1  each. 
Among  the  saints,  more  than  in  any  other  class,  the 
nationality  of  devotion  finds  occasion  for  its  mani- 
festation. Celtic  centres  are  shown  by  such  titles  as: 
Brendan  .5;  Canice  1;  Colman  3;  Columba  5;  Colum- 
banus  2 ;  Columbkille  6 ;  Cronan  1 ;  Finbar  1 ;  Jarlath  1 ; 
Kevin  1;  Kilian  3;  Lawrence  O'Toole  3;  Malachy  6; 
Mel  1 ;  Attracta  1 ;  Bridget  1 1 ;  Ita  1 ;  George,  a  widely 
favoured  national  patron,  has  17  churches.  Rita  of 
Cascia  3,  and  Rocco  2,  show  the  Italian;  Ludmilla  1, 
Procopius  1,  and  Vitus  1,  are  Bohemian;  Stephen  with 
23  suggests  Hungary;  Boniface  with  21  dedications, 
and  Henry  with  8,  tell  of  Germany.  Benedict  the 
Moor  (New  York)  is  the  patron  of  the  church  for  ne- 
groes. The  numerous  Polish  population  has  adopted 
distinctive  patrons:  Adalbert  S;  Casimir  10;  Cyril 
and  Methodius  8;  Josaphat  3;  John  Cantius  4; 
John  Nepomucene  8;  Ladislaus  1;  Stanislaus  23; 
Vojtiechus  1;  Wenceslaus  9;  Hedwig  6;  Salomea  1. 

Canada. — In  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  to  a  very 
great  extent,  the  name  of  a  district  or  village  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  patron  of  the  church.  Obviously 
the  different  localities  have  been  named  after  their 
respective  patrons.  The  number  of  titulars  is  con- 
siderable, the  names  having  been  assigned  on  the  plan 
of  avoiding  repetitions.  In  the  list  examined  the 
names  of  about  400  male,  and  100  female,  saints  are 
represented,  and  the  entire  range  of  popular  devotion 
is  covered.  It  is  a  surprise  to  find  that  in  this  long  list 
of  provincial  divisions  no  dedications  are  to  be  found 
to  the  Most  Holy  Trinity,  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Blessed 
Sacrament.  Moreover,  only  five  are  to  be  found 
which  in  any  way  relate  to  Christ  or  the  mysteries  of 
His  life,  these  being,  St.  Sauveur,  Le  Prdcieux  Sang, 
L'Epiphanie,  Sacr6  Coeur  de  J^sus,  L'Ascension.  The 
Holy  Family  is  represented,  also  the  ."Angels  Guardian, 
and  Our  Lady  under  the  various  mysteries  of  her  life 
and  many  of  her  most  popular  titles  of  devotion,  such 
as:  La  Conception,  La  Presentation,  L' Annunciation, 


La  Visitation,  L'Assomption,  Notre  Dame  de  la  Mer- 
cie,  Notre  Dame  de  la  Paix,  Notre  Dame  des  Anges, 
Notre  Dame  des  Nieges,  Notre  Dame  de  Bon  Conseil, 
Notre  Dame  du  Mont  Carmel,  Notre  Dame  du 
Rosaire,  Sacr^  Cceur  de  Marie  etc.  The  patrons  of 
churches,  outside  the  class  just  referred  to,  have  been 
hsted  according  to  the  number  of  churches  dedicated 
to  them  in  the  Archdioceses  of  Halifax,  Kingston, 
Montreal,  Ottawa,  Quebec,  St.  Boniface,  Toronto, 
Vancouver,  and  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  John's,  New- 
foundland, and  are  as  follows:  Most  Holy  Trinity  2; 
Holy  Ghost  1;  Sacred  Heart  1.5;  Most  Holy  Redeemer 
1 ;  Holy  Name  of  Jesus  2 ;  Infant  Jesus  3 ;  Holy  Child  1 ; 
Holy  Family  5;  Blessed  Sacrament,  Transfiguration, 
Ascension,  St.  Sauveur,  and  Gesu  1  each ;  Holy  Cross 
4.  To  Our  Lady  we  find :  Immaculate  Conception  7, 
Nativity  5,  Presentation  2,  Annunciation  4,  Visitation 
3,  Purification  1,  Assumption  6,  Mary  Immaculate  1, 
Holy  Name  of  Mary  4,  St.  Mary  9,  Notre  Dame  4, 
Notre  Dame  de  la  Consolation  1,  Notre  Dame  de  la 
Garde  2,  Notre  Dame  de  I'Esperance  2,  Sacred  Heart 
of  Mary  5,  vStella  Maris  1,  Our  Lady  Help  of  Christians 
1,  of  Good  Counsel  5,  of  Grace  4,  of  la  Salette  2,  of 
Loreto  1,  of  Lourdes  3,  of  Mercy  3,  of  Mount  Carmel 

6,  of  Peace  1,  of  Perpetual  Succour  5,  of  Victory  3,  of 
the  Angels  2,  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  1,  of  the  Ros- 
ary 7,  of  the  Sacred  Heart  1,  of  the  Seven  Dolours  3, 
of  the  Snow  2,  of  the  Wayside  2. 

To  the  s.aints:  Joseph  21;  Patrick  20;  Anthony  10; 
Louis  9;  James,  Michael,  P.aul,  and  Peter  8  each; 
John,  John  the  Baptist,  John  the  Evangelist,  and  Vin- 
cent de  Paul  7  each;  Francis  of  Assisi  6;  Augustine, 
Bernard,  and  Charles  5  each;  Edward,  Francis  de 
Sales,  Francis  Xavier  4  each;  Ambrose,  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  Gabriel,  George,  Gerard,  Joachim,  Luke, 
Thomas  Aquinas,  and  Viateur  3  each;  Alexander, 
Aloysius,  Anastasius,  Andrew,  Anselm,  Columban, 
Edward  the  Confessor,  Felix,  Francis  Regis,  Ger- 
maine,  Gregory,  Gregory  Nazianzus,  Gregory  the 
Great,  Ignatius,  Leon  of  Westminster,  Peter  in  Chains, 
Philip  Neri,  Stephen,  and  Thomas  2  each;  Adrian, 
Aim^,  Alfred,  Alphonsus  Ligouri,  Arsenius,  Athana- 
sius,  Barnaby,  Basil,  Benedict,  Benjamin,  Bernardin 
of  Siena,  Bonaventure,  Boniface,  Bride,  Cajetan,  Ca- 
lixtus,  Camillus  of  Lellis,  Carthagh,  Casimir,  Clement, 
Columbanus,  Columbkille,  Cosmos,  Cuthbert,  Cyril 
and  Methodius,  Cyprian,  Daniel,  Denis,  Desire,  Do- 
natus, Dominic,  Edmund,  Eugene,  Faustinus,  Felix  of 
Valois,  Good  Thief,  Henry,  Hugh,  Hyacinth,  Ignatius 
Loyola,  Irena;us,  Isidor,  Jerome,  John  Berchmans, 
John  Cantius,  John  Chrysostom,  John  of  the  Cross, 
Jovita,  Jude,  Justin,  Kyran,  Lawrence,  Lawrence 
O'Toole,  Leo,  Malachy,  Malo,  Mark,  Martin,  Mat- 
thew, Narcissus,  Nicholas,  Odilo,  Pascal-Babylon, 
Peter  Celestine  Philippe,  Raphael,  Remigius,  Rock, 
Romuald,  Sixtus,  Stephen  de  Lauzon,  Turibius,  Vita- 
lis,  Vitus,  Zephyrim,  and  Zoticus  1  each;  Anne  7; 
Bridget  and  Philomena  4  each;  Helen  3;  Agnea, 
Cecilia,  Emily,  and  Marguerite  2  each;  Agatha,  Anas- 
tasia, Angelica,  Catherine,  Catherine  of  Siena,  Clare 
of  Tereanville,  Clotilde,  Cunegundes,  Elizabeth,  Eli- 
zabeth of  Hungary,  Elizabeth  of  Portugal,  Euphemia, 
Felicitas,  Jeanne  de  Neu^^lle,  Magdalen,  Margaret, 
Monica,  Veronica,  All  Saints,  1  each. 

Australia. — This  includes  the  Archdioceses  of  Syd- 
ney, Melbourne,  Hobart,  Adelaide,  Brisbane,  and  the 
Archdiocese  of  Wellington,  which  comprises  all  the 
territory  of  New  Zealand.  The  patrons  of  churches 
are:  (1)  Trinity  3;  Good  Shepherd  2;  Most  Holy  Re- 
deemer 3;  Sacred  Heart  63;  St.  Saviour  1;  Real  Pres- 
ence 1 ;  Holy  Name  4 ;  Blessed  Sacrament  2 ;  Church  of 
the  Reparation  1 ;  Church  of  the  Passion  1 ;  Holy  Cross 

7.  (2)  St.  Mary  74;  Immaculate  Conception  21; 
Nativity  1;  Annunciatioul;  Assumption  6;  Our  Lady 
Help  of  Christians  2;  of  Good  Counsel  1;  of  Lourdes  1; 
of  Mercy  1  ;of  Mount  Carmer4;  of  Perpetual  Succour  3; 
of  the  Rosary  11;  of  the  Sacred  Heart  1;  of  the  Seven 


PATRON 


5@6 


PATRON 


Dolours  3 ;  of  the  Suburbs  1 ;  of  Victories  1 ;  Refuge  of 
Sinners  1;  Auxilium  Christianorura  1;  Blessed  Virgin 
2;  Holy  Heart  of  Mary,  Holy  Name  of  Mary,  Mary 
Iranuuulate,  and  Queen  of  Angels  1  each;  St.  Mary  of 
the  Angels  2;  Star  of  the  Sea  19.  (3)  Guardian  Angels 
4;  Holy  Angels  2.  C4-o)  Patrick  85;  Joseph  7-1; 
^lieh:iel24;  I'eter  IG;  Peter  and  Paul  13;  Francis  of 
Assisi  and  Paul  10  each ;  John  the  Evangelist,  Co- 
luinba,  Francis  Xavier,  John,  Anthony,  and  James  8 
each;  Augustine  and  Francis  de  Sales  7  each;  Andrew, 
John  the  Bajjlist,  Lawrence,  Matthew,  and  Vincent  0 
each;  Uede,  Heneilict,  Lawrence  O'Toole,  Malachy, 
Stephen,  antl  Thomas  4  each;  Aidan,  Brendan,  Col- 
man,  and  Ignatius  3  each;  Aloysius,  Bernard,  Charles, 
Columbkille,  Edward,  Gabriel,  George,  Gregory, 
Joachim,  Mark,  Martin,  Raphael,  Stanislaus,  and 
Thomas  Aquinas  2  each;  Alphonsus,  Ambrose,  Atha- 
nasius,  Barnabas,  Bartholomew,  Boniface,  Cartliagh, 
Clement,  Cicus,  Deihm.  Felix,  Fiacre,  Finbar,  Fur- 
Beus,  Gerard,  John  and  Paul,  John  Berchmans,  John 
of  Goil,  John  of  the  Cross,  Joseph  and  Joachim,  Kevin, 
Kieran,  Leo,  Leonard,  Luke,  Marc,  Michael  and 
George,  Muuchin,  Nicholas,  Nicholas  of  Mj'ra,  Pau- 
linus,  Peter  Chanel,  Philip  and  James,  Pius,  Rock, 
Rupert,  Vigilius,  William,  and  the  Apostles  1  each. 
(6)  Brigid  19;  Anne  7;  Canice  and  Monica  4  each; 
Agnes  3;  Margaret  2;  Agatha,  Clare,  Gertrude, 
Helen,  Ita,  Joan  of  Arc,  Rose  of  Lima,  Teresa,  W'ine- 
fred,  1  each.     All  Saints  6,  All  Souls  2. 

British  South  Africa. — This  includes  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Vicariates,  the  V'icariates  of  Natal,  Kim- 
berley,  Transvaal,  Orange  River,  Basutoland,  and  the 
Prefectures  Apostolic  of  Great  Namaqualand  and 
Rhodesia.  The  churches  are  dedicated  as  follows: 
(1)  Trinity  1;  Sacred  Heart  16;  St.  Saviour  1;  Holy 
Family  2.  (2)  St.  Mary  17;  Immaculate  Conception 
12;  Annunciation  1 ;  Assumption  1 ;  Mater  Dolorosa  2; 
Our  Lady  1 ;  Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel  3 ;  of  Grace  1 ; 
of  Lourdes  1 ;  of  Perpetual  Succour  1 ;  of  Sorrows  1 ;  of 
the  Rosary  4;  of  the  Sacred  Heart  2;  Starof  the  Sea  2. 
(3)  Michael  and  the  Holy  Angels  1.  (4-5)  Joseph  11; 
Augustine  and  Patrick  5  each;  Francis  Xavier  and 
Michael  4  each;  Peter,  and  Peter  and  Paul  3  each; 
Charles,  Dominic,  Francis  de  Sales,  and  Ignatius 
Loyola  2  each;  Anthony,  Benedict,  Boniface,  Co- 
lumba,  Francis  of  Assisi,  Gabriel,  James,  Joachim, 
John,  John  the  Baptist,  Leo,  Martin,  Matthew,  Paul, 
Peter  Claver,  Simon  and  Jude,  Thomas,  and  Triashill 
1  each.  (6)  Anne  and  Monica  2  each;  Agnes  and 
Mechtilda  1  each.     All  Saints  1. 

Patrons  of  Countries. — An  authentic  catalogue 
of  patron  saints  of  countries  of  the  world  has  yet  to  be 
made.  Some  countries  appear  to  have  no  celestial 
patron,  others  have  several  assigned  to  them,  and  it 
is  by  no  means  clear  that  the  distinction  between 
patron  and  Apostle  is  invariably  taken  into  account. 
The  following  list  gives  the  patrons  of  some  few 
countries  of  the  world:  Austria  (Our  Lady),  Belgium 
(St.  Joseph),  Brazil  (declared  "The  Land  of  the  Holy 
Cross",  3  May,  1.500),  Borneo  (St.  Francis  Xavier), 
Canada  (St.  Anne  and  St.  George),  The  Congo  (Our 
Lady),  ChiU  (St.  James),  England  (St.  George),  East 
Indies  (St.  Thomas,  Apostle),  Ecuador  (styled  "The 
Republic  of  the  Sacred  Heart"),  Finland  (Henry  of 
Upsal),  France  (St.  Denis),  Germany  (St.  Michael), 
Holland  (St.  Willibrord),  Hungary  (St.  Stephen), 
Ireland  (St.  Patrick),  Italy  (various),  Lombardy  (St. 
Charles),  Mexico  (Our  Lady  of  Help,  and  Our  Lady 
of  Guadaloupe),  Norway  (St.  Olaf),  Portugal  (St. 
George),  Piedmont  (St.  Maurice),  Scotland  (St. 
Andrew),  Sweden  (St.  Bridget),  Spain  (St.  James), 
South  America  (St.  Rose  of  Lima),  United  States  of 
North  America  (Our  Lady  under  the  title  of  Immacu- 
late Conception),  Wales  (St.  David). 

Patfwns  f)F  Trades  and  Professions. — The 
beliefs  of  a  C^atholic  in  an  age  of  Faith  prompted  him 
to  place  not  only  hia  churches  under  the  protection  of 


some  illustrious  servant  of  God,  but  the  ordinary 
interests  of  life,  his  health,  and  family,  trade,  mala- 
dies, and  perils,  his  death,  his  cily  andcountry.  The 
whole  social  life  of  the  Catholic  world  before  the 
Reformation  was  animated  with  the  idea  of  protec^tion 
from  the  citizens  of  heaven,  it  has  been  st:iled  that 
in  Fiigland  there  existed  4(),0()1)  religious  corporations, 
including  ecclesiastical  bodies  of  all  kinds,  monas- 
teries and  convents,  military  orders,  industrial  and 
professional  guilds,  and  charitable  institutions,  each 
of  whi(^h  had  its  patron,  its  rites,  funds,  ami  methods 
of  assistance.  Some  idea  of  the  vastness  of  the  sub- 
ject may  be  gathered  from  a  few  examples  of  the 
trades  under  their  respective  patrons:  Anastasia 
(weavers),  Andrew  (fishermen),  Anne  (houseworkers 
and  cabinet-makers),  Christopher  (porters),  Cloud 
(nailmakers),  Cosmas  and  Damian  (doctors),  Crispin 
(.shoemakers),  Eloi  (all  workers  with  the  hammer), 
Hubert  (huntsmen),  Lydia  (dyers),  Joseph  (carpen- 
ters, Mark  (notaries),  Luke  (painters),  Nativity 
(trades  for  women),  Raymund  Nonnatus  (midwives), 
Raymund  of  Pennafort  (canonists),  Stephen  (stone- 
masons), Vincent  Martyr  (winegrowers),  Vitus  (co- 
medians). Conditions  of  life:  foundlings  (Holj'  In- 
nocents), girls  (Blandina),  boys  (Aloysius),  .singers  and 
scholars  (Gregory),  philosophers  (Catherine),  musi- 
cians (CeciUa),  persons  condemned  to  death  (Dismas). 
There  were  patrons  or  protectors  in  various  forms  of 
illness,  as  for  instance:  Agatha  (diseases  of  the  breast), 
Apollonia  (toothache),  Blaise  (sore  throat),  Clare  and 
Lucy  (the  eyes),  Benedict  (against  poison),  Hubert 
(against  the  bite  of  dogs).  These  patrons  with  very 
many  others  were  chosen  on  account  of  some  real 
correspondence  between  the  patron  and  the  object  of 
patronage,  or  by  reason  of  some  play  on  words,  or  as  a 
matter  of  individual  piety.  Thus,  while  the  great 
special  patrons  had  their  clients  all  over  Christendom, 
other  patrons  in  regard  of  the  same  class  of  objects 
might  vary  with  different  times  and  places.  In  order 
to  complete  this  imperfect  and  summary  sketch  of  the 
subject  of  patrons,  a  list  of  the  patrons  announced  by 
the  Holy  See  within  the  last  few  years  should  here  find 
a  place:  St.  Joseph  was  declared  patron  of  the  uni- 
versal Church  by  Pius  X  on  8  Dec,  1870.  Leo  XIII 
during  the  course  of  his  pontificate  announced  the 
following  patrons:  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  patron  of 
all  universities,  colleges,  and  schools  (4  Aug.,  1880); 
St.  Vincent,  patron  of  all  charitable  societies  (1  May, 
1885) ;  St.  Camillus  of  Leilis,  patron  of  the  sick  and 
of  those  who  attend  on  them  (22  June,  1886);  the 
patronal  feast  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Congo  to  be  the 
Assumption  (21  July.  1891);  St.  Bridget,  patroness 
of  Sweden  (1  Oct.,  1891) ;  the  Holy  Family,  the  model 
and  help  of  all  Christian  famihes  (14  June,  1892); 
St.  Peter  Claver,  special  patron  of  missions  to  the 
negroes  (1896) ;  St.  Paschal  Baylon,  patron  of  Eucha- 
ristic  congresses  and  all  Eucharistic  societies  (28  Nov., 
1897).  On  25  May,  1899,  he  dedicated  the  world  to 
the  Sacred  Heart,  as  Prince  and  Lord  of  all,  Catholics 
and  non-Catholics,  Christians  and  non-Christians. 
Lourdes  was  dedicated  to  our  Lady  of  the  Rosary  (8 
Sept.,  1901).  Pius  X  declared  St.  Francis  Xavier 
patron  of  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith  (25  Mar.,  1904). 
The  honouring  of  the  saints  has  in  some  instances 
doubtless  been  the  occasion  of  abuse.  Spells  and 
incantations  have  been  intruded  in  the  place  of  trust 
and  prayer;  the  prayerful  abstinence  of  a  vigil  has 
been  exchanged  for  the  rollicksome  enjoyment  of 
wakes;  reverence  may  have  run  incidentally  to  puerile 
extravagance;  and  patrons  may  have  been  chosen 
before  their  claim  to  an  heroic  exercise  of  Christian 
virtue  had  been  juridically  established.  Still  it  re- 
mains true  that  the  manifestation  of  Christian  piety 
in  the  honour  paid  to  angels  and  saints  has  been 
singularly  free  from  the  taint  of  human  excess  and  error. 

Cahier.  Carnclfrisliques  des  Saints  (Paris,  1867) ;   Hdsenbeth, 
Emblems  of  the  Saints,  ed.  Jesbop  (3rd  ed.,  Norwich,  1882) ;  Bona, 


PATTI 


567 


PAUL 


Rerum  Liturgiranim  I,  xix;  f^TANTON,  Mennhioti  of  F.nqlntiii  and 
Wales  (London,  18S7);  Lingard,  The  Hislm-',  ,,  /  I  .,/.-,„, /„.s  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  II;    Forster,  .S'(u./ir  ■      ,     "  li.,li,-a- 

(ions  (3  vols..  London,  1899);    Mackinley.  .1  .      ,         Dedi- 

cations 1/1  Sroltond  (EdinburKh,  1910):  L),.-,MMi.  //,  /,.ry  ,)/ 
D„/,/,„  l\,ii  I,,..  I  liul.lin);  C.  T.  8.  piil>lic'alicm.s;   Coleman,  Wis- 

lonr.''    \l ''//.•(■,/„_„/  ,lrm,„;(,   (Lluhlin,  1900);    Smith, 

Eo'i'!   '    !,!:'■       I    ■hiloii,  1S7I1);    U  \zi,iTr,   The  Livery  Companies 

of  Ih,   r,'v  ...I   / .'.'"   (London,  l.SUL'l;    Hesse,  Lfs  Sainte  Proffc- 

(CJirs  du  TramiU  n.  3.36  in  Science  et  Religion  (Paris).     See  also 
various  ecclesiaatical  Directories  in  Directories,  Catholic. 
Henry  Parkinson. 

Patti,  Diocese  of  (Pactensis),  in  the  Province  of 
Mps.sina  (Sicily),  on  the  western  shore  of  the  gulf  of 
the  same  luiiiie.  The  eity  has  a  large  trade  in  tunny- 
fish.  In  its  c:itheilr:il  is  preserved  the  body  of  St.  Fe- 
bronia,  virgin  ;i.ii(l  iiuirtyr.  The  city  was  rebuilt  by 
Count  Roger,  ;ifter  the  Saracens  had  been  driven  from 
Messina  (1058);  it  stands  near  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Tyndaris,  a  Lacedaemonian  colony  that  had  a  very 
flourishing  commerce;  the  magnificent  temple  of  Mer- 
cury in  the  latter  city  was  despoiled  by  Verres.  In  the 
time  of  Pliny,  however,  the  sea  had  encroached  greatly 
upon  the  shore,  and  after  the  foundation  of  Patti,  Tyn- 
daris w.as  almost  entirely  abandoned;  there  remains 
only  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Tindaro,  with  a 
Franciscan  monastery.  Three  of  the  bishops  of  Tyn- 
daris are  known:  Severinus  (501);  Eutychius  (594), 
with  whose  zeal  for  the  conversion  of  pagans  St.  Greg- 
ory the  Great  was  well  pleased;  and  Theodorus  (649). 

Patti  was  destroyed  by  Frederick  of  Aragon  about 
1300,  on  account  of  its  attachment  to  the  House  of 
Anjou;  rebuilt  in  the  sixteenth  century,  it  was  sacked 
by  the  Turks.  Count  Ruggiero  had  founded  there  a 
Benedictine  abbey,  and  in  1131,  the  antipope  Anacle- 
tus  II  made  Patti  an  episcopal  see,  uniting  it,  however, 
with  the  Abbey  of  Lipari;  Eugenius  III  in  1157  con- 
firmed the  action  of  the  antipope,  the  first  legitimate 
pastor  of  the  see  being  Gilbert.us.  In  1399,  Lipari  and 
Patti  were  separated,  and  the  first  bishop  of  the  sepa- 
rate see  of  Patti  was  Francesco  Hermemir.  Other  bish- 
ops were:  Francesco  Urvio  (1518),  who  in  the  course  of 
controversies  with  the  capitano  dello  spagnuolo  was 
imprisoned ;  later  he  was  transferred  to  the  Diocese  of 
Urgel;  Bartolomeo  Sebastiani  (1548),  distinguished 
himself  at  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  was  Governor  of 
Sicily  for  three  years;  Alfonso  de  los  Cameros  (16.52), 
the  founder  of  the  seminary,  restored  later  by  Bishop 
Galletti  (1727);  Cardinal  Geremia  Celesia,  later  Arch- 
bishop of  Palermo,  Bishop  of  Patti,  1860-71. 

The  diocese  is  a  suffragan  of  Messina;  it  has  49 
parishes,  20,000  inhabitants,  5  religious  houses  of  men, 
and  15  of  sisters,  who  conduct  4  institutes  for  girls  and 
several  schools. 

Cappelletti.  Le  Chiese  d' Italia.  XXI.  U.    BeNIGNI. 

Paul,   Saint. — I.    Preliminary    Qdestigns. — A. 

Apocryphal  Ads  of  St.  Paul. — Professor  Schmidt  has 
recently  published  a  photographic  copy,  a  transcrip- 
tion, a  German  translation,  and  a  commentary  of  a 
Coptic  papyrus  composed  of  about  2000  fragments, 
which  he  has  classified,  juxtaposed,  and  deciphered  at 
a  cost  of  infinite  labour  ("Acta  Pauli  aus  der  Heidel- 
berger  koptischen  Papyrushandschrift  Nr.  1 ",  Leip- 
zig, 1904,  and  "Zusatze",  etc.,  Leipzig,  1905).  Most 
critics,  whether  Catholic  (Duchesne,  Bardenhewer, 
Ehrhard  etc.),  or  Protestant  (Zahn,  Harnack,  Cors- 
sen  etc.),  believe  that  these  are  real  "Acta  Pauli", 
although  the  text  edited  by  Schmidt,  with  its  very  nu- 
merous gaps,  represents  but  a  small  portion  of  the  ori- 
ginal work.  This  discovery  modified  the  generally  ac- 
cepted ideas  concerning  the  origin,  contents,  and  value 
of  these  apocryphal  Acts,  and  warrants  the  conclusion 
that  three  ancient  compositions  which  have  reached  \is 
formed  an  integral  part  of  the  "Acta  Pauli"  viz.  the 
"Acta  Pauli  et  Thecla;",  of  which  the  best  edition 
is  that  of  Lipsius  ("Acta  Apostolorum  apocrypha", 
Leipzig,  1891,  235-72),  a  "Martyrium  Pauli"  pre- 
served in  Greek  and  a  fragment  of  which  also  exists  in 


Latin  (op.  cit.,  104-17),  and  a  letter  from  the  Corin- 
thians to  Paul  with  the  latter's  reply,  the  Armenian 
text  of  which  was  preserved  (cf.  Zahn,  "Gesch.  des 
neutest.  Kanons",  II,  592-611),  and  the  Latin  discov- 
ered by  Berger  in  1891  (cf.  Harnack,  "Die  apokry- 
phen  Briefe  des  Paulus  an  die  Laodicener  und  Ko- 
rinther",  Bonn,  1905).  With  great  sagacity  Zahn 
anticipated  this  result  with  regard  to  the  last  two 
documents,  and  the  manner  in  which  St.  Jerome 
speaks  of  the  wtplo&ai.  Pauli  et  Thecte  (De  viris  ill., 
vii)  might  have  permitted  the  same  surmise  with  re- 
gard to  the  first. 

Another  consequence  of  Schmidt's  discovery  is  no 
less  interesting.  Lipsius  maintained — and  this  was 
hitherto  the  common  opinion — that  besides  the  Catho- 
lic "Acts"  there  formerly  existed  Gnostic  "Acts  of 
Paul",  but  now  everything  tends  to  prove  that  the 
latter  never  existed.  In  fact  Origen  quotes  the  "Acta 
Pauli"  twice  as  an  estimable  writing  ("In  Joann.",  xx, 
12;  "Deprincip.",II,i,  3);  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl..  Ill,  iii, 
5;  XXV,  4)  places  them  among  the  books  in  dis- 
pute, such  as  the  "Shepherd"  of  Hermas,  the  "Apoca- 
lypse of  Peter",  the  "Epistle  of  Barnabas",  and  the 
"Teaching  of  the  Apostles".  The  stichometry  of  the 
"Codex  Claromontanus "  (photograph  in  Vigouroux, 
"Diet,  de  la  Bible",  II,  147)  places  them  after  the 
canonical  books.  Tertullian  and  St.  Jerome,  while 
pointing  out  the  legendary  character  of  this  writing,  do 
not  attack  its  orthodoxy.  The  precise  purpose  of  St. 
Paul's  correspondence  with  the  Corinthians  which 
formed  part  of  the  "Acts",  was  to  oppose  the  Gnos- 
tics, Simon  and  Cleobius.  But  there  is  no  reason  to 
admit  the  existence  of  heretical  "Acts"  which  have 
since  been  hopelessly  lost,  for  all  the  details  given  by 
ancient  authors  are  verified  in  the  "Acts"  which  have 
been  recovered  or  tally  well  with  them.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  explanation  of  the  confusion:  The  Mani- 
cha?ans  and  Priscillianists  had  circulated  a  collection 
of  five  apocryphal  "Acts",  four  of  which  were  tainted 
with  heresy,  and  the  fifth  were  the  "Acts  of  Paul". 
The  "Acta  Pauli"  owing  to  this  unfortunate  associa- 
tion are  suspected  of  heterodoxy  by  the  more  recent 
authors  such  as  Philastrius  (De  haires.,  88)  and  Pho- 
tius  (Cod.,  114).  Tertullian  (De  baptismo,  17)  and 
St.  Jerome  (De  vir.  ill.,  vii)  denounce  the  fabulous 
character  of  the  apocryphal  "Acts"  of  Paul,  and  this 
se%'ere  judgment  is  amply  confirmed  by  the  examina- 
tion of  the  fragments  published  by  Schmidt.  It  is  a 
purely  imaginative  work  in  which  improbability  vies 
with  absurdity.  The  author,  who  was  acquainted  with 
the  canonical  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  locates  the  scene  in 
the  places  really  visited  by  St.  Paul  (Antioch,  Iconium, 
Myra,  Perge,  Sidon,  Tyre,  Ephesus,  Corinth,  Philippi, 
Rome),  but  for  the  rest  he  gives  his  fancy  free  rein. 
His  chronology  is  absolutely  impossible.  Of  the  sixty- 
five  persons  he  names,  very  few  are  known  and  the 
part  played  by  these  is  irreconcilable  with  the  state- 
ments of  the  canonical  "  Acts  ".  Briefly,  if  the  canoni- 
cal "Acts"  are  true  the  apocryphal  "Acts"  are  false. 
This,  however,  does  not  imply  that  none  of  the  details 
have  historical  foundation,  but  they  must  be  con- 
firmed by  an  independent  authority. 

B.  Chronology. — If  we  admit  according  to  the  al- 
most unanimous  opinion  of  exegetes  that  Acts,  xv,  and 
Gal.,  ii,  1-10,  relate  to  the  same  fact  it  will  be  seen 
that  an  interval  of  seventeen  years — or  at  least  six- 
teen, counting  incomplete  years  as  accomplished — 
elapsed  between  the  conversion  of  Paul  and  the  Apos- 
tolic council,  for  Paul  visited  Jerusalem  three  years 
after  his  conversion  (Gal.,  i,  18)  and  returned  after 
fourteen  years  for  the  meeting  held  with  regard  to 
legal  observances  (Gal.,  ii,  1:  ETreixa  5ia  itKareacrapuv 
irCiv).  It  is  true  that  some  authors  include  the  three 
years  prior  to  the  first  visit  in  the  total  of  fourteen,  but 
this  explanation  seems  forced.  On  the  other  hand, 
twelve  or  thirteen  years  elapsed  between  the  Apostolic 
council  and  the  end  of  the  captivity,  for  the  captivity 


PAUL 


568 


PAUL 


lasted  nearly  five  years  (more  than  two  years  at  Cx- 
saroa,  Acts,  xxiv,  27,  six  months  travelling,  including 
the  sojourn  at  KlaUa,  and  two  years  at  Rome,  Acts, 
xxviii,  30);  the  third  mission  lasted  not  less  than  four 
years  and  a  half  (three  of  which  were  spent  at  Ephesus, 
Acts,  XX.  31,  and  one  between  the  departure  from 
Ephesus  and  the  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  1  Cor.,  xvi,  8; 
Acts,  XX,  10.  and  six  months  at  the  very  least  for  the 
journey  to  Calatia,  Acts,  x\'iii,  23);  while  the  second 
mission  lasted  not  less  than  three  years  (eighteen 
months  for  Corinth,  Acts,  xviii,  11,  and  the  remainder 
for  the  evangelization  of  Galatia,  Macedonia,  and 
Athens,  Acts,  xv,  36-xvii.  34).  Thus  from  the  con- 
version to  the  end  of  the  first  captivity  we  have  a 
total  of  .about  twenty-nine  years.  Now  if  we  could 
find  a  fixed  point  that  is  a  synchronism  between  a 
fact  in  the  life  of  Paul  and  a  certainly  dated  event 
in  profane  historj',  it  would  be  easy  to  reconstruct 
the  Pauline  chronology.  Unfortunately  this  much 
wished-for  mark  has  not  yet  been  indicated  with 
certainty,  despite  the  numerous  attempts  made  by 
scholars,  especially  in  recent  times.  It  is  of  inter- 
est to  note  even  the  abortive  attempts,  because  the 
discovery  of  an  inscription  or  of  a  coin  may  any  day 
transform  an  appro.ximate  date  into  an  absolutely 
fixed  point.  These  are:  the  meeting  of  Paul  with  Ser- 
gius  Paulus,  Proconsul  of  Cyprus,  about  the  year  46 
(.\ets,  xiii,  7),  the  meeting  at  Corinth  with  Aquila  and 
Priscilla,  who  had  been  expelled  from  Rome,  about  51 
(Acts,  x\-iii,  2),  the  meeting  with  Galho,  Proconsul  of 
Achaia,  about  53  (Acts,  xviii,  12),  the  address  of  Paul 
before  the  Governor  Felix  and  his  wife  Drusilla  about 
58  (Acts,  xxiv,  24).  All  these  events,  as  far  as  they 
may  be  assigned  appro.ximate  dates,  agree  with  the 
Apostle's  general  chronology  but  give  no  precise  re- 
sults. Three  synchronisms,  however,  appear  to  afford 
a  firmer  basis : — 

(1)  The  occupation  of  Damascus  by  the  ethnarch 
of  King  Aretas  and  the  escape  of  the  Apostle  three 
years  after  his  conversion  (II  Cor.,  xi,  32-33;  Acts, 
ix,  23-26). — Damascene  coins  bearing  the  effigy  of 
Tiberius  to  the  year  34  are  extant,  proving  that  at 
that  time  the  city  belonged  to  the  Romans.  It  is 
impossible  to  assume  that  Aretas  had  received  it  as 
a  gift  from  Tiberius,  for  the  latter,  especially  in  his  last 
years,  was  hostile  to  the  King  of  the  Nabata;ans  whom 
Vitellius,  Governor  of  Syria,  was  ordered  to  attack 
(Joseph.,  "Ant.",  XVIII,  v,  13);  neither  could  Aretas 
have  possessed  himself  of  it  by  force  for,  besides  the 
unlikeUhood  of  a  direct  aggression  against  the  Romans, 
the  expedition  of  Vitellius  was  at  first  directed  not 
against  Damascus  but  against  Petra.  It  has  there- 
fore been  somewhat  plausibly  conjectured  that  Ca- 
ligula, subject  as  he  was  to  such  whims,  had  ceded 
it  to  him  at  the  time  of  his  accession  (16  March,  37). 
As  a  matter  of  fact  nothing  is  known  of  imperial  coins 
of  Damascus  dating  from  either  Caligula  or  Claudius. 
According  to  this  hypothesis  St.  Paul's  conversion 
was  not  prior  to  34,  nor  his  escape  from  Damascus  and 
his  first  \n3it  to  Jerusalem,  to  37. 

(2)  Death  of  Agrippa,  famine  in  Judea,  mission  of 
Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Jerusalem  to  bring  thither  the 
alms  from  the  Church  of  Antioch  (.\cts,  xi,27-xii,  25).— 
Agrippa  died  shortly  after  the  Pasch  (Acts,  xii,  3,  19), 
when  he  was  celebrating  in  Cajsarea  solemn  festivals 
in  honour  of  Claudius's  recent  return  from  Britain, 
in  the  third  year  of  his  reign,  which  had  begun  in  41 
(Jcsephus,  "Ant.",  XIX,  vii,  2).  These  combined 
facts  bring  us  to  the  year  44,  and  it  is  precisely  in  this 
year  that  Orosius  (Hist.,  vii,  6)  places  the  great  famine 
which  desolated  Judea.  Josephus  mentions  it  some- 
what later,  under  the  procurator  Tiberius  Alexander 
(about  46),  but  it  is  well  known  that  the  whole  of 
Claudius's  reign  was  characterized  by  poor  harvests 
(Suet.,  "Claudius",  18)  and  ageneral  famine  was  usu- 
ally preceded  by  a  more  or  less  prolonged  period  of 
scarcity.     It  is  also  possible  that  the  relief  sent  in  an- 


ticipation of  the  famine  foretold  by  AgabuB  (Acts,  xi, 
28,  29)  preceded  the  appearance  of  the  scourge  or  coin- 
cided with  the  first  symptoms  of  want.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  synchronism  between  the  death  of  Ilerod 
and  the  mission  of  Paul  can  only  be  approximate,  for 
although  the  two  facts  are  closely  connected  in  the 
Acts,  the  account  of  the  death  of  Agrippa  may  be  a 
mere  episode  intended  to  shed  light  on  thesituation 
of  the  Church  of  Jerusalem  about  the  time  of  the 
arrival  of  the  delegates  from  Antioch.  In  any  case, 
45  seems  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  date. 

(3)  Replacing  of  Felix  by  Festus  two  years  after 
the  arrest  of  Paul  (Acts,  xxiv,  27). — Until  recently 
chronologists  commonly  fixed  this  important  event 
in  the  year  60-61.  Harnack,0.  Holtzmann,  and  Mc- 
Giffert  suggest  advancing  it  four  or  five  years  for  the 
following  reasons:  (1)  In  his  "Chronicon",  Eusebius 
places  the  arrival  of  Festus  in  the  second  year  of  Nero 
(Oct.,  55-Oct.,  56,  or  if,  as  is  asserted,  Eusebius  makes 
the  reigns  of  the  emperors  begin  with  the  Septem- 
ber after  their  accession,  Sept.,  .56-Sept.,  57).  But  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  chroniclers  being 
always  obliged  to  give  definite  dates,  were  likely  to 
guess  at  them,  and  it  may  be  that  Eusebius  for  lack 
of  definite  information  divided  into  two  equal  parts 
the  entire  duration  of  the  government  of  Felix  and 
Festus.  (2)  Josephus  states  (Ant.,  XX,  viii,  9)  that 
Felix  having  been  recalled  to  Rome  and  accused  by  the 
Jews  to  Nero,  owed  his  safety  only  to  his  brother 
Pallas  who  was  then  high  in  favour.  But  according  to 
Tacitus  (Annal.,  XIII,  xiv-xv),  Pallas  was  dismissed 
shortly  before  Britannicus  celebrated  his  fourteenth 
anniversary,  that  is,  in  January,  55.  These  two  state- 
ments are  irreconcilable;  for  if  Pallas  was  dismissed 
three  months  after  Nero's  accession  (13  Oct.,  54)  he 
could  not  have  been  at  the  summit  of  his  power  when 
his  brother  Felix,  recalled  from  Palestine  at  the  com- 
mand of  Nero  about  the  time  of  Pentecost,  arrived  at 
Rome.  Possibly  Pallas,  who  after  his  dismissal  re- 
tained his  wealth  and  a  portion  of  his  influence,  since 
he  stipulated  that  his  administration  should  not  be 
subjected  to  an  investigation,  was  able  to  be  of  as- 
sistance to  his  brother  until  62  when  Nero,  to  obtain 
possession  of  his  goods,  had  him  poisoned. 

The  advocates  of  a  later  date  bring  forward  the 
following  reasons:  (1)  Two  years  before  the  recall 
of  Felix,  Paul  reminded  him  that  he  had  been  for 
many  years  judge  over  the  Jewish  nation  (Acts,  xxiv, 
10-27).  This  can  scarcely  mean  less  than  six  or 
seven  years,  and  as,  according  to  Josephus  who  agrees 
with  Tacitus,  Felix  was  named  procurator  of  Judea 
in  52,  the  beginning  of  the  captivity  would  fall  in 
58  or  59.  It  is  true  that  the  argument  loses  its 
strength  if  it  be  admitted  with  several  critics  that  Felix 
before  being  procurator  had  held  a  subordinate  posi- 
tion in  Palestine.  (2)  Josephus  (Ant.,  XX,  viii,  5-8) 
places  under  Nero  everything  that  pertains  to  the 
government  of  Felix,  and  although  this  long  series  of 
events  does  not  necessarily  require  many  years  it  is 
evident  that  Josephus  regards  the  government  of 
Felix  as  coinciding  for  the  most  part  with  the  reign  of 
Nero,  which  began  on  13  Oct.,  .54.  In  fixing  as  follows 
the  chief  dates  in  the  life  of  Paul  all  certain  or  prob- 
able data  seem  to  be  satisfactorily  taken  into  account: 
Conversion,  35;  first  visit  to  Jerusalem,  37;  sojourn 
at  Tarsus,  37-43;  apostolate  at  Antioch,  43-44;  sec- 
ond visit  to  Jerusalem,  44  or  45;  first  mission,  45- 
49;  third  \-isit  to  Jerusalem,  49  or  50;  second  mission, 
50-53;  (I  and  II  Thessalonians),  52;  fourth  visit  to 
Jerusalem,  53;  third  mission,  53-57;  (I  and  II  Corin- 
thians; Galatians),  56;  (Romans),  57;  fifth  vi.sit  to 
Jerusalem,  arrest,  57;  arrival  of  Festus,  departure  for 
Rome,  59;  captivity  at  Rome,  60-62;  (Philemon; 
Colossians;  Ephesians;  Philippians),  61;  second  period 
of  activity,  62-66;  (I  Timothy;  Titus),  second  arrest, 
66;  (II  Timothy),  martyrdom,  67.  (See  Turner, 
"Chronology  of  the  N.  'T."  in  Hastings,  "Diet,  of 


PAUL 


569 


PAUL 


the  Bible";  Hoaicke,  "Die  Chronologic  des  Lebens 
des  Ap.  Paulus",  Leipzig,  1903.) 

II.  Life  and  Work  of  Padl. — A.  Birth  and  Ed- 
ucation.— From  St.  Paul  himself  we  know  that  he  was 
born  at  Tarsus  in  Cilicia  (Acts,  xxi,  39),  of  a  father 
who  was  a  Roman  citizen  (Acts,  xxii,  26-28;  cf.  xvi, 
37),  of  a  family  in  which  piety  was  hereditary  (II 
Tim.,  i,  3)  and  which  was  much  attached  to  Phari- 
saic traditions  and  observances  (Phil.,  iii,  5-6).  St. 
Jerome  relates,  on  what  ground  is  not  known,  that 
his  parents  were  natives  of  Gischala,  a  small  town  of 
Galilee,  antl  that  they  brought  him  to  Tarsus  when 
Gischala  was  captured  by  the  Romans  ("De  vir.  ill.", 
v;  "In  epist.  ad  Phil.",  23).  This' last  detail  is  cer- 
tainly an  anachronism,  but  the  Galilean  origin  of  the 
family  is  not  at  all  improbable.  As  he  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  he  was  given  at  the  time  of  his 
circumcision  the  name  of  Saul,  which  must  have  been 
common  in  that  tribe  in  memory  of  the  first  king  of 
the  Jews  (Phil.,  iii,  5).  As  a  Roman  citizen  he  also 
bore  the  Latin  name  of  Paul.  It  was  quite  usual  for 
the  Jews  of  that  time  to  have  two  names,  one  Hebrew, 
the  other  Latin  or  Greek,  between  which  there  was 
often  a  certain  assonance  and  which  were  joined  to- 
gether exactly  in  the  manner  made  use  of  by  St.  Luke 
(Acts,  xiii,  9:  2aOXo!  6  rai  IlaCXos).  See  on  this  point 
IJeissmann,  "Bible  Studies"  (Edinburgh,  1903), 
313-17.  It  was  natural  that  in  inaugurating  his 
apostolate  among  the  Gentiles  Paul  should  have 
adojited  his  Roman  name,  especially  as  the  name  Saul 
had  a  ludicrous  meaning  in  Greek.  As  every  re- 
spectable Jew  had  to  teach  his  son  a  trade,  young  Saul 
learned  how  to  make  tents  (Acts,  xviii,  3)  or  rather 
to  make  the  mohair  of  which  tents  were  made  (cf. 
Lewin,  "Life  of  St.  Paul",  I,  London,  1874,  8-9). 
He  was  still  very  young  when  sent  to  Jerusalem  to 
receive  his  education  at  the  school  of  Gamaliel  (Acts, 
xxii,  3).  Possibly  some  of  his  family  resided  in  the 
holy  city;  later  there  is  mention  of  the  presence  of  one 
of  his  sisters  whose  son  saved  his  life  (Acts,  xxiii,  16). 
From  that  time  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  foUov.' 
him  until  he  takes  an  active  part  in  the  martyrdom 
of  St.  Stephen  (Acts,  vii,  58-60;  xxii,  20).  He  was 
then  qualified  as  a  young  man  (wai'/as),  but  this  was  a 
very  elastic  appellation  and  might  be  applied  to  a 
man  between  twenty  and  forty. 

B.  Conversion  and  early  Labours. — We  read  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  three  accounts  of  the  conversion 
of  St.  Paul  (ix,  1-19;  xxii,  3-21;  xxvi,  9-23)  presenting 
some  slight  differences,  which  it  is  not  difficult  to  har- 
monize and  which  do  not  affect  the  basis  of  the  narra- 
tive, which  is  perfectly  identical  in  substance.  See 
J.  Massie,  "The  Conversion  of  St.  Paul"  in  "The 
Expositor",  3rd  series,  X,  1889,  241-62.  Sabatier, 
agreeing  with  most  independent  critics,  has  well  said 
(L'Apotre  Paul,  1896,  42):  "These  differences  cannot 
in  any  way  alter  the  reality  of  the  fact;  their  bearing 
on  the  narrative  is  extremely  remote;  they  do  not  deal 
even  with  the  circumstances  accompanying  the  mira- 
cle but  with  the  subjective  impressions  which  the 
companions  of  St.  Paul  received  of  these  circum- 
stances. ...  To  base  a  denial  of  the  historical  char- 
acter of  the  account  upon  these  differences  would 
seem  therefore  a  violent  and  arbitrary  proceeding." 
All  efforts  hitherto  made  to  explain  without  a  miracle 
the  apparition  of  Jesus  to  Paul  have  failed.  Naturalis- 
tic e.xplanations  are  reduced  to  two:  either  Paul  be- 
lieved that  he  really  saw  Christ,  but  was  the  victim  of 
an  hallucination,  or  he  believed  that  he  saw  Him  only 
through  a  spiritual  vision,  which  tradition,  recorded  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  later  erroneously  materialized. 
Renan  explained  everything  by  hallucination  due  to 
disease  brought  on  by  a  combination  of  moral  causes 
such  as  doubt,  remorse,  fear,  and  of  physical  causes 
such  as  ophthalmia,  fatigue,  fever,  the  sudden  transi- 
tion from  the  torrid  desert  to  the  fresh  gardens  of 
Damascus,  perhaps  a  sudden  storm  accompanied  by 


lightning  and  thunder.  All  this  combined,  according 
to  Renan's  theory,  to  produce  a  cerebral  commotion,  a 
passing  delirium  wliich  Paul  took  in  good  faith  for  an 
apparition  of  the  risen  Christ. 

The  other  partisans  of  a  natural  explanation,  while 
avoiding  the  word  hallucination,  eventually  fall  back 
on  the  system  of  Renan  which  they  merely  endeavour 
to  render  a  httle  less  complicated.  Thus  Holsten,  for 
whom  the  vision  of  Christ  is  only  the  conclusion  of  a 
series  of  syllogisms  by  which  Paul  persuaded  himself 
that  Christ  was  truly  risen.  So  also  Pfleiderer,  who 
however,  causes  the  imagination  to  play  a  more  influ- 
ential part:  "An  excitable,  nervous  temperament;  a 
soul  that  had  been  violently  agitated  and  torn  by  the 
most  terrible  doubts;  a  most  vivid  phantasy,  occupied 
with  the  awful  scenes  of  persecution  on  the  one  hand, 
and  on  the  other  by  the  ideal  image  of  the  celestial 
Christ ;  in  addition  the  nearness  of  Damascus  with  the 
urgency  of  a  decision,  the  lonely  stillness,  the  scorch- 
ing and  blinding  heat  of  the  desert — in  fact  every- 
thing combined  to  produce  one  of  those  ecstatic  states 
in  wliich  the  soul  believes  that  it  sees  those  images  and 
conceptions  which  violently  agitate  it  as  if  they  were 
phenomena  proceeding  from  the  outward  world" 
(Lectures  on  the  influence  of  the  Apostle  Paul  on  the 
development  of  Christianity,  1897,  43).  We  have 
quoted  Pflciderer's  words  at  length  because  his  "psy- 
chological" explanation  is  considered  the  best  ever 
devised.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  it  is  insufficient 
and  as  much  opposed  to  the  account  in  the  Acts  as  to 
the  express  testimony  of  St.  Paul  himself.  (1)  Paul  is 
certain  of  having  "seen"  Christ  as  did  the  other  Apos- 
tles (I  Cor.,  ix,  1);  he  declares  that  Christ  "appeared" 
to  him  (I  Cor.,  xv,  8)  as  He  appeared  to  Peter,  to 
James,  to  the  Twelve,  after  His  Resurrection.  (2)  He 
knows  that  his  conversion  is  not  the  fruit  of  his  reason- 
ing or  thoughts,  but  an  unforeseen,  sudden,  startling 
change,  due  to  all-powerful  grace  (Gal.,  i,  12-15;  I 
Cor.,  XV,  10).  (3)  He  is  wrongly  credited  with  doubts, 
perplexities,  fears,  remorse,  before  his  conversion.  He 
was  halted  by  Christ  when  his  fury  was  at  its  height 
(Acts,  ix,  1-2);  it  was  "through  zeal"  that  he  perse- 
cuted the  Church  (Phil.,  iii,  6),  and  he  obtained  mercy 
because  he  had  acted  "ignorantly  in  unbelief"  (I 
Tim.,  i,  13).  All  ex-planations,  psychological  or  other- 
wise, are  worthless  in  face  of  these  definite  assertions, 
for  all  suppose  that  it  was  Paul's  faith  in  Christ  which 
engendered  the  vision,  whereas  according  to  the  con- 
cordant testimony  of  the  Acts  and  the  Epistles  it  was 
the  actual  vision  of  Christ  which  engendered  faith. 

After  his  conversion,  his  baptism,  and  his  miracu- 
lous cure  Paul  set  about  preaching  to  the  Jews  (Acts, 
ix,  19-20).  He  afterwards  withdrew  to  Arabia — prob- 
ably to  the  region  south  of  Damascus  (Gal.,  i,  17), 
doubtless  less  to  preach  than  to  meditate  on  the  Scrip- 
tures. On  his  return  to  Damascus  the  intrigues  of  the 
Jews  forced  him  to  flee  by  night  (II  Cor.,  xi,  32-33; 
Acts,  ix,  23-25).  He  went  to  Jerusalem  to  see  Peter 
(Gal.,  i,  18),  but  remained  only  fifteen  days,  for  the 
snares  of  the  Greeks  threatened  his  life.  He  then  left 
for  Tarsus  and  is  lost  to  sight  for  five  or  six  years  (Acts, 
ix,  29-30;  Gal.,  i,  21).  Barnabas  went  in  search  of  him 
and  brought  him  to  Antioch  where  for  a  year  they 
worked  together  and  their  apostolate  was  most  fruit- 
ful (.\cts,  xi,  25-26).  Together  also  they  were  .sent  to 
Jerusalem  to  carry  alms  to  the  brethren  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  famine  predicted  by  Agabus  (Acts,  xi,  27- 
30).  They  do  not  .seem  to  have  found  the  Apostles 
there;  these  had  been  scattered  by  the  persecution  of 
Herod. 

C.  Apostolic  Career  of  Paul. — This  period  of  twelve 
years  (45-57)  was  the  most  active  and  fruitful  of  his 
life.  It  comprises  three  great  Apostolic  ex-peditions  of 
which  Antioch  was  in  each  instance  the  starting-point 
and  which  invariably  ended  in  a  visit  to  Jerusalem. 

(1)  First  mission  (Acts,  xiii,  1-xiv,  27). — Set  apart 
by  command  of  the  Holy  Ghost  for  the  special  evan- 


PAUL 


570 


PAUL 


gclization  of  the  Gentiles,  Barnabas  and  Saul  embark 
for  Cyprus,  preach  in  the  synagogue  of  Salaiiiina, 
cross  ilic  island  from  e:ist  to  west  (li)ul)lli's.s  followinf; 
the  southern  eoast,  and  reach  I'aphns.  tlic  rcsidrnce  t>f 
the  proconsul  Sergius  I'aulus,  wlu-rc  a  t^udden  change 
takes  place.  After  the  conversion  of  the  Roman  pro- 
consul, Saul,  suddenly  become  Paul,  is  invariably 
mentioned  before  Barnab;is  by  St.  Luke  and  mani- 
festly assumes  the  leadership  of  the  mission  which 
Harnab;is  h;ui  hitherto  directed.  The  results  of  this 
change  are  soon  evident.  I'aul,  doubtless  concluding 
that  Cvi)rus.  the  natural  dc])(>ndencv  of  Svria  and 
Cilicia.'woulil  emlirace  the  faitli  of  Clirist  wlien  these 
two  countries  should  be  Christian,  chose  Asia  IMinor 
as  the  field  of  his  apostolate  and  sailed  for  Perge  in 
Pamphylia,  eight  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Ce.s- 
trus.  It  was  then  that  John  Mark,  cousin  of  Barna- 
bas, dismayed  perhaps  by  the  daring  projects  of  the 
Apostle,  abandoned  the  expedition  and  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  while  Paul  and  Barnabas  laboured  alone 
among  the  rough  mountains  of  Pisidia.  which  were  in- 
fested by  brigands  and  crossed  by  frightful  precipices. 
Their  destination  was  the  Roman  colony  of  Antioch, 
situated  a  seven  days'  journey  from  Perge.  Here 
Paul  spoke  on  the  vocation  of  Israel  and  the  providen- 
tial sending  of  the  Messias,  a  discourse  which  St.  Luke 
reproduces  in  substance  as  an  example  of  his  preaching 
in  the  synagogues  (Acts,  xiii,  16-41).  The  sojourn  of 
the  tw'O  missionaries  in  Antioch  was  long  enough  for 
the  word  of  the  Lord  to  be  pubhshed  throughout  the 
whole  country  (Acts,  xiii,  49).  When  by  their  in- 
trigues the  Jews  had  obtained  against  them  a  decree  of 
banishment,  they  went  to  Iconium,  three  or  four  days 
distant,  where  they  met  with  the  same  persecution 
from  the  Jews  and  the  same  eager  welcome  from  the 
Gentiles.  The  hostility  of  the  Jews  forced  them  to 
take  refuge  in  the  Roman  colony  of  Lystra,  eighteen 
miles  distant.  Here  the  Jews  from  Antioch  and  Iconium 
laid  snares  for  Paul  and  having  stoned  him  left  him 
for  dead,  but  again  he  succeeded  in  escu|)ing  and  this 
time  sought  refuge  in  Derbe,  situated  about  forty  miles 
away  on  the  frontier  of  the  Province  of  Galatia.  Their 
circuit  completed,  the  missionaries  retraced  their  steps 
in  order  to  visit  their  neophytes,  ordained  priests  in 
each  Church  founded  by  them  at  such  great  cost,  and 
thus  reached  Perge  where  they  halted  to  preach  the 
Gospel,  perhaps  while  awaiting  an  opportunity  to  em- 
bark for  Attalia,  a  port  tnclve  miles  distant.  On  their 
return  to  Antioch  in  Syria  after  an  absence  of  at  least 
three  years,  they  were  recei\fil  with  transports  of  joy 
and  thanksgiving,  for  God  had  opened  the  door  of 
faith  to  the  Gentiles. 

The  problem  of  the  status  of  the  Gentiles  in  the 
Church  now  made  itself  felt  with  all  its  acuteness. 
Some  Judeo-Christians  coming  down  from  Jerusalem 
claimed  tliat  the  Gentiles  must  be  submitted  to  cir- 
cumcision and  treated  as  the  Jews  treatcil  proselytes. 
Against  this  Paul  and  Barnabas  protest rd  and  it  was 
decided  that  a  meeting  should  be  held  at  .Jerusalem  in 
order  to  solve  the  (luestion.  At  this  assembly  Paul 
and  Barnabas  represented  the  community  of  Antioch. 
Peter  pleaded  the  freedom  of  the  Gentiles;  James  up- 
held him.  at  the  same  time  dem.-inding  that  the  Gen- 
tiles .should  abstain  from  certain  things  which  espe- 
cially shocked  the  Jews.  It  w:i,s  derided,  fiist,  tliat  the 
Gentiles  W'cre  exempt  from  the  Mosaic  law.  Secondly, 
that  those  of  Syria  and  Cilicia  must  abstain  from 
things  sacrificed  to  idols,  from  blooil,  from  things 
strangled,  and  from  fornication.  Thirdly,  that  this 
injunction  was  laid  upon  them,  not  in  virtue  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  but  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  This 
meant  the  complete  triumph  of  Paul's  Ideas.  The  re- 
striction imposed  on  the  ( iintile  converts  of  Syria  and 
Cilicia  did  not  concern  his  Churches,  and  Titus,  his 
companion,  was  not  compelled  to  be  circumcised,  de- 
spite the  loud  protests  of  the  Judaizers  (Gal.,  ii,  3-4). 
Here  it  is  assumed  that  Gal.,  ii,  and  Acts,  xv,  relate  to 


the  same  fact,  for  the  actors  are  the  same,  Paul  and 
Barnabas  on  the  one  hand,  Peter  and  James  on  the 
other;  the  discussion  is  the  same,  the  question  of  the 
circumcision  of  the  Gentiles;  the  scenes  are  the  same, 
Antioch  and  Jerusalem;  the  date  is  the  same,  about 
A.  D.  50;  and  the  result  is  the  same,  Paul's  victory  over 
the  Judaizers.  However,  the  decision  of  Jerusalem  did 
not  do  away  with  all  ditlicidties.  The  (|Ucstion  did 
not  concern  only  the  Gentiles,  and  while  exempting 
them  from  the  Mosaic  law,  it  was  not  declared  that  it 
would  not  have  been  counted  meritorious  and  more 
perfect  for  them  to  observe  it.,  as  the  decree  seemed  to 
liken  them  to  Jewish  [jro.selytes  of  the  .second  class. 
Furthermore  the  Judco-Christians,  not  having  been 
included  in  the  verdict,  W(  re  still  free  to  consider  them- 
selves bounil  to  the  observance  of  the  law.  This  Was 
the  origin  of  thedisi]ute  which  shortly  afterwards  arose 
at  Antiocli  lietwei'u  Peter  am  I  I'aul.  The  latter  taught 
openly  that  the  law  was  abolished  for  the  Jews  them- 
selves. Peter  did  not  think  otherwise,  but  he  consid- 
ered it  wise  to  avoid  giving  offence  to  the  Judaizers 
and  to  refrain  from  eating  with  the  Gentiles  who  did 
not  observe  all  the  prescriptions  of  the  law.  As  he 
thus  morally  influenced  the  Gentiles  to  live  as  the 
Jews  did,  Paul  demonstrated  to  him  that  this  dissimu- 
lation or  opportuneness  prepared  the  way  for  future 
misunderstandings  and  conflicts  and  even  then  had 
regrettable  consequences.  His  manner  of  relating  this 
incident  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  Peter  was  per- 
suaded by  his  arguments  (Gal.,  ii,  11-20). 

(2)  Second  mission  (Acts,  xv,  36-xviii,  22). — The 
beginning  of  the  second  mission  was  marked  by  a 
rather  sharp  discussion  concerning  Mark,  whom  St. 
Paul  this  time  refused  to  accept  as  travelling  compan- 
ion. Consequently  Barnabas  set  out  with  Mark  for 
Cyprus  and  Paul  cho.se  Silas  or  Silvanus,  a  Roman 
citizen  like  himself,  and  an  influential  member  of  the 
Church  of  Jerusalem,  and  sent  by  it  to  Antioch  to 
deliver  the  decrees  of  the  Apostolic  council.  The  two 
missionaries  first  went  from  Antioch  to  Tarsus, 
stop])ing  on  the  way  in  order  to  promulgate  the  deci- 
sions of  the  Council  of  Jerusalem;  then  they  went  from 
Tansus  to  Derbe,  through  the  Cilician  Gates,  the  de- 
files of  Taurus,  and  the  jilains  of  Lycaonia.  The 
visitation  of  the  Churches  founded  during  his  first 
mission  passed  without  notable  incidents  excejjt  the 
choice  of  Timothy,  whom  the  ,\postle  while  in  Lystra 
persuaded  to  accompany  him,  and  whom  he  caused 
to  be  circumcised  in  order  to  facilitate  his  access  to  the 
Jews  who  were  numerous  in  those  jilaccs.  It  was 
probably  at  Antioch  of  Pisidia,  although  the  Acts 
do  not  mention  that  city,  that  the  itinerary  of  the 
mission  was  altered  by  the  intervention  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  Paul  thought  to  enter  the  Province  of  Asia 
by  the  valley  of  Meander  which  separated  it  by  only 
three  days'  journey,  but  they  passed  through  Phrygia 
and  t  he  country  of  Galatia,  having  been  forbidden  by 
the  Holy  Ghost  to  preach  the  word  of  God  in  Asia 
(.\cts,  xvi,  6).  These  words  (ttip  tppvylav  Koi  ToKaTiKrjii 
Xiipap)  are  variously  interpreted,  according  as  we 
take  them  to  mean  the  Galatians  of  the  north  or  of 
the  south  (see  Galatians).  Whatever  the  hypothe- 
sis, the  missionaries  had  to  travel  northwards  in  that 
portion  of  Galatia  properly  so  ealleil  of  which  Pcssi- 
nonte  was  the  capital,  and  the  only  (|ues(ion  is  as  to 
whether  or  not  they  preached  there.  They  did  not 
intend  to  do  so,  but  as  is  known  the  evangelization 
of  the  Galatians  was  due  to  an  accident,  namely  the 
illness  of  Paul  (Gal.,  iv,  13);  this  fits  very  well  for 
fialatians  in  the  north.  In  any  case  the  missionaries 
having  reached  the  upper  part  of  Mysia  (kot4  Mvirlav), 
attempted  to  enter  the  rich  Province  of  Bithynia 
which  lay  before  them,  but  the  Holy  Ghost  prevented, 
them  (Acts,  xvi,  7).  Therefore,  passing  through 
Mysia  without  stopping  to  preach  {vap^KBbvTes)  they 
reached  Alexandria  of  Troas,  where  God's  will  was 
again  made  known  to  them  in  the  vision  of  a  Macedo- 


PAUL 


571 


PAUL 


nian  who  called  them  to  come  and  help  his  country 
(Acts,  xvi,  9-10). 

Paul  continued  to  follow  on  European  soil  the 
method  of  preaching  he  had  employed  from  the  be- 
ginning. As  far  as  possible  he  concentrated  his 
efforts  in  a  metropolis  from  which  the  Faith  would 
spread  to  cities  of  second  rank  and  to  the  country 
districts.  Wherever  there  was  a  synagogue  he  first 
took  his  stand  there  and  preached  to  the  Jews  and 
proselytes  who  would  consent  to  listen  to  him.  When 
the  rupture  with  the  Jews  was  irreparable,  which 
always  happened  sooner  or  later,  he  founded  a  new 
Church  with  his  neophytes  as  a  nucleus.  He  remained 
in  the  same  city  until  persecution,  generally  aroused 
by  the  intrigues  of  the  Jews,  forced  him  to  retire. 
There  were,  however,  variations  of  this  plan.  At 
Philippi,  where  there  was  no  synagogue,  the  first 
preaching  took  place  in  the  uncovered  oratory  called 
the  proscuche,  which  the  Gentiles  made  a  reason  for 
stirring  up  the  persecution.  Paul  and  Silas,  charged 
with  disturbing  public  order,  were  beaten  with  rods, 
imprisoned,  and  finally  expelled.  But  at  Thessalo- 
nica  and  Berea,  whither  they  successively  repaired 
after  leaving  Philippi,  things  turned  out  almost  as 
they  had  planned.  The  apostolate  of  Athens  was 
quite  exceptional.  Here  there  was  no  question  of 
Jews  or  synagogue,  Paul,  contrary  to  his  custom,  was 
alone  (I  Thess.,  iii,  1),  and  he  delivered  before  the 
areopagus  a  specially  framed  discourse,  a  synopsis  of 
which  has  been  preserved  by  the  Acts  (xvii,  2.3-31)  as 
a  specimen  of  its  kind.  He  seems  to  have  left  the 
city  of  his  own  accord,  without  being  forced  to  do  so 
by  persecution.  The  mission  to  Corinth  on  the  other 
hand  may  be  considered  typical.  Paul  preached  in 
the  synagogue  every  Sabbath  day,  and  when  the 
violent  opposition  'of  the  Jews  denied  him  entrance 
there  he  withdrew  to  an  adjoining  house  which  was  the 
property  of  a  proselyte  named  Titus  Justus.  He  car- 
ried on  his  apostolate  in  this  manner  for  eighteen 
months,  while  the  Jews  vainly  stormed  against  him; 
he  was  able  to  withstand  them  owing  to  the  impartial, 
if  not  actually  favourable,  attitude  of  the  proconsul, 
Gallio.  Finally  he  decided  to  go  to  Jerusalem  in 
fulfillment  of  a  vow  made  perhaps  in  a  moment  of 
danger.  From  Jerusalem,  according  to  his  custom, 
he  returned  to  Antioch.  The  two  Epistles  to  the 
Thessalonians  were  written  during  the  early  months 
of  his  sojourn  at  Corinth.  For  occasion,  circum- 
stances, and  analysis  of  these  letters  see  Thessalo- 

NI.\NS. 

(3)  Third  mission  (Acts,  xviii,  23-xxi,  26).— Paul's 
destination  in  his  third  journey  was  obviously 
Ephesus.  There  Aquila  and  Priscilla  were  awaiting 
him,  he  had  promised  the  Ephesians  to  return  and 
evangelize  them  if  it  were  the  will  of  God  (Acts,  xviii, 
19-21),  and  the  Holy  Ghost  no  longer  opposed  his 
entry  into  Asia.  Therefore,  after  a  brief  rest  at 
Antioch  he  went  through  the  countries  of  Galatia 
and  Phrygia  (Acts,  xviii,  23)  and  passing  through  "the 
upper  regions"  of  Central  Asia  he  reached  Ephesus 
(xix,  1).  His  method  remained  the  same.  In  order 
to  earn  his  living  and  not  be  a  burden  to  the  faithful 
he  toiled  every  day  for  many  hours  at  making  tents, 
but  this  did  not  prevent  him  from  preaching  the  Gos- 
pel. As  usual  he  began  with  the  synagogue  where  he 
succeeded  in  remaining  for  three  months.  At  the 
end  of  this  time  he  taught  every  day  in  a  class-room 
placed  at  his  disposal  by  a  certain  Tyrannus  "from 
thi-  fifth  hour  to  the  tenth"  (from  eleven  in  the  morn- 
ing till  four  in  the  afternoon),  according  to  the  inter- 
esting addition  of  the  "Codex  Beza;"  (Acts,  xix,  9). 
This  lasted  two  years,  so  that  all  the  inhabitants  of 
Asia,  Jews  and  Greeks,  heard  the  word  of  the  Lord 
(Acts,  xix,  20). 

Naturally  there  were  trials  to  be  endured  and  obsta- 
cles to  be  overcome.  Some  of  these  obstacles  arose 
from  the  jealousy  of  the  Jews,  who  vainly  endeavoured 


to  imitate  Paul's  exorcisms,  others  from  the  super- 
stition of  the  pagans,  which  was  especially  rife  at 
Ephesus.  So  effectually  did  he  triumph  over  it,  how- 
ever, that  books  of  superstition  were  burned  to  the 
value  of  .50,000  pieces  of  silver  (about  $9000).  This 
time  the  persecution  was  due  to  the  Gentiles  and  in- 
spired by  a  motive  of  self-interest.  The  progress  of 
Christianity  having  ruined  the  sale  of  the  little  facsim- 
iles of  the  temple  of  Diana  and  statuettes  of  the  god- 
dess, which  devout  pilgrims  had  been  wont  to  pur- 
chase, a  certain  Demetrius,  at  the  head  of  the  guild 
of  silversmiths,  stirred  up  the  crowd  against  Paul. 
The  scene  which  then  transpired  in  the  theatre  is 
described  by  St.  Luke  with  memorable  vividness  and 
pathos  (Acts,  xix,  23-40).  The  Apostle  had  to  yield 
to  the  storm.  After  a  stay  at  Ephesus  of  two  years 
and  a  half,  perhaps  more  (Acts,  xx,  31:  Tpierlav),  he 
departed  for  Macedonia  and  thence  for  Corinth, 
where  he  spent  the  winter.  It  was  his  intention  in 
the  following  spring  to  go  by  sea  to  Jerusalem,  doubt- 
less for  the  Pasch;  but  learning  that  the  Jews  had 
planned  his  destruction,  he  did  not  wish,  by  going 
by  sea,  to  afford  them  an  opportunity  to  attempt  his 
life.  Therefore  he  returned  by  way  of  Macedonia. 
Numerous  disciples  divided  into  two  groups,  ac- 
companied him  or  awaited  him  at  Troas.  These 
were  Sopater  of  Berea,  Aristarchus  and  Secundus  of 
Thessalonica,  Gains  of  Derbe,  Timothy,  Tychicus 
and  Trojihiraus  of  Asia,  and  finally  Luke,  the  historian 
of  the  Acts,  who  gives  us  minutely  all  the  stages  of 
this  voyage:  Philippi,  Troas,  Assos,  Mitylene,  Chios, 
Samos,  ^Iiletus,  Cos,  Rhodes,  Patara,  Tyre,  Ptole- 
mais,  Ca-sarea,  Jerusalem.  Three  more  remarkable 
facts  should  be  noted  in  passing.  At  Troas  Paul 
resuscitated  the  young  Eutychus,  who  had  fallen  from 
a  third-story  window  while  Paul  was  preaching  late 
into  the  night.  At  Miletus  he  pronounced  before  the 
ancients  of  Ephesus  the  touching  farewell  discourse 
which  drew  many  tears  (Acts,  xx,  18-38).  At  Cse- 
sarea  the  Holy  Ghost  by  the  mouth  of  Agabus,  pre- 
dicted his  coming  arrest,  but  did  not  dissuade  him 
from  going  to  Jerusalem. 

St.  Paul's  four  great  Epistles  were  written  during 
this  third  mission:  the  first  to  the  Corinthians  from 
Ephesus,  about  the  time  of  the  Pasch  prior  to  his 
departure  from  that  city;  the  second  to  the  Corin- 
thians from  Macedonia,  during  the  summer  or  autumn 
of  the  same  year;  that  to  the  Romans  from  Corinth, 
in  the  following  spring;  the  date  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Galatians  is  disputed.  On  the  many  questions  oc- 
casioned by  the  despatch  and  the  language  of  these 
letters,  or  the  situation  assumed  either  on  the  side  of 
the  Apostle  or  his  correspondents,  see  Corinthians, 
Epistle  to  the;  Gal.\tians,  Epistle  to  the; 
RoMAN.s,  Epistle  to  the. 

D.  Caplivily  (Acts,  xxi,  27-xxviii,  31).— Falsely 
accused  by  the  Jews  of  having  brought  Gentiles  into 
the  Temple,  Paul  was  ill-treated  by  the  populace  and 
led  in  chains  to  the  fortress  Antonia  by  the  tribune 
Lysias.  The  latter  having  learned  that  the  Jews  had 
conspired  treacherously  to  slay  the  prisoner  sent  him 
under  strong  escort  to  Csesarea,  which  was  the  resi- 
dence of  the  jirocurator  Felix.  Paul  had  little  diffi- 
culty in  confomxling  his  accusers,  but  as  he  refused  to 
purchase  his  liberty  Felix  kept  him  in  chains  for  two 
years  and  even  left  him  in  prison,  in  order  to  please 
the  Jews,  until  the  arrival  of  his  successor,  Festus. 
The  new  governor  wished  to  send  the  prisoner  to 
Jerusalem  there  to  be  tried  in  the  presence  of  his 
accusers;  but  Paul,  whowas  acquainted  with  the  snares 
of  his  enemies,  appealed  to  Caesar.  Thenceforth  his 
cause  could  be  tried  only  at  Rome.  This  first  period 
of  captivity  is  characterized  by  five  discourses  of  the 
Apostle;  The  first  wa-s  delivered  in  Hebrew  on  the 
steps  of  the  Antonia  before  the  threatening  crowd; 
herein  Paul  rehates  his  conversion  and  vocation  to  the 
Apostolate,  but  he  was  interrupted  by  the  hostile 


PAUL 


572 


PAUL 


shouts  of  the  multitude  (Acts,  xxii,  1-22).  In  the 
serond,  deUvercd  the  next  day  before  the  Sanhedrin 
assembletl  at  the  command  of  Lysias,  the  Apo.stle 
skillfully  embroiled  the  Pharisees  with  the  Sadducees 
and  no  accusation  could  be  brought.  In  the  third, 
Paul,  answering  his  accuser  Tertullus  in  the  [jrc-sence 
of  the  Governor  Feli.x,  makes  known  the  facts  which 
had  been  distorted  and  proves  his  iimocence  (Acts, 
xxiv,  10-21).  The  fourth  discourse  is  merely  an  ex- 
planatory summarj'  of  the  Christian  Faith  delivered 
before  Felix  and  his  wife  Drusilla  (Acts,  xxiv,  24-25). 
The  fifth,  pronounced  before  the  Governor  Festus, 
King  .Vgrippa,  and  his  wife  Berenice,  again  relates  the 
history  of  Paul's  conversion,  and  is  left  unfinished 
owing  to  the  sarcastic  interruptions  of  the  governor 
and  the  embarrassed  attitude  of  the  king  (Acts,  xxvi). 

The  journey  of  the  captive  Paul  from  Ca;sarea  to 
Rome  is  described  by  St.  Luke  with  an  exactness  and 
vividness  of  colours  which  leave  nothing  to  be  desired. 
For  commentaries  see  Smith,  "Voyage  and  Ship- 
wreck of  St.  Paul"  (1866);  Ramsay,  "St.  Paul  the 
Traveller  and  Roman  Citizen"  (London,  1908).  The 
centurion  Julius  had  shipped  Paul  and  his  fellow-pris- 
oners on  a  merchant  vessel  on  board  which  Luke  and 
Aristarchus  were  able  to  take  passage.  As  the  season 
was  advanced  the  voyage  was  slow  and  difficult.  They 
skirted  the  coasts  of  Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Pamphylia. 
At  Myra  in  Lycia  the  prisoners  were  transferred  to  an 
Alexandrian  v-essel  bound  for  Italy,  but  the  winds  be- 
ing persistently  contrary  a  place  in  Crete  called  Good- 
havens  was  reached  with  great  difficulty  and  Paul  ad- 
vised that  they  should  spend  the  winter  there,  but  his 
advice  was  not  followed,  and  the  vessel  driven  by  the 
tempest  drifted  aimlessly  for  fourteen  whole  days, 
being  finally  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Malta.  The 
three  months  during  which  navigation  was  considered 
most  dangerous  were  spent  there,  but  with  the  first 
days  of  spring  all  haste  was  made  to  resume  the  voy- 
age. Paul  must  have  reached  Rome  some  time  in 
March.  "He  remained  two  whole  years  in  his  own 
hired  lodging  .  .  .  preaching  the  kingdom  of  God, 
and  teaching  the  things  which  concern  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  with  all  confidence,  without  prohibition" 
(Acts,  xxviii,  30-31).  With  these  words  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  conclude. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  Paul's  trial  terminated  in  a 
sentence  of  acquittal,  for  (1 )  the  report  of  the  Governor 
Festus  was  certainly  favourable  as  well  as  that  of  the 
centurion.  (2)  The  Jews  seem  to  have  abandoned 
their  charge  since  their  co-religionists  in  Rome  were  not 
informed  of  it  (Acts,  xxviii,  21).  (3)  The  course  of  the 
proceedings  led  Paul  to  hope  for  a  release,  of  which  he 
sometimes  speaks  as  of  a  certainty  (Phil.,  i,  2.5;  ii,  24; 
Philem.,  22).  (4)  The  pastorals  if  they  are  authentic 
assume  a  period  of  activity  for  Paul  subsequent  to  his 
captivity.  The  same  conclusion  is  drawn  from  the 
hypothesis  that  they  are  not  authentic,  for  all  agree 
that  the  author  was  well  acquainted  with  the  life  of 
the  Apostle.  It  is  the  almost  unanimous  opinion  that 
the  so-called  Epistles  of  the  captivity  were  sent  from 
Rome.  Some  authors  have  attempted  to  prove  that 
St.  Paul  wrote  them  during  his  detention  at  Cajsarea, 
but  they  have  found  few  to  agree  with  them.  The 
Epistles  to  the  Colossians,  the  Ephesians,  and  Phile- 
mon were  despatched  together  and  by  the  same  messen- 
ger, Tychicus.  It  is  a  matter  of  controversy  whether 
the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  was  prior  or  subsequent 
to  these,  and  the  question  has  not  been  answered  by 
decisive  arguments  (see  Philippians,  Epistle  to  the; 

EPHESIAN.S,    EpLSTLB    TO   THE;    CoLOSSIANS,    EpiSTLE 

TO  the;  Philemon,  Epistle  to). 

E.  Last  Years. — This  period  is  wrapped  in  deep  ob- 
scurity for,  lacking  the  account  of  the  Acts,  we  have 
no  guide  save  an  often  uncertain  tradition  and  the 
brief  references  of  the  Pastoral  epistles.  Paul  had 
long  cherished  the  desire  to  go  to  Spain  (Rom.,  xv,  24, 
28)  and  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  was  led  to  change 


his  plan.  When  towards  the  end  of  his  cai)tivity  he 
announces  his  coming  to  Philemon  (22)  and  to  the 
Philippians  (ii,  23-24),  he  docs  not  seem  to  regard  this 
visit  as  immediate  since  he  promises  tli(>  Philippians  to 
send  them  a  messenger  as  .souii  as  he  learns  the  issue  of 
his  trial;  he  therefore  plans  anolher  journey  before  hia 
return  to  the  East.  Finally,  not.  to  mention  the  later 
testimony  of  St.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  St.  Kpiphanius, 
St.  Jerome,  St.  Chrysostom,  and  Theodoret,  the  well- 
known  text  of  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  the  witness  of  the 
"Muratorian  Canon",  and  of  the  "ActaPauli"  render 
probable  Paul's  journey  to  Spain.  In  any  case  he  can 
not  have  remained  there  long,  for  he  was  in  haste  to 
revisit  his  Churches  in  the  East.  He  may  have  re- 
turned from  Spain  through  southern  Gaul  if  it  was 
thither,  as  some  Fathers  have  thought,  and  not  to 
Galatia,  that  Crescens  was  sent  later  (II  Tim.,  iv,  10). 
We  may  readily  believe  that  he  afterwards  kept  the 
promise  made  to  his  friend  Philemon  and  that  on  this 
occasion  he  visited  the  churches  of  the  valley  of  Ly- 
cus,  Laodicea,  Colossus,  and  Hicrapolis. 

The  itinerary  now  becomes  very  uncertain,  but  the 
following  facts  seem  indicatetl  by  the  Pastorals :  Paul 
remained  in  Crete  exactly  long  enough  to  found  there 
new  churches,  the  care  and  organization  of  which  he 
confided  to  his  fellow-worker  Titus  (Tit.,  i,  5).  He 
then  went  to  Ephesus,  and  besought  Timothy,  who 
was  already  there,  to  remain  until  his  return  while  he 
proceeded  to  Macedonia  (I  Tim.,  i,  3).  On  this  occa- 
sion he  paid  his  promised  visit  to  the  Philippians 
(Phil.,  ii,  24),  and  naturally  also  saw  the  Thessalo- 
nians.  The  letter  to  Titus  and  the  First  Epistle  to 
Timothy  must  date  from  this  period;  they  seem  to 
have  been  written  about  the  same  time  and  shortly 
after  the  departure  from  Ephesus.  The  cjuestion  is 
whether  they  were  sent  from  Macedonia  or,  which 
seems  more  probable,  from  Corinth.  The  Apostle  in- 
structs Titus  to  join  him  at  Nicopolis  of  Epirus  where 
he  intends  to  spend  the  winter  (Titus,  iii,  12).  In  the 
following  spring  he  must  have  carried  out  his  plan  to 
return  to  Asia  (I  Tim.,  iii,  14-15).  Here  occurred  the 
obscure  episode  of  his  arrest,  which  probably  took 
place  at  Troas;  this  would  explain  his  having  left  with 
Carpus  a  cloak  and  books  which  he  needed  (II  Tim., 
iv,  13).  He  was  taken  from  there  to  Ephesus,  capital 
of  the  Province  of  Asia,  where  he  was  deserted  by  all 
those  on  whom  he  thought  he  could  rely  (II  Tim.,  i, 
15).  Being  sent  to  Rome  for  trial  he  left  Trophimua 
sick  at  Miletus,  and  Erastus,  another  of  his  compan- 
ions, remained  at  Corinth,  for  what  reason  is  not 
known  (II  Tim.,  iv,  20).  When  Paul  wrote  his  Second 
Epistle  to  Timothy  from  Rome  he  felt  that  all  human 
hope  was  lost  (iv,  6) ;  he  begs  his  disciple  to  rejoin  him 
as  quickly  as  possible,  for  he  is  alone  w  ith  Luke.  We 
do  not  know  if  Timothy  was  able  to  reach  Rome  before 
the  death  of  the  Apostle. 

Ancient  tradition  makes  it  possible  to  establish  the 
following  points:  (1)  Paul  suffered  martyrdom  near 
Rome  at  a  place  called  Aqua-  Sal\ia>  (now  Tre  Fon- 
tane),  somewhat  east  of  the  Ostian  Way,  about  two 
miles  from  the  splendid  Basilica  of  San  Paolo  fuori  le 
mura  which  marks  his  burial  place.  (2)  The  martyrdom 
took  place  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Nero,  in  the 
twelfth  year  (St.  Epiphanius),  the  thirteenth  (Eutha- 
lius),  or  the  fourteenth  (St.  Jerome).  (3)  According  to 
the  mo.st  common  opinion,  Paul  suffered  in  the  same 
year  and  on  the  same  day  as  Peter;  several  Latin  Fa- 
thers contend  that  it  was  on  the  same  day  but  not  in  the 
same  year;  the  oldest  witness,  St.  Dionysius  the  Co- 
rinthian, says  only  <o''a  tJ;-  aiirbv  Kaip6v,  wiiich  may  be 
translated  "at  the  same  time"  or  "about  the  same 
time".  (4)  From  time  immemorial  the  solemnity  of 
the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul  has  been  celebrated  on  29 
June,  which  is  the  anniversary  either  of  their  death  or 
of  the  translation  of  their  relics.  Formerly  the  pope, 
after  having  pontificated  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter, 
went  with  his  attendants  to  that  of  St.  Paul,  but  the 


■ 

^^^ 

1 

^^^K^z^^.'.' ' 

W^W^^^^^^^ 

IJH 

^^^^r--\. 

^^^Sfc^^^^^B 

"^^'•^■•■.^ 

^^^li. 

-V] 

ST.   PAUL 

BIBEKA  (SPAGNOLBTTO),   THE   PRADO,   MADRID 


PAUL 


573 


PAUL 


distance  between  the  two  basilicas  (about  five  miles) 
rendered  the  double  ceremony  too  exhausting,  espe- 
cially at  that  season  of  the  year.  Thus  arose  the  pre- 
vailing custom  of  transferring  to  the  next  day  (30 
June)  the  Commemoration  of  St.  Paul.  The  feast  of 
the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul  (2.5  January)  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin.  There  is  reason  for  believing 
that  the  day  was  first  observed  to  mark  the  translation 
of  the  relics  of  St.  Paul  at  Rome,  for  so  it  appears  in 
the  Hieronymian  Martyrology.  It  is  unknown  to  the 
Greek  Church  (Dowden,  "The  Church  Year  and 
Kalendar",  Cambridge,  1910,  69;  cf.  Duchesne,  "Ori- 
gines  du  culte  Chretien",  Paris,  1898,  265-72;  Mc- 
Clure,  "Christian  Worship",  London,  1903,  277-81). 
F.  Physical  and  Moral  Portrait  of  St.  Paul. — We 
know  from  Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  VII,  18)  that  even 
in  his  time  there  existed  paintings  representing  Christ 
and  the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul.  Paul's  features 
have  been  preserved  in  three  ancient    monuments: 

(1)  A  diptych  which  dates  from  not  later  than  the 
fourth  century  (Lewin,  "The  Life  and  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul",  1874,  frontispiece  of  Vol.  I  and  Vol.  II,  210). 

(2)  A  large  medallion  found  in  the  cemetery  of  Domi- 
tilla,  representing  the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul  (Op. 
cit.,  II,  411).  (3)  A  glass  dish  in  the  British  Museum, 
depicting  the  same  Apostles  (Farrar,  "Life  and  Work 
of  St.  Paul",  1891,  896).  We  have  also  the  concor- 
dant descriptions  of  the  "Acta  Pauli  et  Thecla;",  of 
Pseudo-Lucian  in  Philopatris,  of  Malalas  (Chronogr., 
x),  and  of  Nicephorus  (Hist,  eccl..  Ill,  37).  Paul  was 
short  of  stature;  the  Pseudo-Chrysostom  calls  him  "the 
man  of  three  cubits  "  {ivdpuinos  Tpiinjxvs) ;  he  was  broad- 
shouldered,  somewhat  bald,  with  slightly  aquiline  nose, 
closely-knit  eyebrows,  thick,  greyish  beard,  fair  com- 
plexion, and  a  pleasing  and  affable  manner.  He  was 
afflicted  with  a  malady  which  is  difficult  to  diagnose 
(cf.  Menzies,  "St.  Paul's  Infirmity"  in  the  "Exposi- 
tory Times",  July  and  Sept.,  1904),  but  despite  this 
painful  and  humiliating  infirmity  (II  Cor.,  .xii,  7-9; 
Gal.,  iv,  13-14)  and  although  his  bearing  was  not  im- 
pressive (II  Cor.,  X,  10),  Paul  must  undoubtedly  have 
been  possessed  of  great  physical  strength  to  have  sus- 
tained so  long  such  superhuman  labours  (II  Cor.,  xi, 
23-29).  Pseudo-Chrysostom,  "In  princip.  apostol. 
Petrum  et  Paulum  "  (in  P.  G.,  LIX,  494-95),  considers 
(hat  he  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-eight  after  having 
served  the  Lord  for  thirty-five  years.  The  moral  por- 
trait is  more  difficult  to  draw  because  it  is  full  of  con- 
trasts. Its  elements  will  be  found:  in  Lewin,  op.  cit., 
II,  xi,  410-35  (Paul's  Person  and  Character);  in  Far- 
rar, Op.  cit..  Appendix,  Excursus  I;  and  especially 
in  Newman,  "Sermons  preached  on  Various  Occa- 
sions", vii,  viii. 

III.  Theology  op  St.  Paul.  —  A.  Paul  and 
Christ. — This  question  has  passed  through  two  dis- 
tinct phases.  According  to  the  principal  followers 
of  the  Tubingen  School,  the  Apostle  had  but  a  vague 
knowledge  of  the  life  and  teaching  of  the  historical 
Christ  and  even  disdained  such  knowledge  as  inferior 
and  useless.  Their  only  support  is  the  misinterpreted 
text:  "  Et  si  cognovimus  secundum  carnem  Christum, 
sed  nunc  jam  novimus"  (II  Cor.,  v,  16).  The  oppo- 
sition noted  in  this  text  is  not  between  the  historical 
and  the  glorified  Christ,  but  between  the  Messias 
such  as  the  unbelieving  Jews  represented  Him,  such 
perhaps  as  he  was  preached  by  certain  Judaizers,  and 
the  Messias  as  He  manifested  Himself  in  His  death  and 
Resurrection,  as  He  had  been  confes.sed  by  the  con- 
verted Paul.  It  is  neither  admissible  nor  probable 
that  Paul  would  be  uninterested  in  the  life  and  preach- 
ing of  Him,  Whom  he  loved  passionately.  Whom  he 
constantly  held  up  for  the  imitation  of  his  neophytes, 
and  Whose  spirit  he  boasted  of  having.  It  is  incred- 
ible that  he  would  not  question  on  this  subject  eye- 
witnesses, such  as  Barnabas,  Silas,  or  the  future  his- 
torians of  Christ,  Sts.  Mark  and  Luke,  with  whom  he 
was  so  long  associated.     Careful  examination  of  this 


subject  has  brought  out  the  three  following  conclu- 
sions concerning  which  there  is  now  general  agree- 
ment: (1)  There  are  in  St.  Paul  more  allusions  to  the 
life  and  teachings  of  Christ  than  would  be  suspected 
at  first  sight,  and  the  casual  way  in  which  they  are 
made  shows  that  the  Apostle  knew  more  on  the  subject 
than  he  had  the  occasion  or  the  wish  to  tell.  (2) 
These  allusions  are  more  frequent  in  St.  Paul  than 
in  all  the  other  writings  of  the  New  Testament,  except 
the  Gospels.  (3)  From  Apostolic  times  there  existed 
a  calechesis,  treating  among  other  things  the  life  and 
teachings  of  Christ,  and  as  all  neophytes  were  sup- 
posed to  possess  a  copy  it  was  not  necessary  to  refer 
thereto  save  occasionally  and  in  passing. 

The  second  phase  of  the  question  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  first.  The  same  theologians,  who 
maintain  that  Paul  was  indifferent  to  the  earthly  life 
and  teaching  of  Christ,  deliberately  exaggerate  his 
originality  and  influence.  According  to  them  Paul 
was  the  creator  of  theology,  the  founder  of  the  Church, 
the  preacher  of  asceticism,  the  defender  of  the  sacra- 
ments and  of  the  ecclesiastical  system,  the  opponent 
of  the  religion  of  love  and  liberty  which  Christ  came 
to  announce  to  the  world.  If,  to  do  him  honour,  he  is 
called  the  second  founder  of  Christianity,  this  must 
be  a  degenerate  and  altered  Christianity  since  it  was  at 
least  partially  opposed  to  the  primitive  Christianity. 
Paul  is  thus  made  responsible  for  every  antipathy  to 
modern  thought  in  traditional  Christianity.  This  is 
to  a  great  extent  the  origin  of  the  "Back  to  Christ" 
movement,  the  strange  wanderings  of  which  we  are  now 
witnessing.  The  chief  reason  for  returning  to  Christ 
is  to  escape  Paul,  the  originator  of  dogma,  the  theolo- 
gian of  the  faith.  The  cry  "Zuriick  zu  Jesu"  which 
has  resounded  in  Germany  for  thirty  years,  is  inspired 
by  the  ulterior  motive,  "Los  von  Paulus".  The 
problem  is:  Was  Paul's  relation  to  Christ  that  of  a 
disciple  to  his  master?  or  was  he  absolutely  auto- 
didactic,  independent  alikeof  the  Gospel  of  Christ  and 
the  preaching  of  the  Twelve?  It  must  be  admitted 
that  most  of  the  papers  published  shed  fittle  light 
on  the  subject.  However,  the  discussions  have  not 
been  useless,  for  they  have  shown  that  the  most  char- 
acteristic Pauline  doctrines,  such  as  justifying  faith, 
the  redeeming  death  of  Christ,  the  universality  of 
salvation,  are  in  accord  with  the  writings  of  the  first 
Apostles,  from  which  they  are  derived.  Jtilicher  in 
particular  has  pointed  out  that  Paul's  Christology, 
which  is  more  exalted  than  that  of  his  companions  in 
the  apostolate,  was  never  the  object  of  controversy, 
and  that  Paul  was  not  conscious  of  being  singular 
in  this  respect  from  the  other  heralds  of  the  Gospel. 
Cf.  Morgan,  "Back  to  Christ"  in  "Diet,  of  Christ 
and  the  Go.spels",  I,  61-67;  Sanday,  "Paul",  loc.  cit., 
II,  886-92;  Feine,  "Jesus  Christus  und  Paulus" 
(1902);  Goguel,  "L'apotre  Paul  et  J^sus-Christ " 
(Paris,  1904);  Jiihcher,  "Paulus  und  Jesus"  (1907). 

B.  The  Root  Idea  of  St.  Paid's  Theology. — Several 
modern  authors  consider  that  theodicy  is  at  the 
base,  centre,  and  summit  of  Pauline  theology.  "The 
apostle's  doctrine  is  theocentric,  not  in  reality  anthro- 
pocentric.  What  is  styled  his  'metaphysics'  holds 
for  Paul  the  immediate  and  sovereign  fact  of  the 
universe;  God,  as  he  conceives  Him,  is  all  in  all  to 
his  reason  and  heart  alike"  (Findlay  in  Hastings, 
"Diet,  of  the  Bible",  III,  718).  Stevens  begins  the 
exposition  of  his  "Paufine  Theology"  with  a  chapter 
entitled  "The  doctrine  of  God".  Sabatier  (L'apotre 
Paul,  1896,  297)  also  considers  that  "the  last  word 
of  Pauline  theology  is:  God  all  in  all",  and  he  makes 
the  idea  of  God  the  crown  of  Paul's  theological  edifice. 
But  these  authors  have  not  reflected  that  though  the 
idea  of  God  occupies  so  large  a  place  in  the  teaching 
of  the  Apostle,  whose  thought  is  deeply  religious  like 
that  of  all  his  compatriots,  it  is  not  characteristic 
of  him,  nor  does  it  distinguish  him  from  his  compan- 
ions in  the  apostolate  nor  even  from  contemporary 


PAXTL 


574 


PAUL 


Jews.  Many  modem  Protestant  theolopcians,  es- 
pecially among  the  more  or  less  faithful  followers  of 
the  Tiihingon  School,  maintain  tliat  Paul's  dortrino 
is  "anthropocoiitric",  that  it  starts  from  his  coiiccp- 
tion  of  man's  inability  to  fulfil  the  law  of  (iod  without 
the  help  of  grace  to  such  an  extent  that  h("  is  a  slavj! 
of  sin  and  must  wage  war  against  the  flesh.  But  if 
this  be  the  genesis  of  Paul's  idea  it  is  astonishing  that 
he  enunciates  it  only  in  one  chapter  (Rom.,  vii),  the 
sense  of  which  is  controverted,  so  that  if  this  chapter 
had  not  been  written,  or  if  it  had  been  lost,  we  would 
have  no  means  of  recovering  the  key  to  his  teaching. 
However,  most  modern  theologians  now  agree  that 
St.  Paul's  doctrine  is  Christocentric,  that  it  is  at  base 
asoteriology,  notfrom  a  subjective  standpoint,  accord- 
ing tothe  ancient  prejudice  of  the  foinideisof  Protest- 
antism who  madejustification  by  faith  the  quintessence 
of  Paulinism,  but  from  the  objective  standpoint,  em- 
bracing in  a  wide  synthesis  the  person  and  work  of  the 
Redeemer.  This  may  be  proved  empirically  by  the 
statement  that  everything  in  St.  Paul  converges 
towards  Jesus  Christ,  so  much  so,  that  abstracting 
from  Jesus  Christ  it  becomes,  whether  taken  collec- 
tively or  in  detail,  absolutely  incomprehensible.  This 
is  proved  also  by  demonstrating  that  what  Paul  calls 
his  Gospel  is  the  salvation  of  all  men  through  Christ 
and  in  Christ.  This  is  the  standpoint  of  the  following 
rapid  analysis: 

C.  Humanity  xvilhoul  Christ. — The  first  three  chap- 
ters of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  shows  us  human 
nature  wholly  under  the  dominion  of  sin.  Neither 
Gentiles  nor  Jews  had  withstood  the  torrent  of  evil. 
The  Mosaic  Law  was  a  futile  barrier  because  it  pre- 
scribed good  without  imparting  the  strength  to  do  it. 
The  Apostle  arrives  at  this  mournful  conclusion: 
"There  is  no  distinction  [between  Jew  and  Gentile]: 
for  all  have  sinned,  and  do  need  the  glory  of  God" 
(Rom.,  iii,  22-23).  He  subsequently  leads  us  back 
to  the  hi.storical  cause  of  this  disorder:  "By  one  man 
sin  entered  into  this  world,  and  by  sin  death;  and 
so  death  passed  upon  all  men,  in  whom  all  have 
sinned"  (Rom.,  v,  12).  This  man  is  obviously  Adam, 
the  sin  which  he  brought  into  the  world  is  not  only 
his  personal  sin,  but  a  predominating  sin  which  en- 
tered into  all  men  and  left  in  them  the  seed  of 
death:  "All  sinned  when  Adam  sinned;  all  sinned  in 
and  with  his  sin"  (Stevens,  "Pauline  Theology", 
129).  It  remains  to  be  seen  how  original  sin  which 
is  our  lot  by  natural  generation,  manifests  itself 
outwardly  and  becomes  the  source  of  actual  sins. 
This  Paul  teaches  us  in  chap,  vii,  where  describing 
the  contest  between  the  Law  assisted  by  reason  and 
human  nature  weakened  by  the  flesh  and  the  tendency 
to  evil,  he  represents  nature  as  inevitably  vanquished: 
"For  I  am  delighted  with  the  law  of  God,  according 
to  the  inward  man:  But  I  sec  another  law  in  my  mem- 
bers fighting  against  the  law  of  my  mind,  and  captivat- 
ing me  in  the  law^  of  sin"  (Rom.,  vii,  22-2.3).  This 
does  not  mean  that  the  organism,  the  material  sub- 
stratum, is  evil  in  itself,  as  some  theologians  of  the 
Tubingen  School  have  claimed,  for  the  flesh  of  Christ, 
which  was  like  unto  ours,  was  exempt  from  sin,  and 
the  Apostle  wishes  that  our  bodies,  which  are  des- 
tined to  rise  again,  be  preserved  free  from  stain. 
The  relation  between  sin  and  the  flesh  is  neither  in- 
herent nor  necessarj';  it  is  accidental,  determined  by 
an  historical  fact,  and  capable  of  disappearing  through 
the  intervention  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  but  it  is  none  the 
less  true  that  it  is  not  in  our  power  to  overcome  it 
unaided  anrl  that  fallen  man  had  need  of  a  Saviour. 

Yet  God  did  not  abandon  sinful  man.  He  contin- 
ued to  manifest  Him.self  through  this  visible  world 
(Rom.,  i,  19-20),  through  the  light  of  conscience 
(Rom.,  ii,  14-1.5),  and  finally  through  His  ever  active 
and  paternally  benevolent  Providence  (.Acts,  xiv,  16; 
xvii,  26).  Furthermore,  in  His  untiring  mercy.  He 
"will  have  all  men  to  be  saved,  and  to  come  to  the 


knowledge  of  the  truth"  (I  Tim.,  ii,  4).  This  will  is 
necessarily  subsequent  to  original  sin  since  it  concerns 
man  as  he  is  at  present.  According  to  His  merciful 
designs  (!o<l  leads  man  step  by  step  to  salvation.  To 
the  Patriarchs,  and  especially  to  Abraham,  He  gave 
his  free  and  generous  promise,  confirmed  by  oath 
(Rom.,  iv,  13-20;  (!al.,  iii,  15-18),  which  anticipated 
the  Gospel.  To  Moses  He  gave  His  Law,  the  obser- 
vation of  which  should  be  a  means  of  salvation  (Rom., 
vii,  10;  X,  5),  and  which,  even  when  violated,  as  it  was 
in  reality,  was  no  less  a  guide  leading  to  Christ  (Gal., 
iii,  24)  and  an  instrument  of  mercy  in  the  hands  of 
God.  The  Law  was  a  mere  interlude  until  such  time 
as  humanity  should  be  ripe  for  a  complete  revelation 
(Gal.,  iv,  1-7).  In  fact  the  Law  brought  nothing  to 
perfection  (Heb.,  vii,  19);  it  heightened  the  offence 
(Gal.,  iii,  19;  Rom.,  v,  20),  and  thus  provoked  the 
Divine  wrath  (Rom.,  iv,  15).  But  good  will  arise  from 
the  excess  of  evil  and  "the  Scripture  hath  concluded 
all  under  sin,  that  the  promise,  by  the  faith  of  Jesus 
Chri.st,  might  be  given  to  them  that  believe"  (Gal., 
iii,  22).  This  would  be  fulfilled  in  the  "fulness  of  the 
time"  (Gal.  iv,  4;  Eph.,  i,  10),  that  is,  at  the  time  set 
by  God  for  the  execution  of  His  merciful  designs,  when 
man's  helplessness  should  have  been  well  manifested. 
Then  "God  sent  his  Son,  made  of  a  woman,  made 
under  the  law:  that  he  might  redeem  them  who  were 
under  the  law:  that  we  might  receive  the  adoption  of 
sons"  (Gal.,  iv,  4). 

D.  The  Person  of  the  Redeemer. — Nearly  all  state- 
ments relating  to  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ  bear  either 
directly  or  indirectly  on  His  role  as  Saviour.  With  St. 
Paul  Christology  is  a  function  of  soteriology.  How- 
ever broad  these  outlines,  they  show  us  the  faithful 
image  of  Christ  in  His  pre-existence,  in  His  histori- 
cal existence,  and  in  His  glorified  fife  (see  F.  Prat, 
"Theologie  de  Saint  Paul"). 

(1)  Christ  in  His  pre-existence. — (a)  Christ  is  of  an 
order  superior  to  all  created  beings  (Eph.,  i,  21);  He 
is  the  Creator  and  Preserver  of  the  World  (Col.,  i,  16- 
17);  all  is  by  Him,  in  Him,  and  for  Him  (Col.,  i,  16). 
(b)  Christ  is  the  image  of  the  in\'isible  Father  (II  Cor., 
iv,  4;  Col.,  i,  15);  He  is  the  Son  of  God,  but  unlike 
other  sons  is  so  in  an  incommunicable  manner;  He  is 
the  Son,  the  own  Son,  the  well-Beloved,  and  this  He 
has  always  been  (II  Cor.,  i,  19;  Rom.,  viii,  3,  32;  Col., 
i,  13;  Eph.,  i,  6;  etc.).  (c)  Christ  is  the  object  of  the 
doxologies  reserved  for  God  (II  Tim.,  iv,  18;  Rom., 
xvi,  27);  He  is  prayed  to  as  the  equal  of  the  Father  (II 
Cor.,  xii,  8-9;  Rom.,  x,  12;  I  Cor.,  i,  2);  gifts  are  asked 
of  Him  which  it  is  in  the  power  of  God  alone  to  grant, 
namely,  grace,  mercy,  salvation  (Rom.,  i,  7;  xvi,  20;  I 
Cor.,  i,  3;  xvi,  23;  etc.);  before  Him  every  knee  shall 
bow  in  heaven,  on  earth,  and  under  the  earth  (Phil., 
ii,  10),  as  every  head  inclines  in  adoration  of  the 
majesty  of  the  Most  High,  (d)  Christ  possesses  all  the 
Divine  attributes;  He  is  eternal,  since  He  is  the  "first 
born  of  every  creature"  and  exists  before  all  ages 
(Col.,  i,  15,  17);  He  is  immutable,  since  He  exists  "in 
the  form  of  God"  (Phil.,  ii,  6) ;  He  is  omnipotent,  since 
He  has  the  power  to  bring  forth  being  from  nothing- 
ness (Col.,i,  16);  Heisimmense,  since  He  fills  all  things 
with  His  plenitude  (Eph.,  iv,  10;  Col.,  ii,  10);  He  is 
infinite,  since  "the  fulness  of  the  Godhead  dwells  in 
Him"  (Col.,  ii,  9).  All  that  is  the  special  property  of 
God  belongs  of  right  to  Him ;  the  judgment  seat  of  God 
is  the  judgment  seat  of  Christ  (Rom.,  xiv,  10;  II  Cor., 
v,  10);  the  Gospel  of  God  is  the  Gospel  of  Christ 
(Rom.,  i,  1,  9;  xv,  16,  19,  etc.);  the  Church  of  God  is 
the  Church  of  Christ  (I  Cor.,  i,  2  and  Rom.,  xvi,  16 
sqq.) ;  the  Kingdom  of  God  is  the  Kingdom  of  Christ 
(Eph.,  v,  5),  the  Spirit  of  God  is  the  Spirit  of  Christ 
(Rom.,  viii,  9  sqq.).  (e)  Christ  is  the  one  Lord  (I 
Cor.,  viii,  6);  He  is  identified  with  Jehov.ah  of  the  Old 
Covenant  (I  Cor.,  x,  4,  9;  Rom.,  x,  13;  of.  1  Cor.,  ii,  16; 
ix,  21);  He  is  the  God  who  has  purchased  the  church 
"with  his  own  blood"  (Acts,  xx,  28);  He  is  our  "great 


PAUI. 


575 


PAUL 


God  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ "  (Tit.,  ii,  13) ;  He  is  the 
"  God  over  all  things"  (Rom.,  ix,  5),  effacing  by  His  in- 
finite transcendency  the  sura  and  substance  of  created 
things. 

(2)  Jesus  Christ  as  Man. — The  other  aspect  of  the 
figure  of  Christ  is  drawn  with  no  less  firm  a  hand. 
Jesus  Christ  is  the  second  Adam  (Rom.,  v,  14;  I  Cor., 
XV,  45-49);  "the  mediator  of  God  and  men"  (I  Tim., 
ii,  5),  and  as  such  He  must  necessarily  be  man  {SifBpuwo! 
XpiffTJs  'lT}(roOs) .  So  He  is  the  descendant  of  the  Patri- 
archs (Rom.,  ix,  5;  Gal.,  iii,  16),  He  is  "of  the  seed  of 
David,  according  to  the  flesh"  (Rom.,  i,  3),  "born  of  a 
woman"  (Gal.,  iv,  4),  like  all  men;  finally.  He  is 
known  as  a  man  by  His  appearance,  which  is  exactly 
similar  to  that  of  men  (Phil.,  ii,  7),  save  for  sin,  which 
He  did  not  and  could  not  know  (II  Cor.,  v,  21).  When 
St.  Paul  says  that  "God  sent  His  Son  in  the  likeness 
of  sinful  flesh"  (Rom.,  viii,  3),  he  does  not  mean  to 
deny  the  reality  of  Christ's  flesh,  but  excludes  only 
sinful  flesh. 

Nowhere  does  the  Apostle  explain  how  the  union  of 
the  Divine  and  the  human  natures  is  accomplished  in 
Christ,  being  content  to  affirm  that  He  who  was  "in 
the  form  of  God  "  took  "the  form  of  a  servant "  (Phil., 
ii,  6-7),  or  he  states  the  Incarnation  in  this  laconic 
formula:  "For  in  him  dwelleth  all  the  fulness  of  the 
Godhead  corporeally"  (Col.,  ii,  9).  What  we  see 
clearly  is  that  there  is  in  Christ  a  single  Person  to 
whom  are  attributed,  often  in  the  same  sentence,  qual- 
ities proper  to  the  Divine  and  the  human  nature,  to 
the  pre-existence,  the  historical  existence,  and  the 
glorified  life  (Col.,  i,  15-19;  Phil.,  ii,  5-11;  etc.).  The 
theological  explanation  of  the  mystery  has  given  rise 
to  numerous  errors.  Denial  was  made  of  one  of  the 
natures,  either  the  human  (Docetism),  or  the  Divine 
(Arianism),  or  the  two  natures  were  considered  to  be 
united  in  a  purely  accidental  manner  so  as  to  produce 
two  persons  (Nestorianism),  or  the  two  natures  were 
merged  into  one  (Monophysitism),  or  on  pretext  of 
uniting  them  in  one  person  the  heretics  mutilated 
either  the  human  nature  (Apollinarianism),  or  the 
Divine,  according  to  the  strange  modern  heresy  known 
as  Kenosis. 

The  last-mentioned  requires  a  brief  treatment,  as  it 
is  based  on  a  saying  of  St.  Paul  "  Being  in  the  form  of 
God  .  .  .  emptied  himself  {iKivaatv  iavrbv,  hence 
K{vw(7ks)  taking  the  form  of  a  servant"  (Phil.,  ii,  6-7). 
Contrary  to  the  common  opinion,  Luther  applied  these 
words  not  to  the  Word,  but  to  Christ,  the  Incarnate 
Word.  Moreover  he  understood  the  communicalio 
ididniiiliitn  as  a  real  (lo.ssession  by  each  of  the  two  na- 
turrs  (if  I  he  alt  iilmti's  of  the  other.  According  to  this 
the  Imiiiaii  iialurc  of  Christ  would  possess  the  Divine 
attributes  of  uljiquity,  omniscience,  and  omnipotence. 
There  are  two  systems  among  Lutheran  theologians, 
one  asserting  that  the  human  nature  of  Christ  was  vol- 
unatrily  stripped  of  thcise  attriliutes  (K^fiairts),  the 
other  that  they  were  hidden  during  His  mortal  exist- 
ence (KpwpLs).  In  modern  times  the  doctrine  of  Ke- 
nosis. while  still  n'stricted  to  Luthern  theology,  has 
comjjlctily  changi'd  its  opinions.  Starting  with  the 
philo.s()])hi(al  idea  that  "personality"  is  idcn  tilled  with 
"consciousness",  it  is  maintained  that  where  there  is 
only  one  person  there  can  be  only  one  consciousness; 
but  since  the  consciousness,  of  Christ  was  a  truly  hu- 
man consciousness,  the  Divine  consciousness  must  of 
necessity  have  ceased  to  exist  or  act  in  Him.  Accord- 
ing to  Thomasius,  the  theorist  of  the  system,  the  Son 
of  God  was  stripjK-d,  not  after  the  Incarnation,  as 
Luther  asserted,  but  by  the  very  fact  of  the  Incarna- 
tion, and  what  rendered  possible  the  union  of  the 
Logos  with  the  humanity  was  the  faculty  possessed  by 
the  Divinity  to  limit  itself  both  as  to  being  and  activ- 
ity. The  other  partisans  of  the  system  express  them- 
selves in  a  similar  manner.  Gess,  for  instance,  says 
that  in  Jesus  Christ  the  Divine  ego  is  changed  into 
the  human  ego.    When  it  is  objected  that  God  is  im- 


mutable, that  He  can  neither  cease  to  be,  nor  limit 
Himself,  nor  transform  Himself,  they  reply  that  this 
reasoning  is  on  metaphysical  hypotheses  and  concepts 
without  reality.  (For  the  various  forms  of  Kenosis 
see  Bruce,  "The  Humiliation  of  Christ",  p.  136.) 

All  these  systems  are  merely  variations  of  Mono- 
physitism. Unconsciously  they  assume  that  there  is 
in  Christ  but  a  single  nature  as  there  is  but  a  single  per- 
son. According  to  the  Catholic  doctrine,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  union  of  the  two  natures  in  a  single  person 
involves  no  change  in  the  Divine  nature  and  need  in- 
volve no  physical  change  of  the  human  nature  of 
Christ.  Without  doubt  Christ  is  the  Son  and  is  mor- 
ally entitled  even  as  man  to  the  goods  of  His  Father, 
viz.  the  immediate  vision  of  God,  eternal  beatitude, 
the  state  of  glory.  He  is  temporarily  deprived  of  a 
portion  of  these  goods  in  order  that  he  may  fulfil  His 
mission  as  Redeemer.  This  is  the  abasement,  the  an- 
nihilation, of  which  St.  Paul  speaks,  but  it  is  a  totally 
different  thing  from  the  Kenosis  as  described  above. 

E.  The  Objective  Redemption  as  the  Work  of  Christ. — 
We  have  seen  that  fallen  man  being  unable  to  arise 
again  unaided,  God  in  His  mercy  sent  His  Son  to  save 
him.  It  is  an  elementary  and  often  repeated  doctrine 
of  St.  Paul  that  Jesus  Christ  saves  us  through  the 
Cross,  that  we  are  "justified  by  his  blood",  that  "we 
were  reconciled  to  God  by  the  death  of  his  Son  "  (Rom., 
V,  9-10).  What  endowed  the  blood  of  Christ,  His 
death,  Hi3  Cross,  with  this  redeeming  virtue?  Paul 
never  answers  this  question  directly,  but  he  shows  us 
the  drama  of  Calvary  under  three  aspects,  which 
there  is  danger  in  separating  and  which  are  better 
understood  when  compared :  (a)  at  one  time  the  death 
of  Christ  is  a  sacrifice  intended,  like  the  sacrifice  of  the 
Old  Law,  to  expiate  sin  and  propitiate  God.  Cf. 
Sanday  and  Headlam,  "Romans",  91-94,  "Thedeath 
of  Christ  considered  as  a  sacrifice".  "It  is  impossible 
from  this  passage  (Rom.,  iii,  25)  to  get  rid  of  the 
double  idea:  (1)  of  a  sacrifice;  (2)  of  a  sacrifice  which 
is  propitiatory  .  .  .  Quite  apart  from  this  passage 
it  is  not  difficult  to  prove  that  these  two  ideas  of 
sacrifice  and  propitiation  lie  at  the  root  of  the  teaching 
not  only  of  St.  Paul  but  of  the  New  Testament  gen- 
erally." The  double  danger  of  this  idea  is,  first,  to 
wish  to  apply  to  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  all  the  mode  of 
action,  real  or  supposed,  of  the  imperfect  sacrifices 
of  the  Old  Law;  and,  second,  to  believe  that  God 
is  appeased  by  a  sort  of  magical  effect,  in  virtue 
of  this  sacrifice,  whereas  on  the  contrary  it  was 
He  Who  took  the  initiative  of  mercy,  instituted  the 
sacrifice  of  Calvary,  and  endowed  it  with  its  ex- 
piatory value,  (b)  At  another  time  the  death  of 
Christ  is  represented  as  a  redemption,  the  payment 
of  a  ransom,  as  the  result  of  which  man  was  deliv- 
ered from  all  his  past  servitude  (I  Cor.,  vi,  20; 
vii,  23  [ri/i^s  fiyopiadriTe];  Gal.,  iii,  13;  iv,  5  (fra  roils 
ivi  vbpov  il,ayop6.(TTa]\  Rom.,  iii,  24;  I  Cor.,  i,  30;  Eph., 
i,7, 14;  Col.,i,  14  [airoXiTpuiais];  ITim.,ii,6  [avTiXxiTpov]; 
etc.)  This  idea,  correct  as  it  is,  may  have  incon- 
veniences if  isolated  or  exaggerated.  By  carrying 
it  beyond  what  was  written,  some  of  the  Fathers  put 
forth  the  strange  suggestion  of  a  ransom  paid  by 
Christ  to  the  demon  who  held  us  in  l>ondage,  An- 
other mistake  is  to  regard  the  licath  of  Christ  as  hav- 
ing a  value  in  itself,indi'])cndcnt  of  Christ  Who  offered 
it  and  God  Who  accepted  it  for  the  remission  of  our 
sins. 

(c)  Often,  too,  Christ  seems  to  substitute  Himself 
for  us  in  order  to  undergo  in  our  stead  the  chastise- 
ment for  sin.  He  suffers  physical  death  to  save  us 
from  the  moral  death  of  sin  anil  preserve  us  from 
eternal  death.  This  idea  of  substitution  appealed 
so  strongly  to  Lutheran  theologians  that  they  ad- 
mitted quantitative  equality  between  the  sufferings 
really  endured  by  Christ  and  the  penalties  deserved 
by  our  sins.  They  even  maintained  that  Jesus  under- 
went the  penalty  of  loss  (of  the  vision  of  God)  and  the 


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malediction  of  the  Father.  These  are  the  extrava- 
gances which  have  cast  bo  much  discredit  on  the 
theory  of  substitution.  It  has  been  rightly  said  that 
the  transfer  of  a  cha.stiseinent  from  one  person  to 
another  is  an  injustice  and  a  contradiction,  for  the 
chastisement  is  inseparable  from  the  fault  and  an 
undeserved  chastisement  is  no  longer  a  chastisement. 
Besides  St.  Paul  never  said  that  Christ  died  in  our 
stead  (i'^0,  but  only  that  he  died  for  us  {virip)  because 
of  our  sins  (Tf/)(). 

In  reality  the  three  standpoints  considered  above 
are  but  three  aspects  of  the  Redemption  which,  far 
from  excluding  one  another,  should  harmonize  and 
combine,  modifying  if  necessary  all  the  other  aspects 
of  the  problem.  In  the  following  text  St.  Paul  as- 
sembles these  various  aspects  with  several  others. 
We  are  "justified  freely  by  his  grace,  through  the 
Redemption,  that  is  in  Christ  Jesus,  whom  God  hath 
proposed  to  be  a  propitiation,  through  faith  in  his 
blood,  to  the  shewing  of  his  [hidden]  justice,  for  the 
remission  of  former  sins,  through  the  forbearance  of 
God,  for  the  shewing  of  his  justice  in  this  time;  that 
of  himself  may  be  [known  as]  just,  and  the  justifier  of 
him,  who  is  in  the  faith  of  .Jesus  Christ"  (Rom.,  iii, 
24-26).  Herein  are  designated  the  part  of  God,  of 
Christ,  and  of  man:  (1)  God  takes  the  initiative;  it  is 
He  who  offers  His  Son;  He  intends  to  manifest  His 
justice,  but  is  moved  thereto  by  mercy.  It  is  there- 
fore incorrect  or  more  or  less  inadequate  to  say  that 
God  was  angry  with  the  human  race  and  that  He 
was  only  appeased  by  the  death  of  His  Son.  (2) 
Christ  is  our  Redemption  (dTroXiir/jMa-is),  He  is  the  in- 
strument of  ex-piation  or  propitiation  (iXo<rr^pio^), 
and  is  such  by  His  Sacrifice  (^i-  tiJ)  airou  aiixan),  which 
does  not  resemble  those  of  irrational  animals;  it  de- 
rives its  value  from  Christ,  who  offers  it  for  us  to  His 
Father  through  obedience  and  love  (Phil.,  ii,  8;  Gal., 
ii,  20).  (3)  Man  is  not  merely  passive  in  the  drama 
of  his  salvation;  he  must  understand  the  lesson  which 
God  teaches,  and  appropriate  by  faith  the  fruit  of  the 
Redemption. 

F.  The  Subjective  Redemplion. — Christ  having  once 
died  and  risen,  the  Redemption  is  completed  in  law 
and  in  principle  for  the  whole  human  race.  Each 
man  makes  it  his  own  in  fact  and  in  act  by  faith  and 
baptism  which,  by  uniting  him  with  Christ,  causes 
him  to  participate  in  His  Divine  life.  Faith,  accord- 
ing to  St.  Paul,  is  composed  of  several  elements;  it  is 
the  submission  of  the  intellect  to  the  word  of  God,  the 
trusting  abandonment  of  the  believer  to  the  Saviour 
Who  promi.ses  him  assistance;  it  is  also  an  act  of  obedi- 
ence by  which  man  accepts  the  Divine  will.  Such 
an  act  has  a  moral  value,  for  it  "gives  glory  to  God" 
(Rom.,  iv,  20)  in  the  measure  in  which  it  recognizes 
its  own  helplessness.  That  is  why  "Abraham  be- 
lieved God,  and  it  was  reputed  to  him  unto  justice" 
(Rom.,  iv,  3;  Gal.,  iii,  6).  The  spiritual  children  of 
Abraham  are  likewise  "justified  by  faith,  without  the 
works  of  the  law"  (Rom.,  iii,  28;  cf.  Gal.,  ii,  16). 
Hence  it  follows:  (1)  That  justice  is  granted  by  God 
in  consideration  of  faith.  (2)  That,  nevertheless, 
faith  is  not  equivalent  to  justice,  since  man  is  justi- 
fied "by  grace"  (Rom.,  iv,  6).  (3)  That  the  justice 
freely  granted  to  man  becomes  his  property  and  is  in- 
herent in  him.  Protestants  formerly  asserted  that 
the  justice  of  Christ  is  imputed  to  us,  but  now  they 
are  generally  agreed  that  this  argument  is  unscrip- 
tural  and  lacks  the  guaranty  of  Paul ;  but  some,  loth  to 
base  justification  on  a  good  work  (tpyov)^  deny  a  moral 
value  to  faith  and  claim  that  justification  is  but  a 
forensic  judgment  of  God  which  alters  absolutely 
nothing  in  the  justified  sinner.  But  this  theory  is  un- 
tenable; for:  (1)  even  admitting  that  "to  justify" 
signifies  "to  pronounce  just",  it  is  absurd  to  suppose 
that  God  really  pronounces  just  anyone  who  is  not 
already  so  or  who  is  not  rendered  so  by  the  declaration 
itself.     (2)  Justification  is  inseparable  from  sauctifi- 


cation,  for  the  latter  is  "a  justification  of  life"  (Rom., 
V,  18)  and  every  "just  man  livelh  by  faith"  (Rom., 
i,  17;  Gal.,  iii,  11).  (3)  By  faith  and  baptism  we  die 
to  the  "old  man",  our  former  selves;  now  this  is  im- 
possible without  beginning  to  live  as  the  new  man, 
who  "according  to  God,  is  created  in  justice  and  holi- 
ness" (Rom.,  vi,  3-5;  Eph.,  iv,  24;  1  Cor.,  i,  30;  vi,  11). 
We  may,  therefore,  establish  a  distinction  in  definition 
and  concept  between  justification  and  sanctification, 
but  we  can  neither  separate  them  nor  regard  them  as 
separate. 

G.  Moral  Doctrine. — A  remarkable  characteristic 
of  Paulinism  is  that  it  connects  morality  with  the  sub- 
jective redemption  or  justification.  This  is  e.^ipecially 
striking  in  chap.vi  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  In 
baptism  "our  old  man  is  crucified  with  [Christ]  that 
the  body  of  sin  may  be  destroyed,  to  the  end  that 
we  may  serve  sin  no  longer"  (Rom.,  vi,  6).  Our  in- 
corporation with  the  mystical  Christ  is  not  only  a 
transformation  and  a  metamorphosis,  but  a  real  cre- 
ation, the  production  of  a  new  being,  subject  to  new 
la%vs  and  consequently  to  new  duties.  To  under- 
stand the  extent  of  our  obligations  it  is  enough  for  us 
to  know  ourselves  as  Christians  and  to  reflect  on  the 
various  relations  which  result  from  our  supernatural 
birth:  that  of  sonship  to  God  the  Father,  of  consecra- 
tion to  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  mystical  identity  with  our 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  of  brotherly  union  with  the  other 
members  of  Christ.  But  this  is  not  all.  Paul  says 
to  the  neophytes:  "Thanks  be  to  God,  that  you  were 
the  servants  of  sin,  but  have  obeyed  from  the  heart 
unto  that  form  of  doctrine,  into  which  you  have 
been  delivered.  .  .  .  But  now  being  made  free  from 
sin,  and  become  servants  to  God,  you  have  your  fruit 
unto  sanctification,  and  the  end  fife  everlasting" 
(Rom.,  vi,  17,  22).  By  the  act  of  faith  and  by  bap- 
tism, its  seal,  the  Christian  freely  makes  himself  the 
servant  of  God  and  the  soldier  of  Christ.  God's  will, 
which  he  accepts  in  advance  in  the  measure  in  which  it 
shall  be  manifested,  becomes  thenceforth  his  rule  of 
conduct.  Thus  Paul's  moral  code  rests  on  the  one 
hand  on  the  positive  will  of  God  made  known  by 
Christ,  promulgated  by  the  Apostles,  and  virtually 
accepted  by  the  neophyte  in  his  first  act  of  faith,  and 
on  the  other,  in  baptismal  regeneration  and  the  new 
relations  which  it  produces.  AH  Paul's  commands  and 
recommendations  are  merely  applications  of  these 
principles. 

H.  Eschatology. — (1)  The  graphic  description  of  the 
Pauline  parousia  (I  Thess.,  iv,  16-17;  II  Thess.,  i, 
7-10)  has  nearly  all  its  main  points  in  Christ's  great 
eschatological  discourse  (Matt.,  xxiv;  Mark,  xiii, 
Luke,  xxi).  A  common  characteristic  of  all  these 
passages  is  the  apparent  nearness  of  the  parousia. 
Paul  does  not  assert  that  the  coming  of  the  Saviour 
is.  at  hand.  In  each  of  the  five  epistles,  wherein  he 
expresses  the  desire  and  the  hope  to  witness  in  person 
the  return  of  Christ,  he  at  the  same  time  considers 
the  probability  of  the  contrary  hypothesis,  proving  that 
he  had  neither  revelation  nor  certainty  on  the  point. 
He  knows  only  that  the  day  of  the  Lord  will  come  un- 
expectedly, like  a  thief  (I  Thess.,  v,  2-3),  and  he 
counsels  the  neophytes  to  make  themselves  ready 
without  neglecting  the  duties  of  their  state  of  life  (II 
Thess.,  iii,  6-12).  Although  the  coming  of  Christ  will 
be  sudden,  it  will  be  heralded  by  three  signs:  general 
apostasy  (II  Thess.,  ii,  3),  the  appearance  of  Anti- 
christ (ii,  3-12),  and  the  conversion  of  the  Jews  (Rom., 
xi,  26).  A  particular  circumstance  of  St.  Paul's 
preaching  is  that  the  just  who  shall  be  living  at 
Christ's  second  advent  will  pass  to  glorious  immor- 
tality without  dying  [I  Thess.,  iv,  17;  I  Cor.,  xv,  51 
(Greek  text);  II  Cor.,  v,  2-5]. 

(2).  Owing  to  the  doubts  of  the  Corinthians  Paul 
treats  the  resurrection  of  the  just  at  some  length.  He 
does  not  ignore  the  resurrection  of  the  sinners,  which 
he  aflirmed  before  the  Governor  FeUx  (Acts,  xxiv,  15), 


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but  he  does  not  concern  himself  with  it  in  his  Epistles. 
When  he  says  that  "the  dead  who  are  in  Christ  shall 
rise  first"  (ttpHtov,  I  Thess.,  iv,  16,  Greek)  this  "first" 
offsets,  not  another  resurrection  of  the  dead,  but  the 
glorious  transformation  of  the  living.  In  like  man- 
ner "the  end"  of  which  he  speaks  (tiJ  tAos,  I  Cor., 
XV,  24)  is  not  the  end  of  the  resurrection,  but  of  the 
present  world  antl  the  beginning  of  a  new  order  of 
things.  All  the  arguments  which  he  advances  in  be- 
half of  the  resurrection  may  be  reduced  to  three:  the 
mystical  union  of  the  Christian  with  Christ,  the 
presence  within  us  of  the  Spirit  of  Holiness,  the  in- 
terior and  supernatural  conviction  of  the  faithful  and 
the  Apostles.  It  is  evident  that  these  arguments  deal 
only  with  the  glorious  resurrection  of  the  just.  In 
short,  the  resurrection  of  the  wicked  does  not  come 
within  his  theological  horizon.  What  is  the  condition 
of  the  souls  of  the  just  between  death  and  resurrec- 
tion? These  souls  enjoy  the  jjresence  of  Christ  (II 
Cor.,  V,  8);  their  lot  is  enviable  (Phi!.,  i,  2.3);  hence  it 
is  impossible  that  they  should  be  without  life,  activity, 
or  consciousness. 

(3)  The  judgment  according  to  St.  Paul  as  accord- 
ing to  the  Synoptics,  is  closely  connected  with  the 
parousia  and  the  resurrection.  They  are  the  three 
acts  of  the  same  drama  which  constitute  the  Day  of 
the  Lord  (I  Cor.,  i,  8;  II  Cor.,  i,  14;  Phil.,  i,  6,10;  ii, 
16).  "For  we  must  all  be  manifested  before  the  judg- 
ment seat  of  Christ,  that  every  one  may  receive  the 
proper  things  of  the  body,  according  as  he  hath  done, 
whether  it  be  good  or  evil"  (II  Cor.,  v,  10).  Two 
conclusions  are  derived  from  this  text:  (1)  The  judg- 
ment shall  be  universal,  neither  the  good  nor  the 
wicked  shall  escape  (Rom.,  xiv,  10-12),  nor  even  the 
angels  (I  Cor.,  vi,  3);  all  who  are  brought  to  trial 
must  account  for  the  use  of  their  liberty.  (2)  The 
judgment  shall  be  according  to  works:  this  is  a  truth 
frequently  reiterated  by  St.  Paul,  concerning  sinners 
(II  Cor.,  xi,  15),  the  just  (II  Tim.,  iv,  14),  and  men  in 
general  (Rom.,  ii,  6-9).  Many  Protestants  marvel  at 
this  and  claim  that  in  St.  Paul  this  doctrine  is  a  sur- 
vival of  his  rabbinical  education  (Pfleiderer),  or  that 
he  could  not  make  it  harmonize  with  his  doctrine 
of  gratuitous  justification  (Reuss),  or  that  the  reward 
will  be  in  projjortion  to  the  act,  as  the  harvest  is  in 
proportion  to  the  sowing,  but  that  it  will  not  be  be- 
cause of  or  with  a  view  to  the  act  (Weiss).  These 
authors  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  St.  Paul  distin- 
guishes between  two  justifications,  the  first  necessarily 
gratuitous  since  man  was  then  incapable  of  meriting 
it  (Rom.,  iii,  28;  Gal.,  ii,  16),  the  second  in  conformity 
to  his  works  (Rom.,  ii,  6:  Kara  rd  tpya),  since  man, 
when  adorned  with  sanctifying  grace,  is  cajiable  of 
merit  as  the  sinner  is  of  demerit.  Hence  the  celestial 
recompense  is  "a  crown  of  justice  which  the  Lord  the 
just  judge  will  render"  (II  Tim.,  iv,  8)  to  whomsoever 
has  legitimately  gained  it. 

Brietiy,  St.  Paul's  eschatology  is  not  so  distinctive 
as  it  has  been  made  to  appear.  Perhaps  its  most 
original  characteristic  is  the  continuity  between  the 
present  and  the  future  of  the  just,  between  grace  and 
glory,  between  salvation  begun  and  salvation  con- 
summated. A  large  number  of  terms,  redemption, 
justification,  salvation,  kingdom,  glory  and  especially 
life,  are  common  to  the  two  states,  or  rather  to  the 
two  phases  of  the  same  existence  Hnked  by  charity 
which  "never  falleth  away". 

Of  the  innumerable  works  dealing  directly  with  the  life  or  doe- 
trine  of  St.  Paul  the  reader  is  directed  only  to  the  following  as 
being  most  recent,  accessible  or  useful; 

Biographies: — Lewin.  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  (London, 
1851) ;  CONYBEARE  AND  HowsON,  Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul 
(London,  1851);  F.arrar,  Life  and  Works  of  St.  Paul  (London. 
1879) :  these  three  works,  especially  the  last,  have  since  passed 
through  numerous  editions.  Fouard,  St.  Paul,  ses  missions 
(1892).  scs  demiires  annees  (1897),  tr.  English,  Griffith  (New 
York — London,  1894);  Ivehach,  St.  Paul,  his  Life  and  Times 
(s.  d.);  Cone,  Paul,  the  Man,  the  Missionary  andthe  Teacher  (New 
York,  1898). 

Theolooy:— Adenet,  The  Theology  of  the  N.  T.  (New  York, 

XL— 37 


1894) ;  Stevens,  Theology  of  the  N.  T.  (Edinburgh,  1899) ;  Pauline 
Theology  (New  York,  190B);  Weiss,  Lehrbuch  der  bibl.  Theol.  des 
N.  T.  (Stuttgart,  1903),  also  Eng,  tr.;  Betschlao,  Neutestam. 
Theologie  (Halle,  1896);  Sabatier,  L'Ap6lre  Paul  (Paris,  1896), 
Eng.  tr. :  HoLTZMANN,  Lehrb.  der  neutestam.  Theologie  (Freiburg, 
1897);  Pfleiderer,  Der  Paulinismus  (Leipzig,  1890);  Feine, 
Theologie  des  N.  T.  (Leipzig,  1910) :  Prat,  La  theologie  de  St.  Paul 
(Paris,  1908-1 1) ;  there  are  also  numerous  other  theologies  of  the 
N.  T.  such  as  those  of  Lutterbeck  (1852) ;  Redbs  (1852) ;  Hahan 
(1854);  ME8.SNER  (1856);  ScHMiD  (1863);  Oosterzee  (1867),  tr. 
Evans  (1876);  Immer  (1877);  Bauh  (1864);  Holsten  (1898); 
BovoN  (1893-94);  and  of  St.  Paul  in  particular,  Usteri  (1831); 
Dahne  (1835):  ScHRvDrn  i1Si33);  and  the  Catholic  Limar,  Die 
theologie  des  heilig,  I,  /■-.«/„    i  Ir.ilnirg,  1864;2nded.,  1883). 

Special  Que.sti.ins  (  i  iiiKU,  The  Ideas  of  the  Apostle  Paul 
translated  into  thru-  ,),,„/,,;,  .qiunilrnts  (Boston,  1884);  Everett, 
Th,  (,„.,„/  ,,(■  Paul  (Bosiuii.  1.SM3);  Bruce,  St.  Paul's  Conception 
"f  '  '  '  '  i;dinburgh,  1S94);  Somerville,  St.  Paul's  Con- 
•••  i'  '  •  I'.dinburgh,  1897)  ■,DvBosE,  The  Caspel  accord- 
in    I    .-,    I l,,,ndon,  1907). 

Alt..\t, ..,/,.  y.c  iteche  et  la  redemption  d'apris  St.  Paul  (Paris, 
18S2) ;  Lipsius,  Die  paulinische  Rechtfertigungslekre  (Leipzig, 
1853) ;  ToBAC,  Le  probleme  de  la  justification  dans  saint-Paul  (Lou- 
vain,  1908). 

Dickson,  St.  Paul's  use  of  the  terms  Flesk  and  Spirit  (Glasgow, 
1883);  Simon  Die  Psychologic  des  Apostels  Paulu\  (Gottingen, 
1897) ;  SoKOLOw  ski  Die  Bigt  iffe  Geist  und  Leben  bii  Paulus  (Got- 
tingen  1903) 

Alexander  7h  FH  '  ^t  Pou!  (Glasgow  1910)  Ernesti, 
Die  Elhik  dii    1;  /  '     ttingen    IbSO)    Juncker,  Die 

Ethikdes  ipo  I  I    I 

Kennedy    S(    /  nf  the  Tail  Thuigs  (London, 

1904);  Kabisch    /       /  ,      r   „l      li    .ttingen   1893); 

TicHMAisN   Dif  I  I  1    ;  rstehung  und 

Oo-irAf  (Leipzig    1^  In      i  I  II  Christl  nach 

deu  pauhn  BruJ      ii  1        i 

Ramsai    "   /;«'   '     J  I  I  iluen  (London, 

1908);lDEM  ThLihurLhuilhelCamauhmjjin  Idlm  TheCiticsof 
St.  Paul 

F  Phat. 

Paul  I,  Pope,  757-67,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d. 
at  Rome,  28  June,  767.  He  was  a  brother  of  Stephen 
II.  They  had  been  educated  for  the  priesthood  at  the 
Lateran  palace.  Stephen  entrusted  his  brother,  who 
approved  of  the  pope's  course  in  respect  to  King 
Pepin,  with  many  important  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
among  others  with  the  restoration  to  the  Roman 
States  of  the  cities  which  had  been  seized  by  the 
Lombard  Kings  Aistulf  and  Desiderius;  these  cities 
Desiderius  promised  to  give  up.  While  Paul  was 
with  his  dying  brother  at  the  Lateran,  a  party  of  the 
Romans  gathered  in  the  house  of  Archdeacon  The- 
ophylact  in  order  to  secure  the  latter's  succession 
to  the  papal  see.  However,  immediately  after  the 
burial  of  Stephen  (d.  26  April,  757),  Paul  was 
elected  by  a  large  majority,  and  received  epis- 
copal consecration  on  the  twenty-ninth  of  May. 
Paul  continued  his  predecessor's  policy  towards  the 
Frankish  king,  Pepin,  and  thereby  continued  the 
papal  supremacy  over  Rome  and  the  districts  of  cen- 
tral Italy  in  opposition  to  the  efforts  of  the  Lombards 
and  the  Eastern  Empire.  Pepin  sent  a  letter  to  the 
Roman  ijeople,  exhorting  them  to  remain  steadfast 
to  St.  Peter.  In  the  reply  sent  by  the  senate  and  the 
people  of  Rome  to  the  Frankish  king,  the  latter  was 
urged  to  complete  the  enlargement  of  the  Roman 
province  which  he  had  wrested  from  the  barbarians, 
and  to  per.severe  in  the  work  he  had  begun.  In  758  a 
daughter  was  born  to  Pepin,  and  the  king  sent  the  pope 
the  cloth  used  at  the  baptism  as  a  present,  renewing  in 
this  way  the  papal  sponsorship.  Paul  returned  thanks 
and  informed  Pepin  of  the  hostile  action  of  Deside- 
rius, who  had  failed  to  deliver  the  cities  of  Imola, 
Osimo,  Ancona,  and  Bologna  to  Rome,  and  had  also 
devastated  the  Pentapolis  on  his  expedition  against 
the  rebellious  Dukes  of  Spoleto  and  Benovento.  The 
two  duchies  were  conquered  and  annexed  by  Deside- 
rius (758) .  At  Benevento  Desiderius  had  a  conference 
with  the  Greek  ambassador  Georgios,  and  agreed  on 
a  mutual  alliance  of  Byzantines  and  Lombards  in 
central  Italy.  On  his  way  home  Desiderius  came  to 
Rome,  and  when  the  pope  demanded  the  return  of  the 
aforesaid  cities,  he  refused  to  comply.  lie  promised 
to  give  back  Imola,  but  on  condition  that  the  pope 
should  persuade  Pepin  to  send  back  the  Lombard 
hostages  whom   the  Frankish  king  had  carried  off, 


PAUL 


57'8 


PAUL 


some  time  before,  at  the  time  of  his  second  victory 
over  the  Lombard  King  Aistulf.  If  Paul  would  not 
do  this,  Desiderius  threatened  to  go  to  war  with  him. 
The  pope  was  in  great  straits.  He  found  it  diffi- 
cult oven  to  get  the  Frankish  king  informed  of  his 
position.  He  gave  two  letters  to  Bishop  George  of 
Ostia  and  the  Roman  priest  Stephen,  his  ambassadors 
to  Pepin,  who  made  the  journey  with  the  Frankish 
messenger  Huodpertus.  In  the  one  letter  that  was 
to  secure  the  en\oys  a  safe  passage  through  Lombard 
territory,  he  agreed  to  the  demands  of  Desiderius  and 
begged  Pepin  to  accede  to  the  wishes  of  the  Lombards 
by  making  a  treaty  of  peace  and  returning  the  hos- 
tages. At  the  same  time  the  envoys  were  to  give  the 
Frankish  king  a  second  secret  letter,  in  which  the  pope 
communicated  to  him  the  latest  occurrences,  in- 
formed him  of  the  agreement  of  Desiderius  with  the 
Byzantines  for  the  conquest  of  Ravenna,  and  im- 
plored Pepin  to  come  to  the  aid  of  the  pope,  to  punish 
the  Lombard  king,  and  to  force  him  to  yield  the  towns 
retained  by  him.  Towards  the  close  of  759  another 
envoy  was  sent  to  Pepin.  Early  in  760  two  Frankish 
envoys.  Bishop  Remidius  of  Rouen,  brother  to  Pepin, 
and  Duke  Antschar,  came  to  Desiderius,  who  prom- 
ised to  return  its  patrimony  to  the  Roman  Church  in 
April,  and  also  to  yield  the  towns  demanded  by  the 
pope.  But  he  again  refused  to  carry  out  his  promises, 
dallied,  and  even  forced  his  way  into  Roman  territory. 
Once  more  Paul  implored  the  Frankish  king's  help. 
The  position  of  affairs  was  made  even  more  threaten- 
ing by  Byzantine  action.  Georgios  had  gone  from 
southern  Italy  to  the  court  of  Pepin  and  had  here 
won  over  a  papal  envoy,  Marinus.  With  all  his  efforts 
Georgios  could  not  move  Pepin.  In  700  a  report 
spread  through  Italy  that  a  large  Byzantine  fleet  was 
under  sail  for  Rome  and  the  Frankish  kingdom.  Later 
it  was  reported  that  the  Byzantines  intended  to  send 
an  army  to  Rome  and  Ravenna.  The  Archbishop 
Sergius  of  Ravenna  received  a  letter  from  the  Byzan- 
tine emperor,  in  which  the  latter  sought  to  obtain  the 
voluntary  submission  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ravenna. 
The  same  attempt  was  also  made  in  Venice.  Sergius 
sent  the  letter  of  the  emperor  to  the  pope,  and  the  pope 
notified  Pepin.  In  case  of  a  war  with  the  Eastern 
Empire  it  w-as  important  to  make  sure  of  the  support 
of  the  Lombards,  consequently  Pepin  desired  to  come 
to  an  agreement  with  Desiderius.  Thereupon  the 
Lombard  king  showed  more  complaisance  in  the  ques- 
tion of  the  Roman  patrimony  included  in  the  Lom- 
bard territory,  and  when  he  visited  Rome  in  765,  the 
boundarj'  disputes  between  him  and  the  pope  were  ar- 
ranged. The  Frankish  king  now  directed  Desiderius 
to  aid  the  pope  in  recovering  the  Roman  patrimony 
in  the  regions  in  southern  Italy  under  Byzantine  rule, 
and  to  support  the  ecclesiastical  rights  of  the  pope 
against  the  bishops  of  these  districts.  Paul's  opposi- 
tion to  the  schemes  of  the  Emperor  Constantino 
Copronymus  had  no  real  political  basis.  The  pope's 
aim  was  to  defend  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy  regarding 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  the  veneration  of 
images  against  the  Eastern  emperor.  Paul  repeat- 
edly dispatched  legates  and  letters  in  regard  to  the 
veneration  of  images  to  the  emperor  at  Byzantium. 
Constantino  sent  envoys  to  western  Europe  who  in 
coming  to  King  Pepin  did  not  disguise  their  intention 
to  negotiate  with  him  concerning  dogmatic  questions, 
also  about  the  submission  of  t  he  Exarchate  of  Ravenna 
to  Byzantine  suzerainty.  Papal  legates  also  came  to 
Pepin  in  regard  to  these  matters.  On  their  return 
the  legates  were  able  to  reassure  the  pope  as  to  the 
views  of  the  Frankish  ruler,  who  kept  two  of  the  papal 
envoys,  Bishop  George  and  the  priest  Peter,  near  him. 
In  767  a  Frankish  synod  was  held  at  Gentilly,  near 
Paris,  at  which  the  Church  doctrines  concerning  the 
Trinity  and  the  veneration  of  images  were  maintained. 
Paul  showed  great  activity  and  zeal  in  encouraging  re- 
ligious life  at  Rome.     He  turned  his  paternal  home 


into  a  monastery,  and  near  it  built  the  church  of  San 
Silvestro  in  Capite.  The  founding  of  this  church  led 
to  his  holding  a  synod  at  Rome  in  761.  To  this  church 
and  other  churches  of  Rome,  Paul  transferred  the 
bones  of  numerous  martyrs  from  the  decayed  sanc- 
tuaries in  the  catacombs  devastated  by  the  Loinliarda 
in  756.  He  transferred  the  relics  of  St.  Petronilla 
(q.  V.)  from  the  catacomb  of  St.  Domitilla  to  a  chapel 
in  St.  Peter's  erected  by  his  predecessor  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  legend  of  St.  Petronilla  caused  her  at  that 
era  to  be  regarded  as  a  daughter  of  St.  Peter,  and  as 
such  she  became  the  special  Roman  patroness  of  the 
Frankish  rulers.  Paul  also  built  an  oratory  of  the 
Blfssi'd  \irgin  in  St.  Peter's,  and  a  church  in  honour 
of  the  Ape  I.St  les  on  the  Via  Sacra  beyond  the  Roman 
Forum.  He  died  near  the  church  of  San  Paolo  fuori 
le  mura,  where  he  had  gone  during  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer. He  was  buried  in  this  church,  but  after  three 
months  his  body  was  transferreil  to  St.  Peter's.  The 
"Liber  Pontificalis "  also  praises  the  Christian  charity 
and  benevolence  of  the  pope  which  he  united  with 
firmness.  Paul  is  venerated  as  a  saint.  His  feast 
is  celebrated  on  the  twenty-eighth  of  June. 

Liber  Pontificalis,  ed.  Ddchesne,  I.  463-467;  Liber  Carolines, 
ed.  Mon,  Germ.  Hint.:  Epist,,  III.  507  sqq.:  Kehr  in  Nachrichten 
der  Gesetlschaft  der  Wiss.  zu  Gdttingen  (1896),  103  sqq.;  jAFn6. 
Regesta  Rom.  Pont.,  I,  277  sqq.;  Lanoen.  Geschichte  der  rOmischen 
Kirche,  II  (Bonn,  1885),  668  sqq.;  Hefele,  Komiliengeschichte, 
2nd  ed.,  Ill,  431  sqq.,  602;  Schnurer,  Die  Bntstehung  des  Kirchen- 
staates  (Cologne,  1S94) ;  Ditchesne,  Les  premiers  temps  de  VEtat 
pontifical  C2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1904);  de  Rosbi,  Insigni  scoperte  nel 
cimitero  de  Domitilla  in  Bull,  di  archeol.  crist.,  ser.  II.  an.  VI  (1875), 
5  aqq.,  45  sqq.;  Idem,  Sepolcro  di  S.  Petronilla  nelta  basilica  in  via 
Ardeatina  e  sua  traslazione  al  Vaticano,  ibid,,  ser.  Ill,  an.  Ill 
(1878),  125  sqq.;  an.  IV  (1879),  5  sqq.,  139  sqq.;  Marocchi,  Basi- 
liques  et  iglises  de  Rome  (2nd  ed.,  Rome,  1909);  Mann,  Lives  of 
the  Popes  (London,  1902). 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Paul  II,  Pope  (Pietro  Barbo),  b.  at  Venice,  1417; 
elected  30  August,  1464;  d.  26  July,  1471;  son  of 
Niecolo   Barbo   and   Polixena   Condulmer,   sister  of 


y.rn~-^ 


Eugene  IV.  Although  he  studied  for  a  business  career 
he  received  an  excellent  religious  education  and,  at 
the  elevation  of  his  uncle  to  the  papacy,  entered  the 
ecclesiastical  state.  He  became  Archdeacon  of  Bo- 
logna, Bishop  of  Cervia  and  of  Vicenza,  and  in  1440 
cardinal-deacon.  Noted  for  his  generosity  and  im- 
posing appearance,  the  Cardinal  of  Venice,  as  he  was 
called,  was  very  influential  under  Eugene  IV,  Nicho- 
las V,  and  Catixtus  III,  less  so  under  Pius  II.  He  be- 
came the  latter's  successor,  and  owed  his  election 
partly  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  some  of  the  cardinals 
with  the  policy  of  his  predecessor.  To  this  could  be 
traced  the  oath  which  Barbo  swore  to  at  the  conclave, 
but  which  he  rightfully  set  aside  after  election,  since 
it  was  ojjpo.sed  to  the  monarchial  constitution  of  the 
Church.      Paul  II  delighted  in  display.      He  intro- 


PAUL   III   AND   HIS   NEPHEWS,  ALESSANDKCJ   AND  OTTAVIO   FARNESE 

TITIAN,    NATIONAL    MUSEUM,    NAPLES 


PATTL 


579 


PAUL 


duced  splendid  carnival  festivities,  built  the  palace  of 
S.  Marco  (now  di  Venezia),  revised  the  municipal 
statutes  of  Rome,  organized  relief  work  among  the 
poor,  granted  pensions  to  some  cardinals,  and  to  all 
the  privilege  of  wearing  the  red  biretta.  His  sup- 
pression in  1466  of  the  college  of  abbreviators  aroused 
much  opposition,  intensified  by  a  similar  measure 
against  the  Roman  Academy.  Platina,  a  member 
of  both  organizations,  who  had  been  repeatedly  im- 
prisoned, retaliated  by  writing  a  calumnious  biography 
of  Paul  II. 

That  Paul  II  was  not  opposed  to  Humanistic 
studies,  as  such,  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  he  pro- 
tected universities,  encouraged  the  art  of  printing, 
and  was  himself  a  collector  of  works  of  ancient  art. 
The  suppres.sion  of  the  Roman  Academy  was  justified 


by  the  moral  degeneracy  and  pagan  attitude  which 
it  fostered.  On  the  other  hand  the  charge  of  immo- 
rality brought  against  Paul  II  by  Gregory  of  Heim- 
burg  is  untenable.  The  pope  punished  the  Fraticelli 
in  the  Papal  States,  prosecuted  heretics  in  France  and 
Germany,  decreed  in  1470  the  observance  of  the  jubi- 
lee every  twenty-five  years,  and  made  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  at  uniting  Russia  with  the  Church.  The 
Turkish  question  received  his  earnest  attention,  par- 
ticularly after  the  fall  of  Negropont  (1470).  Finan- 
cial assistance  was  granted  to  Hungary  and  the  .Alba- 
nian leader  Scanderbeg.  No  general  results  were 
obtained,  however,  owing  to  the  lack  of  co-operation 
among  the  Christian  powers;  to  disturbances  in  the 
Papal  States,  where  Paul  II  suppressed  the  robber 
knights  of  Anguillara,  and  perhaps  chiefly  to  the  con- 
flict between  the  papacy  and  King  George  Podiebrad 
of  Bohemia. 

C.tNENSius,  Vita  Pauli  II  (Rome,  1740);  Caspar  Veronen- 
8IB,  be  Gestis  Pauli  II,  partly  in  MrRATORi,  Rer,  Ital.  Script.,  III. 
II,  1025-.53  (Milan,  1734);  Cbeighton.  History  of  the  Papacy, 
new  ed.,  IV  (New  York,  1903),  3-63,  315-27;  Pastor,  Geschichte 
der  Pdpste,  II  (4th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1904),  291-447,  757-79;  tr. 
Anthobos,  IV  (London,  1894),  3-194,  475-504. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Paul  III,  Pope  (Aless.\ndro  Farnese),  b.  at  Rome 
or  Canino,  29  Feb.,  1468;  elected,  12  Oct.,  1.5.34;  d.  at 
Rome,  10  Nov.,  1549.  The  Farnese  were  an  ancient 
Roman  family  whose  possessions 
clustered  about  the  Lake  of  Bolsena. 
Although  counted  among  the  Ro- 
man aristocrats,  they  first  appear  in 
history  associated  with  Viterbo  and 
Orvieto.  Among  the  witnesses  to 
the  Treaty  of  Venice  between  Bar- 
barossa  and  the  pope,  we  find  the 
signature  of  a  Farnese  as  Rector  of 
Orvieto;  a  Farnese  bi.shop  conse- 
crated the  cathedral  there.  During 
III.  the   interminable   feuds  which   di.s- 

tracted  the  peninsula,  the  Farnese  were  consistently 
Guelph.  The  grandfather  of  the  future  pontiff  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  papal  troops  under  Euge- 


Arms  of  Paul 


nius  IV ;  his  oldest  son  perished  in  the  battle  of  For- 
nuovo;  the  second.  Pier  Luigi,  married  Giovannella 
Gaetani,  sister  to  the  Lord  of  Sermoneta.  Among 
their  children  were  the  beautiful  Giulia,  who  married 
an  Orsini,  and  Alessandro,  later  Paul  III.  Alessandro 
received  the  best  education  that  his  age  could  offer; 
first  at  Rome,  where  he  had  Pomponio  Leto  for  a  tutor; 
later  at  Florence  in  the  palace  of  Lorenzo  the  Magnifi- 
cent, where  he  formed  his  friendship  with  the  future 
Leo  X,  six  years  his  junior.  His  contemporaries 
praise  his  proficiency  in  all  the  learning  of  the  Renais- 
sance, especially  in  his  mastery  of  classical  Latin  and 
Italian.  With  such  advantages  of  birth  and  talent, 
his  advancement  in  the  ecclesiastical  career  was  as- 
sured and  rapid.  On  20  Sept.,  1493  (Eubel),  he  was 
created  by  Alexander  VI  cardinal-deacon  with  the 
title  SS.  Cosmas  and  Damian.  He  wore  the  purple 
for  over  forty  years,  passing  through  the  several 
gradations,  until  he  became  Dean  of  the  Sacred  Col- 
lege. In  accordance  with  the  abuses  of  his  time,  he 
;iceumulated  a  number  of  opulent  benefices,  and  spent 
his  immense  revenue  with  a  generosity  which  won  for 
him  the  praises  of  artists  and  the  affection  of  the  Ro- 
man populace.  His  native  ability  and  diplomatic  skill, 
acquired  by  long  ex-perience,  made  him  tower  above 
his  colleagues  in  the  Sacred  College,  even  as  his  Pa- 
lazzo Farnese  excelled  in  magnificence  all  the  other 
palaces  of  Rome.  That  he  continued  to  grow  in 
favour  under  pontiffs  so  different  in  character  as  the 
Borgia,  Rovera,  and  Medici  popes  is  a  sufficient  proof 
of  his  tact. 

He  had  already  on  two  previous  occasions,  come 
within  measurable  distance  of  the  tiara,  when  the  con- 
clave of  1534,  almost  without  the  formality  of  a  ballot, 
proclaimed  him  successor  to  Clement  VII.  It  was 
creditable  to  his  reputation  and  to  the  good  will  of  the 
cardinals,  that  the  factions  which  divided  the  Sacred 
College  were  concordant  in  electing  him.  He  was 
universally  recognized  as  the  man  of  the  hour;  and  the 
piety  and  zeal,  which  had  characterized  him  after  he 
was  ordained  priest,  caused  men  to  overlook  the  ex- 
travagance of  his  earlier  years. 

The  Roman  people  rejoiced  at  the  elevation  to  the 
tiara  of  the  first  citizen  of  their  city  since  Martin  V. 
Paul  III  was  crowned  3  Nov. ,  and  lost  no  time  in  setting 
about  the  most  needed  reforms.  No  one,  who  has  once 
studied  his  portrait  by  Titian,  is  likely  to  forget  the 
wonderful  expression  of  countenance  of  that  worn-out, 
emaciated  form.  Those  piercing  little  eyes,  and  that 
peculiar  attitude  of  one  ready  to  bound  or  to  shrink, 
tell  the  story  of  a  veteran  diplomat  who  was  not  to  be 
deceived  or  taken  off  guard.  His  extreme  caution, 
and  the  difficulty  of  binding  him  down  to  a  definite 
obligation,  drew  from  Pasquino  the  facetious  remark 
that  the  third  Paul  was  a  "Vas  dilationis."  The 
elevation  to  the  cardinalate  of  his  grandsons,  Alessan- 
dro Farnese,  aged  fourteen,  andGuidoAscanio  Sforza, 
aged  sixteen,  displeased  the  reform  party  and  drew  a 
protest  from  the  emperor;  but  this  was  forgiven,  when 
shortly  after,  he  introduced  into  the  Sacred  College 
men  of  the  calibre  of  Reginald  Pole,  Contanini,  Sad- 
oleto,  and  Caraffa. 

Soon  after  his  elevation,  2  June,  1536,  Paul  III  sum- 
moned a  general  council  to  meet  at  Mantua  in  the  fol- 
lowing May;  but  the  opposition  of  the  Protestant 
princes  and  the  refusal  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua  to  as- 
sume the  responsibility  of  maintaining  order  frustrated 
the  project.  He  issued  a  new  bull,  convoking  a  coun- 
cil at  Vicenza,  1  May,  1538;  the  chief  obstacle  was  the 
renewed  enmity  of  Charles  V  and  Francis  I.  The 
aged  pontiff  induced  them  to  hold  a  conference  with 
him  at  Nizza  and  conclude  a  ten  years'  truce.  As  a 
token  of  good  will,  a  granddaughter  of  Paul  was  mar- 
ried to  a  French  prince,  and  the  emperor  gave  his 
daughter,  Margaret,  to  Ottavio,  the  son  of  Pier  Luigi, 
f<)unfler  of  the  Farnese  dynasty  of  Parma. 

Many  causes  contributed  to  delay  the  opening  of 


PAUL 


580 


PAUL 


the  general  council.     The  extension  of  power  which  a     the  heretics  and  make  no  agreement  prejudicial  to  the 
re-united   Germany   would   place   in   the   hands   of     Faith  or  to  the  rights  of  th(>  Holy  See.     Charles  now 


Charles  was  so  intolerable  to  Francis  I,  that  he,  who 
persecuted  heresy  in  his  own  realm  with  such  cruelty 
that  the  pope  appealed  to  him  to  mitigate  his  violence, 
became  the  sworn  ally  of  the  Smalealdic  League,  en- 
couraging them  to  reject  all  overtures  to  reconcilia- 
tion. Charles  himself  was  in  no  slight  measure  to 
blame;  for,  notwithstanding  his  desire  for  the  a.ssem- 
bling  of  a  council,  he  was  led  into  the  belief  that  the  re- 
ligious differences  of  Germany  might  be  settled  by 
conferences  between  the  two  parties.  These  confer- 
ences, like  all  such  attempts  to  settle  differences  out- 
side of  the  normal  court  of  the  Church,  led  to  a  waste 
of  time,  and  did  far  more  harm  than  good.  Charles 
had  a  false  idea  of  the  office  of  a  general  council.  In 
his  desire  to  unite  all  par- 
ties, he  sought  for  vague 
formukc  to  which  all  could 
subscribe,  a  relapse  into  the 
mistakes  of  the  Byzantine 
emperors.  A  council  of  the 
Church,  on  the  other  hand, 
must  formulate  theFaith  with 
such  precision  that  no  heretic 
can  subscribe  to  it.  It  took 
some  years  to  convince  the 
emperor  and  his  mediatizing 
advisors  that  Catholicism 
and  Protestantism  are  as  op- 
posite as  light  and  darkness. 
Meanwhile  Paul  III  set  about 
the  reform  of  the  papal 
court  with  a  vigour  which 
pa\ed  the  way  for  the  dis- 
ciplinary canons  of  Trent. 
He  appointed  commissions  to 
report  abuses  of  every  kind; 
he  reformed  the  Apostolic 
Camera,  the  tribunal  of  the 
Rota,  the  Penitentiaria,  and 
the  Chancery.  He  enhanced 
the  prestige  of  the  papacy  by 
doing  single-handed  what 
his  predecessors  had  reser\  ed 
to  the  action  of  a  council. 
In  the  constantly  recurring 
quarrels  between  Francis  and 
Charles,  Paul  III  prescribed 
a  strict  neutrality,  notwith- 
standing that  Charles  urged 
him  to  support  the  empire  and  subject  Francis  to 
the  censures  of  the  Church.  Paul's  attitude  as  a 
patriotic  Itahan  would  have  been  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent him  from  allowing  the  emperor  to  be  sole 
arbiter  of  Italy.  It  was  as  much  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  the  integrity  of  the  papal  dominions,  as 
for  the  exaltation  of  his  family,  that  Paul  extorted 
from  Charles  and  his  reluctant  cardinals  the  erection 
of  F'iacenza  and  Parma  into  a  duchy  for  his  son. 
Pier  Luigi.  A  feud  arose  with  Gonzaga,  the  imperial 
Governor  of  Milan,  which  ended  later  in  the  assassi- 


contended  that  the  coimcil  should  be  prorogued,  until 
victory  had  decided  in  favour  of  the  Catholics.  Fur- 
thermore, foreseeing  that  the  struggle  with  the  preach- 
ers of  heresy  would  be  more  stubborn  than  the  con- 
flict with  the  princes,  he  urged  the  jionlilT  to  avoid 
making  dogmas  of  faith  for  the  present  :;nd  confine  the 
labours  of  the  council  to  the  enforcement  of  discipline. 
To  neither  of  tlie.se  i)nipcisnls  could  the  pope  agree. 
Finally,  after  endless  diiheulties  {\:i  Dec,  1.54.5J  the 
Council  of  Trent  held  its  first  session.  In  seven  ses- 
sions, the  last  3  March,  l,'j47,  the  Fathers  intrepidly 
faced  the  most  important  questions  of  faith  and  dis- 
cipline. Without  listening  to  the  threats  and  expostu- 
lations of  the  imperial  party,  they  formulated  for  all 
time  the  Catholic  doctrine 
<iii  the  Scriptures,  original 
sill,  justification,  and  the 
S;icraiiients.  The  work  of 
tlie  council  was  half  ended, 
^' lien  the  outbreak  of  the 
lilague  in  Trent  caused  an 
ailjournment  to  Bologna. 
Pope  Paul  was  not  the  insti- 
gator of  the  remo\al  of  the 
council;  he  simply  acquiesced 
in  the  decision  of  the  Fa- 
thers. Fifteen  prelates,  de- 
\  oted  to  the  emperor,  refused 
to  leave  Trent.  Charles  de- 
manded the  return  of  the 
ecumcil  to  German  territory, 
t  the  (ielibenitions  of  the 
CI  luiu'il  continued  in  Bologna, 
until  finally,  21  .Vpril,  the 
ipe,  in  order  to  avert  a 
liism,  prorogued  the  coun- 
cil iiLilefinitely.  The  wisdom 
III  the  iiiuncil's  energetic 
:Hliiiii,  in  establishing  thus 
i:uly  the  fundamental  truths 
of  the  Catholic  rri'ed,  became 
.sunn  evident,  when  the  em- 
|icior  and  his  semi-Protes- 
tant advisers  infiicted  upon 
Germany  their  Interim  re- 
ligion, which  was  despised 
li\-  both  parties.  Pope  Paul, 
who  had  given  the  emperor 
essential  aid  in  the  Smaleal- 
dic war,  resented  his  dabbling  in  theology,  and  their 
estrangement  continued  until  the  death  of  the  pontiff. 
Paul's  end  came  rather  suddenly,  .-\fter  the  assassi- 
nation of  Pier  Luigi,  he  had  struggled  to  retain  Pia- 
cenza  and  Parma  for  the  Church  and  had  deprived 
Ottavio,  Pier  Luigi's  son  and  Charles's  son-in-law,  of 
these  duchies.  Ottavio,  relying  on  the  emperor's  be- 
nevolence, refused  obedience;  it  broke  the  old  man's 
heart,  when  he  learned  that  his  favourite  grandson. 
Cardinal  Farnese,  was  a  party  to  the  transaction.  He 
fell  into  a  violent  fever  and  died  at  the  (iuirinal,  at 


nation  of  Pier  Luigi  and  the  permanent  alienation  of     the  age  of  eighty-two.     He  lies  biuied  in  St.  Peter's 


Piac(-nza  from  the  Papal  States 

When  the  Treaty  of  Crespi  (IS  Sept.,  1544)  ended 
the  disastrous  wars  between  Charles  and  Francis, 
Paul  energetically  took  up  the  project  of  convening  a 
general  council.  Meanwhile  it  developed  that  the 
emperor  had  formed  a  programme  of  his  own,  quite 
at  variance  in  some  important  points  with  the  pope's 


in  the  tomb  designed  by  Michelangelo  and  erected  by 
Guglielmo  della  Porta.  Not  all  the  popes  repose  in 
monuments  corresponding  to  their  importance  in  the 
history  of  the  Church;  but  few  will  be  disposed  to  con- 
test the  right  of  Farnese  to  rest  directly  under  Peter's 
chair.  He  had  his  faults;  but  they  injured  no  one  but 
himself.     The  fifteen  years  of  his  pontificate  saw  the 


Since  the  Protestants  repudiated  a  council  presided  complete  restoration  of  Catholic  faith  and  piety.     He 

over  by  the  Roman  pontiff,  Charles  was  resolved  to  was  succeeded  by  many  saintly  pontiffs,  but  not  one 

reduce  the  princes  to  obedience  by  force  of  arms.     To  of   them  possessed  all  his  commanding  virtues.     In 

this  Paul  did  not  object,  and  promised  to  aid  him  with  Rome  his  name  is  written  all  over  the  city  he  reno- 

three  hundred  thousand  ducats  and  twenty  thousand  vated.     The  Pauline  chapel,  Michelangelo's  work  iii 

infantry;    but   he    wisely    added    the   proviso,    that  the  Sistine,  the  streets  of  Home,  which  he  straightened 

Charles  should  enter  into  no  separate  treaties  with  and  broadened,  the  numerous  objects  of  art  associated 


PAUL 


581 


PAUL 


with  the  name  of  Farnese,  all  speak  eloquently  of  the 
remarkable  personality  of  the  pontiff  who  turned  the 
tide  in  favour  of  religion.  If  to  this  we  add  the  favour 
accorded  by  Paul  to  the  new  religious  orders  then  ap- 
pearing, the  Capuchins,  Barnabites,  Theatines,  Jes- 
uits, Ursulines,  and  many  others,  we  are  forced  to  con- 
fess that  his  reign  was  one  of  the  most  fruitful  in  the 
annals  of  the  Church. 

Panvinius,  Pont.  Romanorum  vita:;  Pallavicini,  Concilio  di 
Tre?Uo:  Pastor,  Gesch.  der  P&pste,  V;  Eh.ses,  Concilium  Triden- 
tinum,  V:  voN  Ranke.  Hist,  of  the  Popes  in  the  XVI-XVIII 
Centuries;  Artaud  de  Montor,  Hist,  of  the  Popes  (New  York, 
1867). 

James  F.  Loughlin. 

Paul  IV,  Pope  (Giovanni  Pietro  Caraffa),  b. 
near  Benevento,  28  June,  1476;  elected  2.3  May,  1555; 
d.  18  Aug.,  1559.  The  Caraffa  were  one  of  the  most 
illustrious  of  the  noble  families  of  Naples,  and  had 
given  distinguished  scions  to  Church  and  State.  The 
name  of  Cardinal  Oliviero  Caraffa  recurs  frequently  in 
the  history  of  the  pajjacy  during  the  days  of  the  Re- 
naissance. One  of  the  great  cardinal's  merits  was  that 
of  superintending  the  training  of  his  young  relative, 
Giovanni  Pietro,  whom  he  introduced  to  the  papal 
Court  in  1494,  and  in  whose  favour  he  resigned  the  See 
of  Chieti  (in  Latin,  Thealc).  from  which  word  he  was 
thenceforward  known  as  Thcatinus.  Leo  X  sent  him 
on  an  embassy  to  England  and  retained  him  for  some 
years  as  nuncio  in  Spain.  His  residence  in  Spain 
served  to  accentuate  that  detestation  of  Spanish  rule 
in  his  native  land  which  characterized  his  public  pohcy 
(luring  his  pontificate.  From  early  childhood  he  led  a 
lilamf'les.s  life;  and  that  longing  for  asceticism  which 
had  prompted  him  to  seek  admission  into  the  Domin- 
ican and  the  Camaldolese  Orders  asserted  itself  in 
1524  when  he  persuaded  Clement  VII,  though  with 
difficulty,  to  accept  the  resignation  of  his  benefices  and 
permit  him  to  enter  the  congregation  of  clerics  regular 
founded  by  St.  Cajetan,  but  popularly  named  "The- 
atines", after  Caraffa,  their  first  general.  The  young 
congregation  suffered  more  than  its  share  during  the 
sack  of  Rome  in  1527,  and  its  few  members  retired  to 
Venice.  But  the  sharp  intellect  of  Paul  III  had  per- 
ceived the  importance  of  the  institute  in  his  projected 
reform  of  the  clergy,  and  he  suniiiioncil  the  Theatines 
back  to  Rome.  Caraffa  was  jjlaci d  by  the  pontiff  on 
the  committee  named  to  outline  the  project  of  reform 
of  the  papal  Court;  and  on  22  Dec,  1536  he  was 
created  cardinal  with  the  title  of  San  Pancrazio. 
Later  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Naples;  but,  owing 
to  the  emperor's  distrust  and  fear  of  him.  it  was  only 
with  difficulty  he  could  maintain  his  episcopal  rights. 
Although  Caraffa  %vas  highly  educated  and  surpassed 
most  of  his  contemporaries  in  the  knowledge  of 
Tireek  and  Hebrew,  still  he  remained  throughout 
medieval  in  life  and  thought.  His  favourite  author 
was  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.  The  few  (ipiiscula  which  he 
found  time  to  write  were  Scholastic  in  character.  For 
the  party  of  Pole,  Contarini,  and  iMorone  he  had  the 
most  heartfelt  detestation;  and  liis  elevation  boded 
them  no  hapjiiness.  Caraffa  was  the  h<\id  and  front 
of  every  cITort  made  by  Paid  III  in  the  interest  of  re- 
form. He  reorganized  the  Inqui.sition  in  Italy  on  papal 
lines  and  for  a  generation  was  the  terror  of  misbeliev- 
ers. How  so  austere  a  person  could  be  chosen  pope 
was  a  mystery  to  everyone,  especially  to  himself.  "I 
have  never  conferred  a  favour  on  a  human  being",  he 
said.  It  is  most  likely  that  the  octogenarian  would 
have  refused  the  dignity,  were  it  not  that  the  emper- 
or's agent.  Cardinal  iVIendoza,  had  pronounced  de- 
cidedly that  Charles  would  not  permit  Caraffa  to  be 
pope.  This  was  to  challenge  every  principle  for  which 
the  aged  cardinal  had  stood  during  his  long  career. 
He  was  elected  in  spite  of  the  emperor,  and  for  four 
years  held  aloft  the  banner  of  the  independence  of 
Italy.  Historians  seem  to  be  unjust  towards  Paul  IV. 
That  unbending  Italian  patriot,  born  whilst  Italy  was 


"a  lyre  with  four  strings",  Naples,  Rome,  Florence, 
and  Venice,  was  certainly  justified  in  using  the  pres- 
tige of  the  papacy  to  preserve  some  relics  of  liberty  for 
his  native  country.  'The  Austrian  and  Spanish  Habs- 
burgers  treated  Paul  IV  with  studied  contempt,  and 
thus  forced  him  to  enter  an  alliance  with  France. 
Neither  in  the  matter  of  the  succession  to  the  empire 
nor  in  the  conclusion  of  the  religious  peace  were  the 
interests  of  the  Holy  See  consulted  in  the  slightest 
degree. 

Paul  IV  elevated  to  the  cardinalate  his  nephew 
Carlo  Caraffa,  a  man  utterly  unworthy  and  without 
any  ecclesiastical  training,  and  enriched  other  rela- 
tives with  benefices  and  estates  taken  from  those  who 
favoured  the  Spaniards.  At  the  end  of  the  unfortunate 
war  with  Philip  II  the  aged  pope  lost  faith  in  his 
nephews  and  banished  them  from  the  Court.  Still 
more  disastrous  were  his  relations  with  England,  which 
had  been  reconciled  to  Rome  by  Mary,  and  Cardinal 
Pole.  Paul  IV  refused  to  sanction  Pole's  settlement 
in  regard  to  the  confiscated  goods  of  the  Church,  and 
demanded  restitution.  Pole  himself  was  relieved  by 
the  pontiff  of  his  legatine  office  and  ordered  to  come 
to  Rome  to  stand  before  the  Inquisition.  LTpon  the 
death  of  Mary  and  Pole,  he  rejected  Elizabeth's  claim 
to  the  crown,  on  the  ground  that  she  was  of  illegiti- 
mate birth.  His  activity  was  more  fruitful  in  the 
spiritual  concerns  of  the  Church.  He  could  boast  that 
no  day  passed  without  seeing  a  new  decree  of  reform. 
He  made  the  Inquisition  a  powerful  engine  of  govern- 
ment, and  was  no  respecter  of  persons.  The  great 
Cardinal  Morone  was  brought  before  the  tribimal  on 
suspicion  of  heresy  and  committed  to  prison.  Paul 
established  the  hierarchy  in  the  Netherlands  and  in 
the  Orient. 

The  pontificate  of  Paul  IV  was  a  great  disappoint- 
ment. He  who  at  the  beginning  was  honoured  by  a 
public  statue,  lived  to  see  it  thrown  down  and  muti- 
lated by  the  hostile  populace.  He  was  buried  in  St. 
Peter's  19  Aug.,  1559,  and  was  later  transferred  to  S. 
Maria  sopra  Minerva. 

Lives  by  CARAft-ioLl  andBROMATO:  voN  Ranke.  tfis^  o/(Ae 
Popes  in  the  X  VI-X  VIII  Centuries;  Reumont,  Gesch.  der  Stadt 
Rom;  Artaud  de  Montor,  History  of  the  Popes  (New  York,  IS67). 

James  F.  Lodghlin. 

Paul  V,  Pope  (Camillo  Borghese),  b.  at  Rome, 
17  Sept.,  1550;  elected  16  May,  1605;  d.  28  Jan.,  1621. 
Although  proud  to  call  himself,  as  we  read  on  the 
facade  of  St.  Peter's  and  on  his  epitaph,  a  Roman, 
Borghese  was  descended  from  a  noble  family  of  Siena 
which  held  important  po-sitions  in  that  city,  and 
claimed  St.  Catherine  for  a  relative.  Their  removal  to 
Rome  was  caused  by  the  endless  disturbances  which 
made  life  in  Siena  unbearable.  Camillo  was  carefully 
trained  in  jurisprudence  at  Perugia  and  Padua,  and 
becnmc  a  ciiimnist  of  marked  ability.  He  rose  in  the 
C(•(■lr^i,■l^li,■;ll  ,■.■, IV, T  >l , ■:!. Ill V,  if  ncil  i'miiLIIv;  in  l.-)96he 
w:i.s  iii,Hlee:,i.|in.il  bv  <  ■l.iiiciil  V 1 1 1 ,  :iii(l  becviiiie  Car- 
dmal-\  icar  of  Uonie.  He  held  aloof  from  all  parties 
and  factions,  devoting  all  his  spare  time  to  his  law- 
books. In  consequence,  on  the  death  of  Leo  XI,  all 
eyes  were  centred  on  him,  and  he  ascended  the  papal 
throne  without  engagement  or  obligation  of  any  sort. 
His  legal  training  was  soon  visible  in  all  his  words  and 
actions.  He  knew  nothing  of  compromises,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  rule  the  Church  not  from  the  standpoint  of 
diplomacy  but  from  the  decretals.  He  conceived  it 
his  duty  to  maintain  inviolate  every  right  and  claim 
advanced  by  his  predecessors.  This  made  his  charac- 
ter at  times  assume  a  very  stern  and  uncompromis- 
ing aspect.  His  first  public  act  was  to  send  home  to 
their  sees  the  prelates  and  even  the  cardinals  who  were 
sojourning  at  Rome  upon  one  or  other  pretext.  The 
Council  of  Trent  had  cleclared  it  a  grave  sin  for  a 
bishop  to  be  an  absentee.  That  he  was  engaged  in 
Rome  doing  the  business  of  the  Holy  See  made  no  dif- 
ference.   Paul  was  soon  involved  in  controversy  with 


PAUL 


582 


PAULA 


various  cities  of  Italy  on  matters  concerning  eccleei- 
astical  jurisdiction  and  the  relations  between  Church 
and  State.  The  bitterest  quarrel  was  with  the  proud 
Republic  of  Venire,  which  refused  to  acknowledge  the 
exemption  of  the  clergy  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
civil  courts  and  passed  two  laws  obnoxious  to  the  Ro- 
man Curia,  the  first  forbidding  the  alienation  of  real 
property  in  favour  of  the  clerg)-,  the  second  demand- 
ing the  approval  of  the  civil  power  for  the  building  of 
new  cluirches.  Paul  demanded  the  repeal  of  these 
anti-clerical  ordinances,  and  insisted  that  two  clerics 
who  had  been  committed  to  prison  should  be  surren- 
dered to  the  ecclesiastical  court.  The  dispute  became 
daily  more  bitter  and  gradually  developed  into  a 
broad  discussion  of  the  relative  position  of  Church  and 
State.    What  gave  the  quarrel  a  European  importance 


ENT  OF  Paul  V 


was  the  ability  of  the  champions  who  entered  the  field 
on  either  side.  For  the  claims  of  the  Church  stood 
Cardinals  Baronius  and  Bellarmine;  the  cause  of 
Venice  was  <lefended  by  the  Servite  Paolo  Sarpi,  a  man 
of  wonderful  literary  skill  and  a  sworn  enemy  of  the 
Roman  Court.  On  17  April,  1606,  the  pope  pro- 
nounced sentence  of  excommunication  against  the 
doge.  Senate,  and  (government  collectively.  He  al- 
lowed a  verj'  short  space  for  submission,  after  which 
he  impo.sed  an  interdict  on  the  city.  The  clergy  had 
now^  to  take  sides  for  or  against  the  pope.  With  the 
exception  of  the  .Jesuits,  the  Theatines,  and  the  Capu- 
chins, who  were  immediately  expelled,  the  entire  body 
of  secular  and  regular  clergj'  held  with  the  Government 
and  continued  to  hold  services,  notwithstanding  the 
interdict.  The  festival  of  Corpus  Christi  was  cele- 
brated with  unusual  splendour,  and  Sarpi  said 
Mass  for  the  first  time  in  years.  The  schism  lasted 
about  a  year;  and  peace  was  patched  up  through  the 
mediation  of  France  and  Spain.  The  Repubhc  refused 
to  repeal  the  obnoxious  laws  openly,  but  promised  "to 
conduct  itself  with  its  accustomed  piety".  With  these 
obscure  words  the  pope  was  forced  to  be  content;  he 
removed  the  censures  22  March,  1607.  The  Thea- 
tines and  Capuchins  were  permitted  to  return;  an 
exception  was  made  against  the  Jesuits. 


The  pope  watched  vigilantly  over  the  interests  of  the 
Church  in  every  nation.  On  9  July,  1606,  he  wrote  a 
friendly  letter  to  James  I  of  England  to  congrat\ilate 
him  on  his  accession  to  the  throne,  and  referred  with 
grief  to  the  plot  recently  made  against-  the  life  of  the 
monarch.  But  he  prays  him  not  to  make  the  innocent 
Catholics  suffer  for  the  crime  of  a  few^  He  promises 
to  exhort  all  the  Cathohcs  of  the  realm  to  be  submis- 
sive and  loyal  to  their  sovereign  in  all  things  not  op- 
posed to  the  honour  of  God.  ITnfortun.Ttely  the  oath 
of  allegiance  James  demanded  of  his  subjects  con- 
tained clauses  to  which  no  Catholic  could  in  con- 
science subscribe.  It  was  solemnly  condemned  in  two 
Briefs,  22  Sept.,  1606,  and  2.3  Aug.,  1607.  This  con- 
demnation occasioned  the  bitter  dissension  between 
the  party  of  the  archpriest  George  Blackwell  and  the 
Catholics  who  submitted  to  the  decision  of  the  Holy 
See.  In  Austria  the  efforts  of  the  pope  were  directed 
to  healing  the  disputes  among  the  Catholics  and  to 
giving  moral  and  material  aid  to  the  Catholic  Union. 
He  survived  the  battle  of  Prague,  which  put  an  end 
to  the  short  reign  of  the  Calvinistic  "winter-king". 

Paul  V  was  no  more  free  from  nepotism  than  the 
other  pontiffs  of  that  century.  But  if  he  seemed  to 
show  too  many  favours  to  his  relatives,  it  must  be  said 
that  they  were  capable  men  of  blameless  lives,  and 
devoted  their  large  revenues  to  the  embellishment  of 
Rome.  Paul  had  the  honour  of  putting  the  finishing 
touches  to  St.  Peter's,  which  had  been  building  for  a 
century.  He  enriched  the  Vatican  Library,  was  fond 
of  art,  and  encouraged  Guido  Reni.  He  canonized  St. 
Charles  Borromeo  and  St.  Frances  of  Rome.  He 
beatified  Sts.  Ignatius  Loyola,  Francis  Xavier,  Philip 
Xeri,  Theresa  the  Carmelite,  Louis  Bertrand,  Thomas 
of  Villanova,  and  Isidore  of  Madrid.  During  his  pon- 
tificate a  large  number  of  new  institutes  for  education 
and  charity  added  new  lustre  to  religion.  His  remains 
were  placed  in  the  magnificent  Borghese  chapel  in 
St.  Mary  Major's,  where  his  monument  is  universally 
admired. 

Life,  in  Latin,  by  Bzovio,  It.  tr.  in  continuation  of  Platina, 
Vile  dei  Pontefici  (Venice,  1730) ;  see  also  von  Ranke,  History  of 
the  Popes  in  the  Sixteenth,  etc..  Centuries:  VON  Redmont,  Gesck. 
der  StadI  Rom:  Abtaud  de  Montor,  History  of  the  Popes  (New 
York,  1S67). 

James  F.  Loughmn. 
Paul,  Regular  Clerics  of  Saint.    See  Babna- 

BITES. 

Paula,  S.\iNT,b.  in  Rome,  347;  d.  at  Bethlehem,  404. 
She  belonged  to  one  of  the  first  families  of  Rome. 
Left  a  widow  in  379  at  the  age  of  32  she  became, 
through  the  influence  of  St.  Marcella  and  her  group, 
the  model  of  Christian  widows.  In  382  took  place 
her  decisive  meeting  with  St.  Jerome,  who  had  come 
to  Rome  with  St.  Epiphanius  and  Paulinus  of  Anti- 
och.  These  two  bishops  inspired  her  with  an  invinci- 
ble desire  to  follow  the  monastic  life  in  the  East.  After 
their  deiKirture  from  Rome  and  at  the  request  of 
Marcella,  Jerome  gave  readings  from  Holy  Scripture 
before  the  group  of  patrician  women  among  whom  St. 
Paula  held  a  position  of  honour.  Paula  was  an  ar- 
dent student.  She  and  her  daughter,  Eustoehium, 
studied  and  mastered  Hebrew  perfectly.  By  their 
studies  they  aimed  not  so  much  to  acquire  knowledge, 
as  a  fuller  acquaintance  with  Christian  perfection. 

She  did  not,  however,  neglect  her  domestic  duties. 
A  devoted  mother,  she  married  her  daughter,  Paulina 
(d.  395),  to  the  senator  Pammachius;  Blesilla  soon 
became  a  widow  and  died  in  384.  Of  her  two  other 
daughters,  Rufina  died  in  386,  and  Eustoehium  ac- 
companied her  mother  to  the  Orient  where  she  died 
in  419.  Her  son  Toxotius,  at  first  a  pagan,  but  bap- 
tized in  38.5,  married  in  389  Lata,  daughter  of  the 
pagan  priest  Albinus.  Of  this  marriage  was  born 
Paula  the  Younger,  who  in  404  rejoined  Eustoehium  in 
the  East  and  in  420  closed  the  eyes  of  St.  Jerome. 
These  arc  the  names  which  recur  frequently  in  the 


PAULI 


583 


PAULICIANS 


letters  of  St.   Jerome,   where   they  are  inseparable 
from  that  of  Paula. 

The  death  of  Blesilla  and  that  of  Pope  Damasus  in 
384  completely  changed  the  manner  of  hfe  of  Paula 
and  Jerome.  In  September,  385,  Paula  and  Eusto- 
chium  left  Rome  to  follow  the  monastic  life  in  the  East. 
Jerome,  wlio  had  preceded  them  thither  by  a  month, 
joined  them  at  Antioch.  Paula  first  made  in  great 
detail  the  pilgrimage  of  all  the  famous  places  of  the 
Holy  Land,  afterward  going  to  Egypt  to  be  edified  by 
the  virtues  of  the  anchorites  and  cenobites,  and  finally 
took  up  her  residence  at  Bethlehem,  as  did  St.  Jerome. 
Then  began  for  Paula,  Eustochium,  and  Jerome  their 
definitive  manner  of  life.  The  intellectual  and  spiritual 
intercourse  among  these  holy  persons,  begun  at  Rome, 
continued  and  developed.  Two  monasteries  were 
founded,  one  for  men,  the  other  for  women.  Paula 
anil  Eustochium  took  a  larger  share  in  the  exegetical 
labours  of  Jerome,  and  conformed  themselves  more 
and  more  to  his  direction.  An  example  of  their  man- 
ner of  thinking  and  writing  may  be  seen  in  the  letter 
they  wrote  from  Bethlehem  about  386  to  Marcella  to 
persuade  her  to  leave  Rome  and  join  them;  it  is  Letter 
XLVI  of  the  correspondence  of  Jerome.  But  God 
was  not  si)aring  of  trials  to  His  servants.  Their  peace 
was  disturbed  by  constant  annoyances,  first  the  con- 
troversy concerning  Origenism  which  disturbed  their 
relations  with  John,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  later 
Paula's  need  of  money,  she  having  been  ruined  by  her 
generosity.  She  died  in  the  midst  of  these  trials  and 
good  works.  The  chief  and  almost  the  only  source 
of  Paula's  life  is  the  correspondence  of  St.  Jerome 
(P.  L.,  XXII).  The  Life  of  St.  Paula  is  in  Letter 
CVm,  which,  though  somewhat  rhetorical,  is  a  won- 
derful production.  The  other  letters  which  specially 
concern  St.  Paula  and  her  family  are  XXII,  XXX, 
XXXI,     XXXIII,     XXXVIII,     XXXIX,     LXVI, 

evil. 

Laob.inge,  HistoiredeStePaule  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1868);  Acta  SS., 
.Jan..  Ill,  327-37:  see  also  Hisloria  lauxiaca,  Ixxix,  in  P.  O., 
XXXIV,  1180:  St.  Jerome.  De  xiris  illuslribus  in  P.  L.,  XXIII, 
719:  Upton,  The  House  on  the  Aventine  in  Catholic  World,  LXVII, 
633-043. 

Louis  Saltet. 

Pauli,  Johannes,  b.  about  1455;  d.  after  1530  in 
the  monastery  at  Thann  in  Alsace.  What  little  is 
known  of  his  life  rests  upon  unreliable  information. 
Ludwig  von  Pastor  rejects  the  story  that  he  was  of 
Jewish  descent,  and  baptised  at  an  early  age,  taking 
the  name  of  Johannes  Pauli  from  his  godfather  (see 
below).  Pauli  became  Master  of  Arts  in  Strasburg, 
entered  the  Franciscans  (the  "Barefooted"),  and  de- 
livered his  first  sermon  in  Thann  in  1479.  Two  years 
later,  he  was  sent  to  the  convent  at  Oppenheim;  in 
1504  the  conventual  monastery  at  Bern  desired  him 
as  a  guardian;  he  held  the  same  office  in  Strasburg 
1506-10;  in  1516  he  is  mentioned  as  preacher  in 
Schlettstadt;  later  in  Villingen  in  the  Black  Forest, 
and  finally  in  Thann.  Prompted  by  his  acquaintance 
with  Geiler  of  Kaisersberg,  he  published  in  1515  ''Das 
Evangelienbuch " ;  in  1516  "Die  Emeis,  Buch  von  der 
Omeissen";  in  1517  "Die  Brosamlin  Geilers";  in  1520 
"Das  Narrenschiff,  aus  dem  Latein  ins  Deutsch 
gebracht".  His  own  work,  which  assured  him  a  last- 
ing place  in  German  literature,  is  the  famous  collec- 
tion of  farces  and  humorous  stories  "Schimpf  (Scherz) 
und  Ernst".  This  a  geniune  "folk's  book",  written 
in  an  easy  and  plain  style,  filled  with  humour  and 
pointed  satire,  intended  to  instruct  while  it  amused. 
"He  did  not  desire,"  as  Georg  RoUenhagen  says  in  his 
preface  to  "Froschmausler",  "to  make  people  laugh 
without  teaching  them  something;  his  book  was  like 
the  old  legends  and  sagas,  full  of  fabulous  happenings 
and  incidents,  but  written  so  that  in  them,  as  in  a 
comedy,  there  are  combined  with  poetry  and  imagina- 
tion the  plain,  unvarnished,  bitter  truths  of  life, 
worded  so  as  to  tell  serious  things  in  a  jocular  manner, 


with  a  laugh  and  a  smile."  Pauli  drew  his  informa- 
tion from  a  variety  of  sources,  and  his  farces  became 
the  inspiration  of  the  later  German  poets,  especially 
for  Hans  Sachs.  He  exercised  a  wide  influence  upon 
the  culture  of  the  whole  century. 

Veith,  Ueber  den.  Barfusser  Johannes  Pauli  (Vienna,  1839); 
Oesterley,  Johannes  Paulis  Schimpf  und  Ernst  (Stuttgart, 
1866) :  Eubel,  Gesch.  der  oberdeutschen  Minoritenprovim  (Wurz- 
burg,  1886):  Janssex,  Gesch.  des  deutschen  Volfces,  ed.  Pastor, 
VI  (Freiburg.  1901):  Bobertag,  Deutsche  Nationaltitteratur 
(Kurschner) ,  XXIV:  Weigert,  Deutsche  Volkschwdnke  des  16, 
Jahrhunderts  (Kempten,  1909). 

Nicholas  Scheid. 

Paulicians,  a  duahstic  heretical  sect,  derived  ori- 
ginally from  Manichaeism.  The  origin  of  the  name 
Paulician  is  obscure.  Gibbon  (Decline  and  Fall,  liv), 
says  it  means  "Disciples  of  St.  Paul"  (Photius,  op. 
cit.,  II,  11;  III,  10;  VI,  4).  Their  special  veneration 
for  the  Apostle,  and  their  habit  of  renaming  their 
leaders  after  his  disciples  lend  some  colour  to  this 
view.  On  the  other  hand,  the  form  (IlauXmSi'oi,  not 
Ilai/XiSi'oi)  is  curious;  and  the  name  seems  to  have  been 
used  only  by  their  opponents,  who  held  that  they  were 
followers  of  Paul  of  Samosata  (Conybeare,  op.  cit., 
cv).  The  birthplace  of  their  founder  evidently  sug- 
gested this;  but  there  is  no  connexion  between  their 
doctrine  and  his.  Photius  relates  that  a  certain  Mani- 
chee  woman,  named  Kallinike,  sent  her  two  sons  Paul 
and  John  to  Armenia  to  propagate  this  heresy;  the 
name  is  corrupted  from  l\a.v\oi.ii>a.vvoi  (Friedrich,  op. 
cit.,  I).  The  existence  of  such  persons  is  now  gene- 
rally denied.  The  latest  authority,  Ter  Mkrttschian 
(Die  Paulicianer,  63),  says  the  name  is  an  Armenian 
diminutive  and  means  "followers  of  little  Paul",  but 
does  not  explain  who  little  Paul  may  be.  It  occurs 
first  in  the  Acts  of  the  Armenian  Synod  of  Duin  in  719, 
a  canon  of  which  forbids  any  one  to  spend  the  night  in 
the  house  of  "the  wicked  heretics  called  Pollikian" 
(Ter  Mkrttschian,  62). 

I.  Doctrine. — The  cardinal  point  of  the  Paulician 
heresy  is  a  distinction  betw'oen  the  God  who  made  and 
governs  the  material  world  and  the  God  of  lieaven 
who  created  souls,  who  alone  should  be  adored.  They 
thought  all  matter  bad.  It  seems  therefore  obvious  to 
count  them  as  one  of  the  many  neo-Manich:ean  sects, 
in  spite  of  their  own  denial  and  that  of  modern  writers 
(Ter  Mkrttschian,  Conybeare,  Adeney,  loc.  cit.;  Har- 
nack,  "Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschichte",  Tiibingen, 
1909,  II,  528).  But  there  is  a  strong  Marcionite  ele- 
ment too.  They  rejected  the  Old  'Testament;  there 
was  no  Incarnation,  Christ  was  an  angel  sent  into  the 
world  by  God,  his  real  mother  was  the  heavenly  Jeru- 
salem. His  work  consisted  only  in  his  teaching;  to  be- 
lieve in  him  saves  men  from  judgment.  The  true  bap- 
tism and  Eucharist  consist  in  hearing  his  word,  as  in 
John,  iv,  10.  But  many  Paulicians,  nevertheless,  let 
their  children  be  baptized  by  the  Catholic  clergy. 
They  honoured  not  the  Cross,  but  only  the  book  of  the 
Gospel.  They  were  Iconoclasts,  rejecting  all  pictures. 
Their  Bible  was  a  fragmentary  New  Testament. 
They  rejected  St.  Peter's  epistles  because  he  had  de- 
nied Christ.  They  referred  always  to  the  "Gospel  and 
Apostle",  apparently  only  St.  Luke  and  St.  Paul; 
though  they  quoted  other  Gospels  in  controversy. 

The  whole  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  is  bad,  as  also  all 
Sacraments  and  ritual.  They  had  a  special  aversion 
to  monks.  Their  own  organization  consisted  first  of 
the  founders  of  their  sect  in  various  places.  These 
were  apostles  and  prophets.  They  took  new  names 
after  people  mentioned  by  St.  Paul,  thus  Constantine 
called  himself  Silvanus;  apparently  they  claimed  to  be 
these  persons  come  to  life  again.  Lender  the  apostles 
and  prophets  were  "fellow-workers"  [awixS-iiixoi)  who 
formed  a  council,  and  " notaries "  (rardpioi),  who 
looked  after  the  holy  books  and  kept  order  at  meet- 
ings. Their  conventicles  were  called,  not  churches, 
but  " prayer-hou.ses "  {Trpoaevxal).  They  maintained 
that  it  was  lawful  to  conceal  or  even  deny  their  ideas 


PAULICIANS 


584 


PAULICIANS 


for  fear  of  persecution;  many  of  them  lived  exteriorly 
as  Catholics.  Their  ideal  was  a  i)urely  spiritual  com- 
munion of  faithful  that  should  obliterate  all  distinc- 
tions of  race.  Their  enemies  accuse  them  constantly 
of  gross  immorality,  even  at  their  prayer-meetings. 
One  of  their  chief  leaders,  Baanes,  seems  to  have  ac- 
quired as  a  recognized  surname  the  epithet  "filthy" 
(6^vTp6().  They  would  recognize  no  other  name  for 
themselves  than  "Christians";  the  Catholics  were 
"Romans"  (Pa/xatoi),  that  is,  people  who  obey  the 
Roman  emperor,  as  the  Monophysites  called  their 
opponents  Melchites.  Harnack  sums  them  up  as 
"dualistic  Puritans  and  Individualists"  and  as  "an 
anti-hierarchic  Christianity  built  up  on  the  Gospel, 
and  Apostle,  with  emiihatic  rejection  of  Catholic 
Christianity"  (l)ogmengeschichte,  II,  528). 

Since  Gibbon  the  Paulicians  have  often  been  de- 
scribed as  a  survival  of  early  and  pure  Christianity, 
godly  folk  who  clung  to  the  Gospel,  rejecting  later 
superstitions,  who  were  grossly  calumniated  by  their 
opponents.  Conybeare  (op.  cit.)  thinks  they  were 
a  continuation  of  the  Adoptionists.  Dr.  Adeney  calls 
them  "in  many  respects  Protestants  before  Protes- 
tantism" (The  Greek  and  Eastern  Churches,  219). 
This  idea  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  sect  has  met 
among  modern  writers  with  more  interest  and  cer- 
tainlj-  more  sympathy  than  it  deserves. 

II.  History. — Constantinc  of  Mananalis,  calling 
himself  Silvanus,  founded  what  appears  to  be  the  first 
Paulician  community  at  Kibossa,  near  Colonia  in  Ar- 
menia. He  began  to  teach  about  6.57.  He  wrote  no 
books  and  taught  that  the  New  Testament  as  he  pre- 
sented it  (his  "Gospel  and  Apostle")  should  be  the 
only  text  used  by  his  followers  (Georgios  Monachos, 
ed.  Friedrich,  2).  The  other  Paulician  Apostles  after 
Constantine  were  Symeon  (called  Titus),  sent  by  the 
emperor  Constantine  Pogonatus  (66S-85)  to  put  down 
tlie  sect,  but  converted  to  it;  then  Gegnesius  an 
Armenian  (Timothy);  Joseph  (Epaphroditus) ;  Zach- 
ary,  who  was  rejected  by  many  and  called  a  hireling; 
Baanes;  Sergius  (Tychicus).  They  founded  six  con- 
gregations in  Armenia  and  Pontus,  to  wliich  they  gave 
the  names  of  Pauline  Churches  (Kibossa  was  "Mace- 
donia", and  so  on). 

Constantine-Silvanus,  after  having  preached  for 
twenty-seven  years  and  having  spread  his  sect  into 
the  Western  part  of  Asia  Minor,  was  arrested  by  the 
Imperial  authorities  (by  Symeon),  tried  for  heresy 
and  stoned  to  death.  In  690  Symeon-Titus  himself, 
having  become  a  Paulician,  was  also  executed  with 
many  others.  Tlic  history  of  these  people  is  divided 
between  their  persecutions  and  their  own  quarrels. 
An  Armenian  Paul  (thought  by  some  to  have  given  his 
name  to  the  sect)  set  up  a  congregation  at  Episparis  in 
the  (.\rmcnian)  district  Phanarcca  (d.  c.  715).  His 
two  sons  (iegnesius-Timothy  and  Theodore  quar- 
relled about  his  succession.  Gegnesius  went  to  Con- 
stantinople in  717  and  persuaded  the  emperor  Leo  III 
and  the  patriarch  Germanus  I  that  he  was  orthodox. 
Armed  with  an  imperial  safe-conduct  he  came  to 
Mananalis  and  succeeded  in  crushing  Theodore's  op- 
position. After  his  death  his  son  Zachary  (the  "hire- 
ling") and  his  son-in-law,  Joseph-Epaphroditus,  again 
quarrelled  and  formed  parties  as  to  which  should  suc- 
ceed. Zachary's  party  went  under;  many  of  them 
were  destroyed  by  the  Saracens. 

Joseph  (d.  77.5)  founded  communities  all  over  Asia 
Minor.  Then  came  Baanes  f\'ahan;  d.  801).  Under 
him  the  sect  decreased  in  numbers  and  influence.  But 
a  certain  Sergius-Tychicus,  who  made  a  new  schism, 
reformed  and  strengthened  the  movement  in  his  party. 
The  Paulician.s  were  now  cither  Baanites  (the  old 
party),  or  Sergites  (the  reformed  sect).  Sergius  was  a 
zealous  propagator  of  the  heresy;  he  boasted  that  he 
had  spread  his  Gospel  "from  East  to  West,  from 
North  to  South"  (Petrus  Siculus,  "Historia  Mani- 
chajorum",  op.  cit.,  45).     The  Sergites  meanwhile 


fought  .against  their  rivals  and  nearly  exterminated 
them.  From  the  Imperial  government  the  Paulicians 
met  with  alternate  protection  and  persecution.  Con- 
stantine IV,  and  still  more  Justinian  II,  persecuted 
them  cruelly.  The  first  Iconoclast  emperors  (Leo  III 
and  his  sucees.sors)  protected  tliein;  Conybe.are  counts 
these  emperors  as  practically  Paulicians  themselves 
(op.  cit.).  Nicephorus  I  tolerated  them  in  return  for 
their  service  as  soldiers  in  Phrygia  and  Lyeaonia. 
Michael  I  began  to  per.secute  again  and  his  successor 
Leo  V,  though  an  Iconoclast,  tried  to  refute  the  accu- 
sation that  he  was  a  Paulician  by  persecuting  them 
furiously.  A  great  number  of  them  at  this  time  re- 
belled and  fled  to  the  Saracens.  Sergius  wiis  killed  in 
835.  Theodora,  regent  for  her  son  ^lichacl  III,  con- 
tinued the  iiersecution;  hence  a  second  rebellion  under 
one  Karbeas,  who  again  led  many  of  his  followers 
across  the  frontiers. 

These  Paulicians,  now  bitter  enemies  of  the  empire, 
were  encouragetl  by  the  khalifa.  They  fortified  a 
place  called  Tephrike,  and  made  it  their  headquarters. 
From  Tephrike  they  made  continual  raids  into  the 
empire;  so  that  from  this  time  they  form  a  political 
power,  to  be  counted  among  the  enemies  of  Rome. 
We  hear  continually  of  wars  against  the  Saracens, 
Armenians,  and  PauHcians.  Under  Basil  I  the  Pauli- 
cian army  invaded  Asia  Minor  as  far  as  Ephesus,  and 
almost  to  the  coast  opposite  Constantinople.  But 
they  were  defeated,  and  Basil  destroyed  Tephrike  in 
871.  This  eliminated  the  sect  as  a  military  power. 
Meanwhile  other  Paulicians,  heretics  but  not  rebels, 
lived  in  groups  throughout  the  empire.  Constantine 
V  had  already  transferred  large  numbers  of  them  to 
Thrace;  John  I  Tzimiskes  sent  many  more  to  the 
same  part  to  defend  it  again.st  the  Slavs.  They 
founded  a  new  centre  at  Philippopolis,  from  which 
they  terrorized  their  neighbours.  During  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries  these  heretics  in  Armenia,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Thrace  constantly  occupied  the  attention 
of  the  government  and  the  Church.  Ihe  "Sclicians", 
converted  by  the  Patriarch  Methodius  I  (842-46), 
were  Paulicians.  Photius  wrote  against  them  and 
boasts  in  his  Encyclical  (866)  that  he  has  converted  a 
great  number.  In  Armenia  the  sect  continued  in  the 
"Thonraketzi"  founded  by  a  certain  Smbat  in  the 
ninth  century.  Conv'beare  attributes  to  this  Smbat  a 
work,  "The  Key  of  Truth",  which  he  has  edited.  It 
accepts  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Sacraments  of 
Baptism,  Penance,  and  the  Eucharist.  This  work 
especially  has  persuaded  many  writers  that  the  Pauli- 
cians were  much  maligned  [jcople.  But  in  any  case  it 
represents  a  very  late  stage  of  their  history,  and  it  is 
disputed  whether  it  is  really  Paulician  at  all.  Con- 
stantine IX  persuaded  or  forced  many  thousands  to 
renounce  their  errors. 

The  emperor  Alexius  Comnenus  is  credited  with 
having  put  an  end  to  the  heresy.  During  a  residence 
at  Philippopolis  he  argued  witli  them  antl  converted 
all,  or  nearly  all,  back  to  the  Church  (so  his  daughter: 
"Alexias",  XV,  9).  From  this  time  the  Paulicians 
practically  disappear  from  historj-.  But  they  left 
traces  of  their  here.sy.  In  Bulgaria  the  Bogomile  sect, 
which  lasted  through  the  Middle  Ages  and  spread  to 
the  West  in  the  form  of  Cathari,  Albigenses,  and  other 
Manicha>an  heresies,  is  a  continuation  of  Paulicianism. 
In  Armenia,  too,  similar  sects,  derived  from  them, 
continue  till  our  own  time. 

There  were  Paulician  communities  in  the  part  of 
Armenia  occupied  by  Russia  after  the  war  of  1828-29. 
Conybeare  piiblishes  very  curious  documents  of  their 
professions  of  faith  and  disputations  with  the  Grego- 
rian bishop  about  1837  (Key  of  Truth,  xxiii-xxviii). 
It  is  from  these  disputations  and  "The  Key  of  Truth  " 
that  he  draws  his  picture  of  the  Paulicians  as  simple, 
godly  folk  who  had  kept  an  earlier  (sc.  Adoptionistic) 
form  of  Christianity  (ibid.,  introduction). 

III.  So0RCES. — There  arc   four  chief  documents: 


PAULINE 


585 


PAULINUS 


(1)  Photius,  Four  books  against  the  Paulicians(Ai777»)(ris 
Trepi  Ti}S  Tujv  veotpdvToiv  fjLavLxaiojv  dva^\a(TTT^o-eios) ^  in 
P.  G.,  CII,  15-264.  (2)  Euthymius  Zigabenus,  in  his 
"Panoplia",  XXIV  [P.  G.,  CXXX,  11S9,  sqq.,  sep- 
arate edition  of  the  part  about  the  Paulicians,  ed. 
Gieseler  (Gottingen,  1S41)].  (3)  Peter  the  Abbot, 
"Concerning  the  Paulicians  and  Manichees",  ed. 
Gieseler  (Gottingen,  1S49),  who  identifies  the  author 
with  Petrus  Siculus,  who  wrote  a  "Historia  Manieha;- 
orum  qui  Pauliciani  dicuntur",  first  published  by 
Hader  (Ingolstadt,  1604),  of  which  work  Gieseler  con- 
siders "Concerning  the  Paulicians"  to  be  merely  an 
excerpt.  (4)  George  Monachos,  "Chronikon",  ed. 
Muralt  (St.  Petersburg,  1853). 

Of  Photius's  work  only  book  I  contains  the  history; 
the  rest  is  a  collection  of  homilies  against  the  heresy. 
There  is  interdependence  between  these  four  sources. 
The  present  state  of  criticism  (due  chiefly  to  Karapet 
Ter-NIkrttschian)  is  this: — Photius's  account  (book  I) 
falls  into  two  parts.  Chapters  i-xiv  are  authentic, 
xv-xxvii  a  later  edition.  The  original  source  of  all  is 
lost.  George  Monachos  used  this.  Peter  the  Monk 
cither  copied  George  or  used  the  original  work.  Pho- 
tius may  have  used  Peter  (so  Ter-Mrkftschian)  or 
lierhaps  the  original.  Derived  from  these  are  Ziga- 
benus and  the  spurious  part  of  Photius's  book.  Bon- 
wetsch  (Realencyklopiidie  fur  prot.  Theol.,  3rd  ed., 
Leipzig,  1904,  XV,  50)  represents  (according  to  Fried- 
rich  and  as  probable  only)  the  order  of  derivation  as: 
(1)  An  arcouTit  contained  in  a  MS.  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury (Coil.  Si-diial.,  1,  *,  1,  fol.  164  sqq.),  ed.  Friedrich 
in  the  "Sitzun^.^lxricht  der  Miinchener  Akademie", 
(1S96),  70-81;  (2)  Photius,  i-x;  (3)  George  Mona- 
chos; (4)  Peter  the  Abbot;  (5)  Zigabenus;  (6)  Pseudo- 
Photius,  x-xxvii;    (7)  Petrus  Siculus. 

Other  sources  are  the  Armenian  bishop,  John 
Ozniensis  [ed.  by  Aucher  (Venice,  1834),  and  used  by 
Dollinger  and  Conybeare],  and  the  "Key  of  Truth" 
[Mrkttschian  in  "Zeitschrift  fur  Kirchengeschichte", 
ISO.i,  and  Cnnvboare's  edition,  Armenian  and  English, 
with  iiitniduftion  and  notes  (Oxford,  1S9S)]. 

Ter-.Mkrttschun.  Die  Paulkinn.r  in,  l.,,r,i,'lutischen  Kaiser- 
reick  uii'l  verwamitc  kcUerische  Er.'^r} / Uinenien  (Leip- 
zig, 1S9.3);  Dollinger,  Beitrdge  --«  "lile  des  Miltel- 
aUers.  I  (Munich.  1890).  1-31;  I...M,..;  .,,  I':..  ,u-ns.  Bulgares 
el  Bonskommes  (Geneva,  1879);  I1lki.i,:.U(.ihlu,  Photius.  Ill 
(Ratisbon,  1869).  143-53;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  ed.  BrnY, 
VI  (London,  189S),  liv,  and  appendix  6;  Adenet,  The  Greek  and 
Eastern  Churches  (Edinburgh,  1908),  v. 

Adrian  Fortescue. 

Pauline  Privilege.     See  Divorce. 

Paulinus,  Saint,  Archbishop  of  York,  d.  at  Roch- 
ester, 10  Oct.,  644.  He  was  a  Roman  monk  in  St. 
Andrew's  monastery  at  Rome,  and  was  sent  by  St. 
Gregory  the  Great  in  601,  with  St.  Mellitus  and  others, 
to  help  St.  Augustine  and  to  carry  the  pallium  to  him. 
He  laboured  in  Kent — with  the  possible  exception  of 
a  mission  to  East  Anglia  before  616 — till  625,  when  he 
accompanied  Ethelburga  (-iEthelburh),  the  sister  of 
King  Eadbald  of  Kent,  when  she  went  to  the  Nor- 
thumbrian Court  to  marry  King  Edwin,  then  a  pagan 
(see  Edwin,  Saint).  Before  leaving  Kent,  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  by  St.  Justus,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. He  was  successful  in  converting  Edwin  and 
large  numbers  of  his  people,  the  king's  baptism  taking 
place  on  12  April,  627.  With  the  assistance  of  St. 
Edwin,  he  established  his  see  at  York  and  began  to 
build  a  stone  church  there.  His  apostolic  labours  in 
instructing  and  baptizing  the  people  of  the  north 
country  were  unceasing,  and  tradition  perpetuates  his 
ministry  at  Yeavering,  Catterick  Bridge,  Dewsbury, 
Easingwold,  Southwell,  and  elsewhere,  while  his  own 
name  is  preserved  in  the  village  of  Pallingsburn  in 
Northumbria.  On  the  defeat  of  St.  Edwin  in  633, 
Paulinus  carried  the  queen  and  her  children  safely  to 
Kent;  and,  as  the  heathen  reaction  under  Penda  made 
missionary  work  impossible  in  Northumbria,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  Diocese  of  Rochester,  then  vacant. 


It  was  after  his  flight  that  he  received  the  pallium  from 
Rome  (634),  sent  to  him  as  Archbishop  of  York. 
Though  Anglican  writers  have  disagreed  among  them- 
selves as  to  whether  he  was  justified  in  leaving  his 
archbishopric.  Catholic  writers,  following  St.  Bede, 
have  held  that  he  had  no  choice  and  was  the  best 
judge  of  what  was  advisable  under  the  circumstances. 
St.  Bede  describes  him  as  tall  and  thin  with  a  slightly 
stooping  figure;  he  had  black  hair  and  an  aquiline 
nose  and  was  of  venerable  and  awe-inspiring  aspect. 
He  was  buried  in  his  church  at  Rochester,  and,  on  the 
rebuilding  of  the  cathedral,  his  relics  were  translated 
by  Archbiship  Lanfranc  to  a  silver  shrine  where  they 
lay  till  the  Reformation.  His  festival  is  observed  in 
England  on  10  Oct.,  the  anniversary  of  his  death. 

Bede,  Hist.  Ecc,  II,  ix,  xii-xiv,  xvi-xx;  Ajigln-Suxon  Chronicle, 
ann.  601,  625.  633.  and  644:  Registrum  Raffense  (London,  1769); 
Alcuin,  De  poniif.  eccl.  Ebor.  in  P.  L.,  CI;  Capgrave,  Nova 
Leaeiida  Anglia  (Oxford,  1901);  Acta  SS.,  V.  October;  Bibl. 
hagios!.  lat.  (Brussels.  190i):  Challoner,  Britannia  Sancta  (Lon- 
don, 1745);  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  10  Oct.;  Kemble,  Codex 
Diplomaticus  (evi  Saxonici  (London,  1839-48) ;  Haddan  and 
Stubbs,  Ecclesiastical  Documents,  I,  III  (Oxford,  1869-78); 
Bright,  Chapters  of  Early  Eng.  Church  Hist.  (Oxford,  1878); 
Raine,  Historians  of  the  Church  of  York,  Rolls  Series  (London, 
1S79-94):  Birch.  Cartularium  Saxonicum  (London.  1885-93); 
Raine  in  Diet.  Christ.  Biog.,  s.  v.  Paulinus  (20);  Stanton,  Me- 
nology  (London.  1892),  10  Oct.;  SeaRLE,  Anglo-Saxon  Bishops. 
Kings  and  Nobles  (Cambridge,  1899);  Hunt  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog., 
s.  v.;  C.\BROL,  Angleterre  chretienne  avant  les  Norniands  (Paris, 
1909). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Paulinus,  Saint,  Bishop  op  Noi.a  (Pontius 
Meropius  Aniciu.s  Paulinus),  b.  at  Bordeaux  about 
354;  d.  22  June,  431.  He  sprang  from  a  distinguished 
family  of  Aquitania  and  his  education  was  entrusted  to 
the  poet  Ausonius.  He  became  governor  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Campania,  but  he  soon  reaUzed  that  he  could 
not  find  in  public  life  the  happiness  he  sought.  From 
380  to  390  he  lived  almost  entirely  in  his  native  land. 
He  married  a  Spanish  lady,  a  Christian  named  Therasia. 
To  her,  to  Bishop  Delphinus  of  Bordeaux  and  his 
successor  the  Presbyter  Amandus,  and  to  St.  Martin 
of  Tours,  who  had  cured  him  of  some  disease  of  the 
eye,  he  owed  his  conversion.  He  and  his  brother  were 
baptized  at  the  same  time  by  Delphinus.  When 
Paulinus  lost  his  onlj'  child  eight  days  after  birth,  and 
when  he  was  threatened  with  the  charge  of  having 
murdered  his  brother,  he  and  his  wife  decided  to  with- 
draw from  the  world,  and  to  enter  the  monastic  life. 
They  went  to  Spain  about  390. 

At  Christmas,  394,  or  395,  the  inhabitants  of  Barce- 
lona obliged  him  to  be  ordained,  which  was  not  ca- 
nonical as  he  had  not  previou.sly  received  the  other 
orders.  Having  had  a  special  devotion  to  St.  Felix, 
who  was  buried  at  Nola  in  Campania,  he  laid  out  a 
fine  avenue  leading  to  the  church  containing  Felix's 
tomb,  and  beside  it  he  erected  a  hospital.  He  decided 
to  settle  down  there  with  Therasia;  and  he  distrib- 
uted the  largest  part  of  his  possessions  among  the  poor. 
In  395  he  removed  to  Nola,  where  he  led  a  rigorous, 
ascetic,  and  monastic  life,  at  the  same  time  contrib- 
uting generously  to  the  Church,  the  aqueduct  at  Nola, 
and  the  construction  of  basilicas  in  Nola,  Fondi  etc. 
The  basilica  at  Nola  counted  five  naves  and  had  on 
each  side  four  additions  or  chapels  (cubicula),  and  an 
apsis  arranged  in  a  clover  shape.  This  was  connected 
with  the  old  mortuary  chapel  of  St.  Felix  by  a  gallery. 
The  side  was  richly  decorated  with  marble,  silver 
lamps  and  lustres,  paintings,  statuary,  and  inscrip- 
tions. In  the  apsis  was  a  mosaic  which  represented 
the  Blessed  Trinity,  and  of  which  in  1512  some  rem- 
nants were  still  found. 

About  409  Paulinus  was  chosen  Bishop  of  Nola. 
For  twenty  years  he  discharged  hi.s  fliities  in  a  most 
praiseworthy  manner.  __His  litters  contain  numerous 
Biblical  quotations  anil  allusioiis;  f\i  rything  he  per- 
formed in  the  spirit  of  the  Bililr  and  expres.se<l  in 
Biblical  language.  Gennadius  mentions  the  writings 
of  Paulinus  in  his  continuation  of  St.  Jerome's  "De 


PAULINUS 


586 


PAULINUS 


Viris  Illustribus"  (xlix'l.  The  panegyric  on  the  Em- 
peror Theodisius  is  unfortunately  lost,  a.s  are  also  the 
"Opus  saeramcntoruni  et  hymnorum",  the  "Epistola; 
ad  Sororeni",  the  "Liber  de  Pirnitentia",  the  "Liber 
de  Laudc  Generali  Omnium  Martyrum",  and  a  poeti- 
cal treatment  of  the  "De  Regibus"  of  Suetonius 
which  Ausonius  mentions.  Forty-nine  letters  to 
friends  have  been  preserved,  as  those  to  Sulpicius 
Severus,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Dclphinus,  Bishop  Vic- 
tricius  of  Rouen,  Desiderius,  Amandus,  Pammachius 
etc.  Thirty-three  poems  are  also  e.xtant.  After  395 
he  composed  annually  a  very  long  poem  for  the  feast 
of  St.  Felix,  in  which  he  principally  glorified  the  life, 
works,  and  miracles  of  his  holy  patron.  Then  going 
further  back  he  brought  in  various  religious  and  poetic 
motives.  Tlic  epic  parts  are  very  vivid,  the  lyrics 
full  of  real,  unaflFected  enthusiasm  and  an  ardent  ap- 
preciation of  nature.  Thirteen  of  these  festal  poems 
and  fragments  of  the  fourteenth  have  been  preserved. 
Conspicuous  among  his  other  works  are  the  poetic 
epistles  to  Au.^onius,  the  nuptial  hymn  to  Julianus, 
which  extols  the  dignity  and  sanctityof  Christian  mar- 
riage, and  the  [loeni  of  comfort  to  the  parents  of  Celsus 
on  the  death  of  their  child.  Although  Pauhnus  has 
great  versatility  and  nicety,  still  he  is  not  entirelj'  free 
from  the  mannerisms  and  ornate  culture  of  his  period. 
All  his  writings  breathe  a  charming,  ideal  personality, 
freed  from  all  terrestrial  attachments,  ever  striving 
upward.  Accoriling  to  Augustine,  he  also  had  an  ex- 
aggerated idea  concerning  the  veneration  of  saints  and 
rehcs.  His  letter  xxxii,  written  to  Sulpicius  Severus, 
has  received  special  attention  because  in  it  he  de- 
scribes the  basilica  of  Nola,  which  he  built,  and  gives 
copious  accounts  of  the  existence,  construction,  and 
purpo.se  of  Christian  monuments.  From  Pauhnus  too 
we  have  information  concerning  St.  Peter's  in  Rome. 
During  his  lifetime  Paulinus  was  looked  upon  as  a 
saint.  His  body  was  first  interred  in  the  cathedral  of 
Nola;  later,  in  iienevento;  thence  it  was  conveyed  by 
Otto  HI  to  S.  Bartolomeo  all'  Lsola,  in  Rome,  and  fi- 
nallv  in  compliance  with  the  regulation  of  Pius  X  of 
18  b>pt.,  1908  (Acta  Apostohcs  Sedis,  I,  245  sq.)  it 
was  restored  to  the  cathedral  of  Nola.  His  feast,  22 
June,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  double. 

Sancti  Paulini  Nolani  EpisioUs  et  Carmina,  ed.  Hartel  in  Cor- 
pus scriptorum  ecdesiasticorum  latinorum,  XXIX.  XXX  (Vienna, 
1894);  BcsE.  Pautin,  Bischof  von  Nola.  I,  II  (Ratisbon,  1856) 
Lagr.\sge,  nutoire  de  St.  Paulin  de  Note  (2nd  ed.,  Paris.  1882) 
Lafo.n.  Paulin  de  Note  (Montauban,  1885);  Batjmgartner,  Ge- 
tchichle  der  WeUlileratur,  IV  (Freiburg,  1900),  143-51;  Holt- 
ziNGER.  Die  Bafilika  des  Paulinus  zu  Nola  in  Zeifschrift  fiir  bil- 
dende  Kunst.  XX  (Lei[)zig,  1885).  135-41;  Augusti.  Beilrdge  zur 
chri-ttlichen  Kunstgeschichte  und  lAturgik.  I  (Leipzig,  1841),  146- 
79. 

Klemens  Lofpler. 

Paulinus  II,  S.^^int,  Patriarch  of  Aqdileia,  b.  at 
Preinariacco,  nearCividale,  Italy, about 730-40;  d.S02. 
Born  probably  of  a  Roman  family  during  Longobardic 
rule  in  Italy,  he  was  brought  up  in  the  patriarchal 
schools  at  Cividale.  After  ordination  he  became  mas- 
ter of  the  school.  He  acquired  a  thorough  Latin 
culture,  pagan  and  Christian.  He  had  also  a  deep 
knowledge  of  jurisprudence,  and  extensive  Scriptural, 
theological,  and  patristic  training.  This  learning  won 
him  the  favour  of  Charlemagne.  After  the  destruction 
of  the  Kingdom  of  the  Longobards  in  774,  Charles 
invited  Paulinus  to  France  in  776,  to  be  royal  master 
of  "grammar".  He  assisted  in  restoring  civihzation 
in  the  West. 

In  777  Paulinus  made  his  first  acquaintance  with 
Pctrus  of  Pisa,  Alcuin,  Arno,  Albrico,  Bona,  Riculph, 
Raefgot,  Rado,  LuUus,  Ba.ssinus,  Fuldrad,  Eginard, 
Arlalard,  and  .\delbert,  the  leading  men  of  that  age. 
His  devotion  to  Charlemagne  was  rewarded  by  many 
favours,  among  them  the  gift  of  the  property  of  Wal- 
dand,  son  of  Mimo  of  Lavariano,  with  a  diploma  dated 
from  Ivrea,  and  his  appointment  by  Charles  as  Patri- 
arch of  Aquileia  in  787.    Paulinus  took  a  prominent 


part  in  the  import.ant  matters  of  his  day.  In  his  rela- 
tions with  the  churches  of  Istria,  or  with  the  Patriarch 
of  Grade),  the  representative  of  Byzantine  interests, 
he  showed  the  greatest  prudence  and  pastoral  zeal. 
Paulinus  obtained  diplomas  for  the  free  election  of  the 
future  patriarchs,  and  other  privileges  for  the  Church 
of  Aquileia,  viz.  the  monastery  of  St.  Mary  in  Organo, 
the  church  of  St.  Laurence  of  Buia,  the  hospitals  of 
St.  John  at  Cividale  and  St.  Mary  at  Verona.  He 
helped  in  preparing  the  new  Christian  legislation,  and 
amongst  the  "Italic  Capitularia"  we  find  some  canons 
of  his  synods. 

In  792  he  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Ratisbon, 
which  condemned  the  heresy  of  Adoptionism  taught, 
by  lOliplKind  and  FeHx,  Bishop  of  Urgel.  In  794  he 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  national  Synod  of  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  where  Adoptionism  was  again  con- 
demned, and  wrote  a  book  against  it,  which  was  sent 
to  Spain  in  the  name  of  the  coimcil.  Leaving  Frank- 
fort Paulinus  paid  a  visit  to  Cividale  and  accompanied 
Pepin  against  the  Avars.  At  Salzburg  he  presided 
over  a  synod  of  bishops,  in  which  were  discussed 
the  evangelization  of  the  barbarians,  and  baptism,  as 
we  learn  from  letters  of  Charles,  Alcuin,  Arno,  and 
Paulinus.  Returning  from  the  expedition  the  patriarch 
once  more  opposed  the  Adoptionists  at  the  Synod  of 
Cividale  in  796.  Paulinus  expounded  the  Catholic 
doctrine  about  the  Blessed  Trinity,  especially  about 
the  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  leather  and 
the  Son.  At  this  synod  fourteen  "canons"  on  eccle- 
siastical discipline,  and  on  the  sacrament  of  marriage, 
were  framed  and  a  copy  of  the  Acts  was  sent  to  the 
emperor.  Paulinus  is  said  to  have  assisted  at  the 
Council  of  Altinum,  but  Hefele  has  proved  that  a 
council  was  never  held  there.  In  798  he  was  "Missus 
Dominicus"  of  Charlemagne  at  Pistoia,  with  Arno 
and  ten  other  bishops;  and  afterwards  he  went  to 
Rome  as  imperial  legate  to  the  pope.  The  activity  of 
Paulinus  as  metropolitan  is  clear  from  the  "Sponsio 
Episcoporum  ad  S.  Aquileiensem  Sedem". 

Among  his  works  are;  "Libellus  Sacrosyllabus  con- 
tra Elipandum";  "Libri  III  contra  Felicem";  the 
protocol  of  the  conference  with  Pepin  and  the  bishops 
on  the  Danube,  a  work  very  important  for  the  history 
of  that  expedition.  Paulinus  was  also  a  poet,  and  we 
still  possess  some  of  his  poetical  productions:  "Car- 
men de  regula  fidei";  the  "rythmus"  or  elegy  for 
the  death  of  his  friend,  Duke  Heric,  killed  in  battle, 
799;  another  rhythm  on  the  destruction  of  Aquileia; 
eight  rhythms  or  hymns  to  be  sung  in  his  own  church 
for  Christmas,  the  Purification,  Lent,  Easter,  St. 
Mark,  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  the  dedication,  and  "Ver- 
sus de  Lazaro  ".  He  died  revered  as  a  saint.  In  MSS. 
prior  to  the  Martyrology  of  Usuard  his  feast  is  re- 
corded on  11  Jan.  In  the  calendars  of  saints  of  the 
thirteenth,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  used  in 
the  Church  of  Aquileia  and  Cividale,  his  feast  has  a 
special  rubric.  The  first  appearance  of  the  name  St. 
Paulinus  in  the  Liturgy  occurs  in  the  "Litania"  of 
Charles  the  Bald  of  the  ninth  century.  It  appears 
also  in  the  "Litania^  Carolina'",  in  the  "Litania"  a  S. 
Patribus  constituta'",  and  finally  in  the  "Litanix"  of 
the  Gertrudiaii  MS.  of  the  tenth  century.  Down  to 
he  sixteenth  cent\iry  the  feast  was  celebrated  on  11 
Jan.,  during  the  privileged  octave  of  the  Epiphany. 
The  patriarch  Francesco  Barbaro  at  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century  translated  the  feast  to  9  Feb. 
The  Church  of  Cividale  keeps  his  feast  on  2  March. 
After  several  translations  the  relics  of  the  saintly 
patriarch  were  laid  to  rest  under  the  altar  of  the  crypt 
of  the  basilica  of  Cividale  del  Friuli. 

Acta  SS..  Jan.,  I,  713-18;  Alcuin,  Letters  and  Poems  in  jAFrt. 
Bibl.  Rer.  German..  VI;  Amelli,  Paolo  Diacono,  Carlamagno  e 
Paalino  d' Aquileia  (Monte  Cassino.  1899);  Bahr.  Ceschtchte  d. 
ROm.  Lilleratur  i.  Karol.  Zeitalter  (Karlsruhe,  1840);  Belloni, 
Patriarchi  Aquikjesi  in  Muhatohi,  Rer.  Ital.  Script..  XVI.  i,  32; 
Brandileone,  Note  ad  alcuni  canoni  (Cividale,  1900):  Calisbe. 
San  Paolino  in  Kit.  Intern.  (Sept.,  1900) ;  Carducci,  La  riaurre- 


PAULINUS 


587 


PAULISTS 


zione  in  A.  Mamoni  e  in  S.  PaoUno,  vol.  X  (Bologna,  1898); 
Centenario  di  S.  Paolina,  numero  unico  (Cividale,  1906) ;  Ceil- 
LiER,  Hisioire  generate  des  auteurs  sacres  (Paris,  1862) ;  DE  RuBEls, 
Monumenta  Eccl.  Aquilejensis  (Straaburg,  1740);  Idem,  £)isser- 
tationes  varicE  erudilionis  (Venice,  1762) ;  Diplomata  of  Charles 
the  Great  in  P.  L.;  DiJmmler,  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Poet.  Lot. 
av.  Karol.  I,  160-351  (Hanover,  1875-89) ;  Ellero,  S.  Paolino 
Patriarca  d'Aquileia  (Cividale,  1901);  Foschia,  S.  Paolino 
(Udine,  1SS4);  Giannoni,  Paulinus  II  Patriarch  von  Aquiteja 
(Vienna,  1896) ;  Leicht,  I diplomi  imperiali  concessi  ai  Patriarchi 
d'Aquileia  (Udine.  1895):  Hoepli,  Miscellanea  per  il  XI  Cente- 
nario di  S.  Paolino  (Milan.  1905);  Tamassia,  Paolo  Diacono 
(Cividale,  1900);  Tiraboschi.  Storia  d.  lell.  Ital,  III  (Rome, 
1782);    Wiegand.  Paulinus  von  Aquileia. 

Aldigi  Cossio. 

Paulinus  a  S.  Bartholomaeo  (Philip  Wesdin), 
missionary  and  Orientalist,  b.  at  Hoff  in  Lower  Aus- 
tria, 25  Apr.,  1748;  d.  in  Rome,  7  Jan.,  1806.  Having 
entered  the  Carmelite  Order,  he  was  sent  in  1774  as 
missionary  to  India  (Malabar)  and  there  was  ap- 
pointed vicar  general  of  his  order  and  Apostolic  visitor. 
Recalled  in  1789  to  Rome  to  give  an  account  of  the 
state  of  that  mission,  he  was  charged  with  the  edition 
of  books  for  the  use  of  missionaries.  On  account  of 
political  troubles  he  stayed  from  1798  to  1800  at  Vienna. 
He  returned  to  Rome  as  prefect  of  studies  at  the 
Propaganda.  Paulinus  is  the  author  of  many  learned 
books  on  the  East,  which  were  highly  valued  in  their 
day  and  have  contributed  much  to  the  study  and 
knowledge  of  Indian  literature  and  Indian  life.  We 
are  indebted  to  him  for  the  first  printed  Sanskrit  gram- 
mar. The  following  are  some  of  his  more  important 
works : 

(1)  "Systemabrahmanicum  liturgicum,  mythologi- 
cum,  civile,  ex  monumentis  indicis  musei  Borgiani 
Vclitris  dissertationibus  historico-criticis  illustratum" 
(Rome,  1791),  translated  into  German  (Gotha,  1797); 
(2)  "Examen  historico-criticum  codieum  indicorum 
bibliotheca;  S.  C.  de  Propaganda"  (Rome,  1792); 
(.3)  "Musei  Borgiani  Velitris  codices  manuscripti 
avenses,  Peguani,  Siamici,  Malabarici,  Indostani  .  .  . 
illustrati"  (Rome,  1793);  (4)  "Viaggio  alle  Indie 
orientali"  (Rome,  1796),  translated  into  German  by 
Forster  (Berlin,  1798);  (5)  "Sidharubam,  seu  Gram- 
matica  sanscridamica,  cui  accedit  dissert,  hist.  crit.  in 
linguam  sanscridamicam  vulgo  Samscret  dictam" 
(Rome,  1799),  another  edition  of  which  appeared 
under  the  title  "Vyacaranam"  (Rome,  1S04);  (6) 
"India  orientalis  Christiana"  (Rome,  1794),  an  im- 
portant work  for  the  history  of  missions  in  India. 
Other  works  bear  on  linguistics  and  church  history. 

Bakone.  Vita,  precursori  ed  opere  di  P.  Paolino  da  S.  Bartolo- 
meo  (Naples,  1888) ;  Heimbucher,  Die  Orden  und  Kongrega- 
tionen  der  katholischen  Kirche,  II  (2nd  ed.,  Paderborn.  1907), 
568-69. 

LiVARius  Oliqer. 

Paulinus  of  Antioch.  See  Meletius  of  Antioch. 

Paulinus  of  Pella,  Christian  poet  of  the  fifth 
century;  b.  at  Pella  in  Macedonia,  but  of  a  Bordelaise 
family.  He  was  the  son  of  an  official,  which  explains 
his  birth  in  Macedonia  and  his  sojourn  at  Carthage 
while  he  was  a  child.  He  soon  returned  to  Bordeaux. 
He  was  probably  the  grandson  of  the  poet  Ausonius. 
At  the  age  of  eighty-three  he  composed  an  account  of 
his  life:  "Eucharisticon  Deo  sub  ephemeridis  meae 
textu".  His  autobiography  is  a  <hank.sgiving,  al- 
though illness,  loss  of  property,  and  dangers  from  in- 
vasion occupy  more  space  in  it  than  do  days  of  happi- 
ness. The  account  is  interesting,  for  it  presents  a 
sincere  picture  of  the  period,  and  the  expression  of 
exalted  sentiments.  Unfortunately  the  style  and 
versification  do  not  always  correspond  to  the  sincerity 
and  the  height  of  inspiration.  The  date  is  uncertain. 
The  passage  which  apparently  gives  it  (474  sqq.)  is 
altered  but  may  be  between  4.59  and  465.  The  very 
name  of  the  author  has  not  been  preserved  by  the 
single  MS.  of  the  poem.  We  know  it  only  through 
Margarin  de  La  Bigne,  the  author  of  the  "  Bibliotheca 
Patrum"    (Paris,    1579,   appendix,   VIII),   who  had 


handled  another  manuscript  giving  the  name  of  Pau- 
linus. The  "Eucharisticon"  was  published  by  W. 
Brandes  in  vol.   I  of  "Poet^e  Christian!  minores" 


Teuffel,  Gesch.  d.  rOm.  Literatur,  §474,  4;  Ebert,  Gesch:  d. 
lAteratuT  des  Mittelalters,  I  (Leipzig,  1889),  405;  Ddchebne,  Fast, 
ipis.  de  Vancienne  Gaule,  II  (2nd  ed.,  Paris,  1900),  pt.  II. 

Padl  Ibjay. 

Paulists. — From  the  time  that  the  abode  and  vir- 
tues of  St.  Paul  the  first  hermit  (q.  v.)  were  revealed 
to  St.  Anthony,  various  communities  of  hermits 
adopted  him  as  patron.  The  name  Paulists,  however, 
was  also  applied  to  the  members  of  congregations  es- 
tablished under  the  patronage  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle. 
(See  the  articles  on  Barnabites;  Minims;  Piarists; 
and  Theatines.) 

(1)  Hermits  of  St.  Paul  of  Hungary,  formed  in  1250 
by  Blessed  Eusebius  of  Gran,  of  two  communities,  one 
founded  at  Patach  in  1215  by  Bishop  Bartholomew 
of  Pecs  who  united  the  scattered  hermits  of  his  dio- 
cese, and  the  other  consisting  of  his  own  followers. 
In  1246  Blessed  Eusebius,  canon  of  the  cathedral  of 
Gran,  resigned  his  dignities,  distributed  his  goods 
among  the  poor,  and  withdrew  to  the  solitude  of  Pisilia, 
a  forest  near  Zante,  to  lead  a  life  of  penance  with  a 
few  companions.  Four  years  later  he  is  said  to  have 
been  admonished  in  a  vision  to  gather  into  community 
the  other  hermits  living  in  the  vicinity,  for  whom  he 
built  a  monastery  and  church.  In  the  same  year  he 
proposed  and  obtained  affiliation  with  the  Patach 
community  under  the  rule  prescribed  by  its  founder, 
and  was  chosen  superior.  He  received  the  approba- 
tion of  Ladislaus,  Bishop  of  Pecs,  for  the  new  congrega- 
tion, but  the  publication  of  the  decrees  of  the  Lateran 
Council  at  this  time  necessitated  a  journey  to  Rome 
to  secure  the  further  sanction  of  the  Holy  See.  In 
1263  a  new  rule  was  given  the  congregation  by  the 
Bishop  of  Pecs,  which  was  superseded  by  still  another 
drawn  up  by  Andrew,  Bishop  of  Agria,  after  the 
death  of  Eusebius  (20  Jan.,  1270),  and  this  was  fol- 
lowed until  1308,  when  the  permission  of  the  Holy 
See  was  obtained  to  adopt  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine. 
The  order  was  accorded  many  privileges  by  succeeding 
pontiffs,  among  others  that  of  exemption  from  episco- 
pal jurisdiction,  and  provisions  were  made  for  the 
pursuit  of  higher  studies  in  many  of  the  monasteries, 
one  papal  regulation  ordaining  that  no  member  could 
be  raised  to  any  dignity  in  the  order  without  the  de- 
gree of  Doctor  of  Divinity,  for  which  a  rigid  examina- 
tion was  prescribed. 

The  congregation  spread  rapidly  through  Hungary, 
where  alone  it  soon  numbered  170  houses,  and  it  at- 
tained an  equal  degree  of  prosperity  in  other  countries, 
being  divided  into  five  flourishing  provinces:  Hungary, 
Germany  (including  Croatia),  Poland,  Istria,  and 
Sweden.  In  1381  the  body  of  St.  Paul,  patron  of  the 
order,  was  transferred  from  Venice  to  the  monastery 
of  St.  Laurence  in  Hungary,  which  thereby  gained 
greatly  in  prestige.  Among  the  other  famous  houses 
of  the  congregation  were  the  historical  Polish  monas- 
tery of  Our  Lady  of  Claremont  (commonly  called 
Czestochovia),  with  its  miraculous  image  of  Our  Lady 
(according  to  legend  the  work  of  St.  Luke  and  dis- 
covered by  St.  Helena  with  the  True  Cross),  and  the 
monasteries  at  Presburg  and  Neustadt  near  Vienna. 
The  church  of  San  Stefano  Rotondo  at  Rome  was 
attached  to  the  Hungarian  College  by  Gregory  XIII. 
In  1783  a  number  of  houses  in  Austria,  Bohemia, 
Styria,  etc.  were  suppressed,  and  political  disturb- 
ances in  Hungary  brought  the  same  fate  to  most  of 
the  Hungarian  convents,  which  had  rendered  in- 
calculable services  to  religion  and  education.  The 
destruction  of  the  annals  of  these  houses  left  the  his- 
torical sources  very  meagre.  There  are  still  a  few 
houses  of  the  congregation  in  Galicia  and  Russian 
Poland,  and  the  church  connected  with  the  mon.astery 
at  Kracow  may  be  regarded  as  a  national  sanctuary. 


PAULISTS 


588 


PAUL 


Among  tlip  members  of  the  conpreRation  to  attain 
prominence  were  George  Martinuzzi,  Bishop  of 
Grosswardcin  and  cardinal  (murdered  16  Dec.,  1551), 
an  ini|ii)rlant  figure  in  the  historj-  of  Hiuicary;  Mat- 
thias I'ulirmann  of  Hernals  (d.  1773),  historian  of 
Austria  and  editor  of  the  Acts  of  St.  Paul  of  Thebes; 
Forlunatus  Diirich  (1802),  and  Franz  Faustin  Pro- 
cha.-^ka  id.  1S09),  editors  of  a  Czech  translation  of  the 
Script ures.  The  garb  was  originally  brown,  but  about 
1341  white  was  adopted,  with  a  cincture,  and  over  the 
habit  a  scapular  with  a  hood.  In  choir  a  white  mantle 
is  worn. 

(2)  Hermits  of  St.  Paul  of  France,  also  called  Broth- 
ers of  Death. — There  is  much  discas.sion  as  to  the  ori- 
gin of  this  congregation,  but  it  was  probably  founded 
about  11520  by  Guillaume  Callier,  whose  constitutions 
for  it  %vere  approved  by  Paul  V  (18  Dec.,  1020)  and 
later  by  Louis  XIII  (May,  1621).  There  were  two 
cla.sses  of  montisteries,  those  in  the  cities,  obliged  to 
maintain  at  letist  twelve  members,  who  visited  the 
poor,  the  sick,  and  prisoners,  attended  those  con- 
demned to  death,  and  buried  the  dead;  and  the  houses 
outside  tlie  city,  with  which  were  connected  separate 
cells  in  which  sf)litaries  lived,  the  whole  community 
assembling  weekly  for  choir  and  monthly  in  chapter 
to  confess  their  sins.  Severe  fasts  and  disciplines  were 
prescribed.  The  name  Brothers  of  Death  originated 
in  the  fact  that  the  thought  of  death  was  constantly 
before  the  religious.  At  their  profession  the  prayers 
for  the  dead  were  recited;  their  scapular  bore  the  skull; 
their  salutation  was  Memento  mori;  the  death's  head 
wa.s  set  before  them  at  table  and  in  their  cells.  This 
congregation  was  sup|)ressed  by  Urban  VIII  in  1633. 

(3)  Hermits  of  St.  Paul  of  Portugal. — .\mong  the  con- 
flicting accounts  of  the  foundation  of  this  congrega- 
tion, the  most  credible  seems  to  be  that  it  was  estab- 
lislied  about  1420  by  Mendo  Gomez,  a  nobleman  of 
Simbria,  who  resigned  dearly  bought  military  laurels 
to  retire  to  a  solitude  near  Setuval,  where  he  built  an 
oratory  and  gave  himself  up  to  prayer  and  penance, 
gradually'  assuming  the  leadership  of  a  number  of 
other  hermits  in  the  vicinity.  Later  a  community 
of  hermits  of  Sierra  de  Ossa,  the  date  of  whose  founda- 
tion is  also  in  dispute,  being  left  without  a  .superior, 
prevailed  on  Mendo  Gomez  to  unite  the  two  communi- 
ties, under  the  [latronage  of  St.  Paul,  first  hermit.  At 
the  chapter  held  after  the  death  of  the  founder  (24 
Jan.,  1481),  constitutions  were  drawn  up,  which  at  a 
later  date  were  approved,  with  some  alterations,  by 
Gregory  XIII  (1578),  at  the  request  of  Cardinal  Henry 
of  Portugal,  who  also  obtained  for  the  congregation 
the  privilege  of  adopting  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine. 
This  congregation  was  later  suppressed.  Probably 
the  most  celebrated  member  was  Antonius  a  Matre 
Dei,  author  of  ".■\pis  Libani",  a  commentary  on  the 
Proverbs  of  Solomon. 

(4)  liliTui  Sinters  of  St.  Paul,  founded  at  Paris  in 
1852,  by  A.  F.  Villemain  (d.  1870),  Anne  Bergunion 
(d.  18()3),  and  the  .\bb(:'  Jug^,  to  enable  blind  women 
to  lead  a  religious  life,  and  to  facilitate  the  training  of 
blind  children  in  useful  occupations.  A  home  was 
established  for  blind  women  and  girls  with  defective 
sight. 

(5)  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of  Chartres  (also  called  to  St. 
Maurice)  known  also  as  Hospitallers  of  Chartres, 
founded  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century 
for  leaching  and  the  care  of  the  poor  and  sick.  After 
the  Revolution  the  congregation  was  revived,  was 
authorized  by  the  Government  in  181 1,  and  soon  num- 
bered 1200  sisters  and  over  100  houses  in  England, 
Guadeloupe,  Martinique,  French  Guiana,  Corea, 
China.  Japan,  Further  India,  the  Philippines,  etc. 
In  China  a  novitiate  has  been  established  for  native 
subjects,  and  in  Hong-Kong  a  school  for  European 
children,  besides  various  benevolent  in.stitutions.  In 
Further  India  there  are  thirty  institutions,  chiefly  of 
a  benevolent  nature,  in  addition  to  a  novitiate,  which 


has  already  admitted  a  number  of  native  postulants. 
In  the  Philippines  arc  schools  and  a  leper  hospital. 

Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Konorenalionrn  (Padorborn,  1907); 
HfiLYOT,  Ordres  retigieux  (Paris.  1859),  s.  v.  Eggerer,  FraO' 
mm  panis  Corvi  proto-ercmitici  (Vienna,  1663);  cont.  by  Bobko- 
vicH  AND  Benoeh  (Presburg,  1743);  Mallecuich,  Quadriparti- 
tum  Tcgularium  s.  dc  prinlegiU  ct  iuribus  0.  s.  Pauli  (Vienna, 
1708);  Rcgula:  s.  conslituliones  motmchorum  excalccatorum  a. 
Pauti  primi  cremitx  cong.  Lusitana:  (I^isbon,  1785);  Nicolas 
DE  Maria,  Chron.  da  ord.  dos  Concqos  liertrant.  de  .S.  Agostino; 
La  congHgation  des  sorars  avcugles  de  St  Paul  pendant  »on  pre- 
mier demi-sucle  (Paris,  1903). 

Florence  Rudge  McGah.\n. 

Paulists.  See  Missionary  Society  op  Saint 
Paul  the  Apo.stle. 

Paul  of  Burgos  (Paul  de  Santa  Maria;  Jewish 
name,  Solomon  ii.a-Levi),  a  Spanish  archbishop,  lord 
chancellor  and  exegete,  b.  at  Burgos  about  1351 ;  d.  20 
Aug.,  14:-)5.  He  was  the  most  wcall  h y  :ind  inHiienl i;il 
Jew  of  Hurgos,  a  scholar  of  the  lirst  rank  in  Talmudic 
and  rabbinical  literature,  and  a  Rabbi  of  the  Jewish 
community.  The  irresistible  logic  of  the  Summa  of 
St.  Thomas  led  him  to  the  Faith  of  Christ.  He  re- 
ceived Baptism,  21  July,  1390.  His  brothers  Pedro 
Suarez  and  Alvar  Garcia,  together  with  his  daughter 
and  four  boys,  aged  from  three  to  twelve  years,  were 
baptized  with  him.  His  wife  Joanna  died  a  Jewess 
shortly  after.  Paul  dc  Santa  Maria,  as  he  was  called, 
spent  some  years  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he 
took  his  degree  of  doctor  in  theology.  His  sincerity, 
keen  insight  into  human  n:iture,  thorough  education, 
and  soul-stirring  eloquence  marked  him  out  as  a  prom- 
inent churchman  of  the  future.  In  1405  he  became 
Bishop  of  Cartagena;  in  1415,  Archbishop  of  Burgos. 
In  1416  King  Henry  of  Castile  named  him  lord  chan- 
cellor. After  the  king's  dcatli  Archbishop  Paul  was 
a  member  of  the  council  whicli  ruled  Castile  in  the 
name  of  the  regent  Doi'ia  Cat:din:i,  and  by  the  will 
of  the  deceased  king  he  was  tutor  to  the  heir  to  the 
throne — later  John  II  of  Castile.  The  published 
writings  of  Archbishop  Paul  were: — (1)  "Dialogus 
Pauli  et  Sauli  contra  Juda?os,  sive  Scrutinium  scrip- 
turarum"  (Mantua,  1475;  Mainz,  1478;  Paris,  1.507, 
1.535;  Burgos,  1.591).  (2)  "Additiones"  to  the  "Pos- 
tilla"  of  Nicholas  of  Lyra  (Nuremberg,  1481;  1485; 
1487,  etc.;  Venice,  14S1,  1482,  etc.).  It  is  chiefly  on 
the  latter  work  that  Paul's  reputation  as  an  exegete 
rests.  The  "Additiones"  were  originally  mere  mar- 
ginal notes  written  in  a  volume  of  the  "  Postilla"  which 
he  sent  to  his  son  Alfonso.  Their  publication  aroused 
Matthias  Doring,  the  provincial  of  the  Saxon  Fran- 
ciscans, to  publish  his  "Replica;",  a  bitter  rejection 
of  almost  half  of  the  1100  suggestions  and  additions 
Paul  had  made.  The  converted  Jew  was  superior 
to  Nicholas  of  Lyra  in  Hebrew,  but  not  in  Biblical 
interpretations;  in  fact,  Paul  erred  in  not  admitting 
an  inspired  allegorical  meaning  of  Holy  Writ,  preju- 
diced against  it,  no  doubt,  by  the  extravagance  of 
Talmudic  allegorical  fancies.  (3)  "  De  nomine  divino 
qua^stiones  duodecim "  (Utrecht,  1707).  These  tracts 
are  excerpts  from  the  "Additiones"  in  regard  to 
Exod.,  iii,  and  are  joined  to  the  scholia  of  J.  Drusiu;i 
on  the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  name  of  Jahweh. 
Archbishop  Paul  was  succeeded  in  the  See  of  Burgos 
by  his  second  son,  Alfonso. 

Sanctotis,  Vita  d.  Pauli  episcopi  Burgensis;  Mariana,  Historia 
general  de  Espafia,  IV  (Barcelona,  1839),  324;  Antonio,  Biblioih. 
hispan.  vetus.  II  (Madrid,  1788).  237. 

Walter  Drum. 

Paul  of  Middelburg,  scientist  and  bishop,  b.  in 
1446  at  Middelburg,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Zealand,  belonging  then  to  the  German  Em- 
pire, now  to  Holland;  d.  in  Rome,  13  December,  1534. 
After  finishing  his  studies  in  Louvain  he  received  a 
canonry  in  his  native  town,  of  which  he  was  after- 
wards deprived.  The  circumstances  of  this  fact  are 
not  known,  but  in  his  apologetic  letter  on  the  celebra- 
tion of  Easter  he  calls  it  a  usurpation,  and  shows  great 


PAUL 


589 


PAUL 


bitterness  against  his  country,  calling  it  "barbara 
Zelandia;  insula",  "vervecum  patria",  "cerdonum 
regio",  etc.  He  then  taught  for  a  while  in  Louvain, 
was  invited  b.v  the  Signoria  of  Venice  to  take  a  chair 
for  sciences  in  Padua  (1480),  travelled  through  Italy, 
became  physician  to  Francesco  Maria  della  Rovere, 
Duke  of  Urbino,  and  friend  to  Maximilian,  Archduke 
of  Austria,  afterwards  emperor.  By  the  former  he 
was  endowed  with  the  Benedictine  Abbey  St.  Christ- 
ophorus  in  Castel  Durante  (14SS),  and  by  the  latter 
he  was  recommended  to  Alexander  VI  for  the  Bishop- 
ric of  Fossombrone  (Moroni,  LXXXV,  314).  Being 
nominated  to  that  see,  in  1494,  he  destroyed  some  of 
his  former  pubhcations;  first  "Giudizio  dell'  anno 
14.S0",  in  which  he  had  censured  a  number  of  mathe- 
maticians; then  a  "Practica  de  pravis  Constellation- 
ibus",  and  a  defence  of  that  work  against  the  nephew 
of  Paul  II  (1484);  and  finally  an  "Invectiva  in  super- 
stitiosuni  Vatem".  He  chose  for  himself  an  astro- 
nomical coat  of  arms,  and,  in  1497,  enlarged  and  em- 
bellished the  episcopal  palace.  Besides  some  smaller 
treatises  against  usurers  and  against  the  superstitious 
fear  of  a  flood  in  1524  (Fossombrone,  1523),  he  wrote 
important  works  on  the  reform  of  the  Calendar,  which 
procured  for  him  invitations  by  Julius  II  and  Leo 
X  to  the  Fifth  Lateran  Council  (1512-1518).  His 
"  Epistola  ad  Universitatem  Lovaniensem  de  Paschate 
recte  observando"  (1487)  was  followed  by  an  "Epi.s- 
tola  apologetica"  (1488),  and  finally  by  his  principal 
work  "Paulina,  de  recta  Pascha;  celebratione "  (Fos- 
sombrone, 15li5).  The  contents  and  result  of  the 
work  are  described  under  the  article  Linus.  He  cUed 
while  assisting  at  the  Divine  Office  in  Rome,  and  was 
buried  in  S.  Maria  dell'  Anima.  His  family  name  is 
unknown,  but  in  one  place  he  is  called  Paolo  di 
.\driano  (Moroni,  XLIV,  120).  Scaliger,  who  calls 
him  "Omnium  sui  sa;cuhmathematicorum  .  .  .  facile 
princeps",  was  his  god.son. 

SCHMIDLIN,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Nationatkirche  in  Rom  (Frei- 
burg, 1906),  349. 

J.  G.  Hagen. 

Paul  of  Samosata,  Bishop  of  Antioch.  Several 
synods,  prnhalily  tljn'c,  were  held  against  him  about 
204-60.  i^l.  Dlijiiysius  of  Alexandria  had  desired  to 
attend  the  first  of  these,  but  was  prevented  byhis 
infirmities.  Firmilian  of  Ca;sarea,  St.  Gregory  Thau- 
maturgus,  his  brother  Athenodorus,  and  many  others, 
were  present.  Paul  held  the  civil  office  of  Procurator 
ducenarius,  and  was  protected  by  Zenobia,  the  famous 
Queen  of  Palmyra.  He  was  a  wealthy  man,  and 
had  many  obsequious  followers  among  neighbouring 
bishops.  Many  defended  his  doctrine,  and  he  de- 
clared himself  orthodox.  In  the  first  meetings  the  bish- 
ops were  satisfied.  At  another  Paul  was  condemned, 
but  promised  to  retract  his  errors.  This  he  failed  to 
do.  A  final  council  was  summoned.  Firmilian  died 
on  the  way  to  it.  The  principal  part,  was  taken  by  a 
priest  of  Antioch,  Malchion,  who  was  an  accomplished 
man  of  letters  and  head  of  the  school  of  Greek  litera- 
ture at  .4ntioch.  In  disputation  with  Paul  he  plainly 
convicted  him  of  heresy,  and  procured  his  deposition. 
A  letter  written  by  Malchion  in  the  name  of  the  synod 
and  addressed  to  Pope  Dionysius  of  Rome,  Maximus 
of  Alexandria,  and  all  the  bishops  and  clergy  through- 
out the  world,  has  been  preserved  by  Eusebius  in 
part;  a  few  fragments  only  remain  of  the  shorthand 
report  of  the  disputation. 

The  letter  accuses  Paul  of  acquiring  great  wealth  by 
illicit  means,  of  showing  haughtiness  and  worldliness, 
of  having  set  up  for  himself  a  lofty  pulpit  in  the 
church,  and  of  insulting  those  who  did  not  applaud 
him  and  wave  their  handkerchiefs,  and  so  forth.  He 
had  caused  scandal  by  admitting  women  to  live  in  his 
house,  and  had  permitted  the  same  to  his  clergy.  Paul 
could  not  be  driven  from  his  see  until  the  emperor 
Aurelian  took  possession  of  Antioch  in  272.  Even 
then  he  refused  to  vacate  the  house  belonging  to  the 


church.  An  appeal  was  made  to  AureUan,  and  the 
pagan  emperor,  who  was  at  this  time  favourable  to 
Christians,  decided  most  justl}',  says  Eusebius  (vii,  30, 
19),  that  the  house  should  be  given  up  to  those  to 
whom  the  bishops  in  Italy  and  the  city  of  Rome  should 
write; — evidently  it  had  been  argued  before  him  that 
the  question  of  legitimacy  depended  on  communion 
with  Rome,  to  be  granted  after  examination  by  the 
pope  and  his  council.  Paul  was  driven  out  in  utter 
disgrace  by  the  civil  power.  Of  his  life  no  more  is 
known  to  us.  His  doctrine  was  akin  to  the  dynamistic 
Monarchianism  of  Theodoltus,  and  he  was  nicknamed 
a  follower  of  Artemas.  We  can  gather  these  points: 
the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  are  but  a  single  Per- 
son {TrpbauTvov).  The  Son  or  Logos  is  without  hyposta- 
sis, being  merely  the  wisdom  and  science  of  God, 
which  is  in  Him  as  reason  is  in  a  man.  Before  all 
worlds  He  was  born  as  Son  (A6705  -n-poipopiKd!)  without 
a  virgin;  he  is  without  shape  and  cannot  be  made  vis- 
ible to  men.  He  worked  in  the  Prophets,  especially  in 
Moses  (let  us  remember  that  Zenobia  was  a  Jewess, 
and  that  this  monarcliianism  may  have  been  intended 
to  please  her),  and  in  a  far  higher  way  in  the  Son  of 
David  who  was  born  by  the  Holy  Ghost  of  a  Virgin. 
The  Christ,  the  Saviour,  is  essentially  a  man,  but  the 
Holy  Ghost  inspired  Him  from  above.  The  Father 
and  the  Son  are  one  God,  whereas  Christ  is  from  the 
earth  with  a  personality  of  his  own.  Thus  there  are 
two  Persons  in  Christ.  The  Logos  as  Wisdom  dwelt  : 
in  the  man  Jesus,  as  we  live  in  houses,  and  worked  in 
Him  as  inspiration,  teaching  Him  and  being  with  Him, 
and  was  united  with  Him  not  substantially  (or  es- 
sentially, ova-iuSHs) ,  but  qualitatively  {Kara.  voibr-qTa). 
Mary  did  not  bring  forth  the  Word,  for  she  did  not 
exist  before  the  worlds,  but  a  man  like  to  us.  Paul 
denied  the  inference  that  there  are  two  Sons.  The  Son 
of  the  Virgin  is  great  by  Wisdom,  who  dwelt  in  no 
other  so. 

Union  of  two  Persons  is  possible  only  by  agreement 
of  will,  issuing  in  unity  of  action,  and  originating  by 
love.  By  this  kind  of  union  Christ  had  merit;  He 
could  have  had  none  had  the  union  been  by  nature. 
By  the  unchangeableness  of  His  will  He  is  like  God, 
and  was  united  to  Him  by  remaining  pure  from  sin. 
By  striving  and  suflering  He  conquered  the  sin  of  our 
first  parent,  and  was  joined  to  God,  being  one  with 
Him  in  intention  and  action.  God  worked  in  Him  to 
do  miracles  in  order  to  prove  Him  the  Redeemer  and 
Saviour  of  the  race.  By  the  ever  growing  and  never 
ceasing  movement  of  friendship  He  has  joined  Him- 
self to  God  so  that  He  can  never  be  separated  through 
all  eternity,  and  His  Name  is  above  every  Name  as  a 
reward  of  love.  Judgment  is  made  over  to  Him;  He 
may  be  called  "God  from  the  Virgin",  "God  from 
Nazareth".  He  is  said  to  have  pre-existed,  but  this 
means  by  predestination  only.  The  baptism  of  Christ, 
as  usual,  was  regarded  by  Paul  as  a  step  in  His  junc- 
tion with  the  Logos.  If  He  had  been  God  by  nature, 
Paul  argued,  there  would  be  two  Gods.  He  forbade 
hymns  to  Christ,  and  openly  attacked  the  older  (Alex- 
andrian) interpretations  of  Scripture. 

The  party  of  Paul  did  not  at  once  disappear.  The 
Council  of  Nica>a  declared  the  baptism  conferred  by 
the  Paulianists  to  be  invalid.  There  is  something, 
though  not  much,  of  his  teaching  in  the  Lucianist  and 
Arian  systems  which  issued  from  Antioch.  But  their 
Christology  was  the  very  opposite  of  his,  which  was 
rather  to  reappear  in  a  modified  form  in  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia,  Diodorus,  Nestorius,  and  even  Theo- 
doret,  though  these  later  Antiochenes  warmly  rejected 
the  imputation  of  any  agreement  with  the  heretic 
Paul,  even  in  Christology. 

It  must  be  regarded  as  certain  that  the  courucil 
which  condemned  Paul  rejected  the  term  onooiicrios; 
but  naturally  only  in  a  false  sense  used  by  Paul ;  not, 
it  seems  because  he  meant  by  it  an  unity  of  Hyposta- 
sis in  the  Trinity  (so  St.  Hilary),  but  because  he  in- 


PAUL 


590 


PAX7L 


tended  by  it  a  common  substanoo  out  of  which  both 
Father  and  Son  proceedoil,  or  wliich  it  divided  be- 
tween them, — so  St.  Basil  and  St.  Athanasius;  but  the 
question  is  not  clear.  The  objectors  to  the  Nicene 
aoctrine  in  the  fourth  century  made  copious  use  of  this 
disapproval  of  the  Nicene  word  by  a  famous  council. 
The  fragments  are  best  collected  by  Kouth,  "  Hell. 
SS.",  III.  Further  fragments  in  Pitra,  "Analecta  sa- 
cra", III-IV.  The  letter  of  St.  Dionysius  is  spurious. 
That  of  si.\  bishops  to  Paul  is  usually  rejected,  but 
Harnack  thinks  it  genuine,  following  Hagemann. 

Har.sack,  Gesch.  der  AUchristl.  Liu.,  I  (1S93) ;  B.\rdenhewer, 
Ge^ch.  der  AUkircUichen  liU.,  II  (1903);  Hefele,  Councils,  I  (tr. 
1883) ;  R^viLLE,  La  ChHstologie  de  Paid  de  Samosate  in  Eludes  de 
crit%qu(  et  d'bistoire  (Paris.  1896). 

John  Chapman. 

Paul  of  the  Cross,  Saint  (Paul  Francis  Danei), 
b.  at  Ovada,  Genoa,  Italy,  3  Jan.,  1694;  d.  in  Rome,  18 
Oct.,  1775.  His  parents,  Luke  Danei  and  Anna  Maria 
Massari,  were  exemplary  Catholics.  From  his  ear- 
hest  years  the  crucifix  was  his  book,  and  the  Cruci- 
fied his  model.  Paul  received  his  early  education  from 
a  priest  who  kept  a  school  for  boj's,  in  Cremolino, 
Lombardy.  He  made  great  progress  in  study  and  vir- 
tue; spent  much 
time  in  prayer, 
heard  daily  Mass, 
frequently  re- 
ceived the  Sacra- 
ments, faithfully 
attended  to  his 
school  duties,  and 
gave  his  spare 
time  to  reading 
good  books  and 
visiting  the 
churches,  where 
he  spent  much 
time  before  the 
Blessed  Sacra- 
ment, to  which 
he  had  an  ardent 
devotion.  At  the 
age  of  fifteen  he 
left  school  and  re- 
turned to  his  home 
at  Castellazzo, 
and  from  this  time  his  life  was  full  of  trials.  In  early 
manhood  he  renounced  the  offer  of  an  honourable 
marriage;  also  a  good  inheritance  left  him  by  an 
uncle  who  was  a  priest.  He  kept  for  himself  only  the 
priest's  Breviary. 

Inflamed  with  a  desire  for  God's  glory  he  formed  the 
idea  of  instituting  a  religious  order  in  honour  of  the 
Passion.  Vested  in  a  black  tunic  by  theBishop  of  Ales- 
sandria, his  director,  bearing  the  emblem  of  our  Lord's 
Passion,  barefooted,  and  bareheaded,  he  retired  to  a 
narrow  cell  where  he  drew  up  the  Rules  of  the  new 
congregation  according  to  the  plan  made  known  to 
him  in  a  vision,  which  he  relates  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  the  original  copy  of  the  Rules.  For  the  ac- 
count of  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood,  of  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Congregation  of  the  Passion,  and  the 
approbation  of  the  Rules,  see  Passionists.  After  the 
approbation  of  the  Rules  and  the  institute  the  first 
general  chapter  was  held  at  the  Retreat  of  the  Pres- 
entation on  Mount  Argentaro  on  10  April,  1747. 
At  this  chapter,  St.  Paul,  against  his  wishes,  was 
unanimously  elected  first  superior  general,  which 
office  he  held  until  the  day  of  his  death.  In  all  virtues 
and  in  the  observance  of  regular  discipline,  he  became 
a  model  to  his  companions.  "Although  continually 
occupied  with  the  cares  of  governing  his  religious  soci- 
ety, and  of  founding  everj^where  new  houses  for  it,  yet 
he  never  left  off  preaching  the  word  of  God,  burning  as 
he  did  with  a  wondrous  desire  for  the  salvation  of  souls  " 
CBrief  of  Piufl  IX  for  St.  Paul's  Beatification,  1  Oct., 


Crosh 


1852).  Sacred  missions  were  instituted  and  numerous 
conversions  were  made.  He  was  untiring  in  his  Apos- 
tolic labours  and  never,  even  to  his  last  hour,  remitted 
anything  of  his  austere  manner  of  life,  finally  suc- 
cumbing to  a  severe  illness,  worn  out  as  much  by  hia 
austerities  as  by  old  age. 

Among  the  distinguished  associates  of  St.  Paul  in 
the  formation  and  extension  of  the  congregation 
were;  John  Baptist,  his  younger  brother  and  constant 
companion  from  childhood,  who  shared  all  his  labours 
and  sufferings  and  equalled  him  in  the  practice  of 
virtue;  Father  Mark  AureUus  (Pastorelli),  Father 
Thomas  Struzzieri  (subsequently  Bishop  of  Amelia 
and  afterwards  of  Todi),  and  Father  Fulgentius  of 
Jesus,  all  remarkable  for  learning,  piety,  and  mission- 
ary zeal;  Venerable  Strambi,  Bishop  of  Macerata, 
and  Tolentino,  his  biographer.  Constant  personal 
union  with  the  Cross  and  Passion  of  our  Lord  was  the 
prominent  feature  of  St.  Paul's  sanctity.  But  devo- 
tion to  the  Passion  did  not  stand  alone,  for  he  carried 
to  a  heroic  degree  all  the  other  virtues  of  a  Christian 
life.  Numerous  miracles,  besides  those  special  ones 
brought  forward  at  his  beatification  and  canonization, 
attested  the  favour  he  enjoyed  with  God.  Miracles  of 
grace  abounded,  as  witnessed  in  the  conversion  of  sin- 
ners seemingly  hardened  and  hopeless.  For  fifty 
years  he  prayed  for  the  conversion  of  England,  and 
left  the  devotion  as  a  legacy  to  his  sons.  The  body  of 
St.  Paul  lies  in  the  Basilica  of  SS.  John  and  Paul,  Rome. 
He  was  beatified  on  1  October,  1852,  and  canonized  on 
29  June,  1867.  His  feast  occurs  on  28  April.  The 
fame  of  his  sanctity,  which  had  spread  far  and  wide  in 
Italy  during  his  life,  increased  after  his  death  and 
spread  into  all  countries.  Great  devotion  to  him  is 
practised  by  the  faithful  wherever  Passionists  are  es- 
tablished. 

Lives  of  St.  Paul  by;  Strambi  in  Oratorian  Series  {3  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1S53) :  Fr.  Pius  of  the  Name  of  Mary,  tr.  by  Fr.  Ignatius 
Spencer  (London  and  New  York) ;  Pius  a  Spiritu  Sancto  (Lon- 
don. 1868);  and  Fr.  Louis  of  Jesus  Agonizing  (Bordeaux);  Fr. 
Luke  C.  P.,  A  greal  Apostle  of  the  Crucified  (Rome). 

Arthur  Devine. 

Paul  the  Hermit,  Saint. — There  are  thre&'  im- 
portant versions  of  the  Life  of  St.  Paul:  (1)  the  Latin 
version  (//)  of  St.  Jerome;  (2)  a  Greek  version  (6), 
much  shorter  than  the  Latin;  (3)  a  Greek  version  (a), 
which  is  either  a  translation  of  H  or  an  amplification 
of  b  by  means  of  H.  The  question  is  whether  H  or  b 
is  the  original.  Both  a  and  b  were  published  for  the 
first  time  by  Bidez  in  1900  ("Deux  versions  grectjues 
in^dites  de  la  vie  de  s.  Paul  de  Thebes  " ,  Ghent) .  Bidez 
maintains  that  H  was  the  original  Life.  This  view 
has  been  attacked  by  Nau,  who  makes  b  the  original 
in  the  "Analect.  BoUand."  of  1901  (XX,  121-157). 
The  Life,  minor  details  excepted,  is  the  same  in 
either  version. 

When  a  young  man  of  sixteen  Paul  fled  into  the  de.s- 
ert  of  the  Thebaid  during  the  Decian  persecution. 
He  lived  in  a  cave  in  the  mountain-side  till  he  was 
one-hundred-and-thirteen.  The  mountain,  adds  St. 
Jerome,  was  honeycombed  with  caves. 

When  he  was  ninety  St.  Anthony  was  tempted  to 
vain-glory,  thinking  he  was  the  first  to  dwell  in  the 
desert.  In  obedience  to  a  vision  he  set  forth  to  find 
his  predecessor.  On  his  road  he  met  with  a  demon 
in  the  form  of  a  centaur.  Later  on  he  spied  a  tin^ 
old  man  with  horns  on  his  head.  "Who  are  you?  ' 
asked  Antony.  "I  am  a  corpse,  one  of  those  whom 
the  heathen  call  satyrs,  and  by  them  were  snared  into 
idolatry."  This  is  the  Greek  storv  (b)  which  makes 
both  centaur  and  satvr  unmistakably  demons,  one  of 
which  tries  to  terrify  the  saint,  while  the  other  acknowl- 
edges the  overthrow  of  the  gods.  With  St.  Jerome  the 
centaur  may  have  been  a  demon;  and  may  also  have 
been  "one  of  those  monsters  of  which  the  desert  is  so 
prohfic."  At  all  events  he  tries  to  show  the  saint  the 
way.    As  for  the  satyr  he  is  a  harmless  Uttle  mortal  de- 


PAUL 


591 


PAULUS 


puted  by  his  brethren  to  ask  the  saint's  blessing.  One 
asks,  on  the  supposition  that  the  Greek  is  the  original, 
why  St.  Jerome  changes  devils  into  centaurs  and 
satyrs.  It  is  not  surprising  that  stories  of  >St.  Anthony 
meeting  fabulous  beasts  in  his  mysterious  journey 
should  spring  up  among  people  with  whom  belief  in 
such  creatures  lingered  on,  as  belief  in  fairies  does  to 
the  present  day.  The  stories  of  the  meeting  of  St. 
Paul  and  St.  Anthony,  the  raven  who  brought  them 
bread,  St.  Anthony  being  sent  to  fetch  the  cloak 
given  him  by  "Athanasius  the  bishop"  to  bury  St. 
Paul's  body  in,  St.  Paul's  death  before  he  returned, 
the  grave  dug  by  lions,  are  among  the  familiar  legends 
of  the  Life.  It  only  remains  to  add  that  belief  in  the 
existence  of  St.  Paul  seems 
to  have  existed  quite  inde- 
pendently of  the  Life. 

Besides  the  writings  of  Bidez  and 
Nau,  see  Butler,  Lausiac  Hist., 
etc.,  pt.  i,  p.  28.5,  where  he  criti- 
cises Am*5Iineau's  view  that  the 
Coptie  version  published  by  him 
was  the  original  (Am6hneau'3  view 
seems  to  have  found  no  supporters) . 
and  maintains  the  claim  of  the 
Latin.  In  Journ.  of  Theolog.  Studies. 
Ill,  1.52,  there  is  a  notice  concern- 
ing Bidez  where  Am^lineau  again 
expres.sea  the  same  opinion;  later  in 
a  notice  concerning  Nau  {ibid.,  V, 
1.51),  while  still  inclining  to  his  old 
opinion,  he  says  that  after  reading 
Nau  he  is  "unable  to  arrive  at  a  de- 
cision." The  BoLLANDl8Ts(I,  Jan., 
602)  gave  a  Latin  translation  of  a 
Greek  version  (the  original  will  be 
found  in  Analect.  BoL,  XI.  563), 
maintaining  it  was  the  original. 
FuHRM\NN  in  1750  Ucia  Sincera 
S.  Pauli,  etc.)  published,  as  the 
original,  another  Greek  version. 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 


Paul  the  Simple,  Saint. 
—The  story  of  Paul,  as  Pal- 
ladius  heard  it  from  men  who 
had  known  St.  Anthony,  was 
as  follows:  Paul  was  a  hu.s- 
bandman,  very  simple  and 
guileless.  One  day,  on  dis- 
covering the  infidelity  of  his 
wife,  he   set    off    to    be   a    monk 


St.  Pai-l  t 

He  knocked  at 
the  door  of  St.  Anthony's  cell.  This  is  the  substance 
of  the  dialogue  which  ensued:  A.  "What  do  you 
want?"  P.  "To  be  a  monk."  A.  "It  is  quite  impos- 
sible for  you,  a  man  of  sixty.  Be  content  with  the 
hfe  of  a  labourer,  giving  thanks  to  God."  P.  "What- 
soever you  teach  me  I  will  do."  A.  "If  a  monk  you 
must  be,  go  to  a  cenobium.  I  live  here  alone  only  eat- 
ing once  in  five  days."  With  this  St.  Anthony  shut  the 
door,  and  Paul  remained  outside.  On  the  fourth  day 
St.  Anthony,  fearing  lest  he  should  die,  took  him  in. 
He  set  him  to  work  weaving  a  rope  out  of  palm 
leaves,  made  him  undo  what  he  had  done,  and  do  it 
again.  When  it  was  evening  he  asked  him  if  he  was 
ready  to  eat.  Just  as  St.  Anthony  liked,  was  the  re- 
ply. St.  .\nthony  produced  some  crusts,  took  one 
himself,  and  gave  the  old  man  three.  Then  followed  a 
long  grace — one  Psalm  said  twelve  times  over,  and  as 
many  prayers.  When  each  had  eaten  a  crust  Paul  was 
told  to  take  another.  P.  "If  you  do,  I  will;  if  you  don't, 
I  won't."  A.  "I  am  a  monk,  and  one  is  enough  for 
me."  P.  "  It  is  enough  for  me,  for  I  am  going  to  be  a 
monk."  Then  came  twelve  prayers  and  as  many 
Psalms,  followed  by  a  little  sleep  till  midnight,  and 
then  again  psalms  were  recited  till  it  was  day.  Fi- 
nally Paul  got  what  he  wanted.  .4fter  he  had  lived  with 
Anthony  some  months,  the  saint  gave  him  a  cell  for 
himself  some  miles  from  his  own.  In  a  year's  time  the 
grace  of  healing  and  casting  out  devils  was  bestowed 
upon  Paul.  Then  follows  a  story  of  how  he  was  able  to 
exorcize  a  fiend  over  whom  even  St.  Anthony  had  no 
power. 


The  story  of  St.  Paul  in  the  "  Hist,  monachorum  "  is, 
as  regards  substantial  facts,  much  the  same  as  that  of 
"  Palladius  ",  but  the  atmosphere  is  different.  In  "  Pal- 
ladius"  St.  Anthony  is  living  quite  alone;  in  the  "His- 
toria"  he  is  a  kind  of  abbot  of  hermits.  In  "  Palladius" 
he  is  reluctant  to  accept  Paul;  in  the  "Historia"  he  in- 
vites him  to  be  a  monk.  In  "  Palladius  "  St.  Anthony's 
purpose  is  to  show  Paul  just  what  a  hermit's  life  really 
was;  in  the  "Historia"  he  subjects  him  to  the  rather 
conventional  kinds  of  tests  which  any  abbot  might  ap- 
ply to  any  postulant.  The  difference  seems  to  amount 
chiefly  to  this: — "Palladius"  apparently  places  the 
story  in  the  time  before,  and  the  "Historia  '  after  St. 
Anthony  began  to  have  disciples.  For  different 
anecdotes  concerning  Paul 
the  reader  may  be  referred  to 
Butler's  "Lives  of  the  Saints" 
or  to  Tillemont. 

Butler,  Lausiac  Hist,  of  Palla- 
dius, pt.  ii.  69-74,  201;  Tillemont, 
//.£.,  VII,  144;  BuDOE,  Paradise  0/ 
the  Holy  Fathers.  I,  125  sqq.  (the 
story  given  in  the  last  is  a  translation 
of  Palladius). 

F.  J.  Bacchus. 
Paulus    Diaconus,    also 

c;illed  C.\SINENSIS,  Levita, 
and  Warnefridi,  historian, 
b.  at  FriuU  about  720;  d.  13 
April,  probably  799.  He  was 
a  descendant  of  a  noble  Lom- 
bard family,  and  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  he  was  educated 
at  the  court  of  King  Rachis 
at  Pavia,  under  the  direction 
of  Flavianus  the  grammarian. 
In  763  we  find  him  at  the 
court  of  Duke  Archis  at 
Benevento,  after  the  collapse 
of  the  Lombard  kingdom,  a 
monk  in  the  monastery  of 
Monte  Cassino,  and  in  782  in 
the  suite  of  Charlemagne, 
from  whom  he  obtained  by 
means  of  an  elegy  the  release 
IE  nERMiT.  pj    ^  brother  taken  prisoner 

in  776  in  consequence  of  the  Friuli  insurrection. 
After  787  he  was  again  at  Monte  Cassino,  where 
in  all  probability  he  died.  His  first  literary  work, 
evidently  while  he  was  still  at  Benevento,  and  done 
at  the  request  of  the  Duchess  Adelperga,  was  the 
"Historia  Romana",  an  amplified  and  extended 
version  of  the  Roman  history  of  Eutropius,  whose 
work  he  continued  independently  in  Books  XI  to  XVI, 
up  to  the  time  of  Justinian.  This  compilation,  now 
of  no  value,  but  during  the  Middle  Ages  diffused  in 
many  manuscript  editions  and  frequently  consulted, 
was  edited  with  the  work  of  Eutropius  by  Droysen 
in  "  Mon.  Germ.  Hist. :  Auct.  antiq.",  II  (1879),  4-224. 
Furthermore,  at  the  instance  of  Angilram,  Bishop 
of  Metz,  he  compiled  a  history  of  the  bishops  of 
Metz  "Liber  de  episcopis  Mettensibus",  or  "Liber  de 
ordine  ct  numero  episcoporum  in  civitate  Mettensi" 
extending  to  766,  in  which  he  gives  a  circumstantial 
account  of  the  family  and  ancestors  of  Charlemagne, 
especially  Arnulf  (P.  L.,  XCV,  699-722). 

The  most  important  historical  work  which  has  come 
down  to  us  from  his  pen  is  the  history  of  the  Lombards, 
"Historia  gentis  Langobardorum.  Libri  VI",  the  best 
of  the  many  editions  of  this  work  being  that  of  Beth- 
mann  andWa^z  in  "Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script,  rerum 
Langobardaruin",  (1878),  45-187;  school  ed.  (Han- 
over, 1878);  Ger.  tr.  Abel  (Berlin,  1849;  2nd  ed.,  Leip- 
zig, 1878) ;  Faubert  (Paris,  1603) ;  It.  tr.  Viviani  (Udine, 
1826).  Despite  many  defects,  especially  in  the  chro- 
nology, the  unfinished  work,  embracing  only  the 
period  between  568  and  744,  is  still  of  the  highest 
importance,  setting  forth  as  it  does  in  lucid  style  and 


PAULUS 


592 


PAVIA 


simple  diction  the  most  important  facts,  and  pre- 
serving for  us  many  ancient  myths  and  popular  tra- 
ditions replete  with  an  enthusiaslio  interest  in  the 
changing  fortunes  of  (he  Lombard  people.  That  this 
work  Wiis  in  constant  use  until  well  into  the  fifteenth 
century  is  evident  from  the  numerous  manuscript 
copies,  excerpts,  and  eontinuatiDus  extant.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  historical  works,  I'auliis  also  wrote  a 
commentarj'  on  the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  and  a  widely- 
usc<l  collection  of  homilies  entitled  "Ilomiliarium", 
both  of  which  have  been  preserved  only  in  revised 
form.  Several  letters,  epitaphs,  and  poems  are  still 
extant,  and  have  been  edited  by  Dtimmler  in  "Mon. 
Germ.  Hist.:  Poetae  hit.  a?vi  Carolini",  I,  18S1. 

Bethmann,  Paulus  Diaconus  leben  und  schri/ten  uud  die  ge- 
schichtschreibung  der  Lant/nbarden  in  Archiv  dcr  Gesellachnft  /Or 
alter  deiUscheGeschichtskunde.X  (Hanover,  1851);  Wattenbach, 
Drtitschlands  Geschichtsquellen,  I  (Berlin,  1893) ,  163-71 ;  Potthast, 
Bibliotheca  historica,  II  (Berlin.  1896),  898-905. 

Patricius  Schlager. 

Paulus  VenetUS,  theologian  of  the  Hermits  of  the 
Order  of  Saint  .\ugustine,  b.  according  to  the  chron- 
iclers of  his  order,  at  Udine,  about  1368;  d.  at  Venice, 
15  June,  142S.  He  made  his  religious  profession  in  the 
Convent  of  Saint  Stephen,  Venice,  whence  the  name, 
Venctus.  In  1.390  he  is  said  to  have  been  sent  to  Ox- 
ford for  his  studies  in  theology,  but  returned  to  Italy, 
and  finished  his  course  at  Padua.  He  lectured  in  the 
University  at  Padua  during  the  first  quarter  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  His  writings,  aside  from  any  ques- 
tion of  their  present  worth,  show  a  wide  knowledge  and 
interest  in  the  scientific  problems  of  his  time.  Besides 
the  usual  lectures  on  the  four  books  of  "Sentences", 
sermons,  and  instructions,  he  wrote  "De  Conceptione 
B.  jMaria"  Virginis",  "De  quadratura  circuli",  "De 
circulis  componentibus  mundum",  "Logiea  parva  et 
logica  magna".  This  last,  also  known  as  "Logiea 
Duplex",  was  largely  used  as  a  textbook  during  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  and  was  several 
times  reprinted.  Paulus  was  one  of  the  theologians 
called  to  Rome  in  1427,  by  Martin  V,  to  take  cogni- 
zance of  the  charges  brought  against  St.  Bernardino 
of  Siena,  occasioned  by  the  preaching  of  the  "new 
devotion"  to  the  Holy  Name. 

Lanteri,  Postrema  siFcuta  sex  Teligionis  Augustiniancp  (Tolen- 
tino,  1S5S):  Arpe,  Pantheon  Augustinianum  (Genoa,  1709). 

Francis  E.  Tourscher. 

Pavia,  Diocese  of  (Papia),  in  Lombardy,  North- 
em  Italy.  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile  plain;  the  city  is 
connected  with  Milan  by  the  Naviglio  canal.  It  was 
once  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  organs.  Of  its 
many  medieval  towers,  which  gave  to  it  the  name  of 
"city  of  the  hundred  towers",  few  remain;  a  covered 
bridge  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century  is  worthy  of 
note.  The  cathedral  was  built  by  Rocchi  and  Omodeo 
(1488)  on  the  site  of  the  churches  of  San  Stefano  and 
Santa  Maria  del  Popolo;  it  contains  paintings  by 
Crcspi,  Gatti,  and  others;  a  beautiful  silver  reliquary 
of  the  Holy  Thorns,  and  a  carved  pulpit  by  Zanella;  the 
altar  of  St.  Syrus,  in  the  crypt,  is  by  Orseolo.  The 
Church  of  San  Pietro  in  Ciel  d'Oro  is  the  former  cathe- 
dral, restored  in  the  twelfth  century;  it  receives  its 
present  name  from  the  golden  background  of  its  mosa- 
ics; the  body  of  St.  Augustine  is  preserved  in  this 
church;  King  Luitprand  brought  it  here  from  Sardinia 
and  concealed  it.  It  was  rediscovered  in  169.5  in  a 
casket  of  lead  and  silver,  within  a  marble  enclosure; 
there  were  lengthy  proceedings  for  its  identification; 
the  marble  tomb  is  an  exquisite  production  of  the  four- 
teenth centurj',  ordered  by  the  prior  Bonifacio,  of  the 
family  of  t  h(>  marquesses  Bottigello ;  it  fe  adorned  with 
50  bas-reliefs  and  95  statuettes.  Boethius  is  also 
buried  there.  Other  churches  are:  Santa  Maria  del 
Carmine  (1370),  a  Gothic  structure,  contains  beauti- 
ful paintings;  San  Francesco  (1260),  also  Gothic; 
Santa  Maria  di  Canepanova  (1492),  planned  by  Bra- 
mante,  an  octagonal  building  with  a  cupola  and  beau- 


tiful frescoes,  contains  the  mausoleum  of  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick;  San  Teodoro,  Lombard  period,  under  its 
altar  are  St.  Theodore's  relics;  San  Michele  Maggiore 
(seventh  century),  where  tlie  kings  wore  cniwncd,  the 
most  notable  monument  of  Lombard  architecture, 
contains  a  crucifix  of  the  eighth  century;  San  Marino, 
built  by  King  Astolfo,  and  n'storcd  in  I  ISl ;  Sts.  Primo 
and  Feliciano;  Sania  Maria  in  Bothlcm,  a  Lombard 
structure;  San  Salvaloro  (seventh  cenlury),  contains 
tombs  of  several  Liiinlianl  kings;  San  Lanfranco 
(1237),  contains  the  tomb  of  its  patron  saint,  made  by 
order  of  Cardinal  I'allavicino  in  1498.  Outside  the 
city  is  the  famous  Certosa,  founded  by  Gian  (ialeazzo 
Visconti;  its  facade  (1491)  refiectsthe  Lombard  style, 
but  witli  a  marvellous  variety  of  ornament  anil  sculp- 
ture; it  is  divided  into  three  naves  liy  (iotliic  [jillars; 
the  hahlachinn  of  the  altars  of  the  side  chai)els  are  all 
of  co.stly  mosaics;  the  paintings  are  mostly  by  Bor- 
gognone,  although  there  are  some  by  Perugino,  Man- 
tegna,  Pordenone,  and  others;  the  choir  stalls  are  of 
inlaid  work;  the  tomb  of  Gian  Galeazzo  and  the  figures 
taken  from  the  tombs  of  Lodo^'ico  il  Moro  and  of  his 
wife  are  the  most  beautiful  productions  of  Lombard 
sculpture. 

Among  the  secular  buildings  are:  the  Castello  Vis- 
conteo  (1360),  despoiled  by  Louis  XII,  who  carried 
away  its  library;  the  university,  which  grew  out  of  the 
grammar  schools  and  the  scliools  of  Roman  and  of 
Lombard  law,  enlarged  by  Maria  Theresa  and  Jo.soph 
II,  with  several  colleges  connected  with  it,  viz.  the 
Ghislieri  college  (St.  Pius  V),  the  Borromeo  college  (St. 
Charles),  the  Gandini  college  (St.  Augustine),  and 
others;  and  the  Museo  Civico  has  a  picture  gallery,  a 
library,  and  a  collection  of  copper  engravings. 

Pavia  is  the  ancient  Ticinum,  founded  by  the  La'vi 
and  Marici,  two  Ligurian  peoples;  at  a  date  not  well 
determined  it  came  under  Roman  power,  and  was 
given  to  the  Papia  tribe,  whence  the  name  of  Papia, 
which,  however,  does  not  occur  before  the  time  of 
Paulus  Diaconus.  In  a.  d.  271,  Emperor  Aurelian 
inflicted  there  a  decisive  defeat  upon  the  .4!amanni;  the 
city  was  destroyed  byAlaric  (4.52);  Odoacer,  however, 
transformed  it  into  a  stronghold,  and  stationed  there 
his  Heruli  and  Rugii;  Theodoric  built  a  royal  palace  at 
Pavia,  also  an  amphitheatre,  therma>  etc.  Through- 
out the  Gothic  War,  the  city  was  held  by  the  Goths, 
although  they  were  defeated  in  a  battle  near  there  in 
538.  Pavia  resisted  Alboin,  King  of  the  Lombards, 
for  three  years,  and  then  became  the  capital  of  the 
Lombard  Kingdom,  and  when  it  was  taken  from  the 
Lombards  by  Charlemagne  (battles  of  Pavia  of  754, 
755,  and  774),  it  remained  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Italy,  where  the  diets  of  that  realm  were  held.  In 
the  tenth  century,  the  Hungarians  brought  devasta- 
tion upon  the  city  on  several  occasions,  especially  in 
924. 

The  schools  of  Pavia  were  famous  in  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  who  took  from  there  the  grammarian 
Petrus  Pisanus ;  in  825  a  palatine  school  was  estab- 
lished in  the  monastery  of  San  Agostino,  under  the 
Irishman  Dungal.  In  901  Berengarius  besieged  Louis 
of  Provence  in  Pavia.  When  Emperor  St.  Henry 
II,  after  defeating  Arduin  of  Ivrea  in  1004,  was 
crowned  King  of  Italy  at  Pavia,  the  citizens  rose 
against  him,  and  set  fire  to  the  town.  At  his  death 
they  destroyed  the  imperial  palace,  and  resisted  Con- 
rad the  Salian  for  two  years.  The  republican  Govern- 
ment of  the  city  began  at  this  t  ime,  but  the  period  of 
continual  wars  against  neighbouring  cities  continued: 
Milan  (1061,  1109),  Piacenza,  Tortona  (1109);  Pavia, 
however,  was  almost  always  in  alliance  with  Cremona. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  gave  assistance  to  Milan  in  lUO 
against  Emperor  Henry  V,  and  also  in  the  war  of 
Como,  in  1 127;  l)ut  from  thr  Ixgiiining  of  the  reign  of 
Barbarossa,  it  became  strongly  imperialist,  while  the 
emperors  were  prodigal  in  bestowing  rights  and  privi- 
leges upon  the  city,  e.  g.  allowing  it  to  elect  its  own 


PAVIA 


593 


PAVIA 


consuls.  The  coins  of  Pavia  were  in  great  demand, 
while  its  agriculture  and  its  industries  flourished .  The 
city  was  able  in  war-time  to  arm  15,000  infantry  and 
3000  mounted  troops.  Pavia  remained  Ghibelline 
even  under  Frederick  II  (1227),  and  in  1241  its  forces 
defeated  the  Pontifical  Crusaders  under  Gregorio  da 
Montelongo.  In  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury contentions  for  the  lordship  of  the  city  arose  be- 
tween the  Langosco  and  the  Beccaria  families;  and 
this  made  it  possible  for  Matteo  Visconti  (1315)  to  oc- 
cupy the  town,  for  which,  however,  the  marquesses  of 
Montferrat  also  contended,  until  Galeazzo  II  Visconti 
in  1359  suppressed  the  brief  popular  government  that 
was  established  by  the  Augustinian  preacher,  Jacopo 
Bussolari  (1356-59).  From  that  time  on,  Pavia  be- 
longed to  the  Duchy  of  Milan;  the  Sforzas,  however, 
gave  it  a  Government  of  its  own.  In  1499  Louis  Xll 
took  the  city,  and  thereafter  severely  punished  an  in- 
surrection of  the  town  against  him  In  1524  Pavia 
was  again  besieged  unsuccessfully  bj  the  French  and 
in  the  following  j'car,  the  battle  th  it  rtci  ided  the  ^pin 
ish  domination  of 
Milan  was  fought 
there,  for  the  taking 
of  Pavia  by  Lautrec 
in  1527  had  no  impor- 
tant consequence. 
The  town  underwent 
another  siege  by  the 
French  in  1655.  It 
was  taken  by  the  .^us- 
trians  in  1706,  and 
again  by  the  French  in 
1733  and  in  1745;  the 
latter,  however,  were 
obliged  to  leave  it  to 
the  Austrians^in  1746, 
and  PaviafoUowed  tin' 
fortunes  of  Lombard  v. 
In  1786,  Joseph  11 
established  there  one 
of  the  so-called 
' '  general  seminaries ' ' , 
suppressed  in  1791. 

Pavia  is  the  birthplace  of:  the  historian  Liutprand, 
Bishop  of  Cremona;  St.  Bernardo  Balbi,  a  collector  of 
decretals;  the  painter  Andreino  d'Edesia,  a  contem- 
porary of  Giotto;  the  canon  Zanella,  inventor  of  the 
bassoon.  The  Gospel  was  brought  to  this  city  by  St. 
Syrus,  according  to  legend  a  disciple  of  St.  Peter;  but 
according  to  the  martyrology  of  Ado,  on  the  author- 
ity of  an  Aquileian  martyrology,  he  was  sent  by  St. 
Hermagoras,  first  Bishop  of  Aquileia.  Admitting 
that  Eventius,  present  at  the  Council  of  Aquileia  in 
381,  was  the  sixth  Bishop  of  Pavia,  it  may  well  be  that 
this  diocese  dates  from  the  second  half  of  the  third  cen- 
tury; among  its  other  bishops  were  Ursicinus  (before 
397);  St.  Crispinus  (432);  St.  Epiphanius  (466),  a 
providential  blessing  to  Italy  in  the  time  of  Ricimer, 
Odoacer,  and  Theodoric;  St.  Maximus  (496);  Eniio- 
dius  (511),  a  famous  orator  and  poet,  decorated  by  St. 
Hormisdas  with  the  pallivim. 

After  the  Lombard  occupation,  there  was  also  an 
Arian  bishop  at  Pavia;  he  had  the  church  of  San  Euse- 
bio  as  cathedral;  the  last  one  of  these  was  St.  Anas- 
tasius,  who  became  a  Catholic  and  sole  bishop  of  the 
see.  After  him  were:  St.  Damianus,  Biscossia  (680), 
author  of  a  letter  against  the  Monothelites;  Armen- 
tarius  (seventh  century)  who  contended  with  the 
Archbishop  of  Milan  regarding  metropolitan  jurisdic- 
tion; St.  Petrus  (726),  a  relative  of  King  Aripert,  and 
therefore  exiled  in  his  youth  by  Grimoald;  St.  Theo- 
dorus  (745),  exiled  for  unknown  reasons,  returned 
only  after  the  victories  of  Charlemagne;  Waldo  (791), 
formerly  Abbot  of  Reichenau;  St.  Joannes  (801); 
Joannes  II  (874),  to  whom  John  VIII  gave  the  pal- 
lium, thereafter  given  to  his  successors;  Joannes  III 
XL— 38 


(884),  obtained  the  use  of  the  cross  and  of  the  white 
horse;  Pietro  Canepanova  (978),  chancellor  of  Otto 
II,  became  Pope  John  XIV;  Gulielmo  (1073),  followed 
the  antipope  Guibert,  and  was  deposed;  Guido  Pipari 
(1100),  more  of  a  warrior  than  a  prelate;  Pietro  Tos- 
cano  (1148),  a  Cistercian,  friend  of  St.  Bernard  and  of 
St.  Thomas  k  Becket,  expelled  by  Barbarossa,  who 
held  the  Conciliabulum  of  Pavia  against  Alexander  III 
in  1159;  St.  Lanfranc  (1180)  and  St.  Bernardo  Balbi 
(1198),  famous  jurists  and  canonists;  St.  Fulco  Scotti 
(1216);  Guido  de  Langosco  (1296),  also  a  canonist; 
Isnardo  Tocconi,  O.P.,  administrator  of  the  diocese 
from  1311  to  1320  and  imprisoned  as  a  suspect  of 
heresy,  but  acquitted;  Gulielmo  Centuaria  (1386),  O. 
Min.,  noted  for  his  apostolic  zeal;  Francesco  Picco- 
pasio  (1427),  took  a  great  part  in  the  Council  of  Basle; 
Giovanni  Castiglioni  (1454),  became  cardinal,  and 
served  on  several  occasions  as  pontifical  legate;  Car- 
dinal Jacopo  \mmannati  (1460),  distinguished  him- 
self m  the  defence  of  the  Marches  against  Sigismondo 
M  d  il(  1 1  dso  a  protector  of  belles-lettres;  Cardinal 
Ascanio  Sforza  (1479) ; 
Canlinal  Francesco 
Alidosio  (1.505),  killed 
at  Ravenna  in  1511; 
C;ian  M.  del  Monte 
(1520),  became  Pope 
Julius  III;  Ippolito 
de  Rubcis  (1564).  re- 
stored the  cathedral, 
founded  the  seminary, 
and  introduced  the 
reforms  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent;  he  had 
disputes  with  St. 
Charles  Borromeo  in 
regard  to  metropolitan 
rights,  and  later  be- 
came cardinal;  St. 
Alcssandro  Sauli 
(1591-93);  Jacopo 
Antonio  Morigia 
(1701);  Luigi  Tosi 
(1822),  who  gave  to 
Mgr  Dupuch,  Archbishop  of  Carthage,  the  forearm  of 
St.  Augustine;  Pietro  M.  Ferre  (18.59),  for  two  years 
prevented  by  the  new  Government  from  taking  posses- 
sion of  his  diocese;  Lucido  M.  Parrochi  (1871-77),  be- 
came a  cardinal  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Rome. 

The  councils  of  Pavia  were  held  in  the  following 
years:  850,  855,  876,  879,  889,  997,  998,  1018,  1046, 
1114,  1128,  1423,  which  last  was  transferred  later  to 
Pisa. 

The  diocese  is  a  suffragan  of  Milan;  it  has  82  par- 
ishes, 110,300  inhabitants,  4  religious  hou.ses  of  men, 
and  19  of  women,  2  educational  establishments  for 
boys,  4  for  girls,  and  1  tri-weekly  publication. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d' Italia,  X;  Capsoni.  Memorie  slor.  di 
Pavia  (17S2);  Marroni,  De  ecclesia  et  episcopia  PapiensibuB 
(Pavia,  17.57) ;  Morbio,  Storia  dei  municipii  italiani  {Pavia  and 
Milan,  1840). 

U.  Benigni. 

University  of  Pavia. — Pavia  was,  even  in  Ro- 
man times,  a  literary  centre  (Ennodius) ;  as  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Lombard"  kingdom  it  had  its  "grammar" 
schools,  and  Em))eror  Lofhair  erected  a  "central" 
school  there  (825).  In  the  tenth  and  twelfth  centu- 
ries there  were  jirofessors  of  <lialoct  ic  and  law  as  well  as 
of  literature,  .and,  although  the  authority  of  Bologna 
was  then  incontestable,  the  opinions  of  the  "Papien- 
ses"  were  cited  with  respect.  One  of  these  was  a  cer- 
tain Lanfr.anco.  .\nother  Lanfranco,  who  died  bishop 
of  the  city,  had  been  prcjfessor  of  arts  and  theology. 
Until  KiCi'l  there  was  no  SlNiliinii  Cniirair  at  Pavia; 
whoever  .sought  legal  hnnoiir-  weiii  ti.  P.ologna.  There 
were  other  schools,  however,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century.     In  1361  Galeazzo  II  obtained 


PAVILLON 


594 


PAZ 


from  Charles  IV  a  studium  gcnerale  with  the  privileges 
aceorded  to  the  most  renowned  universities.  Promo- 
tions were  made  by  the  bishop,  who  issued  the  licence 
to  teach.  Galeazzo  forbade  his  subjects  to  study  in 
any  other  university.  In  1389  Boniface  IX  confirmed 
its  rights  and  privileges.  In  1398  it  was  transferred  to 
Piacenza,  and  from  1404  to  1412  it  was  suspended  on 
accovmt  of  continued  warfare.  Re-established  by 
Filippo  Maria  Visconti  in  1412,  it  excelled  in  Roman 
Law,  soon  surpivssing  Bologna. 

.Ajnong  the  profes.sors  of  the  first  epoch  may  be  men- 
tioned: tlie  jurisconsults  Cristoforo  Castiglioni  {legum 
monarca);  Castiglione  Branda,  afterwards  cardinal, 
founder  of  the  Collegio  Branda;  Catone  Sacco, 
founder  of  a  college  for  poor  students;  Giasone  del 
Maino  the  Magnificent  (XV  century);  Andrea  Alciato 
(from  l.i3r));  Gasp.  Visconti,  afterwards  cardinal;  Fi- 
lippo Portalupi,  first  professor  of  criminology  (1578); 
.\nt.  .Mcrenda  (11)33);  the  canonists  Francesco  Bossi, 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Como,  and  Trivulzio  Scaramuc- 
cia,  afterwards  cardinal.  The  first  teacher  of  medicine 
was  Augusto  Toscani  (from  1370) ;  in  1389  the  ehair  of 
surgery  was  founded.  Other  celebrated  professors 
were  Giovanni  Dondi,  who  constructed  the  clock  in 
the  Torrione  of  Padua;  Marsiglio  S.  Sofia  {mediciiue 
monarca,  XIV  century);  Francesco  Vittuone  (1442- 
43),  philosopher  and  physician;  Benedetto  da  Norcia 
(1455);  Gerolamo  Cordano,  naturalist  and  astrologer 
(d.  1576) ;  Gabriele  Carcano,  first  professor  of  anatomy. 
Lectures  in  astrology  (astronomy)  were  held  from  1374. 
The  first  to  teach  mathematics  was  Francesco  Pella- 
cani  (1425);  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  professors 
of  mathematics  were  often  chosen  from  the  religious, 
e.  g.  the  Servites  Fil.  Ferrari  (1046),  and  Gio.  Batt. 
Drusiano,  who  first  taught  military  architecture 
(1645)  and  assisted  in  the  defence  of  the  city  during 
the  French  siege  of  1655. 

Philosophical  branches  were  taught  from  1374,  the 
professors  of  which  also  taught  medicine;  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  the  professors  were 
mostly  religious.  The  study  of  rhetoric  and  the 
classics  began  in  1389,  and  in  1399  a  chair  of  Dante 
was  instituted  and  was  held  by  Filippo  da  Reggio. 
Lorenzo  Valla,  Francesco  Filelfo,  Giorgio  Valla  (first 
professor  of  Greek  literature,  1466),  and  Demetrios 
Chalcocondylas  (1492)  shed  lustre  on  the  university 
during  the  Renaissance.  Hebrew  was  first  taught  by 
Benedetto  di  Spagna  (1491);  Bernardo  Regazzola 
(1.500),  the  Antiquary,  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
archseology.  The  first  professor  of  theology  was  the 
Franciscan  Pietro  Filargo,  afterwards  Alexander  V; 
after  this  many  of  the  professors  were  Augustinians,  as 
Bonifacio  Bottigella;  Alberto  Crespi  (1432),  promi- 
nent at  the  Council  of  Basle;  and  Blessed  Giovanni 
Porzio,  author  of  many  commentaries  on  the  Bible. 
Others  were  Francesco  della  Rovere  (1444),  after- 
wards Sixtus  IV;  Cardinal  Gaetano  (1498-99);  the 
Orientalist  Enrico  della  Porta,  O.P.  (1751). 

The  fame  of  the  university  diminished  greatly  from 
1600.  In  1763  Maria  Theresa  reorganized  the  courses, 
especially  by  increasing  the  number  of  chairs  and  add- 
ing various  institutes  and  collections.  But  the  theo- 
logical faculty  then  became  a  source  of  anti-Roman- 
ism through  the  professors  Tamburini  and  Zola;  in 
1859  it  was  suppressed  Among  the  professors  of  this 
second  epoch  were  Gandolfi ;  the  gynscologist  Porro ; 
the  physiologist  Mantegazza;  Cesare  Lombroso; 
Golgi,  awarded  the  Nobel  prize  for  his  studies  on  the 
nervous  system;  in  jurisprudence:  Giovanni  Silva; 
Luigi  Cremani  (1775);  Domenico  Vario;  Romagnosi, 
the  reformer  of  public  law;  in  the  natural  sciences:  the 
■\bbate  Spallanzani  (1769);  and  .Messandro  Volta;  in 
mathematics:  the  Jesuit  Boscovich;  Mascheroni;  Co- 
dazza,  renowned  for  his  researches  on  heat  and  mag- 
netism; in  philo.sophy:  the  Olivetan  Baldinotti  (1783); 
and  Ruggero  Boughi;  in  literature:  Vincenzo  Monti; 
Ugo  Foscolo;  and  the  Orientalist  Hager.    Connected 


with  the  university  are  a  museum  of  mineralogy,  zo- 
ology, and  comparative  anatomy,  cabinets  of  physics, 
of  normal  anatomy,  and  pathology,  of  physiology,  and 
experimental  pathology,  various  clinics,  a  chemical 
laboratory,  and  a  cabinet  of  numismatics  and  arch;rol- 
ogy.  There  are  eighteen  burses  for  graduate  study. 
Two  colleges — Ghislieri  and  Borromeo — are  under 
university  supervision.  A  school  of  applied  engineer- 
ing and  a  school  of  pharmacy  are  also  connected  with 
the  university.  In  1910  there  were  50  professors  hold- 
ing 102  different  chairs,  besides  103  tutors;  the  stu- 
dents numbered  1507. 

Memorie  e  documenli  per  la  storia  dell'  Univer/titd  di  Pavia 
(Pavia,  1878) ;  Denifle.  Die  Universitaten  des  Mitldaltert,  I,  572, 
sqq.;  Cenni  storici  sulla  R.  Universitd  di  Pavia  (Pavia,  1873). 

U.  Benigni. 

Pavilion,  Nicolas,  Bishop  of  Alet,  b.  at  Paris, 
1597;  d.  at  Alet,  1677.  He  joined  the  community  of 
St-Lazare,  founded  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and,  for  a 
time,  devoted  himself  to  charities  and  preaching. 
His  zeal  and  eloquence  caused  Richelieu  to  appoint 
him  to  the  See  of  Alet.  The  thirty-seven  years  of  his 
episcopate  were  filled  with  ceaseless  labours  for  the  re- 
ligious and  moral  improvement  of  his  diocese;  visita- 
tion of  parishes,  hokling  of  synods,  foundation  of 
schools,  etc.  An  exaggerated  idea  of  his  episcopal  re- 
sponsibilities caused  him  to  oppose  pope  and  king.  He 
was  one  of  the  four  bishops  who  refused  to  sign  the 
formulary  imposed  by  Alexander  VII,  on  the  plea  that 
thei)i)|)i'  cannot  pronounce  on  facts  but  only  on  riglits. 
When  Louis  XIV  commanded  suhniissioii  to  the-  iiajial 
order,  Pavilion  in  "Lettre  au  roi"  (1664)  declined  to 
recognize  his  interference.  The  royal  attempt  at  ex- 
tending to  all  the  provinces  of  France  the  so-called 
droit  de  regale  found  in  Pavilion  a  sturdy  opponent. 
He  spurned  royal  threats  and  ecclesiasjtical  censures 
and  appealed  to  the  pope  against  both  the  King  of 
France  and  the  Metropolitan  of  Narbonne. 

His  attitude  against  .VIcxandcr  \TI  won  him  the  ad- 
miration of  Port-Royal.  .Met  became  tlie  Mecca  of  the 
Jansenists  and  the  bishop  imbibetl  the  errors  of  Jan- 
senism. From  the  data  of  a  contemporary  pamphlet 
("Factum  de  Messire  Vincent  Ragot",  Paris,  1766) 
Toreilles  shows  the  strange  effects  of  Jansenist  princi- 
ples on  every  branch  of  Pavilion's  otherwise  zealous 
administration  and  on  his  relations  with  the  nobility, 
the  clergy,  the  regulars,  and  the  peasantry.  He  wrote 
"Rituel  d'Alet"  (Paris,  1666),  condemned  by  Clem- 
ent IX,  and  "Ordonnances  et  status  synodaux  "  (Paris, 
1675). 

Paris.  Vie  de  M.  Pavilion  (Paris,  1738);  Stb-Beuve,  Port- 
Royal  (Paris.  1900),  index,  s.  v.;  Marion,  llisloire  de  VEglise, 
III  (Paris,  1908),  369;  Toreilles,  Nicolas  Pavilion  in  Revue  du 
Clerge  franrnis  (Oct.,  1902). 

J.    F.    SOLLIER. 

Pawn  Shops.     See  Montes  Pietatis. 

Pax  (OsctTLATORiCM,  Tabula  pacis.  Lapis  pacis), 
a  tablet  to  be  kissed.  The  primitive  usage  in  the 
Church  was  for  the  "holy  kiss"  to  be  given  promiscu- 
ously. Later  (Const.  Apostol.,  VIII,  xxix)  men  of  the 
laity  saluted  men  with  the  kiss,  while  women  kissed 
women.  This  latter  manner  of  giving  the  peace 
among  the  laity  seems  to  have  been  maintained  till  the 
thirteenth  century,  when  a  substitute  for  the  actual 
kiss  was  introduced  in  the  shape  of  a  small  wooden 
tablet,  or  plate  of  metal  (osculatorium,  deosculalorium, 
asser  ad  pacem  etc.)  bearing  an  image  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  of  the  titular  of  the  church,  or  other  saint,  or 
more  frequently  of  the  crucifixion.  The  earliest  notice 
-  of  these  instruments  is  in  the  records  of  English  coun- 
cils of  the  thirteenth  century  (Scudamore,  "Notit. 
Eucharist.",  438).  This  departure  from  the  prevail- 
ing usage  is  attributed  by  Cardinal  Bona  (Rer.  Liturg., 
II,  xvi,  §7)  to  the  Franciscans.  Kissed  by  the  celebrant 
and  cleansed  with  a  linen  cloth,  the  tablet  or  plate  was 
carried  to  others  to  be  likewise  kissed  by  them.    Thia 


PAX 


595 


PAZMANY 


ceremony  still  obtains  in  low  masses  (Ruhr.  Mis.,  X, 
n.  3),  when  the  peace  is  thus  given  to  prelates  and 
princes,  not  to  others  except  in  rare  cases  established 
by  custom.  The  acolyte  or  server  kneeling  at  the 
right  of  the  celebrant  presents  the  tablet.  The  cele- 
brant   kissing    it 


says:  "Pax  te- 
cum"; the  server 
answers:  "Etcum 
spiritutuo".  The 
server  then  carries 
the  instrument  in 
turn  to  those  who 
are  to  receive  the 
peace,  saying  to 
each:  "Pax  te- 
cum"; each  re- 
sponds, "Et  cum 
spiritu  tuo",  and 
then  genuflects. 

VENABLE8  in  Did. 
Christ.  Antiq.,  a.  v. 
Kiss;  Carp,  Biblio- 
theca  liturg..  I,  204. 

A.  B.  Meehan. 

Pax  in  the 
Liturgy.  —  Pax 

vobis  (or  vobis- 
ciim),  like  the 
other  liturgical 
salutations  (e.  g. 
Do  minus  vobis- 
cum),  is  of  Scrip- 
tural origin.  The 
Gospels  contain 
such  forms  as: 
"veniet  pax  ves- 
tra",  "pax  vestra 
revertetur  ad 
vos"  (Matt.,  X,  13),  "Pax  huic  domui"  (Luke,  x,  5), 
"Pax  vobis"  (Luke,  xxiv,  36;  John,  .\x,  21,  26).  The 
salutation,  "Gratia  vobis  et  pax"  or  "Gratia  miseri- 
cordia  et  pax",  is  the  opening  formula  of  most  of  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul  and  of  St.  Peter,  and  occurs  also 
in  those  of  St.  John  as  well  as  in  the  Apocalypse.  The 
formula  was  quoted  from  the  Old  Testament  by 
Our  Lord  and  His  Apostles  (cf.  especially  "Pax  vobis- 
cum",  "Pax  tecum".  Gen.,  xliii,  23;  Judges,  vi,  23), 
and  was  thus  naturally  preserved  in  the  liturgy  and  in 
Christian  epigraphy  as  a  memorial  of  Apostolic  times. 
Like  the  Dominus  vobiscum,  it  was  first  used  in  the 
liturgy  (in  the  form  of  Pax  vobis)  by  the  bishop  in  wel- 
coming the  faithful  at  the  beginning  of  the  Mass  be- 
fore the  Collect  or  the  Oratio.  When  the  Confiteor,  In- 
troil,  Gloria  in  excelsis  were  added  at  a  later  period,  the 
Pax  vobis  or  the  Dominus  vobiscum  was  preserved. 
The  form  Pax  vobis  is  now  employed  by  bishops  and 
prelates  only — Dominus  vobiscum  being  used  by 
priests — at  the  first  Collect.  Hence  the  Dominus  vo- 
biscum became  the  ordinary  introduction  to  all  the 
orations  and  most  of  the  prayers.  The  Greeks  have 
preserved  the  Pax  omnibus  or  Pax  vobiscum.  There 
was  formerly  a  certain  rivalry  between  the  two  for- 
mulae, Pax  vobis  and  Dominus  vobiscum,  and  some  coun- 
cils (notably  that  of  Braga  in  .563)  ordained  that  both 
bishops  and  priests  should  employ  the  same  form  of 
salutation  (for  the  texts,  see  the  bibliography).  Be- 
sides this  episcopal  or  sacerdotal  salutation,  the  words 
Pax  tecum,  Pax  vobis,  or  Pax  vobiscum  are  used  in  the 
Liturgy  at  the  kiss  of  peace.  On  such  occasions  the 
Liturgy  contains  prayers  or  collects  ad  pacem  (cf. 
Kiss;  Cabrol  in  "Diet,  d'arch^ol.  et  de  liturgie",  s.  v. 
"Baiser  de  Paix",  where  all  references  are  given).  In 
the  Ambrosian  Liturgy,  at  the  end  of  the  Mass,  the 
people  are  dismissed  with  the  words:  "Ite  in  pace" 
(cf.  "Auctarium  Solesmense",  95).  Dom  Mart^ne 
(op.  cit.  in  bibliography,  III,  171,  174)  gives  other  in- 


stances of  the  use  of  the  word  Pax.  In  Christian  epi- 
graphy there  is  a  variety  of  formulae:  pax;  in  pace;  pax 
tecum;  vivas  in  pace;  requiescat  in  pace;  pax  Christi 
tecum  sit;  anima  dulcissima  requiescas  in  pace;  dor- 
mit  in  pace;  in  locum  refrigerii,  lueis  et  pacis  (from  the 
formula  in  the  Mass  at  the  Memento  of  the  Dead). 
See  Inscriptions,  Early  Christian;  Le  Blant," In- 
scriptions chret.  de  la  Gaule",  I,  264,  etc.;  Northcote, 
"Epitaphs  of  the  Catacombs"  (London,  1878),  v,  and 
bibliography. 

In  addition  to  the  works  and  articles  cited  in  the  text,  consult: 
Petek  Damian,  an  opusculum  on  Dominus  Vobiscum  in  P.  L., 
CXLV,  234;  Zaccaeia,  Onomasticon,  a.  w.  Pax  vobis  and  Salu- 
tatio  ep^scopatis;  Bona,  Rerum  liturg.,  Ill,  12,  88  sqq.;  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiq.,  a.  v.  Pax  (cf.  Dominus  vobiscum);  De  dig- 
nitale  sacerdotali  (not  written  bv  St.  Ambroae,  as  was  long  be- 
lieved, but  by  Gerbert),  v,  in  P.  L.,  XVII,  598,  and  CXXXIX. 
175,  contains  an  important  text  on  this  subject;  Rocca.  De  satu- 
tatione  sacerdotis  in  missa  et  divinis  officiis  in  Thesaurus  anliquitat., 
I  (Rome,  1745),  236;  MartJ:ne,  De  antiq.  cedes,  rilibus,  I,  151 
sqq.;  Mamachi.  Origines  et  antiq.  Christ.,  IV,  479;  III,  17,  19; 
Ephemerides  liturg.  (Feb.,  1910),  108;  Probst,  Die  abendldndische 
Messe,  104,  404,  437;  see  Dominus  Vobiscum,  V,  114;  Cabrol 
in  Diet,  d'archiol.  chrit.,  a.  v.  Acclamations.  For  thf  formiiln  Pot 
and  other  formulas  in  funeral  epigraphy,  cf.  Ins(  m  ii  i.  .v-  I  *  hi  y 
Christian;    Kirsch,  Die  Acclamatiouen  u.  dl"  -      // 

Grabschriften  (Cologne.   1897);    Idem,  Les  accl.i:  ,,i- 

taphes  chret.  de  V  antiquity  et  les  priires  liturg.  pour  I  l  jt;.;,..'  m  IV^ 
Congres  scientifique  des  Catholiques  (Fribourg,  1S98),  113-22; 
SrxTO,  Notiones  archaeol.  Christ.,  II,  Epigraphia,  94  sqq.;  Cabrol, 
La  prih-e  pour  les  marts  in  Revue  d'apotogetique  (15  Sept.,  1909); 
Idem,  Livre  de  la  priire  antique,  67,  69. 

Fernand  Cabrol. 
Pax  Tecum.     See  Kiss. 

Pax  Vobis.     See  Pax  in  the  Liturgy. 

Payeras,  Mariano,  b.  10  Oct.,  1769,  at  Inca, 
Island  of  Majorca;  d.  28  April,  1823.  He  received  the 
habit  of  St.  Francis  at  Palma,  ,5  Sept.,  1784;  left  Spain 
in  Feb.,  1793,  to  join  the  College  of  San  Fernando, 
Mexico,  which  provided  missionaries  for  the  Indian 
missions  in  California.  He  was  sent  to  Monterey  and 
stationed  at  San  Carios,  1796-1798;  at  Soledad,  1798- 
1803;  at  San  Diego,  1803-1804;  at  Purisima  Concep- 
cion,  1804-1823.  From  July,  181.5,  to  April,  1820, 
Father  Payeras  held  the  offices  of  presidente  of  the  mis- 
sions and  vicario  foraneo  of  the  Bishop  of  Sonora,  to 
whose  jurisdiction  California  belonged.  In  1819  the 
College  of  San  Fernando  elected  him  comisario-pre- 
fecto  of  the  missions,  in  which  capacity  he,  at  various 
times,  visited  the  twenty  missions  then  existing  from 
San  Diego  to  San  Rafael,  a  distance  of  more  than  six 
hundred  miles.  The  zealous  prelate  also  headed  vari- 
ous expeditions  to  the  territory  of  the  savages  for  the 
purpose  of  finding  suitable  sites  for  new  missions.  Six 
months  before  his  death  he  accompanied  an  expedi- 
tion to  the  Russian  settlements  in  the  wilds  of  Sonoma 
County,  and  thereby  most  probably  hastened  his  de- 
mise. In  1819  Fr.  Payeras  received  the  thanks  of  the 
King  of  Spain  for  his  services  during  the  Bouchard  re- 
volt. While  in  charge  of  Purisima  he  compiled  a  cate- 
chism in  the  language  of  the  Indians,  which  was  put  to 
use  but  never  published.  "There  was  no  friar  of  bet- 
ter and  more  evenly  balanced  ability",  says  H.  H. 
Bancroft.  "It  was  impossible  to  quarrel  with  him. 
He  had  extraordinary  business  ability,  was  a  clear  and 
forcible,  as  well  as  a  voluminous  writer,  and  withal  a 
man  of  great  strength  of  mind  and  firmness  of  charac- 
ter". 

Santa  Barbara  Mission  Archives;  Mission  Records  of  Purisima 
Concepcion;  Enoelhahdt,  The  Franciscans  in  California  (Har- 
bor Springs,  Mich.,  1897) ;  Idem,  The  Missions  and  Missionaries 
of  California,  II  (San  Francisco,  1911);  Bancroft,  History  of 
California,  II  (San  Francisco,  188G). 

Zephyrin  Engelhardt. 

Paz,  La.     See  La  Paz,  Diocese  of. 

Pazm&ny,  Peter,  famous  Hungarian  ecclesiastic  of 
the  seventeenth  century;  d.  19  March,  1637.  He  was 
born  of  noble  blood.  His  parents  were  Calvinists;  his 
stepmother,  who  was  a  Catholic,  turned  the  boy's 
spirit  towards  the  Catholic  Church.  After  making  his 
elementary  studies  in  Nagyvdrad,  where  two  Jesuits 


PAZZI 


596 


PEACE 


exercised  great  innurnic  umt  him.  lu>  went  to  the 
Jesuit  colh'ije  in  Ki)Uiz.sv;ir.  At  tlic  af;<'  i>f  tliiiteen  lie 
hecame  a  Calliolic.  and  at  seventeen  enlen'd  the  Jesuit 
novitiate.  Proceeding  to  Rome  for  liis  liigher  stii(he.<, 
he  studied  for  four  years  under  Bellarmine.  After- 
wards he  taught  i)hilosoi)liy  and  theology  in  Gratz, 
and  in  1601  returned  to  Hungary.  He  successively 
became  Provost  of  TurtW,  Bishop  of  Nyitra.  in  KiKi 
Archbishop  of  Esztergoni,  and  lastly  Cardinal  Primate 
of  all  Hungary.  Pazmdny  engaged  in  a  lit<'rary  war- 
fare with  Stephen  Magyary,  a  Protestant  preacher, 
who  in  a  book  entitled  "The  causes  of  the  country's 
ruin"  (Az  orszagokban  vaI6  sok  romldsoknak  okai- 
r61),p\iblisheil  in  lt)()2,  declared  the  Catholic  religion 
to  be  the  princijial  cause.  Pdzmdny  answered  him  in  a 
work  entitled  "  Reply  to  Stephen  "Mag\-ar>-"  (Felelet 
Magyary  Istvannak),  i)roving  that  the  Protestant  re- 
ligion, and  not  the  Catliolic,  wivs  the  cause.  He  trans- 
lated the  "Imitation  of  Christ"  and  also  compiled  a 
prayer-book,  still  in  popular  use.  In  160.5  appeared 
"Ten  arguments  proving  the  falsity  of  the  present 
science";  in  1609,  "Five  famous  letters  to  Peter  A 1- 
vinczy  " ;  in  1613  his  great  theological  and  apologetical 
work,  "Hodoegus,  or  Guide  to  God's  truths"  (Hodoe- 
gus,  vagy  Isteni  igazsagra  vezerlo,  Kalauz).  The 
first  part  of  the  last  work  was  dogmatic,  the  second 
part  polemical.  With  unanswerable  arguments  he 
showed  the  truth  of  the  Catholic  religion,  whose  vic- 
tory in  Hungary  he  secured  by  this  work.  Hence- 
forth Protestantism  was  reduced  to  personal  recrim- 
inations and  forcf^  of  arms.  In  1636  he  published 
his  sermons,  which  became  a  model  for  the  priest- 
hood. 

Pdzmdny  belongs  to  the  first  rank  of  preachers,  his 
discourses  being  notable  for  their  logic,  rather  than 
beautiful  words.  By  his  writings,  preaching,  but.  es- 
peciallv  by  his  personal  meetings  he  converted  about 
thirty  noble  families  (e.  g.  the  Zrinyi,  Wesselenyi, 
Nd<lasdy,  Rdk6czy  etc.).  These  families  spent  most 
of  their  money  in  converting  the  people  of  the  lower 
classes,  whom' the  Reformation  had  seduced  from  the 
true  Faith.  As  archbishop,  Pazmdny  put  into  effect  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  He  introduced  the 
Missale  Romaniim,  and  was  the  great  apostle  of  the  cel- 
ibacy of  the  clergy.  He  also  displayed  great  activity 
in  founding  schools,  building  many  seminaries  for  the 
education  of  poor  students  who  aspired  to  the  priest- 
hood, and  also  manv  elementary  and  high  schools.  In 
1623  he  gave  4(j,()()()  dollars  toward  the  building  in 
Vienna  of  a  seminary  for  Hungarians  (the  Pazmaneum) , 
which  is  to-day  in  a  very  flourishing  condition.     In 

1626  he  built  a  college  in  Pozsony,  the  direction  of 
which  he  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits.  In  1635 
he  built  an  elementary  school  in  the  same  place,  and  in 

1627  he  gave  .533  dollars  that  Hungarian  seminarians 
might  be  sent  to  Rome  to  finish  their  theological 
studies.  In  Nagyszombat  he  built  a  seminary  and 
also  a  college  for  the  children  of  impoverished  nobles. 
In  1635  he  founded  the  first  Hungarian  university  for 
the  furthering  of  Catholic  ideals;  this  institution  is  in 
Budapest,  and  is  at  present  (1910)  attended  by  5000 
students.  Pdzmdny  ortlered  that  the  bishops  every 
year,  and  the  archbishops  everj'  four  years,  should  hold 
a  conference,  and  that  the  deans  and  pastors  should 
take  an  examination  every  year.  As  a  politician, 
Pdzmdny  desired  Hungar>'  to  be  a  kingdom  with  a 
Catholic  ruler,  and  tliat  Hungani'  and  Austria  should 
work  together  in  all  dealings  wnth  foreign  powers, 
Tran.sylvania  being  independent.  Pdzmdny's  idea 
was  that,  with  a  Catholic  Himgarian  king,  the  country 
would  be  well  protected  from  the  Turks.  It  was  to 
his  earnest  efforts  that  Ferflinand  II  was  partially  en- 
debted  for  his  succession  to  the  throne.  In  1622  he 
brought  about  peace  between  Gabriel  Bethlen  (ruler 
of  Transylvania)  and  Ferdinand  II,  religious  freedom 
being  granted  to  the  Protestants.  He  battled  so  long 
and   nobly   for   Catholicism,   and   his   efforts   were 


crowned  with  such  great  success  that  we  may  say  that 
he  was  born  in  Protestant,  but  died  in  (Catholic, 
Hungary. 

Fk.\kn6i  Vilmos,  Pdzmdmj  PHcr  H  kora  (P.  Piizmdn,/  nnil  his 
cenlurii,  3  vol.).,  1867-71);  KovAcs.  Pdzmdny  Kalnuza  (a  Brllnr- 
min  Disputati6i  (The  Conductor  of  Pdzmdny  and  the  Disputations 
of  Bdhrmine,  Kassa,  1908). 

A.  B.^NGHA. 

Pazzi,  Mary  Magdalen  de'.  Saint.  See  Mary 
Magdalen. 

Peace  Congresses.      I.  Early  History.  —  The 

genesis  of  the  idea  of  a  meeting  of  representatives  of 
difTerciit  iiaticiiis  lo  (il)tain  by  peaceful  arbitrament  a 
settlement  of  dilTerences  has  been  traced  to  the  year 
1623  in  modern  history,  to  a  French  monk,  Em<5ric 
Cruce,  who  wrote  a  work  entitled  "The  New  Cyneas", 
a  discourse  showing  the  opportunities  and  the  means 
for  establishing  a  general  peace  and  liberty  of  con- 
science to  all  tlie  world  antl  addressed  to  the  monarch 
and  the  sovereign  princes  of  the  time.  He  proposed 
that  a  city,  preferably  Venice,  should  be  selected 
where  all  the  Powers  had  ambassadors  and  that  there 
should  be  a  universal  union,  including  all  peoples. 
He  suggested  careful  arrangement  as  to  priority,  giv- 
ing the  first  place  to  the  pope.  Two  years  after  this 
publication,  appeared  in  Latin  the  work  of  Hugo  Gro- 
tius  "On  the  Right  of  War  and  Peace",  pleading  for  a 
mitigation  of  some  of  the  barbarous  usages  of  war. 
William  Penn,  the  founder  of  Pennsylvania,  had  a 
plan  for  the  establishment  of  a  "European  Dy(  t, 
Parliament  or  Estates".  He  was  followed  by  other 
writers  of  different  nationalities. 

Immediately  after  the  dethronement  of  Napoleon 
the  First  a  congress  of  the  great  European  powers 
met  in  Vienna,  but  it  could  hardly  be  called  a  peace 
congress,  as  its  purpose  was  rather  to  adjust  the  bound- 
aries and  limit  the  sphere  of  influence  of  the  different 
nations  which  had  united  to  overthrow  the  French 
emperor.  From  time  to  time  differences  between 
individual  nations  or  the  citizens  of  one  nation  and  the 
government  of  another  have  been  settled  by  arbitra- 
tion, but  the  idea  of  a  World  Congress  to  bring  about 
a  reduction  of  armament  and  a  universal  peace  is  of 
recent  origin. 

In  1S26,  a  congress  composed  of  representatives 
of  Spanish-American  countries  was  planned  by  Bolivar 
for  military  as  well  as  political  purposes.  One  of  its 
declared  objects  was  "to  promote  the  peace  and  union 
of  American  nations  and  establish  amicable  methods  for 
the  settlement  of  disputes  between  them  ".  This  con- 
gress failed,  as  only  four  Spanish-American  countries 
were  represented  and  only  one  ratified  the  agreement. 
In  1831,  however,  Mexico  took  up  the  subject  and 
proposed  a  conference  of  American  Republics  "for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  about  not  only  a  union  and  close 
alliance  for  defence,  but  also  the  acceptance  of  friendly 
mediation  for  the  settlement  of  disputes  between 
them,  and  the  framing  and  promulgation  of  a  code  of 
penal  laws  to  regulate  their  mutual  relations".  It 
does  not  appear  that  anything  came  of  this  congress, 
and  in  1847  another  was  held  at  Lima,  attended 
by  representatives  of  Bolivia,  Chili,  Ecuador,  New 
Granada,  and  Peru,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  an 
alliance  of  American  republics.  The  United  States 
was  invited  but  as  it  was  then  at  war  with  Mexico 
it  sent  no  representative.  Another  congress  w:is  held 
by  representatives  from  the  Argentine  Republic, 
Bolivia,  Chili,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Guatemala,  Peru, 
and  Venezuela,  in  1864.  An  effort  to  hold  a  congress 
was  made  by  the  governments  of  Chili  and  Colombia 
in  1880,  "to  the  end  that  the  settlement  by  arbitra- 
tion of  each  and  every  international  controversy' 
should  become  a  principle  of  Amercian  public  law'  . 
This  congress  did  not  meet,  however,  owing  to  a  war 
between  Chili  .and  Peru. 

In  1881,  the  President  of  the  United  States  invited 
the  independent  countries  of  North  and  South  Amer- 


PEASANTS 


697 


PEASANTS 


ica  to  meet  in  a  general  congress  at  Washington  on 
24  November,  1882,  "for  the  purpose  of  considering 
and  discussing  methods  of  preventing  war  between  the 
nations  of  America".  This  meeting  did  not  take 
place  owing  to  a  variety  of  reasons,  but  subsequently, 
by  virtue  of  an  Act  of  Congress  of  the  United  States 
an  invitation  was  issued  by  the  president  to  Mexico, 
the  Central  and  South  American  Republics,  Hayti, 
Dominican  Repuljlic,  and  Brazil  to  join  in  a  conference 
to  be  held  in  the  city  of  Washington,  the  project  being 
to  consider:  (1)  measures  tending  to  preserve  the 
peace  and  promote  the  prosperity  of  the  South  Amer- 
ican States;  (2)  measures  looking  to  the  formation  of 
an  American  Customs  Union;  (3)  the  establishment  of 
regular  and  frequent  communication  between  the 
various  countries;  (4)  the  establishment  of  a  uniform 
system  of  customs  regulations,  invoices,  sanitation  of 
ships,  and  quarantine;  (.5)  the  adoption  of  a  uniform 
system  of  weights  and  measures,  and  of  laws  to  pro- 
tect ]>atent  rights,  copyrights,  and  trade  marks,  and 
for  the  extradition  of  criminals;  (6)  the  adoption  of 
a  common  silver  coin;  (7)  the  adoption  of  a  definite 
plan  of  arbitration  of  all  questions,  disputes,  and  dif- 
ferences; and  (8)  such  other  subjects  relating  to  the 
welfare  of  the  several  States  as  might  be  presented  by 
any  of  them.  The  congress  assembled  at  Washington 
on  2  October,  1889.  Eighteen  American  nations,  in- 
cluding the  United  States,  had  their  representatives. 
The  conference  adopted  a  plan  of  arbitration  of  in- 
ternational differences,  together  with  various  recom- 
mendations relating  to  trade,  law,  extradition,  patents, 
customs,  and  sanitary  regulations.  It  further  de- 
clared arbitration  to  be  a  principle  of  American 
International  Law  and  obligatory  "in  all  controver- 
sies concerning  diplomatic  and  consular  privileges, 
boundaries,  territories,  indemnities,  the  right  of 
navigation,  and  the  validity,  construction  and  en- 
forcement of  treaties;  and  that  it  should  be  equally 
obligatory  in  all  other  cases,  whatever  might  be  their 
origin,  nature  or  object,  with  the  sole  exception  of 
those  which  in  the  judgment  of  one  of  the  nations 
involved  in  the  controversy,  might  imperil  its  inde- 
pendence; but  that  even  in  this  case,  while  arbitration 
for  that  nation  should  be  optional,  it  should  be  obli- 
gatory on  the  adversary  power"  (7  Moore  Int.  Law 
Dig.  p.  7).  One  notable  result  of  the  conference  was 
the  establishment  of  the  Bureau  of  the  American 
Republics.  All  the  republics  of  South  America  are 
represented  in  this  bureau,  which  continues  for  periods 
of  ten  years  subject  to  renewal. 

II.  L.\TEST  Developments. — A.  Firsl  Hague  Con- 
ference.— On  12  August,  1898,  in  a  circular  letter  ad- 
dressed to  the  representatives  of  different  nations,  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  proposed  to  all  governments,  which 
had  duly  accredited  representatives  at  the  imperial 
couit,  tlie  holding  of  a  conference  to  consider  the  prob- 
lem of  the  preservation  of  peace  among  nations.  Dur- 
ing the  summer  of  1900  the  conference  assembled  at 
The  Hague  and  on  4  Sept.  formal  notification  of  the 
ratification  of  the  convention  for  the  pacific  settle- 
ment of  international  disputes  was  given  by  the  United 
States,  Austria,  Belgium,  Denmark,  England,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  Persia,  Portugal,  Rumania,  Russia, 
Siam,  Spain,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  the  Netherlands, 
and  subsequently  by  .Japan.  A  permanent  court  of 
arbitration  was  established  at  The  Hague,  composed  of 
representatives  of  each  of  the  signatory  powers  ap- 
pointed for  a  term  of  six  years.  Arbitrators  called 
upon  to  form  a  competent  tribunal  may  be  chosen 
from  a  general  list  of  the  members  of  the  court  when 
any  of  the  signatory  powers  desire  to  have  recourse  to 
the  court  for  a  settlement  of  any  difference  between 
them. 

The  South  and  Central  American  republics  were 
not  represented  at  the  conference,  but  at  the  second 
International  Conference  of  .American  States  which 
was  initiated  by  President  McKinley  and  held  in  the 


City  of  Mexico,  22  October,  1901,  to  31  January,  1902, 
a  plan  was  adopted  looking  to  adhesion  to  The  Hague 
convention,  the  protocol  being  signed  by  all  of  the  dele- 
gations except  Chili  and  Ecuador,  who  subsequently 
gave  their  adhesion.  The  conference  authorized  the 
Governments  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico  to 
negotiate  with  the  other  signatory  powers  for  the  ad- 
herence of  other  American  nations.  At  this  confer- 
ence the  project  of  a  treaty  for  the  arbitration  of 
pecuniary  claims  was  adopted,  and  the  signatories 
agreed  for  a  term  of  five  years  to  submit  to  arbitration 
(preferably  to  the  permanent  court  at  The  Hague)  all 
claims  for  pecuniary  loss  or  damage  presented  by  their 
respective  citizens  and  not  capable  of  settlement 
through  cli|ilomatic  channels,  where  they  were  of  suf- 
ficient iiiipiiitance  to  warrant  the  expense  of  a  court 
of  arbitration. 

B.  Second  Hague  Conference. — A  second  interna- 
tional iieace  conference  was  held  at  The  Hague  from  15 
June  to  IS  October,  1907.  Forty-four  States  were 
represented,  including  the  principal  nations  of  Eu- 
rope, North  and  South  America,  and  Asia.  The  con- 
ference drew  up  thirteen  conventions  and  one  declara- 
tion. They  are  as  follows:  for  the  pacific  settlement  of 
international  disputes;  respecting  the  limitation  of  the 
employment  of  force  for  the  recovery  of  contract  debts; 
relative  to  the  opening  of  hostilities;  respecting  the 
laws  and  customs  of  war  on  land ;  respecting  the  rights 
and  duties  of  neutral  powers  and  persons  in  case  of 
war  on  land;  relative  to  the  status  of  enemy  merchant- 
ships  at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities;  relative  to  the  con- 
version of  merchant-ships  into  war-ships;  relative  to 
the  laying  of  automatic  submarine  contact  mines;  re- 
specting bombardment  by  naval  forces  in  time  of  war; 
for  the  adaptation  to  naval  war  of  the  principles  of  the 
Geneva  convention;  relative  to  certain  restrictions 
with  regard  to  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  capture  in 
naval  war;  relative  to  the  creation  of  an  International 
Prize  Court;  concerning  the  rights  and  duties  of  neu- 
tral powers  in  naval  war;  and  a  declaration  prohibit- 
ing the  discharge  of  projectiles  and  explosives  from 
balloons. 

The  movement  towards  the  settlement  of  interna- 
tional difficulties  by  arbitration  has  made  great  ad- 
vances, as  will  be  seen  by  the  foregoing  summary. 
None,  however,  have  attempted  to  settle  by  such 
methods  any  questions  which  may  touch  upon  "the 
vital  interests,  the  independence  or  the  honour"  of  the 
different  States. 

President  Taft,  in  a  recent  address,  has  made  a  plea 
for  negotiation  even  of  the  excepted  questions,  so  that 
there  may  be  an  "adjudication  of  an  international  ar- 
bitration court  in  every  issue  which  cannot  be  settled 
by  negotiation  no  matter  what  it  involves,  whether 
honour,  territory  or  money  ".  The  public  sentiment  of 
the  world  upon  this  subject  is  crystallizing,  and  an- 
other decade  may  witness  results  perhaps  even  more 
far-reaching  than  those  that  have  been  already 
attained. 

Balch,  The  New  Cyneas  of  Emeric  Cruci  (Philadelphia.  1909); 
Idem,  Crwce,  VHolldion  deVaTbitrage  internatwial;  Moore,  Inter- 
national Law  (from  this  work  the  facts  relating  to  American  peace 
congresses  have  been  taken) :  Moore.  Digest  of  International  Law; 
Wilson,  Hand  Book  of  International  Law  (St.  Paul.  Minn.,  1910); 
Scott.  Text  of  the  Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague  1907-1909:  Hio- 
oiNs,  The  Hague  Peace  Conference. 

Walter  George  Smith. 

Peasants,  War  of  the  (1524-2.5),  a  revolt  of  the 
peasants  of  southern  and  central  Germany,  the  causes 
of  which  are  disputed  as  a  result  of  religious  and  politi- 
cal prejudice.  At  present  the  opinion  prevails  that 
the  revolt  was  brought  about  mainly  by  economic  die- 
tress.  The  conditions  which  must  here  be  taken  into 
consideration  arc  the  following.  Vp  to  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century  the  peasants  enjoyed  a  relatively 
advantageous  position,  even  though  they  did  not  own 
their  land  in  fee  simple,  but  held  it  at  a  rental,  either 
hereditary  or  fixed  for  certain  periods.     Conditions, 


PEASANTS 


598 


PEASANTS 


however,  grew  worse.  The  increase  of  popiilsition  due 
to  prosperity  coincided  in  point  of  time  with  the  de- 
velopment of  the  economic  use  of  inonej-  and  its  injuri- 
ous influences.  The  city  overshadowed  the  country, 
and  at  times  e\en  exerted  dominion  over  the  countrj' 
districts.  International  economic  conditions  also 
were  detrimental  to  the  peasant  class.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  precious  metals  were  drawn  from  the  mines  of 
Peru,  Alexico,  and  Germany,  so  that  the  value  of 
money  sank  about  fifty  per  cent,  while  prices  rose; 
thus  in  Thuringia  the  price  of  w-ool  was  doubled,  and 
the  price  of  merchandise  was  increased  fivefold.  On 
the  other  hand  leases  were  not  reduced  or  wages 
raised,  but  the  lords  of  the  land  sought  to  make  up 
their  losses  by  unusually  heavy  taxation.  They  ex- 
tended their  authority,  increased  the  services  and  bur- 
dens of  the  serfs,  sought  to  annul  the  rights  of  the 
market  associations,  and  to  do  away  with  the  peas- 
ants' hereditary  lease  of  their  farms,  only  granting  the 
use  of  woodland,  water,  and  pasture  on  condition  of 
heavy  rents.  Roman  law  favoured  these  exactions. 
Moreover,  the  military  needs  and  the  growing  costs  of 
the  local  governments  led  to  an  increase  of  the  taxes. 
This  caused  great  bitterness  of  feeling,  especially  in 
Wiirtemberg  and  Bavaria.  To  the  burdens  imposed 
by  the  landlord  and  the  territorial  sovereign  were 
added  imperial  taxes,  regardless  of  the  economic  con- 
dition of  the  poorer  classes.  The  position  of  the  peas- 
ants was  at  its  worst  in  the  very  small  German  states, 
where  the  landlord  was  also  the  sovereign  and  desired 
to  live  like  a  prince. 

Not  only  peasants  but  also  cities  and  nobles  took 
part  in  the  great  uprising  that  is  known  as  the  War  of 
the  Peasants.  Of  the  cities  only  the  smaller  were  eco- 
nomicall)-  connected  with  the  peasants.  Large  cities, 
like  Frankfort,  Wilrzburg,  and  Mainz,  joined  the  up- 
rising; but  economic  conditions  do  not  fully  e.xplain 
their  action.  It  must  be  assumed,  therefpre,  that 
external  reasons  induced  the  nobility  and  the  cities  to 
combine  temporarily  with  the  peasants  in  the  great 
uprising  and  that  the  causes  of  discontent,  which  were 
numerous,  varied  in  the  different  States.  From  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century  great  movements  for  polit- 
ical reform  had  been  in  progress,  but  on  account  of  the 
Belfish  policy  of  the  territorial  princes  all  attempts 
to  strengthen  the  x;entral  power  had  failed,  and  the 
Nureinberg  Diet  of  1524  had  completely  paralyzed  the 
imperial  administration.  Part  of  the  rebels  desired  to 
reform  the  empire.  Political  disorders  were  intensified 
by  religious.  For  eight  years  Luther's  attitude  had 
disquieted  the  people  and  shaken  their  religious  con- 
victions to  their  foundations.  His  declamations  about 
Christian  liberty,  even  if  meant  in  a  different  sense, 
increased  the  ferment.  The  opponents  of  the  new 
doctrine  regarded  Luther,  and  in  part  still  regard  him, 
as  the  real  instigator  of  the  revolt;  the  rebels  them- 
selves appealed  to  him  in  the  conviction  that  they 
were  only  carrying  out  his  teachings.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  outbreak  took  place  just  at  the  end  of 
the  year  1524.  The  hope  of  a  national  settlement  of 
ecclesiastical  reform  had  come  to  nought,  and  the 
emperor  had  countermanded  the  national  council, 
which  had  been  called  to  meet  at  Speyer,  1  Sept.,  1524. 
The  failure  of  the  efforts  for  political  and  ecclesiastical 
reform  must  also  be  included  among  the  causes  of  the 
outbreak.  Before  it  is  possible  to  pass  a  final  judg- 
ment upon  the  causes,  there  must  be  a  wider  and  more 
thorough  investigation  of  the  religious  and  intellectual 
life  of  the  German  people  before  the  Reformation. 

During  the  years  1492-1.500  there  had  been  sporadic 
outbreaks  in  Algau,  Alsace,  and  in  the  Diocese  of 
Speyer,  but  they  had  been  betrayed  and  suppressed. 
The  revolt  of  "poor  Conrad"  aga'.nst  the  extortionate 
taxation  of  Duke  IHrich  of  WUrtemberg,  and  the  con- 
federation of  the  Wendic  peasants  in  Carinthia,  Carni- 
ola,  and  Styria  had  also  been  crushed  by  the  rulers  and 
nobility  of  these  states.    The  great  uprising  of  the 


peasants  in  the  second  decade  of  the  sixteenth  century 
began  in  the  southern  [lart  of  the  Black  l-'orcst.  The 
revolt  was  under  the  daring  and  clear-sighted  guidance 
of  Hans  iMiiller  of  Bulgenhacli  and,  a.s  the  rebellion 
spread  over  Swabia,  Franconia,  and  Alsace,  the  power 
of  the  rebels  steadily  grew.  They  stirred  up  the  peo- 
ple to  disorder  by  means  of  promises  contained  in  the 
so-called  "Twelve  Articles",  of  which  the  author  is 
uncertain.  They  have  been  ascribed  to  Pastor  Schap- 
pler  of  Memmingen,  to  Sebastian  Lotzcr,  and  to  the 
Pastor  of  Waldshuli,  Balthasar  Hubmaicr,  who  was 
under  the  influence  of  MUnzer.  Their  demands  were 
economic,  social,  and  religious.  The  rate  of  interest, 
compulsory  service  to  the  lord  of  the  manor,  and  legal 
penalties  they  wished  mitigated.  Other  articles  de- 
manded the  restoration  of  old  German  economic  con- 
ditions, such  as  the  unions  of  the  old  marches  and  the 
free  right  of  pasturage,  fisliing,  and  hunting.  Social 
reform  was  to  culminate  in  the  abolition  of  serfdom, 
because  Christ  made  all  men  free,  but  obedience  to  the 
authorities  appointed  by  God  was  to  be  maintained. 
As  regards  religion  they  demanded  the  right  to  choose 
their  pastors  and  to  guarantee  that  the  clergy  should 
preach  the  pure  and  true  Gospel.  Thus  the  moderate 
element  that  had  a  share  in  preparing  these  articles 
had  no  thought  of  a  radical  overthrow  of  all  existing 
conditions.  But  in  this  case,  as  in  all  great  popular 
upheavals,  the  moderation  expressed  in  theory  was  not 
carried  out. 

The  mobs  that  were  commanded  by  the  tavern- 
keeper  George  Metzler, by  Florian Geyer,  Wendel  Hip- 
ler,  Jacklein  Rohrbach,  and  even  by  the  knight,  Gotz 
von  Berlichingen,  often  indulged  in  an  unbridled  lust 
of  murder  and  destruction.  The  best  known  of  these 
outrages  is  the  horrible  murder  of  Count  von  Helfen- 
stein  on  16  April,  1525.  Early  in  May,  1525,  the  peas- 
ants were  everywhere  victorious  over  the  nobility. 
The  Bishops  of  Bamberg  and  Speyer,  the  Abbots  of 
Hersfeld  and  Fulda,  the  Elector  of  the  Palatinate,  and 
others  made  concessions  of  all  kinds  to  their  demands. 
The  revolt,  however,  was  at  its  height  and  its  leaders 
thought  themselves  able  to  carry  out  their  political 
aims.  Several  cities  joined  the  uprising,  which  was  to 
be  under  the  direction  of  a  vigorous  and  well-organized 
board  of  peasants;  at  Heilbronn  a  common  chancery 
was  to  be  established  for  all  the  rebel  bands ;  the  great 
majority  of  the  rebels  under  arms  were  to  go  home  and 
only  a  select  body  was  to  keep  the  field.  The  peasants 
sought  to  overthrow  their  real  political  opponents,  the 
territorial  princes.  They  planned  to  reorganize  the 
entire  constitution  of  the  empire,  a  scheme  that  had 
been  repeatedly  discussed  since  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. 'The  object  of  their  plans  of  reform  was  to 
strengthen  the  empire  and  to  weaken  the  power  of  the 
territorial  princes.  The  property  of  the  Church  was 
to  be  secularized,  and  then  used  to  compensate  the 
feudal  lords  for  the  abolition  of  the  feudal  burdens. 
The  reforms  were  then  to  be  carried  out  under  the  au- 
thority of  the  empire,  such  as  uniformity  of  weights 
and  coinage,  suppression  of  custom-duty,  restoration 
of  the  German  law  in  the  courts,  etc. 

The  petty  sovereigns  now  combined  and  Luther 
encouraged  their  intention  to  crush  the  rebellion.  In 
April  he  had  advocated  peace  and  had  distinguished 
between  justifiable  and  unjustifiable  demands.  He 
now  took  a  different  view  of  the  matter.  The  fanatical 
mobs  directed  by  Thomas  Miinzer  and  Heinrich  Pfei- 
fer  were  spreading  destruction  in  Thuringia  by  fire 
and  sword,  and  had  destroyed  the  monasteries  of  the 
Harz  district  and  theThuringian  Forest  (Michaelstein, 
Ilsenburg,  Walkenried,  Kelbra,  Donndorf,  Rossleben, 
Memleben,  and  Reinhardsbrunn).  Luther  now  fore- 
saw the  overthrow  of  State  and  Church,  property  and 
family.  Accortlingly  on  6  May  he  violently  and  pas- 
sionately urged  the  princes  to  smite  the  "murdering 
and  robbing  band  of  the  peasants".  The  hordes  com- 
manded by  Miinzer  were  defeated  on  15  May,  1525, 


PEBA 


599 


PECHAM 


near  Frankenhausen  by  the  confederated  princes 
of  Saxony,  Brunswick,  Hesse,  and  Mansfeld.  The 
prophet  Miinzer  was  executed.  At  about  the  same 
time  the  uprising  in  southern  Germany  was  subdued. 
In  Alsace  tlie  peasants  were  conquered  on  17  May  by 
the  united  forces  of  Duke  Anton  of  Lorraine  and  the 
Governorof  Morsperg;  in  Wiirtemberg  they  were  over- 
thrown near  Sindelfingen  by  the  commander  of  the 
forces  of  the  Swabian  League.  The  mobs  of  Odenwald 
and  Rothenburg  were  utterly  crushedon  2  and  4  June; 
and  on  7  June  \Vurzburg  had  to  surrender.  The  over- 
throw of  the  peasants  on  the  upper  and  middle  Rhine 
required  more  time.  The  revolt  had  taken  a  more 
orderly  course  in  Upper  Swabia,  the  Black  Forest,  and 
in  Switzerland.  The  north-west  and  the  east  were 
entirely  free  from  the  insurrection,  for  at  that  time  the 
position  of  the  peasants  there  was  more  favourable. 
Formerly  it  was  thought  that  after  this  uprising  the 
condition  of  the  peasants  became  worse  than  before, 
but  this  view  is  incorrect.  At  first,  it  is  true,  the 
severity  of  martial  law  had  absolute  sway;  thus,  there 
were  60  executions  in  Wurzburg,  and  211  in  the  whole 
of  Franconia.  But  the  period  of  terror  had  also  been 
a  lesson  to  the  victors.  The  condition  of  the  peasants 
did  not  grow  essentially  worse,  though  it  did  not 
greatly  improve.  Only  in  a  few  exceptional  cases  were 
reforms  introduced,  as  in  Baden  and  the  Tyrol. 

ZiMMERMANN,  Geschichte  des  Bauernkrieges  (Stuttgart,  1845); 
Bax,  The  Peasants*  War  in  Germany  (London,  1899) ;  Janssen, 
Gesrhirhte  dcs  deutschen  Volkes  (17th  and  18th  ed.  Freiburg, 
1897):  fiToi^ZE,  Der  deutsche  Bauernkrieg  (Halle,  1908);  Sommer- 
lad,  Bauernkrieg  in  Handworterbuch  der  Staatswissenschaften, 
H  (.■irdetl.  Jena,  1909),  653-62;  Wolff,  Der  deutsche  Bauernk-rieg 
in  Deutsche  GeschichtsbUitter,  XI  (Gotha,  1909),  61-72. 

Klembns  Lofpler. 

Peba  Indians  (or  Peva),  the  principal  of  a  small 
group  of  cognate  tribes,  comprising  the  Peba  proper, 
Caumari,  Cauhuaclii,  Pacaya,  and  Yagua  (Zava  by 
error  in  Chantre  y  Herrera),  together  constituting  the 
Peban  Unguistic  stock,  and  formerly  occupying  the 
country  about  the  confluence  of  the  Javari  with  the 
Amazon,  in  territory  held  by  Peru,  but  in  part 
claimed  also  by  Ecuador  and  Colombia.  In  their 
primitive  condition  they  resembled  the  neighbouring 
Jivaro  and  Pano,  though  of  less  fierce  and  warUke 
temper.  They  held  a  close  friendship  with  the  power- 
ful Oinagua  of  Southern  Colombia,  and  in  the  eigh- 
teenth centurj'  formed  an  important  element  in  the 
celebrated  Jesuit  missions  of  the  "JMainas  province" 
of  the  upper  Amazon  region.  In  1735  (or  1736)  the 
Jesuit  Fr.  Singler  of  the  Omagua  mission  with  a  few 
Indian  companionc  reached  the  main  village  of  the 
Caumari  and  later  that  of  the  Peba,  who  received  him 
with  good  will  and  presented  him  with  their  most 
precious  gifts,  viz.  jars  filled  with  the  deadly  curari 
poi.son  used  by  the  hunters  for  tipping  their  blowgun 
arrows.  They  allowed  him  to  set  up  a  cross  in  the  vil- 
lage and  hstened  with  respect  to  his  teaching.  Some 
of  both  tribes  accompanied  him  to  the  Omagua 
mission  of  San  Joaquin,  but,  their  health  suffering, 
they  were  soon  brought  back  and  established  in  a 
separate  mission  called  San  Ignacio  de  Pebas,  which 
was  placed  in  charge  of  Fr.  Adan  Vidman.  Some  of 
the  kindred  Cauhuachi  (Covachi),  formerly  attached 
to  another  Omagua  mission,  were  also  brought  to 
San  Ignacio,  as  were  later  the  Yagua.  Although 
nearly  related,  the  tribes  differed  greatly  in  tempera- 
ment. The  Peba,  according  to  Fr.  Chantre  y  Herrera, 
were  active  and  vigorous  but  rough  in  manner;  the 
Cauhuachi  were  equally  rude,  but  more  industrious; 
the  Caumari  were  the  neatest  and  most  intelligent; 
while  the  Yagua  were  of  restless  habit. 

In  1754,  tribal  dissensions  culminated  in  the  murder 
of  the  resident  missionary,  Fr.  Jose  Casado,  by  two 
brothers  of  the  Caumari  tribe,  resulting  in  the  tem- 
porary desertion  of  the  mission  of  all  but  the  Peba. 
Fr.  Jose  de  Vahamonde,  a  veteran  of  seventeen  years' 


service  in  the  Amazon  forests,  was  sent  to  restore 
order,  and  under  his  kindly  promises  and  treatment 
the  fugitives  returned  and  the  mission  doubled  its 
former  number.  In  spite  of  smallpox,  other  epidemic 
visitations,  and  the  raids  of  Portuguese  slave  hunters 
from  Brazil,  the  mission  of  San  Ignacio  de  Pebas  held 
its  rank  until  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  in  1768. 
It  then  stood  fifth  in  the  list  of  33  missions  of  the 
Mainas  province,  with  700  souls,  Father  Vaha- 
monde being  still  in  charge.  Others  of  the  same 
tribal  group  were  at  the  mission  of  San  Ignacio  de 
Mainas,  and  possibly  at  other  missions.  On  account 
of  the  great  diversity  of  dialects  the  missionaries  had 
introduced  the  Quichua  language  of  Peru  as  the  com- 
mon medium  of  communication.  After  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jesuits  the  missions  were  continued  under 
Franciscan  auspices  with  some  success.  When  Peru 
became  a  separate  government  in  1821,  the  missions 
were  neglected  and  fell  into  decay.  The  mission 
Indians,  who  had  steadily  dwindled  in  number,  be- 
came scattered  and  either  lost  their  identity  in  the 
mixed  population  or  joined  their  still  wild  forest 
kindred.  The  small  town  of  Pebas,  on  the  Amazon, 
now  occupies  the  site  of  the  old  mission.  The  former 
tribes  are  extinct  or  assimilated,  with  the  exception 
of  a  remnant  of  the  Yagua,  noted  for  their  fine  phy- 
sique, some  of  whom  are  about  Pebas  and  the  Napo 
while  oth'-rs  dwell  on  the  lower  Javari.  The  greater 
portion  of  their  tribe  was  destroyed  by  smallpox  in 
1877. 

(See  also  JIbaro  Indians;  Maina  Indians;  Mame- 
Luco;  Pang  Indians.) 

Chantre  y  Herrera.  Hist,  de  las  Misiones  de  la  CompaHia  de 
Jesus  en  el  Maratlon  Espafiol.  1637-1767  (Madrid.  1901) ;  Hervas, 
Catdlogo  de  las  Lenguas,  I  (Madrid,  1800) ;  Orton,  The  Andes  and 
the  Amazon  (3rd  ed..  New  York,  1876);  Brinton,  The  American 
Race  (New  York,  1891) ;  Mabkham.  Tribes  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Amazon  in  Jour.  Anthrop.  Inst.,  XXIV  (London.  1895);  Galt, 
Indians  of  Peru  in  Rept.  Smithsonian  Instn.for  1877  (Washington, 
1S78);  Ordinaire.  Les  Sauvages  du  Perou  in  Reiue  d'Ethno- 
graphie,  VI  (Paris,  1887). 

James  Moonet. 

Pecci,  Gioacchino.    See  Leo  XIII,  Pope. 

Pecham  (Peccham),  John,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, b.  about  1240;  d.  6  December,  1292.  His  birth- 
place was  Patcham  in  Sussex,  called  in  the  Middle 
Ages  Pecham  (Peccham),  in  common  with  Peckham 
in  Surrey  and  Kent.  He  received  his  education  from 
the  monks  of  Lewes,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  was 
a  student  at  Merton  College,  Oxford.  He  also  studied 
at  Paris,  was  tutor  to  the  nephew  of  H.  de  Andegavia, 
and  later  entered  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor.  He  suc- 
ceeded Thomas  de  Bungay,  O.F.M.,  and  taught  divin- 
ity, being  the  first  to  dispute  de  Quolibet  at  Oxford; 
Pecham  became  ninth  Provincial  of  England  (Parkin- 
son says  twelfth),  and  was  called  to  Rome  in  1276  and 
appointed  lector  sacri  palalii.  When  Robert  Kil- 
wardby  resigned  the  See  of  Canterbury,  Edward  I  re- 
quested Pecham  to  take  up  the  cause  of  Robert  Bur- 
nell.  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  and  Chancellor  of 
England,  but  in  January,  1279,  Pecham  himself  was 
elected  to  that  see,  and  consecrated  by  Nicholas  III. 
He  held  a  Provincial  Council  at  Reading,  31  July, 
1279,  in  which  he  carried  out  the  pope's  verbal  in- 
structions and  published  fresh  enactments  against 
pluralities.  In  October,  1281,  he  summoned  another 
Provincial  Council  to  Lambeth,  where  among  other 
matters  his  solicitude  for  the  Holy  Eucharist  is  note- 
worthy. His  zeal  prompted  him  to  visit  every  part  of 
his  province,  uprooting  abuses  wherever  he  found 
them.  He  compelled  the  royal  chapels  which  claimed 
exemption  to  submit  to  the  visitation.  On  this  oc- 
casion he  proved  that  he  had  inherited  the  fearless 
courage  of  his  predecessors,  yet  retained  the  royal 
favour.  He  intervened  with  success  in  behalf  of  Al- 
meric  de  Montfort,  and  had  Llewellyn  listened  to  him, 
he  might  have  averted  his  own  fate  and  that  of  his 
country.    His  suffragans  complained  that  his  zeal  had 


PECOCK 


600 


PECTORAL 


led  him  beyond  the  limits  of  his  jurisdiction,  and  de- 
puted St.  Thomas  of  Hereford  to  carrj'  their  joint  ap- 
peal to  Rome,  where  apparently  it  was  upheld.  At 
Oxford  he  renewed  the  condemnation  of  certain  errors 
already  censured  bj-  Robert  Kilwardby,  many  of  them 
containing  errors  of  Averroes,  but  several  of  them 
enunciated  by  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  afterwards 
commonly  accepted  in  Catholic  schools.  ("Nine- 
teenth Century  and  after",  January,  1911,  p.  74.)  In 
forming  an  estimate  i>f  his  character  a  complete  ab- 
sence of  subs(r\ii'ncy  antl  an  imswcrving  adherence  to 
principle  come  into  view,  but  his  frequent  exertions  in 
favour  of  tlie  poor  and  against  anything  like  oppres- 
sion must  not  lie  overlooked.  His  humility,  sincerity, 
and  constancy  in  the  duties  of  his  office,  and  strict  ob- 
servance of  his  rule,  won  for  him  the  admiration  of  hia 
contemporaries.  As  the  Apostolic  protector  of  his 
order  he  defended  it  and  other  Mendicant  Orders 
against  their  enemies.  His  remains  rest  in  Canter- 
bury Cathedral,  but  his  heart  was  buried  in  the  church 
of  the  Grey  Friars,  London.  A  complete  list  of  his 
writings  is  published  in  "British  Society  of  Franciscan 
Studies"  (vol.  II,  1909),  his  letters  (720)  are  found  in 
Martin's  "Registrum  Epistolarum  Fr.  Joannis  Peck- 
ham".  He  was  an  excellent  poet,  some  of  his  poems 
being  attributed  to  St.  Bonaventure,  as  was  also  his 
"Life  of  St.  Antony  of  Padua"  written  as  Glasberger 
states,  at  the  bidding  of  Jerome  of  Ascoli,  and  recently 
identified  by  F.  Hilary,  O.S.F.C.,  in  a  manuscript  in 
the  Capuchin  library  at  Lucerne. 

KiNGSFORD  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.;  Wadding;  Trivet;  Rodol- 
PH1D3,  Hisioria  Seraphicw  Religionis;  Sbar.\lea;  Little,  Grey- 
friars  at  Oxford;  Denifle,  Chartul.  Vniver.  Paris. 

Andrew  Egan. 

Pecock  (Peacock),  Reginald,  Bishop  of  Chiches- 
ter, b.  in  North  Wales  about  139.5;  d.  at  Thorney  Ab- 
bey about  1460.  He  was  educated  at  Oriel  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  obtained  a  fellowship  in  1417.  Dur- 
ing the  following  years  he  taught  in  the  schools  belong- 
ing to  Exeter  College,  obtaining  a  wide  reputation  for 
learning  and  scholarship.  He  was  ordained  priest  on 
S  March,  1421,  and  took  the  degree  of  bachelor  in 
divinity  four  years  later,  about  which  time  he  left  the 
university  for  the  court  where  he  won  the  favour  of 
Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester.  In  1431  he  was  ap- 
pointed master  of  Whittington  College,  London,  and 
rector  of  St.  Michael's-in-Riola.  The  activity  of  the 
London  Lollards  drew  him  into  controversy  against 
them  and  at  this  time  he  wrote  "The  Book  or  Rule  of 
Christian  Religion"  and  "Donet",  an  introduction  to 
Christian  doctrine  which  was  published  about  1440. 
In  1444  he  was  made  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph  by  papal 
provision  dated  22  April,  and  on  14  June  he  was  conse- 
crated by  Archbishop  Stafford.  At  the  same  time  he 
took  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity  at  Oxford  without 
any  academic  act.  The  bishop's  troubles  began  with  a 
sermon  which  he  preached  at  St.  Paul's  Cross  in  1447 
which  gave  general  offence  because  of  his  attempt  to 
justify  the  bishops  for  not  preaching.  The  manner  of 
this  offended  both  the  agitators  whom  he  attacked 
and  the  ecclesiastics  whom  he  defended.  Undaunted 
by  the  opposition,  he  .summarized  his  argument  in  a 
tract  called  "Abbreviatio  Reginaldi  Pecock."  It  is 
noteworthy  that  he  incurred  in  a  sjiecial  degree  the  re- 
sentment of  the  religious  orders.  It  was  unfortunate 
for  Pecock  that  he  was  befriended  by  tlie  unpopular 
Duke  of  Suffolk,  one  of  whose  last  acts  before  his  as- 
sa&sination  was  to  procure  the  translation  of  Pecock 
from  St.  Asaph's  to  Chichester,  an  api)ointment  by 
which  the  bishop  was  attached  to  the  falling  house  of 
Lanciister.  Soon  after  he  was  ma<le  a  i>rivy  councillor, 
and  he  was  among  those  who  signed  the  appointment 
of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  as  protector  during  the 
king's  illness. 

About  145.5  he  completed  and  published  his  best 
known  work,  "The  Repressor  of  Over  Much  Blaming 
of  the  Clergy",  written  against  Lollard  doctrine,  and 


about  a  year  later  he  issued  his  "  Book  of  Fait  h  ".  Tlie 
tendency  of  the.se  works  afforded  ground  for  an  at  I  ack 
on  him  by  his  theological  and  political  opponents,  and 
on  22  Oct.,  1457,  Archbishop  Bourchier  cited  Pecock 
and  his  accusers  to  appear  before  him  on  11  Nov. 
Nine  books  which  he  produced  were  submitted  to  a 
commission  of  theologians  who  reported  adversely  on 
them  on  tlic  grounds  ;unong  otlier  reasons  th;i(  he  set 
the  natural  law  :ilii)\<'  llic  autliority  of  liie  Scriptures, 
denied  the  iici-issil\-  of  liclicving  Clirisl's  descent  into 
hell,  and  lidittled  tlie  autliority  of  the  Church.  On 
28  Nov.,  Pecock  w:is  sentenced  either  to  complete  pub- 
lic abjuration  or  degradation  and  dc'ith  at  the  stake. 
Pecock,  who  all  his  life  hail  been  defending  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Church,  though  possibly  in  an  imwise 
way,  had  no  intention  of  a  conflict  with  authority,  and 
abjured  first  privately,  then  in  public  at  St.  Paul's 
Cross,  a  list  of  errors  most  of  which  he  had  neither 
held  nor  taught.  The  whole  proceeding  was  illegal  ac- 
cording to  canon  law,  which  required  the  authority  of 
the  Holy  See  for  such  a  process.  This  became  clear 
when  Pecock  appealed  to  the  pope,  for  Callistus  III 
sent  back  Bulls  of  restitution  which  were  equivalent  to 
a  condemnation  of  the  Lambeth  court.  Archbishop 
Bourchier  received  these  Bulls  but  refused  to  act  on 
them  and  the  king  was  advised  to  despatch  an  ambas- 
sador to  Rome  to  obtain  their  revocation.  Unfortu- 
nately for  Pecock  Callistus  died,  and  the  new  pope, 
Pius  II,  acting  on  Pecock's  confession,  ordered  a  new 
trial  with  the  express  instructions  that  in  case  of  con- 
viction he  was  to  be  sent  to  Rome  for  punishment,  or 
if  that  were  impossible,  he  was  to  be  degraded  and 
punished  in  England  as  the  canons  decreed.  In  this 
document  Pecock  is  said  to  have  already  resigned  his 
see  of  his  own  accord.  His  successor  John  Arundel 
was  appointed  on  26  March,  14.59,  which  was  before 
the  arrival  of  the  papal  brief.  There  is  no  indication 
either  that  he  was  sent  to  Rome  or  degraded,  but  there 
is  a  document  which  shows  that  he  was  confined  in  the 
Abbey  of  Thorney.  There  probabl}'  he  died,  though 
reports  differ,  but  no  certain  account  of  his  death  has 
been  recorded.  Space  does  not  permit  a  statement  of 
Pecock's  doctrine,  but  his  intentions  were  orthodox, 
and  his  indiscretions  would  certainly  not  have  been 
visited  by  such  severe  treatment  had  it  not  been  for 
the  intrigues  of  his  political  enemies.  Irregularly  they 
forced  from  him  under  fear  of  death  a  confession, 
which  Pope  Pius,  taking  it  on  its  merits,  naturally  re- 
garded as  evidence  of  his  guilt. 

Bishop  Pecock,  his  Character  and  Fortunes  in  Dublin  Review 
(January,  1875);  Lewis,  Life  of  Reynold  Pecock  (London,  1744); 
Babington.  Introduction  to  The  Repressor  of  Over  Much  Blaming 
of  the  Clergy  in  Rolls  Series  (London,  1800),  2  vols.;  Cooke  in 
Did.  I^^at.  Biog.,  giving  cxliaustive  list  of  contemporary  and  later 
references;  Wager  in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  IX.  iv  (1894);  Gaird- 
NER,  Lollardy  and  the  Reformation  in  England  (London,  1908). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Pecs.     See  Funfkirchen,  Diocese  of. 

Pectoral  {'Z'~,  rcu'^in  ";"~.  "pectoral  of  judg- 
ment").— The  original  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  term 
has  been  lo.st,  and  little  light  is  thrown  upon  it  by  the 
early  translations.  The  prevailing  equivalent  in  the 
Sept.  is  X67101';  the  Vulgate  ha.s  rdlimmlc,  whence  the 
literal  "rational"  of  the  Douay  Version;  the  render- 
ing in  the  Authorized  Version  is  "breastplate".  In 
the  minute  directions  given  for  the  distinctive  official 
dress  of  the  high  priest  in  Exodus,  xxviii,  a  section  be- 
longing to  the  priestly  code  (cf.  also  Ex.,  xxxix,  8-21), 
special  prominence  is  given  to  the  breastplate  or  pec- 
toral. The  divergent  description  of  the  same  recorded 
by  .losephus  ("Antiq.",  Ill,  vii,  5  and  "Bell.",  V,  v.  7) 
is  considered  less  reliable.  The  main  reason  of  the 
importance  attached  to  the  construction  of  the  pec- 
toral seems  to  be  the  fact  that  it  was  the  receptacle  of 
the  sacred  oracular  lot,  the  mysterious  Urim  and 
Thummim  (([.  v.),  a  consideration  which  renders  prob- 
able the  tentative  etymologic;d  signification  of  the 
original  term  proposed  by  Ewald   ("Antiquities  of 


PECTORALE 


601 


PELAGIA 


1? 


:^'/r.- 


f-^ 


Pectoral  of  the  High  Priest 


Israel",  294),  viz.,  "the  pouch  of  the  Oracle".  From 
Exodus  we  lenrn  that  the  material  employed  was  the 
same  sub.-i  i  i  '1  fur  the  ephod  (q.  v.),  viz.,  gold, 
blue,  purple,  and 
scarlet  on  aground- 
work  of  fine  twined 
linen,  which  are  the 
finest  and  most 
artistic  textile  fab- 
rics (cf.  also  Ec- 
clu.s.,  xlv).  The 
form  of  t  he  pectoral 
was  a  square  made 
by  the  folding  in 
two  of  the  material 
measuring  a  cubit 
in  length  and  a  half 
cubit  in  breadth. 
Into  this  square 
were  fitted  by 
means  of  gold  set- 
tings four  rows  of 
precious  stones, 
three  in  a  row.  On 
each  jewel  was  in- 
scribed the  name 
of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  whose  memory 
was  thus  borne  continually  before  the  Lord  by  the 
higli  priest  in  his  official  functions  (see  Ex.,  xx\'iii,  29). 
B.sidfs  the  ordinary  Commentaries  on  tlic  Book  of  Exodus, 
soe  .\ncessi.  L'E(ji/pte  el  Moise  (Paris,  187.3),  chapter;  Les 
Vi'ltments  du  Crami  Preirr:  KENNEDY  in  H.4ST1NG.S,  Diet,  of  the 
Bible,  a.  V.  Breaslplalc  of  the  High  Priest;  Bhaun.  Vest.  Sacerd. 
Heh.  (.\mstprdam,  16SU).  JaMES  F.   DriSCOLL. 

PectoraJe  (Crux  Pectoralis)  is  the  name  of  the 
cro.ss  u.sed  by  the  pope,  cardinals,  bishops,  abbots,  and 
other  prelates  entitled  to  use  the  pontifical  insignia. 
It  is  worn  on  the  breast  attached  to  a  chain  or  silken 
cord,  the  colour  differing,  according  to  the  dignity  of 
the  wearer,  i.  e.  green,  violet,  or  black.  It  is  made  of 
precious  metal,  ornamented,  more  or  less,  with  dia- 
monds, pearls,  or  similar  embellishment,  and  con- 
tains either  the  relics  of  some  saint,  or  a  particle  of 
the  Holy  Cross.  It  is  worn  over  the  alb  during  liturgi- 
cal functions.  The  prelate  should  kiss  the  cross  before 
putting  it  on  his  neck,  and  while  putting  it  on  say  the 
prayer  "IVIunire  me  digneris"  (the  origin  of  which 
dates  back  to  the  Middle  Ages),  in  which  he  petitions 
God  for  protection  against  his  enemies,  and  begs  to 
bear  in  mind  continually  the  Passion  of  Our  Lord,  and 
the  triumphs  of  the  confessors  of  the  Faith.  The 
pontifical  pectoral  cross  is  distinct  from  the  simple 
cro.ss,  the  use  of  which  is  often  permitted  by  the  pope 
to  members  of  cathedral  chapters.  Canons,  to  whom 
this  iii'ivilesie  luvs  been  granted,  are  permitted  to  wear 
the  (TOSS  at  choir  service  only,  and  not  over  the  alb  at 
liturgical  scr\-ices,  unless  specially  permitted.  The 
pectoral  is  the  latest  addition  to  episcopal  ornaments. 
The  custom,  however,  of  wearing  a  cross  on  the  breast 
eitlier  with  or  without  holy  relics,  dates  back  to  an- 
cient time  and  was  obser\'ed  not  only  by  bishops,  but 
also  by  priests  and  lay  people.  The  first  mention 
made  of  the  pectoral  cross  as  a  part  of  pontifical  orna- 
ment is  by  Innocent  III,  and  its  use  as  such  only  be- 
came customary  toward  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
As  an  adornment  for  bishops  we  meet  it  the  first  time 
toward  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  (Durandus), 
but  at  that  time  it  was  not  generally  worn  by  bishops. 
As  Durandus  says:  "it  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
individual  bishop  to  wear  it  or  not".  The  Greek 
bishops  also  wear  a  pectoral  cross  but  only  over  their 
liturgical  vestments  (chasuble  or  salkos). 

R&HAULT  DE  Fleury,  La  Messt.  VIII  (Paris,  1889) ;  Bock, 
II iMory  of  Litxtrgical  Vestments,  II  (Bonn.  1866);  Kirchenlexiron, 
9.  V.  Kreuz,  4  Das  Pecioralkreuz;  Thalhofer.  Liturgik,  I  (Frei- 
burg, 1883);  Bona,  Rerum  lilurg.  libri  duo,  II  (2nd  ed.  Turin, 
1749). 

Joseph  Braun. 


Pectorius.     See  Atttun,  Diocese  op. 

Pednelissus  (Petnelisstjs),  a  titular  see  in  Pam- 
phylia  Secunda,  suffragan  of  Perge.  In  ancient  times 
this  city  was  a  part  of  Pisidia.  It  is  mentioned  by 
Strabo,  XII,  570,  XIV,  667;  Ptolemy,  V,  5,  8;  Pliny, 
V,  26,  1;  Stephanus  Byzantius,  s.  v.;  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury by  Hierocles,  "  Synecdemus",  681, 12,  who  locates 
it  in  Pamphylia.  It  is  important  for  its  frequent  wars 
with  Selge  (Polybius,  V,  72,  etc.).  Its  coins  have  two 
forms  of  the  name,  as  above  (Head,  "Historia  numo- 
rum",  591);  other  documents  frequently  give  very 
corrupted  forms.  The  "  Notitiae  Episcopatuum  "  men- 
tion the  see  as  late  as  the  thirteenth  century ;  but  only 
two  bishops  are  known ;  Heraclides,  present  at  the  CEcu- 
menical  Council  of  Constantinople,  381,  and  Mar- 
tinus,  who  signed  the  letter  of  the  bishops  of  Pamphy- 
lia to  Emperor  Leo  (LeQuien,  "Oriens  Christ ianus",  I, 
1023).  The  exact  site  of  the  city  is  unknown  and  it 
is  identified  with  several  localities;  the  most  probable 
identification  is  with  the  remains  of  a  group  of  ruins  to 
the  south  of  Tchaudir  and  to  the  east  of  Kizil  Keui  in 
Pambouk  ova  (cotton  field),  vilayet  of  Koniah. 

Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr.,  s.  v.;  Radet,  Les  villes 
de  Pisidie  in  Revue  archeologique  (Paris,  1893),  8  sq.;  see  also  the 
notes  of  MtJLLER  on  Ptolemy,  ed.  Didot,  I,  864. 

S.    P^TRIDilS. 

Pedro  de  Cordova,  b.  at  Cordova,  Andalusia, 
Spain,  about  1400;  d.  on  the  Island  of  Santo  Domingo, 
1525.  He  stuilied  theology  at  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca and  there  joined  the  Dominicans.  About  1510 
he  went  to  Santo  Domingo,  founding  the  Santa  Cruz 
pro\'ince  of  the  order.  He  was  a  zealous  protector 
of  the  Indians  and  a  friend  of  Las  Casas.  His  book, 
"Doctrina  cristiana  para  instruccion  e  informacion 
de  los  Indios  por  manera  de  historia",  was  printed 
in  1544  at  Mexico  by  directions  of  Bishop  Zumdrraga. 
It  was  destined  for  the  education  of  the  Indians, 
chieflj'  of  the  islands,  and  is  one  of  the  earliest  books 
of  catechism  known  to  have  been  composed  in  Amer- 
ica. Fray  Pedro  was  the  first  inquisitor  appointed 
in  the  New  World.  He  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  a 
model  priest,  highly  respected  by  the  clergy,  the  laity, 
and  the  Indians. 

Las  Casas,  Historias  de  las  Indias  (Madrid,  1875-76) ;  DAvila 
Padilla,  Historia  de  la  Fundacion  y  Discurso  de  la  Provincia  de 
Santiago  de  Mexico  (Madrid,  1596;  Brussels,  1625);  Ycazbai^ 
ceta,  Bibliografia  mexicana  (Mexico,  1886). 

Ad.  F.  Bandelier. 

Pedro  de  Luna  (Benedict  XIII).  See  Luna, 
Pedro  de. 

Peking.     See  China. 

Pelagia,  the  name  of  .several  saints.  The  old 
Syrian  m;xrtyrology  (ed.  De  Rossi-Duchesne,  in  "Acta 
sis.",  Nov.,  II ;  "  Martyrol.  Hieronj-m.",  Ixi)  gives  the 
feast  of  a  St.  Pelagia  of  Antioch  (in  Antiochia  Pelagise) 
under  the  date  of  8  October.  Further  information 
concerning  this  martyr,  undoubtedly  an  historical 
person,  is  given  in  a  homily  of  St.  John  Chrysostom 
[P.  G.,  L,  479  sqq.;  Ruinart,  "Acta  mart,  sincera" 
(ed.  Ratisbon),  540  sqq.).  Pelagia  was  a  Christian 
virgin  fifteen  years  of  age.  Soldiers  came  in  search  of 
her,  evidently  during  the  Diocletian  persecution,  in 
order  to  force  her  to  offer  publicly  a  heathen  sacrifice. 
She  was  alone  in  the  house,  no  one  being  there  to  aid 
her.  She  came  out  to  the  soldiers  sent  after  her  and 
when  she  learned  the  order  they  had  to  execute,  she 
requested  permission  to  go  again  into  the  house  in 
order  to  put  on  other  clothing.  This  was  granted  to 
her.  The  virgin  who  probably  knew  what  was  before 
her  was  not  willing  to  expose  herself  to  the  danger  of 
being  dishonoured.  She  thereiore  went  up  to  the  roof 
of  the  house  and  threw  herself  into  the  sea.  Thus  she 
died,  as  St.  Chrysostom  says,  as  virgin  and  martyr, 
and  was  honoured  as  such  by  the  Antiochene  Church. 
St.  Ambrose  also  mentions  this  St.  Pelagia  of  Antioch 
("De   virginibus",    III,    vii,    in    P.   L.,   XVI,  229: 


PELAGIUS 


t>U2 


PELAQinS 


Epist.  XXNII,  "Ad  Siinplicianum",  xxxviii,  ibid., 
1903). 

There  is  a  later  legend  of  a  Pelagia  who  is  said  to 
have  led  the  life  of  a  prostitute  at  Antioch  and  to  have 
been  converted  by  a  bishop  named  Xonnus.  Accord- 
ing to  the  story  she  went  to  Jerusalem  where  disguised 
as  a  man  and  under  the  name  of  Pelagius  she  led  a  life 
of  self-mortification  in  a  grotto  on  the  Mount  of 
Olives.  The  author  of  this  legend  who  calls  himself 
the  Deacon  Jacob  hxs  drawn  the  essential  part  of  his 
narrative  from  the  forty-eighth  homily  of  St.  Chry- 
sostoin  on  the  (^lospol  of  St.  Matthew.  In  this  homily 
the  preacher  relates  the  conversion  of  a  celebrated 
actress  of  Antioch  whose  name  he  does  not  give.  As 
no  old  authority  makes  any  mention  of  a  Pelagia  in 
Jerusalem,  no  doubt  the  alleged  converted  woman  is  a 
purely  legendary  recasting  of  the  historical  Pelagia. 
In  the  East  the  feiist  of  this  second  Pelagia  is  observed 
on  the  same  day  (8  October);  in  the  present  Roman 
martyrology  the  fexst  of  the  martyr  is  observed  on  9 
June,  that  of  the  penitent  on  8  October. 

On  the  latter  date  the  Greek  Church  also  celebrates 
as  virgin  and  martyr  still  another  Pelagia  of  Tarsus. 
The  Roman  martyrology  places  the  feast  of  this  Pela- 
gia on  4  May.  There  is  a  legend  of  later  date  concern- 
ing her.  As  Tarsus  was  near  Antioch  St.  Pelagia  of 
Tarsus  should  probably  be  identified  with  the  Anti- 
ochene  martyr,  whose  feast  was  also  observed  in 
Tarsus  and  who  was  afterwards  turned  into  a  martyr 
of  Tarsus.  Usener's  opinion  that  all  these  different 
saints  are  only  a  Christian  reconstruction  of  Apliro- 
dite  has  been  completely  disproved  by  Delehaye. 

In  addition  to  St.  Pelagia  of  Antioch,  taken  from 
the  Syrian  martyrology,  the  "Martyrologium  Hie- 
ronymianum"  also  mentions  on  11  July  a  martyr 
Pelagia,  the  companion  in  martyrdom  of  a  Januarius, 
naming  Xicopolis  in  Armenia  as  the  place  of  martyr- 
dom, and  giving  a  brief  account  of  this  saint.  She  is 
plainly  a  different  person  from  the  martyr  of  Antioch. 
Her  name  w;is  included  by  Bede  in  his  martyrology 
and  was  adopted  from  this  into  the  present  Roman 
list  of  saints. 

Acta  SS.,  May,  I,  747  sq.  (Pelagia  of  Tarsus);  Ada  SS.,  Oct., 
IV.  261  sq.  and  P.  G.,  CXVI.  908  sq.  (Pelagia  of  Antioch-Jerusa- 
lem):  Bibliotheca  hagiographica  grmca  (2nd  ed.),  206;  Bibl.  hn- 
giogr.  hit.,  II.  959  sq. ;  Use.ner.  Legenden  der  hi.  Pelagia  (Bonn, 
1879);  Delehaye,  Leslegendes  hagiographiques  (Brussels,  1905), 
222  sq. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Pelagius  I,  Pope,  date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  3 
March,  501,  was  a  Roman  of  noble  family;  his  father, 
John,  seems  to  have  been  vicar  of  one  of  the  two  civil 
"dioceses",  or  districts,  into  which  Italy  was  then 
divided.  We  first  meet  with  him  at  Constantinople, 
in  the  company  of  .-Vgapitus  I,  who,  just  before  his 
death  in  that  city,  appointed  Pelagius  apocrisiarius 
or  nuncio  of  the  Roman  Church  (.536).  When, 
through  the  intrigues  of  the  Empress  Theodora,  ever 
scheming  for  the  advancement  of  the  Monophysite 
heresy,  Silverius,  the  successor  of  Agapitus  in  the  See 
of  Rome,  had  been  forcibly  deposed  and  Isanished 
from  Italy  by  the  CJreek  general  Belisarius,  the  Em- 
peror Justinian  issued  strict  orders  that  Silverius 
should  be  recalled  to  Rome,  and  decreed  that,  if 
proved  innocent,  he  should  be  reinstated.  If  we  are  to 
believe  Liberatus,  an  historian  opposed  to  the  Fifth 
General  Council,  and  hence  to  Popes  Vigilius  and 
Pelagius,  the  latter  was  prevailed  upon  by  the  empress 
to  travel  post  haste  in  order  to  prevent  if  possiljle  Sil- 
verius's  return  to  Italy.  In  this  mission,  however,  he 
failed.  Xevertheless,  the  empress  accomplished  her 
will,  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  Silverius  and  the 
accession  of  Vigilius,  of  whom  she  hoped  to  make  a 
tool.  Pelagius  meanwhile  acquired  great  influence  with 
Justinian.  He  selected  the  orthodox  Paul  for  the  See 
of  Alexandria  (.540),  and  had  to  depose  him,  and 
choose  a  successor  two  years  later  (542). 


The  following  year,  after  having  brought  about  the 
condemnation  of  Origen,  he  returned  to  Rome.  After 
Justinian  published  (about  544)  his  decree  on  the 
"Three  Chapters"  (i.  e.  brief  statements  of  anath- 
ema upon  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  and  his  writings, 
upon  Theodoret  of  Cyrus  and  his  writings  against 
St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  and  the  Council  of  Ephesus, 
and  upon  the  letter  written  by  Ibas  of  Edessa  to  Maris, 
Bishop  of  Hardaschir  in  Persia),  we  find  Pelagius 
writing  to  Ferrandus  for  his  opinion  on  it,  and  when 
Vigilius  went  to  Constantinople  (Xov.,  545)  m  obe- 
dience to  the  emperor's  orders,  he  remained  as  his  repre- 
sentative in  Rome.  The  times  were  hard,  for  Totila, 
King  of  the  Goths,  had  begun  to  blockade  the  city. 
The  deacon  poured  out  his  pri\-ate  fortune  for  the 
benefit  of  the  famine-stricken  people,  and  endeavoured 
to  induce  the  Gothic  king  to  grant  a  truce.  Though 
he  failed,  he  afterwards  induced  Totila  to  spare  the 
lives  of  the  people  when  he  became  master  of  Rome  in 
Dec,  546.  That  prince  conceived  so  great  an  admira- 
tion for  the  Roman  deacon  that  he  sent  him  to  Con- 
stantinople in  order  to  arrange  a  peace  with  Justinian, 
but  the  emperor  sent  him  back  to  say  that  his  general 
Belisarius  was  in  command  in  Italy,  and  that  he  would 
decide  all  {[ucstions  of  peace  or  war. 

Once  more  the  energetic  deacon  returned  to  Con- 
stantinople, this  time  to  support  Vigilius,  who  was 
being  shamefully  treated  by  the  emperor,  with  a 
view  of  making  him  do  his  will  in  the  matter  of  the 
Three  Chapters.  Encouraged  by  Pelagius,  Vigilius 
began  to  offer  a  stout  resistance  to  Justinian  (551 )  and 
issued  his  first  "Constitutum"  (May,  5.53).  But  in 
June,  after  the  Fifth  General  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople, which  had  condemned  the  Three  Chapters,  was 
over  and  Pelagius  and  other  supporters  of  the  pope 
had  been  thrown  into  prison,  the  unfortunate  Vigilius 
gave  way,  and  in  his  second  "Constitutum"  (Feb., 
554)  confirmed  the  decrees  of  the  Council.  Pelagius 
did  not  submit  at  once,  but  wrote  against  the  oppo- 
nents of  the  Three  Chapters  and  blamed  the  subservi- 
ence of  his  superior.  At  length  however  he  rallied  to 
the  pope's  side,  either  because  he  saw  that  opposition 
to  him  was  endangering  the  unity  of  the  Church, 
or  because,  as  his  adversaries  said,  he  wished  to  regain 
Justinian's  favour,  and  by  it  to  succeed  Vigilius  as 
pope.  It  is  certain  that  he  did  re-enter  into  the  em- 
peror's good  graces,  shortly  before  he  left  Constanti- 
nople with  the  pope,  about  the  beginning  of  555. 
Vigilius  died  at  Syracuse  during  his  return  journey 
(7  June,  555),  but  it  was  not  till  the  next  year  that 
Pelagius  was  elected  his  successor,  and  consecrated 
(16  April,  556). 

He  had  no  little  difficulty  in  procuring  bishops  to 
consecrate  him,  for  there  was  great  opposition  to  him 
on  account  of  his  change  of  front  regarding  the  con- 
demnation of  the  Three  Chapters.  Some  of  his 
enemies  even  accused  him  of  being  responsible  for  the 
death  of  his  predecessor.  With  a  view  to  lessen  the 
ill-feeling  against  him,  he  went  with  the  "patrician", 
Xarses,  to  St.  Peter's,  and,  holding  the  Gospels  and 
"the  Cross  of  Christ"  above  his  head,  he  solemnly 
averred  that  he  had  wrought  no  harm  to  Vigilius. 
Then,  indirectly  to  assert  the  purity  of  his  conduct 
with  reference  to  his  accession  to  the  p.apacy,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  denounce  simony.  His  principal  aims  dur- 
ing his  five  years'  pontificate  were  to  overcome  opposi- 
tion, if  not  now  so  much  to  himself,  at  any  rate  to  the 
Fifth  General  Council,  in  the  West;  and  to  make  good 
the  material  damage  to  the  Church's  property  in  Italy, 
brought  about  by  the  campaigns  between  the  Greeks 
and  the  Goths.  Of  his  personal  worth  the  Romans 
were  again  soon  convinced,  when  they  saw  him  use  his 
wealth  for  their  advantage,  in  the  same  generous 
manner  as  he  had  done  when  Totila's  blockade  had 
reduced  them  to  the  last  extremity;  as,  for  example, 
when  they  saw  him  repairing  and  refurnishing  the 
churches,  and  reorganizing  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor 


PELAGIUS 


603 


PELAGIUS 


the  possessions  and  revenues  of  the  Church  which  the 
Gothic  war,  and  the  long  absence  of  the  popes  from 
Rome,  had  thrown  into  great  confusion. 

But  Pelagius  was  not  so  successful  in  extinguishing 
in  Italy  the  schism  which  the  condemnation  of  the 
Three  Chapters  had  excited  in  the  West,  as  he  was  in 
winning  the  confidence  of  the  Romans.  The  ■wacilla- 
tion  of  \'igiUus,  and  his  submission  to  the  will  of  Jus- 
tinian, the  persecution  to  which  he  had  been  exposed, 
and  the  final  adhesion  of  Pelagius  himself  to  his  pred- 
ecessor's decree  confirming  the  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople, embittered  the  minds  of  many  of  the  Westerns 
against  the  East.  They  were  too  angry  at  the  emper- 
or's conduct  to  realize  that  with  both  VigiUus  and  Pe- 
lagius the  whole  question  was  rather  one  of  pohcy  and 
expediency  than  of  religion.  Pelagius  did  all  in  his 
power  to  convince  the  bishops  of  Northern  Italy, 
where  the  schism  had  taken  the  deepest  hold,  that  he 
accepted  the  first  four  General  Councils  as  unreserv- 
edly as  they  did,  and  that  the  decrees  of  the  recent 
Council  of  Constantinople  were  in  no  way  in  real  op- 
position to  those  of  Chalcedon.  He  pointed  out 
clearly  to  them  that  the  differences  between  the  two 
Councils  were  only  on  the  surface,  and  not  real,  and 
that  even  if  it  was  not  advisable,  under  the  circum- 
stances, to  condemn  the  writings  of  Theodoret,  Theo- 
dore, and  Ibas,  still,  as  they  were  de  facto  heretical, 
there  could  be  no  harm  in  officially  declaring  that  they 
were  such.  But  the  feelings  of  many  had  been  so 
aroused  that  it  was  impossible  to  get  them  to  Usten 
to  reason.  The  pope  grew  impatient,  especially  when 
Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Acjuileia,  had  in  synod  renounced 
communion  with  Rome,  and  excommunicated  the 
great  genera!  Narses,  the  hope  of  Italy.  In  several 
letters  he  exliorted  the  "patrician"  to  use  his  military 
power  to  suppress  the  schism,  and  to  seize  Paulinus. 
Narses,  however,  probably  on  account  of  the  political 
difficulties  with  which  he  was  beset,  did  not  move, 
and  it  was  not  till  the  seventh  century  that  the  schism 
caused  in  Italy  by  the  condemnation  of  the  Three 
Chapters  was  finally  healed. 

Pelagius,  however,  in  the  matter  of  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  was  more  successful  in  Gaul  than  in 
Italy.  In  reply  to  a  request  from  the  Prankish  King 
Childebert,  he  sent  him  a  profession  of  faith,  in  which 
he  proclaimed  his  entire  agreement  with  the  doctrines 
of  Leo  I,  and  trusted  that  no  untruths  about  himself 
might  cause  a  schism  in  Gaul.  Further,  in  response 
to  a  request  from  the  same  king,  and  from  Sapaudus, 
Bishop  of  Aries,  he  granted  the  latter  the  pallium,  and 
constituted  him  his  vicar  over  all  the  churches  of 
Gaul,  as  his  predecessors  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
BO  honouring  the  See  of  Aries.  By  these  means  he 
prevented  any  schism  from  arising  in  Gaul. 

Making  use  of  the  "Pragmatic  Sanction",  which 
Justinian  issued  in  August,  554,  to  regulate  the  affairs 
of  Italy,  thrown  into  hopeless  disorder  by  the  Gothic 
war,  Pelagius  was  able  to  remedy  many  of  the  evils 
which  it  had  caused.  Fragments  of  a  number  of  his 
letters,  which  were  brought  to  light  by  E.  Bishop  com- 
paratively recently,  give  us  an  insight  into  his  extraor- 
dinary activity  in  this  direction.  They  reveal  him 
organizing  ecclesiastical  tribunals,  suppressing  abuses 
among  clerics,  to  which  the  disorders  of  the  times  had 
given  rise,  putting  the  patrimonies  of  the  Church  on  a 
new  footing,  and  meanwhile  gathering  money  and 
clothes  for  the  poor  from  Gaul  and  from  "distant 
islands  and  countries".  Before  he  died  his  regulations 
for  the  management  of  the  ecclesiastical  estates  had 
begun  to  bear  fruit,  and  we  read  of  revenues  beginning 
to  come  in  to  him  from  various  quarters.  This  "Fa- 
ther of  the  poor  and  of  his  country"  was  buried  in  St. 
Peter's  the  day  after  his  death,  in  front  of  the  sacristy. 

Liber  Ponlificalis.  ed.  Duchesne.  I  (Pari.i,  188fi).  Vil.  Vigilii  el 
Pelagii:  Libebatos.  BrenaHum,  c.  xxii  etc.  in  P.  /,.,  LXVIIl; 
VirTOB  Tlinnensis,  Chronicon,  ibid.:  Pbocopius.  De  hello 
Gothico,  ed.  DiNDOBF  (Bonn,  1833):  or  in  Latin.  Mdbatori, 
Rerum  Italicarum  Scriptorea,  1,  pt.  I ;  Facundus.  De  defens.  trium 


capit.  in  P.  L.,  LXVII;  the  letters  of  Pelagics  in  P.  Z...  LXIX; 
Man.  Uerm.  Hist.:  Epistola,  III  (Berlin,  1892);  jAPrf,  Regesta,  I 
(2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1888).  Modern  works:  especially  Diehl, 
Jualinien  (Paris,  1901).  340  etc.;  Grisab,  Hist,  de  Rome  et  dea 
Papes  (Paris.  190tj),  I.  pt.  II.  passim;  HooGKlN.  Italy  and  her 
Invaders,  IV,  V  (London,  1895).  An  account  of  E.  Bishop's  dis- 
covery will  be  found  in  Mann,  Lives  of  the  Popes  in  the  early 
Middle  Ages,  III,  233. 

Horace  K.   Mann. 

Pelagius  II,  date  of  whose  birth  is  unknown,  seem- 
inf;ly  a  native  of  Rome,  but  of  Gothic  descent,  as  his 
father'.s  name  was  Winigild,  d.  in  Rome,  7  Feb.,  590. 
He  succeeded  Benedict  I,  when  the  Lombards  were 
besieging  Rome,  but  his  consecration  was  delayed  in 
the  hope  of  securing  the  confirmation  of  the  election 
by  the  emperor.  But  the  blockade  of  Rome  by  the 
Lombards,  and  their  control  of  the  great  thorough- 
fares was  effective  and,  after  four  months,  he  was 
consecrated  (26  Nov.,  579).  The  most  important 
acts  of  Pelagius  have  relation  to  the  Lombards,  or  to 
the  Istrian  schism  of  the  Three  Chapters  (q.  v.). 
Moved,  it  would  seem,  by  the  words  of  the  new  pope, 
and  probably  still  more  by  his  money  and  that  of  the 
emperor,  the  Lombards  at  length  drew  off  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  Rome.  Thereupon,  Pelagius  at 
once  sent  an  embassy  (in  which  the  deacon  Gregory 
was  apparently  included)  to  Constantinople  to  ex- 
plain the  circumstances  of  his  election,  and  to  ask 
that  succour  should  be  sent  to  save  Rome  from  the 
barbarians.  But  not  very  much  in  the  way  of  help 
for  Italy  was  forthcoming  at  this  period  from  the  ex- 
hausted Eastern  Roman  Empire.  Emperor  Maurice, 
it  is  true,  sent  somewhat  later  (c.  584)  a  new  official 
to  Italy  with  the  title  of  exarch,  and  with  combined 
civil  and  military  authority  over  the  whole  peninsula. 
But,  when  he  came  to  Ravenna,  this  new  functionary 
brought  with  him  only  an  insufficient  military  force, 
and  meanwhile  both  emperor  and  pope  had  turned  to 
the  Franks. 

Towards  the  beginning  of  his  pontificate  (Oct.,  580 
or  581)  Pelagius  wrote  to  Aunacharius  (or  Aunarius), 
Bishop  of  Auxerre,  a  man  of  great  influence  with  the 
different  Frankish  kings,  and  begged  him  to  give  a 
practical  proof  of  the  zeal  he  had  professed  for  the 
Roman  Church,  by  urging  them  to  come  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Rome.  "We  believe",  he  wrote,  "that  it  has 
been  brought  about  by  a  special  dispensation  of  Divine 
Providence,  that  the  Frankish  Princes  should  profess 
the  orthodox  faith;  like  the  Roman  Emperors,  in  order 
that  they  may  help  this  city,  whence  it  took  its  rise. 
.  .  .  Persuade  them  with  all  earnestness  to  keep  from 
any  friendship  and  alliance  with  our  most  unspeakable 
enemies,  the  Lombards."  At  length  either  the  prayers 
of  Pelagius,  or  the  political  arts  of  the  emperor,  in- 
duced the  Franks  to  attack  the  Lombards  in  Italy. 
But  their  zeal  for  the  papal  or  imperial  cause  was  soon 
exhausted,  and  they  allowed  themselves  to  be  bribed  to 
retire  from  the  peninsula.  The  distress  of  the  Italians 
deepened.  Pelagius  had  already  sent  to  Constanti- 
nople the  ablest  of  his  clergy,  the  deacon  Gregory, 
afterwards  Gregory  I,  the  Great.  As  the  pope's  apoc- 
risiary,  or  nuncio,  the  deacon  had  been  commissioned 
to  haunt  the  imperial  palace  day  and  night,  nSver  to 
be  absent  from  it  for  an  hour,  and  to  strain  every 
nerve  to  induce  the  emperor  to  send  help  to  Rome.  To 
him  Pelagius  now  dispatched  letter  after  letter  urging 
him  to  increased  exertion.  He  also  implored  the  new 
Exarch  of  Ravenna,  Decius  (584),  to  succour  Rome, 
but  was  told  that  he  was  unable  to  protect  the 
exarchate,  still  less  Rome. 

Failing  to  get  help  from  Ravenna  he  sent  a  fresh 
embassy  to  Constantinople  and  exhorted  Gregory 
to  act  along  with  it  in  endeavouring  to  obtain  the 
desired  help.  "Here",  he  wrote,  "we  are  in  such 
straits  that  unless  God  move  the  heart  of  the  emperor 
to  have  pity  on  us,  and  send  us  a  Master  of  the 
soldiery  {magister  militum)  and  a  duke,  we  shall  be  en- 
tirely at  the  mercy  of  our  enemies,  as  most  of  the  dis- 


PELAOIUS 


604 


PELAGinS 


trict  round  Rome  is  without  protection;  and  the  army 
of  these  most  unspeakalile  jieople  will  take  possession 
of  the  places  still  held  for  the  empire."  TIioukIi  no 
imperial  troops  came  to  Rome,  the  exarch  succeeded 
in  concluding  a  truce  with  the  Lombards.  Taking  ad- 
vantage of  this  "peace  and  quiet",  Pelagius  II  re- 
newed the  exertions  of  his  namesake  to  put  an  end  to 
the  schism  caused  in  Italy  by  the  condemnation  of  the 
Three  Chapters  by  Vigilius.  The  deacon  Gregory  was 
recalled  from  Constantinople,  and  assisted  the  pope 
in  the  correspondence  which  was  forthwith  initiated 
with  Bishop  Klias  of  Grade  and  the  bishdjis  of  Istria. 
In  one  letter  after  another  the  pttpr  liadr  them  remem- 
ber tliat  the  faith  of  Peter  could  not  be  crushed  nor 
changed,  and  that  that  faith  which  he  held  was  the 
faith  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  as  well  as  of  the 
first  three  general  councils;  and,  in  the  most  touching 
terms,  he  exhorted  them  to  hold  to  that  glorious  ec- 
clesiastical unity  which  they  were  breaking  "for  the 
sake  of  superfluou.-i  questions  and  of  defending  hereti- 
cal chapters".  The  words  of  the  pope  were,  however, 
lost  upon  the  schismatics,  and  equally  without  effect 
was  the  \'iolence  of  the  Exarch  Smaragdus,  who  seized 
Severus,  the  successor  of  Elias,  and,  by  threats,  com- 
pelled him  to  enter  into  communion  with  the  orthodox 
bishop,  John  of  Ravenna  (.588).  But  as  soon  as  Sev- 
erus returned  to  his  see,  he  repudiated  what  he  had 
done,  and  the  schism  continued  for  some  two  hun- 
dred years  longer. 

Pelagius  was  one  of  the  popes  who  laboured  to  pro- 
mote the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  he  issued  such 
stringent  regulations  on  this  matter,  with  regard  to  the 
subdeacons  in  the  island  of  Sicily,  that  his  successor 
Gregory  I  thought  them  too  strict,  and  modified  them 
to  some  extent.  But  if  Gregory  had  to  cheek  the  zeal 
of  Pelagius  in  one  direction  he  emulated  it  in  another. 
The  protest  of  Pelagius  against  the  assumption  of  the 
title  "cecumenical"  by  the  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople was  repeated  with  added  emphasis  by  his  former 
secretary.  Among  the  works  of  piety  recorded  of 
Pelagius  may  be  noted  his  adorning  of  the  Shrine  of 
St.  Peter,  turning  his  own  house  into  a  hospital  for  the 
poor,  and  rebuilding  the  Church  of  St.  Lawrence, 
where  may  still  be  seen  a  mosaic  (probably  executed  by 
Pelagius)  depicting  St.  Lawrence  as  standing  on  the 
right  side  of  Our  Lord.  Pelagius  fell  a  victim  to  the 
terrible  plague  that  devastated  Rome  at  the  end  of 
589  and  was  buried  in  St.  Peter's. 

Liber  Pontif.  ed.  Ddchesne.  I  (Paria,  1886),  309;  Paul  the 
De.\con,  Hist.  Lonfjobard,  (Berlin.  1879) ;  for  the  letters  of  Pela- 
gius and  Gregort  I  see  Mon.  Germ.  Epp.,  II,  III  (Berlin,  1892—); 
Grisar,  Hist,  ties  papes,  I.  pt.  ii  (Paris,  1906), — an  English 
translation  of  this  work  is  to  be  published  shortly;  Hodgkin, 
Italu  and  her  Invaders,  V,  VI  (Oxford,  1896);  Barmby  in  Smith, 
Dirt,  of  Christ,  Biog,  (London,  1.SS7),  s.  v.;  for  the  Istrian  schism 
see  Masn,  Lives  of  the  Popes  in  the  Early  Middle  Ages,  I  (London, 
1902). 

Horace  K.  Mann. 

Pelagius  and  Pelagianism.  —  Pelagianism  re- 
ceived its  name  from  Pelagius  and  designates  a  heresy 
of  the  ilflh  century,  which  denied  original  sin  as  well 
as  Chri.stian  grace. 

I.  Life  and  Writinos  of  Pelaoius. — Apart  from 
the  chief  episodes  of  the  Pelagian  controversy,  little  or 
nothing  is  known  about  the  personal  career  of  Pela- 
gius. It  is  only  after  he  batle  a  lasting  farewell  to 
Rome  in  A.  D.  411  that  the  sources  become  more  abun- 
dant ;  but  from  418  on  history  is  again  silent  about  his 
person.  As  St .  Augustine  (De  peccat.  orig.,  xxiv)  testi- 
fies that  he  lived  in  Rome  "for  a  very  long  time",  we 
may  presume  that  he  resided  there  at  least  since  the 
reign  of  Pope  .Vnastasius  (.398-401).  But  about  his 
long  life  prior  to  the  year  400  and  above  all  about  his 
youth,  we  are  left  wholly  in  the  dark.  Even  the 
country  of  his  birth  is  disputed.  While  the  most  trust- 
worthy witnesses,  such  iis  Augustine,  Orosius,  Prosper, 
and  Marius  Mercator,  are  quite  explicit  in  assigning 
Britain  as  his  native  country,  as  is  apparent  from  his 


cognomen  of  Brito  or  Rritannicus,  Jerome  (Praef.  in 
Jerem.,  lib.  I  and  III)  ridicules  him  as  a  "Scot"  (loc. 
eit.,  "habet  enim  progcniem  Scotii-e  gentis  de  Britan- 
norum  vicinia"),  who  being  "stulTcd  witli  Scottish 
porridge"  {Scolorum  i)iiUilius  prayninitus)  suffers  from 
a  weak  memory.  Rightly  ;u-guiiig  tlKit  the  "Scots"  of 
those  days  were  really  the  Irish,  11.  Ziinnier  ("Pelagius 
in  Irland",  p.  20,  Berlin,  1!K)1 1  has  recently  advanced 
weighty  reasons  for  the  hypothesis  tluit  the  true  home 
of  Pelagius  must  be  sought  in  Ireluid,  ;in<l  that  he 
journeyed  through  the  southwest  of  Britain  to  Rome. 
Tall  in  stature  and  portly  in  aijpcarance  (Jerome,  loc. 
cit.,  "grandis  et  corpulentus"),  Pelagius  was  highly 
educated,  spoke  and  wrote  Latin  as  well  as  Greek  with 
great  fluency  and  was  well  versed  in  theology.  Though 
a  monk  and  consequently  devoted  to  practical  asceti- 
cism, he  never  was  a  cleric;  for  both  Orosius  and  Pope 
Zosimus  simply  call  liim  a  "layman".  In  Rome  itself 
he  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  austerity,  while  St.  Au- 
gustine called  him  even  a  "saintly  man",  vir  sanclus: 
with  St.  Paulinus  of  Nola  (405)  and  other  prominent 
bishops,  he  kept  up  an  edifying  correspondence,  which 
he  u.sed  later  for  his  personal  defence.  ' 

During  his  sojourn  in  Rome  he  composed  several 
works:  "De  fide  Trinitatis  libri  III",  now  lost,  but 
extolled  by  Gennadius  as  "indispensable  reading- 
matter  for  students";  "Eclogarum  ex  divinis  Scrip- 
turis  liber  unus",  in  the  main  collection  of  Bible  pas- 
sages based  on  Cyprian's  " Testimoniorum  libri  III", 
of  which  St.  Augustine  has  preserved  a  number  of  frag- 
ments; "Commentarii  in  epistolas  S.  Pauli",  elabo- 
rated no  doubt  before  the  destruction  of  Rome  by 
Alaric  (410)  and  known  to  St.  Augustine  in  412. 
Zimmer  (loc.  cit.)  deserves  credit  for  having  rediscov- 
ered in  this  commentary  on  St.  Paul  the  original  work 
of  Pelagius,  which  had,  in  the  course  of  time,  been 
attributed  to  St.  Jerome  (P.  L.,  XXX,  645-902).  A 
closer  examination  of  this  work,  so  sudden!y_i)ecome 
famous,  brought  to  light  the  fact  that  it  contained  the 
fundamental  ideas  which  the  Church  afterwards  C9nr 
demned  as  "Pelagian  heresy".  In  it  Pe'agius  denied 
the  primitive  state  in  paradise  and  original  sin  (cf. 
P.  L.,  XXX,  678,  "Insaniunt,  qui  de  Adam  per  tradu- 
cem  asserunt  ad  nos  venire  peccatum"),  insisted  on 
the  naturalness  of  concupiscence  and  the  death  of  the 
body,  and  ascribed  the  actual  existence  and  univer- 
saUty  of  sin  to  the  bad  example  which  Adam  set  by  his 
first  sin.  As  all  his  ideas  were  chiefly  rooted  in  the  old, 
pagan  philosophy,  especially  in  the  popular  system  of 
the  Stoics,  rather  than  in  Christianity,  he  regarded  the 
moral  strength  of  man's  will  (liberum  arbitrium),  when 
stcilid  li\  a-ceticism,  as  sufficient  in  itself  to  desire 
anil  Inaiiaii]  the  loftiest  ideal  of  virtue.  The  value  of 
Ciirisi  s  rrdiiiiption  was,  in  his  opinion,  limited  mainly 
to  instruction  (dnclriiKi)  ;ind  example  (cxcmplum), 
which  the  Saviimr  t  hrew  into  the  balance  as  a  counter- 
weight against  .\dam's  wicked  example,  so  that  nature 
retains  the  ability  to  conquer  sin  and  to  gain  eternal 
life  even  without  the  aid  of  grace.  By  justific;it ion  we 
are  indeed  cleansed  of  our  personal  sins  through  faith 
alone  (loc.  cit.,  663,  "per  solam  fidem  iustilicat  Deus 
impium  con vertendum " ) ,  b\it  this  pardon  (iirnlin  re- 
misaionis)  implies  no  interior  renovation  or  ssmctifica- 
tion  of  the  soul.  How  far  the  sola-fides  doctrine  "had 
no  stouter  champion  before  Luther  than  Pelagius" 
and  whether,  in  particular,  the  Protestant  ctmception 
of  fiducial  faith  dawned  upon  him  many  centuries 
before  Luther,  as  Loofs  ("Realencyklopa<lie  fiir  pro- 
test. Theologie",  XV,  7.5o,  Leipzig,  1904)  a-ssumes, 
prob.ably  ne(-ds  more  careful  investigation.  For  the 
rest,  Pelagius  would  have  announced  nothing  new  by 
this  doctrine,  since  the  .\ntinomists  of  the  early  .\pos- 
tolic  Church  were  already  familiar  with  "justification 
by  faith  alone"  (cf.  Jit'stification);  on  the  other 
hand,  Luther's  boast  of  having  been  the  first  to  pro- 
claim the  doctrine  of  abiding  faith,  might  well  arouse 
opposition.    However,  Pelagius  insists  expressly  (loc. 


PELAGIUS 


605 


PELAGIUS 


cit.,  812),  "Ceterum  sine  operibus  fidei,  non  legis, 
mortua  est  fides".  But  the  commentary  on  St.  Paul 
is  silent  on  one  chief  point  of  doctrine,  i.  e.  the  signifi- 
cance of  infant  baptism,  which  supposed  that  the 
faithful  were  even  then  clearly  conscious  of  the  exist- 
ence of  original  sin  in  children. 

To  explain  psychologically  Pelagius's  whole  line  of 
thought,  it  does  not  suffice  to  go  back  to  the  ideal 
of  the  wise  man,  which  he  fashioned  after  the  ethical 
principles  of  the  Stoics  and  upon  which  his  vision  was 
centred.  We  must  also  take  into  account  that  his 
intimacy  with  the  Greeks  developed  in  him,  though 
unknown  to  himself,  a  one-sidedness,  which  at  first 
sight  appears  pardonable.  The  gravest  error  into 
which  he  and  the  rest  of  the  Pelagians  fell,  was  that 
they  did  not  submit  to  the  doctrinal  decisions  of  the 
Church.  While  the  Latins  had  emphasized  the  guilt 
rather  than  its  punishment,  as  the  chief  characteristic 
of  original  sin,  the  Greeks  on  the  other  hand  (even 
Chrysostom)  laid  greater  stress  on  the  puni-shment 
than  on  the  guilt.  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  went  even 
so  far  as  to  deny  the  possibility  of  original  guilt  and 
consequently  the  penal  character  of  the  death  of  the 
body.  Besides,  at  that  time,  the  doctrine  of  Chris- 
tian grace  was  everywhere  vague  and  undefined;  even 
the  West  was  convinced  of  nothing  more  than  that 
some  sort  of  assistance  was  necessary  to  salvation  and 
was  given  gratuitously,  while  the  nature  of  this  assist- 
ance was  but  little  understood.  In  the  East,  more- 
over, as  an  offset  to  widespread  fatalism,  the  moral 
power  and  freedom  of  the  will  were  at  times  very 
strongly  or  even  too  strongly  insisted  on,  assisting 
grace  being  spoken  of  more  frequently  than  prevenling 
grace  (see  Grace).  It  was  due  to  the  intervention 
of  St.  Augustine  and  the  Church,  that  greater  clear- 
ness was  gradually  reached  in  the  disputed  questions 
and  that  the  first  impulse  w;is  given  towards  a  more 
careful  development  of  the  dogmas  of  original  sin  and 
grace  (cf.  Mausbach,  "Die  Ethik  des  hi.  Augustinus", 
II,  1  sqq.,  Freiburg,  1909). 

II.  Pelagiu-s  and  C.elestius  (411-5). — Of  far- 
reaching  influence  upon  the  further  progress  of 
Pelagianism  was  the  friendship  which  Pelagius  con- 
tracted in  Rome  with  Cielestius,  a  lawyer  of  noble 
(probably  Italian)  descent.  A  eunuch  by  birth,  but 
endowed  with  no  mean  talents,  Cselestius  had  been 
won  over  to  asceticism  by  his  enthusiasm  for  the 
monastic  life,  and  in  the  capacity  of  a  lay-monk  he 
endeavoured  to  convert  the  practical  maxims  learnt 
from  Pelagius,  into  theoretical  principles,  which  he 
successfully  propagated  in  Rome.  St.  Augustine, 
while  charging  Pelagius  with  mysteriousness,  men- 
dacity, and  shrewdness,  calls  Cxlestius  (De  peccat. 
orig.,  xv)  not  only  "incredibly  loquacious",  but  also 
open-hearted,  obstinate,  and  free  in  social  inter- 
course. 'Even  if  their  secret  or  open  intrigues  did  not 
escape  notice,  still  the  two  friends  were  not  molested 
bv  the  official  Roman  circles.  Hut  matters  changed 
when  in  411  they  left  the  hospitable  soil  of  the  me- 
tropolis, whii-h  had  l)een  sacked  by  .Marie  (410),  and 
set  sail  for  North  .Africa.  \\'hen  tliey  landed  on  the 
coast  near  Hippo,  Augustine,  the  bishop  of  that  city, 
was  ab.sent,  being  fully  occupied  in  settling  the  Dona- 
tist  disputes  in  Africa.  Later,  he  met  Pelagius  in 
Carthage  several  times,  without,  however,  coming  into 
closer  contact  with  him.  After  a  brief  sojourn  in 
North  .Africa,  Pelagius  travelled  on  to  Palestine,  while 
Ca?lestivis  tried  to  have  himself  made  a  presbyter 
in  Carthage.  But  this  plan  was  frustrated  by  the 
deacon  Paulinus  of  Milan,  who  submitted  to  the 
bishop,  Aurelius,  a  memorial  in  which  six  theses  of 
Caelestius — perhaps  literal  extracts  from  his  lost  work 
"Contra  traducem  peccati" — were  branded  as  hereti- 
cal. These  theses  ran  as  follows:  (1)  Even  if  Adam 
had  not  sinned,  he  would  have  died.  (2)  Adam's  sin 
harmed  only  himself,  not  the  human  race.  (3)  Chil- 
dren just  born  are  in  the  same  state  as  Adam  before  his 


fall.  (4)  The  whole  human  race  neither  dies  through 
Adam's  sin  or  death,  nor  rises  again  through  the 
resurrection  of  Christ.  (5)  The  (Mosaic)  Law  is  as 
good  a  guide  to  heaven  as  the  Gospel.  (6)  Even  be- 
fore the  advent  of  Christ  there  were  men  who  were 
without  sin.  On  account  of  these  doctrines,  which 
clearly  contain  the  quintessence  of  Pelagianism,  Cae- 
lestius  was  summoned  to  appear  before  a  synod  at 
Carthage  (411);  but  he  refused  to  retract  them,  alleg- 
ing that  the  inheritance  of  Adam's  sin  was  an  open 
question  and  hence  its  denial  was  no  heresy.  As  a 
result  he  was  not  only  excluded  from  ordination,  but 
his  six  theses  were  condemned.  He  declared  his 
intention  of  appealing  to  the  pope  in  Rome,  but  with- 
out executing  his  design  went  to  Ephesus  in  Asia 
Minor,  where  he  was  ordained  a  priest. 

Meanwhile  the  Pelagian  ideas  had  infected  a  wide 
area,  especially  around  Carthage,  so  that  Augustine 
and  other  bishops  were  compelled  to  take  a  resolute 
stand  against  them  in  sermons  and  private  conver- 
sations. Urged  by  his  friend  Marcellinus,  who  "daily 
endured  the  most  annoying  debates  with  the  erring 
brethren",  St.  Augustine  in  412  wrote  the  two  famous 
works:  "De  peccatorum  meritis et  remissione  libri  III " 
(P.  L.,  XLI V,  109  sqq.)  and  "De  spiritu  et  litera"  (ibid., 
201  sqq.),  in  which  he  positively  established  the  ex- 
istence of  original  sin,  the  necessity  of  infant  baptism, 
the  impossibility  of  a  life  without  sin,  and  the  neces- 
sity of  interior  grace  (spirilus)  in  opposition  to  the 
e.xterior  grace  of  the  law  (litera).  When  in  414  dis- 
quieting rumours  arrived  from  Sicilj'  and  the  so-called 
"Definitiones  Ca'Icstii"  (reconstructed  in  Garnier, 
"Marii  Mercatoris  Opera",  I,  384  sqq.,  Paris,  1673), 
said  to  be  the  work  of  Ca'lestius,  were  sent  to  him, 
he  at  once  (414  or  415)  published  the  rejoinder,  "De 
perfectione  justitia'  hominis"  (P.  L.,  XLIV,  291  sqq.), 
in  which  he  again  demolished  the  illusion  of  the 
possibility  of  complete  freedom  from  sin.  Out  of 
charity  and  in  order  to  win  back  the  erring  the  more 
effectually,  Augustine,  in  all  these  writings,  never 
mentioned  the  two  authors  of  the  heres}'  by  name. 

Meanwhile  Pelagius,  who  was  sojourning  in  Pales- 
tine, did  not  remain  idle;  to  a  noble  Roman  virgin, 
named  Demetrias,  who  at  Alaric's  coming  had  fled  to 
Carthage,  he  wrote  a  letter  which  is  still  extant  (in 
P.  L.,  XXX,  15-45)  and  in  which  he  again  inculcated 
his  Stoic  principles  of  the  unlimited  energy  of  nature. 
Moreover,  he  published  in  415  a  work,  now  lost,  "De 
natura",  in  which  he  attempted  to  prove  his  doctrine 
from  authorities,  appealing  not  only  to  the  writings  of 
Hilary  and  Ambrose,  but  also  to  the  earlier  works  of 
Jerome  and  Augustine,  both  of  whom  were  still  alive. 
The  latter  answered  at  once  (415)  by  his  treatise  "De 
natura  et  gratia"  (P.  L.,  XLIV,  247  sqq.).  Jerome, 
however,  to  whom  Augustine's  pupil  Orosius,  a 
Spanish  priest,  personally  explained  the  danger  of  the 
new  heresy,  and  who  had  been  chagrined  by  the 
severity  with  which  Pelagius  had  criticized  his  com- 
mentary on  the  Epistle  to  the  Eplicsians,  thought  the 
time  ripe  to  enter  the  lists;  this  he  did  by  his  letter  to 
Ctesiphon  (Ep.  cxxliii)  and  by  his  graceful  "Dialogus 
contra  Pelagianos"  (P.  L.,  XXIII,  495  sqq.).  He  was 
assisted  by  Orosius,  who,  forthwith  accused  Pelagius 
in  Jerusalem  of  heresy.  Thereupon,  Bishop  John  of 
Jerusalem  "dearly  loved"  (St.  Augustine,  "Ep.  clxx-ix") 
Pelagius  and  had  him  at  the  time  as  his  guest.  He  con- 
voked in  July,  415,  a  diocesan  council  for  the  investi- 
gation of  the  charge.  The  proceedings  were  hampered 
by  the  fact  that  Orosius,  the  accusing  party,  did  not 
understand  Greek  and  had  engaged  a  poor  interpreter, 
while  the  defendant  Pelagius  was  quite  able  to  defend 
himself  in  Greek  and  uphold  his  orthodox-y.  How- 
ever, according  to  the  personal  account  (written  at 
the  clo.se  of  415)  of  Orosius  (Liber  apolog.  contra 
Pelagium,  P.  L.,  XXXI,  1173),  the  contesting  parties 
at  last  agreed  to  leave  the  final  judgment  on  all  ques- 
tions to  the  Latins,  since  both  Pelagius  and  his  adversa- 


FELAOinS 


606 


PELAOinS 


aries  were  Latins,  and  to  invoke  the  decision  of 
Innocent  I ;  meanwhile  silence  was  imposed  on  both 
parties. 

But  Pelagius  was  granted  only  a  short  respite.  For 
in  the  ver>-  same  year,  the  Gallic  bishops,  Heros  of 
.Vrlos  and  I^azarus  of  .\ix,  who,  after  the  defeat  of  the 
usurper  Const antinc  (411),  had  resigned  their  bishop- 
rics and  gone  to  Palestine,  brought  the  matter  before 
Bishop  Eulogius  of  Qesarca,  with  the  result  that  the 
latter  summoned  Pelagius  in  December,  41,5,  before  a 
synod  of  fourteen  bishops,  held  in  Diospolis,  the  an- 
cient Lydda.  But  fortune  .again  favoured  the  heresi- 
arch.  About  the  proceedings  and  the  issue  we  are  ex- 
ceptionally well  informed  through  the  account  of  St. 
.\ugustine.  ''Degcstis  PeLagii"  (P.  L.,  XLIV,  319  sqq.), 
written  in  417  and  based  on  the  acts  of  the  synod. 
Pelagius  punctual!}'  obeyed  the  summons,  but  the 
principal  complainants,  Heros  and  Lazarus,  failed  to 
make  their  appearance,  one  of  them  being  prevented 
by  ill-health.  And  as  Orosius,  too,  derided  and  perse- 
cuted by  Bishop  John  of  Jerusalem,  had  departed, 
Pelagius  met  no  personal  plaintiff,  while  he  found  at 
the  same  time  a  skilful  advocate  in  the  deacon  Anianus 
of  Celeda  (cf.  Hieronym.,  'Ep.  cxhii",  ed.  Vallarsi,  I, 
1067).  The  principal  points  of  the  petition  were  trans- 
lated by  an  interpreter  into  Greek  and  read  only  ia_ 
an  extract.  Pelagius,  having  won  the  good-will  of  the 
assembly  by  reading  to  them  some  private  letters  of 
prominent  bishops — among  them  one  of  Augustine 
(Ep.  cxlvi) — began  to  explain  away  and  disprove  the 
various  accusations.  Thus  from  the  charge  that  he 
made  the  possibility  of  a  sinless  life  solely  dependent 
on  free  will,  he  exonerated  himself  by  saying  that,  on 
the  contrary,  he  required  the  help  of  God  {adjutorium 
Dei)  for  it,  though  by  this  he  meant  nothing  else  than ; 
the  grace  of  creation  [gratia  crealionis).  Of  other/ 
doctrines  with  which  he  had  been  charged,  he  said! 
that,  formulated  as  they  were  in  the  complaint,  they 
did  not  originate  from  him,  but  from  CEelestius,  and 
that  he  also  repudiated  them.  After  this  hearing 
there  was  nothing  left  for  the  synod  but  to  discharge 
the  defendant  and  to  announce  him  as  worthy  of 
communion  with  the  Church.  The  Orient  had  now 
spoken  twice  and  had  found  nothing  to  blame  in 
Pelagius,  because  he  had  hidden  his  real  sentiments 
from  his  judges. 

III.  Continuation  and  End  of  the  Controversy 
(41.5-8). — The  new  acquittal  of  Pelagius  did  not  fail  to 
cause  excitement  and  alarm  in  North  Africa,  whither 
Orosius  had  ha.stened  in  416  with  letters  from  Bishops 
Heros  and  Lazarus.  To  parry  the  blow,  something 
decisive  had  to  be  done.  In  autumn,  416,  67  bishops 
from  Proconsular  Africa  assembled  in  a  synod  at 
Carthage,  which  was  presided  over  by  Aurelius,  while 
fifty-nine  bishops  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of 
Numidia,  to  which  the  See  of  Hippo,  St.  Augustine's 
see,  belonged,  held  a  synod  in  Mileve.  In  both  places 
the  doctrines  of  Pelagius  and  Caelestius  were  again 
rejected  as  contradictory  to  the  Catholic  faith.  How- 
ever, in  order  to  secure  for  their  decisions  "the  au- 
thority of  the  Apostolic  See",  both  synods  wrote  to 
Innocent  I,  requesting  his  supreme  sanction.  And  in 
order  to  impress  upon  him  more  strongly  the  serious- 
ness of  the  situation,  five  bishops  (Augustine,  Aure- 
lius, Al>T)ius,  Evodius,  and  Possidius)  forwarded  to 
him  a  joint  letter,  in  which  they  detailed  the  doctrine 
of  original  sin,  infant  baptism,  and  Christian  grace 
(St.  Augustine,  "Epp.  clxxv-vii").  In  three  sepa- 
rate epistles,  dated  27  Jan.,  417,  the  pope  answered 
the  synodal  letters  of  Carthage  and  Mileve  as  well 
as  that  of  the  five  bishops  (Jaff6,  "Regest.",  2nd 
ed.,  nn.  321-323,  Leipzig,  1SS5).  Starting  from  the 
principle  that  the  resolutions  of  provincial  synods 
have  no  binding  force  until  they  are  confirmed  by 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  Apostolic  See,  the 
pope  developed  the  Catholic  teaching  on  original  sin 
and  grace,  and  excluded  Pelagius  and  Caelestius,  who 


were  reported  to  have  rejected  these  doctrines,  from 
communion  with  the  Church  until  they  should  come  I 
to  their  senses  {donee  resipiscant) .  In  Africa,  where 
the  decision  was  received  with  unfeigned  joy,  the 
whole  controvensy  was  now  regarded  as  closed,  and 
Augustine,  on  23  September,  417,  announced  from 
the  pulpit  (Serm.,  cxxxi,  10,  in  P.  L.,  XXXVIII,  734), 
"Jam  de  hac  causa  duo  concilia  mi.ssa  sunt  .ad  Sedem 
apostolicam,  inde  etiam  rcscripta  venerunt;  causa 
finita  est".  (Two  synods  have  written  to  the  Apos- 
tolic See  about  this  matter;  the  rephes  ha^fe  come 
back;  the  question  is  settled.)  But  he  was  mistaken; 
the  matter  was  not  yet  settled. 

Innocent  I  died  on  12  March,  417,  and  Zosimus,  a 
Greek  by  birth,  succeeded  him.  Before  his  tribunal 
the  whole  Pelagian  question  was  now  opened  once 
more  and  discussed  in  all  its  bearings.  The  occasion 
for  this  was  the  statements  which  both  Pelagius  and 
Caelestius  submitted  to  the  Roman  See  in  order  to  jus- 
tify themselves.  Though  the  previous  decisions  of 
Innocent  I  had  removed  all  doubts  about  the  matter 
itself,  yet  the  question  of  the  persons  involved  was  un- 
decided, viz.  Did  Pelagius  and  Caelestius  really  teach 
the  theses  condemned  as  heretical?  Zosimus'  sense  of 
justice  forbade  him  to  punish  any  one  with  excom- 
munication before  he  was  duly  convicted  of  his  error. 
And  if  the  steps  recently  taken  by  the  two  defendants  ■ 
were  considered,  the  doubts  which  might  arise  on  this  | 
point,  were  not  wholly  groundless.  In  41t>  Pelagius  i 
had  published  a  new  work,  now  lost,  "De  libero  arbi- 
trio  libri  IV",  which  in  its  phraseology  seemed  to 
verge  towards  the  Augustinian  conception  of  grace 
and  infant  baptism,  even  if  in  principle  it  did  not 
abandon  the  author's  earlier  standpoint.  Speaking  of 
Christian  grace,  he  admitted  not  only  a  Divine  revela- 
tion, but  also  a  sort  of  interior  grace,  viz.  an  illumina- 
tion of  the  mind  (through  sermons,  reading  of  the 
Bible,  etc.),  adding,  however,  that  the  latter  served  not 
to  make  salutary  works  possible,  but  only  to  facilitate 
their  performance.  As  to  infant  baptism  he  granted 
that  it  ought  to  be  administered  in  the  same  form  as  in 
the  case  of  adults,  not  in  order  to  cleanse  the  children 
from  a  real  original  guilt,  but  to  secure  to  them  en- 
trance into  the  "kingdom  of  God".  Unbaptized  chil- 
dren, he  thought,  would  after  their  death  be  excluded 
from  the  "kingdom  of  God",  but  not  from  "eternal 
hfe".  This  work,  together  with  a  still  extant  confes- 
sion of  faith,  which  bears  witness  to  his  childlike 
obedience,  Pelagius  sent  to  Rome,  humbly  begging  at 
the  same  time  that  chance  inaccuracies  might  be  cor- 
rected by  him  who  "holds  the  faith  and  the  see  of 
Peter".  All  this  was  addressed  to  Innocent  I,  of 
whose  death  Pelagius  had  not  yet  heard.  Cselestius, 
also,  who  meanwhile  had  changed  his  residence  from 
Ephesus  to  Constantinople,  but  had  been  banished 
thence  by  the  anti-Pelagian  Bishop  .Atticus,  took  ac- 
tive steps  towards  his  own  rehabilitation.  In  417  he 
went  to  Rome  in  person  and  laid  at  the  feet  of  Zosimus 
a  detailed  confession  of  faith  (Fragments,  P.  L.,  XLV, 
1718),  in  which  he  affirmed  his  belief  in  all  doctrines, 
"from  the  Trinity  of  one  God  to  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead  "  (cf .  St.  Augustine, "  Depeccato  orig.",  xxiii). 

Highly  pleased  with  this  Catholic  faith  and  obedi- 
ence, Zosimus  sent  two  different  letters  (P.  L.,  XLV, 
1719  sqq.)  to  the  African  bishops,  saying  that  in  the 
case  of  Caelestius  Bishops  Heros  and  Lazarus  had  pro- 
ceeded without  due  circumspection,  and  that  Pelagius 
too,  as  was  proved  by  his  recent  confession  of  faith, 
had  not  swerved  from  the  Catholic  truth.  As  to  Caeles- 
tius, who  was  then  in  Rome,  the  pope  charged  the 
Africans  either  to  revise  their  former  sentence  or  to 
convict  him  of  heresy  in  his  own  (the  pope's)  presence 
within  two  months.  The  papal  command  struck 
Africa  like  a  bomb-shell.  In  great  haste  a  synod  \yas 
convened  at  Carthage  in  November,  417,  and  writing 
to  Zosimus,  they  urgently  begged  him  not  to  rescind 
the  sentence  which  his  predecessor.  Innocent  I,  had 


PELAQIUS 


607 


PELAOinS 


pronounced  against  Pelagius  and  Calestius,  until 
both  had  confessed  the  necessity  of  interior  grace  for 
all  salutary  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds.  At  last 
Zosimus  came  to  a  halt.  By  a  rescript  of  21  March, 
418,  he  assured  them  that  he  had  not  yet  pronounced 
definitively,  but  that  he  was  transmitting  to  Africa  all 
documents  bearing  on  Pelagianism  in  order  to  pave 
the  way  for  a  new,  joint  investigation.  Pursuant  to 
the  papal  command,  there  was  held  on  1  May,  418,  in 
the  presence  of  200  bishops,  the  famous  Council  of 
Carthage,  which  again  branded  Pelagianism  as  a 
heresy  in  eight  (or  nine)  canons  (Denzinger,  "  Enchir.", 
10th  ed.,  1908,  101-8).  Owing  to  their  importance 
they  may  be  summarized:  (1)  Death  did  not  come  to 
Adam  from  a  physical  necessity,  but  through  sin. 
(2)  New-born  children  must  be  baptized  on  account  of 
original  sin.  (3)  Justifying  grace  not  only  avails  forthe 
forgiveness  of  past  sins,  but  dlso  gives  assistance  for  the 
avoidance  of  future  sins.  C4)  The  grace  of  Christ  not 
only  discloses  the  knowledge  of  God's  commandments, 
but  also  imparts  strength  to  will  and  execute  them 
(5)  \\'ithout  God's  grace  it  is  not  merely  more  difficult, 
but  absolutely  impossible  to  perform  good  works. 
(G)  Not  out  of  humility,  but  in  truth  must  we  confess 
ourselves  to  be  sinners.  (7)  The  saints  refer  the  peti- 
tion of  the  Our  Father,  "Forgive  us  our  trespasses", 
not  only  to  others,  but  also  to  themselves.  (8)  The 
saints  pronounce  the  same  supplication  not  from  mere 
humilit.v,  but  from  truthfulness.  Some  codices  con- 
tain a  ninth  canon  (Denzinger,  loc.  cit.,  note  3):  Chil- 
dren dying  without  baptism  do  not  go  to  a  "middle 
place"  {medius  locus),  since  the  non-reception  of  bap- 
tism excludes  both  from  "the  kingdom  of  heaven" 
and  from  "eternal  life".  These  clearly-worded  canons, 
which  (except  the  last-named)  afterwards  came  to  be 
articles  of  faith  binding  the  universal  Church,  gave  the 
death-blow  to  Pelagianism;  sooner  or  later  it  would 
bleed  to  death. 

Meanwhile,  urged  by  the  Africans  (probably 
through  a  certain  Valerian,  who  as  comes  held  an 
influential  position  in  Ravenna),  the  secular  power 
also  took  a  hand  in  the  dispute,  the  Emperor  Honorius, 
by  rescript  of  30  April,  418,  from  Ravenna,  banishing 
all  Pelagians  from  the  cities  of  Italy.  Whether  Cseles- 
tius  evaded  the  hearing  before  Zosimus,  to  which  he 
was  now  bound,  "by  fleeing  from  Rome^  (St.  Augus- 
tine, "Contra  duas  epist.  Pelag.",  II,  5),  or  whether 
he  was  one  of  the  first  to  fall  a  victim  to  the  imperial 
decree  of  exile,  cannot  be  satisfactorily  settled  from 
the  sources.  With  regard  to  his  later  life,  we  are  told 
that  in  421  he  again  haunted  Rome  or  its  vicinity,  but 
was  expelled  a  second  time  bv  an  imperial  rescript  (cf . 
P.  L.,  XLV,  1750).  It  is  further  related  that  in  425 
his  petition  for  an  audience  with  Celestine  I  was  an- 
swered by  a  third  banishment  (cf.  P.  L.,  LI,  271). 
He  then  sought  refuge  in  the  Orient,  where  we  shall 
meet  him  later.  Pelagius  could  not  have  been  in- 
cluded in  the  imperial  decree  of  exile  from  Rome. 
For  at  that  time  he  undoubtedly  resided  in  the  Orient, 
since,  as  late  as  the  summer  of  418,  he  communicated 
with  Pinianus  and  his  wife  Melania,  who  lived  in 
Palestine  (cf.  Card.  RampoUa,  "Santa  Melania  giu- 
niore",  Rome,  1905).  But  this  is  the  last  information 
we  have  about  him;  he  probably  died  in  the  Orient. 
Having  received  the  Acts  of  the  Council  of  Carthage, 
Zosimus  sent  to  all  the  bishops  of  the  world  his  famous 
"Epistola  tractoria"  (418)  of  which  unfortunately 
only  fragments  have  come  down  to  us.  This  papal 
encyclical,  a  lengthy  document,  gives  a  minute  ac- 
count of  the  entire  "causa  Caelestii  et  Pelagii",  from 
whose  works  it  quotes  abundantly,  and  categorically 
demands  the  condemnation  of  Pelagianism  as  a  her- 
esy. The  assertion  that  every  bishop  of  the  world  was 
obliged  to  confirm  this  circular  by  his  own  signature, 
cannot  be  proved,  it  is  more  probable  that  the  bishops 
were  required  to  transmit  to  Rome  a  written  agree- 
ment; if  a  bishop  refused  to  sign,  he  waa  deposed  from 


his  office  and  banished.  A  second  and  harsher  re- 
script, issued  by  the  emperor  on  9  June,  419,  and 
addressed  to  Bishop  Aurelius  of  Carthage  (P.  L., 
XLV,  1731),  gave  additional  force  to  this  measure. 
Augustine's  triumph  was  complete.  In  418,  drawing 
the  balance,  as  it  were,  of  the  whole  controversy,  he 
wrote  against  the  heresiarchs  his  last  great  work,  "De 
gratia  Christi  et  de  peccato  originah"  (P.  L.,  XLIV, 
359  sqq.). 

IV. — The  Dispute  of  St.  Augustine  with  Julian 
OF  EcLANU.M  (419-28). — Through  the  vigorous  meas- 
ures adopted  in  418,  Pelagianism  was  indeed  con- 
demned, but  not  crushed.  Among  the  eighteen  bishops 
of  Italy  who  were  exiled  on  account  of  their  refusal  to 
sign  the  papal  decree,  Julian,  Bishop  of  Eclanum,  a 
city  of  Apulia  now  deserted,  was  the  first  to  protest 
against  the  "Tractoria"  of  Zosimus.  Highly  educated 
and  skilled  in  philosophy  and  dialectics,  he  assumed 
the  leadership  among  the  Pelagians.  But  to  fight  for 
Pelagianism  now  meant  to  fight  against  Augustine. 
The  literary  feud  set  in  at  once.  It  was  probably 
Julian  himself  who  denounced  St.  Augustine  as  dam- 
nator  nupliarum  to  the  influential  comes  Valerian  in 
Ravenna,  a  nobleman,  who  was  very  happily  married. 
To  meet  the  accusation,  Augustine  wrote,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  419,  an  apology,  "De  nuptiis  et  concu- 
piscentia  libri  II"  (P.  L.,  XLIV,  413  sqq.)  and  ad- 
dressed it  to  Valerian.  Immediately  after  (419  or 
420),  Julian  published  a  reply  which  attacked  the  first 
book  of  Augustine's  work  and  bore  the  title,  "Libri 
IV  ad  Turbantium".  But  Augustine  refuted  it  in  his 
famous  rejoinder,  written  in  421  or  422,  "Contra 
luhanum  libri  VI"  (P.  L.,  XLIV,  640  sqq.).  When 
two  Pelagian  circulars,  written  by  Julian  and  scourg- 
ing the  "  Manichsan  views"  of  the  Antipelagians,  fell 
into  his  hands,  he  attacked  them  energetically  (420  or 
421)  in  a  work,  dedicated  to  Boniface  1,  "Contra  duas 
epistolas  Pelagianorum  libri  IV"  (P.  L.,  XLIV,  549 
sqq.).  Being  driven  from  Rome,  Julian  had  found 
(not  later  than  421)  a  place  of  refuge  in  Cilicia  with 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  Here  he  employed  his  leis- 
ure in  elaborating  an  extensive  work,  "Libri  VIII  ad 
Florum",  which  was  wholly  devoted  to  refuting  the 
second  book  of  Augustine's  "De  nuptiis  et  concu- 
piscentia".  Though  composed  shortly  after  421,  it 
did  not  come  to  the  notice  of  St.  Augustine  until  427. 
The  latter's  reply,  which  quotes  Julian's  argumenta- 
tions sentence  for  sentence  and  refutes  them,  was 
completed  only  as  far  as  the  sixth  book,  whence  it  is 
cited  in  patristic  literature  as  "Opus  imperfectum 
contra  lulianum"  (P.  L.,  XLV,  1049  sqq.).  A  com- 
prehensive account  of  Pelagianism,  which  brings  out 
into  strong  relief  the  diametrically  opposed  views  of 
the  author,  was  furnished  by  Augustine  in  428  in  the 
final  chapter  of  his  work,  "De  ha;resibus"  (P.  L., 
XLII,  21  sqq.).  Augustine's  last  writings  published 
before  his  death  (430)  were  no  longer  aimed  against 
Pelagianism,  but  against  Semipelagianism. 

After  the  death  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  (428), 
Julian  of  Eclanum  left  the  hospitable  city  of  Cilicia 
and  in  429  we  meet  him  unexpectedly  in  company  with 
his  fellow  exiles  Bishops  Florus,  Orontius,  and  Fabius, 
at  the  Court  of  the  Patriarch  Nestorius  of  Constanti- 
nople, who  willingly  supported  the  fugitives.  It  was 
here,  too,  in  429,  that  Cselestius  emerged  again  as  the 
protege  of  the  patriarch ;  this  is  his  last  appearance  in 
history;  for  from  now  on  all  trace  of  him  is  lost.  But 
the  exiled  bishops  did  not  long  enjoy  the  protection  of 
Nestorius.  When  Marius  IVlercator,  a  layman  and 
friend  of  St.  Augustine,  who  was  then  present  in  Con- 
stantinople, heard  of  the  machinations  of  the  Pela- 
gians in  the  imperial  city,  he  composed  towards  the 
end  of  429  his  "  Coramonitorium  super  nomine  Cae- 
lestii"  (P.  L.,  XLVIII,  63  sqq.),  in  which  he  exposed 
the  shameful  life  and  the  heretical  character  of  Nesto- 
rius' wards.  The  result  was  that  the  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius  II  decreed  their  banishment  in  430.    When  the 


PELARGUS 


608 


PELLA 


CEcumenical  Council  of  Kphcsus  (431)  repeated  the 
condemnation  pronounced  by  the  West  (cf.  Mansi, 
"Concil.  collect.",  IV,  1337),  "Pelagianism  was  crushed 
in  the  East.  According  to  the  trustworthy  report  of 
Prosper  of  Aquitaine  ("Chronic",  ad  a.  439,  in  P.  L., 
LI,  598),  Julian  of  Kdanuni,  feigning  repentance,  tried 
to  regain  posses.sion  of  his  former  bishopric,  a  plan 
which  Sixtus  III  (432-40)  courageously  frustrated. 
The  year  of  his  death  is  uncertain.  He  seems  to  have 
died  in  Italy  between  441  and  455  during  the  reign  of 
Valentinian  III. 

V.  L.\.sT  Traces  OF  Pelagianism  (429-529.) — After 
the  Council  of  Kphesus  (431),  Pelagianism  no  more  dis- 
turbed the  Greek  Church,  so  that  the  Greek  historians 
of  the  fifth  century  do  not  even  mention  either  the 
controversy  or  the  names  of  the  heresiarchs.  But  the 
heresy  continued  to  smoulder  in  the  West  and  died  out 
very  slowly.  The  main  centres  were  Gaul  and  Britain. 
About  Gaul  we  are  told  that  a  synod,  held  probably  at 
Troyes  in  429,  was  compelled  to  take  steps  against  the 
Pelagians.  It  also  sent  Bishops  Germanus  of  Auxerre 
and  Lupus  of  Troyes  to  Britain  to  fight  the  rampant 
heresy,  which  received  powerful  support  from  two 
pupils  of  Pelagius,  Agricola  and  Fastidius  (cf .  Caspari, 
"Letters,  Treatises  and  Sermons  from  the  two  last 
Centuries  of  Ecclesia.stical  Antiquity",  pp.  1-167, 
Christiania,  1891).  Almost  a  century  later,  Wales  was 
the  centre  of  Pelagian  intrigues.  For  the  saintly  Arch- 
bishop David  of  Alenevia  participated  in  519  in  the 
Synod  of  Brefy,  which  directed  its  attacks  against  the 
Pelagians  residing  there,  and  after  he  was  made  Pri- 
mate of  Cambria,  he  himself  convened  a  synod  against 
them.  In  Ireland  also  Pelagius's  "Commentary  on 
St.  Paul",  described  in  the  beginning  of  this  article, 
was  in  use  long  afterwards,  as  is  proved  by  many  Irish 
quotations  from  it.  Even  in  Italy  traces  can  be  found, 
not  only  in  the  Diocese  of  Aquileia  (cf.  Gamier, 
"Opera  Marii  Mercat.",  I,  319  sqq.,  Paris,  1673),  but 
also  in  Middle  Italy;  for  the  so-called  "Liber  Pra'des- 
tinatus",  written  about  440  perhaps  in  Rome  itself, 
bears  not  so  much  the  stamp  of  Semipelagianism  as  of 
genuine  Pelagianism  (cf.  von  Schubert,  "Der  sog. 
Prajdestinatus,  ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  des  Pela- 
gianismus",  Leipzig,  1903).  A  more  detailed  account 
of  this  work  will  be  found  under  the  article  Predesti- 
NARIANISM.  It  was  not  until  the  Second  Synod  of 
Orange  (529)  that  Pelagianism  breathed  its  last  in  the 
West,  though  that  convention  aimed  its  decisions  pri- 
marily against  Semipelagianism  (q.  v.). 

AM  the  works  of  Pelagius,  Cffile-stius  and  Julian  as  well  as 
the  writings  of  their  adversaries  Jerome,  Augustine.  Orosius, 
Mariu."*  Mercator,  etc.,  which  have  been  quoted  in  the  course  of 
the  article,  are  also  the  sources  of  the  history  of  the  Pelagian 
heresy.  To  these  must  be  added  the  synodal  acts  of  the  different 
councils  as  far  as  they  are  extant.  A  Corpus  Pelagianum  for  later 
years  is  furnished  by  the  above-mentioned  work  of  Caspari.  A 
collection  of  older  documents  is  found  in  P.  L..  XLV,  1609  sqq.; 
cf.  Bruckner,  QuelUn  zur  Geschichte  des  Pelagianismus  in  Teite 
und  Untersuchungen,  by  Okrhardt  and  Harnack,  XV.  3  (Leipzig, 
1906).  Forthe  Commentary  on  St,  Paul.  cf.  Riggenbach,  Unheach- 
tel  oebliebene  Fragmente  des  Pelagius-Kommentars  zu  den  Paulini~ 
schen  Briefen  (Leipzig.  lOO.")) ;  against  its  genuineness,  cf.  Klasen 
in  Tahinger  Theolagische  Quartalschrift  (1885),  244  sqq.,  531  eqq.: 
its  genuineness  (with  unessential  changes)  was  proved  by  Zimmer, 
Pelagius  in  Irland  (Berlin.  1901) ;  cf.  SocTEH.  The  Commenlary  of 
Pelagius  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul:  the  Problem  of  its  Restoration 
(London.  1907):  Journal  of  Theological  Studies  (1906),  568  sqq.; 
(1907).  526 sqq.;  The  Expositor.  I  (1907).  455 sqq.  For  the  history 
of  Pelagianism.  cf.  Nobis.  Historia  Pelagiana  (Florence,  1673),  re- 
printed in  his  Opera,  cd.  Berti.  I  (Venice.  1729).  1-412,  .Still  val- 
uable is  C.  W.  F.  Walch.  Enlwurf  eincr  vollstdndigen  Historic  der 
KeUcreien.  IV  (Leipzig.  1768) ;  J.  G.  Walch.  De  Pelagianismo  ante 
Pelagium  (Jena,  1738) ;  Wiggers.  Pragmatische  Darstetlung  des 
Augustiniamus  und  Pelagianismus  (Hamburg,  1833):  Jacobi,  Die 
Lehre  dc*  Pelagius  (Leipzig,  1842):  Worter,  Der  Pelagianismus 
nach  seinem  Ursprung  und  seiner  Lehre  (Freiburg,  1874) ;  Klasen, 
DieinnereErUwicklungdesPelagianismus{,'FTe\\>UTi,  1882);  Ernst, 
Pelagianische  Studien  in  Katholik,  II  (1884),  225  sqq.;  I  (188,5), 
241  sqq.;  Warfield,  Two  Studies  in  the  History  of  Doctrine: 
Augustine  and  the  Pelagian  Controversy:  The  Development  of  the 
Doctrine  of  InfarU  Saltation  (New  York,  1897) ;  Brockner,  Julian 
ton  Eclanum,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Lehre  (Leipzig,  1897) ;  Hepele. 
Konziliengeschickte,  II  (Freiburg.  1875).  104  sqq.;  Schwane. 
Dogmengeschichte,  II  (Freiburg,  1895);  Hergenrother-Kirsch. 
Kirchengeschichle,  I  (Freiburg,  1902);  Tixeront.  Histoire  des 
dofimo,  II  (Paris,  190'J);   Peters  in  A'irc/ienieziton,  ».  v. ;  Loofs 


in  Realencyclopadie  far  protest.  Theologie,  XV  (Leipzig,  1904).  747 
sqq.;    Koch  in  Kirchl.  Handlexikon,  a.  v. 

Joseph  Pohle. 

Pelargus,  Ambrose,  theologian,  b.  at  Nidda, 
Ile.s.sc,  about  1488;  d.  at  Trier,  15.57.  Stork  (Greek 
I'clargon,  whence  Pelargus)  entered  the  Dominican 
order  probably  at  Freiburg,  Breisgau.  He  was  famed 
for  Ills  eloquence  and  admired  for  the  elegance  of  his 
writings,  being  skilled  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew. 
His  piilcmical  efforts  were  directed  principally  against 
the  An:il):ii)tists,  the  Iconoclasts,  and  those  who  re- 
jecteil  tlic  .\Ia.ss.  He  attended  the  Diet  of  Worms 
(1540)  and  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1546,  as  theologian 
and  procurator  of  the  Archbishop  of  Trier.  On  10 
May,  1546,  he  addressed  the  assembled  Fathers. 
When  the  council  was  transferred  to  Bologna  in 
1547,  Charles  V,  incensed  against  Pelargus  because 
he  had  favoured  the  transfer,  induced  the  archbishop 
to  recall  him,  but  the  latter  chose  him  again  as  his 
theologian  in  1561.  His  principal  works  are:  "Apol- 
ogia sacrificii  eucharistiae  contra  CEcolampadium " 
(Ba.sle,  1528);  "  Hyperaspismus,  seu  apologia;  pro- 
pugnatio  ..."  (Basle,  1529);  "Opuscula",  against 
An.abaptists  and  Iconoclasts  (Freiburg,  1534);  "Di- 
vina  S.  Joannis  Chrysos.  Liturgia,  e  Graeco  Latine 
ab  Ambrosio  Pelargo  versa  et  illustrata"  (Worms, 
1541);  "Inter  Pelargum  et  Erasmum  epistolae 
(Cologne,  1,539). 

Qn^TlF  AND  EcHARD,  Siyripl.  Ord.  Prad.,  II  (Paris,  1721),  158; 
Pallavicini,  Hist.  Conc.Trid.  (Antwerp,  1670),  pt.  II,  bk.  X,  ii,  6. 

D.  J.  Kenedy. 

Pelisson-Fontanier,  Paul,  a  French  writer,  b. 
at  Ik'ziers  in  lt)24,  of  Protestant  parents;  d.  at  Ver- 
sailles, 7  February,  1693.  He  finished  his  classical 
studies  at  the  age  of  eleven  at  Castres,  studied  phil- 
oso]5hy  at  Montauban,  law  at  Toulouse,  and,  when 
only  nineteen  years  old,  published  a  Latin  translation 
of.  and  a  commentary  on,  the  first  book  of  Justinian's 
"Institutes".  In  1653  he  wrote  his  "Histoire  del' Aca- 
demic fran9aise",  which  procured  his  election  to  that 
body.  He  became  secretary  to  Superintendent  Fou- 
quet  in  1652,  master  of  accounts  at  IMont])ellier  in 
1659,  counsellor  of  the  king  in  1660.  \\  hen  Fouquet 
was  discharged,  Pelisson  stood  faithfully  by  him  and 
was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  (1661),  where  he  re- 
mained four  years.  There  he  wrote  his  three  "Md- 
moires"  in  defence  of  Fouquet.  Liberated  in  1666  he 
was  named  royal  historian  by  Louis  XIV.  In  1670 
he  abjured  the  Protestant  religion,  received  minor 
orders  and  subdiaconate,  was  given  the  Abbey 
of  (iuieont,  and  made  administrator  of  divers 
benefices  and  disburser  of  the  money  destined  for 
needy  converts.  The  charge  that  he  refused  the 
last  sacraments  on  his  deathbed  is  false;  he  attended  to 
his  religious  duties  to  the  last.  His  works  include: 
"Histoire  de  Louis  XIV"  (published  by  Lemascrier, 
1749);  "Reflexions  sur  les  difTerends  en  matiere  de 
reUgion"  (1686),  against  Jurieu  and  Leibnitz;  "Traite 
de  I'Eucharistie"  (Paris,  1694),  these  two  works  are 
in  Migne,  "Demonstrations  evangeliques".  III; 
"Prieres  au  Saint-Sacrement "  (1734);  "  Prieres  sur 
les  epttres  et  les  6vangiles  de  I'annde"  (1734). 

Chev^.  Diet,  des  conversions  in  Migne,  Encycl.  thcologique; 
Rasb,  Convcrtiten,  VIII ;  Marcou,  Pelisson.  Etude  sur  sa  vie  et  sea 
auvres  (Paris,  1859). 

George  M.  Sauvage. 

Pella,  a  titular  see  and  suffragan  of  Scythopolis  in 
Pala^stina  Secunda.  According  to  Stephanus  Byzan- 
tius  (s.  v.),  the  town  must  have  been  founded  by  Alex- 
ander; in  any  ca.se  it  is  a  Macedonian  foundation. 
Alexander  Janneus  captured  it,  and  as  he  was  unable 
to  persuade  the  inhabitants  to  embrace  Judaism,  de- 
stroyed it  (Josephus,  "Bel.  Jud.",  I,  iv,  8;  "Ant.  Jud." 

XIII,  XV,  4);  Pompey  rebuilt  it  and  reunited  it  to  the 
Province  of  Syria  ("Bel.  Jud."  I,  vii,  7;  "Ant.  .lud.", 

XIV,  iv,  4);  it  became  then  a  part  of  Decapolis,  re- 


PELLETIER 


609 


PELLISSIER 


mained  always  a  Greek  town,  and  formed  the  northern 
boundary  of  Jewnsh  Parens  ("Bel.  Jud.",  Ill,  iii,  3).  As 
a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Agrippa  it  offered  in  a.  d.  66 
a  safe  refuge  to  the  httle  Christian  community  of  Mt. 
Sion  who,  under  the  leadership  of  St.  Simeon,  took 
refuge  there  during  the  revolt  of  the  Jews,  and  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans  (Eusebius,  "  H.  E.", 
Ill,  v;  Epiphanius,  "Haer.",  xxix,  7).  When,  after 
three  years  of  war  and  massacres,  the  second  Jewish 
revolt  had  been  suppressed  by  Rome  (132-5),  and 
Emperor  Adrian  had  rebuilt  Jerusalem  under  the  name 
of  ''iEUa  Capotolina",  a  part  of  the  community  living 
at  Pella  re-established  themselves  by  order  of  the  un- 
circumcised  bishop,  Mark,  on  Mount  Sion.  Never- 
theless Christianity  persevered  at  Pella,  as  testified  by 
Ariston  (born  there  in  the  second  century,  and  author 
of  the  "Dialogue  of  Jason  and  Papiscos"),  numerous 
Christian  tombs  and  some  inscriptions  ("Revue 
biblique'',  1S99,  VIII,  22).  Le  Quien  (Oriens  chris- 
tianus.  III,  697-700)  mentions  only  three  bi.shops: 
Zebennus  in  449;  Paul  in  518;  and  Zachary  in  ,532. 
The  ruins  of  Pella  may  be  seen  at  Tabakat-Fahil 
beyond  the  Jordan  and  opposite  Scythopolis  or  Beisan; 
the  necropolis  and  a  Christian  basiUca  with  three 
naves  are  noteworthy. 

Smith.  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geog..  II.  570;  Shobmakeh, 
Pella  (London,  1S88):  ^cAos  d'Orient,  III  {1S99),  83. 

S.  Vailh6 

Pelletier,  Pierre-Joseph,  b.  in  Paris,  22  March, 
1788;  d.  there,  19  July,  1842.  His  father,  Bertrand 
Pelletier,  a  pharmacist  and  a  follower  of  Lavoisier, 
filled  several  government  offices  in  France  after  (he 
Revolution,  dying  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-six.  Like 
his  father,  the  son  showed  precocity  in  science  and  fol- 
lowed in  his  steps  in  the  doctrines  of  Lavoisier.  The 
son's  attention  was  directed  to  materia  medica  and  to 
the  vegetable  alkaloids.  He  was  associated  with  Ca- 
ventou  in  the  discovery  of  quinine  in  1820  and  without 
any  thought  of  possible  remuneration,  if  the  discovery 
was  kept  secret,  published  his  results  to  the  world.  It 
was  in  1827  that  the  Montyon  prize  of  10,000  francs 
was  awarded  to  him  by  the  Paris  Academy  of  Science 
for  the  discovery,  this  being  the  sole  reward  for  so 
great  an  achievement.  Strychnine  was  another  of  his 
discoveries  and  his  memoir  on  the  subject  was  pub- 
lished in  Paris  in  1818.  He  was  professor  in  the  Ecole 
de  pharmacie  in  Paris  and  in  1832  became  one  of  its 
adjunct  directors.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
Conseil  de  salubrite  of  Paris  and  held  other  positions 
of  honour.  In  1S40  he  was  elected  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences.  The  natural  alkaloid — pelletierine — and 
three  others  were  named  after  him  by  their  discoverer, 
Tauret.  Among  his  works  may  be  cited:  "Notice  sur 
la  matiere  verte  des  feuilles",  in  collaboration  with 
Caventou  (Paris,  1817);  "Analyse  chimique  des  quin- 
quinas" (Paris,  1821);  "Notice  sur  les  recherches 
chimiques"  (Paris,  1829),  etc.  Pelletier,  as  Cauchy 
testifies,  was  a  convinced  Catholic. 

La  grande  encyclopidie :  Larousse,  DicUonnaire  unitersel; 
Knelleb,  Das  Ckrialentum  (2nd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1904). 

T.  O'CoNOR  Sloane. 

Pellico,  Silvio,  Italian  author  and  patriot,  b.  at 
Saluzzio,  Italy,  24  June,  1788;  d.  at  Turin,  31  Jan., 
1854.  His  father  was  a  government  employee  and 
Silvio  spent  his  youth  in  different  places  in  Italy,  mak- 
ing also  a  four-years'  sojourn  in  Lyons.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  was  in  Milan,  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  several  of  the  best  Italian  writers,  among  whom 
were  Monti,  Foscolo,  and  Manzoni.  Here  he  taught 
French  in  a  school,  conducted  by  the  Government,  for 
soldiers'  orphans,  and  when  the  Austrian  authorities 
deprived  him  of  this  post,  he  served  as  a  private  tutor 
in  different  families,  especially  in  that  of  Count  Luigi 
Porro  Lambertenghi,  one  of  the  leading  opponents  of 
Austrian  dominion  in  the  land.  Lambertenghi  founded 
in  1819  the  periodical  "II  Conciliatore",  which,  as  a 
XL— 39 


literary  organ,  voiced  the  doctrines  of  the  Romantic 
writers  as  opposed  to  those  of  the  Classicist  school, 
and,  as  a  political  organ,  combatted  all  foreign  domi- 
nation in  Italy.  Pelhco  played  an  important  part  in 
the  editing  of  this  periodical.  In  1820,  with  a  fellow- 
worker,  Pietro  Maroncelli,  he  incurred  suspicion  as  a 
member  of  the  Carbonari,  and,  having  been  arrested 
by  order  of  the  Austrians,  was  imprisoned  first  in  the 
Piombi  at  Venice  and  next  in  the  dungeon  of  San 
Michele  di  Murano.  After  a  perfunctory  trial  he  and 
Maroncelli  were  condemned  to  death,  but  this  penalty 
was  soon  commuted  into  one  of  imprisonment  with 
hard  labour,  and  they  were  taken  to  the  fortress  of 
Spielberg  in  Moravia.  After  eight  years  of  incarcera- 
tion and  much  suffering,  Pellico  was  released  (1830). 
During  the  remainder  of  his  hfe,  broken  down  by  the 
hardships  of  imprisonment,  he  remained  entirely  aloof 
from  politics,  and  preferred  a  life  of  seclusion. 

Pellico  is  not  one  of  the  great  Italian  authors  of  the 
nineteenth  century;  yet  he  is  one  who  has  endeared 
himself  permanently  to  the  Italian  heart  by  a  single 
document,  his  prison  diary,  "Le  mie  Prigioni".  In 
this  work,  which  rapidly  became  popular  and  passed 
into  foreign  languages,  he  relates  in  simple  and  unaf- 
fected prose  his  experiences  and  emotions  during  the 
whole  period  of  his  confinement.  There  is  no  tone  of 
bitterness  in  his  manner;  his  attitude  throughout  is 
that  of  the  genuinely  devout  and  resigned  Cathohc, 
and  he  records  with  infinite  detail  and  often  with  pro- 
foundly pathetic  effect  his  daily  experience  in  his  vari- 
ous prisons.  His  little  account  of  the  spider  which  he 
trained  to  eat  from  his  hand  is  one  of  the  best  remem- 
bered passages  of  modern  Italian  prose.  The  very 
gentleness  and  homeliness  of  its  narrative  made  his 
"Prigioni "  the  favourite  that  it  is,  and  well  has  it  been 
said  that  the  book  did  more  harm  to  Austria  than  any 
defeat  on  the  field  of  battle.  His  other  writings  are: 
"Liriche",  full  of  religious  devotion  and  patriotic 
fervour;  "Cantiche"  or  "Novelle  poetiche",  roman- 
tic in  inspiration  and  concerned  with  medieval  life  and 
manners;  twelve  tragedies;  the  "Doveri  degli  uo- 
mini",  a  prose  compilation  of  precepts  and  example, 
intended  to  teach  right  living  to  the  young;  his  copi- 
ous correspondence  ("Epistolario"),  and  a  prose  ver- 
sion of  Byron's  "Manfred".  Only  eight  of  the  trag- 
edies have  been  published,  the  most  famous  of  which, 
"Francesca  da  Rimini",  dealing  with  the  Dantesque 
tradition,  was  performed  successfully  in  1818;  it  en- 
gaged at  once  the  attention  of  Byron  and  he  trans- 
lated it  into  English.  The  "Francesca"  ranks  next  in 
importance  among  his  works  to  the  "Prigioni". 

Opere  (Milan,  1886);  Epistolario  (Florence,  1856);  Le  mie 
Prigioni,  ed.  Paravh,  Sonzogno,  and  others;  Poesie  e  leilere 
inedite  (Rome,  1898);  Prose  e  Iragedie  scelte  (Milan,  1899); 
RiNlERl,  Delia  vita  e  delle  opere  di  S.  P.  (3  vols..  Turin,  1898- 
1901);  Briano.S.  P.  (Turin,  1861);  Pabavia  in  «erae  Coiifempo- 
raine,  1853-1;   DiniEB  in  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  (Sept..  18-12). 

J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Pellissier  (Pellicier),  Gdillaume,  b.  at  Mel- 
gueil  in  Languedoc,  about  1490;  d.  at  the  castle  of 
lilontferraud,  1508.  He  made  a  brilliant  course  in  law 
and  theology  and  travelled  in  France  and  Italy.  In 
1527  his  uncle.  Bishop  of  Maguelonne,  appointed  him 
canon  and  shortly  afterwards  his  coadjutor.  He  be- 
came the  next  bishop  in  1529.  Francis  I  entrusted 
him  with  several  important  missions;  in  1529  he 
accompanied  Louise  de  Savoie  to  Cambrai  and  con- 
cluded peace  with  Charles  V.  In  1533  at  Marseilles 
he  arranged  with  Clement  VII  for  the  marriage  of  the 
Duo  d'Orl(;ans  (Henri  II)  and  Catherine  de'  Medici. 
He  obtained  permission  for  the  translation  of  his  epis- 
copal see  from  Maguelonne  to  Montpellier  from  Paul 
III  in  1536.  Four  years  later  he  was  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Venice,  and  brought  back  a  large  number  of 
Greek,  Syriac,  and  Hebrew  MSS.  An  ardent  Human- 
ist, he  was  arrested  on  suspicion  of  heresy  by  order  of 
the  Parliament  of  Toulouse,  and  imprisoned  in  the 
castle  of  Beaiucaire,  though  he  easily  freed  himself 


PBLOTAS 


610 


PELUsnna 


trom  the  charge  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  days 
combatting  the  Protestant  heresy.  He  was  obliged 
more  than  once  to  quit  Montpellier,  for  Aigues- 
Mortes,  and  Maguclonne.  In  1567  the  Protestants 
destroyed  his  cathedral.  His  correspondence  was 
publisiied  at  Paris  (1900);  his  commentaries  on  Tac- 
itus are  unpubhshed. 

Vaissere  and  Demi,  Hist,  g^nh^e  de  Langufdoc. 

T.  Lataste. 

Pelotas,  Diocese  of  (Pelotasensis),  in  Brazil, 
suffragan  to  Porto  .\legre.  By  a  decree  of  Pius  X, 
dated  15  .\ug.,  1910,  the  See  of  Sao  Pedro  do  Rio 
Grande  was  erected  into  an  archbishopric  under  the 
title  of  Porto  Alegre  (q.  v.)  and  given  four  suffragans, 
three  of  which  were  detached  from  the  old  diocese. 
One  of  these,  Pelotas,  was  formed  from  twenty-four 
parishes  in  the  south-eastern  portion  of  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul.  It  includes  most  of  the  territorj-  lying  near  the 
Lagoa  Miri,  and  the  lower  half  of  the  Lagoa  dos  Patos. 
The  cathedral  church  of  the  new  diocese,  dedicated  to 
St.  Francis  of  Paula,  is  at  Pelotas,  a  well-constructed, 
handsome  city,  situated  on  the  Sao  Goncalo.  Pelotas, 
a  centre  of  commercial  activity,  especially  in  the  cattle 
trade,  contains  about  25,000  inhabitants,  and  has  a 
Jesuit  college.  Rio  Grande,  its  seaport,  twenty-six 
miles  to  the  south-east,  has  about  20,000  inhabitants. 
The  other  chief  centres  of  population  are  at  Bage,  Sao 
Lourengo,  Sao  Jose  do  Norte,  and  Boqueirao.  The 
population  is  almost  entirely  Catholic. 

Gal-^nti,  Compendia  de  historia  do  Brazil,  III,  IV  (Sao  Paulo, 

1902-05).  A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Felouze,  Thegphile-Jctles,  scientist,  b.  at  Va- 
lognes,  La  Manche,  26  Feb.,  1807;  d.  in  Paris,  31  May 
or  1  June,  1867.  He  began  his  career  as  a  pharmacist, 
studying  at  La  Fere.  In  1827  he  went  to  Paris  and  be- 
came an  as.sistant  toGay LussacandLes-saigne.  Atthis 
period  he  also  occupied  a  position  in  the  hospital  of  La 
Salpetriere,  but  resigned  to  get  back  to  his  researches. 
In  1S30  he  was  a  professor  in  the  L'niversity  of  Lille; 
in  1833  assayer  to  the  Mint,  and  on  the  staff  of  the 
Polytechnic  School  in  Paris;  and  later  was  engaged  in 
the  College  de  France,  holding  the  title  of  professor 
there  until  1851.  In  1836  he  visited  Germany  and  was 
associated  in  his  work  in  organic  chemistry  with  Lie- 
big.  In  1837  he  succeeded  Deyeux  as  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  France.  In  1848  he  was  made 
president  of  the  Mint  Commission,  and  in  1849  became 
a  member  of  the  Municipal  Commission  at  Paris.  He 
resigned  his  public  positions  in  1852. 

His  work  with  Liebig  included  investigations  on 
cenanthic  ether,  tannic  acid,  stearin,  sugar,  etc.,  and 
withFremy,  Cahours,  andGelis,  on  aseries  of  vegetable 
acids,  including  mallic  and  gaUic  acids,  and  on  petro- 
leum and  butyric  fermentation.  He  was  the  first  to 
synthesize  a  fatty  substance  from  glycerine  and  an 
acid;  to  isolate  tannic  acid;  to  identify  beet-root 
and  cane-sugar  as  being  the  same;  and  to  make  gun- 
cotton  or  nitrocellulose  in  France.  Other  work  by  him 
was  devoted  to  analj-tical  chemistrj-  and  the  deter- 
mination of  the  atomic  weights  of  several  of  the  ele- 
ments. Discovering  a  new  class  of  .salts  (nitro-sul- 
phates)  he  based  thereon  a  new  analytical  method  for 
the  determination  of  copper.  In  1850  as  consulting 
chemist  of  the  St.  Gobain  glass  works  he  introduced 
sodium  sulphate  as  a  constituent  in  gla,s.s-making,  pro- 
ducing artificial  aventurine  with  chromium  as  a  basis, 
studj-ing  the  effect  of  sunlight  on  coloured  glass,  and 
working  on  enamels.  Many  of  his  papers  have  been 
published  in  the  "  Annales  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique" 
and  in  the  "Comptes  Rendus".  He  published  several 
works:  "Traits  de  Chimie  G^n^rale,  analj-tique,  In- 
dustricUe  et  agricole"  (3  vols,  Paris,  1847),  in  collab- 
oration with  Fr^my;  "Abrdg^  de  Chimie"  (Paris, 
1848);  "Notions  gfe^rales  de  Chimie"  (Paris,  1853). 
According  to  his  friend,  the  Abb6  Moigno,  he  died  an 
edifying  Christian  death. 


PooGENDORFF,  Bioffrapltiiich-Lilerarincht.''  Ilnndwdrtertuch  zur 
Geschichte  der  aactrn  Wissennchaflen  (LeipziK,  1863);  FlOUIER, 
L' Annie  Scienlifiquc  {XII A nnle),  Complex  Rendus  H ebdomadairtt 
des  Stances  de  iAcadtmil  des  Sciences,  LXIV  (Paris,  1867). 

T.  O'Co.NoR  Sloane. 

Peltrie,  Madeleine  de  la,  nee  Chauvig.ny,  a 
French  noblewoman,  and  foundress,  b.  at  Caen,  1603; 
d.  at  Quebec,  18  November,  1671.  In  spite  of  her 
monastic  inclinations,  she  was  forceil  to  wed,  at  seven- 
teen, Charles  de  la  Peltrie,  who  died  five  years  later. 
After  ten  years  of  widowhood  spent  in  piety  and  alms- 
deeds,  Lejeune's  "Relation"  awakened  in  her  .soul  an 
ardent  desire  for  the  Canadian  mission,  which  she 
strove  to  accomplish  notwithstanding  fresh  opposition 
from  her  father.  To  overcome  this,  while  seem- 
ingly complying  with  her  parent's  wish  to  see  her  re- 
married, it  was  arranged  that  the  saintly  de  Berniere- 
Louvigny  would  ask  her  hand,  leaving  her  free  to 
pursue  her  generous  design.  Her  father's  death  inter- 
vening, the  union  was  cancelled,  though  her  friend 
espoused  the  realization  of  her  plans,  duly  approved 
by  de  Condren  and  St.  \'incent  de  Paul.  She  corre- 
sponded with  the  Venerable  Marie  de  I'lncarnation, 
who  recognized  her  as  the  soul  providentially  destined 
to  second  her  zeal.  Thej-  reached  Quebec,  1  August, 
1639,  and  began  together  a  life  of  privations  and  mer- 
its inseparable  from  the  rude  condition  of  the  colony 
and  the  savage  nature  of  their  wards.  Madame  de  la 
Peltrie's  charity  exerted  itself  at  Sillery,  where  she 
stood  sponsor  for  many  a  dark  neophyte.  Her  inti- 
mac}-  with  Jeanne  Mance,  Maisonneuve,  and  the 
other  prospective  founders  of  Ville  Marie,  during  the 
first  winter  spent  near  Quebec  (1641—42),  prompted 
her  to  follow  them  to  Montre.il,  where  she  was  the  first 
communicant  at  the  first  Ma.ss  celebrated  by  Father 
Vimont,  S.J.  (1642).  Deterred  from  her  apparently 
eccentric  plan  of  \'isiting  the  Huron  missions,  she 
finally  ret  urned  to  Quebec  after  an  absence  of  eighteen 
months,  and  devoted  herself  and  her  fortune  wholly 
and  irrevocably  to  the  work  of  Marie  de  I'lncarnation. 
In  spite  of  her  entreaties  she  was  never  formally  ad- 
mitted to  the  novitiate,  but  led  the  humble  and  aus- 
tere life  of  a  true  religious,  scrupulously  following 
everj'  detail  of  the  observances,  and  reaching  a  high 
degree  of  contemplative  prayer.  Governor  Cour- 
celles,  Intendant  Talon,  the  Indians,  and  the  poor 
attended  her  funeral.  Besides  contributing  to  the 
foundation  of  the  UrsuUne  monastery,  she  had  in- 
augurated in  Quebec,  the  admirable  mission  of  charity 
for  women  of  society. 

DloxN'E,  Serrileurs  et  Serranles  de  Dieu  au  Canada  (Quebec, 
1904):  La  V&nirable Marie  de  V Incarnation  (Paris,  1910);  Mother 
Ste.  Croix,  Glimpses  of  the  Monastery  (Quebec,  1897). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 

Pelusium,  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Augustam- 
nica  Prima  in  Egj-pt,  mentioned  in  Ezech.,  xxx,  15  sq., 
(A.  V.  Sin),  as  the  strength  or  rampart  of  Egj'pt 
against  his  enemies  from  Asia,  which  clearly  outlines 
the  eastern  frontier  of  the  Delta.  Sin  in  Chaldaic, 
and  Seydn  in  Aramaic,  means  mire,  like  the  Greek 
UiiXovfflov,  which  is  a  translation  of  it  and  which,  ac- 
cording to  Strabo  (XVH,  i,  21),  refers  to  the  mire  and 
the  marshes  which  surrounded  the  town.  The  latter 
was  very  important,  being  on  the  route  of  the  cara- 
vans from  Africa  to  Asia,  also  because  its  harbour 
joined  the  sea  to  the  branch  of  the  Nile  called  Pelusiac. 
The  Pharaohs  put  it  in  a  good  state  of  defence. 
Among  its  sieges  or  battles  were:  the  expedition  of 
Nabuchodonosor,  583  b.  c;  that  of  Cambvses  who 
stormed  it,  525  B.  c.  (Herod.,  Ill,  10-12)";  that  of 
Xerxes,  490  B.  c,  and  of  Artaxerxes,  460  B.  c;  the 
battle  of  373  B.  c.  between  Nectanebus  Iving  of  Egypt, 
Phamabazus,  Satrap  of  Phrj-gia,  and  Iphicrates,  gen- 
eral of  the  Athenians.  In  333  B.  c.  the  city  opened  its 
gates  to  Alexander;  in  173  b.  c.  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
triumphed  under  its  walls  over  Ptolemey  Philimetor; 
in  55  B.  c.  Anthony  captured  it;  and  in  31  B.  c.  Angus- 


PEMBROKE 


611 


PENAL 


tus  occupied  it.  The  Shah  Chosroes  took  it  in  A.  D. 
616,  Amru  in  640;  Baldwin  I  King  of  Jerusalem  burned 
it  in  1117.  The  branch  of  the  Nile  became  choked  up 
and  the  sea  overflowed  the  region  and  transformed  it 
into  a  desert  of  mud.  A  hill,  covered  with  ruins  of 
the  Roman  or  Byzantine  period  and  called  Tell 
Farameh,  marks  the  site.  There  are  also  the  ruins 
of  a  fort  called  Tineh. 

The  first  known  bishop  is  Callinicus,  a  partisan  of 
Meletium;  Dorotheus  assisted  at  the  Council  of 
Nic*a;  Marcus,  Pancratius,  and  Ammonius  (fourth 
century);  Eusebius  (first  half  of  the  fifth  century); 
George  (sixth  century).  Pelusium  became  the  met- 
ropolitan see  of  Augustamnica  when  that  province 
was  created,  mentioned  first  in  an  imperial  edict  of 
342  (Cod.  Theod.,  XII,  i,  34).  The  greatest  glory 
of  Pelusium  is  St.  Isidore,  d.  450.  Under  the  name  of 
Farmah,  Pelusium  is  mentioned  in  the  "Chronicle"  of 
John  of  Nikiu  in  the  seventh  century  (ed.  Zottenberg, 
392,  396,  407,  595). 

Le  QiriEN,  Oriens  christianus,  II,  531-34;  Am^lineau,  La 
geographic  de  VEgypte  a  Vepoque  copte  (Paris,  1893),  317;  Bouv'T, 
De  sancto  Isidoro  Pelusiota  (NImes,  1884). 

S.  Vailhe. 

Pembroke,  Diocese  op  (Pembrokiensis),  suffra- 
gan of  Ottawa,  in  Canada.  The  town  of  Pembroke 
has  a  beautiful  location  on  the  Ottawa  River,  about 
one  hundred  miles  west  of  the  City  of  Ottawa,  in  the 
midst  of  a  rich  farming  and  lumbering  district.  The 
locality  is  mentioned  in  the  early  history  of  Indian 
missions  in  Upper  Canada;  Champlain,  when  on  a 
voyage  of  exploration  of  the  Upper  Ottawa,  pitched 
his  tent  where  now  stands  the  Pembroke  court  house. 
The  names  of  the  early  missionaries  are  lost,  the  first 
known  being  those  of  Fathers  Dupins  and  Bellefeuille, 
Sulpicians  of  Montreal,  who  preached  to  the  Indians 
of  this  region  in  1836.  The  foundation  of  the  mission 
there  is  ascribed  to  Father  Lynch,  and  the  first  resident 
priest  was  Father  Gilhe,  under  whose  direction  the 
first  church  was  begun  in  1847.  This  soon  proved 
inadequate  and  a  more  extensive  stone  structure  was 
erected  on  a  new  site.  In  1882  when  Pembroke  was 
chosen  as  the  see  of  the  new  vicariate,  plans,  eventu- 
ally carried  out,  were  prepared  to  transform  this 
church  into  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Columba.  The  dio- 
cese of  Pembroke  comprises  the  county  of  Renfrew, 
part  of  each  of  the  counties  of  Frontenac,  Addington, 
Hastings,  and  Haliburton,  of  the  district  of  Nipissing 
in  the  Pro\-ince  of  Ontario,  and  the  southern  part  of 
the  county  of  Pontiac  in  the  Pro\'ince  of  Quebec. 
This  territory  was  separated  from  the  Dioceses  of 
Ottawa,  Three  Rivers,  and  St.  Boniface,  and  erected 
into  the  Vicariate  of  Pontiac,  11  July,  1882.  This  im- 
mense district  comprised  a  great  portion  of  northern 
Ontario  and  Quebec,  extending  as  far  north  as  Hudson 
Bay,  and  east  to  the  district  of  Keewatin.  The  work 
of  colonization  and  development  progressed  so  rapidly 
that,  4  May,  1898,  the  \acariate  was  erected  into  the 
Diocese  of  Pembroke  with  episcopal  see  at  Pembroke. 
The  remarkable  growth  of  the  northern  districts,  prin- 
cipally through  the  discovery  of  immense  mineral 
wealth  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  now  renowned  cobalt 
region,  led  to  the  formation  of  a  new  vicariate  at  Ten- 
niscanning,  22  September,  1908. 

Narcisse  Zephyrin  Lorrain,  first  Bishop  of  Pem- 
broke, was  born  at  St.  Martin,  Laval  County,  Quebec, 
13  June,  1842.  His  early  education  was  obtained  in 
his  owTi  parish  school  and  in  1S55  he  began  his  classi- 
cal studies  in  the  College  of  St.  Thercse,  from  which 
he  entered  the  Seminary  of  St.  Thercse.  Ordained  at 
Montreal,  4  August,  1867,  by  Bishop  Bourget,  for  two 
years  he  filled  the  duties  of  professor  and  director  of 
his  Alma  Mater.  In  1869  with  Bishop  Bourget's  con- 
sent, he  was  appointed  parish  priest  of  Redford  then 
in  the  Diocese  of  Albany,  New  York.  He  was  recalled 
to  Montreal  in  1879  and  in  the  following  year  was 
appointed  vicar-general  of  that  diocese.     Two  years 


later  he  was  chosen  vicar-general  of  the  new  Vicari- 
ate of  Pontiac,  and  consecrated  Bishop  of  Cythera, 
21  September,  1882,  in  the  church  of  Notre  Dame, 
Montreal,  and  on  the  following  day  entered  Pembroke, 
where  he  was  to  take  his  residence  as  Vicar  Apos- 
tolic of  Pontiac.  When  the  \'icariate  was  erected  into 
a  diocese  he  became  its  first  bishop.  The  works  and 
progress  of  the  diocese  under  the  administration  of 
Bishop  Lorrain  are  proofs  of  his  untiring  energy,  apos- 
tolic zeal,  and  keen  business  ability.  He  visited  the 
Indian  missions  of  the  north  five  times.  In  1884  he 
covered  a  distance  of  fifteen  hundred  miles  to  the  mis- 
sions of  Abbitibbi,  Moose  Factory,  and  Albany,  and 
in  1887  in  \asiting  the  missions  of  the  St.  Maurice  he 
made  a  voyage  of  seventeen  hundred  miles,  which  like 
the  first  and  the  other  three,  was  for  the  most  part 
made  in  canoe  or  on  foot. 

The  diocese  numbers:  about  37,000  Catholics;  27 
parishes  with  resident  priests,  and  15  assistant  priests; 
missions,  34;  stations,  17;  chapels,  7.  Of  the  clergy 
38  are  seculars  and  4  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate. 
Among  the  communities  of  women  connected  with 
works  of  charity  and  education  are:  the  Grey  Nuns 
of  the  Cross,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Sisters  of  Pro\-i- 
dence.  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Family.  Two  large  and  well-equipped  hospitals  are 
conducted  by  the  first  mentioned  community.  The 
separate  school  system  enjoyed  throughout  the  dio- 
cese gives  to  all  a  good  opportunity  for  primary  and 
religious  instruction,  while  the  higher  education  of 
young  men  is  obtained  principally  at  the  University 
of  Ottawa.  There  are  5  academies  with  1200  pupils; 
71  parochial  schools  with  13,270  pupils. 

H.  E.  Letang. 

Pena  (Pegna),  Francisco,  canonist,  b.  at  Villaroya 
de  los  Pinares,  near  Saragossa,  about  1540;  d.  at 
Rome,  in  1612.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
law  at  Valencia.  Later  Philip  II  appointed  liim  audi- 
tor of  the  Rota  for  Spain,  and  while  at  Rome  he  per- 
formed great  services  not  only  for  his  fellow-country- 
men but  also  for  the  Holy  See.  He  formed  one  of  the 
commission  charged  with  the  preparation  of  the  offi- 
cial edition  of  the  "Corpus  juris  canonici",  published 
in  1582,  and  the  anonymous  notes  appended  to  the 
edition  of  the  Decretals  are  attributed  to  him;  he  was 
also  concerned  in  the  canonization  of  several  saints: 
Didacus,  Hyacinth,  Raymond,  Charles  Borromeo, 
and  I>ances  of  Rome,  publishing  biographies  of  sev- 
eral. His  principal  works  are:  "In  Directorium  In- 
quisitorum  a  Nicolao  Eimerico  conscriptum  commen- 
taria"  (Rome,  1578);  "De  officio  Inquisitionis" 
(Cremona,  1655) ;  "In  Ambrosii  de  Mgnate  tractatum 
de  haresi  commentaria  et  in  Pauli  Grilhmdi  de  ha8- 
reticis  et  eorum  poenis  notaj"  (Rome,  1581);  "In 
Bernard!  Comensis  Dominicani  Lucernam  inquisi- 
torum  notae  et  ejusdem  tractatum  de  strigibus" 
(Rome,  1584);  "Responsio  canonica  ad  scriptum 
nuper  editum  in  causa  Henrici  Borbonii  quo  ilhus 
fauntores  persuadere  nituntur  episcopos  in  P'rancia 
jure  illos  absolvere  potuisse"  (Rome,  1.595);  "Cen- 
sura  in  arrestum  Parlamentale  Curiae  criminalis  Pari- 
sien.sis  contra  Joannem  Castelluni  et  patres  Societatis 
Jesu"  (Rome,  1595);  "De  temporali  regno  Christi" 
(Rome,  1611).  His  "Decisioncs  sacra;  Rota'"  were 
published  by  Urritigoiti  (2  vols.,  Saragossa,  1648-50). 

NicOLAUS  Antonius,  Bihlioiheca  Hispana  nova,  I  (Madrid, 
1783),  457-58;  Schulte.  Die  Gesch  der  Ouellen  und  Lit.  des 
canonischen  Rechls,  III  (Stuttgart,  1880),  734. 

A.  Van  Hove. 

Penal  Laws. — This  article  treats  of  penal  legisla- 
tion affecting  Catholics  in  English-speaking  countries 
since  the  Reformation.  Separate  heads  are  devoted  to 
the  penal  laws:  I.  In  England;  II.  In  Scotland;  III. 
In  Ireland;   IV.  In  the  American  Colonies. 

I.  In  England. — By  a  series  of  statutes  succes- 
sive sovereigns  and  Parliaments  from  Elizabeth  to 


PENAL 


612 


PENAL 


George  III,  sought  to  prevent  tlie  praetioe  of  the 
Cathohc  Faith  in  Knghmd.  To  the  sanguinary  laws 
passed  by  lOlizabetli  further  measures,  sometimes 
inflicting  new  disqvialifications  and  penalties,  some- 
times reiterating  iirevious  enactments,  were  added, 
until  this  persecuting  legislation  made  its  effects 
felt  in  every  department  of  human  life.  Catholics 
lost  not  only  freedom  of  worship,  but  civil  rights 
as  well;  their  estates,  property,  and  sometimes  even 
lives  were  at  the  mercy  of  any  informer.  The  fact 
that  these  laws  were  passed  as  political  occasion  de- 
manded deprived  them  of  any  coherence  or  consist- 
ency; nor  was  any  codification  ever  attempted,  so  that 
the  ta.sk  of  summing  up  this  long  and  complicated 
course  of  legislation  is  a  difficult  one.  In  his  historical 
account  of  the  penal  laws,  published  at  the  time  when 
partial  relief  had  only  just  been  granted  (see  bibliog- 
raphy at  end  of  this  section),  the  eminent  lawyer, 
Charles  Butler,  the  first  Catholic  to  be  called  to  the 
Bar  after  the  Catholic  Relief  Act  of  1791,  and  the 
first  to  be  appointed  King's  Counsel  after  the  Cath- 
olic Emancipation  Act,  thought  it  best  to  group  these 
laws  under  five  heads:  (1)  Those  which  subjected 
Catholics  to  penalties  and  punishments  for  practising 
their  religious  worship;  (2)  those  which  punished  them 
for  not  conforming  to  the  Established  Church  (Stat- 
utes of  Recusancy);  (3)  those  regulating  the  penalties 
or  disabilities  attending  the  refusal  to  take  the  Oath 
of  Supremacy  (1559;  1605;  1689),  the  declarations 
against  Transubstantiation  (Test  Act,  1673)  and 
against  Popery  (1678);  (4)  the  act  passed  with  respect 
to  receiving  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper;  (5) 
statutes  affecting  landed  property.  For  the  present 
purpose,  however,  it  seems  preferable  to  adopt  a 
chronological  arrangement,  which  more  clearly  ex- 
hibits the  historical  development  of  the  code  and  the 
state  of  the  law  at  any  particular  period. 

The  Penal  Laws  began  with  the  two  Statutes  of 
Supremacy  and  Uniformity  by  which  Queen  Elizabeth, 
in  1.559,  initiated  her  religious  settlement;  and  her 
legislation  falls  into  three  divisions  corresponding  to 
three  definitely  marked  periods:  (1)  15.58-70,  when  the 
Government  trusted  to  the  policy  of  enforcing  con- 
formity by  fines  and  deprivations;  (2)  1570-80,  from 
the  date  of  the  queen's  excommunication  to  the  time 
when  the  Government  recognized  the  Catholic  re- 
action due  to  the  seminary  priests  and  Jesuits;  (3) 
from  1580  to  the  end  of  the  reign.  To  the  first  period 
belong  the  Acts  of  Supremacy  and  Uniformity  (I 
Eliz.  1  and  2)  and  the  amending  statute  (5  Eliz.  c.  1). 
By  the  Act  of  Supremacy  all  who  maintained  the 
spiritual  or  ecclesiastical  authority  of  any  foreign  prel- 
ate were  to  forfeit  all  goods  and  chattels,  both  real 
and  personal,  and  all  benefices  for  the  first  offence, 
or  in  case  the  value  of  these  was  below  £20,  to  be  im- 
prisoned for  one  year;  they  were  liable  to  the  for- 
feitures of  Pra;munire  for  the  second  offence,  and  to 
the  penalties  of  high  treason  for  the  third  offence. 
These  penalties  of  Prajmunire  were:  exclusion  from 
the  sovereign's  protection,  forfeiture  of  all  lands  and 
goods,  arrest  to  answer  to  the  sovereign  and  Council. 
The  penalties  assigned  for  high  treason  were  draw- 
ing, hanging,  and  quartering;  corruption  of  blood,  by 
which  heirs  became  incajjable  of  inheriting  honours 
and  offices,  and,  lastly,  forfeiture  of  all  property. 
These  first  statutes  were  made  stricter  by  the  amend- 
ing act  (5  Eliz.  c.  1),  which  declared  that  to  main- 
tain the  authority  of  the  pope  in  any  way  was  punish- 
able by  penalties  of  Pra>munire  for  the  first  offence  and 
of  high  treason,  though  without  corruption  of  blood, 
for  the  second.  All  who  refused  the  Oath  of  Suprem- 
acy were  subjected  to  the  like  penalties.  The  Act  of 
Uniformity,  primarily  designed  to  secure  outward  con- 
formity in  the  use  of  the  Anglican  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  waa  in  effect  a  penal  statute,  as  it  punished  all 
clerics  who  used  any  other  service  by  deprivation  and 
imprisonment,  and  everyone  who  refused  to  attend 


the  Anglican  service  by  a  fine  of  twelve  pence  for  each 
omission.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  amount 
of  these  fines  must  be  multiplied  by  ten  or  more  to 
give  their  modern  equivalent. 

Coming  to  the  legislation  of  the  second  period,  there 
are  two  acts  directed  against  the  Bull  of  Exconnnimi- 
cation:  13  Eliz.  c.  1,  which,  among  other  enactments, 
made  it  high  treason  to  affirm  that  the  queen  ought 
not  to  enjoy  the  Crown,  or  to  declare  her  to  be  a  here- 
tic or  schismatic,  and  13  EUz.  c.  2,  which  made  it  high 
treason  to  put  into  effect  any  papal  Bull  of  absolution, 
to  absolve  or  reconcile  any  person  to  the  Catholic 
Church,  or  to  be  so  absolved  or  reconciled,  or  to  pro- 
cure or  publish  any  papal  Bull  or  writing  whatsoever. 
The  penalties  of  Pra-munire  were  enacted  against  all 
who  brought  into  England  or  who  gave  to  others 
Agnus  Dei  or  articles  blessed  by  the  pope  or  by  any- 
one through  faculties  from  him.  A  third  act,  13  Eliz. 
c.  3,  which  was  designed  to  stop  Catholics  from  taking 
refuge  abroad,  declared  that  any  subject  departing  the 
realm  without  the  queen's  licence,  and  not  returning 
within  six  months,  should  forfeit  the  profits  of  his 
lands  during  life  and  all  his  goods  and  chattels.  The 
third  and  most  severe  group  of  statutes  begins  with 
the  "Act  to  retain  the  Queen's  Majesty's  subjects  in 
their  obedience"  (23  Eliz.  c.  1),  passed  in  1581.  This 
made  it  high  treason  to  reconcile  anyone  or  to  be  re- 
conciled to  "the  Romish  reUgion",  prohibited  Mass 
under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  two  himdred  marks  and  im- 
prisonment for  one  year  for  the  celebrant,  and  a  fine  of 
one  hundred  marks  and  the  same  imprisonment  for 
those  who  heard  the  Mass.  This  act  also  increased 
the  penalty  for  not  attending  the  Anglican  service  to 
tlie  sum  of  twenty  pounds  a  month,  or  imprisonment 
till  the  fine  be  paid,  or  till  the  offender  went  to  the 
Protestant  Church.  A  further  penalty  of  ten  pounds  a 
month  was  inflicted  on  anyone  keeping  a  schoolmaster 
who  did  not  attend  the  Protestant  service.  The 
schoolmaster  himself  was  to  be  imprisoned  for  one 
year. 

The  climax  of  EUzabeth's  persecution  was  reached 
in  1585  by  the  "Act  against  Jesuits,  Seminary  priests 
and  other  such  like  disobedient  persons"  (27  EHz.  c. 
2).  This  statute,  under  which  most  of  the  English 
martyrs  suffered,  made  it  high  treason  for  any  Jesuit 
or  any  seminary  priest  to  be  in  England  at  all,  and 
felony  for  any  one  to  harbour  or  relieve  them.  The 
penalties  of  Pra-munire  were  imposed  on  all  who  sent 
assistance  to  the  seminaries  abroad,  andafineof  £100 
for  each  offence  on  those  who  sent  their  children  over- 
seas without  the  royal  licence. 

So  far  as  priests  were  concerned,  the  effect  of  all  this 
legislation  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  For  any 
priest  ordained  before  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  it 
was  high  treason  after  1563  to  maintain  the  authority 
of  the  pope  for  the  second  time,  or  to  refuse  the  oath  of 
supremacy  for  the  second  time;  after  1571,  to  receive 
or  u.se  any  Bull  or  form  of  reconciliation;  after  1.581,  to 
absolve  or  reconcile  anyone  to  the  Church  or  to  be  ab- 
solved or  reconciled.  For  seminary  priests  it  w-as  high 
treason  to  be  in  England  at  all  after  1585.  Under  this 
statute,  over  150  Cathofics  died  on  the  scaffold  be- 
tween 1581  and  1603,  exclusive  of  Elizabeth's  earlier 
victims. 

The  last  of  Elizabeth's  laws  was  the  "Act  for  the 
better  discovery  of  wicked  and  seditious  persons  term- 
ing themselves  Catholics,  but  being  rebellious  and 
traitorous  subjects"  (35  EHz.  c.  2).  Its  effect  was  to 
prohibit  all  recusants  from  removing  more  than  five 
miles  from  their  place  of  abode,  and  to  order  all  per- 
sons suspected  of  being  Jesuits  or  seminary  priests, 
and  not  answering  satisfactorily,  to  be  imprisoned  till 
they  did  so. 

The  hopes  of  the  Catholics  on  the  accession  of  James 
I  were  soon  dispelled,  and  during  his  reign  (1603-25) 
five  very  oppressive  measures  were  added  to  the 
statute-book.     In  the  first  year  of  his  reign  there  was 


PENAL 


613 


PENAL 


passed  the  "Act  for  the  due  execution  of  the  statutes 
against  Jesuits,  seminary  priests,  etc"  (I  Jac.  I,  iv), 
by  which  all  Elizabeth's  statutes  were  confirmed  with 
additional  aggravations.  Thus  persons  going  beyond 
seas  to  any  Jesuit  seminary  were  rendered  incapable  of 
purchasing  or  retaining  any  lands  or  goods  in  England ; 
the  penalty  of  £100  on  everyone  sending  a  child  or 
ward  out  of  the  realm,  which  had  been  enacted  only 
for  Ehzabeth's  reign,  was  now  made  perpetual;  and 
Catholic  schoolmasters  not  holding  a  licence  from 
the  Anglican  bishop  of  the  diocese  were  fined  forty 
shillings  a  day,  as  were  their  employers.  One  slight  re- 
lief was  obtained  in  the  exemption  of  one-third  of  the 
estate  of  a  convicted  recusant  from  liabilities  to  penal- 
ties; but  against  this  must  be  set  the  provision  that  re- 
tained the  remaining  two-thirds  after  the  owner's 
death  till  all  his  previous  fines  had  been  paid.  Even 
then  these  two-thirds  were  only  to  be  restored  to  the 
heir  provided  he  was  not  himself  a  recusant. 

The  carefully  arranged  "discovery"  of  the  Gun- 
powder Plot  in  1605  was  followed  by  two  statutes  of 
particularly  savage  character.  These  were  "An  Act 
for  the  better  discovering  and  repressing  of  Popish  Re- 
cusants" (3  Jac.  I,  iv)  and  "An  Act  to  prevent  and 
avoid  dangers  which  may  grow  by  Popish  Recusants" 
(3  Jac.  I,  v).  The  first  of  these  two  wicked  laws  en- 
acted that  all  convicted  recusants  should  communi- 
cate once  a  year  in  the  Anglican  church  under  penal- 
ties of  £20  for  the  first  omission,  £40  for  the  second, 
and  £60  for  the  third.  Moreover  the  king  was  to  be 
allowed  to  refuse  the  penalty  of  £20  per  month  for 
non-attendance  at  the  Anglican  church,  and  to  take  in 
its  place  all  the  personal  property  and  two-thirds  of 
the  real  property  of  the  oiTencler.  But  the  main  point 
of  this  Act  was  the  new  Oath  of  Allegiance  which  it 
prescribed,  and  which  was  subsequently  condemned 
by  the  Holy  See.  Yet  all  who  refused  it  were  to  be  sub- 
jected to  the  penalties  of  Pra?munire,  except  married 
women,  who  were  to  be  imprisoned  in  the  common 
jail.  Finally,  every  householder  of  whatever  religion 
was  liable  to  a  fine  of  £10  a  month  for  each  guest  or 
servant  who  failed  to  attend  the  Anglican  church. 

The  second  Act  was  even  worse,  and  the  Catholic 
historian  Tierney  justly  says  of  it  that  it  "exceeded  in 
cruelty  all  that  had  hitherto  been  devised  for  the  op- 
pression of  the  devoted  Catholics".  It  prohibited 
recusants  from  remaining  within  ten  miles  of  the  city 
of  London,  a  provision  which  it  was  impossible  to 
carry  out;  or  to  remove  more  than  five  miles  from  their 
usual  place  of  residence  till  they  had  obtained  licence 
from  four  magistrates  and  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  or 
lii'Utenant  of  the  county.  They  were  disabled  from 
jirai-tising  as  lawyers,  physicians,  apothecaries;  from 
holding  office  in  any  court  or  corporation;  from  hold- 
ing commissions  in  the  army  or  navy,  or  any  office  of 
emolument  under  the  State;  from  discharging  the  du- 
ties of  executors,  administrators,  or  guardians.  Any 
married  woman  who  had  not  received  the  sacrament 
in  the  Anglican  church  for  a  year  before  her  hu.sband's 
death  forfeited  two-thirds  of  her  dower,  two-thirds  of 
her  jointure,  and  was  debarred  from  acting  as  execu- 
trix to  her  husband  or  claiming  any  part  of  his  goods. 
Husbands  and  wives,  if  married  otherwise  than  by  a 
Protestant  minister  in  a  Protestant  church,  were  each 
deprived  of  all  interest  in  the  lands  or  property  of  the 
other.  They  were  fined  £100  for  omitting  to  have 
each  of  their  childern  baptized  by  the  Protestant  min- 
ister within  a  month  of  birth.  All  Catholics  going  or 
being  sent  beyond  the  seas  without  a  special  licence 
from  king  or  Privy  Council  were  incapable  of  benefit- 
ting by  gift,  descent,  or  devise,  till  they  returned  and 
took  the  oath  of  allegiance;  and  in  the  meantime  the 
property  was  to  be  held  by  the  nearest  Protestant 
heir.  And,  lastly,  every  convicted  recusant  was  ex- 
communicated from  the  Established  Church,  with  the" 
result  that  they  were  debarred  from  maintaining  or 
defending  any  personal  action  or  suit  in  the  civil 


courts.  Their  houses  were  liable  to  be  searched  at  any 
time,  their  arms  and  ammunition  to  be  seized,  and  any 
books  or  furniture  which  were  deemed  superstitious  to 
be  destroyed. 

The  two  remaining  statutes  of  James  I  were  "An 
Act  to  cause  persons  to  be  naturalized  or  restored  in 
blood  to  conform  and  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  and 
supremacy"  (7  Jac.  I,  ii)  and  "An  Act  for  the  ref- 
ormation of  married  recusant  women,  and  admin- 
istration of  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  all  civil,  military, 
ecclesia.stical  and  professional  persons"  (7  Jac.  I,  vi). 
The  chief  effect  of  this  latter  act  was  to  cause  the  oath 
to  be  offered  to  all  persons  over  eighteen,  and  to  em- 
power the  committal  to  prison  of  any  recusant  married 
woman,  unless  her  husband  paid  £10  a  month  for  her 
liberty. 

During  the  reign  of  Charles  I  the  only  penal  statute 
was  a  short  "Act  to  restrain  the  passing  or  sending  of 
any  to  be  Popishly  bred  beyond  the  Seas"  (3  Car.  I, 
iii),  which  re-enacted  the  provisions  in  3  Jac.  I,  c.  5, 
adding  that  offenders  should  be  disabled  from  prose- 
cuting any  civil  actions  in  law  or  equity;  from  acting 
as  guardian,  executor,  or  administrator;  receiving  any 
legacy  or  deed  of  gift,  or  bearing  any  office  within  the 
realm.  Moreover,  such  offender  was  to  forfeit  all  his 
lands  and  personal  property. 

After  the  Restoration  in  1660  an  attempt  was  made 
by  Charles  II,  not  unmindful  of  the  sacrifices  Catho- 
lics had  made  in  the  Stuart  cause,  to  obtain  a  repeal 
of  the  Penal  Laws,  and  a  committee  of  the  House  of 
Lords  was  appointed  to  examine  and  report  on  the 
question.  The  matter,  however,  was  allowed  to  drop; 
and  in  the  following  year  both  Houses  of  Parliament 
joined  in  petitioning  the  king  to  issue  a  proclamation 
against  the  Catholics.  Further  efforts  on  the  part 
of  the  king  came  to  nothing,  and  matters  remained  on 
the  same  footing  till  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  when 
new  statutes  of  a  harassing  nature  were  passed.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Corporation  Act  (13  Car.  II,  St. 
2,  c.  1),  which  was  not  aimed  against  Catholics  di- 
rectly, but  which  provided  that  no  person  could  hold 
any  municipal  office  without  taking  the  Oaths  of 
Allegiance  and  Supremacy  and  receiving  the  sacrament 
in  the  Protestant  church,  no  new  measures  were  intro- 
duced till  1673,  when  Parliament  passed  the  Test  Act 
(25  Car.  II,  ii).  This  required  all  officers,  civil  and 
military,  to  take  the  same  oaths  and  to  make  the  Dec- 
laration against  Transubstantiation.  Five  years  later 
another  Act  was  passed  (30  Car.  II,  St.  2),  which  ex- 
cluded all  Catholics  from  sitting  or  voting  in  Parlia- 
ment, by  requiring  every  member  of  either  House  to 
take  the  two  oaths  and  to  make  the  blasphemous  Dec- 
laration against  Popery.  From  this  statute,  which  was 
entitled  "An  Act  for  the  more  effectual  preserving  the 
King's  person  and  government,  by  disabling  Papists 
from  sitting  in  either  House  of  Parliament",  a  special 
exception  was  made  in  favour  of  the  Duke  of  York, 
afterwards  James  II. 

With  the  Revolution  of  1688  began  a  new  era  of 
persecution.  The  "Act  for  further  preventing  the 
growth  of  Popery"  (11  &  12  Gul.  Ill,  4),  passed  in 
1699,  introduced  a  fresh  hardship  into  the  lives  of  the 
clergy  by  offering  a  reward  of  £100  for  the  apprehen- 
sion of  any  priest,  with  the  result  that  Catholics 
were  placed  at  the  mercy  of  common  informers  who 
harassed  them  for  the  sake  of  gain,  even  when  the 
Government  would  have  left  them  in  peace.  It  was 
further  enacted  that  any  bishop  or  priest  exercising 
episcopal  or  sacerdotal  functions,  or  any  Catholic 
keeping  a  school,  should  be  imprisoned  for  life;  that 
any  Catholic  over  eighteen  not  taking  the  Oaths  of 
Supremacy  and  Allegiance,  or  making  the  Declaration 
against  Popery,  should  be  incapable  of  inheriting  or 
purchasing  any  lands;  and  any  lands  devised  to  a 
Catholic  who  refused  to  take  the  oaths  should  pass  to 
the  next  of  kin  who  happened  to  be  a  Protestant.  A 
reward  of  £100  was  also  offered  for  the  conviction  of 


PENAL 


614 


PENAL 


any  Catholic  sending  cliiklrcn  to  be  educated  abroad. 
The  cruel  operation  of  this  Act,  which  made  itself 
felt  throughout  the  ensuing  century,  w;is  extended  by 
a  measiu-e  passed  under  Queen  Anne  (12  Anne,  St. 
2,  c.  14),  though  Catholics  were  not  generally  molested 
during  her  reign. 

The  last  penal  statutes  to  be  enacted  were  those  of 
George  I.  By  I  Geo.,  I,  St.  2,  c.  13,  the  Hanoverian 
Succession  Oaths  were  to  be  taken  by  all  Catholics  to 
whom  they  were  tendered,  under  penalty  of  all  the 
forfeitures" to  which  "popish  recusant  convicts"  were 
liable.  The  Stuart  rising  of  1715  wiis  followed  by  an- 
other Act  (I  Geo.,  I,  St.  2,  c.  50)  appointing  commis- 
sioners to  inquire  into  the  estates  of  popish  recusants 
with  a  view  to  confiscating  two-thirds  of  each  estate. 
The  scope  of  ".\n  .A.ct  to  oblige  Papists  to  register 
their  names  and  real  estates"  (I  Geo.,  I,  St.  2,  c.  55)  is 
sufficiently  indicated  by  its  title.  It  added  to  the  ex- 
pense of  all  transactions  in  land,  the  more  galling  as 
Catholics  were  doubly  taxed  under  the  animal  land-tax 
acts.  (Seealso-tGeo.,111,  c.  60.)  In  1722  was  passed 
"An  Act  for  granting  an  aid  to  his  Majesty  by  levying 
a  Tax  upon  Papists"  (9  Geo.,  I,  IS),  by  which  the 
sum  of  one  hundred  thousand  pounds  was  wrung  from 
the  impoverished  Catholics.  Throughout  the  reign  of 
George  II  (1727-60)  there  were  no  further  additions  to 
the  penal  code  and  under  his  successor,  George  III 
(1760-1820),  the  work  of  repeal  was  begun. 

Even  this  lengthy  enumeration  is  not  absolutely 
exhaustive,  and  the  Acts  here  cited  contain  many 
minor  enactments  of  a  vexatious  nature.  The  task  of 
repeal  was  a  long,  slow,  gradual,  and  complicated  one, 
the  chief  measures  of  relief  being  three:  The  First 
Catholic  Relief  Act  of  1778,  which  enabled  Catholics 
to  inherit  and  purchase  land  and  repealed  the  Act  of 
William  III,  rewarding  the  conviction  of  priests  (see 
Burton,  "Life  and  Times  of  Bishop  Challoner",  ch. 
x.xxi);  the  second  Catholic  Relief  Act  of  1791,  which 
relieved  all  Catholics  who  took  the  oath  therein  pre- 
scribed from  the  operation  of  the  Penal  Code  (see 
Ward,  "Dawn  of  the  Cathohc  Revival",  viii,  xiv-xvi); 
and  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act  of  1829.  The 
only  disqualifications  against  Cathohcs  which  appear 
to  be  still  in  force  are  those  which  prohibit  the  sov- 
ereign from  being  or  marrying  a  Cathohc,  or  any  Cath- 
olic subject  from  holding  the  offices  of  Lord  Chan- 
cellor, or  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 

The  Statutes  at  Large  (various  editions,  that  here  cited  being 
London,  1758);  Chronological  Table  and  Index  of  the  Statutes 
(London,  1881);  Butler,  Historical  Account  of  the  Laws  against 
Roman  Catholics  and  of  the  Laws  passed  for  their  relief  (n.  p.,  1794) ; 
Idem,  Historical  Memoirs  respecting  the  English,  Irish,  and  Scottish 
Catholics  (London,  1S19);  Anstey,  .4  Guide  to  the  Laws  of  Eng- 
land affecting  Roman  Catholics  (London.  1842) ;  Madden,  The 
History  of  the  Penal  Laws  enacted  against  Roman  Catholics  (Lon- 
don, 1847);  McMuLLAN  AND  Ellis,  The  Reformation  Settlement, 
an  Epitome  of  the  Statute  and  Canon  Law  thereon  (London,  1903). 

For  the  practical  working  of  the  Penal  Laws  and  the  hardships 
they  inflicted  on  Cathohcs  reference  must  be  made  to  English 
Catholic  literature  passim.  The  following  are  some  of  the  richest 
sources  of  information:  Bridgewater,  Concertatio  Ecclesice  Ca- 
tholicae  in  Anglia  (Trier.  loSS);  DoDD,  Church  History  (Brussels, 
vere  Wolverhampton.  1737-42),  and  much  additional  information 
in  Tierney's  edition  (London,  1839H13) ;  Challoner,  Memoirs 
of  Missionary  Priests  (London,  1740-41);  Berington,  State  and 
Behaviour  of  English  Catholics  from  the  Reformation  to  the  Year 
1781  (London.  1781);  Morris,  Troubles  of  Our  Catholic  Fore- 
fathers (London,  1872-77);  Idem.  The  Life  of  Father  John  Gerard 
(London.  1881);  Foley.  Records  of  the  English  Province,  S.  J. 
(London,  1877-1883);  Amherst.  History  of  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion (London.  1886);  Pollen,  Acts  of  English  Martyrs  (London. 
1891) ;  Morris.  Catholic  EnglanA  in  Modern  Times  (London. 
1892) ;  .\non.  The  Position  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  England  and 
Wales  during  the  last  two  Centuries  (London,  1892) ;  TBADDEtra. 
The  Franciscans  in  England  (Leamington.  1898) ;  Payne.  Records 
of  the  English  Catholics  of  I7tr,  (London.  1900);  Camm,  Lines  of 
the  English  Martyrs  (I^ndon.  1904-0.5);  Kirk.  Biographies  of 
English  Catholics  (London.  1909).  Much  valuable  incidental 
information  on  the  Penal  Code  is  also  to  be  found  in  Gillow. 
Bibl.  Did.  of  Eng.  Calh.  Publications  of  the  Catholic  Record  So- 
ciety (London.  190.') — )  include  prison  lists,  lists  of  recusants  etc. 

Edwin  Burton. 

II.  In  Scotland. — The  first  penal  statutes  were  en- 
acted by  the  Scottish  Parliament  of  1560,  which,  on  14 


August,  passed  three  statutes;  the  first  abolishing  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  pope,  the  second  repealing  all  for- 
mer statutes  in  favour  of  the  Catholic  Church,  the 
third  providing  that  all  who  said  or  heard  Mass  should 
be  punished  for  the  first  offence  by  the  confiscation  of 
their  goods  and  by  corporal  penalties,  for  the  second  by 
banishment  from  Scotland,  for  the  third  by  death.  A 
temporary  relaxation  of  these  laws  was  due  to  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  and  a  statute  was  even  passed  in  1567 
giving  liberty  to  every  Scotsman  to  live  according  to 
his  own  religion;  but  shortly  after  the  (Jueen's  mar- 
riage with  Bothwell  a  proclamation  was  extorted  from 
heron  23  May,  1567,  by  which  severe  penalties  were  re- 
newed against  all  who  refu.sed  to  conform  to  Protes- 
tantism. After  Mary's  deposition  the  Parliament  of 
156S  passed  further  acts  ratifying  the  establishment  of 
Protestantism,  and  prohibiting  the  exercise  of  any 
other  ecclesiastic;d  jurisdiction.  Lennox's  Parliament 
(1571)  decreed  the  ajiprehension  of  all  persons  pos- 
sessing pajjal  Bulls  or  dispensations  or  gifts  and  pro- 
visions of  benefices. 

The  persecution  carried  on  under  these  statutes  by 
the  Privy  Council  and  by  the  General  Assembly  was 
very  severe.  The  Privy  Council  issued  several  procla- 
mations during  the  next  half-century  enforcing  the 
penal  statutes,  forbidding  the  harbouring  of  Catholic 
priests,  ordering  parents  to  withdraw  their  children 
from  Catholic  colleges  abroad,  and  rendering  hu.s- 
bands  liable  for  the  acts  of  their  wives  done  in  support 
of  the  Catholic  cause.  A  commission  issued  in  July, 
1629,  ordered  that,  should  persecuted  Catholics  take 
refuge  in  fortified  places,  the  commissioners  should 
"follow,  hunt  and  pursue  them  with  fire  and  sword". 
Though  in  Scotland  there  were  fewer  martyrdoms 
than  in  England  or  Ireland,  yet  the  persecution  fell 
even  more  heavily  on  the  rank  and  file  of  Catholics, 
and  in  some  respects  they  suffered  outrages  not  paral- 
leled in  England,  such  as  the  simultaneous  expulsion 
of  all  Catholics  from  their  homes  which  was  ordered 
and  carried  out  in  1629-30.  But  there  were  times  of 
comparative  tranquillity  when  the  rigour  of  the  law 
was  not  enforced. 

At  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  fresh  stat- 
utes were  passed.  In  May,  1700,  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment offered  a  reward  of  five  hundred  merks  for  the 
conviction  of  any  priest  or  Jesuit;  the  same  statute 
disabled  Catholics  from  inheriting  property  or  edu- 
cating their  children.  After  the  Act  of  Union,  in  1707, 
the  Penal  Laws  were  still  enforced.  In  addition  to 
the  provisions  already  recorded  and  other  sufferings 
which  they  shared  with  English  Catholics,  there  were 
galling  restrictions  peculiar  to  Scotland.  The  pur- 
chase or  dissemination  of  Catholic  books  was  forbid- 
den under  pain  of  banishment  and  forfeiture  of 
personal  property.  They  could  not  be  governors, 
school-masters,  guardians  or  factors,  and  any  one  who 
employed  them  as  such  was  fined  a  thousand  merks. 
They  were  fined  five  hundred  merks  for  teaching  "any 
art,  science  or  exercise  of  any  sort".  Any  Protestant 
who  became  a  Catholic  forfeited  his  whole  hereditable 
estate  to  the  nearest  Protestant  heir. 

The  first  repeal  of  the  Penal  Code  was  effected  by 
the  Act  for  the  relief  of  Scottish  Catholics,  which  re- 
ceived the  royal  assent  in  May,  1793,  and  practically 
complete  liberty  was  granted  to  them  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Act  of  1829. 

Stothert.  ed.  Gordon.  Catholic  Church  in  Scotland,  published 
anonvmouslv  ((lluspow,  lSfi9i;  Bki.i.ksiikim.  tr.  IIi-nter-Blair. 
History  of  tl'i.  (,,'/,,/„•  (  ;,,:,'  ,.,  .  ■;.:  /  I  ,  I, ,,',;,:  ,.h,  18S7-90); 
Stewart.  7'/,,  •  -  ^    i  '.  ,.  1892).  304 

sqq.;    FoRiti   •  !  i    :   :.     V   -  '         '  during  the 

Seventeenth  o'l'i  I  '  :>  r  ,  ■  'K  t       '.,  ■  (-       I  .  in.i.  ii:,  ]  'inwi. 

EnwiN  Bl'rton. 

III.  In  Ireland. — Although  the  penal  laws  of 
Ireland  were  passed  by  a  Protestant  Parliament 
and  aimed  at  depriving  Catholics  of  their  faith,  sucli 
laws  were  not  the  outcome  of  religious  motives  only. 


PENAL 


615 


PENAL 


They  often  came  from  a  desire  to  possess  the  lands  of 
the  Irish,  from  impatience  at  their  long  resistance, 
from  the  contempt  of  a  ruling  for  a  subject  race. 
(See  Ireland,  The  Anglo-Normans.)  When  Henry 
VIII  broke  with  Rome  sectarian  rancour  came 
to  embitter  racial  differences.  The  English  Parlia- 
ment passed  the  Act  of  Supremacy,  making  Henry 
head  of  the  Church;  but  the  Irish  Parliament  was  less 
compliant,  and  did  not  pass  the  bill  till  the  legislative 
powers  of  the  representatives  of  the  clergy  had  been 
taken  away.  And  though  the  Act  of  Supremacy 
(1536)  was  accepted  by  so  many  Irish  chiefs,  they 
were  not  followed  by  the  clergy  or  people  in  their 
apostasy.  The  suppression  of  monasteries  followed, 
entailing  the  loss  of  so  much  property  and  even  of 
many  lives.  Yet  little  progress  was  made  with  the 
new  doctrines  either  in  Henry's  reign  or  in  that  of  liis 
successor,  and  Mary's  restoration  of  the  Faith  led  the 
Protestant  Elizabeth  to  again  resort  to  penal  laws. 
In  1559  the  Irish  Parhament  passed  both  the  Act 
of  Supremacy  and  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  the  former 
prescribing  to  all  officers  the  Oath  of  Supremacy,  the 
latter  prohibiting  the  Mass  and  commanding  the  pubUc 
use  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Whoever  re- 
fused the  Oath  of  Supremacy  was  dismissed  from 
office,  and  whoever  refused  to  attend  the  Protestant 
service  was  fined  12  pence  for  each  offence.  A  subse- 
quent viceregal  proclamation  ordered  all  priests  to 
leave  Dublin  and  prohibited  the  use  of  images,  can- 
dles, and  beads.  For  some  time  these  Acts  and  procla- 
mations were  not  rigorously  enforced;  but  after  1570, 
when  Elizabeth  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope, 
toleration  ceased;  and  the  hunting  down  of  the  Earl 
of  Desmond,  the  desolation  of  Munster,  the  torturing 
of  O'Hurley  and  others,  showed  how  merciless  the 
queen  and  her  ministers  could  be.  Elizabeth  disliked 
Parliaments  and  had  but  two  in  her  reign  in  Ireland. 
She  governed  by  proclamation,  as  did  her  successor 
James,  and  it  was  under  a  proclamation  (1611)  that 
the  blood  of  O'Devany,  Bishop  of  Down,  was  shed. 
In  the  next  reign  there  were  periods  of  toleration 
followed  by  the  false  promises  of  Strafford  and  the 
attempted  spoliation  of  Connauglit,  until  at  last  the 
Catholics  took  up  arms. 

Cromwell  disliked  Parliaments  as  much  as  Eliza- 
beth or  James,  and  when  he  had  extinguished  the 
Rebellion  of  1641,  he  abolished  the  Irish  Parliament, 
giving  Ireland  a  small  representation  at  Westminster. 
It  was  by  Acts  of  this  Westminster  Parliament  that 
the  Cromwellian  settlement  was  carried  out,  and  that 
so  many  Catholics  were  outlawed.  As  for  ecclesias- 
tics, no  mercy  was  shown  them  under  Cromwellian 
rule.  They  were  ordered  to  leave  Ireland,  and  put  to 
death  if  they  refused,  or  deported  to  the  Arran  Isles 
or  to  Barbadoes,  and  those  who  sheltered  them  at 
home  were  liable  to  the  penalty  of  death.  To  such 
an  extent  was  the  persecution  carried  that  the  Cath- 
olic churches  were  soon  in  ruins,  a  thousand  priests 
were  driven  into  exile,  and  not  a  single  bishop  re- 
mained in  Ireland  but  the  old  and  helpless  Bishop 
of  Kilmore.  With  the  accession  of  Charles  II  the 
Irish  Catholics  looked  for  a  restoration  of  lands  and 
■  liberties;  but  the  hopes  raised  by  the  Act  of  Settlement 
(1663)  were  finally  dissipated  by  the  Act  of  Explana- 
tion (1665),  and  the  Catholics,  plundered  by  the  Crom- 
wellians,  were  denied  even  the  justice  of  a  trial.  The 
English  Parliament  at  the  same  time  prohibited  the 
importation  into  England  of  Irish  cattle,  sheep,  or 
pigs.  The  king  favoured  toleration  of  Catholicity, 
but  was  overruled  by  the  bigotry  of  the  Parliament  in 
England  and  of  the  viceroy,  Ormond,  in  Ireland;  and 
if  the  reign  of  Charles  saw  some  toleration,  it  also  saw 
the  judicial  murder  of  Venerable  Oliver  Plunkett  and  a 
proclamation  by  Ormond,  in  1678,  ordering  that  all 
priests  should  leave  the  country,  and  that  all  Catholic 
churches  and  convents  should  be  closed. 

The  triumph  of  the  Catholics  under  James  II  was 


short-lived.  But  even  when  William  of  Orange  had 
triumplied,  toleration  of  Catholicity  was  expected. 
P^or  the  Treaty  of  Limerick  (1691)  gave  the  Catholics 
"such  privileges  as  they  enjoyed  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II " ;  and  William  was  to  obtain  from  the  Irish 
Parliament  a  further  relaxation  of  the  penal  laws  in 
existence.  The  treaty  was  soon  broken.  The  Eng- 
lish Parliament,  presuming  to  legislate  for  Ireland, 
enacted  that  no  one  should  sit  in  the  Irish  Parliament 
without  taking  the  Oath  of  Supremacy  and  subscribing 
to  a  declaration  against  Transubstantiation;  and  the 
Irish  Parliament,  filled  with  slaves  and  bigots,  ac- 
cepted this  legislation.  Cathohcs  were  thus  excluded; 
and  in  spite  of  the  declared  wishes  of  King  William, 
the  Irish  Parliament  not  only  refused  to  relax  the 
Penal  Laws  in  existence  but  embarked  on  fresh  penal 
legislation.  Session  after  session,  for  nearly  fifty 
years,  new  and  more  galling  fetters  were  forged,  until 
at  last  the  Penal  Code  was  complete,  and  well  merited 
the  description  of  Burke:  "as  well  fitted  for  the  op- 
pression, impoverishment  and  degradation  of  a  feeble 
people  and  the  debasement  in  them  of  human  nature 
itself  as  ever  proceeded  from  the  perverted  ingenu- 
ity of  man".  All  bishops,  deans,  vicars-general,  and 
friars  were  to  leave  the  country  and  if  they  returned, 
to  be  put  to  death.  Secular  priests  at  home  could 
remain  if  they  were  registered;  in  1709,  however,  they 
were  required  to  take  an  oath  of  abjuration  which  no 
priest  could  conscientiously  take,  so  that  registration 
ceased  to  be  a  protection.  They  could  not  set  up 
schools  at  home  nor  resort  to  Catholic  schools  abroad, 
nor  could  they  receive  legacies  for  Catholic  charities, 
nor  have  on  their  churches  steeple,  cross,  or  bell. 

The  laity  were  no  better  off  than  the  clergy  in  the 
matter  of  civil  rights.  They  could  not  set  up  Catho- 
lic schools,  nor  teach  in  such,  nor  go  abroad  to 
Catholic  schools.  They  were  excluded  from  Parlia- 
meiit,  from  the  corporations,  from  the  army  and  navy, 
from  the  legal  profession,  and  from  all  civil  offices. 
They  could  not  act  as  sheriffs,  or  under  sheriffs,  or  as 
jurors,  or  even  as  constables.  They  could  not  have 
more  than  two  Catholic  apprentices  in  their  trade; 
they  could  not  carry  arms,  nor  own  a  horse  worth 
more  than  £5 ;  they  were  excluded  even  from  residence 
in  the  larger  corporate  towns.  To  bury  their  dead 
in  an  old  ruined  abbey  or  monastery  involved  a  pen- 
alty of  ten  pounds.  A  Catholic  workman  refusing 
to  work  on  Catholic  holy  days  was  to  be  whipped ;  and 
there  was  the  same  punishment  for  those  who  made 
pilgrimages  to  holy  wells.  No  Catholic  could  act  as 
guardian  to  an  infant,  nor  as  director  of  the  Bank  of 
Ireland;  nor  could  he  marry  a  Protestant,  and  the 
priest  who  performed  such  a  marriage  ceremony  was 
to  be  put  to  death.  A  Catholic  could  not  acquire  land, 
nor  buy  it,  nor  hold  a  mortgage  on  it;  and  the  Catholic 
landlord  was  bound  at  death  to  leave  his  estate  to  his 
children  in  equal  shares.  During  life,  if  the  wife 
or  son  of  such  became  a  Protestant,  she  or  he  at  once 
obtained  separate  maintenance.  'The  law  presumed 
every  Catholic  to  be  faithless,  disloyal,  and  untruthful, 
assumed  him  to  exist  only  to  be  punished,  and  the 
ingenuity  of  the  Legislature  was  exhausted  in  discover- 
ing new  methods  of  repression.  Viceroys  were  con- 
stantly appealed  to  to  give  no  countenance  to  Popery; 
magistrates,  to  execute  the  penal  laws;  degraded 
Irishmen  called  priest-hunters  were  rewarded  for 
spying  upon  their  priests,  and  degraded  priests  who 
apostatized  were  rewarded  with  a  government  pension. 
The  wife  was  thus  encouraged  to  disobey  her  husband, 
the  child  to  flout  his  parents,  the  friend  to  turn  traitor 
to  his  friend.  These  Protestant  legislators  in  posses- 
sion of  Catholic  lands  wished  to  make  all  Catholics 
helpless  and  poor.  Without  bishops  they  must  soon 
be  without  priests,  and  without  schools  they  must 
necessarily  go  to  the  Protestant  schools.  These  hopes 
however  proved  vain.  Students  went  to  foreign 
colleges,  and  bishops  came  from  abroad,  facing  im- 


PENAL 


616 


PENAL 


prisonnient  and  death.  The  schoohnastor  taught 
under  a  sheltering  liedge,  anil  the  priest  said  Mass  by 
stealth,  watched  over  Dv  the  people,  and  in  spite  of 
priest-hunter  and  penal  laws.  Nor  were  the  Catholics 
won  over  by  such  Protestant  ministers  as  they  saw, 
men  without  zeal  and  often  without  faith,  not  unlike 
those  described  by  Spenser  in  EHzabeth's  day — "of 
fleshy  incontineney,  greedy  avarice  and  disordered 
lives".  In  other  respects  the  Penal  Laws  succeeded. 
They  made  the  Catholics  helpless,  ignorant,  and  poor, 
without  the  strength  to  rebel,  the  hope  of  redress, 
or  even  the  courage  to  complain. 

At  last  the  tide  turned.  Too  poor  to  excite  the 
cupidity  of  their  oiJjjressors,  too  feeble  to  rebel,  the 
Catholics  had  nevertheless  shown  that  they  would 
not  become  Protestants;  and  the  repression  of  a  feeble 
people,  merely  for  the  sake  of  repression,  had  tar- 
nished the  name  of  England,  and  alienated  her  friends 
among  the  Catholic  nations.  In  these  circumstances 
the  Irish  Parliament  began  to  retrace  its  steps,  and 
concessions  were  made,  slowly  and  grudgingly.  At 
first  the  Penal  Laws  ceased  to  be  rigorously  enforced, 
and  then,  in  1771,  Catholics  were  allowed  to  take 
leases  of  unreclaimed  bog  for  sixty-one  years.  Three 
years  later  they  were  allowed  to  substitute  an  Oath 
of  Allegiance  for  the  Oath  of  Supremacy;  and  in  1778 
Gardiner's  .-Vet  allowed  them  to  take  leases  of  land  for 
999  years,  and  also  allowed  Catholic  landlords  to 
leave  their  estates  to  one  son,  instead  of  having,  as 
hitherto,  to  divide  between  all.  In  1782  a  further 
Act  enabled  Catholics  to  set  up  schools,  with  the  leave 
of  the  Protestant  bishop  of  the  place,  enabling  them 
also  to  own  horses  in  the  same  way  as  Protestants, 
and  further  permitting  bishops  and  priests  to  reside 
in  Ireland.  Catholics  were  also  allowed  to  act  as 
guardians  to  children.  Grattan  favoured  complete 
equality  between  Catholics  and  Protestants,  but  the 
bigots  in  Parliament  were  too  strong,  and  among  them 
were  the  so-called  patriot  leaders,  Charlemont  and 
Flood.  Not  till  1792  was  there  a  further  Act  allowing 
Catholics  to  marry  Protestants,  to  practise  at  the  bar, 
and  to  set  up  Catholic  schools  without  obtaining  a 
licence  from  the  Protestant  bishop.  These  conces- 
sions were  scorned  by  the  Catholic  Committee,  long 
charged  with  the  care  of  Catholic  interests,  and  which 
had  lately  passed  from  the  feeble  leadership  of  Lord 
Kenmare  to  the  more  capable  leadership  of  John 
Keogh.  The  new  French  Republic  had  also  become 
a  menace  to  England,  and  English  ministers  dreaded 
having  Ireland  discontented.  For  these  reasons  the 
Catholic  Rehef  Bill  of  1793  became  lavy.  This  gave 
Catholics  the  parliamentary  and  municipal  franchise, 
enabled  them  to  become  jurors,  magistrates,  sheriffs, 
and  officers  in  the  army  and  navy.  They  might  carry 
arms  under  certain  conditions,  and  they  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  degrees  of  Trinity  College,  though  not  to 
its  emoluments  or  higher  honours.  Two  years  later 
the  advent  of  Lord  Fitzwilliam  as  viceroy  was  re- 
garded as  the  herald  of  complete  religious  equality. 
But  Pitt  suddenly  changed  his  mind,  and,  having 
resolved  on  a  legislative  union,  it  suited  his  purpose 
better  to  stop  further  concession.  Then  came  the 
recall  of  Fitzwilliam,  the  rapid  rise  of  the  United 
Irish  Society  with  revolutionary  objects,  the  rebellion 
of  1798,  and  the  Union  of  1800. 

From  the  Imperial  Parliament  the  Catholics  ex- 
pected immediate  emancipation,  remembering  the 
promises  of  British  and  Irish  ministers,  but  Pitt 
shamefully  broke  his  word,  and  emancipation  was  de- 
layed till  1829.  Nor  would  it  have  come  even  then 
but  for  the  matchless  leadership  of  O'Connell,  and 
because  the  only  alternative  to  concession  was  civil 
war.  Themannerof  concession  was  grudging.  Catho- 
lics were  admitted  to  Parliament,  but  the  forty-shilling 
free-holders  were  disfranchised,  Jesuits  banished, 
other  religious  orders  made  incapable  of  receiving 
charitable   bequests,   bishops   penalized    for   assum- 


ing ecclesiastical  titles,  and  priests  for  appearing  out- 
side their  churches  in  their  vestments.  Catholics 
were  debarred  from  being  either  viceroy  or  lord 
chancellor  of  Ireland.  The  law  regarding  Jesuits  has 
not  been  enforced,  but  the  viceroy  must  still  be  a 
Protestant.  Nor  w-as  it  till  the  last  half-century  that 
a  Catholic  could  be  lord  chancellor,  Lord  O'llagan, 
who  died  in  1880,  being  the  first  CathoHc  to  fill  that 
office  since  the  Revolution  of  1688. 

O'DoNOVAN  (ed.).  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters  (Dublin,  1S60); 
D'.\lton.  History  of  Ireland  (London,  1910);  Gilbert,  Viecroya 
of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1S65);  Hardiman,  Statute  of  Kilkenny  (Dub- 
lin. 1843);  Scully,  Penal  Laws  (Dublin,  1812);  Leckv,  History 
of  Ireland  (London,  1897) ;  Calendars  of  State  Papers,  1509-1660; 
Journals  of  the  Irish  House  of  Commons:  Irish  Parliamentary  De^ 
bates,  17S1-97:  MoRAN,  Persecutions  of  the  Irish  Catholics  (Lon- 
don, 1900). — See  also  the  authorities  quoted  in  Act  of  Set- 
tlement; Ireland;  O'Connell,  Daniel;  Plunkett,  Oliver, 
Venerable;  O'Neill,  Hugh. 

E.  A.  D'Alton. 

Penal  Laws  in  the  English  Colonies  in  Amer- 
ica.— Anglican  Establishments. — The  first  Virginia 
Charter  in  KiOG  established  the  Anglican  Church. 
The  second,  in  1609,  repeated  the  terms  of  the  es- 
tablishment and  prescribed  the  Oath  of  Supremacy. 
In  support  of  the  Establishment,  the  draconian  laws 
of  Governor  Dale  in  1611  were  directed  mainly  against 
the  moral  laxity  of  the  colonists  and  were  soon  ab- 
rogated. When  lawmaking  passed  to  the  Colonial 
Assembly  the  Establishment  was  maintained,  but 
penalizing  laws  were  still  directed  towards  the  moral 
uplift  of  the  church.  Intolerance  of  dissent  was  latent 
and  implicit.  Lord  Baltimore,  refusing  as  a  Catholic 
to  acknowledge  the  ecclesiastical  supremacy  of  the 
king,  in  1628  was  denied  temporary  residence  in  the 
colony.  Following  this  incident  a  new  Act  of  Uni- 
formity passed  the  Assembly,  fining  absentees  from 
service.  Another,  in  1642,  specifically  disenfranchised 
Catholics  and  enforced  the  expulsion,  within  five  days, 
of  a  priest  coming  to  the  colony.  LTnder  Governor 
Berkeley  an  Act,  directed  mainly  against  the  Puritan 
influx,  made  mandatory  the  expulsion  of  Nonconform- 
ists; but  Puritanism  remained,  affecting  even  the 
Anglican  clergy,  and  gaining  a  first  step  toward  dis- 
establishment in  coercing  the  Assembly  of  1642  to 
pass  a  law  conferring  upon  vestries  the  right  of  choos- 
ing ministers.  Under  Cromwell  this  law  was  con- 
firmed. Toleration  was  further  established,  an  ex- 
ception being  made  against  Quakers  who,  in  1659, 
were  banished  and,  upon  return,  were  proceeded 
against  as  felons.  Indeed,  their  consciences  were  not 
relieved  from  taking  oaths  and  military  service  until 
the  next  century. 

The  Restoration  ended  this  qualified  liberty.  In 
1661  the  old  Law  of  1642  was  revived.  The  liturgy 
of  the  Anglican  Church  and  the  catechisms  of  the 
canons  were  prescribed;  only  ministers  ordained  by 
English  bishops  were  allowed  in  the  colony,  who  alone 
were  to  perform  marriage  services.  Children  bom 
of  marriages  otherwise  performed  were  declared  illegit- 
imate. Grudgingly  enough  Virginia  recognized  the 
Toleration  Act  of  1689,  and  from  that  time  to  the  Revo- 
lution dissenting  sects  gradually  merged  into  an  anti- 
British  political  party  arrayed  against  a  Tory  Estab- 
lishment, though  the  prejudice  against  Catholics  in  no 
wise  diminished,  persisting  almost  to  the  Revolution 
in  the  curious  Act  of  1755, "for  Disarming  Papists", 
during  the  French  and  Indian  Wars.  Other  colonies 
maintaining  the  Establishment  were  North  and  South 
Carolina.  Penalizing  laws  were  here  almost  exclu- 
sively directed  toward  enforcing  the  Establishment 
upon  a  growing  class  of  wealthy  landowners  whose 
religious  indifference  to  theTory  Church  soon  arrogated 
to  itself  political  rather  than  spiritual  independence. 
Intolerance  of  Catholics  was  legally  expressed. 

Puritan  Establishments. — Massachusetts's  charter 
made  no  mention  of  religion,  and  the  Puritans  were  free 
to  construct  their  absolute  theocracy.  Episcopacy  was 
repudiated  and  Congregationalism  established.     The 


PENAL 


617 


PEKAL 


franchise  was  limited  to  church  members.  Men 
malting  active  profession  of  an  alien  faith  were 
banished.  The  General  Court  made  provision  for  a 
general  church  tax  to  be  levied  and  collected  by  civil 
officers.  In  1631  came  the  famous  law  admitting 
only  church  members  to  civic  freedom.  In  1635  the 
magistrates  were  given  inquisitional  powers  over  the 
churches  themselves.  Congregationalism  became  law 
and  Church  and  State  were  identical.  Colonists 
were  compelled  to  Uve  within  easy  distance  of  meeting- 
houses. Heresy  was  punished  by  banishment.  Con- 
tempt toward  ministers  merited  magisterial  reproof, 
a  fine,  or  standing  placarded  on  a  block.  In  1656 
denial  of  the  Bible  meant  whipping  or  banishment, 
and  as  late  as  1697  a  law  against  "Blasphemy  and 
Atheism"  mentions  as  penalties  the  pillory,  whipping, 
and  boring  the  tongue  with  red-hot  irons.  Catholics 
of  course  were  not  suffered  to  live  in  the  colony,  and 
Jesuits,  if  banished,  were  to  be  put  to  death  on  return. 
The  latter  law  was  never  enforced,  though  latent 
intoler.ance  may  be  detected  in  such  an  ordinance  as 
that  of  1659  making  the  observance  of  Christmas  a 
punishable  offence.  The  persecution  of  Quakers  and 
the  inflicting  of  the  death  penalty  in  four  instances 
brought  about  a  rebellion  within  the  colony  which, 
with  the  endeavour  of  the  Crown  to  force  recognition 
of  the  Anglican  Church,  worked  the  initial  movement 
in  undermining  the  theocracy.  With  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  royal  governor  the  franchise  was  broadened, 
Episcopalianism  was  established,  and  it  was  decreed 
in  1691  that  "forever  hereafter  there  shall  be  liberty 
of  conscience  allowed  in  the  worship  of  God  to  all 
Christians  (except  Papists)". 

In  Connecticut ,  Congregationalism  under  its  famous 
instrument,  the  Saybrook  Platform,  became  the  State 
religion.  But  toleration  was  unstintingly  allowed  to 
every  other  licensed  religion.  Even  laws  against 
Quakers,  apparently  unenforced,  imposed  penalties 
not  upon  them  but  upon  the  communities  that  har- 
boured them;  while  the  universal  "except  Papists" 
phrase  is  significantly  lacking,  though  in  1743  a  law 
allowed  dissenters  "being  Protestants"  to  apply  for 
relief. 

The  short-lived  attempt  of  the  settlement  at  New 
Haven  to  found  a  theocratic  colony  based  upon  the 
Mosaic  Law  is  interesting  only  in  its  failure.  The 
famous  "Blue  Laws",  now  known  to  be  ironic  for- 
geries, were  not  much  more  severe  than  the  Mosaic 
penalties  enforced  by  the  New  Haven  Legislature, 
according  to  their  own  records.  The  colony  was  soon 
incorporated  with  that  of  Connecticut,  in  whose 
democratic  tolerance  it  was  speedily  absorbed. 

The  first  settlers  of  New  Hampshire  established  a 
broadly  tolerant  Congregationalism,  which  allowed 
civil  privileges  to  be  independent  of  religious  belief, 
but  the  Puritan  establishment  was  firmly  planted 
throughout  the  years  of  the  colony's  union  with 
Massachusetts.  To  the  influence  of  this  union,  per- 
haps, may  be  traced  the  single  example  of  persecution 
in  the  colony,  that  again.st  three  Quakers  in  1659.  In 
1()79  the  union  with  Massachusetts  was  dissolved,  and 
a  royal  governor  sought,  unsuccessfully,  to  enforce  the 
establishment  of  the  Anglican  Church.  The  assem- 
bly of  1680  fixed  the  Congregational  Establishment. 
The  franchise  was  limited  to  Protestants,  and  subse- 
quent laws,  notably  those  of  1692,  1702,  1714,  defined 
the  union  of  Church  and  State,  allowing  the  con- 
stable to  collect  the  church  tax — that  from  dissenters 
to  go  to  the  support  of  their  own  ministers.  Ilnder  the 
Toleration  Act  of  lfiS9  all  <'i1iz('iis  were  obliged  to 
make  a  declaration  against  the  pope  and  the  doctrines 
of  the  Catholic  Church. 

Changing  Establishments. — Under  the  Duke  of  York 
all  churches  were  established  with  governmental 
rights,  though  those  of  power  and  induction  were 
placed  in  the  governor's  hands.  Persecution  for 
conscience's  sake  seems  unrecorded.      Much  of  this 


tolerant  attitude  is  due  to  the  older  Dutch  foundation. 
It  was  renewed  in  the  "Charter  of  Liberties",  passed 
by  the  Assembly  in  1683.  When  the  Duke  of  York 
came  to  the  throne  a  faint  attempt  was  made  to 
establish  the  Anglican  Church.  Later  the  council 
suspended  "all  Roman  Catholics  from  Command  and 
Places  of  Trust",  and  the  franchise  was  soon  confined 
to  Protestants.  This  attitude  was  given  universal 
royal  warrant  under  the  Great  Toleration  Act,  and 
a  supposititious  Established  Church  existed  in  New 
York  to  the  American  Revolution,  suffering  the  same 
kind  of  political  opposition  that  the  Establishment 
endured  in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  The  Estab- 
lishment seized  church  property  and  banished  Mora- 
vians, under  the  belief  that  they  were  "disguised 
Papists",  though  its  powers  began  to  wane  before  its 
downfall  with  the  American  Revolution. 

The  Palatinate  of  Maryland  under  the  Baltimores 
furnishes,  with  the  Colony  of  Rhode  Island,  the  first 
example  in  history  of  a  complete  separation  of  Church 
and  State  with  religious  tolerance.  Religious  free- 
dom was  proclaimed  in  the  famous  "Act  for  Church 
Liberties",  passed  by  the  assembly  and  practically 
carried  out.  Under  this  Catholic  toleration  a  Catho- 
lic was  fined  for  ' '  interfering  by  opprobious  reproaches 
with  two  Protestants",  and  Jesuits  were  refused  the 
privileges  of  the  canon  law.  The  Toleration  Act  of 
1649  denied  toleration  only  to  non-Christians  and 
Unitarians,  and  imposed  upon  every  resident  an  oath 
declaring  for  liberty  of  conscience.  The  outcome  of 
the  disgraceful  Puritan  "Plot"  resulted  in  the  voiding 
of  the  charter,  the  erection  of  Maryland  as  a  royal 
province,  and  the  Episcopal  Establishment  in  1692. 
The  majority  of  the  colonists  were  so  overwhelmingly 
non-episcopal  that  the  legislatures  never  seem  to  have 
insisted  upon  conformity,  though  they  compelled 
church  support.  Against  Catholics  alone  persecution 
endured.  They  were  deprived  of  all  civil  and  religious 
rights — the  latter  only  in  private  homes;  the  Law  of 
1704  laid  a  tax  of  twenty  shillings  on  every  Irish  serv- 
ant imported;  while  in  1715  it  was  enacted  that 
children  of  a  Protestant  father  and  a  Catholic  mother 
could,  in  case  of  the  father's  death,  be  taken  from  the 
mother.  However,  the  first  Catholic  church  of  Balti- 
more was  erected  without  opposition  in  1763,  though 
the  rights  of  the  franchise  were  not  extended  to  Cath- 
olics until  the  American  Revolution  put  an  end  to  all 
penal  enactments. 

The  Presbyterian  and  Quaker  settlers  of  the  Jerseys, 
under  their  proprietors,  were  granted  entire  liberty 
of  conscience.  But  with  the  assumption  of  the  prov- 
inces, the  Crown  seems  to  have  assumed  that,  per 
se,  the  Anglican  Church  was  established,  though  no 
specific  act  to  that  effect  seems  to  have  been  passed. 
At  any  rate,  excepting  troubles  with  Quakers  in  the 
French  Wars,  the  annals  of  New  Jersey  are  free  from 
records  of  official  persecution,  though  Catholics  were 
disenfranchised  when  Jersey  became  a  royal  province. 
Georgia  with  its  twoscore  years  of  provincial  history 
excluded  "Papists"  from  its  confines.  The  Anglican 
Church  entered  with  the  Crown  and  was  formally, 
though  unsuccessfully,  established  by  the  colonial 
legislature  in  1758,  the  settlement  remaining  from  the 
beginning  indifferent  toward  Dissent. 

The  Free  Colonies. — Two  colonies,  those  of  Rhode 
Island  and  Pennsylvania  (with  its  offspring,  Delaware) 
proclaimed  absolute  separation  of  Church  and  State. 
The  former  laboured  for  long  under  the  accusation 
of  denying  citizenship  to  Catholics,  but  this  charge  is 
prohalily  based  on  an  error  of  the  committee  that 
prepared  the  revi.sed  statutes  for  the  public  printer; 
while  the  Pennsylvania  commonwealth  departs  from 
the  principles  of  Rhode  Island  in  rest  ricting  the  right 
to  hold  office  to  Christians  and  those  who  believe  in 
the  existence  of  God.  In  spite  of  the  protest  of  Penn, 
that  part  of  the  Test  Oath  required  under  the  great 
Toleration  Act,  excluding  Catholics  from  civil  rights, 


PENALTY 


618 


PENANCE 


was  adopted  by  the  colonial  assembly  in  1705  and  en- 
dured until  the  Revolution,  while  the  Disarming  Act 
was  passed,  but  never  enforced. 

The  only  authentic  and  satisfartory  sources  for  the  roliRioua 
polity  of  the  various  colonies  are  in  their  own  records,  many  of 
which  may  be  found  in  the  various  State  Histnrii  il  >.  -  i^  ■  i-  .'  pub- 
lications. See  also  She.k,  IliMnr)]  tif  the  C'ln  '  '  '  m  rhr 
fni(cdS(<ijM(NewYork.  lSS8);Ki.sHER,Co;...  //  \  :  i  i;>i,n. 
Histora  of  the  Colonial  Church:  Meade.  Old  CL.ir  !.,  .  l/;.';./,rs, 
and  Families  of  Virginia  (2  vols.,  Philadelphia.  lS,-,7) ;  Cniin,  Hise 
of  Relidious  Liberty  in  America  (New  York.  1902);  Hughes,  His- 
tory of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  North  America  (Cleveland,  1910). 

Jarvis  Keiley. 
Penalty.     See  Censures,  Ecclesiastical. 

Penalver  y  Cardenas,  Luis  Igxatius,  Bishop  of 
Xew  Orleans,  Arclibishop  of  Guatemala,  son  of  a 
wealthy  and  noble  family,  b.  at  Havana,  3  April,  1749; 
d.  there,  17  July,  ISIO.  After  studying  belles-lettres 
and  philosophj'  in  St.  Ignatius  College  of  his  native 
city,  he  followed  there  the  courses  of  the  University  of 
.St.  Jerome  and  in  1771  obtained  the  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Theologj'.  Having  distinguished  himself  by  his 
learning  and  charity,  his  bishop  entrusted  him  with 
several  missions  of  an  afhninistrative  nature,  and  in 
177.3  appointed  him  provisor  and  vicar-general.  When 
Pius  VI,  in  deference  to  the  prayer  of  Carlos  VI,  King 
of  Spain,  created  Louisiana  and  the  Floridas  a  diocese, 
distinct  from  that  of  Santiago  de  Ci'^^i.  ^  "  ^^  -"^Ivcr 
■••-.-  r-      '  ■         'o 

,  .  lok  loi  .n 

-.  ■  <,:'e  to!lo^\ing  December  pji^Iished 
an  "li^.,„i  jcci6n  para  el  govierno  de  los  pdrrocos  de  la 
di6cesis  de  la  Luisiana".  He  soon  began  the  visita- 
tion of  his  diocese,  which  then  extended  over  the  coun- 
try known  later  as  the  "Louisiana  Purchase  Terri- 
tory". On  21  April,  1796,  he  was  at  Iberville,  on  8 
November  of  the  same  year  at  Natchitoches,  and  at 
Pensacola  on  7  May,  1798.  Upon  his  return  in  1799, 
he  drew  up  a  report  in  which  he  complained  bitterly  of 
the  ignorance,  irreligion,  and  the  want  of  discipline 
which  then  prevailed  in  Louisiana. 

Bi.shop  Penalver  was  promoted  to  the  Archiepiscopal 
See  of  Guatemala  on  20  July,  1801,  and  by  a  Rescript 
from  Rome  was  empowered  to  transfer  his  authority 
in  Louisiana  and  the  Floridas  to  Canon  Thomas 
Hasset,  his  vicar-general,  and  to  Rev.  Patrick  Walsh. 
.\fter  a  chase  by  an  English  war-vessel,  Archbishop 
Penalver  arrived  at  Guatemala,  wherehesoonattaincd 
to  prominence  through  the  interest  he  manifested  in 
questions  that  concerned  education  and  the  public 
good.  At  his  own  expense  he  built  a  hospital  and 
various  schools.  He  resigned  his  see  on  1  March, 
1806,  and,  returning  to  Havana,  devoted  the  last  years 
of  his  life  to  charitable  works.  At  his  death  he  be- 
queathed S200,000  to  the  poor  and  several  important 
legacies  to  educational  institutions. 

Shea.  History  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  V.  S..  17fi3-lSl5 
(New  York,  188S). 

J.^^MES  H.  Blenk. 

Penance  (poBnilentia)  designates  (1)  a  virtue;  (2) 
a  sacrament  of  the  New  Law;  (3)  a  canonical  punish- 
ment inflicted  according  to  the  earlier  discipline  of  the 
Church;  (4)  a  work  of  satisfaction  enjoined  upon  the 
recipient  of  the  sacrament.  These  have  as  their  com- 
mon centre  the  truth  that  he  who  sins  must  repent 
and  as  far  as  possible  make  reparation  to  Divine  jus- 
tice. Repentance,  i.  e.,  heartfelt  sorrow  with  the  firm 
purpose  of  sinning  no  more,  is  thus  the  prime  condi- 
tion on  which  depends  the  value  of  whatever  the  sinner 
may  do  or  suffer  by  way  of  exijiation. 

I.  The  Virtue  of  Penanck. — Penance  is  a  super- 
natural moral  virtue  whereby  the  .sinner  is  disposed 
to  hatred  of  his  sin  as  an  offence  against  (iod  and  to  a 
firm  purpo.se  of  amendment  anil  satisfaction.  The 
principal  art  in  the  exercise  of  tliis  virtue  is  the  detes- 
tation of  sin,  not  of  sin  in  general  nor  of  that  which 
others  commit,  but  of  one's  own  sin.  The  motive  of 
this  detestation  is  that  sin  offends  God :  to  regret  evil 


deeds  on  account  of  the  mental  or  physical  suffering, 
the  social  loss,  or  the  action  of  human  justice  which 
they  entail,  is  natural;  but  such  sorrow  does  not 
suffice  for  penance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  resolve 
to  amend,  while  certainly  necessary,  is  not  sufficient 
of  itself,  i.  e.,  without  hatred  for  sin  already  com- 
niitted;  such  a  resolve,  in  fact,  would  be  meaningless: 
it  would  profess  obedience  to  God's  law  in  the  future 
while  disregarding  the  claims  of  God's  justice  in  (lie 
matter  of  ])ast  transgression.  "Be  converted,  and 
do  penance  for  all  your  iniquities.  .  .  .  Cast  away 
from  you  all  your  transgressions  .  .  .  and  make  to 
yourselves  a  new  heart,  and  a  new  spirit"  (Ezeeh., 
xviii,  30-31;  cf.  Joel,  ii,  12;  Jer.,  viii,  6).  In  the 
same  spirit  St.  John  the  Baptist  exhorts  his  hearers: 
"Bring  forth  therefore  fruit  worthy  of  penance" 
(Matt.,  iii,  8).  Such  too  is  the  teaching  of  Christ 
as  expressed  in  the  parables  of  the  Prodigal  Son  and 
of  the  Publican;  while  the  Magdalen  who  "washed 
out  her  sins  with  her  tears"  of  sorrow,  has  been  foi 
all  ages  the  type  of  the  repentant  sinner.  Theologians, 
following  the  doctrine  of  St.  Thomas  (Summa,  III, 
Q.  Ixxxv,  a.  1),  regard  penance  as  truly  a  virtue, 
though  they  have  disputed  mucli  regarding  its  place 
among  the  virtues.  Some  ha,\c.  classed  it  with  the 
virtue  of  charity,  others  with  the  virtue  of  religion, 
others  again  as  a  part  of  justice.  Cajetan  seems  to 
have  considered  it  as  belonging  to  all  three;  but  most 
theologians  agree  with  St.  Thomas  (ibid.,  a.  2)  that 
penance  is  a  distinct  virtue  {virtus  specialis).  The 
detestation  of  sin  is  a  praiseworthy  act,  and  in  penance 
this  detestation  proceeds  from  a  special  motive,  i.  e., 
because  sin  offends  God  (cf.  De  Lugo,  "De  poeniten- 
tiae  virtute";  Palmieri,  "De  pccnitentia",  Rome, 
1879;   theses  I-VIL). 

Necessity. — The  Council  of  Trent  expressly  declares 
(Sess.  XIV,  c.  i)  that  penance  was  at  all  times  neces- 
sary for  the  remission  of  grievous  sin.  Theologians 
have  questioned  whether  this  necessity  obtains  in 
virtue  of  the  positive  command  of  God  or  independ- 
ently of  such  positive  precept.  The  weight  of  author- 
ity is  in  favour  of  the  latter  opinion;  moreover,  theo- 
logians state  that  in  the  present  order  of  Divine 
Providence  God  Himself  cannot  forgi\e  sins,  if  there 
be  no  real  repentance  (St.  Thomas,  III,  Q.  Ixxxvi, 
a.  2;  Cajetan,  ibid.;  Palmieri,  op.  cit.,  thesis  VII). 
In  the  Old  Law  (Ezech.,  xviii,  24)  life  is  denied  to  the 
man  who  does  iniquit}';  even  "his  justices  which  he 
has  done,  shall  not  be  remembered";  and  Christ 
restates  the  doctrine  of  the  Old  Testament,  sajdng 
(Luke,  xiii,  5) :  "except  you  do  penance,  you  shall  all 
likewise  perish."  In  the  New  Law,  therefore,  re- 
pentance is  as  necessary  as  it  was  in  the  Old,  repent- 
ance that  includes  reformation  of  life,  grief  for  sin, 
and  willingness  to  perform  satisfaction.  In  the  Chris- 
tian Dispensation  this  act  of  repentance  has  been 
subjected  by  Christ  to  the  judgment  and  jurisdiction 
of  His  Church,  whensoever  there  is  question  of  sin 
committed  after  the  reception  of  Baptism  (Council  of 
Trent,  sess.  XIV',  c.  i),  and  the  Church  acting  in  the 
name  of  Christ  not  only  declares  that  sins  are  for- 
given, but  actually  and  judicially  forgives  them,  if 
the  sinner  already  repentant  subjects  his  sins  to  the 
"power  of  the  keys",  and  is  willing  to  make  condign 
satisfaction  for  tlie  wrong  he  has  done. 

II.  The  Sacrament  of  Penance. — Penance  is  a 
sacrament  of  the  X'ew  Law  instituted  by  Chnst  in 
which  forgiveness  of  sins  committed  after  baptism  is 
granted  through  the  priest's  absolution  to  those  who 
with  true  sorrow  confess  their  sins  and  promise  to 
satisfj'  for  the  same.  It  is  called  a  "sacrament"  not 
simply  a  function  or  ceremony.  Iiec  ause  it  is  an  out- 
ward sign  instiluled  by  Christ  to  impart  grace  to  the 
soul.  As  an  outward  sign  it  comprises  the  actions  of 
the  penitent  in  presenting  himself  to  the  priest  and 
accusing  himself  of  his  sins,  and  the  actions  of  the 
priest  in  pronouncing  absolution  and  imposing  satis- 


PENANOB 


619 


PENANCE 


faction.  This  whole  procodure  is  usually  called,  from 
one  of  its  parts,  "confession";  and  it  is  said  to  take 
place  in  the  "tribunal  of  penance",  because  it  is  a 
judicial  process  in  which  the  penitent  is  at  once  the 
accuser,  the  person  accused,  and  the  witness,  while 
the  priest  pronounces  judgment  and  sentence.  The 
grace  conferred  is  deliverance  from  the  guilt  of  sin 
and,  in  the  case  of  mortal  sin,  from  its  eternal  punish- 
ment; hence  also  reconciliation  with  God,  justifica- 
tion. Finally,  the  confession  is  made  not  in  the 
secrecy  of  the  penitent's  heart  nor  to  a  layman  as 
friend  and  advocate,  nor  to  a  representative  of  human 
authority,  but  to  a  duly  ordained  priest  with  requis- 
ite jurisdiction  and  with  the  "power  of  the  keys", 
i.  e.,  the  power  to  forgive  sins  which  Christ  granted 
to  His  Church. 

By  way  of  further  explanation  it  is  needful  to  cor- 
rect certain  erroneous  views  regarding  this  sacrament 
which  not  only  misrepresent  the  actual  practice  of  the 
Church  but  also  lead  to  a  false  interpretation  of 
theological  statement  and  historical  evidence.  From 
what  has  been  said  it  should  be  clear:  (1)  that  pen- 
ance is  not  a  mere  human  invention  devised  by  the 
Church  to  secure  power  over  consciences  or  to  relieve 
the  emotional  strain  of  troubled  souls;  it  is  the  or- 
dinary means  appointed  by  Christ  for  the  remission 
of  sin.  Man  indeed  is  free  to  obey  or  disubpy,  liut 
onee  he  Ka^Trtiined,  he  must  seek  pardon  not  on  con- 
diTions  of  his  own  (•Iioii>inf!;  but  on  those  which  God 
has  drtrrniiiiiil,  and  llicsc  for  the  Christian  are  em- 
bodied in  tlir  Sa.rain.iif  of  Penance.  (2)  NoCathohc 
believes  that  a  priest  sim])ly  as  an  individual  man, 
however  pious  or  learned,  has  power  to  forgive  sins. 
This  power  belongs  to  God  alone;  but  He  can  and 
does  exercise  it  through  the  ministration  of  men. 
Since  He  has  seen  fit  to  exercise  it  by  means  of  this 
sacrament,  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  Church  or  the 
priest  interferes  between  the  soul  and  God;  on  the 
contrary,  penance  is  the  removal  of  the  one  obstacle 
that  keeps  the  soul  away  from  God.  (3)  It  is  not 
true  that  for  the  Catholic  the  mere  "telling  of  one's 
sins"  suffices  to  obtain  their  forgiveness.  Without 
^incere  sorrow  and  purpose  of  amendment,  confes,sion 
avaits^noThing,  the  pronouncement  of  absolution  is 
of  no  effect,  and  the  guilt  of  the  sinner  is  greater  than 
before.  (4)  While  this  sacrament  as  a  dispensation 
of  Divine  mercy  facilitates  the  pardoning  of  sin,  it 
bj;_no_jiieans  renders  sin  less  hateful  or  its  conse- 
quences less  dreadful  to  the  Christian  mind;  much 
le..>s  jloegjt  imijly  permission  to  commit  sin  in  the 
future.  In  payins;  ordinary  debts,  as  e.  g.,  by  monthly 
settlements,  th  ■  inlciitiou  of  contracting  new  debts 
with  the  same  creditor  is  perfectly  legitimate;  a 
similar  intention  on  the  part  of  him  who  confesses 
his  sins  would  not  only  be  wrong  in  itself  but  would 
nullify  the  sacrament  and  prevent  the  forgiveness  of 
sins  then  and  there  confessed.  (.5)  Strangely  enough, 
the  opposite  charge  is  often  heard,  viz.,  that  the  con- 
fession of  sin  is  intolerable  and  hard  and  therefore 
alien  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity  and  the  loving  kind- 
ness of  its  Founder.  But  this  view,  in  the  fir.st  place, 
overlooks  the  fact  that  Christ,  though  merciful, 
is  also  just  and  exacting.  Furthermore,  however 
painful  or  humiliating  confession  may  be,  it  is 
but  a  light  penalty  for  the  violation  of  God's 
law.  Finally,  those  who  are  in  earnest  about  their 
sal\atioTi~count  no  hardship  too  great  whereby  they 
can  win  bark  God's  friendshij).  Both  these  accusa- 
tions, of  too  great  leniency  and  too  great  severity, 
proceed  as  a  rule  from  those  who  have  no  experience 
with  the  sacrament  and  only  the  vaguest  ideas  of 
what  the  Church  teaches  or  of  the  power  to  forgive 
sins  which  the  Church  received  from  Christ. 

Teaching  of  the  Church. — The  Council  of  Trent 
(1.t')1)  declares:  "As  a  means  of  regaining  grace  and 
justice,  penance  was  at  all  times  necessary  for  those 
who  had  defiled  their  souls  with  any  mortal  sin. 


.  .  .  Before  the  coming  of  Christ,  penance  was  not  a 
saenrmont,  nor  is  it  since  His  coming  a  sacrament  for 
those  who  are  not  baptized.  But  the  Lord  then  prin- 
cipally instituted  the  Sacrament  of  Penance,  when, 
being  raised  from  the  dead,  he  breathed  upon  His 
disciples  saying:  'Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Whose  sins  you  shall  forgive,  they  are  forgiven  them ; 
and  whose  sins  you  shall  retain,  they  are  retained' 
(John,  XX,  22-23).  By  which  action  so  signal  and 
words  so  clear  the  consent  of  all  the  Fathers  has  ever 
understood  that  the  power  of  forgiving  and  retaining 
sins  was  communicated  to  the  Apostles  and  to  their 
lawful  successors,  for  the  reconcihng  of  the  faithful 
who  have  fallen  after  Baptism"  (Sess.  XIV,  c.  i). 
Farther  on  (c.  v)  the  council  expressly  states  that 
Christ  "left  ])riests7nis  own  vicars,  as  judges  {pr<r- 
sides  cl  /»<//rr,\),  uiilo  wliom  all  the  mortal  crimes  into 
which  (hr  laillifiil  ur.,y  have  fallen  slumld  he  n-voaled 
in  order  tlial,  in  arcurdance  with  the  jKuver  of  the 
keys,  they  may  iironounce  the  sentence  of  forgiveness 
or  retention  of  sins". 

Power  to  Forgive  Sins. — It  is  noteworthy  that  the 
fundamental  objection  so  often  urged  against  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance  was  first  thought  of  by  the 
Scribes  when  Christ  said  to  the  sick  man  of  the  palsy: 
"Thy  sins  are  forgiven  thee."  "And  there  were  some 
of  the  scribes  sitting  there,  and  tliinking  in  their 
hearts:  Why  doth  this  man  speak  thus?  he  blas- 
phemeth.  Who  can  forgive  sins,  but  God  only?"  But 
Jesus  seeing  their  thoughts,  said  to  them:  "Which  is 
easier  to  say  to  the  sick  of  the  palsy:  Thy  sins  are 
forgiven  thee;  or  to  say.  Arise,  take  up  thy  bed  and 
walk?  But  that  you  may  know  that  the  Son  of  man 
hath  power  on  earth  to  forgive  sins,  (he  saith  to  the 
sick  of  the  palsy,)  I  say  to  thee:  Arise,  take  up  thy 
bed,  and  go  into  thy  house"  (Mark,  ii,  5-11;  Matt., 
ix,  2-7).  Chi-ist  wrought  a  miracle  to  show  that  He 
had  power  to  forgive  sins  and  that  this  power  could 
be  exerted  not  only  in  heaven  but  also  on  earth.  This 
power,  moreover.  He  transmitted  to  Peter  and  the 
other  Apostles.  To  Peter  He  says:  "And  I  will  give 
to  thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  And  what- 
soever thou  shalt  bind  upon  earth,  it  shall  be  bound 
also  in  heaven:  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt  loose  on 
earth,  it  shall  be  loosed  also  in  heaven"  (Matt., 
,xvi,  19).  Later  He  says  to  all  the  Apostles:  "Amen 
I  say  to  you,  whatsoever  you  shall  bind  upon  earth, 
shall  be  bound  also  in  heaven;  and  whatsoever  you 
shall  loose  upon  earth,  shall  be  loosed  also  in  heaven" 
(Matt.,  xviii,  IS).  As  to  the  meaning  of  these  texts, 
it  should  be  noted:  (a)  that  the  "binding"  and 
"loosing"  refers  not  to  physical  but  to  spiritual  or 
moral  bonds  among  which  sin  is  certainly  included; 
the  more  so  because  (b)  the  power  here  granted  is 
unlimited — "  whalaoener  you  shall  bind,  .  .  .  what- 
soever y  on  shaXX  \oose" ;  (e)  the  power  is  judicial,  i.  e., 
the  Apostles  arc  authorized  to  hitLii  and  to  loose; 
(d)  whether  tliey  bind  or  loose,  their  action  is  ratified 
in  heaven.  In  healing  the  palsied  man  Christ  de- 
clared that  "the  Son  of  man  has  power  on  earth  to 
forgive  sins";  here  He  promises  that  what  these  men, 
the  Apostles,  bind  or  loose  on  earth,  God  in  heaven 
will  likewise  bind  or  loose.    (Cf .  also  Keys,  Power  of 

THE.) 

But  as  the  Council  of  Trent  declares,  Christ  prin- 
cipally instituted  the  Sacraincnt  of  Penance  after  His 
Resurrection,  a  miracle  greater  tlian  that  of  healing 
the  sick.  "As  the  Father  hath  sent  nic,  1  also  send 
you.  When  he  had  said  this,  he  breathed  on  them; 
and  he  said  to  them:  Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost. 
Whose  sins  you  shall  forgive,  they  are  forgiven  them; 
and  whose  sins  you  shall  retain,  they  are  retained" 
(John,  XX,  21-23).  While  the  sense  of  these  words 
is  quite  obvious,  the  following  points  are  to  be  con- 
sidered: (a)  Christ  here  reiterates  in  the  plainest 
terms — -"sins",  "forgive",  "retain" — what  He  had 
previously  stated  in  figurative  language,  "bind"  and 


PENANCfi 


620 


PENANCE 


"loose",  so  that  tliis  text  spccilics  and  distinctly 
applies  to  sin  the  power  of  loosing  and  bindinfj.  (b) 
He  prefaces  this  grant  of  power  by  declaring  that  the 
mission  of  the  Apostles  is  similar  to  that  which  He 
had  received  from  the  Father  and  which  He  had  ful- 
filled: "As  the  Father  hath  sent  me".  Now  it  is 
beyond  doubt  that  He  came  into  the  world  to  destroy 
sin  and  that  on  various  occasions  He  explicitly  forga\e 
sin  (Matt.,  ix,  2-S;  Luke,  v,  20;  vii,  47;  Apoc,  i,  5), 
hence  the  forgiving  of  sin  is  to  be  included  in  the 
mission  of  the  Apostles,  (c)  Christ  not  only  declared 
that  sins  were  forgiven,  but  really  and  actually  for- 
gave them;  hence,  the  Apostles  are  empowered  not 
merely  to  announce  to  the  sinner  that  his  sins  are 
forgiven  but  to  grant  him  forgiveness — "whose  sins 
you  shall  forgive".  If  their  power  were  limited  to  the 
declaration  "God  pardons  you",  they  would  need  a 
special  revelation  in  each  case  to  make  the  declara- 
tion valid,  (d)  The  power  is  twofold — to  forgive  or 
to  retain,  i.  e.,  the  Apostles  are  not  told  to  grant  or 
■withhold  forgiveness  indiscriminately;  they  must  act 
judicially,  forgiving  or  retaining  according  as  the 
sinner  deserves,  (e)  The  exercise  of  this  power  in 
either  form  (forgiving  or  retaining)  is  not  restricted: 
no  distinction  is  made  or  even  suggested  between  one 
kinil  of  sin  and  another,  or  between  one  class  of  sinners 
and  all  the  rest:  Christ  simply  says  "whose  sins". 
(f)  The  sentence  pronounced  by  the  Apostles  (re- 
mission or  retention)  is  also  God's  sentence — "they 
are  forgiven  .  .  .  they  are  retained". 

It  is  therefore  clear  from  the  words  of  Christ  that 
the  Apostles  had  power  to  forgive  sins.  But  this  was 
not  a  personal  prerogative  that  was  to  cease  at  their 
death;  it  was  granted  to  them  in  their  official  capacity 
and  hence  as  a  permanent  institution  in  the  Church — 
no  less  permanent  than  the  mission  to  teach  and 
baptize  all  nations.  Christ  foresaw  that  even  those 
who  received  faith  and  baptism,  whether  during  the 
lifetime  of  the  Apostles  or  later,  would  fall  into  sin 
and  therefore  would  need  forgiveness  in  order  to  be 
saved.  He  must,  then,  have  intended  that  the  power 
to  forgive  should  be  transmitted  from  the  Apostles 
to  their  successors  and  be  used  as  long  as  there  would 
be  sinners  in  the  Church,  and  that  means  to  the  end 
of  time.  It  is  true  that  in  baptism  also  sins  are  for- 
given, but  this  does  not  warrant  the  view  that  the 
power  to  forgive  is  simply  the  power  to  baptize.  In 
the  first  place,  as  appears  from  the  texts  cited  above, 
the  power  to  forgive  is  also  the  power  to  retain;  its 
exercise  involves  a  judicial  action.  But  no  such  action 
is  imphed  in  the  commission  to  baptize  (Matt.,  xxviii, 
18-20);  in  fact,  as  the  Council  of  Trent  affirms,  the 
Church  does  not  pass  judgment  on  those  who  are 
TTot  yet  members  of  the  Church,  and  membership  is 
obtained  through  baptism.  Furthermore,  baptism, 
because  it  is  a  new  birth,  cannot  be  repeated,  whereas 
the  power  to  forgive  sins  (penance)  is  to  be  used  as 
often  as  the  sinner  may  need  it.  Hence  the  condemna- 
tion, by  the  same  Council,  of  any  one  "who,  con- 
founding the  sacraments,  should  say  that  baptism 
itself  is  the  Sacrament  of  Penance,  as  though  these 
two  sacraments  were  not  distinct  and  as  though 
penance  were  not  rightly  called  the  second  plank 
after  shipwreck"  (Sess.  XIV,  can.  2  de  sac.  poen.). 

These  pronouncements  were  directed  against  the 
Protestant  teaching  which  held  that  penance  was 
merely  a  sort  of  repeated  baptism;  and  as  baptism 
effected  no  real  forgiveness  of  sin  but  only  an  ex-ternal 
covering  over  of  sin  through  faith  alone,  the  same,  it 
was  alleged,  must  be  the  case  with  penance.  This, 
then,  as  a  sacrament  is  superfluous;  absolution  is 
only  a  declaration  that  sin  is  forgiven  through  faith, 
and  satisfaction  is  needless  because  Christ  has  satis- 
fied once  for  all  men.  This  was  the  first  sweeping  and 
radical  deni.al  of  the  Sacrament  of  Penance.  Some 
of  the  earlier  sects  had  claimed  that  only  priests  in 
the  state  of  grace  could  validly  absolve,  but  they  had 


not  denied  the  existence  of  the  jjower  to  forgive. 
During  all  the  prece<ling  centuries,  Catholic  belief  in 
this  power  had  hci-ii  .so  clear  and  strong  that  in  order 
to  set  it  aside  Pnitcsluntism  was  obliged  to  strike  at 
the  very  constitution  of  the  Church  and  reject  the 
whole  content  of  Tradition. 

Belief  and  Practice  of  the  Early  Church. — Among  the 
modernistic  propositions  condemned  by  Pius  X  in  the 
Decree  "Lamentabih  sane"  (3  July,  1907)  are  the 
following:  "In  the  primitive  Church  there  was  no 
concept  of  the  reconciUation  of  the  Christian  sinner 
by  the  authority  of  the  Church,  but  the  Church  by 
very  slow  degrees  only  grew  accustomed  to  this  con- 
cept. Moreover,  even  after  penance  came  to  be  recog- 
nized as  an  institution  of  the  Church,  it  was  not  called 
by  the  name  of  sacrament,  because  it  was  regarded 
as  an  odious  sacrament"  (46):  and:  "The  Lord's 
words:  'Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost,  whose  sins  you 
shall  forgive,  they  are  forgiven  them,  and  whose 
sins  you  shall  retain  they  are  retained'  (.lohn  xx, 
22-23),  in  no  way  refer  to  the  Sacrament  of  Penance, 
whatever  the  Fathers  of  Trent  may  have  been  pleased 
to  assert"  (47).  According  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
the  consensus  of  all  the  Fathers  always  understood 
that  by  the  words  of  Christ  just  cited,  the  power  of 
forgiving  and  retaining  sins  was  communicated  to 
the  Apostles  and  their  lawful  successors  (Sess.  XIV, 
c.  i).  It  is  therefore  Catholic  doctrine  that  the 
Church  from  the  earliest  times  believed  in  the  power 
to  forgive  sins  as  granted  by  Christ  to  the  Apostles. 
Such  a  belief  in  fact  was  clearlj  inculcated  by  the 
words  with  which  Christ  granted  the  power,  and  it 
would  have  been  inexplicable  to  the  early  Christians 
if  any  one  who  professed  faith  in  Christ  had  questioned 
the  existence  of  that  power  in  the  Church.  But  if, 
contrariwise,  we  suppose  that  no  such  belief  existed 
from  the  beginning,  we  encounter  a  still  greater  diffi- 
culty: the  first  mention  of  that  power  would  have 
been  regarded  as  an  innovation  both  needless  and 
intolerable;  it  would  have  shown  little  practical 
wisdom  on  the  part  of  those  who  were  endeavouring 
to  draw  men  to  Christ;  and  it  would  have  raised  a 
protest  or  led  to  a  schism  which  would  certainly 
have  gone  on  record  as  plainly  at  least  as  did  early 
divisions  on  matters  of  less  importance.  Yet  no 
such  record  is  found;  even  those  who  sought  to  limit 
the  power  itself  i)resupposed  its  existence,  and  their 
very  attempt  at  limitation  put  them  in  opposition 
to  the  prevalent  Catholic  belief. 

Turning  now  to  evidence  of  a  positive  sort,  we  have 
to  note  that  the  statements  of  any  Father  or  orthodox 
ecclesiastical  writer  regarding  penance  present  not 
merely  his  own  personal  view,  but  the  commonly 
accepted  belief;  and  furthermore  that  the  belief  which 
they  record  was  no  novelty  at  the  time,  but  was  the 
traditional  doctrine  handed  down  by  the  regular 
teaching  of  the  Church  and  embodied  in  her  practice. 
In  other  words,  each  witness  speaks  for  a  past  that 
reaches  back  to  the  beginning,  even  when  he  does  not 
expressly  appeal  to  tradition.  St.  Augustine  (d.  430) 
warns  the  faithful:  "Let  us  not  listen  to  those  who 
deny  that  the  Church  of  God  has  power  to  forgive  all 
sins"  (De  agon.  Christ.,  iii).  St.  Ambrose  (d.  397) 
rebukes  the  Novatianists  who  "professed  to  show 
reverence  for  the  Lord  by  reserving  to  Him  alone 
the  power  of  forgiving  sins.  Greater  wrong  could 
not  be  done  than  what  they  do  in  seeking  to  rescind 
His  commands  and  fling  back  the  office  He  bestowed. 
.  .  .  The  Church  obeys  Him  in  both  respects,  by 
binding  sin  and  by  loosing  it;  for  the  Lord  willed 
that  for  both  the  power  should  be  equal"  (De  poenit., 
I,  ii,  6).  Again  he  teaches  that  this  power  was  to 
be  a  function  of  the  priesthood.  "It  seemed  im- 
possible that  sins  should  be  forgiven  through  penance; 
Christ  granted  this  (power)  to  the  Apostles  and  from 
the  Apostles  it  has  been  transmitted  to  the  office  of 
priests"  (op.  cit.,  II,  ii,  12).    The  power  to  forgive 


PENANCE 


621 


PENANCE 


extends  to  all  sins:  "God  makes  no  distinction;  He 
promised  mercy  to  all  and  to  His  priests  He  granted 
the  authority  to  pardon  unlhoul  any  exception"  (op. 
eit.,  I,  iii,  10).  Against  the  same  heretics  St.  Pacian, 
Bishop  of  Barcelona  (d.  390),  wrote  to  Sympronianus, 
one  of  their  leaders:  "This  (forgiving  sins),  you  say, 
only  God  can  do.  Quite  true:  but  what  He  does 
through  His  priests  is  the  doing  of  His  own  power" 
(Ep.  I  ad  Sympron,  6  in  P.  L.,  XIII,  1057). 

In  the  East  during  the  same  period  we  have  the  tes- 
timony of  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria  (d.  447) :  "Men  filled 
with  the  spirit  of  God  (i.  e.  priests)  forgive  sins  in  two 
ways,  either  by  admitting  to  baptism  those  who  are 
worthy  or  by  pardoning  the  penitent  children  of  the 
Church"  (In  Joan.,  1,  12  in  P.  G.,  LXXIV,  722).  St. 
John  Chrysostom  (d.  407)  after  declaring  that  neither 
angels  nor  the  archangels  have  received  such  power, 
and  after  showing  that  earthly  rulers  can  bind  only 
the  bodies  of  men,  declares  that  the  priest's  power  of 
forgiving  sins  "penetrates  to  the  soul  and  reaches  up 
to  heaven".  Wherefore,  he  concludes,  "it  were  mani- 
fest folly  to  condemn  so  great  a  power  without  which 
we  can  neither  obtain  heaven  nor  come  to  the  fulfil- 
ment of  the  promises.  .  .  .  Not  only  when  they  (the 
priests)  regenerate  us  (baptism),  but  also  after  our  new 
birth,  they  can  forgive  us  our  sins"  (De  sacerd..  Ill, 
5  sq.).  St.  Athanasius  (d.  373):  "As  the  man  whom 
the  priest  baptizes  is  enlightened  by  the  grace  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  so  does  he  who  in  penance  confesses  his 
sins,  receive  through  the  priest  forgiveness  in  virtue 
of  the  grace  of  Christ"  (Frag,  contra  Novat.  in  P.  G., 
XXVI,  1315). 

These  extracts  show  that  the  Fathers  recognized  in 
penance  a  power  and  a  utility  quite  distinct  from  that 
of  baptism.  Repeatedly  they  compare  in  figurative 
language  the  two  means  of  obtaining  pardon  as  two 
gates  of  the  Church,  two  beacons  of  salvation;  or, 
regarding  baptism  as  spiritual  birth,  they  describe 
penance  as  the  remedy  for  the  ills  of  the  soul  con- 
tracted after  that  birth.  But  a  more  important  fact 
is  that  both  in  the  West  and  in  the  East,  the  Fathers 
constantly  appeal  to  the  words  of  Christ  and  give  them 
the  same  interpretation  that  was  given  eleven  cen- 
turies later  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  this  respect 
they  simply  echoed  the  teachings  of  the  earlier  Fathers 
who  had  defended  Catholic  doctrine  against  the  here- 
tics of  the  third  and  second  centuries.  Thus  St. 
Cyprian  (q.  v.)  in  his  "De  lapsis"  (a.  d.  251)  rebukes 
those  who  had  fallen  away  in  time  of  persecution,  but 
he  also  exhorts  them  to  penance:  "Let  each  confess 
his  sin  while  he  is  still  in  this  world,  while  his  con- 
fession can  be  received,  while  satisfaction  and  the  for- 
giveness granted  by  the  priests  is  acceptable  to  God" 
(c.  xxix).  (See  L.ipsi.)  The  heretic  Novatian,  on  the 
contrary,  asserted  that  "it  is  unlawful  to  readmit 
apostates  to  the  communion  of  the  Church;  their  for- 
giveness must  be  left  with  God  who  alone  can  grant 
it"  (Socrates,  "Hist,  eccl.",  V,  xxviii).  Novatian  and 
his  party  did  not  at  first  deny  the  power  of  the  Church 
to  absolve  from  sin;  they  affirmed  that  apostasy 
placed  the  sinner  beyond  the  reach  of  that  power — an 
error  which  was  condemned  by  a  synod  at  Rome  in 
251.     (See  Novatianism.) 

The  distinction  between  sins  that  could  be  forgiven 
and  others  that  could  not,  originated  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  second  century  as  the  doctrine  of  the  Montan- 
ists  (q.  v.),  and  especially  of  Tertullian  (q.  v.).  While 
still  a  Catholic,  Tertullian  wrote  (a.  d.  200-6)  his 
"  De  pnenitentia"  in  which  he  distinguishes  two  kinds 
of  penance,  one  as  a  preparation  for  baptism,  the 
other  to  obtain  forgiveness  of  certain  grievous  sins 
committed  after  baptism,  i.  e.,  apostasy,  murder,  and 
adultery.  For  these,  however,  he  allows  only  one 
forgiveness:  "Foreseeing  these  poisons  of  the  Evil 
One,  God,  although  the  gate  of  forgiveness  has  been 
shut  and  fastened  up  with  the  bar  of  baptism,  has  per- 
mitted it  still  to  stand  somewhat  open.    In  the  vesti- 


bule He  has  stationed  a  second  repentance  for  opening 
to  such  as  knock ;  but  now  once  for  all,  because  now 
for  the  second  time;  but  never  more,  because  the  last 
time  it  had  been  in  vain.  .  .  .  However,  if  any  do 
incur  the  debt  of  a  second  repentance,  his  spirit  is 
not  to  be  forthwith  cut  down  and  undermined  by 
despair.  Let  it  be  irksome  to  sin  again,  but  let  it  not 
be  irksome  to  repent  again;  let  it  be  irksome  to  im- 
peril oneself  again,  but  let  no  one  be  ashamed  to 
be  set  free  again.  Repeated  sickness  must  have  re- 
peated medicine"  (De  pa-n.,  VII).  Tertullian  does 
not  deny  that  the  Church  can  forgive  sins;  he  warns 
sinners  against  relapse,  yet  exhorts  them  to  repent  in 
case  they  should  fall.  His  attitude  at  the  time  was 
not  surprising,  since  in  the  early  days  the  sins  above 
mentioned  were  severely  dealt  with;  this  was  done 
for  disciplinary  reasons,  not  because  the  Church 
lacked  power  to  forgive. 

In  the  minds,  however,  of  some  people  the  idea  was 
developing  that  not  only  the  exercise  of  the  power  but 
the  power  itself  was  limited.  Against  this  false  notion 
Pope  Callistus  (218-22)  published  his  "peremptory 
edict"  in  which  he  declares:  "I  forgive  the  sins  both 
of  adultery  and  of  fornication  to  those  who  have  done 
penance."  Thereupon  Tertullian,  now  become  a 
Montanist,  wrote  his  "De  pudicitia"  (a.  D.  217-22). 
In  this  work  he  rejects  without  scruple  what  he  had 
taught  as  a  Catholic:  "I  blush  not  at  an  error  which 
I  have  cast  off  because  T  am  delighted  at  being  rid  of 
it  .  .  .  one  is  not  ashamed  of  his  own  improve- 
ment." The  "error"  which  he  imputes  to  Callistus 
and  the  Catholics  was  that  the  Church  could  forgive 
all  sins:  this,  therefore,  was  the  orthodox  doctrine 
which  Tertullian  the  heretic  denied.  In  place  of  it  he 
sets  up  the  distinction  between  lighter  sins  which  the 
bishop  could  forgive  and  more  grievous  sins  which  God 
alone  could  forgive.  Though  in  an  earlier  treatise, 
"Scorpiace",  he  had  said  (c.  x)  that  "the  Lord  left 
here  to  Peter  and  through  him  to  the  Church  the  keys 
of  heaven",  he  now  denies  that  the  power  granted  to 
Peter  had  been  transmitted  to  the  Church,  i.  e.,  to  the 
numerus  episcoporum  or  body  of  bishops.  Yet  he 
claims  this  power  for  the  "spirituals"  (pneutnaHci) , 
although  these,  for  prudential  reasons,  do  not  make 
use  of  it.  To  the  arguments  of  the  "Psychici",  as  he 
termed  the  Catholics,  he  replies:  "But  the  Church, 
you  say,  has  the  power  to  forgive  sin.  This  I,  even 
more  than  you,  acknowledge  and  adjudge.  I  who  in 
the  new  prophets  have  the  Paraclete  saying:  'The 
Church  can  forgive  sin,  but  I  will  not  do  that  (forgive) 
lest  they  (who  are  forgiven)  fall  into  other  sins'"  (De 
pud.,  XXI,  vii).  Thus  Tertullian,  by  the  accusation 
which  he  makes  against  the  pope  and  by  the  restric- 
tion which  he  places  upon  the  exercise  of  the  power  of 
forgiving  sin,  bears  witness  to  the  existence  of  that 
power  in  the  Church  which  he  had  abandoned. 

Not  content  with  assailing  Callistus  and  his  doc- 
trine, Tertullian  refers  to  the  "Shepherd"  (Paslor),  a 
work  written  a.  d.  140-54,  and  takes  its  author  Her- 
mas  (q.  v.)  to  task  for  favouring  the  pardon  of  adul- 
terers. In  the  days  of  Hermas  there  was  evidently  a 
school  of  rigorists  who  insisted  that  there  was  no  par- 
don for  sin  committed  after  baptism  (Simil.  VIII,  vi). 
Against  this  school  the  author  of  the  "  Pastor"  takes  a 
resolute  stand.  He  teaches  that  by  penance  the  sinner 
may  hope  for  reconciliation  with  God  and  with  the 
Church.  "Go  and  tell  all  to  repent  and  they  shall  live 
unto  God.  Because  the  Lord  having  had  compassion, 
has  sent  me  to  give  repentance  to  all  men,  although 
some  are  not  worthy  of  it  on  account  of  their  works" 
(Simil.  VIII,  ii).  Hermas,  however,  seems  to  give  but 
one  opportunity  for  such  reconciliation,  for  in  Man- 
date IV,  i,  he  seems  to  state  categorically  that  "there 
is  but  one  repentance  for  the  servants  of  God",  and 
further  on  in  c.  iii  he  says  the  Lord  has  had  mercy  on 
the  work  of  his  hands  and  hath  set  repentance  for 
them;   "and  he  has  entrusted  la  me  the  power  of  this 


PENANCE 


622 


PENANCE 


repentance.    And  therefore  I  say  to  you,  if  any  one  says  (Ad  Philadel.)  "th;i,t  the  bisliop  presides  over 

has  sinned     ...     he  has  opportunity  to  repent  penance". 

once".    Repentance  is  therefore  possible  at  least  once         The  transmission  of  this  power  is  plainly  expressed 

in  virtue  of  a  power  vested  in  the  priest  of  God.    That  in  the  prayer  used  at  the  consecration  of  a  bishop  as 

Hernias  here  intends  to  say  that  the  sinner  could  be  recorded  in  the  Canons  of  Hippolytus  (q.  v.):  "Grant 

absolved  only  once  in  his  whole  life  is  by  no  means  a  him,  O  Lord,  the  episcopate  and  the  spirit  of  clemency 

necessary  conclusion.    His  words  may  well  be  under-  and  the  power  to  forgive  sins"  (c.  xvii).    Stillmoreex- 

stood  as  referring  to  public  penance  (see  below-),  and  plicit  is  the  formula  cited  in  the  "Apostolic  Constitu- 

as  thus  understood  they  imply  no  limitation  on  the  lions"  (q.  v.):  "Grant  him,  O  Lord  ahnif;hty,  through 

sacramental  power  itself.     The  same  interpretation  Thy  Christ,  the  participation  of  Thy  Holy  Spirit,  in 

applies  to  the  statement  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  order  that  he  may  have  the  power  to  remit  .sins  acco'rd- 

(d.  circa  a.  d.  215):  "For  God  being  very  merciful  has  ing  to  Thy  precept  and  Thy  command,  and  to  loosen 

vouchsafed  in  the  case  of  those  who,  though  in  faith,  every  bond,  whatsoever  it  be,  according  to  the  power 

have  fallen  into  transgression,  a  second  repentance,  which  Thou  hast  granted  to  the  Apostles."   (Const. 


so  that  should  anyone  be 
tempted  after  his  calling, 
he  may  still  receive  a  pen- 
ance not  to  be  repented  of  " 
(Stromata,  II,  xiii). 

The  existence  of  a  regu- 
lar system  of  penance  is  also 
hinted  at  in  the  work  of 
Clement,  "Who  is  the  rich 
man  that  shall  be  saved?", 
where  he  tells  the  story  of 
the  Apostle  John  and  his 
journey  after  the  young 
bandit.  John  pledged  his 
word  that  the  youthful  rob- 
ber would  find  forgiveness 
from  the  Saviour;  but  even 
then  a  long  serious  penance 
was  necessary  before  he 
could  be  restored  to  the 
Church.  And  when  Clem- 
ent concludes  that  "he  who 
welcomes  the  angel  of  pen- 
ance .  .  .  will  not  be 
a-shamed  when  he  sees  the 
Saviour",  most  commen- 
tators think  he  alludes  to 
the  bishop  or  priest  who 
presided  over  the  ceremony 
of  public  penance.  Even 
earlier,  Dionysius  of  Cor- 
inth (d.  circa  A.  D.  170), 
setting  himself  against  cer- 
tain growing  Marcionistic 
traditions,  taught  not  onlv 
that  Christ  has  left  to  Hi's 
Church  the  power  of  par- 
don, but  that  no  sin  is  so 
great  as  to  be  excluded 
from  the  exercise  of  that 
power.  For  this  we  have  the 
authority  of  Eusebius,  who  says  (Hist,  eccl.,  IV,  xxiii) : 
"And  writing  to  the  Church  which  is  in  .\mastris,  to- 
gether with  those  in  Pontus,  he  commands  them  to 
receive  those  who  come  back  after  any  fall,  whether  it 
be  delinquency  or  heresy" . 

The  "Didache"  (q.  v.)  written  at  the  close  of  the 


CoNFE.ssrON'.\L  fXIV  Century 
Basilica  of  S.  Antonio,  Padua 


Ap_ost.,  VIII,  5  in  P.  G.,  I, 
1073).  For  (he  mi'MniuK  of 
"episcopus",  "sacerdos", 
"presbyter",  as  used  in 
ancient  documents,  see 
Bishop;  Hierarchy. 

Exercise  of  the  Power. — 
The  granting  by  Christ  of 
tlie  power  to  forgive  sins 
is  the  first  essential  of  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance;  in 
the  actual  exercise  of  this 
power  are  included  the 
other  essentials.  The  sac- 
rament as  such  and  on  its 
own  account  has  a  matter 
and  a  form  and  it  profluces 
certain  effects;  the  power 
of  the  ke\s  is  e.xercised  by 
T  minister  (confessor)  who 
I  lUst  iKissess  the  proper 
(lutlihcations,  and  the  ef- 
i((tb  are  wrought  in  the 
void  of  the  recipient,  i.  e., 
(Ik  ])cnitent  who  with  the 
IK  I  (  ssar\  dispositions  must 
i(itorm  certain  actions 
I  (iiif(  sMon,  satisfaction). 

]/(illir  and  Form. — Ac- 
nnhiig  to  St.  Thomas 
(^umrin  III,  Ixxiv,  a.  2) 
the  acts  of  the  penitent 
i  I  the  proximate  matter 
t  (liiN  sicrament".  This 
I  iN  I  till  teaching  of  Eu- 
Li  .iiii,vl\  inthe"Decretum 
pni  Armenis"  (Council  of 
Florence,  1439)  which  calls 
the  acts  "quasi  mntcriii  "  of 
penance  and  enumerates 
them  as  contrition,  confes- 
sion, and  satisfaction  (Denzinger-Bannwart,  "  En- 
chir. ",  699).  The  Thomists  in  general  and  other  emi- 
nent theologians,  e.  g.,  Bellarmine,  Toletus,  Suarez,  and 
De  Lugo,  hold  the  same  opinion.  According  to  Scotus 
(In  IV  Sent.,  d.  16,  q.  1,  n.  7)  "the  Sacrament  of  Pen- 
ance is  the  absolution  imparted  with  certain  words" 


first  century  or  early  in  the  second,  in  IV,  xiv,  and  while  the  acts  of  the  penitent  are  required  for  the 
again  in  XlV,  i,  commands  an  individual  confession  worthy  reception  of  the  sacrament.  The  absolution 
in  the  congregation:  "In  the  congregation  thou  shalt  as  an  external  ceremony  is  the  matter,  and,  as  posses- 
confe-ss  thy  transgressions";  oragain:  "Onthe  Lord's  sing  significative  force,  the  form.  Among  the  advo- 
Day  come  together  and  break  bread  .  .  .  having  cates  of  this  theory  are  St.  Bonaventure,  Capre- 
confessed  your  transgressions  that  your  sacrifice  may  olus,  Andreas  Vega,  and  Maldonatus.  The  Council 
be  pure."  Clement  I  (d.  99)  in  his  epistle  to  the  Corin-  of  Trent  (Sess.  XIV,  c.  3)  declares:  ""TTie  acts  of 
thians  not  only  exhorts  to  repentance,  but  begs  the  the  penitent,  namely  contrition,  confession,  and  sat- 
seditious  to  "submit  themselves  to  the  presbyters  isfaction,  are  the  quasi  materia  of  this  sacrament ". 
and  receive  correction  so  as  to  repent"  (c.  Ivii),  and  The  Roman  Catechism  (II,  v,  13)  says:  "These  ac- 
Ignatius  of  Antioch  at  the  close  of  the  first  century  tions  are  called  by  the  Council  quasi  materia  not  be- 
speaks of  the  mercy  of  God  to  sinners,  provided  they  cause  they  have  not  the  nature  of  true  matter,  but 
return  "with  one  consent  to  the  unity  of  Christ  and  because  they  are  not  the  sort  of  matter  which  is  em- 
the  communion  of  the  bishop".  The  clause  "com-  ployed  externally  as  water  in  baptism  and  chrism  in 
munion  of  the  bishop"  evidently  means  the  bi.shop  confirmation".  For  the  theological  discussion  see 
with  his  council  of  presbyters  as  assessors.     He  also  Palmieri,  op.  cit.,  p.  144  sqq.;   Pesch,  "  Prselectiones 


PENANCE 


623 


PENANCE 


dogmatic£e",  Freiburg,  1897;  De  San,  "De  poeniten- 
tia",  Bruges,  1899;  Pohle,  "Lehrb.  d.  Dogmatik". 
Regarding  the  form  of  the  sacrament^  both  the  Coun- 
cil of  Florence  and  the  Council  of  Trent  teach  that  it 
consists  iiTthe  words  of  absolution.  "The  form  of  the 
SacramehTof  "Penance,  wherein  its  force  principally 
"consists,  is  placed  in  those  words  of  the  minister:  'I 
absolve  thee,  etc. ' ;  to  these  words  indeed,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  usage  of  Holy  Church,  certain  prayers 
are  laudably  added,  but  they  do  not  pertain  to  the 
essence  of  the  form  nor  are  they  necessary  for  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  sacrament"  (Council  of  Trent, 
Sess.  XIV,  c.  3).  Concerning  these  additional  prayers, 
the  use  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches,  and  the 
question  whether  the  form  is  deprecatory  or  indicative 
and  personal,  see  Absolution.  Cf.  also  the  writers 
referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

Effect. — "_The  effect  of  this  sacrament  is  deliverance 
from  sin"  (Council  of  Florence).  The  same  definition 
in  somewhat  different  terms  is  given  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  (Sess.  XIV,  c.  3) :  "  So  far  as  pertains  to  its  force 
and  efficacy,  the  effect  {res  ct  effectus)  of  this  sacrament 
is  reconciliation  with  God,  upon  which  there  some- 
TTines  follows,  in  pious  and  devout  recipients,  peace 
and  calm  of  conscience  with  intense  consolatioiv  of 
spirit".  This  reconciliation  implies  first  of  all  that 
the  guilt  of  sin  is  remitted,  and  consequently  also  the 
eternal  punishment  due  to  mortal  sin.  As  the  Council 
of  Trent  declares,  penance  requires  the  performance 
of  satisfaction  "not  indeed  for  the  eternal  penalty 
which  is  remitted  together  with  the  guilt  either  by  the 
sacrament  or  by  the  desire  of  receiving  the  sacrament, 
but  for  the  temporal  penalty  which,  as  the  Scriptures 
teach,  is  not  always  forgiven  entirely  as  it  is  in  bap- 
tism" (Sess.  VI,  c.  14).  In  other  words  baptism  frees 
the  soul  not  only  from  all  sin  but  also  from  all  indebt- 
edness to  Divine  justice,  whereas  after  the  reception 
of  absolution  in  penance,  there  may  and  usually  does 
remain  some  temporal  debt  to  be  discharged  by  works 
\  of  satisfaction  (.see  below).  ^'ciiiMl  sins  by  which  we 
A  are  not  deprived  of  the  grac^if  (ioil  and  into  wliich 
^we  very  frequently  fall  are  rightly  and  usefidly  de- 
cEretTm  confession;  but  mention  of  them  may,  with- 
'  out  any  fault,  be  omitted  and  they  can  be  expiated 
"by  many  other  remedies"  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess. 
'  XIV,  c.  3).  Thus,  an  act  of  contrition  suffices  to  ob-  - 
tain  forgiveness  ciTvenial  sin,  and  the  same  effect  is_ 
-'product'd  by  the  worthy  reception  of  sacraments  other 

than  penance,  e.  g.,  by  Holy  Communion. 
."V"  "  The  reconciliation  of  the  sinner  with  God  has  as  a 
;/  furfTISTTonsequence  the  revival  of  those  merits  which 
he  had  obtained  before  committing  grievous  sin.  Good 
works  performed  in  the  state  of  grace  deserve  a  reward 
Tr'om  God,  but  this  is  forfeited  by  mortal  sin,  so  that 
if  tlie  sinner  should  die  unforgiven  his  good  deeds 
avail  him  nothing.  So  long  as  he  remains  in  sin,  he  is 
incapable  of  meriting:  even  works  which  are  good  in 
"'{hemselves  are,  in  his  case,  worthless:  they  cannot 
revive,  because  they  never  were  alive.  But  once  his 
sin  is  cancelled  by  penance,  he  regains  not  only  the 
state  of  grace  but  also  the  entire  store  of  merit  which 
had,  before  his  sin,  been  placed  to  his  credit.  On  this 
point  theologians  are  practically  unanimous:  the  only 
hindrance  to  obtaining  reward  is  sin,  and  when  this  is 
removed,  the  former  title,  so  to  speak,  is  revalidated. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  there  were  no  such  revalidation, 
the  loss  of  merit  once  acquired  would  be  equivalent  to 
an  eternal  punishment,  which  is  incompatible  with  the 
forgiveness  effected  by  penance.  As  to  the  further 
question  regarding  the  manner  and  extent  of  the  re- 
vival of  merit,  various  opinions  have  been  proposed; 
but  that  which  is  generally  accepted  holds  with  Suarez 
(De  reviviscentia  meritorum)  tliat  the  revival  is  com- 
plete, i.  e.,  the  forgiven  penitent  lias  to  his  credit  as 
much  merit  as  though  he  had  never  sinned.  See  De 
Augustinis,  "De  re  sacramentaria",  II,  Rome,  1887; 
Pesch,  op.  cit.,  VII;    Gottler,  "Der  hi.  Thomas  v. 


Aquin  u.  die  vortridentinischen  Thomisten  iiber  die 
Wirkungen  d.  Busssakramentes",  Freiburg,  1904. 

The  Minister,  i.  e.,  the  confessor. — From  the  ju- 
dicial character  of  this  sacrament  it  follows  that  not 
every  member  of  the  Church  is  qualified  to  forgive 
sins;  the  administration  of  penance  is  reserved  to 
those  who  are  invested  with  authority.  That  this 
power  does  not  belong  to  the  laity  is  evident  from  the 
Bull  of  Martin  V  "Inter  cunctas"  (1418)  which  among 
other  questions  to  be  answered  by  the  followers  of 
Wyclif  and  Huss,  has  this:  "whether  he  believes  that 
the  Christian  ...  is  bound  as  a  necessary  means  of 
salvation  to  confess  to  a  priest  only  and  not  to  a  lay- 
man or  to  laymen  however  good  and  devout"  (Den- 
zinger-Bannwart,  "Enchir.",  670).  Luther's  proposi- 
tion, that  "any  Christian,  even  a  woman  or  a  child" 
could  in  the  absence  of  a  priest  absolve  as  well  as  pope 
or  bi.shop,was  condemned  (1520)  by  Leo  X  in  the  Bull 
"E.xurge  Domine"  (Enchir.,  7.53).  The  Council  of 
Trent  (Se.ss.  XIV,  c.  6)  condemns  as  "false  and  as  at 
variance  with  the  truth  of  the  Ciospel  all  doctrines 
which  extend  the  ministry  of  the  keys  to  any  others 
than  bishops  and  priests,  imagining  that  the  words 
of  the  Lord  (Matt.,  xviii,  18;  John,  xx,  23)  were, 
contrary  to  the  institution  of  this  sacrament,  ad- 
dressed to  all  the  faithful  of  Christ  in  such  wise  that 
each  :iiiil  (•\(iy  oiii'  has  thi'  power  of  remitting  sin". 


Ilhollr  ,1. 


Til 

and  prii':  Is  can 

These  decaer; 

the  usage,  whic 

time  in  the  Mid 


tli^ 


icfore,  is  that  only  bishops 

MTcisc  flio  power: 

iKiroover  put  an  end,  practically,  to 
had  sprung  up  and  lasted  for  some 
e  .\ges,  of  confessing  to  a  layman  in 
case  of  necessity.  This  custom  originated  in  the  con- 
viction that  he  who  had  sinned  was  obliged  to  make_. 
known  his  sin  to  some  one — to  a  priest  if  possible, 
otherwise  to  a  layman.  In  the  work  "On  true  penance 
and  false"  (De  vera  et  falsa  poenitentia),  erroneously 
ascribed  to  St.  Augustine,  the  counsel  is  given:  ">So 
great  is  the  power  of  confession  that  if  a  priest  be  not 
at  hand,  let  him  (the  person  desiring  to  confess)  con- 
fess to  his  neighbour."  But  in  the  same  place  the 
explanation  is  given:  "although  he  to  whom  the  con- 
fession is  made  has  no  power  to  absolve,  nevertheless 
he  who  confesses  to  his  fellow  (socio)  becomes  worthy 
of  pardon  through  his  desire  of  confessing  to  a  priest" 
(P.  L.,  XL,  1113).  Lea,  who  cites  (I,  220)  the  asser- 
tion of  the  Pseudo-Augustine  about  confession  to 
one's  neighbour,  passes  over  the  explanation.  He  con- 
sequently sets  in  a  wrong  light  a  series  of  incidents 
illustrating  the  practice  and  gives  but  an  imperfect 
idea  of  the  theological  discussion  which  it  aroused. 
Though  Albertus  Magnus  (In  IV  Sent.,  dist.  17,  art. 
.58)  regarded  as  sacramental  the  absolution  granted  by 
a  layman  while  St.  Thomas  (IV  Sent.,  d.  17,  q.  3,  a.  3, 
sol.  2)  speaks  of  it  as  "quodammodo  sacramentalis", 
other  great  theologians  took  a  quite  different  view. 
Alexander  of  Hales  (Summa,  Q.  xix,  De  confe.s.sione 
memb.,  I,  a.  1)  says  that  it  is  an  "imploring  of  abso- 
lution"; St.  Bonaventure  ("Opera",  VII,  p.  345, 
Lyons,  1668)  that  such  a  confession  even  in  cases  of 
necessity  is  not  obligatory,  but  merely  a  sign  of  contri- 
tion; Scotus  (IV Sent. ,d.  14,q.4)  that  there  is  no  pre- 
cept obliging  one  to  confess  to  a  layman  and  that  this 
practice  may  be  very  detrimental;  Durandus  of  St. 
Pourcain  (IV  Sent.,  d.  17,  q.  12)  that  in  the  absence 
of  a  priest,  who  alone  can  absolve  in  the  tribunal  of 
penance,  there  is  no  obligation  to  confess;  Prierias 
(Summa  Silv.,  s.  v.  Confessor,  I,  1)  that  if  absolution 
is  given  by  a  layman,  the  confession  mu.st  be  repeated 
whenever  possible;  this  in  fact  was  the  general  opin- 
ion. It  is  not  then  surprising  that  Dominicus  Soto, 
writing  in  1.564,  should  find  it  difficult  to  believe  that 
such  a  custom  ever  existed:  "since  (in  confession  to 
a  layman)  there  was  no  sacrament  ...  it  is  incred- 
ible that  men,  of  their  own  accord  and  with  no  profit 
to  themselves,  should  reveal  to  others  the  secrets  of 
their  conscience"  (IV  Sent.,  d.  18,  q.  4,  a.  1).    Since, 


PENANCE 


624 


PENANCE 


therefore,  the  weight  of  theological  opinion  gradually- 
turned  agamst  the  practice  and  since  the  practice 
never  received  the  sanction  of  the  Church,  it  cannot  be 
urged  as  a  proof  that  the  power  to  forgive  sins  be- 
longed at  any  time  to  the  laity.  What  the  practice 
does  show  is  that  both  people  and  theologians  realized 
keenly  the  obligation  of  confessing  their  sins  not  to 
God  alone  but  to  some  human  listener,  even  though 
the  latter  possessed  no  power  to  absolve. 

The  same  exaggerated  notion  appears  in  the  prac- 
tice of  confessing  to  the  deacons  in  case  of  necessity. 
They  were  naturally  preferred  to  laymen  when  no 
priest  was  accessible  because  in  virtue  of  their  office 
they  administered  Holy  Communion.  Moreover, 
some  of  the  earlier  councils  (Elvira,  a.  d.  300;  Toledo, 
400)  and  penitent  ials  (Theodore)  seemed  to  grant  the 
power  of  penance  to  the  deacon  (in  the  priest's  ab- 
sence). The  Council  of  Tribur  (895)  declared  in 
regard  to  bandits  that  if,  when  captured  or  wounded, 
they  confessed  to  a  priest  or  a  deacon,  they  should 
not  be  denied  communion;  and  this  expression  "pres- 
bytero  vel  diacono"  was  incorporated  in  the  Decree  of 
Gratian  and  in  many  later  documents  from  the  tenth 
century  to  the  thirteenth.  The  Council  of  York 
(1195)  decreed  that  except  in  the  gravest  necessity 
the  deacon  should  not  baptize,  give  communion,  or 
"impose  penance  on  one  who  confessed".  Substan- 
tially the  same  enactments  are  found  in  the  Councils 
of  London  (1200)  and  Rouen  (1231),  the  constitutions 
of  St.  Edmund  of  Canterbury  (1236),  and  those  of 
Walter  of  Kirkham,  Bishop  of  Durham  (1255).  All 
these  enactments,  though  stringent  enough  as  regards 
ordinary  circumstances,  make  exception  for  urgent 
necessity.  No  such  exception  is  allowed  in  the  decree 
of  the  Synod  of  Poitiers  (1280) :  "desiring  to  root  out 
an  erroneous  abuse  which  has  grown  up  in  our  diocese 
through  dangerous  ignorance,  we  forbid  deacons  to 
hear  confessions  or  to  give  absolution  in  the  tribunal 
of  penance:  for  it  is  certain  and  beyond  doubt  that 
they  cannot  absolve,  since  they  have  not  the  keys 
which  are  conferred  only  in  the  priestly  order".  This 
"abuse"  probably  disappeared  in  the  fourteenth  or 
fifteenth  century;  at  all  events  no  direct  mention  is 
made  of  it  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  though  the  reser- 
vation to  bishops  and  priests  of  the  absolving  power 
shows  plainly  that  the  Council  excluded  deacons. 

The  authorization  which  the  medieval  councils  gave 
the  deacon  in  case  of  necessity  did  not  confer  the 
power  to  forgive  sins.  In  some  of  the  decrees  it  is 
expressly  stated  that  the  deacon  has  not  the  keys — 
claves  non  habenl.  In  other  enactments  he  is  forbidden 
except  in  cases  of  necessity  to  "give"  or  "impose 
penance",  fxenileniiam  dare,  imponere.  His  function 
then  was  limited  to  the  forum  externum;  in  the 
ab.sence  of  a  priest  he  could  "reconcile"  the  sinner, 
i.  e.,  restore  him  to  the  communion  of  the  Church; 
but  he  did  not  and  could  not  give  the  sacramental 
absolution  which  a  priest  would  have  given  (Palmieri, 
Pesch).  Another  explanation  emphasizes  the  fact 
that  the  deacon  could  lawfully  administer  the  Holy 
Eucharist.  The  faithful  were  under  a  strict  obligation 
to  receive  Communion  at  the  approach  of  death,  and 
on  the  other  hand  the  reception  of  this  sacrament 
sufficed  to  blot  out  even  mortal  sin  provided  the  com- 
municant had  the  requisite  dispositions.  The  deacon 
could  hear  their  confession  .simplv  to  assure  himself 
that  they  were  properly  disposed,  but  not  for  the  pur- 
pose of  gi\'ing  them  absolution.  If  he  went  further  and 
"imposed  penance"  in  the  stricter,  sacramental  sense, 
he  exceeded  his  power,  and  any  authorization  to  this 
effect  granted  by  the  bishop  merely  showed  that  the 
bishop  was  in  error  (Laurain,  "De  I'intervention  des 
laiques.  des  diacres  et  des  abbesses  dans  I'administra- 
tion  de  la  pi5nitence",  Paris,  1897).  In  any  case,  the 
prohibitory  enactments  which  finally  abolished  the 
practice  did  not  deprive  the  deacon  of  a  power 
which  was  his  by  virtue  of  his  office;  but  they  brought 


into  clearer  light  the  traditional  belief  that  only 
bishops  and  priests  can  administer  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance.     (See  below  under  Confession.) 

For  valid  administration,  a  twofold  power  is  neces- 
sary; the  power  of  order  and  the  power  of  jurisdic- 
tion. The  former  is  conferred  by  ordination,  the 
latter  by  ecclesiastical  authority  (see  Jurisdiction). 
At  his  ordination  a  priest  receives  the  power  to  con- 
secrate the  Holy  Eucharist,  and  for  valid  consecration 
he  needs  no  jurisdiction.  As  regards  penance,  the 
case  is  different:  "because  the  nature  and  character 
of  a  judgment  requires  that  sentence  be  pronounced 
only  on  those  who  are  subjects  (of  the  judge)  the 
Church  of  God  has  always  held,  and  this  Council 
affirms  it  to  be  most  true,  that  the  absolution  which 
a  priest  pronounces  upon  one  over  whom  he  has  not 
either  ordinary  or  delegated  jurisdiction,  is  of  no 
effect"  (Council  of  Trent,  Sess.  XIV,  c.7).  Ordinary 
jurisdiction  is  that  which  one  has  by  reason  of  his 
office  as  involving  the  care  of  souls;  the  pope  has  it 
over  the  whole  Church,  the  bishop  within  his  diocese, 
the  pastor  within  his  parish.  Delegated  jurisdiction 
is  that  which  is  granted  by  an  ecclesiastical  superior 
to  one  who  does  not  possess  it  by  virtue  of  his  office. 
The  need  of  jurisdiction  for  administering  this  sacra- 
ment is  usually  expressed  by  saying  that  a  priest  must 
have  "faculties"  to  hear  confession  (.see  Faculties). 
Hence  it  is  that  a  priest  visiting  in  a  diocese  other 
than  his  own  cannot  hear  confession  without  special 
authorization  from  the  bishop.  E^ery  priest,  how- 
ever, can  absolve  any  one  who  is  at  the  point  of  death, 
because  under  those  circumstances  the  Church  gives  all 
priests  jurisdiction.  As  the  bishop  grants  jurisdiction, 
he  can  also  limit  it  by  "reserving"  certain  cases  (see 
Reservation)  and  he  can  even  withtlraw  it  entirely. 

Recipient,  i.  e.,  the  penitent. — The  Sacrament  .of 
Penance  was  instituted  by  Christ  Tor  the  remission  of 
sins  committed  after  baptism.  Hence,  no  unbaptized  ^/ 
person,  however  deep  and  sincere  his  sorrow,  can  be  '/'t 
validly  absolved.  Baptism,  in  other  words,  is  the  first 
essential  requisite  on  the  part,  of  the  penitent.  This 
does  not  imply  that  in  the  sins  committed  by  an  un- 
baptized person  there  is  a  special  enormity  or  any- 
other  element  that  places  them  beyond  the  power  of 
the  keys;  but  that  one  must  first  be  a  member  of  the 
Church  before  he  can  submit  himself  and  his  sins  to 
the  judicial  process  of  sacramental  Penance. 

Contrition;  Attrition. — Without  sorrow  for  sin 
there  is  no  forgiveness.  iTehce  the  Council  of  Trent\ 
(Sess.  XIV,  c.  4):  "Contrition,  which  holds  the  first  V 
place  among  the  acts  of  the  penitent,  is  sorrow  of  heart  / 
and  detestation  for  sin  committed,  with  the  resolve/ 
to  sin  no  more".  The  Council  (ibid.)  furthermore  dis- 
tinguishes perfect  contrition  from  imperfect  contrition, 
which  is  called  attrition,  and  which  arises  from  the 
consideration  of  the  turpitude  of  sin  or  from  the  fear 
of  hell  and  punishment.  See  Attrition;  Contri- 
tion, where  these  two  kinds  of  sorrow  are  more  fully 
explained  and  an  account  is  given  of  the  principal  dis- 
cussions and  opinions.  See  also  treatises  by  Pesch, 
Palmieri,  Pohle.  For  the  present  purpose  it  need  only 
be  stated  that  attrition,  with  the  Sacrament  of  Pen- 
ance, suffices  to  obtain  forgiveness  of  sin.  The  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  further  teaches  (ibid.):  "though  it  some- 
times happens  that  this  contrition  is  perfect  and  that 
it  reconciles  man  with  God  before  the  actual  reception 
of  this  sacrament,  still  the  reconciliation  is  not  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  contrition  itself  apart  from  the  desire 
of  the  sacrament  which  it  (contrition)  includes".  In 
accordance  with  this  teaching  Pius  V  condemned 
(1.567)  the  proposition  of  Baius  a,sserting  that  even 
perfect  contrition  does  not,  except  in  case  of  necessity 
or  of  martyrdom,  remit  sin  without  the  actual  recep- 
tion of  the  sacrament  (Denzinger-Bannwart,  "En- 
chir.",  1071).  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the 
contrition  of  which  the  Council  speaks  is  perfect  in  the 
sense  that  it  includes  the  desire  (volum)  to  receive  the 


PENANCE 


625 


PENANCE 


sacrament.  Siioever,  in  fact,  repents  of  his  sin  out 
of  love  for  God  must  be  willing  to  comply  with  the 
Divine  ordinance  regarding  penance,  i.  e.,  he  would 
confess  if^a  confessor  were  accessible,  and  he  realizes 
that  he  is  obliged  to  confess  when  he  has  the  oppor- 
tunity. But  it  does  not  follow  that  the  penitent  is  at 
liberty  to  choose  between  two  modes  of  obtaining  for- 
giveness, one  by  an  act  of  contrition  independently  of 
the  sacrament,  the  other  by  confession  and  absolution. 
This  view  was  put  forward  by  Peter  Martinez  (de 
Osma)  in  the  proposition:  "mortal  sins  as  regards 
their  guilt  and  their  punishment  in  the  other  world, 
are  blotted  out  by  contrition  alone  without  any  refer- 
ence to  the  keys";  and  the  proposition  was  con- 
demned by  Sixtus  IV  in  1479  (Denzinger-Bannwart, 
"  Enchir.",  724) .  Hence  it  is  clear  that  not  even  heart- 
felt sorrow  based  on  the  highest  motives,  can,  in  the 
present  order  of  salvation,  dispense  with  the  power 
of  the  keys,  i.  e.,  with  the  Sacrament  of  Penance. 

Confession;  Necessity. — "For  those  who  after  bap- 
tism have  fallen  into  sin,  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  is 
as  necessary  unto  salvation  as  is  baptism  itself  for 
those  who  have  not  yet  been  regenerated"  (Council 
of  Trcut,  iSess.  XIV,  c.  2).  -  Penance,  therefore,  is  not 
an  institution  the  u.se  of  which  was  left  to  the  optioti 
of  each  sinner,  so  that  he  might,  if  he  preferred,  hold 
aloof  from  tlie  Church  and  secure  forgiveness  by  some 
other  means,  e.  g.,  by  acknowledging  his  sin  in  the 
prTvacy  of  his  own  mind.  As  already  staled,  thepower 
granted  by  Christ  to  the  Apostles  is  twofold,  to  for- 
give and  to  retain,  in  such  a  way  that  what  they 
forgive  God  forgives  and  what  they  retain  God  re- 
tains. But  this  grant  would  be  nullified  if,  in  case  the 
Church  retained  the  sins  of  a  penitent,  he  could,  as  it 
were,  take  appeal  to  God's  tribunal  and  obtain  par- 
don. Nor  would  the  power  to  retain  have  any  meaning 
if  the  sinner,  passing  over  the  Church,  went  in  the 
first  instance  to  God,  since  by  the  very  terms  of  the 
grant,  God  retains  sin  once  committed  so  long  as  it  is 
not  remitted  by  the  Church.  It  would  indeed  have 
been  strangely  inconsistent  if  Christ  in  conferring  this 
twofold  power  on  the  Apostles  had  intended  to  pro- 
vide some  other  means  of  forgiveness  such  as  con- 
fessing "to  God  alone".  Not  only  the  Apostles,  but 
any  one  with  an  elementary  knowledge  of  human 
nature  would  have  perceived  at  once  that  the  easier 
means  would  be  chosen,  and  that  the  grant  of  power 
so  formally  and  solemnly  made  by  Christ  had  no  real 
significance  (Palmieri,  op.  cit.,  thesis  X).  On  the 
other  hand,  once  it  is  admitted  that  the  grant  was 
effectual  and  consequently  that  the  sacrament  is 
necessary  in  order  to  obtain  forgiveness,  it  plainly 
follows  that  the  penitent  must  in  some  way  make 
known  his  sin  to  tho.se  who  exercise  the  power.  This 
is  conceded  even  by  those  who  reject  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance  as  a  Divine  institution.  "Such  remission 
was  manifestly  impossible  without  the  declaration  of 
the  offences  to  be  forgiven"  (Lea,  "HLstory  etc.",  I, 
p.  182).  The  Council  of  Trent,  after  declaring  that 
Christ  left  His  priests  as  His  vicars  unto  whom  aa 
rulers  and  judges  the  faithful  must  make  known  their 
sins,  adds:  "It  is  evident  that  the  priests  could  not 
have  exercised  this  judgment  without  knowledge  of 
the  cause,  nor  could  they  have  observed  justice  in 
enjoining  satisfaction  if  (the  faithful)  had  declared 
their  sins  in  a  general  way  only  and  not  specifically 
and  in  detail"  (Sess.  XIV,  c.  .5). 

Since  the  priest  in  the  pardoning  of  sin  exercises 
a  strictly  judicial  function,  Christ  must  will  that  such 
tremendous  power  be  used  wisely  and  prudently. 
Moreover,  in  virtue  of  the  grant  of  Christ  the  priest 
can  forgive  all  sins  without  distinction,  qucBcumque 
solverilis.  How  can  a  wise  and  prudent  judgment 
be  rendered  if  the  priest  be  in  ignorance  of  the  cause 
on  which  judgment  is  pronounced?  And  how  can  he 
obtain  the  requisite  knowledge  unless  it  come  from 
the  spontaneous  acknowledgment  of  the  sinner?  This 
XL— 40 


necessity  of  manifestation  is  all  the  clearer  if  satisfac- 
tion for  sin,  which  from  the  beginning  has  been  part 
of  the  penitential  discipline,  is  to  be  imposed  not  only 
wisely  but  also  justly.  That  there  is  a  necessary  con- 
nexion between  the  prudent  judgment  of  the  confessor 
and  the  detailed  confession  of  sins  is  evident  from  the 
nature  of  a  judicial  procedure  and  especially  from  a 
full  analysis  of  the  grant  of  Christ  in  the  light  of 
tradition.  No  judge  may  release  or  condemn  without 
full  knowledge  of  the  case.  And  again  the  tradition 
of  the  earliest  time  sees  in  the  words  of  Christ  not 
only  the  office  of  the  judge  sitting  in  judgment,  but 
the  kindness  of  a  father  who  weeps  with  the  repentant 
child  (Aphraates,  "Ep.  de  Poenitentia",  dem.  7)  and 
the  skill  of  the  physician  who  after  the  manner  of 
Christ  heals  the  wounds  of  the  soul  (Origen  in  P.  G., 
XII,  418;  P.  L.,  XIII,  1086).  Clearly,  therefore,  the 
words  of  Christ  imply  the  doctrine  of  the  external 
manifestation  of  conscience  to  a  priest  in  order  to 
obtain  pardon. 

Confessio7i;  Various  Kinds. — Confession  is  the 
avowal  of  one's  own  sins  made  tcTa^dxily  authorized 
priest  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  their  forgiveness 
through  the  power  of  the  keys.  Virtual  confession  is 
simply  the  will  to  confess  even  where,  owing  to  cir- 
cumstances, declaration  of  sin  is  impossible;  actual 
confession  is  any  action  by  which  the  penitent  mani- 
fests his  sin.  It  may  be  made  in  general  terms,  e.  g., 
by  reciting  the  "Confiteor",  or  it  may  consist  in  a 
more  or  less  detailed  statement  of  one's  sins;  when 
the  statement  is  complete,  the  confession  is  distinct. 
Public  confession,  as  made  in  the  hearing  of  a  number 
of  people  (e.  g.  a  congregation)  differs  from  private, 
or  secret,  confession  which  is  made  to  the  priest  alone 
and  is  often  called  auricular,  i.  e.,  spoken  into  the 
ear  of  the  confessor.  We  are  here  concerned  mainly 
with  actual  distinct  confession  which  is  the  usual 
practice  in  the  Church  and  which  so  far  as  the  validity 
of  the  sacrament  is  concerned,  may  be  either  public  or 
priv  ate.  "As  regards  the  method  of  confessing  secretly 
to  the  priest  alone,  though  Christ  did  not  forbid  that 
any  one,  in  punishment  of  his  crimes  and  for  his  own 
humiliation  as  also  to  give  others  an  example  and  to 
edify  the  Church,  should  confess  his  sins  publicly, 
still,  this  has  not  been  commanded  by  Divine  precept 
nor  would  it  be  prudent  to  decree  by  any  human  law 
that  sins,  especially  secret  sins,  should  be  ]jublicly 
confessed.  Since,  then,  secret  sacramental  confession, 
which  from  the  beginning  has  been  and  even  now  is 
the  usage  of  the  Church,  was  always  commended  with 
great  and  unanimous  consent  by  the  holiest  and  most 
ancient  Fathers;  thereby  is  plainly  refuted  the  foolish 
calumny  of  those  who  make  bold  to  teach  that  it 
(secret  confession)  is  something  foreign  to  the  Divine 
command,  a  human  invention  devised  by  the  Fathers 
assembled  in  the  Lateran  Council  "  (Council  of  Trent, 
Sess.  XIV,  c.  .5).  It  is  therefore  Catholic  doctrine, 
first,  that  Christ  did  not  prescribe  public  confession, 
salutary  as  it  might  be,  nor  did  He  forbid  it;  second, 
that  secret  confession,  sacramental  in  character,  has 
been  the  practice  of  the  Church  from  the  earliest  days. 
Traditional  Belief  and  Practice. — How  firmly  rooted 
in  the  Catholic  mind  is  the  belief  uPEhe  efficacy  and 
-  necessity  of  confession,  appears  clearly  from  the  fact 
that  the  Sacrament  of  Penance  endures  in  the  Church 
after  the  countless  attacks  to  which  it  has  been  sub- 
jected during  the  last  four  centuries.  If  at  the  Refor- 
mation or  since  the  Church  could  have  surrendered  a 
doctrine  or  abandoned  a  practice  for  the  sake  of  peace 
and  to  soften  a  "hard  saying",  confession  would  have 
been  the  first  to  disappear.  Yet  it  is  precisely  during 
this  period  that  the  Church  has  defined  in  the  most 
exact  terms  the  nature  of  penance  and  most  vigorously 
insisted  on  the  necessity  of  confession.  It  will  not  of 
course  be  denied  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century  confession  was  generally  practised  throughout 
the  Christian  world.    The  Reformers  themselves,  not- 


PENANCE 


626 


PENANCE 


ably  Cahnn,  admitted  that  it  had  been  in  existence  after  baptism  cannot  be  saved  unless  they  submit  to 

for  three  centuries  when  they  attributed  its  origin  to  the  keys  of  the  Church  either  by  actually  confessing 

the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215).     At  that  time,  or  by  the  resolve  to  confess  when  opportunity  permits, 

according  to  Lea  (op.  cit.,  1, 228),  the  necessity  of  con-  Furthermore,  as  the  rulers  of  the  Church  oiinnot  dis- 

fession  "became  a  new  article  of  faith "  and  the  canon,  pense  any  one  from  baptism  as  a  means  of  salvation, 

omnii- H(h!isgues€jw.s,  "is  perhaps  the  most  important  neither  can  they  give  a  dispensation  whereby  the 

legislative  act  in  the  history  of  the  Church     (ibid.,  sinner  may  be  forgiven  without  confession  and  absolu- 

230).     But,   as  the  Council  of  Trent  affirms,  "the  tion.     The  same  explanation  and  reasoning  is  given 

Church  did  not  through  the  Lateran  Council  prescribe  by  all  the  Scholastics  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 

that  the  faithful  of  Christ   should  confess — a  thing  centuries.    They  were  in  practical  agreement  as  to  the 

which  it  knew  to  be  by  Divine  right  necessary  and  necessity  of  jurisdicticjii  in  the  confessor.    Regarding 

established— but  that  the  precept  of  confessing  at  least  the  time  at  which  confession  had  to  be  made,  some 

once  a  year  sliould  be  complied  with  by  all  and  every  held  with  William  of  Auvergne  that  one  was  obliged 

one  when  tlicy  readied  the  age  of  discretion"  (Sess.,  to  confess  as  soon  as  possible  after  sinning;    others 

XIV,  c.  5).    The  Lateran  edict  presupposed  the  neces-  witli  All icif  us  Magnus  and  St.  Thomas  that  it  sufficed 

sity  of  confession  as  an  article  of  Catholic  belief  and  to  iiinl(<^  wiihiu  the  time  limits  prescribed  by  the 


laid  down  a  law  as  to  the  minimum  frequency  of  con 
fession — at  least  once  a  year. 

In  the  Middle  Ages. — In  constructing  their  systems 
of  theoIog\',  the  medieval  doctors  discuss  at  length  the 
variousproblems 
connected  with  the 
Sacrament  of  Pen- 
ance. They  are  prac- 
tically unanimous  in 
holding  that  confes- 
sion isobligatory ;  the 
only  notable  excep- 
tion in  the  twelfth 
century  is  Gratian, 
who  gives  the  argu- 
ments for  and  against 
the  necessity  of  con- 
fessing to  a  priest  and 
leaves  the  question 
open  (Decretum,  p. 
II,  De  pcen.,  d.  1,  in 
P.  L.,  CLXXXVII, 
1519-63).  Peter 
Lombard  (d.  about 
1150)  takes  up  the 
authorities  cited  by 
Gratian  and  by 
means  of  them  pro\cs 
that  "without  con- 
fession there  is  no 
pardon"  .  .  .  " no  en- 
trance into  paradise  " 
(IV  Sent.,  (1.  XVII, 
4,  in  P.  L.,  CXCII, 
880-2).  The  princi- 
pal debate,  in  which 


*?^-         -> 


Confessional 
Church  of  St.  Paul,  Antwerp 

Hugh  of  St.  Victor,  Abelard,  Robert  Pullus,  and  Peter 
of  Poitiers  took  the  leading  parts,  concerned  tlin  origin 
and  sanction  of  the  obligation,  and  the  value  of  the 
different  Scriptural  texts  cited  to  prove  the  iustitiition 
of  penance.    This  question  passed  on  to  the  thirteenth 


Church  il':isrhal  Time);  and  this  more  lenient  view 
finally  prevailed.  Further  subjects  of  discussion  dur- 
ing this  period  were:  the  choice  of  confessor;  the 
obligation  of  confessing  before  receiving  other  sacra- 
ments, especially  the 
Euchari.sl ;  the  integ- 
rity of  confession ;  the 
obligation  of  secrecy 
on  the  part  of  the  con- 
fe.ssor,  i.  e.,  the  seal  of 
confession.  The  care- 
ful and  minute  treat- 
ment of  these  points 
and  the  frank  ex- 
pression of  divergent 
opinions  were  charac- 
teristic of  the  School- 
men, but  they  also 
brought  out  more 
clearly  the  central 
truths  regarding  pen- 
ance and  tlicy  opened 
the  way  to  the  concil- 
iar  pronouncements 
at  Florence  and  Trent 
which  gave  to  Cath- 
olic doctrine  a  more 
precise  formulation. 
See  Vacandard  and 
Bernard  in  "Diet,  de 
theol.  cath.",  s.  v. 
Confession;  Turmel, 
"Hist,  de  la  thfolo- 
gie  positive",  Paris, 
1904;  Cambier,  "De 
divina    institutione 


confessionis  sacramentalis",  Louvain,  1884. 

Not  only  was  the  obligalinTi  rccdgnizcd  in  the  Cath- 
olic Church  throughout    ilic   .Middle  Ages,   but  the 
schismatic  Greeks  Field  the  .same  lielief  and  still  hold 
They  fell  into  schism  under  Photius  (q.  v.)  in  869, 


centur)'  and  received  its  solution  in  verj-  plain  terms  but  retained  confession,  which  therefore  must  have 

from  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.    Treating  (Contra  Gentes,  been  in  use  for  some  time  previous  to  the  ninth  cen- 

IV,  72)  of  the  necessity  of  penance  and  its  parts,  he  tury.    The  practice,  moreover,  was  regulated  in  detail 

shows  that  "the  institution  of  confession  was  ncces-  by  the  Penitential  Books  (q.  v.),  which  prescribed  the 

sary  in  order  that  the  sin  of  the  penitent  might  be  canonical  penance  for  each  sin,  and  minute  questions 

revealed  to  Christ's  minister;   hence  the  minister  to  for  the  examination  of  the  penitent.    The  most  famous 

whom   the   confession   is  made   must   have  judicial  of  these  books  among  the  Greeks  were  those  attributed 

power  as  representing  Christ,  the  Judge  of  the  living  to  John  the  Faster  (q.  v.)  and  to  John  the  Monk.    In 

and  the  dead.    This  power  again  requires  two  things:  the  West  similar  works  were  written  by  the  Irish 

authority  of  knowlcfige  and  [)ower  to  absolve  or  to  monks  St.  Columbanus  (d.  615)  and  Cumniian,  and 

condemn.  These  are  called  the  two  kevs  of  the  Church  by  the  Englishmen  Ven.  Bede  (d.  735),  Egbert  (d. 

which  the  LonI  entrusted  to  Peter  (Matt.,  xvi,  19).  767),  and  Theodore  of  Canterbury  (d.  690).    Besides 

But  they  were  not  given  to  Peter  to  be  held  by  him  the  councils  nicnlioned  alMi\e  (Minister)  decrees  per- 

alone,  but  to  be  handed  on  through  him  to  others;  else  taining  Ici  c(iiil'c.ssioM  were  enacted  at  Worms  (868), 

sufficient  provision  would  not  have  been  made  for  the  Paris  (820),  Chalons  (Si;j,  6.00),  Tours  (813),  Reims 

salvation  of  the  faithful.     The.se  keys  derive  their  (813).     The   Council   of  Chalcuth  (785)  says:    "if 

efficacy  from  the  pa-ssion  of  Christ  whereby  He  opened  any  one  (which  God  forbid)  should  depart  this  life 

to  us  the  gate  of  the  heavenly  kingdom".     And  he  without  penance  or  confession  he  is  not  to  be  prayed 

adds  that  as  no  one  can  be  saved  without  baptism  for".    The  significant  features  about  these  enactments 

either  by  actual  reception  or  by  desire,  so  they  who  sin  is  that  they  do  not  introduce  confession  as  a  new  prac- 


PENANCE 


627 


PENANCE 


tice,  but  take  it  for  granted  and  regulate  its  adminis- 
tration. Thereby  tliey  put  into  practical  effect  what 
had  been  handed  down  by  tradition. 
_i)t.  Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604)  teaches:  "the  afflic- 
tion of  penance  is  efficacious  in  blotting  out  sins  when 
it  is  enjoined  bj-  the  sentence  of  the  priest,  when  the 
burden  of  it  is  decided  by  him  in  proportion  to  the 
offence  after  weigliing  the  deeds  of  those  who  confess" 
(In  I  Reg.,  Ill,  V,  n.  13  in  P.  L.,  LXXIX,  207);  Popj 
Leo  theGreat  (440-Gl),  who  is  often  credited  witlTThe 
'institulibn  of  confession,  refers  to  it  as  an  "Apostolic' 
~'nile".  Writing  to  the  bishops  of  Campania  he  lor- 
bids  as  an  abuse  "contrary  to  the  Apostolic  rule" 
{contra  apostolicam  regulam)  the  reading  out  in  public 
of  a  written  statement  of  their  sins  drawn  up  by  the 
faithful,  because,  he  declares,  "it  suffices  that  the 
guilt  of  conscience  be  manifested  to  priests  alone  in 
secret  confession  "  (Ep.  clxviiiinP.  L.,  LIV,  1210).  In 
another  letter  (Ep.  cviii  in  P.  L.,  LIV,  1011),  after 
declaring  that  by  Divine  ordinance  the  mercy  of  God 
can  be  obtained  only  through  the  su]5plications  of  the 
priests,  he  adds:  "the  mediator  between  God  and 
men,  Christ  Jesus,  gave  the  rulers  of  the  Church  this 
power  that  they  should  impose  penance  on  those  who 
confess  and  admit  them  when  purified  by  salutary 
satisfaction  to  the  communion  of  the  sacraments 
through  the  gateway  of  reconciliation."  The  earher 
Fathers  frerjuently  speak  of  sin  as  a  disease  which 
needs  treatment,  sometimes  drastic,  at  the  hands  of 
the  spiritual  physician  or  .surgeon.  St.  Augustine  (d. 
4:30)  tells  the  sinner:  "an  abscess  liaTl  formed  in  yoiir 
conscieni'i-;  it  tormented  j'ou  and  gave  you  no  rest. 
.  .  .  ciiiilV-^-;,  nnil  in  ciinfes.sion  let  the  pus  come  out 
an(lfl..u-L\v;iy"  (,Iu  ps.  ixvi.n.  6).  St.  Jerome  (d.  420) 
comparing  the  priests  of  the  Xew  Law  with  those  of 
theOld  who  decided  between  leprosy  and  leprosy ,  says : 
"likewise  in  the  New  Testament  the  bishops  and  the 
priest  bind  or  loose  ...  in  virtue  of  their  office, 
having  heard  various  sorts  of  sinners,  they  know  who 
is  to  be  bound  and  who  is  to  be  loosed"  .  .  .  (In 
Matt.,  x\d,  19);  in  his  "Sermon  on  Penance"  he  says: 
"let  no  one  find  it  irksome  to  show  his  wound  (vxdnus 
confileri)  because  without  confession  it  cannot  be 
healed."  St.  Ambro.se  (d.  397):  "this  right  (of 
loosing  and  binding)  has  been  conferred  on  priests 
only"  (De  poen.,  I,  ii,  n.  7);  St.  Basil  (d.  397):  "As 
men  do  not  make  knon-n  their  bodily  ailments  to  any- 
body and  everybody,  but  only  to  those  who  are  skilled 
in  healing,  so  confession  of  sin  ought  to  be  made  to 
thflse  who  can  cure  it"  (Reg.  brevior.,  229). 
I  l^or  those  who  sought  to  escape  the  obligation  of 
confession  it  was  natural  enough  to  assert  that  re- 
pentance was  the  affair  of  the  soul  alone  with  its 
Maker,  and  that  no  intermediary  was  needed.  It  is 
this  pretext  that  St.  Augustine  sweeps  aside  in  one  of 
his  sermons:  "Let  no  one  say,  I  do  penance  secretly; 
I  perform  it  in  the  sight  of  God,  and  He  who  is  to 
pardon  me  knows  that  in  my  heart  I  repent ".  Where- 
upon St.  Augustine  asks:  "Was  it  then  said  to  no 
purpose,  'What  you  shall  loose  upon  earth  shall  be 
loosed  in  heaven'?  Was  it  for  nothing  that  the  keys 
I  were  given  to  the  Church?"  (Sermo  cccxcii,  n.  3,  in 
~F.L., XXXIX,  1711).  TheFathers,  of  course,  do  not 
deny  that  sin  must  be  confessed  to  God;  at  times, 
indeed,  in  exhorting  the  faithful  to  confess,  they  make 
no  mention  of  the  priest ;  but  such  passages  must  be 
taken  in  connexion  with  the  general  teaching  of  the 
Fathers  and  with  the  traditional  belief  of  the  Church. 
Their  real  meaning  is  expressed,  e.  g.,  by  Anastasius 
Sinaita  (seventh  century):  "Confess  your  sins  to 
Christ  through  the  priest"  (De  sacra  synaxi),  and  by 
Egbert,  Archbishop  of  York  (d.  766) :  "Let  the  sinner 
confess  his  evil  deeds  to  God,  that  the  priest  may 
know  what  penance  to  impose"  (Mansi,  Coll.  Cone, 
XII,  232).  For  the  passages  in  St.  John  Chrysostom, 
see  Hurter,  "Theol.  dogmat.".  Ill,  454;  Pesch,  "  Prae- 
lectiones",  VII,  165. 


The  Fathers,  knowing  well  that  one  great  difficulty 
which  the  sinner  has  to  overcome  is  shame,  encour- 
age him  in  spite  of  it  to  confess.  "I  appeal  to  you, 
my  brethren",  says  St.  Pacian  (d.  391),  ".  .  .  you 
who  are  not  ashamed  to  sin  and  yet  are  ashamed  to 
confess  ...  I  beseech  you,  cease  to  hide  your 
wounded  conscience.  Sick  people  who  are  prudent  do 
not  fear  the  physician,  though  he  cut  and  burn  even 
the  secret  parts  of  the  body"  (Parsenesis  ad  poenit., 
n.  6,  S).  St.  John  Chrysostom  (d.  347)  pleads  elo- 
quently with  the  sinner:  "Be  not  ashamed  to  ap- 
proach [the  priest]  because  you  have  sinned,  nay 
rather,  for  this  very  reason  approach.  No  one  says: 
Because  I  have  an  ulcer,  I  will  not  go  near  a  physician 
or  take  medicine;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  just  this  that 
makes  it  needful  to  call  in  physicians  and  apply  rem- 
edies. We  [priests]  know  well  how  to  pardon,  because 
we  ourselves  are  liable  to  sin.  This  is  why  God  did 
not  give  us  angels  to  be  our  doctors,  nor  send  down 
Gabriel  to  rule  the  flock,  but  from  the  fold  itself  he 
chooses  the  shepherds,  from  among  the  sheep  He  ap- 
points the  leader,  in  order  that  he  may  be  inclined  to 
pardon  his  followers  and,  keeping  in  mind  his  own 
frailty,  may  not  set  himself  in  hardness  against  the 
members  of  the  flock"  (Horn.  "On  Frequent  Assem- 
bly" in  P.  G.,  LXIII,  463). 

Tertulfian  had  already  used  the  same  argument  with 
those  who,  for  fear  of  exposing  their  sins,  put  off  their 
confession  from  day  to  day — "mindful  more  of  their 
shame  than  of  their  salvation,  like  those  who  liide 
from  the  j^hysician  the  malady  they  suffer  in  the  secret 
parts  of  the  body,  and  thusperish  through  bashful- 
ness.  .  .  .  Because  we  withhold  anything  from  the 
knowledge  of  men,  do  we  tliereby  conceal  it  from  God? 
...  Is  it  better  to  hide  and  be  damned  than  to  be 
openly  absolved?"  ("De  poenit.",  x).  St.  Cyprian 
(d.  258)  pleads  for  greater  mildness  in  the  treatment  of 
sinners,  "since  we  find  that  no  one  ought  to  be  for- 
bidden to  do  penance  and  that  to  those  who  implore 
the  mercy  of  God  peace  can  be  granted  through  His 
priests.  .  .  .  And  because  in  hell  there  is  no  confes- 
sion, nor  can  exomologesis  be  made  there,  they  who 
repent  with  their  whole  heart  and  ask  for  it,  should  be 
received  into  the  Church  and  therein  saved  unto  the 
Lord"  (Ep.  Iv,  "Ad  Antonian.",  n.  29).  Elsewhere  he 
Bays  that  many  who  do  not  do  penance  or  confess 
their  guilt  are  filled  with  unclean  spirits;  and  by  con- 
trast he  praises  the  greater  faith  and  more  wholesome 
fear  of  those  who,  though  not  guilty  of  p.ny  idolatrous 
action,  "nevertheless,  because  thej-  thought  of  [such 
action],  confess  [their  thought]  in  sorrow  and  simplic- 
ity to  the  priests  of  God,  make  the  exomologesis  of 
their  conscience,  lay  bare  the  burden  of  their  soul,  and 
seek  a  salutary  remedy  even  for  wounds  that  are 
slight"  ("De  lapsis",  x.\vi  sqq.).  Origen  (d.  254)  com- 
pares the  sinner  to  those  whose  stomachs  are  over- 
loaded with  undigested  food  or  with  excess  of  lumiours 
and  phlegm;  if  they  vomit,  they  are  relieved,  "so, 
too,  those  who  have  sinned,  if  they  conceal  and  keep 
the  sin  within,  they  are  distressed  and  almost  choked 
by  its  humour  or  phlegm.  But  if  they  accuse  them- 
selves and  confess,  they  at  the  same  time  vomit  the 
sin  and  cast  off  every  cause  of  disease"  (Homil.  on 
Ps.  x.x.xvii,  n.  6,  in  P.  G.,  XII,  1386).  St.  Iren^us 
(130-202)  relates  the  case  of  certain  women  whom 
the  Gnastic  Marcus  had  led  into  sin.  "Some  of 
them",  he  says,  "perform  their  exomologesis  openly 
also  [etiam  in  manifesto],  while  others,  afraid  to  do 
this,  draw  back  in  silence,  despairing  to  regain  the  life 
of  God"  ("Adv.  ha;r.",  I,  xiii,  7,  in  P.  G.,  VII,  591). 
This  etiam  in  manifesto  suggests  at  least  that  they  had 
confessed  privately,  but  could  not  bring  themselves 
to  make  a  public  confession.  The  advantage  of  con- 
fession as  against  the  concealment  of  sin  is  shown  in 
the  words  of  St.  Clement  of  Rome  in  his  letter  to  the 
Corinthians :  "It  is  better  for  a  man  to  confess  his  sins 
than  to  harden  his  heart"  (Ep.  I,  "Ad  Cor.",  li,  1). 


PENANCE 


628 


PENANCE 


This  outline  of  the  paliislic  teaching  shows:  (1) 
that  the  Katliers  insisted  on  a  manifestation  of  sin  as 
the  necessary  means  of  iinbuniening  tlie  soul  and  re- 
gaining tlie  frii-ndsliip  of  God;  1,2)  tiiat  the  confession 
was  to  be  made  not  to  a  laj-man  but  to  priests;  (3) 
that  priests  exercise  the  power  of  absolving  in  virtue 
of  a  Divine  commission,  i.  e.,  as  representatives  of 
Christ;  (4)  that  the  sinner,  if  he  would  be  saved,  must 
overcome  his  shame  and  repugnance  to  confession. 
And  since  the  series  of  witnesses  goes  back  to  the  latter 
part  of  the  first  century,  the  practice  of  confession 
must  have  existed  from  the  earliest  days.  St.  Leo  had 
good  reason  for  appealing  to  the  "Apostolic  rule" 
which  made  secret  confession  to  the  priest  sufficient 
without  the  necessity  of  a  public  declaration.  Nor  is 
it  surprising  that  Lactantius  (d.  c.  330)  should  have 
pointed  to  the  practice  of  confession  as  a  characteris- 
tic of  the  true  Church:  "That  is  the  true  Church  in 
which  there  is  confession  and  penance,  which  applies  a 
wholesome  remedy  to  the  sins  and  wounds  whereunto 
the  weakness  of  the  flesh  is  subject"  ("Div.  Inst.", 
IV,  30). 

Wh.\t  Sixs  .\re  to  be  Confessed. — Among  the 
propositions  condemned  by  the  Council  of  Trent  is  the 
following:  "That  to  obtain  forgiveness  of  sins  in  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance,  it  is  not  necessary  by  Divine 
law  to  confess  each  and  every  mortal  sin  which  is 
called  to  mind  by  due  and  careful  examination,  to 
confess  even  hidden  sins  and  those  that  are  against 
the  last  two  precepts  of  the  Decalogue,  together  with 
the  circumstances  that  change  the  specific  nature  of 
the  sin;  such  confession  is  only  useful  for  the  instruc- 
tion and  consolation  of  the  penitent,  and  of  old  was 
practised  merely  in  order  to  impose  canonical  satis- 
faction" (Can.  de  poenit.,  vii).  The  Catholic  teaching 
consequently  is:  that  all  mortal  sins  must  be  con- 
fessed of  which  the  penitent  is  conscious,  for  these  are 
so  related  that  no  one  of  them  can  be  remitted  unless 
all  are  remitted.  Remission  means  that  the  soul  is 
restored  to  the  friendship  of  God;  and  this  is  obvi- 
ously impossible  if  there  remain  unforgiven  even  a 
single  mortal  sin.  Hence,  the  penitent,  who  in  con- 
fession wilfully  conceals  a  mortal  sin,  derives  ro 
benefit  whatever;  on  the  contrary,  he  makes  void  the 
sacrament  and  thereby  incurs  the  guilt  of  sacrilege. 
If,  however,  the  sin  be  omitted,  not  through  any  fault 
of  the  penitent,  but  through  forgetfulness,  it  is  for- 
given indirectly;  but  it  must  be  declared  at  the  next 
confession  and  thus  submitted  to  the  power  of  the 
keys. 

While  mortal  sin  is  the  necessary  matter  of  con- 
fession, venial  sin  is  sufficient  matter,  as  are  also  the 
mortal  sins  already  forgiven  in  previous  confessions. 
This  is  the  common  teaching  of  theologians,  in  accord 
with  the  condemnation  pronounced  by  Leo  X  on 
Luther's  assertion,  "By  no  means  presume  to  confess 
venial  sins  ...  in  the  primitive  Church,  only  mani- 
fest mortal  sins  were  confessed"  (Bull,  "Exurge 
Domine";  Denzinger,  "Enchir.",  748).  In  the  con- 
stitution "Inter  cunctas"  (17  Feb.,  1304),  Benedict 
XI,  after  stating  that  penitents  who  had  confessed 
to  a  priest  belonging  to  a  religious  order  are  not 
obliged  to  reiterate  the  confession  to  their  own  priest, 
adds:  "Though  it  is  not  necessary  to  confess  the  same 
sins  over  again,  nevertheless  we  regard  it  as  salutary 
to  repeat  the  confession,  because  of  the  shame  it  in- 
volves, which  is  a  great  part  of  penance;  hence  we 
strictly  enjoin  the  Brothers  [Dominicans  and  Fran- 
ciscans) to  admonish  their  penitents  and  in  sermons 
exhort  them  that  they  confess  to  their  own  priests  at 
least  once  a  year,  aissuring  them  that  this  will  un- 
doubtedly conduce  to  their  spiritual  welfare"  (Den- 
zinger, "Enchir.",  470).  St.  Thomas  gives  the  same 
reason  for  this  practice:  the  oftener  one  confesses  the 
more  is  the  (temporal)  penalty  reduced;  hence  one 
might  confess  over  and  over  again  until  the  whole 
penalty  ia  cancelled,  nor  would  he  thereby  offer  any 


injury  to  the  sacrament"   (IV  Sent.,  d.  xvii,  q.  3, 
sol.  5  ad  4). 

Satisfaction. — As  stated  above,  the  absolution 
given  by  the  priest  to  a  penitent  who  confesses  his  sins 
with  the  proper  dispositions  remits  both  the  guilt  and 
the  eternal  punishment  (of  mortal  sin).  There  re- 
mains, however,  some  indebtedness  to  Divine  justice" 
which  must  be  cancelled  here  or  hereafter  (see  Pukoa- 
TORl').  In  order  to  have  it  cancelled  here,  the  peni- 
tent receives  from  his  confessor  what  is  usually  called 
his  "penance",  usually  in  the  form  of  certain  prayers 
which  he  is  to  say,  or  of  certain  actions  which  he  is 
to  perform,  such  as  visits  to  a  church,  the  Stations  of 
the  Cross,  etc.  Almsdeeds,  fasting,  and  prayer  are 
the  chief  means  of  satisfaction,  but  other  penitential 
works  may  also  be  enjoined.  The  quality  and  extent 
of  the  penance  is  determined  by  the  confessor  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  tlie  sins  revealed,  the  special  cir- 
cumstances of  the  penitent,  his  liability  to  relapse,  and 
the  need  of  eradicating  evil  habits.  Sometimes  the 
penance  is  such  that  it  may  be  performed  at  once;  in 
other  cases  it  may  require  a  more  or  less  considerable 
period,  as,  e.  g.,  where  it  is  prescribed  for  each  day 
during  a  week  or  a  month.  But  even  then  the  penitent 
may  receive  another  sacrament  (e.  g..  Holy  Com- 
munion) immediately  after  confession,  since  absolu-_ 
tion  restores  him  to  the  state  of  grace.  He  is  never- 
theless under  obligation  to  continue  the  performance 
of  his  penance  until  it  is  completed. 

In  theological  language,  this  penance  is  called  satis- 
faction and  is  defined,  in  the  words  of  St.  Thomas: 
"The  payment  of  the  temporal  punishment  due  on 
account  of  the  offence  committed  against  God  by  sin  " 
(Supi)l.  to  Summa,  Q.  xii,  a.  3).  It  is  an  act  of  justice 
whereby  the  injury  done  to  the  honour  of  God  is  re- 
quired, so  far  at  least  as  the  sinner  is  able  to  make 
reparation  (pcena  vindicaliva);  it  is  also  a  preventive 
remedy,  inasmuch  as  it  is  meant  to  hinder  the  further 
commission  of  sin  (poena  raedicinalis) .  Satisfaction  is 
not,  like  contrition  and  confession,  an  essential  part 
of  the  sacrament,  because  the  primary  effect — i.  e., 
remission  of  guilt  and  temporal  punishment — is  ob- 
tained without  satisfaction;  but  it  is  an  integral  part, 
because  it  is  requisite  for  obtaining  the  secondary 
effect— i.  e.,  remission  of  the  temporal  punishment. 
The  Catholic  doctrine  on  this  point  is  set  forth  by  the 
Council  of  Trent,  which  condemns  the  proposition: 
"That  the  entire  punishment  is  always  remitted  by 
God  together  with  the  guilt,  and  the  satisfaction  re- 
quired of  penitents  is  no  other  than  faith  whereby  they 
believe  that  Christ  has  satisfied  for  them";  and 
further  the  proposition:  "That  the  keys  were  given 
to  the  Church  for  loosing  only  and  not  for  binding  as 
well;  that  therefore  in  enjoining  penance  on  those 
who  confess,  priests  act  contrary  to  the  purpose  of  the 
keys  and  the  institution  of  Christ;  that  it  is  a  fiction 
[to  say)  that  after  the  eternal  punishment  has  been 
remitted  in  virtue  of  the  keys,  there  usually  remains  to 
be  paid  a  temporal  penalty"  (Can.  "de  Sac.  poenit.", 
12,  15;   Denzinger,  "Enchir.",  922,  92.5). 

As  against  the  errors  contained  in  these  statements, 
the  Council  (Sess.  XIV,  c.  viii)  cites  conspicuous  exam- 
ples from  Holy  Scripture.  The  most  notable  of  these 
is  the  judgment  pronounced  upon  David:  "And 
Nathan  said  to  David:  the  Lord  also  hath  taken  away 
thy  sin:  thou  shalt  not  die.  Nevertheless,  because 
thou  hast  given  occasion  to  the  enemies  of  the  Lord 
to  blaspheme,  for  this  thing,  the  child  that  is  born  to 
thee,  shall  surely  die"  (II  Kings,  xii,  13,  14;  cf.  Gen., 
iii,  17;  Num.,  xx,  11  sqq.).  David's  sin  was  for- 
given and  yet  he  had  to  suffer  punishment  in  the  loss 
of  his  child.  The  same  truth  is  taught  by  St.  Paul 
(I  Cor.,  xi,  32):  "But  whilst  we  are  judged,  we  are 
chastised  by  the  Lord,  that  we  be  not  condemned 
with  this  world".  The  chastisement  here  mentioned 
is  a  temporal  punishment,  but  a  punishment  unto 
salvation. 


PENANCE 


629 


PENANCE 


"Of  all  the  parts  of  penance",  says  the  Council  of 
Trent  (loc.  cit.),  "satisfaction  was  constantly  recom- 
mended to  the  Christian  people  by  our  Fathers". 
This  the  Reformers  themselves  admitted.  Calvin 
(Instit.,  Ill,  iv,  38)  says  he  makes  little  account  of 
what  the  ancient  writings  contain  in  regard  to  satis- 
faction because  "nearly  all  whose  books  are  e.xtant 
went  astray  on  this  point  or  .spoke  too  severely". 
Chemnitius  ("Examen  C.  Trident.",  4)  acknowledges 
that  TertuUian,  Cyprian,  Ambrose,  and  Augustine 
extolled  the  value  of  penitential  works;  and  Flacius 
Illyricus,  in  the  "Centuries",  has  a  long  list  of  Fathers 
and  early  writers  who,  as  he  admits,  bear  witness  to 
the  doctrine  of  .satisfaction.  Some  of  the  texts  already 
cited  (Confession)  expressly  mention  satisfaction  as 
a  part  of  sacramental  penance.  To  these  may  be 
added  St.  Augustine,  who  says  that  "Man  is  forced  to 
suffer  even  after  his  sins  are  forgiven,  though  it  was 
sin  that  brought  down  on  him  this  penalty.  For  the 
punishment  outlasts  the  guilt,  lest  the  guilt  should  be 
thought  slight  if  with  its  forgiveness  the  punishment 
also  came  to  an  end"  (Tract,  cxxiv,  "In  Joann.", 
n.  5,in  P.L.,XXXV,  1972);  St.  Ambrose:  "So  effica- 
cious is  the  medicine  of  penance  that  [in  view  of  it] 
God  seems  to  revoke  His  sentence"  ("De  pcenit.", 
1,  2,  c.vi,n.4S,  in  P.  L.,  XVI,  509);  Coesarius  of  Aries: 
"If  in  tribulation  we  give  not  thanks  to  God  nor  re- 
deem our  faults  by  good  works,  we  shall  be  detained 
in  the  fire  of  purgatory  until  our  slightest  sins  are 
burned  away  hke  wood  or  straw"  (Sermo  civ,  n.  4). 

Among  the  motives  for  doing  penance  on  which  the 
Fathers  most  frequently  insist  is  this:  If  you  punish 
your  own  sin,  God  will  spare  you;  but  in  any  case  the 
sin  will  not  go  unpunished.  Or  again  they  declare  that 
God  wants  us  to  perform  satisfaction  in  order  that  we 
may  clear  off  our  indebtedness  to  His  justice.  It  is 
therefore  with  good  reason  that  the  earlier  councils — • 
6.  g.,  Laodica?a  (a.  d.  .372)  and  Carthage  IV  (397) — 
teach  that  satisfaction  is  to  be  imposed  on  penitents; 
and  the  Council  of  Trent  but  reiterates  the  traditional 
belief  and  practice  when  it  makes  the  giving  of  "pen- 
ance" obligatory  on  the  confessor.  Hence,  too,  the 
practice  of  granting  indulgences,  whereby  the  Church 
comes  to  the  penitent's  assistance  and  places  at  his 
disposal  the  treasury  of  Christ's  merits.  Though 
closely  connected  with  penance,  indulgences  are  not  a 
part  of  the  sacrament;  they  presujipose  confession 
and  absolution,  and  are  properly  called  an  extra- 
sacramental  remission  of  the  temporal  punishment 
incurred  by  sin.     (See  iNDnLGENCES.) 

Se.^l  of  C0NFES.S10N.— ^Regarding  the  sins  revealed . 
to  him  in  sacramental  confession,  the  priest  is  bound 
to  inviolable  secrecy.  From  this  obhgation  he  cannot 
be  excused  either  to  save  his  own  life  or  good  name,  to 
save  the  life  of  another,  to  further  the  ends  of  human 
justice,  or  to  avert  any  public  calamity.  No  law  can 
compel  him  to  divulge  the  sins  confessed  to  him,  or 
any  oath  which  he  takes — e.  g.,  as  a  witness  in  court. 
He  cannot  reveal  them  either  directly — i.  e.,  by  re- 
peating them  in  so  many  words — or  indirectly — i.  e., 
by  any  sign  or  action,  or  by  giving  information  based 
on  what  he  knows  through  confession.  The  only  pos- 
sible release  from  the  obligation  of  secrecy  is  the  per- 
mission to  speak  of  the  sins  given  freely  and  formally 
by  the  penitent  himself.  Without  such  permission, 
the  violation  of  the  seal  of  confession  would  not  only 
be  a  grievous  sin,  but  also  a  sacrilege.  It  would  be 
contrary  to  the  natural  law  because  it  would  be  an 
abuse  of  the  penitent's  confidence  and  an  injury,  very 
serious  perhaps,  to  his  reputation.  It  would  also 
violate  the  Divine  law,  which,  while  imposing  th«  ob- 
ligation to  confess,  likewise  forbids  the  revelation  of 
that  which  is  confessed.  That  it  would  infringe 
ecclesiastical  law  is  evident  from  the  strict  prohibi- 
tion and  the  severe  penalties  enacted  in  this  matter  by 
the  Church.  "Let  him  beware  of  betraying  the  sinner 
by  word  or  sign  or  in  any  other  way  whatsoever.  .  .  . 


we  decree  that  he  who  dares  to  reveal  a  sin  made 
known  to  him  in  the  tribunal  of  penance  shall  not 
only  be  deposed  from  the  priestly  office,  but  shall 
moreover  be  subjected  to  close  confinement  in  a  mon- 
astery and  the  performance  of  perpetual  penance" 
(Fourth  Lateran  Council,  cap.  xxi;  Denzinger, 
"Enchir.",  438).  Furthermore,  by  a  decree  of  the 
Holy  Office  (18  Nov.,  1682),  confessors  are  forbidden, 
even  where  there  would  be  no  revelation  direct  or 
indirect,  to  make  any  use  of  the  knowledge  obtained 
in  confession  that  w'ould  displease  the  penitent,  even 
though  the  non-use  would  occasion  him  greater  dis- 
pleasure. 

These  prohibitions,  as  well  as  the  general  obligation 
of  secrecy,  apply  only  to  what  the  confessor  learns 
through  confession  made  as  part  of  the  sacrament. 
He  is  not  bound  by  the  seal  as  regards  what  may  be 
told  him  by  a  person  who,  he  is  sure,  has  no  intention 
of  making  a  sacramental  confession  but  merely  speaks 
to  him  "in  confidence";  prudence,  however,  may  im- 
pose silence  concerning  what  he  learns  in  this  way. 
Nor  does  the  obligation  of  the  seal  prevent  the  con- 
fessor from  speaking  of  things  which  he  has  learned 
outside  confession,  though  the  same  things  have  also 
been  told  him  in  confession;  here  again,  however, 
other  reasons  may  oblige  him  to  observe  secrecy.  The 
same  obligation,  with  the  limitations  indicated,  rests 
upon  all  those  who  in  one  way  or  another  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  what  is  said  in  confession — e.  g.,  an 
interpreter  who  translates  for  the  priest  the  words  of 
the  penitent,  a  person  who  either  accidentally  or 
intentionally  overhears  the  confession,  an  ecclesias- 
tical superior  (e.  g.,  a  bishop)  to  whom  the  confessor 
applies  for  authorization  to  absolve  the  penitent  from 
a  reserved  case.  Even  the  penitent,  according  to  some 
theologians,  is  bound  to  secrecy;  but  the  more  general 
opinion  leaves  him  free;  as  he  can  authorize  the  con- 
fessor to  speak  of  what  he  has  confessed,  he  can  also, 
of  his  own  accord,  speak  to  others.  But  he  is  obliged 
to  take  care  that  what  he  reveals  shall  cast  no  blame 
or  suspicion  on  the  confessor,  since  the  latter  cannot 
defend  himself.  In  a  word,  it  is  more  in  keeping  with 
the  intention  of  the  Church  and  with  the  reverence 
due  to  the  sacrament  that  the  penitent  himself  should 
refrain  from  speaking  of  his  confession.  Such,  un- 
doubtedly, was  the  motive  that  prompted  St.  Leo  to 
condemn  the  practice  of  letting  the  penitent  read  in 
public  a  written  statement  of  his  sins  (see  above); 
and  it  needs  scarcely  be  added  that  the  Church,  while 
recognizing  the  validity  of  public  confession,  by  no 
means  requires  it;  as  the  Council  of  Trent  declares, 
it  would  be  imprudent  to  prescribe  such  a  confession 
by  any  human  enactment.  (For  provisions  of  the 
civil  law  regarding  this  matter,  see  Seal  of  Con- 
fession.) 

Public  Penance. — .\n  undeniable  proof  both  of 
the  practice  of  confession  and  of  the  necessity  of  satis- 
faction is  found  in  the  usage  of  the  early  Church 
according  to  which  severe  and  often  prolonged  penance 
was  prescribed  and  performed.  The  elaborate  system 
of  penance  exhibited  in  the  "Penitentials"  and  con- 
ciliar  decrees,  referred  to  above,  was  of  course  the  out- 
come of  a  long  development;  but  it  simply  expressed 
in  greater  detail  the  principles  and  the  general  atti- 
tude towards  sin  and  satisfaction  which  had  prevailed 
from  the  beginning.  Frequently  enough  the  latter 
statutes  refer  to  the  earlier  practice  either  in  explicit 
terms  or  by  reiterating  what  had  been  enacted  long 
before.  At  times,  also,  they  allude  to  documents 
which  were  then  extant,  but  which  have  not  yet  come 
down  to  us,  e.  g.,  the  libellus  mentioned  in  the  African 
synods  of  251  and  255  as  containing  singula  capitum 
placita,  i.  e.,  the  details  of  previous  legislation  (St. 
Cyprian,  Ep.  xxi).  Or  again,  they  point  to  a  system 
of  penance  that  was  already  in  operation  and  needed 
only  to  be  apphed  to  particular  cases,  hke  that  of  the 
Corinthians  to  whom  Clement  of  Rome  wrote  his 


PENANCE 


630 


PENANCE 


First  Epistle  about  a.  d.  9G,  exhorting  them:  "Be 
subject  in  obedience  to  tiie  priests  [presbyteris]  and 
receive  disciphne  [correct ionem]  unto  penance,  bending 
the  knees  of  your  liearts"  (Ep.  I  "Ad  Cor.",  Ivii). 
At  tlie  close,  tlierefore,  of  the  first  century,  the  per- 
formance of  penance  was  required,  and  the  nature  of 
that  penance  was  determined,  not  by  the  penitent 
himself,  but  by  ecclesiastical  authority.     (See  Ex- 

COMMfNICATION.) 

Three  kinds  of  penance  are  to  be  distinguished: 
canonical,  prescribed  by  councils  or  bishops  in  the 
form  of  "canons"  for  graver  offences.  This  might 
be  either  private,  i.  e.,  i)erformed  secretly,  or  public, 
i.  e.,  performed  in  the  presence  of  bishop,  clergy,  and 
people.  When  accompanied  by  certain  rites  as  pre- 
scribed in  the  Canons,  it  was  solemn  penance.  The 
public  penance  was  not  necessarily  canonical;  it 
might  be  undertaken  by  the  penitent  of  his  own  ac- 
cord. Solemn  penance,  the  most  severe  of  all,  was 
inflicted  for  the  worst  offences  only,  notably  for  adul- 
tery,  murder,  and  idolatry,  the  "capital  sins".  "The 
name  of  penitent  was  applied  especially  to  those  who 
performed  public  canonical  penance.  "There  is  a 
harder  and  more  grievous  penance,  the  doers  of  which 
are  properly  called  in  the  Church  penitents;  they  are 
excluded  from  participation  in  the  sacraments  of  the 
altar,  lest  by  unworthily  receiving  they  eat  and  drink 
judgment  unto  themselves"  (St.  Augustine,  "De  util- 
itate  agendse  pcenit.",  ser.  cccxxxii,  c.  iii). 

The  penitential  process  included  a  series  of  acts, 
the  first  of  which  was  confession.  Regarding  this, 
Origen,  after  speaking  of  baptism,  tells  us:  "There  is 
a  yet  more  severe  and  arduous  pardon  of  sins  by  pen- 
ance, when  the  .sinner  washes  his  couch  with  tears, 
and  when  he  blushes  not  to  disclose  his  sin  to  the 
priest  of  the  Lord  and  seeks  the  remedy"  (Homil. 
"InLevit.",  ii,  4,  in  P.  G.,  XII,  418).  Again  he  says: 
"They  who  have  sinned,  if  they  hide  and  retain  their 
sin  within  their  breast,  are  grievously  tormented;  but 
if  the  sinner  becomes  his  own  accuser,  while  he  does 
this,  he  discharges  the  cause  of  all  his  malady.  Only 
let  him  carefully  consider  to  whom  he  should  confess 
his  sin;  what  is  the  character  of  the  phj-sician;  if  he 
be  one  who  will  be  weak  with  the  weak,  who  will  weep 
with  the  sorrowful,  and  who  understands  the  discip- 
line of  condolence  and  fellow-feeling.  So  that  when 
his  skill  shall  be  known  and  his  pity  felt,  you  may 
follow  what  he  shall  advise.  Should  he  think  your 
disease  to  be  such  that  it  should  be  declared  in  the 
assembly  of  the  faithful — whereby  others  may  be 
edified,  and  yourself  easily  reformed — this  must  be 
done  with  much  deliberation  and  the  skilful  advice 
of  the  physician"  (Homil.  "In  Ps.  xx.xvii",  n.  6,  in 
P.  G.,  XII,  1.386).  Origen  here  states  quite  plainly 
the  relation  between  confession  and  public  penance. 
The  sinner  must  first  make  known  his  sins  to  the 
priest,  who  will  decide  whether  any  further  manifesta- 
tion is  called  for. 

Public  penance  did  not  necessarily  include  a  public 
avowal  of  sin.  As  St.  Augustine  also  declares,  "If 
his  sin  is  not  only  grievous  in  itself,  but  involves 
scandal  given  to  others,  and  if  the  bishop  [antisles] 
judges  that  it  will  be  useful  to  the  Church  [to  have 
the  sin  pubhshed],  let  not  the  sinner  refuse  to  do 
penance  in  the  sight  of  many  or  even  of  the  people  at 
large,  let  him  not  resist,  nor  through  shame  add  to  his 
mortal  wound  a  greater  evil"  (Sermo  cli,  n.  3).  It 
was  therefore  the  duty  of  the  confessor  to  determine 
how  far  the  process  of  penance  should  go  beyond 
sacramental  confession.  It  lay  with  him  also  to  fix 
the  quality  and  duration  of  the  penance:  "Satisfac- 
tion", says  Tertullian,  "is  determined  by  confession; 
penance  is  bom  of  confession,  and  by  penance  God  is 
appeased"  (De  poenit.,  viii).  In  the  East  there 
existed  from  the  earliest  times  (Sozomen,  H.  E., 
VII,  xvij,  or  at  least  from  the  outbreak  of  the  Nova- 
tianist  schism  (Socrates,  H.  E.,  V,  xix)  a  functionary 


known  as  presbyter  penitentiarius,  i.  e.,  a  priest  spe- 
cially appoinTed  on  account  of  his  prudence  and  reserve 
to  hear  confessions  and  imjjose  public  penance.  IT 
the  confessor  deemed  it  necessary,  he  oliliged  the  peni- 
tent to  appear  before  the  bishop  and  his  council  (pres- 
bylerium)  and  these  again  decided  whether  the  crime 
was  of  such  a  nature  that  it  ought,  to  be  confessed 
in  presence  of  the  people.  Then  followed,  usually  on 
Ash  Wednesday,  the  imposition  of  public  penance  - 
whereby  the  sinner  was  excluded  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  period  from  the  communion  of  the  Church  and- 
in  addition  was  obliged  to  perform  certain  penitential  - 
exercises,  the  exomologcsis.  This  term,  however,  had 
various  meanings:  it  dcsignat'cd  .sometimes  the  entire 
process  of  penance  (Tertullian),  or  again  the  avowal  of 
sin  at  the  beginning,  or,  finally,  the  public  avowal 
which  was  made  at  the  end — i.  e.,  after  the  perform- 
ance of  the  iH'iiitential  exercises. 

The  naf  ure  of  t  hcse  exercises  varied  accordingipjlie 
sin  for  which  they  were  prescribed.  According  to  ^ 
Tertullian  (De  pcenit.,  IX),  " Exomologesis  is  the  dis- 
cipline which  obliges  a  man  to  prostrate  and  humiliate 
himself  and  to  adopt  a  manner  of  life  that  will  draw 
down  mercy.  As  regards  dress  and  food,  it  prescl'tbes 
that  he  shall  lie  in  sackcloth  and  ashes,  clothe  his 
body  in  rags,  plunge  his  soul  in  sorrow,  correct  his 
faults  by  harsh  treatment  of  himself,  use  the  plainest 
meat  and  drink  for  the  sake  of  his  soul  and  not  of  his 
belly:  usually  he  shall  nourish  prayer  by  fasting, 
whole  days  and  nights  together  he  shall  moan,  and 
weep,  and  wail  to  the  Lord  his  God,  cast  himself  at 
the  feet  of  the  priests,  fall  on  his  knees  before  tlibse 
who  are  dear  to  God,  and  beseech  them  to  plead  in 
his  behalf".  At  a  very  early  period,  the  exomologesis 
was  divided  into  four  parts  or  "stations",  and  the 
penitents  were  grouped  in  as  many  different  classes 
according  to  their  progress  in  penance.  The  lower 
class,  the  fienles  (weeping)  remained  outside  the 
church  door  and  besought  the  intercession  of  the 
faithful  as  these  passed  into  the  church.  The  audi- 
entes  (hearers)  were  stationed  in  the  narthex  of  the 
church  behind  the  catechumens  and  were  permitted 
to  remain  during  the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens,  i.  e., 
until  the  end  of  the  .sermon.  The  subslrati  (prostrate), 
or  genuflectentes  (kneeling),  occupied  the  space  be- 
tween the  door  and  the  ambo,  where  they  received  the 
imposition  of  the  bishop's  hands  or  his  blessing. 
Finally,  the  consistentes  were  so  called  because  they 
were  allowed  to  hear  the  whole  Mass  without  commu- 
nicating, or  because  they  remained  at  their  place  while 
the  faithful  approached  the  Holy  Tal)le.  This  group- 
ing into  .stations  originated  in  the  East,  where  at  lea.st 
the  three  higher  groups  are  mentioned  about  A.  D.  263 
by  Gregory  Thaumaturgus,  and  the  first  or  lowest 
group  by  St.  Basil  (Ep.  cxcix,  c.  xxii;  ccxvii,  c.  Ivi). 
In  the  West  the  classification  did  not  exist,  or  at  any 
rate  the  different  stations  were  not  so  clearly  marked; 
the  penitents  were  treated  pretty  much  as  the  cate- 
chumens, s 

The  exomologesis  terminated  with  the  reconciliation,  ) 
a  solemn  function  which  took  place  on  Holy  Thursday  ' 
just  before  Mass.  The  bishop  presided,  assisted  by  his 
priests  and  deacons.  A  consultation  (concilium)  was 
held  to  determine  which  of  the  penitents  deserved 
readmission;  the  Penitential  Psalms  and  the  htanies 
were  recited  at  the  foot  of  the  altar;  the  bishop  in  a 
brief  address  reminded  the  penitents  of  their  obliga- 
tion to  lead  henceforth  an  upright  lifej  the  penitents, 
lighted  candles  in  hand,  were  then  led  mto  the  church ; 
prayers,  antiphons,  and  responses  were  said,  and, 
finally,  the  public  absolution  was  given.  (Sea 
Schmitz,  "Die  BussbUcher  u.  die  Bussdisciplin  d. 
Kirche",  Mainz,  1.883;  Funk  in  "Kirchenlex. ",  s.  v. 
"Bussdisciplin";  Pohle  in  "Kirchl.  Handlcx.",  s.  v. 
"Bussdisciplin";  Tixeront,  "Hi.st.  des  dogmes", 
Paris,  190.'5;  Eng.  tr.,  St.  Louis,  1910.)  Regardingthe 
nature  of  this  absolution  given  by  the  bishop,  vavious 


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631 


PENANCE 


opinions  have  been  put,  forward.  According  to  one 
view,  it  was  the  remission,  not  of  guilt,  but  of  the  tem- 
poral punishment;  the  guilt  had  already  been  remitted 
by  the  absolution  which  the  penitent  received  in  con- 
fession before  he  entered  on  the  public  penance.  This 
finds  support  in  the  fact  that  the  reconciliation  could 
be  effected  by  a  deacon  in  case  of  necessity  and  in 
the  absence  of  a  priest,  as  appears  from  St.  Cyprian 
(Ep.  xviii). 

Speaking  of  those  who  had  received  libelli  from  the 
martyrs  he  says:  "If  they  are  overtaken  by  illness, 
they  need  not  wait  for  our  coming,  but  may  make  the 
exomologesis  of  their  sin  before  any  priest,  or,  if  no 
priest  be  at  hand,  and  death  is  imminent,  before  a 
deacon,  that  thus,  by  the  imposition  of  his  hands  unto 
penance,  they  may  come  to  the  Lord  with  the  peace 
which  the  martyrs  had  besought  us  by  letters  to 
grant."  On  the  other  hand,  the  deacon  could  not 
give  sacramental  absolution;  consequently,  his  func- 
tion in  such  cases  was  to  absolve  the  penitent  from 
punishment;  and,  as  he  was  authorized  herein  to  do 
what  the  bishop  did  by  the  public  absolution,  this 
could  not  have  been  sacramental.  There  is  the  further 
consideration  that  the  bishop  did  not  necessarily  hear 
the  confessions  of  those  whom  he  absolved  at  the  time 
of  reconciliation,  and  moreover  the  ancient  formu- 
laries jjrescribe  that  at  this  time  a  priest  shall  hear  the 
confession,  and  that  the  bishop,  after  that,  shall  pro- 
nounce absolution.  But  sacramental  absolution  can 
be  given  only  by  him  who  hears  the  confession.  And 
again,  the  public  penance  often  lasted  many  years; 
consequently,  if  the  penitent  were  not  absolved  at  the 
beginning,  he  would  have  remained  during  all  that 
time  in  the  state  of  sin,  incapable  of  meriting  anything 
for  heaven  by  his  penitential  exercises,  and  expcsed 
to  the  danger  of  sudden  death  (Pcsch,  op.  cit.,  p.  110 
sq.  Cf.  Palmieri,  op.  cit.,  p.  459;  Pignataro,  "De 
disciplina  pocnitentiali",  Rome,  1904,  p.  100;  Di 
Dario,  "II  sacramento  della  penitenza  nei  primi  secoli 
del  cristianesimo",  Naples,  1908,    p.  81). 

The  writers  who  hold  that  the  final  absolution  was 
sacramental,  insist  that  there  is  no  docimientary  evi- 
dence of  a  secret  confession;  that  if  this  had  been  in 
existence,  the  harder  way  of  the  public  penance  would 
have  been  abandoned;  that  the  argument  from  pre- 
scription loses  its  force  if  the  sacramental  character 
of  public  penance  be  denied;  and  that  this  penance 
contained  all  that  is  required  in  a  sacrament.  (Boudin- 
hon,  "Sur  I'liistoire  de  la  penitence"  in  "Revue  d'his- 
toire  et  de  litterature  religieuses",  II,  1897,  p.  306 
sq.  Cf.  Hogan  in  "Am.  Cath.  Q.  Rev.",  July,  1900; 
Batiffol,  "Etudes  d'histoire  et  de  theologie  positive", 
Paris,  1902, p.  195  sq.;  Vacandard  in  "Dict.de  theol.", 
s.  V.  "Absolution",  156-61;  O'Donnell,  "Penance in 
the  Early  Church",  Dublin,  1907,  p.  95  sq.)  While 
this  discussion  concerns  the  practice  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  it  is  commonly  admitted  that  sacra- 
mental absolution  was  granted  at  the  time  of  con- 
fession to  those  who  were  in  danger  of  death.  The 
Church,  in  fact,  did  not,  in  her  universal  practice, 
refuse  absolution  at  the  last  moment  even  in  the  case 
of  those  who  had  committed  grievous  sin.  St.  Leo, 
writing  in  442  to  Theodore,  Bishop  of  Frcjus,  says: 
"Neither  satisfaction  is  to  be  forbidden  nor  reconcilia- 
tion denied  to  those  who  in  time  of  need  and  immi- 
nent danger  implore  the  aid  of  penance  and  then  of 
reconciliation."  After  pointing  out  that  penance 
should  not  be  deferred  from  day  to  day  until  the 
moment  "when  then-  is  hardly  space  either  for  the 
confession  of  the  iienileni  or  his  reconciliation  by  the 
priest",  he  adds  thai  (■\eniii  these  circumstances  "the 
action  of  penance  and  the  grace  of  communion  should 
not  be  denied  if  asked  for  by  t  he  penitent "  (Ep.  eviii,  c. 
iv,  in  P.  L.,  LIV,1011 ).  St  .'Leo  states  expres.sly  that  he 
was  applying  theecclesiastical  rule  fecrif.'iM.s/icaregMfa). 

Shortly  before,  St.  Celestine  (428)  had  expressed  his 
horror  at  learning  that  "penance  was  refused  the  dy- 


ing and  that  the  desire  of  those  was  not  granted  who  iu 
the  hour  of  death  sought  this  remedy  for  their  soul"; 
this,  he  says,  is  "adding  death  to  death  and  kilhng 
with  cruelty  the  soul  that  is  not  absolved"  (Letter to 
the  bishops  of  the  provinces  of  Vienne  and  Narbonne, 
c.  ii).  That  such  a  refusal  was  not  in  accordance  with 
the  earlier  practice  is  evident  from  the  words  of  the 
Council  of  NicEca  (325):  "With  respect  to  the  dying, 
the  ancient  canonical  law  shall  now  also  be  observed, 
namely,  that  if  any  one  depart  from  this  life,  he  shall 
by  no  means  be  deprived  of  the  last  and  most  neces- 
sary viaticum"  (can.  xiii).  If  the  dying  person  could 
receive  the  Eucharist,  absolution  certainly  could  not 
be  denied.  If  at  times  greater  severity  seems  to  be 
shown,  this  consisted  in  the  refusal,  not  of  absolution, 
but  of  communion;  such  was  the  penalty  prescribed 
by  the  Council  of  Elvira  (306)  for  those  who  after  bap- 
tism had  fallen  into  idolatry.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
canon  (22)  of  the  Council  of  Aries  (314)  which  enacts 
that  communion  shall  not  be  given  to  "those  who 
apostatize,  but  never  appear  before  the  Church,  nor 
even  seek  to  do  penance,  and  yet  afterwards,  when 
attacked  by  illness,  recjuest  communion".  The  coun- 
cil lays  stress  on  the  lack  of  proper  disposition  in  such 
sinners,  as  does  also  St.  Cyprian  when  he  forbids  that 
they  who  "do  no  penance  nor  manifest  heartfelt  sor- 
row" be  admitted  to  communion  and  ])eaee  if  in  illness 
and  danger  they  ask  for  it;  for  what  jironipts  them  to 
ask  [communion]  is,  not  repentance  for  their  sin,  but 
the  fear  of  approaching  death"  (Ep.  ad  Antonianum, 
n.  23). 

A  further  evidence  of  the  severity  with  which  public 
penance,  and  especially  its  solemn  form,  w'as  adminis- 
tered is  the  fact  that  it  could  be  performed  only  once. 
This  is  evident  from  some  of  the  texts  quoted  above 
(TertuUian,  Hermas).  Origen  also  says:  "For  the 
graver  crimes,  there  is  only  one  opportunity  of  pen- 
ance" (Hom.  XV,  "In  Levit.",  c.  ii);  and  St.  Ambrose: 
"As  there  is  one  baptism  so  there  is  one  penance, 
which,  however,  is  performed  publicly"  (De  poenit., 
II,  c.  X,  n.  95).  St.  Augustine  gives  the  rea.son:  "Al- 
though, by  a  wise  and  salutary  provision,  opportunity 
for  performing  that  humblest  kind  of  penance  is 
granted  but  once  in  the  Church,  lest  the  remedy,  be- 
come common,  should  be  less  efficacious  for  the  sick 
.  .  .  yet  who  will  dare  to  say  to  God:  Wherefore 
dost  thou  once  more  spare  this  man  who  after  a  first 
penance  has  again  bound  himself  in  thefetters  of  sin?  " 
(Ep.  cliii,  "Ad  Macedonium").  It  may  well  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  discipline  of  the  earliest  days  was 
rigorous,  and  that  in  some  Churches  or  by  individual 
bishops  it  was  carried  to  extremes.  This  is  plainly 
stated  by  Pope  St.  Innocent  (405)  in  his  letter  (Ep.  vi, 
c.  ii)  to  Exuperius,  Bishop  of  Toulouse.  The  question 
had  been  raised  as  to  what  should  be  done  w-ith  those 
who,  after  a  lifetime  of  licentious  indulgence,  begged 
at  the  end  for  penance  and  communion.  "Regarding 
these",  WTites  the  pope,  "the  earlier  practice  was 
more  severe,  the  later  more  tempered  with  mercy. 
The  former  custom  was  that  penance  should  be 
granted,  but  communion  denied;  for  in  those  times 
persecutions  were  frequent,  hence,  lest  the  easy  ad- 
mission to  communion  should  fail  to  bring  back  from 
their  evil  ways  men  who  were  sure  of  reconciliation, 
very  rightly  communion  was  refused,  while  penance 
was  granted  in  order  that  the  refusal  might  not  be 
total.  .  .  .  But  after  Our  Lord  had  restored 
peace  to  his  Churches,  and  terror  had  ceased,  it  was 
judged  well  that  coinniunion  be  given  the  dying  le.st 
we  should  seem  to  follow  the  liarshness  and  sternness 
of  the  heretic  Novatian  in  denying  pardon.  Commu- 
nion, therefore,  .shall  be  given  at  the  last  along  with 
penaiiie,  that  these  men,  if  only  in  the  supreme  mo- 
ment of  death,  may,  with  the  permission  of  Our 
Saviour,  be  rescued  from  eternal  destruction." 

The  mitigation  of  public  penance  which  this  passage 
indicates  continued  throughout  the  subsequent  period, 


PENANCE 


632 


PENANCE 


especially  the  Middlo  Ages.  The  oflfice  of  paniten- 
tiarius  had  already  (390)  been  abolished  in  the  East  by 
Nestorins,  Patriarch  of  Const MiitiiKiplc,  in  oonse- 
qucnce  of  a  scandal  that  grew  out  of  public  confession. 
Soon  afterwards,  the  four  "stations"  disappeared,  and 
public  penance  fell  into  disuse.  In  the  West  it  under- 
went a  more  gradual  transformation.  Excommunica- 
tion continued  in  use,  and  the  interdict  (q.  v.)  was 
frequently  resorted  to.  The  performance  of  penance 
was  left  in  large  measure  to  the  zeal  and  good  will  of 
the  penitent ;  increasing  clemency  was  shown  by 
allowing  the  reconciliation  to  take  place  somewhat 
before  the  prescribed  time  was  completed;  and  the 
practice  was  introduced  of  commuting  the  enjoined 
penance  into  other  exercises  or  works  of  piety,  such  as 
prayer  and  almsgiving.  According  to  a  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Clermont  (109.5),  those  who  joined  a  cru- 
sade were  freed  from  all  obligation  in  the  matter  of 
penance.  Finally  it  became  customary  to  let  the 
reconciliation  follow  immediately  after  confession. 
With  these  modifications  the  ancient  usage  had  prac- 
tically disappeared  by  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Some  attempts  were  made  to  revive  it  after 
the  Council  of  Trent,  but  these  were  isolated  and  of 
short  duration.     (See  Indulgences.) 

In  the  British  and  Irish  Churches, — The  peni- 
tent ial  system  in  these  countries  was  established  simul- 
taneou.siy  with  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  was 
rapidly  developed  by  episcopal  decrees  and  synodal 
enactments,  and  was  reduced  to  definite  form  in  the 
Penitentials.  These  books  exerted  such  an  influence 
on  the  practice  in  Continental  Europe  that,  according 
to  one  opinion,  they  "first  brought  order  and  unity 
into  ecclesiastical  discijjline  in  these  matters"  (Was- 
serschleben,  "  Bussordnungen  d.  abendlandischen 
Kirche",  Halle,  18.51,  p.  4. — For  a  different  view  see 
Schmitz,  "Die  Bussbiicher  u.  die  Bussdisciplin  d. 
Kirche",  Mainz,  188.3,  p.  187).  In  any  case,  it  is  be- 
yond question  that  in  their  belief  and  practice  the 
Churches  of  Ireland,  England,  and  Scotland  were  at 
one  with  Rome.  The  so-called  Synod  of  St.  Patrick 
decrees  that  a  Christian  who  conunits  any  of  the  capi- 
tal sins  shall  perform  a  year's  penance  for  each  offence 
and  at  the  end  shall  "come  with  witnesses  and  be 
absolved  by  the  priest"  (Wilkins,  "Concilia",  I,  p.  3). 
Another  synod  of  St.  Patrick  ordains  that  "the  Abbot 
shall  decide  to  whom  the  power  of  binding  and  loosing 
be  committed,  but  forgiveness  is  more  in  keeping  with 
the  examples  of  Scripture;  let  penance  be  short,  with 
weeping  and  lamentation  and  a  mournful  garb,  rather 
than  long  and  tempered  with  relaxations"  (Wilkins, 
ibid.,  p.  4).  For  various  opinions  regarding  the  date 
and  origin  of  the  sj-nods,  see  Haddan  and  Stubbs, 
"Councils",  II,  331;  Bury,  "Life  of  St.  Patrick", 
London,  1905.  The  confessor  was  called  anmchara 
(anima  carus),  i.  c.,  "soul's  friend  ".  St.  Columba  was 
anmchara  to  Aidan,  Lord  of  Dalraida,  a.  d.  .574  (Adam- 
nan's  "Life  of  St.  Columba",  ed.  Reeves,  p.  Ixxvi); 
and  Adamnan  was  "soul's  friend"  to  Finnsnechta, 
Monarch  of  Ireland,  A.  D.  67.5  (ibid.,  p.  xliii).  The 
"Life  of  St.  Columba"  relates  the  coming  of  Feach- 
naus  to  lona,  where,  with  weeping  and  lamentation, 
he  fell  at  Columba's  feet  and  "before  all  who 
were  present  confessed  his  sins.  Then  the  Saint, 
weeping  with  him,  said  to  him:  'Arise,  my  son  and 
be  comforted;  thy  sins  which  thou  hast  committed 
are  forgiven ;  because,  as  it  is  written,  a  contrite 
and  humble  heart  God  doth  not  despise,'"  (ibid.,  I, 
30).  The  need  and  effects  of  confession  are  ex- 
plained in  the  Leabhar  Breac:  "Penance  frees  from 
all  the  sins  committed  after  baptism.  Every  one 
desirous  of  a  cure  for  his  soul  and  happiness  with  the 
Lord  must  make  an  humble  and  sorrowful  confession ; 
and  the  confession  with  the  prayers  of  the  Church  are 
as  baptisms  to  him.  .-Xs  sickness  injures  the  body,  so 
sin  injures  the  soul;  and  as  there  is  a  cure  for  the  di.s- 
ease  of  the  body,  so  there  is  balm  for  that  of  the  soul. 


And  as  the  wounds  of  the  body  are  shown  to  a  physi- 
cian, so,  too,  the  .sores  of  the  .soul  must  be  exposed. 
As  he  who  takes  poison  is  saved  by  a  vomit,  so,  too, 
the  soul  is  healed  by  confession  and  declaration  of  his 
sins  with  sorrow,  and  by  the  prayers  of  the  Oiurch, 
and  a  determination  henceforth  to  observe  the  laws 
of  the  Church  of  Cod.  .  .  .  Because  Christ  left 
to  His  Apostles  and  Church,  to  the  end  of  the  world, 
the  power  of  loosing  and  binding." 

That  confession  was  required  before  Communion 
is  evident  from  the  penitential  ascribed  to  St.  Colum- 
banus,  which  orders  (can.  xxx)  "that  confessions  be 
given  with  all  diligence,  especially  concerning  com- 
motions of  the  mind,  before  going  to  Mass,  lest  per- 
chance any  one  approach  the  altar  unworthily,  that  is, 
if  he  have  not  a  clean  heart.  For  it  is  better  to  wait 
till  the  heart  be  sound  and  free  from  sciindal  and  envy, 
than  daringly  to  approach  the  jud^iucnt  of  the  tri- 
bunal; for  the  altar  is  the  trihviiial  (if  Christ,  and  His 
Body,  even  there  with  His  Blood,  judges  tho.se  who 
approach  unworthily.  As,  therefore,  we  must  beware 
of  capital  sins  before  communicating,  so,  also,  from 
the  more  uncertain  defects  and  diseases  of  a  languid 
soul,  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  abstain  and  to  be  cleansed 
before  going  to  that  which  is  a  conjunction  with  true 
peace  and  a  joining  with  eternal  salvation".  In  the 
Life  of  St.  Maedocof  Ferns"  it  is  said  of  the  murdered 
King  Brandubh:  "And  so  he  departed  without  con- 
fession and  the  communication  of  the  Eucharist." 
But  the  saint  restored  him  to  life  for  a  while,  and  then, 
"  having  made  his  confession  and  received  absolution 
and  the  viaticum  of  the  Body  of  Christ,  King  Bran- 
dubh went  to  heaven,  and  was  interred  in  the  city  of 
St.  Maedoc  which  is  called  Ferns,  where  the  kings  of 
that  land  are  buried"  (Acia  SS.  Hib.,  col.  482).  The 
metrical  "Rule  of  St.  Carthach",  translated  by  Eugene 
O'Curry,  gives  this  direction  to  the  priest:  "If  you  go 
to  give  communion  at  the  awful  point  of  death,  you 
must  receive  confession  without  shame,  without  re- 
serve." In  the  prayer  for  giving  communion  to  the 
sick  (Corpus  Christi  Missal)  we  read:  "O  God,  who 
hast  willed  that  sins  should  be  forgiven  by  the  imposi- 
tion of  the  hands  of  the  priest  .  .  ."  and  then  fol- 
lows the  absolution :  "  We  absolve  thee  as  representa- 
tives of  blessed  Peter,  Prince  of  the  Apostles,  to  whom 
the  Lord  gave  the  power  of  binding  and  loosing." 
That  confession  was  regularly  a  part  of  the  prepara- 
tion for  death  is  attested  by  the  Council  of  Cashel 
(1172)  which  commands  the  faithful  in  case  of  illness 
to  make  their  will  "in  the  presence  of  their  confessor 
and  neighbours",  and  prescribes  that  to  those  who 
die  "with  a  good  confession"  due  tribute  shall  be  paid 
in  the  form  of  Masses  and  burial  (can.  vi,  vii). 

The  practice  of  public  penance  was  regulated  in 
great  detail  by  the  Penitentials.  That  of  St.  Cummian 
prescribes  that  "if  any  priest  refuses  penance  to  the 
dying,  he  is  guilty  of  the  loss  of  their  souls  .  .  . 
for  there  can  be  true  conversion  at  the  last  moment, 
since  God  has  regard  not  of  time  alone,  but  of  the 
heart  also,  and  the  thief  gained  Paradise  in  the  last 
hour  of  his  confession"  (C.  xiv,  2).  Other  Peniten- 
tials bear  the  names  of  St.  Finnian,  Sts.  David  and 
Gildas,  St.  Columbanus,  Adamnan.  The  collection  of 
canons  known  as  the  "Hibernensis"  is  especially  im- 
portant, as  it  cites,  under  the  head  of  "Penance"  (bk. 
XLVII),  the  teaching  of  St.  Augustine,  St.  Jerome, 
and  other  Fathers,  thus  showing  the  continuity  of  the 
Irish  faith  and  observance  with  that  of  the  early 
Church.  (See  Lanigan,  "Eccl.  Hi.st.  of  Ireland", 
Dublin,  1829;  Moran,  "Essays  on  the  Early  Irish 
Church",  Dublin,  1864;  Malonc,  "Church  Hist,  of 
Ireland",  Dublin,  1880;  Warren,  "The  Liturgy  and 
Ritual  of  the  Celtic  Church",  Oxford,  1881 ;  Salmon, 
"The  Ancient  Iri.sh  Church",  Dublin,  1897.) 

In  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church  penance  was  called 
behremosung,  from  the  verb  Incnwan,  whence  our  word 
"to  rue".    The  confessor  was  the  serif  I;  confession, 


PENANCE 


633 


PENANCE 


scrifl  spraec;  and  the  ].):irisli  itself  was  the  scriflscir, 
i.  e.,  "confession  district" — a  term  which  shows 
plainly  the  close  relation  between  confession  and  the 
work  of  religion  in  general.  The  practice  in  Eng- 
land can  be  traced  back  to  the  times  immediately 
following  the  country's  conversion.  Ven.  Bede  (H.  E., 
IV,  23  [25])  gives  the  story  of  Adamnan,  an  Irish  monk 
of  the  seventh  century,  who  belonged  to  the  monas- 
tery of  Coldingham,  England.  In  his  youth,  having 
committed  some  sin,  he  went  to  a  priest,  confessed, 
and  was  given  a  penance  to  be  performed  until  the 
priest  should  return.  But  the  priest  went  to  Ireland 
and  died  there,  and  Adanman  continued  his  penance 
to  the  end  of  his  days.  When  St.  Cuthbcrt  (635-87) 
on  his  missionary  tours  preached  to  the  people,  "they 
all  confessed  openly  what  they  had  done,  .  .  .  and 
what  they  confessed  they  expiated,  as  he  commanded 
them,  by  worthy  fruits  of  penance  "  (Bede,  op.  cit.,lV, 
25).  Alcuin  (735-804)  declares  that  "without  confes- 
sion there  is  no  pardon"  (P.  L.,  C,  337);. that  "he  who 
accuses  himself  of  his  sins  will  not  have  the  devil  for 
an  accuser  in  the  day  of  judgment"  (P.  L.,  CI,  021); 
that  "he  who  conceals  his  sins  and  is  ashamed  to  make 
wholesome  confession,  has  God  as  witness  now  and  will 
have  him  again  as  avenger"  (ibid.,  622).  Lanfranc 
(1005-89)  has  a  treatise,  "De  celanda  confessione", 
i.  e.,  on  keeping  confession  secret,  in  which  he  rebukes 
those  who  give  the  slightest  intimation  of  what  they 
have  heard  in  confession  (P.  L.,  CL,  626). 

The  jienitentials  were  known  as  scrift  hoes.  The 
one  attributed  to  Archbishop  Theodore  (602-90)  says: 
"The  deacon  is  not  allowed  to  impose  penance  on  a 
layman;  this  should  be  done  by  the  bishops  or 
priests"  (bk.  II,  2):  and  further;  "According  to  the 
canons,  penitents  should  not  receive  communion  until 
their  penance  is  completed;  but  we,  for  mercy's  sake, 
allow  tlicm  to  receive  at  the  end  of  a  year  or  six 
months"  (I,  12).  An  important  statement  is  that 
"public  reconciliation  is  not  established  in  this  prov- 
ince, for  the  reason  that  there  is  no  public  penance" — 
which  shows  that  the  minute  prescriptions  contained 
in  the  Penitential  were  meant  for  the  guidance  of  the 
priest  in  giving  penance  privately,  i.  e.,  in  confession. 
Among  the  excerptiones,  or  extracts,  from  the  canons 
which  bear  the  name  of  Archbishop  Egbert  of  York 
(d.  766),  canon  xlvi  says  that  the  bishop  shall  hear  no 
cause  without  the  presence  of  his  clergy,  except  in  case 
of  confession  (Wilkins,  "Concilia",  I,  10-1).  His  Peni- 
tential prescribes  (IX)  that  "a bishop  orpriest  shall  not 
refuse  confession  to  those  who  desire  it,  though  they 
be  guilty  of  many  sins"  (ibid.,  126).  The  Council  of 
Chalcuth  (a.  d.  787) :  "If  any  one  depart  this  life  with- 
out penance  or  confession,  he  shall  not  be  prayed  for" 
(can.  xx).  The  canons  published  under  King  Edgar 
(960)  have  a  special  section  "On  Confession"  which 
begins:  "When  one  wishes  to  confess  his  sins,  let  him 
act  manfully,  and  not  be  ashamed  to  confess  his  mis- 
deeds and  crimes,  accusing  himself;  because  hence 
comes  pardon,  and  because  without  confession  there 
is  no  pardon;  confession  heals;  confession  justifies" 
(ibid.,  229).  The  Council  of  Eanham  (1009):  "Let 
every  Christian  do  as  behooves  him,  strictlj'  keep  his 
Christianity,  accustom  himself  to  frequent  confession, 
fearlessly  confess  his  sins,  and  carefully  make  amends 
according  as  he  is  directed"  (can.  xvii,  Wilkins, 
ibid.,  289).  Among  the  ecclesiastical  laws  enacted 
(1033)  by  King  Canute,  we  find  this  exhortation: 
"Let  us  with  all  diligence  turn  back  from  our  sins, 
and  let  us  each  confess  our  sins  to  our  confessor,  and 
ever  [after]  refrain  from  evil-doing  and  mend  our 
ways"  (XVIII,  Wilkins,  ibid.,  303). 

The  Council  of  Durham  (c.  1220):  "How  necessary 
is  the  sacrament  of  penance,  those  words  of  the  Gospel 
prove:  Who.se  sins,  etc.  .  .  .  But  since  we  obtain 
the  pardon  of  our  sins  by  true  confession,  we 
prescribe  in  accordance  with  the  canonical  statutes 
that  the  priest  in  giving  penance  shall  carefully  con- 


sider the  amount  of  thi'  penance,  the  quality  of  the 
sin,  the  place,  time,  cause,  duration  and  other  circum- 
stances of  the  sin;  and  especially  the  devotion  of  the 
penitent  and  the  signs  of  contrition."  Similar  direc- 
tions are  given  by  the  Council  of  Oxford  (1222),  which 
adds  after  various  admonitions:  "Let  no  priest  dare, 
either  out  of  anger  or  e\'en  through  fear  of  death,  to 
reveal  the  confession  of  anyone  by  word  or  sign  .  .  . 
and  should  he  be  con\icted  of  doing  this  he  ought 
deservedly  to  be  degraded  without  hope  of  relaxation" 
(Wilkins,  ibid.,  595).  The  Scottish  Council  (o.  1227) 
repeats  these  injunctions  and  prescribes  "that  once  a 
year  the  faithful  shall  confess  all  their  sins  either  to 
their  own  [parish]  priest  or,  w^ith  his  permission,  to 
some  other  priest"  (can.  Ivii).  Explicit  instructions  for 
the  confessor  are  found  in  the  statutes  of  Alexander, 
Bishop  of  Coventry  (1237),  especially  in  regard  to  the 
manner  of  questioning  the  penitent  and  enjoining 
penance.  The  Council  of  Lambeth  (1261)  declares: 
"Since  the  sacrament  of  confession  and  penance,  the 
second  plank  after  shipwreck,  the  last  part  of  man's  sea- 
faring, the  final  refuge,  is  for  every  sinner  most  neces- 
sary unto  salvation,  we  strictly  forbid,  under  pain  of 
excommunication,  that  anyone  should  presume  to 
hinder  the  free  administration  of  this  sacrament  to 
each  who  asks  for  it"  (Wilkins,  ibid.,  754). 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  ancient  discipline,  the 
penalties  attached  to  graver  crimes  are  cited  here  from 
the  English  and  Irish  Penitentials.  For  stealing, 
Cummian  prescribes  that  a  layman  shall  do  one 
year  of  penance;  a  cleric,  two;  a  subdeacon,  three;  a 
deacon,  four;  a  priest,  five;  a  bishop,  six.  For  mur- 
der or  perjury,  the  penance  lasted  three,  five,  six, 
seven,  ten,  or  twelve  years  according  to  the  criminal's 
rank.  Theodore  commands  that  if  any  one  leave  the 
Catholic  Church,  join  the  heretics,  and  induce  others 
to  do  the  same,  he  shall,  in  case  he  repent,  do  penance 
for  twelve  years.  For  the  perjurer  who  swears  by  the 
Church,  the  Gospel,  or  the  relics  of  the  saints,  Egbert 
prescribes  seven  or  eleven  years  of  penance.  Usury 
entailed  three  years;  infanticide,  fifteen;  idolatry  or 
demon-worship,  ten.  Violationsof  the  sixth  command- 
ment were  punished  with  great  severitj';  the  penance 
varied,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sin,  from  three 
to  fifteen  years,  the  extreme  penalty  being  prescribed 
for  incest,  i.  e.,  fifteen  to  twenty-five  years.  Whatever 
its  duration,  the  penance  included  fasting  on  bread 
and  water,  either  for  the  whole  period  or  for  a  specified 
portion.  Those  who  could  not  fast  were  obliged  in- 
stead to  recite  daily  a  certain  number  of  psalms,  to 
give  alms,  take  the  discipline  (scourging)  or  perform 
some  other  penitential  exercise  as  determined  by  the 
confessor.  (See  Lingard,  "Hist,  and  Antiq.  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church",  London,  1845;  Thurston, 
"Confession  in  England  before  the  Conquest"  in 
"The  Tablet",  Feb.  and  March,  1905.) 

Confession  in  the  Anglican  Church. — In  the 
Anglican  Church,  according  to  the  rule  laid  down  in 
the  "Prayer  Book",  there  is  a  general  confession  pre- 
scribed for  morning  and  evening  Service,  also  for 
Holy  Communion;  this  confession  is  followed  by  a 
general  absolution  like  the  one  in  use  in  the  Catholic 
Church.  Also  in  the  "Prayer  Book"  confession  is 
counselled  for  the  quieting  of  conscience  and  for  the 
good  that  comes  from  absolution  and  the  peace  that 
arises  from  the  fatherly  direction  of  the  minister  of 
God.  There  is  also  mention  of  private  confession  in 
the  office  for  the  sick:  "Here  shall  the  sick  person  be 
moved  to  make  a  special  confession  of  his  sins  if  he 
feel  his  conscience  troubled  with  any  weighty  matter. 
After  which  the  priest  shall  absolve  him  (if  he  humbly 
and  heartily  desire  it)  after  this  sort:  'Our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  who  has  left  the  power  to  his  Church'  etc." 
Since  the  beginning  of  the  Oxford  Movement  confes- 
sion after  the  manner  |ir:irli>('-l  in  t  lie  Catholic  Church 
has  become  more  friM|ii.nl  miulmk  tho.se  of  the  High 
Church  party.     In  1,S73  a  ijctilion  was  sent  to  the 


PENANCE 


634 


PENANCE 


Convocation  of  the  Arclulioopse  of  Canterbury  asking 
provision  for  tiie  eiliieation  and  authorization  of 
priests  for  tlie  worlv  of  the  confessional.  In  the  joint 
letter  of  the  Arelibishops  of  Canterbury  and  York  dis- 
apiiroiiation  of  such  course  was  markedly  expressed, 
and  the  determination  not  to  encourage  tiie  practice 
of  private  confession  openly  avoweil.  The  Puseyit"s 
replied  citing  the  authoritv  of  the  "Prayer  Book"  as 
given  above.  In  our  t  ime  among  the  High  Church  folk 
one  notices  confessionals  in  t  he  churches,  and  one  hears 
of  discourses  made  to  the  people  enjoining  confession 
as  a  necessity  to  pardon.  Those  who  hear  confessions 
make  use  generally  of  the  rul'S  and  directions  laid 
down  in  Catholic  "Manuals",  and  especially  popular 
is  the  "Manual"  of  the  Abb^  Gaume  (A.  G.  Mortimer, 
"Confes.sion  and  Absolution",  London,  1906). 

Utility  of  Confession. — Mr.  Lea  {"  A  History 
of  Auricular  Confession",  Vol.  II,  p.  456)  says:  "No 
one  can  deny  that  there  is  truth  in  Cardinal 
Newman's  argument:  'How  many  souls  are  there  in 
distress,  anxiety  and  loneliness,  whose  one  need  is  to 
find  a  being  to  whom  they  can  pour  out  their  feelings 
unheard  by  the  world.  They  want  to  tell  them  and 
not  to  tell  them,  they  wish  to  tell  them  to  one  who  is 
strong  enough  to  hear  them,  and  yet  not  too  strong  so 
as  to  despise  them'";  and  then  Mr.  Lea  adds:  "It  is 
this  weakness  of  humanity  on  which  the  Church  has 
speculated,  the  weakness  of  those  unable  to  bear  their 
burdens  .  .  .  who  find  comfort  in  the  system 
built  up  through  the  experience  of  the  ages",  etc.  It 
has  been  made  clear  that  the  Church  has  simply  car- 
ried out  the  mind  of  Christ:  "Whatsoever  you  shall 
loose  shall  be  loosed";  still  we  do  not  hesitate  to 
accept  Mr.  Lea's  reason,  that  this  institution  answers 
in  large  measure  to  the  needs  of  men,  who  morally  are 
indeed  weak  and  in  darkness.  True  Mr.  Lea  denies 
the  probability  of  finding  men  capable  of  exercising 
aright  this  great  ministry,  and  he  prefers  to 
enumerate  the  rare  abuses  which  the  weakness  of 
priests  has  caused,  rather  than  to  listen  to  the  millions 
who  have  found  in  the  tribunal  of  penance  a  remedy 
for  their  anxieties  of  mind,  and  a  peace  and  security 
of  conscience  the  value  of  which  is  untold.  The  very 
abuses  of  which  he  speaks  at  such  length  have  been 
the  occasion  of  greater  care,  greater  diligence,  on  the 
part  of  the  Church.  The  few  inconveniences  arising 
from  the  perversity  of  men,  which  the  Church  lias  met 
with  admirable  legislation,  should  not  blind  men  to 
the  great  good  that  confession  has  brought,  not  only 
to  the  individual,  but  even  to  society. 

Thinking  men  even  outside  the  Church  have  ac- 
knowledged the  usefulness  to  society  of  the  tribunal  of 
penance.  Amongst  these  the  words  of  Leibniz  are  not 
unknown  ("Systema  theologicum",  Paris,  1819,  p. 
270) :  "This  whole  work  of  sacramental  penance  is  in- 
deed worthy  of  the  Divine  wisdom  and  if  aught  else  in 
the  Christian  dispensation  is  meritorious  of  praise, 
surelj'  this  wondrous  institution.  For  the  necessity  of 
confessing  one's  sins  deters  a  man  from  committing 
them,  and  hope  is  given  to  him  who  may  have  fallen 
again  after  expiation.  The  pious  and  ijrudent  confes- 
sor is  in  very  deed  a  great  instrument  in  the  hands  of 
God  for  man's  regeneration.  For  the  kindly  advice  of 
God's  priest  helps  man  to  control  his  passions,  to  know 
the  lurking  places  of  sin,  to  avoid  the  occasions  of  evil 
doing,  to  restore  ill-gotten  goods,  to  have  hope  after 
depression  and  doubt,  to  have  peace  after  affliction, 
in  a  word,  to  remove  or  at  least  lessen  all  evil,  and  if 
there  is  no  pleasure  on  earth  like  unto  a  faithful  friend, 
what  must  be  the  esteem  a  man  must  have  for  him, 
who  is  in  very  deed  a  friend  in  the  hour  of  his  direst 
need?" 

Nor  is  Leibniz  alone  in  expressing  this  feeling  of  the 
great  benefits  that  may  come  from  the  use  of  confes- 
sion. Protestant  theologians  realize,  not  only  the 
value  of  the  Catholic  theological  position,  but  also  the 
need  of  the  confessional  for  the  spiritual  regeneration 


of  their  subjects.  Dr.  Martensen,  in  his  "Christian 
Dogmatics"  (Edinburgh,  1.S90),  p.  44:3,  thus  outlines 
his  views:  "Absolution  in  the  name  of  the  l'"ather  and 
of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost ,  derived  from  t  he  full 
power  of  binding  and  loosing  which  the  church  has 
inherited  from  the  apostles,  is  not  unconditional,  but 
depends  on  the  same  condition  on  which  the  gospel 
itself  adjudges  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  namely,  cJiange 
of  licait  and  faith.  If  reform  is  to  take  place  here,  it 
must  ]tv  effected  either  by  endeavouring  to  revive  pri- 
vate confession,  or,  as  has  been  proposed,  by  doing 
away  with  the  union  between  confession  and  the 
Lord's  Supper,  omitting,  that  is,  tlie  solemn  absolu- 
tion, because  what  it  presupposes  (personal  confession 
of  sin)  has  fallen  into  disuse,  and  retaining  only  the 
words  of  prciiaiation,  witli  the  exhortation  to  self- 
examination,  a  testifying  of  the  comfortable  promises 
of  the  gospel,  and  a  wish  for  a  blessing  ujion  the  com- 
municants." Under  the  head  of  "Observations"  he 
states:  "It  cannot  easily  be  denied  that  confession 
meets  a  deep  need  of  human  nature.  There  is  a  great 
psychological  truth  in  the  saying  of  Pascal,  that  a  man 
often  attains  for  the  first  time  a  true  sense  of  sin,  and 
a  true  stayedness  in  his  good  purpose,  when  he  con- 
fesses his  sins  to  his  fellow  man,  as  well  as  to  God. 
Catholicism  has  often  been  commended  because  by 
confession  it  affords  an  opportunity  of  depositing  the 
confession  of  his  sins  in  the  breast  of  another  man, 
where  it  remains  kept  under  the  seal  of  the  most  sacred 
secrecy,  and  whence  the  consolation  of  the  forgiveness 
of  sins  is  given  him  in  the  very  name  of  the  Lord." 

True,  he  believes  that  this  great  need  is  met  more 
fully  with  the  kind  of  confession  practised  in  Luther- 
anism,  but  he  does  not  hesitate  to  add:  "It  is  a  matter 
of  regret  that  private  confession,  as  an  institution, 
meeting  as  it  does  this  want  in  a  regular  manner,  has 
fallen  into  disuse;  and  that  the  objective  point  of 
union  is  wanting  for  the  many,  who  desire  to  unburden 
their  souls  by  confessing  not  to  God  only  but  to  a  fel- 
low-man, and  who  feel  their  need  of  comfort  and  of 
forgiveness,  which  anyone  indeed  may  draw  for  him- 
self from  the  gospel,  but  which  in  many  instances  he 
may  desire  to  hear  si^oken  by  a  man,  who  speaks  in 
virtue  of  the  authority  of  his  holy  office." 

Good  bibliographies  are  given  in:  Pohle,  Lehrb.  d.  Dogmatik, 
III  (Paderborn,  1906) ;  Did.  de  Thiol.,  a.  v.  Absolution:  Confession; 
Richardson,  Periodical  Articles  on  Religion  (New  York,  1907). 

Doctrine. — St.  Thom.\8,  Sum.  Theol.,  Ill,  Q.  Ixxxiv-xc; 
Bellarmine,  De  pcenit,  I,  1  aq.;  Billuart,  De  pcenit.,  dia.  1, 
a.  1;  Collet,  Tract,  de  poenit.  in  Migne,  Theol.  curs.,  XXII; 
Jenkins.  The  Doctrine  and  Practice  of  .iuricular  Confession  (Lon- 
don, 1783) :  Wiseman,  Lectures  on  the  Principal  Doctrines  and 
Practices  of  the  Cath.  Church  (London,  1844),  lect.  x;  Kenrick, 
Theol.  dogmaiica  (Mechlin,  1858)  ;  Nampon,  Catholic  Doctrine 
as  Defined  by  the  Council  of  Trent  (Philadelphia,  1869) ;  Billot, 
De  ecc.  sacramenlis,  II  (Rome,  1898);  Wilhelm  and  Scannell, 
A  Manual  of  Cath.  Theol.,  II  (London,  1900);  Scheeben- 
Atzberqer,  Dogmatik,  IV  (Freiburg,  1903). 

History. — De  l'Aubespine,  De  veteribus  ecc.  ritibus  (Paris, 
Ifi'i'^;  I'fta^it'*,  De  pcenit.  vetere  in  ecc.  ratione  diatriha  (Paris, 
liijli  /'  '-  ,  \I,II,  1037;  Morin,  Covivientarius  hist,  de  dis- 
ci i^  ■'.  sacram.  pcenitenticE  (Paris,  1651);  Sirmond, 
til!  ,,T,,  ,(  publiccB  (Paris,  1651);  Boileau,  Hist,  con- 
/,.„,....,.  ,i:....  ul.tris  (Paris,  1683);  MABTfcNE,  De  antiq.  ecc. 
ritibus  (Rouen,  1700);  Chardon,  Histoire  du  sacrement  de  peni- 
tence (Paris,  1745);  and  in  Migne,  Theol.  curs.,  XX;  Klee, 
Die  Beicht  (Frankfort,  1828);  Frank,  Die  Bussdisciplin  d. 
Kirche  (Mainz,  1867);  Probst,  Sakramente  u.  Sakramentalien 
in  den  ersten  drei  christl.  Jahrh.  (Tiibingen,  1872);  Schwane, 
Dogmengesch.  (Freiburg,  1895),  II;  Funk,  Kirchengeschichtl. 
Abhandlungen  u.  Unlersuchungen,  I  (Paderborn,  1897) :  Brucker, 
Une  nouvelle  th6orie  sur  les  origines  de  la  penitence  sacramenteUe 
in  Etudes,  LXXIII  (1897);  Schmitz,  Die  Busabiicher  u.  das 
kanonische  Bussverfahren  (Diisaeldorf,  1898);  Harent,  La  con- 
fession in  Etudes,  LXXX  (1899) :  Kirsch,  Zur  Gesch.  d.  kath. 
Beichle  (Wurzburg,  1902);  Gart.meier,  Die  Beichtpflicht  his- 
torisch-dogmalisch  dargestelU  (Ratisbon,  1905);  O'DowD,  Notes 
on  TerluUian's  De  pirnit.  in  Irish  Ecc.  Record,  XX  (1906),  133; 
Rauschen,  Eucharistie  w.  Bussakrament  in  den  ersten  sechs 
Jahrh.  d.  Kirche  (Freiburg,  1908);  of.  Vacandard  in  Rev.  du 
clergi  frantais  (15  May,  1908);  EssER,  Articles  in  Katholik 
(1907,  1908);  Stufleb,  Articles  in  Zeitschr.  f.  kathol.  Theol. 
(1906,  1907,  1908,  1909);  O'Donnell,  The  Seal  of  Confession 
in  Irish  Theol.  Quart.,  V  (1910);  Brat,  Les  livres  ptnilentiaux 
et  la  pinitence  tariffie  (Brignais,  1910). 

Non-Catholic. — The  Protestant  views  are  stated  in  the  va- 
rious Confessions  of  Faith,  in  explanations  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles,  and  in  commentaries  on  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 


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Good  summaries  are  also  given  by  some  Catholic  authors,  e.  g., 
MoHLER,  Si/mbolism,  tr.  1S43  (reprint  London  and  New  York, 
1S94);  ScH\xz,  Die  Lehre  d,  heiligen  Sacramenten  (Freiburg. 
1S94). — Among  Protestant  writers,  sec:  Posey,  Entire  Absolu- 
tion of  the  Penitent  (Oxford.  1846);  Maskell.  An  Inquiry  upon 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  upon  Absolution  (London. 
1819):  Boyd,  Confession,  Absolution  and  the  Real  Presence 
(London,  1867);  Ackebmann,  Die  Beichte  (Hamburg,  1853): 
SlEFFERT.  Die  neuesten  theolog.  Forschungen  Uber  Busse  u.  Glaube 
(Berlin,  1896);  Harnack,  Lehrb.  d.  Dogmengesch.,  I  (1894-7); 
Drory.  Confession  and  Absolution  (London,  1903);  Loofs. 
Leilfaden  d.  Dogmengesch.  (4th  ed..  Halle.  1906) ;  HoLL.  Enthusias- 
mus  u.  Bussgewalt  beim  griechischen  Monchthum  (Leipzig,  1908) ; 
Lea,  a  History  of  Auricular  Confession  (Philadelphia.  1898)  [for 
criticism  of  this  work  see  Casey,  Notes  on  a  Hist,  of  Auricular 
Confession  (Philadelphia,  1899)1;  Boudinhon,  Sur  I'histoire  de 
la  penitence  in  Revue  d  histoire  et  de  littirature  religieuses  (1897), 
306,  496  ;  VacandaRD,  Le  pouvoir  des  clefs  in  Revue  du  clerge 
frnn^ais,  1898-99  ;  DoHL,  Etude  sur  M.  Lea  in  Revue  critique 
d' histoire  et  de  litterature  {189S);  Delplace,  Hist,  of  Auric.  Conf. 
in  Am.  Eccl.  Rev.  (1899);  Graham  in  Am.  Cath.  Q.  Rev.,  XXXIV 
(1909)1. 

See  also  bibliographies  under  Pexitential  Canons;  Sacra- 
ment; Indulgences. 

Edwahd  J.  Hanna. 

Penance,  Works  of.  See  Mortification;  Repa- 
ration. 

Pendleton,  Hknry,  controversialist,  b.  at  Man- 
chester; d.  in  London,  Sept.,  1.5.57;  educated  at  Brase- 
nose  College,  Oxford,  where  he  received  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Divinity,  18  July,  1552.  Though  he  had 
preached  against  Lutheranism  in  Henry  VIII's  reign, 
he  conformed  under  Edward  VI  and  was  appointed  by 
Lord  Derby  as  an  itinerant  Protestant  preacher.  In 
1552  he  received  the  living  of  Blymhill,  Staffordshire. 
He  is  described  as  "an  able  man,  handsome  and  ath- 
letic, possessed  of  a  fine  clear  voice,  of  ready  speech  and 
powerful  utterance "  (Halley,  "Lancashire").  On  the 
accession  of  Mary  he  returned  to  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  during  1554  received  much  preferment.  He  was 
made  canon  of  St.  Paul's  and  of  Lichfield,  Vicar  of  To- 
denham, Gloucester,  and  St.  MartinOutwichin  London ; 
in  1556  he  exchanged  the  latter  living  for  St.  Stephen 
Walbrook.  He  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Bishop 
Bonner,  for  whom  he  wrote  two  homilies:  "Of  the 
Church  what  it  is",  and  "Of  the  Authority  of  the 
Church".  He  also  wrote  "Declaration  in  his  sickness 
of  his  faith  or  belief  in  all  points  as  the  Catholic 
Church  teacheth  against  sclaunderous  reports  against 
him"  (London,  1557).  Foxe,  who  purports  to  record 
some  of  his  discussions  with  persons  charged  with 
heresy,  states  that  on  his  death-bed  he  repented  of 
his  conversion;  but  the  authority  of  this  writer  can 
never  be  accepted  without  confirming  evidence 
which  in  this  instance,  as  in  so  many  others,  is 
lacking. 

PoLLiRD  in  Diet.  Nat.  Biog. ;  Gillow.  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.; 
Foster,  .Uumni  Oxonienses  (Oxford,  1891) ;  a  Wood,  Athence 
Oionienses  (London,  1813-20) ;  Donn,  Church  History,  I  (Brussels 
vere  Wolverhampton,  1737);  Hennessey,  Novum  Repertorium 
Parochiale  Londinense  (London,  1898). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Penelakut  Indians,  a  small  tribe  of  Salishan  stock, 
speaking  a  dialect  of  the  Cowichan  language  and  occu- 
jiying  a  limited  territory  at  the  south  end  of  Vancouver 
Lsland,  B.  C,  with  present  reservations  on  Kuper, 
Tent,  and  Galiano  Islands  and  at  the  mouth  of  Che- 
mainus  River,  included  in  the  Cowichan  agency. 
From  disease  and  dissipation  introduced  by  the  coast- 
ing vessels  of  early  days,  from  changes  consequent 
upon  the  influx  of  white  immigration  about  1858,  and 
from  the  smallpox  visitation  upon  Southern  British 
Columbia  in  1862,  they  are  now  reduced  in  number 
from  1000  of  a  century  ago  to  about  250,  of  whom  140 
live  at  the  Penelakut  village.  They  depended  upon 
the  sea  for  subsistence,  and  in  their  primitive  cu.stoms, 
beliefs,  and  ceremonials  resembled  their  kindred,  the 
neighbouring  Songish,  and  the  cognate  Squawmish 
about  the  mouth  of  Eraser  River  on  the  opposite  coast. 
Some  of  them  may  have  come  under  the  teaching  of 
Fr.  Demers  and  the  .Icsuits  as  early  as  1841,  but  regu- 
lar mission  work  dates  from  the  arrival  of  the  secular 


priest,  Fr.  John  Bolduc,  who  was  brought  over  by  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company  in  1843  to  minister  to  the 
Indians  about  the  newly  established  post  of  Camosun, 
now  Victoria.  The  mission  work  of  the  Oblate  Fathers 
in  the  Vancouver  and  lower  Eraser  River  region  began 
with  Fr.  Paul  Durieu  in  1854.  Like  most  of  the  Sali- 
shan tribes  of  British  Columbia  they  are  now  entirely 
Catholic  and  of  exemplary  morality.  The  Penelakut 
live  by  fishing,  boat  building,  farming,  labouring 
work,  and  hunting;  have  generally  good  health  and 
sanitary  conditions,  fairly  good  houses,  kept  neatly, 
and  well-cared-for  stock  and  farm  implements.  They 
are  an  "industrious  and  law  abiding  people,  temperate 
and  moral,  a  few  of  them  only  being  addicted  to  the 
use  of  liquor".  The  centre  of  instruction  is  a  Catholic 
boarding  school  maintained  on  Kuper  island.  (See 
also  Saanich,  Songish,  Squawmish.) 

Bancroft.  History  of  British  Columbia  (San  Francisco,  1887); 
Dept.  Ind,  Affairs,  Canada,  annual  repts.  (Ottawa);  Reports  on 
the  Northwestern  Tribes  of  Canada  by  various  authors  in  British 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  (London,  1885-98). 

James  Mooney. 

Penitentes,  Los  Hermanos  (The  Penitent  Broth- 
ers), a  society  of  flagellants  existing  among  the  Span- 
ish of  New  "Mexico  and  Colorado.  The  subject  will 
be  considered  under  two  headings:  I.  The  Practices  of 
the  Penitentes.  II.  Their  Origin  and  History.  I. — 
Practices. — The  Hermanos  Penitentes  are  a  society  of 
individuals,  who,  to  atone  for  their  sins,  practise  pen- 
ances which  consist  principally  of  flagellation,  carry- 
ing heavy  crosses,  binding  the  body  to  a  cross,  and 
tying  the  limbs  to  hinder  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
These  practices  have  prevailed  in  Colorado  and  New 
Mexico  since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Up  to  the  year  1890,  they  were  public;  at  present 
they  are  secret,  though  not  strictly.  The  Hermanos 
Penitentes  are  men;  fifty  years  ago  they  admitted 
women  and  children  into  separate  organizations, 
which,  however,  were  never  numerous.  The  society 
has  no  general  organization  or  supreme  authority. 
Each  fraternit}'  is  local  and  independent  with  its  own 
officers.  The  chief  officer,  hermano  mayor  (elder 
brother),  has  absolute  authority,  and  as  a  rule  holds 
office  during  life.  The  other  officers  are  the  same 
as  those  of  most  secret  societies:  chaplain,  serjeant- 
at-arms,  etc.  The  ceremony  of  the  initiation,  which 
takes  place  during  Holy  Week,  is  simple,  excepting 
the  final  test.  The  candidate  is  escorted  to  the  morada 
(aboile),  the  home,  or  council  house,  by  two  or  more 
Penitentes  where,  after  a  series  of  questions  and  an- 
swers consisting  in  the  main  of  prayer,  he  is  admitted. 
He  then  undergoes  various  humiliations.  First,  he 
washes  the  feet  of  all  present,  kneeling  before  each; 
then  he  recites  a  long  prayer,  asking  pardon  for  any 
offence  he  may  have  given.  If  any  one  present  has 
been  offended  by  the  candidate,  he  lashes  the  offender 
on  the  bare  back.  Then  comes  the  last  and  crucial 
test  :  four  or  six  incisions,  in  the  shape  of  a  cross,  are 
made  just  below  the  shoulders  of  the  candidate  with 
a  piece  of  flint. 

Flagellation,  formerly  practised  in  the  streets  and  in 
the  churches,  is  now,  since  the  American  occupation, 
confined  generally  to  the  morada  and  performed  with 
a  short  whip  (dlmplina),  made  from  the  leaf  of  the 
amole  weed.  Fifty  years  ago  the  Hermanos  Penitentes 
would  issue  from  their  morada  (in  some  places,  as  Taos, 
N.  M.,  three  hundred  strong),  stripped  to  the  waist 
and  scourging  thera.selves,  led  by  the  acorn panadores 
(escorts),  and  preceded  by  a  few  Penitentes  dragging 
heavy  crosses  {maderos) ;  the  procession  was  accompan- 
ied by  a  throng,  singing  Christian  hymns.  A  wooden 
wagon  {el  carro  de  la  muerte)  bore  a  figure  representing 
death  and  pointing  forward  an  arrow  with  stretched 
bow.  This  procession  went  through  the  streets  to  the 
church,  where  the  Penitentes  prayed,  continued  their 
scourgings,  returned  in  proce.'ision  to  the  morada. 
Other  modes  of  self-castigatiou  were  often  resorted  to: 


PENITENTIAL 


636 


PENITENTIAL 


on  Good  Friday  it  was  the  custom  to  bind  one  of  the 
brethren  to  a  cross,  as  in  a  crucifixion.  At  present  no 
"crucifixions"  talcc  place,  though  previous  to  1S96 
they  were  annual  in  many  places  in  New  Mexico  and 
Colorado.  The  Penitentes  now  confine  themselves  to 
secret  flagellation  and  occasional  vLsits  to  churches  at 
night.  Flagellation  is  also  practised  at  the  death  of  a 
Penitente  or  of  a  relative.  The  corpse  is  taken  to  the 
morada  and  kept  there  for  a  few  hours;  flagellation 
takes  place  at  the  morada  and  during  the  procession  to 
and  from  the  same. 

II.— Origin  and  History. — Flagellation  was  intro- 
duced into  Latin  .Vmerica  during  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  though  no  actual  records  are 
found  of  any  organized  flagellant  societies  there  until 
comparatively  recent  times.  In  some  localities  of 
Mexico,  Central,  and  South  America,  flagellant  organ- 
izations, more  or  less  public  in  their  practices,  existed 
until  very  recently,  and  still  exist  in  a  few  isolated 
places.  All  these  later  organizations  were  regulated 
and  controlled  by  Leo  XIII.  The  origin  of  the  New 
Mexican  flagellants  or  hermanos  penilenles  is  un- 
certain, but  they  seem  to  have  been  an  outgrowth 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  introduced  by 
Franciscans  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Their  prac- 
tices consisted  principally  in  flagellation,  without  in- 
cisions and  with  no  loss  of  blood,  carrying  small  crosses, 
and  marching  in  processions  with  bare  feet  to  visit  the 
churches  and  join  in  long  prayers.  The  barbarous 
customs  of  the  New  Mexico  Penitentes  are  of  a  much 
later  origin.  The  New  IMexican  flagellants  call  their 
society,  "Los  hermanos  penitentes  de  la  terccr  orden 
de  San  Francisco",  and  we  know  that  when  the  last 
organization  came  into  prominence  in  the  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  older  organization  no 
longer  existed  in  New  Mexico.  When  their  practices 
reached  their  worst  stage  (about  1850-90),  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Church  was  directed  towards  them.  The 
society  was  then  very  strong  among  all  classes  and 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities  decided  to  use  leniency. 
In  a  circular  letter  to  the  Penitentes  of  New  Mexico 
and  Colorado  in  ISSti,  Archbishop  Salpointe  of  Santa 
Fe  ordered  them  in  the  name  of  the  Church  to  abolish 
flagellation,  and  the  carrying  of  heavy  crosses,  and  sent 
to  the  different  herynano.s  mayores  copies  of  the  rules 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  advising  them  to 
reorganize  in  accordance  therewith.  His  letter  and 
orders  were  unheeded.  He  then  ordered  all  the  parish 
priests  to  see  the  Penitentes  personally  and  induce 
them  to  follow  his  instructions,  but  they  accomplished 
nothing.  To  make  matters  worse,  a  Protestant  paper, 
"La  hermandad",  was  published  at  Pueblo,  Colo- 
rado, in  1889,  which  incited  the  Penitentes  to  resist 
the  Church  and  follow  their  own  practices.  Arch- 
bishop Salpointe,  in  a  circular  letter  of  1889,  then  or- 
dered the  Penitentes  to  di.sband.  As  a  result  the 
society,  though  not  abolished,  was  very  much  weak- 
ened, anil  its  further  growth  prevented.  In  Taos, 
Carmel,  San  Mateo,  and  a  few  other  places  they  are 
still  numerous,  and  continue  their  barbarous  practices, 
though  more  secretly. 

Some  important  facts  concerning  the  late  hiator>'  of  the  Peni- 
tentes in  New  Mexico  are  to  be  found  in  Revista  Catolica  (Las 
Vegas.  N.  M.,  1875-1910.  especially  1886-90).  No  other  trust- 
worthy data  exist  on  the  subject.  Cf.  however.  Flagellation  in  the 
Wexl  of  the  United  Slates  in  Dublin  Review.  V,  114,  pp.  178  sqq.; 
LuMUIS,  The  PeniUnt  Brothers  in  Cosmopolitan,  V,  7,  pp.  41  sqq.; 
Idem,  The  Land  of  poco  tiempo  (New  York.  1893),  79-108. 

AURELIO  M.  ESPINOSA. 

Penitential  Canons,  rules  laid  down  by  councils 
or  bishops  concerning  the  penances  to  be  done  for 
various  sins.  These  canons,  collected,  adapted  to  later 
practice,  and  completed  by  suitable  directions  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  Penitential  Books  fsee  Theology, 
Moral;  Penantk).  They  all  belong  to  the  ancient 
penitential  discipline  anrl  have  now  only  an  historic 
interest;  if  the  writers  of  the  classical  period  continue 
to  cite  them,  it  is  only  as  examples,  and  to  excite  sin- 


ners to  repentance  by  reminding  them  of  earlier  sever- 
ity. In  a  certain  sense  they  still  survive,  for  the  grant- 
ing of  indulgences  (q.  v.)  is  .still  based  on  the  periods  of 
penance,  j-ears,  day,  and  quarantines.  The  penitential 
canons  may  be  divided  into  three  classes  correspond- 
ing to  the  penitential  discipline  of  the  East,  of  Rome, 
or  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Churches.  (1)  In  the  East,  the 
prominent  feature  of  penance  was  not  the  practice  of 
mortification  and  pious  works,  though  this  was  sup- 
posed; the  penance  imposed  on  sinners  was  a  longer 
or  shorter  period  of  exclusion  from  communion  and 
the  Mass,  to  which  they  were  gradually  admitted 
according  to  the  different  penitential  "stations"  or 
classes,  three  in  number;  for  the  "weepers"  (irpoo-- 
xXaioi-Tes,  flentes),  mentioned  occasionally,  were  not 
yet  admitted  to  penance;  they  were  great  sinners  who 
had  to  await  their  admission  outside  of  the  church. 
Once  admitted,  the  penitents  became  "hearers" 
(dxpoiiT)6>'oi,  audioiles),  and  assisted  at  the  Divine 
service  until  after  the  lessons  and  the  homily;  then, 
the  "prostrated"  (v-n-oTri-n-TovTes,  prostrati),  because  the 
bishop  before  excluding  them,  prayed  over  them  while 
imposing  his  hands  on  them  as  they  lay  prostrate; 
finally  the  avarivm,  consistentes,  who  assisted  at  the 
whole  service,  but  did  not  receive  communion.  The 
penance  ended  with  the  admission  to  communion  and 
complete  equality  with  the  rest  of  the  faithful.  These 
different  periods  amounted  in  all  to  three,  five,  ten, 
twelve,  or  fifteen  years,  according  to  the  gravity  of  the 
sins.  This  discipline,  which  was  rapidly  mitigated, 
ceased  to  be  observed  by  the  close  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. The  relative  penitential  canons  are  contained 
in  the  canonical  letter  of  St.  Gregory  Thaumaturgus 
(about  203;  P.  G.,  X,  1019),  the  Councils  of  Ancyra 
(314),  Neocffisarea  (314-20),  Nica>a  (325),  and  the 
three  canonical  letters  of  St.  Basil  to  Amphilochus 
(Ep.  188,  199,  217  in  P.  G.,  XXXII,  663,  719,  794). 
They  passed  into  the  Greek  Collections  and  the  Peni- 
tential Books.  Those  laid  down  by  the  councils 
passed  to  the  West  in  different  translations,  but  were 
misunderstood  or  not  enforced. 

(2)  The  Roman  penitential  discipline  did  not  recog- 
nize the  various  "stations",  or  classes;  with  this  ex- 
ception it  was  Uke  the  discipline  of  the  East.  The 
penitential  exercises  were  not  settled  in  detail  and  the 
punishment  properly  so  called  consisted  in  exclusion 
from  communion  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period.  But 
the  practice  of  admitting  to  penance  only  once,  which 
kept  the  penitents  in  a  fixed  order,  was  maintained 
longer.  The  most  ancient  Western  canons  relate  to 
the  admission  or  exclusion  from  public  penance;  for 
instance,  the  decision  of  Callixtus  (Tertullian,  "De 
pudic",  i)  to  admit  adulterers,  that  of  St.  Cyril  and 
the  Council  of  Carthage  in  251  (Ep.  56)  to  admit  the 
lapsi  or  apostates,  although  the  Council  of  Elvira 
(about  300,  Can.  1, 6, 8,  etc.)  still  refused  to  admit  very 
great  sinners.  Other  canons  of  this  council  ordained 
penances  of  several  years'  duration.  After  Elvira  and 
Aries  (314)  the  penitential  canons  are  rather  infre- 
quent. They  are  more  numerous  in  the  councils  and 
decretals  of  the  popes  after  the  clo.se  of  the  fourth 
century — Siricius,  Innocent,  and  later  St.  Leo,  They 
reduce  the  duration  of  the  penance  very  much,  and 
are  more  merciful  towards  the  lapis  or  apostates. 
These  texts,  with  the  translations  of  the  Eastern  coun- 
cils, pas.sed  into  the  Western  canonical  collections. 
(3)  On  the  other  hand,  what  is  more  striking  in  the 
penitential  canons  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Iri.sh  origin,  is 
the  particular  fixation  of  the  penitential  acts  imposed 
on  the  sinner  to  insure  reparation,  and  their  duration 
in  days,  quarantines  (rnrinn),  and  years;  these  consist 
in  more  or  less  rigorous  fasts,  pro.st'rations,  deprivation 
of  things  otherwise  allowable;  also  alms,  prayers,  pil- 
grimages, etc.  These  c.anons.  unknown  to  us  in  their 
original, sources,  are  conlaincrl  in  the  numerous  so-called 
Penitenti.al  Books  (Liliri  PaiiUfntiala^)  or  collections 
made  in,  and  in  voguefrom,theseventh  century.  These 


PENITENTIAL 


637 


PENITENTIAL 


canons  and  the  penitential  discipline  they  represent 
were  introduced  to  the  Continent  by  Anglo-Saxon 
missionaries,  and  were  at  first  received  unfavourably 
(Council  of  Chalons,  813;  Paris,  829);  finally,  how- 
ever, they  were  adopted  and  gradually  mitigated. 
(See  Canons,  Collections  of  Ancient.) 

See  bibliographies  to  Penance  and  Theology,  Moral; 
MoHIN,  Commentarius  historirus  de  disciplina  in  adminis.  sacra. 
p<snit.  (Paris.  1651);  Wasserschleben,  D,  Bussordnungen  d. 
abendl.  Kirche  (Halle,  1851) ;  Schmitz,  i>,  Bussbiicker  u.  d.  Buss- 
diszipHn  d.  Kirche  (Mainz,  1883,  1898) ;  Funk,  Kirchengeschicht. 
Abhandl.  I  (Padcrborn.  1897),  155-209;  Ballerini,  De  antiquis 
collectionibus  canonum  in  P.  L.,  XLVI  ;  Tardif.  Hist,  des  sources 
du  droit  canonique  (Paris,  1887).  A.    BoUDINHON. 

Penitential  Orders,  a  general  name  for  religious 
congregations  whose  members  are  bound  to  perform 
extraordinary  works  of  penance,  or  to  provide  others 
with  the  means  of  .atoning  for  grave  faults.  This  class 
includes  such  congregations  as  the  Angelicals,  Capu- 
chins, Carmelites,  Daughters  of  the  Holy  Cross  of 
Liege,  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  Order  of  Fonte- 
vrault.  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  Daughters  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph  of  Lyons,  Magdalens,  Sacchetti,  etc., 
which  are  treated  under  their  separate  titles.  Like- 
wise all  eremitical  foundations  were,  at  least  in  their 
origin,  penitential  orders.  Other  congregations  which 
come  under  this  heading  are: — 

(1)  Penitents  or  Hermits  of  St.  John  the  Baptist:  (a) 
A  community  near  Pampelona  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Navarre,  each  of  the  five  hermitages  being  occupied 
by  eight  hermits  leading  a  life  of  mortification  and 
silence,  and  assembling  only  for  the  chanting  of  the 
Divine  Otfice.  They  received  the  approbation  of 
Gregory  XIII  (c.  151.5),  who  appointed  a  provincial 
for  them.  Over  the  light  brown  habit  of  rough  ma- 
terial confined  by  a  leathern  girdle  was  worn  a  short 
mantle,  and  about  the  neck  a  heavy  wooden  cross, 
(b)  A  community  founded  in  France  about  1630  by 
^Iichel  de  Sabine  for  the  reform  of  abuses  among  the 
hermits.  Only  those  of  the  most  edifying  lives  were 
chosen  as  members,  and  rules  were  drawn  up  which 
were  ajiproved  for  their  dioceses  by  the  Bishops  of 
Metz  and  LePuy  en  Velay.  The  hermits  were  under 
the  supervision  of  a  visitator.  A  member  was  not 
permitted  to  make  his  final  vows  until  his  forty-fifth 
year,  or  until  he  had  been  a  hermit  for  twenty-five 
years.  Over  the  heavy  brown  habit  and  leathern  belt 
was  worn  a  scapular  and  a  mantle.  Similar  com- 
munities existed  in  the  Dioceses  of  Geneva  and  Vienne. 

(2 )  Onlo  pirnilentice  ss.  Martyrum,  or  Ordo  Maries  de 
Metro  de  panitentia  ss.  Martyrum,  a  congregation 
which  flourished  in  Poland  and  Bohemia  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  There  are  various  opinions  as  to  the 
period  of  foundation,  some  dating  it  back  to  the  time 
of  Pope  Cletus,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  order  was 
flourishing  in  Poland  and  Lithuania  in  the  second  half 
of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  most  important  monas- 
tery being  that  of  St.  ]\Iark  at  Cracow,  where  the  re- 
ligious lived  under  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine.  The 
prior  bore  the  title  prior  eeclesice  S.  Mnri<r  de  Metro. 
The  habit  wa.s  white,  with  a  white  scapular,  on  which 
was  embroidered  a  red  cross  and  heart.  In  a  six- 
teenth-century document  the  members  of  this  order 
are  referred  to  as  canons  regular  and  mendicants. 

(3)  Penitents  of  Our  Lady  of  Refuge,  also  called  Nuns 
or  Hospitallers  of  Our  Lady  of  Nancy,  founded  at 
Nancy  in  1631  by  Ven.  Mari(>-Elizabeth  de  la  Croix 
de  Jesus  (b.  30  Nov.,  1.592;  d.  14  Jan.,  1649),  daughter 
of  Jean-Leonard  de  Ranfain  of  Remiremont.  .-^fter  a 
childhood  of  .singular  innocence  .and  mortification  she 
was  coerced  into  a  marriage  with  an  aged  nobleman 
named  Dubois,  whose  inhuman  treatment  of  her 
ceased  only  with  his  conversion  shortly  before  his 
death.  Left  a  widow  at  the  early  age  of  "twenty-four, 
she  opened  ,1  refuge  for  fallen  women,  to  whose  wants 
she  ministered,  assisted  by  her  three  young  daughters. 
Her  success  anfl  the  insistence  of  ecclesiastics  en- 
couraged her  to  ensure  the  perpetuation  of  the  work 


by  the  institution  of  a  religious  community  (1631), 
in  which  she  was  joined  by  her  daughters  and  nine 
companions,  including  two  lay  sisters.  The  new  con- 
gregation was  formally  approved  by  the  Holy  See  in 
1634  under  the  title  of  Our  Lady  of  Refuge  and  the 
patronage  of  St.  Ignatius  Loyola,  and  under  constitu- 
tions drawn  largely  from  those  of  the  Society  of  Jesus 
and  in  accordance  with  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine. 
The  institute  soon  spread  throughout  France,  and  by 
the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  had  houses 
in  the  Dioceses  of  Besangon,  Blois,  Coutances,  Mar- 
seilles, Rennes,  La  Rochelle,  St-Brieux,  Tours,  Tou- 
louse, and  Valence.  The  members  are  divided  into 
three  classes  (1)  those  of  unblemished  Uves,  bound  by  a 
fourth  vow  to  the  service  of  penitents;  (2)  penitents 
whose  altered  life  justifies  their  admission  to  the  com- 
munity on  terms  of  equality  with  the  first  mentioned, 
save  that  they  are  not  eligible  to  office,  and  that  in  case 
the  convent  is  not  self-supporting  they  are  required 
to  furnish  a  small  dowry;  (3)  penitents  properly  so- 
called,  who  observe  the  same  rule  as  the  rest  but  are 
without  vows  or  distinctive  garb.  The  habit  is  reddish 
brown,  with  a  white  scapular.  Innocent  XI  author- 
ized the  institution  of  a  special  feast  of  Our  Lady 
of  Refuge  for  30  January,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
confraternity  under  her  patronage. 

(4)  Sisters  of  the  Conservatorio  di  S.  Croce  delta 
Penitenza  or  del  biion  Pastore,  also  known  as  Scaleite, 
founded  at  Rome,  in  1615,  by  the  Carmelite  Domenico 
di  Gesu  e  Maria,  who,  with  the  assistance  of  Baltaa- 
sare  Paluzzi,  gathered  into  a  small  house  (conservatorio) 
a  number  of  women  whose  virtue  was  imperilled,  and 
drew  up  for  them  a  rule  of  life.  Those  desiring  to  be- 
come religious  were  placed  under  t  he  Rule  of  St .  Augus- 
tine, and,  owing  to  the  active  interest  of  IMaximilian, 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  Cardinal  Antonio  Barberini,  a 
larger  monastery  and  a  church  were  built  for  them. 
E.xternal  aff'airs  were  administered  by  a  prelate  known 
as  the  vice-protector  and  liis  council,  and  the  internal 
economy  by  a  prioress,  but  in  1838  the  institution 
was  placed  under  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd. 
Later  a  house  of  training  for  abandoned  girls  and  a 
house  of  correction  for  erring  women  were  established 
in  connexion  with  this  institution,  the  latter  being  en- 
larged by  Pius  IX  in  1851.  The  congregation  has 
since  been  merged  into  that  of  the  Good  Shepherd. 

(5)  Ordo  relicfiosus  de  poenitenlia,  the  members  of 
which  were  called  Scalzetti  or  Nazareni,  founded  in 
1752  at  Salamanca,  by  Juan  Varella  y  Losada  (b.  1724; 
d.  at  Ferrara,  24  May,  1769),  who  had  resigned  a  mili- 
tary career  for  a  life  of  voluntary  humiliation  in  a 
house  of  the  Observants  at  Salamanca.  Being  urged 
to  found  a  religious  order,  he  assembled  eight  com- 
panions in  community  (8  March,  1752)  under  a  rule 
which  he  had  drawn  up  the  previous  year,  and  for 
which  he  obtained  the  authorization  of  Benedict 
XIV.  The  four  foundations  which  he  made  in  Hun- 
gary enjoyed  but  a  brief  existence,  owing  to  the  regu- 
lations of  Joseph  II,  and  those  in  Spain  and  Portugal 
did  not  survive  the  revolutions  in  those  countries,  so 
that  the  congregation  was  eventually  confined  to  Italy. 
The  mother-house  is  in  Rome,  where  the  institute  pos- 
sesses two  convents,  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie,  and  S.Maria 
degli  Angeli  in  Macello  Martyrum.  The  constitutions 
were  confirmed  by  Pius  VI,  who  granted  the  congre- 
gation the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  Franciscans,  to 
which  there  is  a  close  resemblance  in  organization 
and  habit.  Like  the  Franciscans,  the  members  take 
a  vow  to  defend  the  doctrine  of  the  Imm.aculate  Con- 
ception, and,  like  all  mendicant  orders,  they  derive 
their  means  of  subsistence  entirely  from  contributions, 
and  are  forbidden  the  possession  of  landed  property. 

H^LTOT,  Ordres  rrKginir  (Paris.  1859);  Heimbccher,  Orden 
und  Kongregatinnrr  '  I>Tr|rr',r,rn,  1907);  (1)  de  Sabine.  £.'tns(i(u( 
rf/orme  des  erfmM'  ''i>        i/ion  de  s.   Jean-Baplisle  (Paris, 

1655):    (3)  La  Fr  :  --i;    Dfctarntion  de  r Institut  de  la 

congregation  dc  .\.  I'     ;.;,..,.   i  Rouen.  1664) ;    (4)  Piazza,  Euse- 


ologio  Romano.  4.  io 


Florence  Rudge  McGahan. 


PENITENTIAL 


63& 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Penitential  Psalms.     See  Psalms. 

Penitents,  Confraternities  of,  congregations, 
with  statutes  prescribing  various  penitential  works, 
sudi  as  fasting,  the  use  of  the  discipline,  the  wearing  of 
a  hair  shirt,  etc.  The  number  of  these  confraternities 
increjised  to  such  a  degree,  Rome  alone  counting  over 
a  hundred,  that  the  only  way  of  classifying  them  is  ac- 
cording to  the  colour  of  tlic  garb  w'orn  for  processions 
and  devotional  exercises.  This  consists  of  a  heavy 
robe  confined  with  a  girdle,  with  a  pointed  hood  con- 
cealing the  face,  the  openings  for  the  eyes  permitting 
the  wearer  to  see  without  being  recognized.  These 
confraternities  have  their  own  statutes,  their  own 
churches,  and  often  their  own  cemeteries.  Aspirants 
must  serve  a  certain  time  of  probation  before  being  ad- 
mitted. 

(1)  White  PenHeiils. — The  rtiost  important  group  of 
these  is  the  Archconfraternity  of  the  Gonf alone,  es- 
tablished in  1264  at  Rome.  St.  Bonaventure,  at  that 
time  Inquisitor-general  of  the  Holy  Office,  prescribed 
the  rules,  and  the  white  habit,  with  the  name  Recom- 
mendati  B.  V.  M.  This  confraternity  was  erected  in 
the  Church  of  St.  Mary  Major  by  Clement  IV  in  126.5, 
and  four  others  having  been  erected  in  the  Church  of 
Ara  Cceli,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  arehconfrater- 
nitj',  to  which  the  rest  were  aggregated.  The  title  of 
gonfalonc,  or  standard-bearer  was  acquired  during  the 
pontificate  of  Innocent  IV,  when  the  members  with- 
stood the  violence  of  the  Roman  nobles  and  elected  a 
governor  of  the  capitol  to  represent  the  pope,  then  at 
Avignon.  Many  privileges  and  churches  were  granted 
to  this  confraternity  by  succeeding  pontiffs,  the  head- 
quarters now  being  the  Church  of  Santa  Lucia  del 
Gonfalone.  The  obligations  of  the  members  are  to 
care  for  the  sick,  bury  the  dead,  provide  medical  ser- 
vice for  those  unable  to  afford  it,  and  give  dowries  to 
poor  girls.  What  distinguishes  these  White  Penitents 
from  those  of  other  confraternities  is  the  circle  on  the 
shoulder  of  the  habit,  within  it  a  cross  of  red  and 
white.  Other  confraternities  of  White  Penitents  are 
those  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  at  St.  John  Lateran, 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  the  Five  Wounds  at  S. 
Lorenzo  in  Dama.so,  the  Guardian  Angel,  etc. 

(2)  Black  Penitcnis. — The  chief  confraternity  in  this 
group  is  that  of  Misericordia,  or  of  the  Beheading  of 
St.  John,  founded  in  1488  to  assist  and  console  crim- 
inals condemned  to  death,  accompany  them  to  the 
gallows,  and  provide  for  them  religious  services  and 
Christian  burial.  The  Archconfraternity  of  Death 
provides  burial  and  religious  services  for  the  poor  and 
those  found  dead  within  the  limits  of  the  Roman  Cam- 
pagna.  Other  confraternities  of  Black  Penitents  are 
those  of  The  Crucifix  of  St.  Marcellus,  and  of  Jesus 
and  Mary  of  St.  Giles. 

(.3)  Blue  Penitents. — Among  the  confraternities  of 
this  group  arc  those  of  St.  Joseph,  St.  Julian  in  Monte 
Giordano,  Madonna  del  Giardino,  Santa  Maria  in 
Caccab(Ti,  etc.  A  number  of  these  confraternities 
were  established  in  France  under  the  patronage  of  St. 
Jerome. 

(4)  Grey  Penitents,  including  besides  the  Stigmati  of 
St.  Francis,  the  confraternities  of  St.  Rose  of  Viterbo, 
The  Holy  Cross  of  Lucca,  St.  Rosaha  of  Palermo,  St. 
Bartholomew,  St.  Alexander,  etc. 

(5)  Refl  Penitents,  embracing  the  confraternities  of 
Sts.  Ursula  and  Catherine,  the  red  robe  being  confined 
with  a  green  cincture;  St.  Sebastian  and  St.  Valentine, 
with  a  blue  cincture;  and  the  Quattro  Coronati,  with  a 
white  cincture,  etc. 

(6)  Violet  Penitents,  the  confraternity  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  at  the  Church  of  St.  Andrea  della  Fratte, 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Francis  of  Paula. 

(7)  Green  Penitents,  including  the  confraternities  of 
St.  Rocco  and  St.  Martin  at  Ripetto,  for  the  care  of 
the  sick. 

There  are  many  other  confraternities  which  cannot 


be  comprised  within  any  of  these  groups,  because  of 
the  combination  of  colours  in  their  habits.  The  vari- 
ous confraternities  were  well  represented  in  France 
from  the  thirteenth  century  on,  reaching,  perhaps, 
their  most  flourishing  condition  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. 

Bf^LTOT,  Ordres  reUgieux,  III  (Paris,  1859),  218;  MOLINIBR, 
Institute  et  exerc.  des  confriries  des  pinitents. 

Florence  Rudge  McGahan. 

Penne  and  Atri,  Diocese  of  (Pennensis  et 
.4triensis). — Penne  is  a  city  in  the  Province  of 
Teramo,  in  the  .\bruzzi,  central  Italy;  it  has  an 
important  commerce  in  leather  and  in  artificial  flowers, 
and  within  its  territory  are  several  sjirings  of  medicinal 
waters,  known  to  the  ancients.  It  is  t  lie  Piiniii  Veslina 
of  antiquity,  the  chief  city  of  the  Vest  ini,  disi  inguished 
for  its  fidelity  to  Rome,  even  in  the  war  of  the  Marsi. 
Sulla  destroyed  the  city  during  the  civil  war.  After 
the  Lombard  invasion,  it  belonged  to  the  Duchy  of 
Benevento,  with  which  it  was  annexed  to  the  Kingdom 
of  Sicily.  In  the  ninth  century  it  was  sacked  by  the 
Saracens.  According  to  legend  Patrassus,  one  of  the 
seventy  disciples,  was  the  first  bishop  of  this  city. 
The  deacon  St.  Maximus  is  venerated  at  the  cathedral. 
The  united  See  of  Penne  and  Atri  was  erected  in  11.52. 
Atri  is  the  ancient  Hadria  of  the  Piceni,  which  became 
a  Roman  colony  about  282  B.  c;  its  ancient  walla 
still  remain.  The  cathedral  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the 
Italian  Gothic,  and  has  a  campanile  nearly  200  feet 
high.  The  first  bishop  of  the  united  sees  was  Beroaldo; 
among  his  successors  were  :  Blessed  Anastasio,  who 
died  in  1215;  the  Cistercian  Nicolo  (1326),  held  a 
prisoner  for  two  years  by  his  canons;  Tommaso 
Consuberi  (1.5.54),  suspected  of  having  conspired 
against  Pius  IV,  and  therefore  deposed  ;  Paolo 
Odescalchi  (1586),  nuncio  to  Madrid  and  Vienna, 
built  the  episcopal  palace  of  Atri.  Within  the  territory 
of  these  sees  is  the  famous  Abbey  of  San  Bartolommeo 
di  Carpineto. 

The  diocese  is  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See; 
it  has  95  parishes,  180,790  inhabitants,  4  religious 
houses  of  men,  and  8  of  women,  and  4  educational 
establishments  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d" Italia,  XXI;  Pansa,  Della  diocesi  e 
cMd.  di  Penne  (1622). 

U.  Benigni. 

Pennsylvania,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  United 
States  .if  AiMciua,  lies  between  39°  43'  and  42°  15'  N. 
latitude,  and  liilween  the  Delaware  River  on  the  east, 
and  tlie  eastern  boundary  of  Ohio  on  the  meridian  80° 
36'  W.  longitude.  It  is  176  miles  wide  from  north  to 
south  and  about  303  miles  long  from  east  to  west, 
containing  45,215  square  miles,  of  which  230  are  cov- 
ered by  water.  It  has  a  shore  fine  on  Lake  Eric  45 
miles  in  length,  and  is  bounded  by  New  York  on  the 
north.  New  Jersey  on  the  east,  Ohio  and  West  Vir- 
ginia on  the  west,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  West 
Virginia  on  the  south.  It  is  the  only  one  of  the  thir- 
teen original  states  having  no  sea  coast.  About  one- 
third  of  the  state  is  occupied  by  parallel  ranges  and 
valleys.  The  mountains  average  from  1000  to  2000 
feet  in  height.  The  main  ridge,  highest  on  the  east, 
is  broken  by  the  north  and  west  branches  of  the  Sus- 
quehanna River,  which  flows  through  the  centre  of 
the  state.  The  Delaware,  which  is  400  miles  in  total 
length,  beginning  from  its  origin  in  Otsego  Lake,  New 
York,  is  navigaljle  for  a  distance  of  130  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  state.  In 
the  west,  the  Allegheny  ami  Monongahela  unite  to 
form  the  Ohio.  There  is  a  wide  range  of  climate 
within  the  geographical  limits  of  the  state. 

I.  History.— -Although  Captain  John  Smith,  in 
1608,  was  the  first  white  man  to  meet  natives  of 
Pennsylvania,  which  he  did  when  he  ascended  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  he  never  set  foot  within  the  limits  of  the 
present  state.     Henry  Hudson,  on  28  August,  1609, 


PENNSYLVANIA 


639 


PENNSYLVANIA 


came  within  tlie  Delaware  Capes,  but  went  no  fartlier 
towards  Pennsylvania.  The  first  white  man  actually 
to  enter  the  State  appears  to  have  been  a  Frenchman 
who  came  from  Canada,  Etienne  Brulle,  a  companion 
of  Champlain.  He  explored  the  valley  of  the  Susque- 
hanna from  New  York  to  Maryland  in  the  winter 
of  1615-16,  as  is  described  by  Champlain  in  an  ac- 
count of  his  voyages.  In  June,  1610,  Captain  Samuel 
Argall,  coming  from  Virginia  in  search  of  provisions, 
entered  the  Delaware  River  and  gave  it  its  name  in 
honour  of  the  then  Governor  of  Virginia,  Lord  de  la 
\\'arr.  Captain  Cornelius  Mey  came  to  the  Delaware 
Capes  in  1614  (see  New  Jersey).  Another  Dutch 
captain,  Cornelius  Hendrickson,  came  from  Man- 
hattan Island  and  probably  navigated  the  Delaware 
River  as  far  as  the  .site  of  Philadelphia  in  1616.  In 
1631,  David  Pictersen  de  Vries  established  a  post  at 
Lewes,  in  Delaware,  and  later,  in  1634,  made  voyages 
as  far  as  Tinicum  Island  and  Ridley  Creek.  For  five 
years  after  this  the 
Dutch  traded  on 
the  Delaware  River 
and  in  1633  estab- 
lished a  post  called 
P^  o  r  t  Beverstrede 
near  Philadelphia. 
The  English  Gov- 
ernment laid  claim 
to  the  entire  region 
in  1632  on  the 
ground  of  first  dis- 
covery, occupation, 
and  possession,  but 
in  April,  1638,  an 
expedition  made  up 
Seal  or  Pennsvlv.inia  partly    of     Swedes 

and  partly  of  Dutch,  under  Peter  Minuit,  established 
a  post  at  Fort  Christiana  on  the  Brandywine  River. 
This  was  the  first  white  settlement  in  the  country 
of  the  Delaware  made  by  the  Swedish  Government ,  and 
was  against  the  protest  of  the  Dutch  Ciovernor  of 
Manhattan.  It  was  but  a  small  colony  and  lasted  only 
seventeen  years.  In  1643-44  permanent  settlements 
were  made  at  Tinicum,  and  in  1651  the  Dutch  Gover- 
nor, Peter  Stuyvesant,  caused  Fort  Casimer  to  be 
built  on  the  present  site  of  New  Castle,  Delaware, 
to  overawe  the  Swedes  at  Christiana.  Fort  Casimer 
was  occupied  by  the  Swedes  in  1654,  but  they  were  in 
their  turn  driven  out  by  the  Dutch,  who  remained  in 
possession  of  the  Delaware  River  country  until  the 
organization  of  Penn's  colony  in  1681. 

W'lien  William  Penn  was  thirty-six  years  old,  in  1680, 
his  father  being  dead,  there  was  due  him  from  the 
Crown  the  sum  of  £16,000  for  services  rendered  by  his 
father,  Admiral  Penn.  This  was  cancelled  in  1681  by 
a  gift  to  him  from  the  Crown  of  the  largest  tract  of 
territory  that  had  ever  been  given  in  America  to  a 
single  individual,  and  in  addition  he  received  from  the 
Duke  of  York  all  of  the  territory  now  included  in  the 
State  of  Delaware,  for  the  sake  of  controlling  the  free 
navigation  of  the  river  of  that  name.  This  charter, 
or  grant,  gave  him  the  title  in  fee-simple  to  over  40,000 
square  miles  of  territory  with  the  power  of  adopting 
any  form  of  government,  providing  the  majority  of 
the  colonists  consented,  and  if  the  freemen  could  not 
assemble  Penn  had  the  right  to  make  laws  without 
their  consent.  The  new  colony  was  named  Penn- 
sylvania. Penn  wished  the  name  to  be  New  Wales,  or 
else  Sylvania,  modestly  endeavouring  to  avoid  the 
special  honour  implied  by  prefixing  his  surname  but 
the  king  in.sisted.  It  has  been  said,  no  doubt  truth- 
fully, that  Penn  was  impelled  by  two  principal  motives 
in  founding  the  colony:  "The  desire  to  found  a  free 
commonwealth  on  liberal  and  humane  principles,  and 
the  desire  to  provide  a  safe  home  for  persecuted 
Friends.  He  was  strongly  devoted  to  his  religious 
faith,  and  warmly  attached  to  those  who  professed  it. 


but  not  the  less  was  he  an  idealist  in  politics,  and  a 
generous  and  hopeful  believer  in  the  average  good- 
ness of  his  fellow  men"  (Jenkins,  "Pennsylvania",  I, 
204).  Penn  himself,  speaking  of  the  grant  by  the 
king,  says:  "I  eyed  the  Lord  in  obtaining  it,  and  more 
was  I  drawn  inward  to  look  to  Him,  and  to  owe  it  to 
His  hand  and  power  than  to  any  other  way.  I  have 
so  obtained  it  and  desire  to  keep  it  that  I  may  not  be 
unworthy  of  His  love  and  do  that  which  may  answer 
His  kind  providence  and  serve  His  truth  and  people, 
that  an  example  may  be  set  to  the  nations.  There 
may  be  room  there  but  not  here  for  such  an  holy  ex- 
periment" (Jenkins,  "Pennsylvania",  I,  207).  He  had 
already  shown  ability  as  a  colonizer,  being  concerned 
in  the  settlement  of  New  Jersey,  where  the  towns  of 
Salem  and  Burlington  had  been  laid  out  before  the 
charter  of  Pemisylvania  was  granted. 

During  [iractically  all  of  the  colonial  period,  Penn 
and  his  descendants  governed  Pennsylvania  through 
agents  or  deputy  governors.  He  was  the  feutla!  lord 
of  the  land,  it  being  his  plan  to  sell  tracts  from  time  to 
time,  reserving  a  small  quit-rent  or  selling  outright. 
Until  the  American  Revolution,  in  1776,  Penn  and  his 
sons  held  the  proprietorship  of  the  Province  of  Penn- 
sylvania during  a  period  of  ninety-four  years,  except- 
ing only  about  two  years  under  William  III.  The 
colony  was  organized  at  the  council  held  at  Upland, 
3  August,  1681,  the  deputy  governor  being  ^^■illiam 
Markham,  a  cousin  of  Penn.  When  Penn  himself 
landed,  28  October,  1682,  at  New  Castle,  Philadelphia 
had  been  laid  out  and  a  few  houses  had  been  built. 
After  his  landing  Penn  changed  the  name  of  Upland 
to  Chester  in  honour  of  the  English  city.  There  he 
summoned  the  freeholders  to  meet,  and  they  adopted 
the  "Frame  of  Government"  and  ratified  "The  Laws 
agreed  upon  in  England".  The  former  instrument 
provided  for  a  Provincial  Council  of  seventy-two 
members  to  be  elected  by  the  people.  This  council 
was  to  propose  laws  to  be  submitted  for  the  approval 
of  the  General  Assembly,  also  to  be  elected  by  the 
people.  Thus  was  formed  the  first  Constitution  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  laws  accepted  and  re-enacted 
with  many  additions  became  known  as  "The  Great 
Law".  It  establishes  religious  liberty,  allowing  free- 
dom of  worship  to  all  who  acknowledge  one  God,  and 
provides  that  all  members  of  tlie  Assembly,  as  well 
as  those  who  voted  for  them,  should  be  such  as  be- 
heved  Jesus  Christ  to  be  the  Son  of  God,  the  Saviour 
of  the  World.  The  Great  Law  prohibits  swearing, 
cursing,  drunkenness,  health-drinking,  card-playing, 
scolding,  and  lying  in  conversation.  In  the  preface 
to  the  "Frame  of  Government"  may  be  found  the 
key  to  Penn's  fundamental  views  on  (political  ques- 
tions. Thus  he  wrote:  "Governments  rather  depend 
upon  men  than  men  upon  governments;  let  men  be 
good,  and  the  government  cannot  be  bad;  if  it  be  ill 
they  will  cure  it.  Though  good  laws  do  well,  good 
men  do  better;  for  good  laws  may  want  [i.  e.  lack] 
good  men  and  be  abolished  or  evatled  by  ill  men ;  but 
good  men  will  never  want  good  laws  nor  suffer  ill  ones. 
That,  therefore,  which  makes  a  good  constitution 
must  keep  it,  viz.  men  of  wisdom  and  virtue;  qualities 
that,  because  they  descend  not  with  worldly  inheri- 
tance, must  be  carefully  propagated  by  a  virtuous 
education  of  youth.  For  liberty  without  obedience  is 
confusion,  and  obedience  without  liberty  is  slavery." 

Penn  was  far  in  advance  of  his  time  in  his  \'iews 
of  the  capacity  of  mankind  for  democratic  government, 
and  equally  so  in  his  broad-minded  toleration  of  differ- 
ences of  religious  belief.  Indeed,  it  has  been  well  said 
that  the  declaration  of  his  final  charter  of  privileges 
of  1701  was  not  alone  "intended  as  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  Province  and  declaration  of  religious  liberty 
on  the  broadest  character  and  about  which  there  could 
be  no  doubt  or  uncertainty.  It  is  a  declaration  not 
of  toleration  but  of  religious  equality  and  brought 
within  its  protection  all  who  professed  one  Almighty 


PENNSYLVANIA 


e4o 


PENNSYLVANIA 


God, — Roman  Catholics,  and  Protestants,  Unitarians, 
Trinitarians,  Christians,  Jews,  and  Mohammedans, 
and  excluded  only  Atheists  and  Polytheists."  At 
that  time  in  no  American  colony  did  anything  ap- 
proacliing  to  toleration  exist.  When  the  provisions 
of  "The  Groat  Law"  were  submitted  to  the  Privy 
Council  of  England  for  approval  they  were  not  allowed; 
but  in  1706  a  now  law  concerning  liberty  of  conscience 
was  passed,  whereby  religious  liberty  was  restricted  to 
Trinitarian  Christians,  and  when  the  Constitution  of 
1770  was  adopted,  liberty  of  conscience  and  worship 
were  extended  even  further  by  the  declaration  that 
"no  human  authority  can  in  any  case  whatever  con- 
trol or  interfere  with  the  rights  of  conscience."  It 
has  been  said:  "There  never  was  in  Pennsylvania 
during  the  colonial  period,  to  our  knowledge,  any 
molestation  or  interruption  of  the  liberty  of  Jews, 
Deists  or  Unitarians,  .  .  .  while  the  Frame  of  Gov- 
ernment of  1701  .  .  .  guaranteed  liberty  of  conscience 
to  all  who  confessed  and  acknowledged  '  one  Almighty 
God,  the  Creator,  Upholder  and  Ruler  of  the  World', 
and  made  eligible  for  office  all  who  believed  in  'Jesus 
Christ  the  Saviour  of  the  World.'  "  His  toleration 
of  other  forms  of  religious  belief  was  in  no  way  half- 
hearted and  imbued  the  Societj'  of  Friends  with 
feelings  of  kindness  towards  Catholics,  or  at  least 
accentuated  those  feelings  in  them.  During  the  time 
of  Lieutenant  Ciovernor  Gordon  a  Catholic  chapel  was 
erected,  which  was  thought  to  be  contrary  to  the  laws 
of  Parliament,  but  it  was  not  suppressed  pending  a  de- 
cision of  the  British  Government  upon  the  question 
whether  immunity  granted  by  the  Pennsj'lvania  law 
did  not  protect  Catholics.  When,  during  the  French 
War,  hostility  to  France  led  to  an  attack  upon  the 
Catholics  of  Philadelphia  by  a  mob  after  Braddock's 
defeat,  the  Quakers  protected  them. 

Penn  returned  to  England  in  a  short  time,  but  made 
another  visit  to  Pennsylvania  in  1699.  He  returned 
to  England  again  in  1701,  but  before  his  departure  a 
new  constitution  for  the  colony  was  adopted,  con- 
taining more  liberal  provisions.  This  constitution 
endured  until  1776,  when  a  new  one  was  adopted 
which  has  since  been  superseded  by  three  others — the 
Constitutions  of  1790,  1838,  and  1873.  In  1718  the 
white  population  of  the  colony  was  estimated  at 
40,000,  of  which  one-half  belonged  to  the  Society  of 
Friends  and  one-fourth  resided  in  Philadelphia.  In 
1703  the  counties  composing  the  State  of  Delaware 
were  separated  from  Pennsylvania.  It  was  not  until 
after  the  colonial  period  that  the  present  boundaries  of 
Permsylvania  were  settled.  Claims  were  made  for 
portions  of  the  present  area  of  the  state  on  the  north, 
west,  and  south.  Under  the  charter  granted  to  Con- 
necticut by  Charles  II,  in  1662,  the  dominion  of  that 
colony  was  extended  westward  to  the  South  Sea  or 
Pacific  Ocean.  Although  the  territory  of  New  York 
intervened  between  Connecticut  and  the  present  bor- 
der of  Pennsj'Ivania,  claim  was  made  by  Connecticut 
to  territory  now  included  in  Pennsylvania  between  the 
fortieth  and  forty-first  parallels  of  north  latitude,  and 
in  1769  a  Connecticut  company  founded  a  settlement 
in  the  valley  of  Wyoming,  and  until  1782  the  claim 
of  sovereignty  was  maintained.  It  was  finally  settled 
against  Connecticut  in  favour  of  Pennsylvania  by  a 
commission  appointed  by  mutual  agreement  of  the 
two  states  after  trial  and  argument.  The  contro- 
versy between  Mar>'land  anrl  Pennsvlvania  was  finally 
settled  in  1774.  Lord  Baltimore,  the  founder  of  Mary- 
land, claimed  that  the  boundaries  of  his  grant  extended 
above  the  present  position  of  Philadelphia.  On  the 
other  hand,  Pcnn's  contention,  if  allowed,  would  have 
extended  the  southern  limit  of  Pennsylvania  to  a 
point  that  would  have  far  overlapped  the  present 
boundary  of  Maryland.  A  litigation  in  Chancery 
eventually  resulted  in  a  settlement  of  the  hovmdaries 
as  they  now  exi.st.  Previous  to  this  final  settlement, 
in  the  year  1763,  Mason  and  Dixon,  two  English  as- 


tronomers, surveyed  the  western  boundary  of  Dela- 
ware and  subsequently  carried  a  line  westward  for  the 
boundary  t)otwoon  Pennsylvania  and  .Maryland,  set- 
ting up  a  uiik'-stoneal  every  fifth  mile  with  the  arms  of 
the  Penn  family  on  the  north  anil  Baltimore  on  the 
south,  intermediate  miles  being  marked  with  stones 
having  P  on  one  side  and  M  on  the  other.  This  line 
was  carried  beyond  the  western  extremity  of  Mary- 
land, and  thus  it  passed  into  history  as  marking  the 
line  between  the  northern  and  southern  sections  of 
the  whole  United  States.  The  difficulty  with  the 
western  boundary  of  the  state  on  the  \irginia  border 
was  settled  in  1779  by  a  connnissioii  appointed  by  the 
two  states.  That  portion  which  bordiTs  upon  Lake 
Erie,  known  as  the  Erie  triangle,  bi'longed  to  New 
York  and  Massachusetts.  By  thoni  it  was  ceded  to 
the  United  States,  and  in  1792  bouglit  from  them  by 
Pennsylvania  for  $151,640.  The  effect  of  the  settle- 
ment of  those  boundaries  was  very  far-reaching,  for  if 
the  Connecticut,  Maryland,  and  Virginia  claims  had 
born  (locidod  adversely  to  Pennsylvania,  there  would 
have  Ixrn  loft  but  a  narrow  strip  of  land  westward  of 
Philadeliihia  and  eastward  of  Pittsburg. 

Pennsylvania  was  the  scene  of  some  of  the  most  in- 
teresting and  important  events  of  the  French  and  In- 
dian W'ar  during  the  colonial  period,  notably  the  de- 
feat of  Braddock  at  the  ford  of  the  Monongahela 
about  seven  miles  from  Fort  Duquesne,  now  the  site  of 
Pittsburg.  It  suffered  much  from  Indian  depreda- 
tions on  the  western  borders.  During  the  early  colo- 
nial period  the  mild  dealings  of  the  Quakers  who  con- 
trolled the  province  saved  Pennsylvania  from  many  of 
the  ills  that  befell  other  colonies  from  the  attacks  of 
the  aborigines.  Prior  to  the  French  and  Indian  War, 
the  Indians,  who  had  been  treated  with  careful  consid- 
eration by  Penn,  were  outraged  at  the  unfairness  and 
triekerj'  practised  by  one  of  his  successors  in  obtaining 
title  to  land  extending,  on  the  eastern  border  of  the 
state,  to  the  region  of  the  Delaware  Water  Gap,  and 
known  as  "The  W'alking  Purchase".  This,  added  to 
the  harsh  treatment  of  the  frontier  settlers,  who  were 
for  the  most  part  North-of-Ireland  immigrants  (lo- 
cally known  as  Scotch-Irish),  resulted  in  bloody  and 
persistent  Indian  wars  which  spread  terror  throughout 
the  colony  and  were  ended  only  after  several  cam- 
paigns. The  defeat  of  the  Indians  by  Bouquet  and 
Forbes,  and  the  destruction  of  the  French  stronghold, 
Fort  Duquesne,  broke  the  power  of  the  Indians,  and 
the  colony  was  not  troubled  w'ith  them  again  until 
the  Revolutionary  War,  when  their  alliance  with  the 
British  resulted  in  the  massacre  of  Wyoming. 

When  the  contest  with  Great  Britain  arose,  Phila- 
delphia, the  chief  city  of  the  American  Colonies,  was 
chosen  as  the  place  for  assembling  the  first  Continen- 
tal Congress.  There  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
was  drafted  and  promulgated,  and  after  the  Revolu- 
tion the  Government  of  the  I'nited  States  was  seated 
there  until  the  year  1800,  when  Washington  was  made 
the  capital.  Philadelphia  remained  the  capital  of  the 
state  under  the  Constitution  of  1776  until  1812,  when 
it  was  replaced  by  Harrisburg.  The  Convention 
which  drafted  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
assembled  at  Philadelphia  in  May,  1787,  and  pre- 
sented the  draft  to  Congress  on  17  September.  On 
the  following  day  it  was  submitted  to  the  Assembly  of 
the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  by  which  body  the  Consti- 
tution was  ratified  on  12  December  of  the  same  year, 
Pennsylvania  being  the  second  to  approve  it.  Again, 
Pennsylvania  was  the  first  state  to  respond  to  the  ap- 
peal of  President  Lincoln  for  troops  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War.  Regiments  were  sent  by  Governor 
Curtin  to  the  garrison  at  Washington  and  were  largely 
effective  in  preventing  that  city  from  being  captured 
by  the  Confederate  forces  after  the  first  battle  of  Bull 
Run.  In  1863  General  Lee  invaded  the  state,  coming 
from  the  South  by  way  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  and 
was  signally  defeated  in  a  three  days'  battle  on  the  1st, 


PENNSYLVANIA 


641 


PENNSYLVANIA 


2d,  and  3ril  of  July  at  Gettysburg  by  the  Union  army 
under  General  George  G.  Meade.  This  battle  has 
been  recognized  as  the  most  important  in  the  Civil  \\a,v, 
as  the  success  of  the  Confederate  forces  would  have 
imperilled  Philadelphia  and  New  York  and  might 
have  led  to  the  final  triumph  of  the  Confederacy. 

II.  Ethnology  and  Denominational  Statistics. 
— It  has  been  said  of  Pennsylvania  that  no  other 
American  colony  had  "such  a  mixture  of  languages, 
nationalities  and  religions.  Dutch,  Swedes,  English, 
Germans,  Scotch-Irish  and  Welsh;  Quakers,  Presby- 
terians, Episcopalians,  Lutherans,  Reformed,  Men- 
nonites,  Tunkers  and  Moravians  all  had  a  share  in 
creating  it"  (Fisher).  The  eastern  part  of  the  state, 
especially  the  counties  immediately  adjoining  Philadel- 
phia, was  settled  by  a  homogeneous  population  prin- 
cipally of  English  descent,  though  there  was  a  large 
German  community  near  Philadelphia  at  German- 
town.  Westward,  the  County  of  Lancaster  was  largely 
settled  by  Germans,  who  brought  with  them  a  special 
knowledge  of,  and  a|3titude  for,  agriculture,  with  the 
result  that  a  naturally  rich  county  became  one  of  the 
most  productive  in  the  United  States,  especially  of 
tobacco  am  1  cereals.  There  is  also  a  large  German  popu- 
lation in  Berks  County,  where  a  dialect  of  the  German 
language  is  very  generally  spoken.  The  first  German 
settlements  were  made  by  the  Tunkers,  now  known  as 
Dunkers,  or  Dunkards,  between  1720  and  1729.  They 
were  followed  by  the  Schwenkfclders,  from  the  Rhine 
Valley,  Alsatia,  Suabia,  Saxony,  and  the  Palatinate. 
Members  of  the  Lutheran  Reformed  Congregations 
came  between  1730  and  1740.  The  Moravians  settled 
Bethlehem  in  1739,  and  the  so-called  Scdtcli-Irisli  im- 
migrants from  the  North  of  Ireland,  settled  in  Lehigh, 
Bucks,  and  Lancaster  Counties,  and  in  the  Cumber- 
land Valley,  between  1700  and  1750.  The  Welsh  came 
to  Pennsylvania  previous  to  1682,  and  were  the  most 
numerous  class  of  immigrants  up  to  that  date.  They 
were  assigned  a  tract  of  land  west  of  the  Schuylkill 
River,  known  as  "the  Welsh  Tract",  where  to  this  day 
their  geographical  names  remain. 

In  1906  the  population  of  Pennsylvania  was  the  sec- 
ond in  size  among  the  states  of  the  Union,  being  esti- 
mated at  6,928,515.  Of  these  2,977,022  (or  43  per 
cent)  were  church  members :  1,717,037  Protestants, 
and  1,214,734  Catholics.  The  latest  census  of  Catho- 
lics (1910)  for  the  entire  state  shows  1,494,766,  of 
whom  38,235  were  coloured.  The  Protestant  denomi- 
nations in  1906  were  divided  as  follows:  Methodists, 
363,443;  Lutherans,  335,643;  Presbyterians,  322,542; 
Reformed,  181,350;  Baptists,  141,694;  Episcopalians, 
99,021;  United  Brethren,  55,571;  all  others,  217,773. 
The  first  Protestant  Episcopal  church  (Christ  Church) 
was  built  in  Philadelphia  in  1695.  Pennsylvania  is  the 
second  state  in  the  Union  in  the  number  of  church 
members  and  first  in  the  number  of  church  organiza- 
tions. The  value  of  church  property  is  $173,605,141, 
being  13  per  cent  of  all  the  property  in  the  state.  Of 
the  entire  population  in  1906,  57  per  cent  professed  no 
religion  as  against  67-2  per  cent  in  1900.  The  largest 
immigration  from  Ireland  to  the  United  States,  fol- 
lowing the  famine  of  1847-49,  added  greatly  to  the 
Catholic  population  of  Pennsylvania,  which  has  shown 
a  eteady  increase.  Of  recent  years  missions  have 
been  established  for  the  special  benefit  of  the  col- 
oured people  of  Philadelphia,  where  two  churches  are 
now  especially  devoted  to  these  missions. 

III.  Economic  Conditions. — A.  Population. — The 
United  States  Census  of  1910  gives  the  population  of 
Pennsylvania  as  7,665,111  fa  little  more  than  181-57 
to  the  square  mile).  Of  this  number  1,549,008  be- 
longed to  Philadelphia  and  .533.905  to  Pittsburg. 
Thus  Philadelphia  had  maintained  its  position  as  the 
third  city  of  the  United  St.ates  in  population,  while 
Pittsburg  (with  the  accession  of  Allegheny,  incor- 
porated with  it  since  the  Census  of  1900)  stood  eighth. 
The  Census  of  1910  shows  an  increase  of  more  than 

XL— 41 


21-62  per  cent  in  the  population  of  the  state  during 
the  first  decade  of  the  twentieth  century.  The  C(  nsus 
report  of  the  foreign-born  white  and  of  the  coloured 
population  for  1910  (respectively  982,543  and  156,845 
in  1900)  had  not  become  accessible  when  this  article 
was  prepared.  The  German  and  Irish  elements  ex- 
ceed by  far  all  other  nationalities  among  the  foreign 
born.  In  1910  the  largest  cities  in  the  state,  after 
Philadelphia  and  Pittsburg,  were  Harrisburg,  the 
capital  (pop.  64,186),  Scranton  (129,867),  Reading 
(96,071),  Wilkes-Ban-e  (67,105),  and  Johnstown 
(55,482).  Pennsylvania  is  entitled  to  thirty-two  rep- 
resentatives in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  and 
thirty-four  votes  in  the  Presidential  Electoral  College. 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  cities,  the  distribution  of 
the  population  is  less  dense  than  in  most  of  the  Eastern 
States.  A  comparatively  small  proportion  of  the  pop- 
ulation is  engaged  in  agriculture,  mining, and  manu- 
facturing being  the  principal  industries. 

B.  Material  Resources. — Until  1880  Pennsylvania 
was  pre-eminent  as  the  lumber  state,  but  its  activity 
in  this  industry  has  since  been  far  exceeded  in  the 
Southern  and  North-Western  States.  In  1900  about 
2,313,267  million  feet  of  lumber  were  cut  in  Pennsyl- 
vania— about  one-half  of  the  output  of  the  State  of 
Michigan.  In  the  last  ten  years  the  output  has  de- 
creased. The  estimated  product  for  the  year  1907 
amounted  to  $31,251,817,  at  the  rate  of  S18.02  per 
million  feet  Efforts  towards  conservation  and  syste- 
matic forestry  have  of  late  years  received  considerable 
impetus.  The  state  is  extremely  rich  in  coal,  petro- 
leum, natural  gas,  iron  ore,  slate,  and  limestones. 
Anthracite  coal  was  discovered  in  Pennsylvania  as 
early  as  1768,  and  the  first  regular  shipments  were 
made  in  1820.  The  anthracite  coal  fields  in  the  east- 
ern portions  of  the  state  are  about  500  square  miles 
in  area,  while  the  bituminous  coal  and  petroleum 
fields  of  the  western  and  north-central  sections  cover 
about  9000  square  miles.  The  United  States  Con- 
servation Commission  estimated,  in  1910,  that  there 
were  117, .593,000,000  tons  of  coal  in  Pennsylvania. 
The  total  output  of  bituminous  coal  in  1907  for 
the  Pennsylvanian  mines  was  149,759,089  Ameri- 
can tons  (of  2000  lbs.  each);  of  anthracite,  86,279,- 
719  Am.  tons;  so  that  the  state  contributed  in  that 
year  very  nearly  50  per  cent  of  the  whole  output  of 
coal  of  the  United  States.  In  the  following  year 
(1908),  owing  to  the  general  depression  in  industries, 
Pennsylvania  produced  only  118,313,525  tons  of  bitu- 
minous coal.  The  first  oil  well  in  Pennsylvania  was 
discovered  in  1860,  and  in  the  next  following  thirty 
years  the  state  produced  1,(K)6, 000,000  barrels  of  pe- 
troleum. The  state  stands  first  in  the  jiroduction  of 
coke,  the  output  being  normally  more  than  half  that 
of  all  the  United  States.  The  output  of  pig  iron  for 
1908  was  6,973,621  gross  tons,  or  43-8  per  cent  of  the 
entire  product  of  the  LTnited  States,  valued  at  $110,- 
987,346  (about  £22,197,468).  The  first  Bessemer 
steel  rails  were  rolled  at  Johnstown,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1867.  The  annual  iinidurt  of  iron  and  steel  manufac- 
tures is  over  .$201),1)()I),()(KI;  tlicy  cmi.loy  .54,000  per- 
sons, whose  earnings  anmunt  to  134,000,000.  Penn- 
sylvania also  stands  first  in  the  production  of  slate  and 
limestone,  contributing  two-thirds  of  the  whole  output 
of  slate  of  the  United  States.  It  ranks  third  in  the 
production  of  sandstone.  The  total  value  of  its  out- 
put of  quarried  stone  in  1908  was  $4,000,000. 

As  a  manufacturing  state,  Pennsylvania  stands  sec- 
ond in  the  ITnited  States.  In  1904  it  had  an  invested 
capital  of  $1,990,836,988  in  manufactures,  employing 
763,282  wage  earners  receiving  $367,900,890  per  an- 
num and  producing  $1,9.55,551,332  in  value  of  finished 
goods,  including,  besides  iron  and  steel,  textiles  of 
various  kinds,  knitted  goods,  felt,  etc.  In  1908  there 
were  3.848  industrial  establishments  with  a  total  cap- 
ital of  $1,126,406,558,  employing  756,600  wage  earn- 
ers, of  whom  126,000  were  women.    This  state  leads 


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PENteJSYLVANIA 


anionn  the  Miildlo  States  in  cotton  and  excoeds  all  of 
the  Uiiitcil  Slates  in  woollen  manufactures.  The  first 
company  to  spin  yarn  by  machinery  wius  founileil  at 
Philadelphia  in  177o.  A  sale  of  i)rints  and  linens  took 
place  in  17SS).  In  ISfiO  I'liiladelphia  was  the  leading 
city  of  the  world  in  the  mnnber  of  its  textile  works. 
In  1S;I9  there  were  S13  cotton  and  woollen  factories, 
producing  a  value  of  Sllt),S.')0,7S2.  In  1907,  ir)7  silk 
plants  produced  a  value  of  $52,780,830.  The  agricul- 
tural wealth  of  the  state  is  also  considerable,  althougli 
only  28  per  cent  of  its  land  is  under  cultivation.  The 
leading  crops  are  hay,  corn,  oats,  wheat,  jjot  atoes,  and 
tobacco,  aggregating  for  the  year  1908  a  value  of 
SltitJ,173,000.  The  value  of  farm  animals  in  1908  was 
Sl-1.5,S0;i,000.  The  dairy  industry  in  that  year,  aside 
from  the  milk  product,  was  valued  at  §41,250,000, 
while  tobacco  amounted  to  .13,948,134. 

C.  Communicalions. — In  1827  the  first  railroad  in 
the  state,  nine  miles  in  length,  was  opened  between 
Mauch  Chunk  and  Sunniiit  Hill.  In  1842  the  Phila- 
delphia and  Reading  Kailroad  penetrated  the  coal 
regions,  and  in  1854  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  be- 
tween Pittsburg  and  Philadelphia  was  opened  for 
traffic.  Pennsylvania  has  22-96  miles  of  track  for 
every  hundred  miles  of  area.  The  total  assessment  of 
steam  railroads  operating  any  portions  of  their  lines 
within  the  state  is  $4,686,281 ,066— one-third  of  the 
assets  of  all  the  railroads  of  the  United  States.  The 
total  earnings  for  the  year  ending  13  November,  1908, 
of  the  railroads  of  Pennsylvania  subject  to  taxation 
were  $824,213,593.  During  that  year  there  were 
262,570,546  passengers  carried  and  81,454,385,026 
mile-tons  of  freight.  The  street  railways  show  a  total 
capitalization  of  $484,545,694. 

IV.  Edcc.vtion. — A.  General. — The  common  school 
system  of  education  is  universal  throughout  the  Com- 
monwealth in  every  county,  township,  borough,  and 
city.  Each  constitutes  a  separate  school  district,  and 
new  districts  are  formed  as  required  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Court  of  Quarter  Sessions.  School  direc- 
tors are  elected  annually  in  each  district,  two  qualified 
citizens  being  chosen  for  a  term  of  three  years,  there 
being  six  directors  in  all.  School  directors  receive  no 
pay,  but  are  exempt  from  military  duty  and  from 
serving  in  any  borough  or  township  office.  They  must 
hold  at  least  one  meeting  in  every  three  months  and 
such  other  meetings  as  the  circumstances  of  the  dis- 
trict may  require.  It  is  their  duty  to  establish  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  common  schools  for  the  education  of 
every  individual  over  the  age  of  six  years  and  under 
the  age  of  twenty-one  in  their  respective  districts. 
They  appoint  all  teachers,  fix  their  salaries,  and  dis- 
miss them  for  cause;  direct  what  branches  of  learning 
are  to  be  taught  in  each  school,  and  what  books  to  be 
used;  suspend  or  e.xpel  pupils  for  cause.  They  report 
to  the  county  superintendent,  setting  forth  the  num- 
ber and  situation  of  the  scliools  in  their  districts, 
the  character  of  the  teachers,  amount  of  taxes,  etc. 
Where  land  cannot  be  obtained  for  schools  by  agree- 
ment of  the  parties,  school  directors  may  enter  and 
occupy  such  land  as  they  deem  fit  not  exceeding  one 
acre.  Free  evening  schools  must  be  kept  open  on  the 
application  of  twenty  or  more  pupils  or  their  parents, 
for  the  teaching  of  orthography,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  and  other  branches  to  pupils  who  are 
unable  to  attend  the  day  schools,  for  a  term  of  not  less 
than  four  months  in  each  year.  Twenty  days'  actual 
teaching  constitutes  one  school  month.  Schools  are 
closed  on  Saturdays  and  legal  holidays.  High  schools 
may  be  established  in  districts  having  a  population  of 
over  5000. 

In  Penn's  charter  it  was  provided  that  the  Govern- 
ment and  councils  should  erect  and  order  all  public 
schools,  and  before  Penn  there  had  been  a  school 
taught  by  Swedes.  In  1706  land  to  the  extent  of 
60,000  acres  was  set  aside  for  the  support  of  schools. 
The  Constitution  of  1790  required  the  Legislature  to 


provide  by  law  for  the  establishment  of  schools 
throughout  the  state  in  such  maimer  that  the  poor 
might  be  taught  gratis.  The  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania dates  from  (he  year  1740.  The  report  of  the 
superintendent  of  education  for  the  year  1!M)S  .shows 
the  number  of  schools  to  have  been  33,171,  taught  by 
7488  male  and  26,525  female  teachers,  the  number  of 
pupils  amounting  to  1,231,200  and  in  daily  attendance 
951,670.  The  total  expenditure  for  school  purposes 
for  that  year  was  more  than  .?;( l,()(l(),()(l();  the  esti- 
mated value  of  school  property  exceeded  §90,(100,000. 
There  were  in  that  year  thirteen  noiiiial  scliools,  seven 
theological  seminaries,  three  medical  colleges,  one 
veterinary  college,  one  college  of  pharmacy,  four  den- 
tal schools,  two  law  schools,  thirty-fi\e  colleges  and 
universities,  employing  1914  instructms,  with  an  at- 
tendance of  12,211  male  and  31MI  female  students. 

B.  Catholic. — Prior  to  the  Revolution,  ami  for  some 
years  after  it,  Philadelphia  was  the  laigesi  city,  and 
St.  Mary's  the  largest  Catholic  i)arisli  in  tin-  t'nited 
States.  A  parochial  school  was  established  in  that 
parish  in  1782.  This  was  an  English  .school.  Subse- 
quently German  schools  were  established  at  Goshen- 
hoppen,  Berks  County,  at  Lancaster,  Hanover,  and 
other  places  under  the  auspices  of  the  German  Jesuits. 
In  Western  Pennsylvania  the  first  Catholic  school 
was  established  at  Sportsman's  Hall,  Westmoreland 
County,  some  time  after  1787,  where  subsequently 
the  Benedictines  built  St.  Vincent's  Abbey  and  Col- 
lege, the  mother-house  of  this  religious  order  in  the 
United  States.  Father  Demetrius  Augustine  Gallitzin 
(q.  V.)  established  a  Catholic  colony  in  Cambria 
County  in  1791tandin  1800  opened  a  school  at  Loretto. 
The  first  Catholic  church  at  Pittsburg  was  built  in 
1811,  and  in  1828  a  community  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Clare,  coming  from  Belgium,  established  a  convent 
and  academy.  In  1835  the  sisters  took  charge  of  the 
dayschools  at  Pittsburg  and  opened  an  academy  for 
more  advanced  pupils.  They  opened  a  school  at  Har- 
risburg  in  1828;  one  at  McSherrytown  in  1830;  one 
at  Pottsville  in  1836.  The  Catholic  educational  sys- 
tem has  been  gradually  developed  since  that  date  un- 
til now,  in  all  the  dioceses  of  Pennsylvania,  there  is  a 
carefully  graded  system  of  parochial  schools,  there 
being  in  attendance  in  the  various  dioceses  225,224 
pupils,  who  are  taught  by  2896  religious  and  lay 
teachers  in  443  schools,  irrespective  of  those  who  are 
instructed  in  the  various  orphan  asylums  and  chari- 
table institutions  of  the  different  dioceses.  The  course 
of  instruction  is  graded  in  the  Diocese  of  Philadelphia, 
covering  Christian  doctrine,  English,  penmanship, 
arithmetic,  algebra,  geography,  history,  civil  govern- 
ment, vocal  music  (including  Gregorian),  drawing, 
elementary  science.  Institutions  for  higher  education 
are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  in  the  hands  of  the  teaching 
orders  and  are  not  an  integral  part  of  the  jiarochial 
school  system.  The  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  Cath- 
ohc  educational  system  is  defrayed  by  voluntary 
contributions. 

V.  Religious  Conditions. — A.  Dei'eJopmetit  of  the 
Church. — The  State  of  Pennsylvania  liistoiicafly  coin- 
cides with  the  ecclesiastical  Province  <if  I'liil.ulclphia, 
composed  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Philaileljiliia  and  the 
five  suffragan  Dioceses  of  Pittsburg,  Erie,  Ilarrisburg, 
Scranton,  and  Altoona.  (See  the  special  articles  on 
these  dioceses  respectively.)  The  Catholic  population 
in  Pennsylvania  owes  its  existence  mainly  to  early 
immigration  from  Ireland  and  Germany,  though  of 
recent  years  many  Poles,  Hungarians,  and  Italians 
have  swelled  its  numbers.  The  first  Catholic  resident 
of  Philadelphia,  a  German,  came  with  Daniel  Paeto- 
rius,  the  founder  of  Germantown,  in  1683.  In  1685 
J.  Gray,  of  London,  having  obtained  a  grant  of  land, 
settled  in  Pennsylvania,  where  he  changed  his  name 
to  John  Tatham.  In  1690  he  was  appointed  Governor 
of  West  Jersey,  but  was  unable  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  William  and  Mary.    He  seems  to  have 


PENNSYLVANIA 


643 


PENNSYLVANIA 


been  a  friend  of  William  Penn.  The  first  priest  who 
can  be  accurately  traced  in  Pennsylvania  was  the 
Reverend  John  Pierron,  of  Canada,  who  in  1673-74 
made  a  tour  through  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  New 
England. 

The  orderly  history  of  the  Cliurch  in  Pennsylvania 
begins  in  1720,  when  the  Rev.  Joseph  Wheaton,  S.J., 
formed  the  first  parish.  The  first  church,  St.  Joseph's, 
was  begun  in  1733.  Its  congregation  consisted  of  22 
Irish  and  15  Germans,  and  in  1787  its  membership 
had  increased  to  about  3000.  In  1727  there  came  to 
Philadelphia  1155  Irish  besides  their  servants.  Later 
in  the  same  year  5600  arrived,  and  5655  in  1729. 
This  migration  resulted  from  the  unjust  laws  which 
were  then  afflicting  the  Catholics  and  Dissenters  in 
Ireland.  The  same  laws  drove  from  the  North  of 
Ireland,  between  1700  and  1750,  some  200,000  Presby- 
terians, most  of  whom  came  to  America,  and  largely 
to  Pennsylvania.  In  1771,  when  Richard  Penn  suc- 
ceeded John  Penn,  in  the  government  of  Pennsylvania, 
the  Catholics  of  Philadelphia,  through  their  rector,  the 
Rev.  Robert  Harding,  presented  their  congratulations, 
which  were  most  cordially  received.  When  the  Revo- 
lution broke  out,  the  comparatively  small  body  of 
Catholic  inhabitants  furnished  a  number  of  men  who 
attained  distinction  in  the  military,  naval,  or  political 
service,  among  them  being  Commodore  John  Barry, 
Thomas  Fitzsimmons,  Stephen  Moylan,  and  George 
IVIeade.  In  1780,  on  tlie  occasion  of  the  Requiem 
Ma.ss  for  Don  Juan  de  Miralles,  the  Spanish  agent  in 
Philadelphia,  Congress  assisted  in  a  body  together 
with  several  general  officers  and  distinguished  citizens. 
After  the  surrender  at  Yorktown  a  Mass  of  thanksgiv- 
ing was  celebrated  in  St.  Mary's  Church,  a  chaplain  of 
the  French  Ambassador  preaching  the  sermon. 

Prior  to  the  Revolution,  as  early  as  1768,  the  Ger- 
man Catholics  of  Philadelphia  had  obtained  property 
upon  which  subsequently  was  erected  Holy  Trinity 
Church,  which  was  afterwards  incorporated  and,  in 
1789,  dedicated.  St.  Mary's  Church,  from  which 
Holy  Trinity  was  an  offshoot,  was  dedicated  in  1788. 
The  clergy  of  the  United  States  was  reinforced  by  a 
body  of  French  priests  who  arrived  at  Philadelphia  in 
1792  and  were  distributed  among  various  American 
churches.  In  1793  a  large  number  of  fugitives  came 
from  the  French  Islands  of  the  West  Indies,  and  it  was 
supposed  that  an  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  which  broke 
out  soon  after  was  brought  by  them.  All  the  ministers 
of  the  various  denominations  zealously  attended  the 
sick,  and  many  fell  victims,  including  two  of  the  Cath- 
olic clergy. 

In  1788  Very  Rev.  John  Carroll  was  elected  Bishop 
of  Baltimore  with  jurisdiction  over  all  the  American 
churches,  including  Philadelphia.  He  was  consecrated 
on  the  15th  of  August,  1790,  at  Lullworth,  Dorchester, 
England. 

In  1808  the  Diocese  of  Philadelphia  was  separated 
from  that  of  Baltimore  (then  ruled  by  Bishop  John 
Carroll),  the  Dioceses  of  New  York,  Boston,  and 
Bardsto\vn  being  created  at  the  same  time.  Michael 
Egan  became  the  first  Bishop  of  Philadelphia,  the 
diocese  included  the  entire  State  of  Pennsylvania  and 
the  western  and  southern  parts  of  New  Jersey.  In 
18-13  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg  was  established,  and 
took  away  from  Philadelphia  a  number  of  the  western 
counties  of  the  state.  In  1853  the  Diocese  of  Erie  was 
erected  out  of  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg,  and  in  the 
same  year  the  jurisdiction  of  Philadelphia  over  a 
part  of  New  Jersey  was  transferred  to  the  Diocese  of 
Newark.  In  1868  the  two  Dioceses  of  Scranton  and 
Harrisburg  were  created,  Philadelphia  being  left  with 
a  jurisdiction  confined  to  the  Covmties  of  Berks,  Bucks, 
Carbon,  Chester,  Delaware,  Lehigh,  Montgomery, 
Northampton,  and  Schuylkill.  In  1901  the  Diocese  of 
Altoona  was  constituted  out  of  the  Harrisburg  terri- 
tory together  with  part  of  that  of  Pittsburg.  In  1875 
Philadelphia  waa  made  a  metropolitan  see,  Bishop 


Wood  being  appointed  Archbishop.    The  first  Provin- 
cial Council  was  held  on  23  May,  1880. 

B.  Laws  Relating  to  Religion. — By  the  Constitution 
of  Pennsylvania  (Art.  I.,  Sec.  3)  it  is  declared  that 
"All  men  have  a  natural  and  indefeasible  right  to 
worship  Almighty  God  according  to  the  dictates  of 
their  own  consciences;  no  man  can  of  right  be  com- 
pelled to  attend,  erect  or  support  any  place  of  worship, 
or  to  maintain  any  ministry  against  his  consent;  no 
human  authority  can,  in  any  case  whatever,  control  or 
interfere  with  the  rights  of  conscience,  and  no  prefer- 
ence shall  ever  be  given  by  law  to  any  religious  estab- 
lishments or  modes  of  worship".  It  has  been  held, 
however,  that  Christianity  is  a  part  of  the  common 
law  of  Pennsylvania;  not  Christianity  founded  on  any 
particular  tenets,  but  Christianity  with  liberty  of  con- 
science to  all  men  (11  S.  &  R.,  394;  26  Pa.,  342;  2  How., 
199).  This  liberty  does  not  include  the  right  to  carry 
out  every  scheme  claimed  to  be  part  of  a  religious 
system.  Thus,  a  Municipal  Ordinance  forbidding  the 
use  of  drums  by  a  religious  body  in  <he  streets  of  a  city 
is  valid  (11  Pa.,  335).  The  constitution  further  pro- 
vides that  "no  person  who  acknowledges  (he  being 
of  a  God  and  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments shall,  on  account  of  his  religious  sentiments,  be 
disqualified  to  hold  any  office  or  place  of  trust  or  profit 
under  this  commonwealth"  (Sec.  4).  Therefore,  the 
exclusion  of  a  Sister  of  Charity  from  employment  as  a 
teacher  in  the  public  schools,  because  she  is  a  Roman 
Catholic,  would  be  unlawful  (164  Pa.,  629) ;  now,  how- 
ever, she  cannot  teach  while  wearing  her  religious 
garb.  An  Act  of  Assembly  prohibiting  the  transaction 
of  worldly  business  on  Sunday  does  not  encroach  upon 
the  liberty  of  conscience.  It  is  therefore  constitu- 
tional. LIntil  a  recent  Act  of  As-sembly,  witnesses  in 
Court  were  required  to  believe  in  a  Supreme  Being, 
although  their  religious  opinions  were  not  such  as 
are  generally  accepted  by  orthodox  Christians.  Now, 
however,  it  is  not  necessary  that  witnesses  should 
have  any  belief  in  the  existence  of  a  God,  their  credi- 
bility being  a  question  for  the  jury. 

By  an  Act  of  Assembly  blasphemy  and  profanity  in 
the  use  of  the  names  of  the  Almighty,  Jesus  Christ, 
the  Holy  Spirit,  or  the  Scriptures  of  Truth,  are  crimi- 
nal offences.  This  is  a  re-enactment  of  a  provincial 
law  as  old  as  1700.  The  sessions  of  the  Legislature 
are  opened  with  prayer.  Christmas  Day  and  Good 
Friday  are  among  the  legal  holidays.  Five  or  more 
persons  may  form  a  church  corporation  for  the  sup- 
port of  public  worship.  All  churches,  meeting  houses, 
or  other  regular  places  of  stated  worship,  with  the 
groimds  thereto  annexed  necessary  for  the  occupancy 
and  ciijciyiuent  of  the  same,  all  burial  grounds  not 
used  or  held  for  private  or  corporate  profit,  together 
with  certain  other  specified  kinds  of  iirnporty  devoted 
to  education  and  benevolence,  are  exctniited  from  tax- 
ation of  all  sorts.  Marriage  cannot  Ix'  .solemnized 
without  a  licence.  Under  the  Act  of  1700,  all  mar- 
riages not  forbidden  by  the  law  of  God  are  encouraged; 
but  the  parents  or  guardians  shall,  if  conveniently 
they  can,  be  first  consulted,  and  the  parties'  freedom 
from  all  engagements  established.  Under  the  Act 
of  24  June,  1901  (P.  L.  579,  Sec.  1),  themarriageof 
first  cousins  is  prohibited,  and  such  marriages  are 
void.  The  subsequent  marriage  of  parents  legitimize 
their  children  under  the  Act  of  14  May,  1857.  (P.  L., 
.507,  Sec.  1.)  Since  the  Act  of  11  "April,  1848,  all 
property  belonging  to  women  before  marriage  or  ac- 
cniing  to  them  afterwards  shall  continue  as  their  sep- 
arate property  after  marriage.  But  a  woman  may  not 
become  accommodation  indorser,  maker,  guarantor, 
or  surety  for  another,  nor  may  she  execute  or  acknowl- 
ledge  a  deed  or  writing,  etc.  of  her  real  estate  unless 
her  husband  joins  in  such  mortgage  or  conveyance 
(Act  of  8  June,  1893).  The  separate  earnings  of  a 
married  woman  are  under  her  separate  control  and  not 
liable  for  the  debts  or  obligations  of  her  husband. 


PENOBSCOT 


644 


PENOBSCOT 


Under  rorlnin  circuiiistances,  a  iiiarriod  woman  may 
bring  a  suit  witliout  the  intervention  of  a  trustee,  but 
husband  and  wife  cannot  sue  one  another.  A  married 
woman  may  loan  money  to,  and  take  security  from, 
her  husliand.  A  liusband  is  not  Hable  for  the  wife's 
debts  incurred  before  her  marriage.  Ab.solute  di- 
vorces may  be  granted  for  impotence,  bigamy,  adul- 
ter}', cruelty,  desertion,  force,  fraud,  or  coercion,  and 
for  conviction  of  forgery  or  infamous  crime.  The 
plaintiff  must  reside  within  the  state  for  at  least  one 
whole  year  i)revious  to  the  filing  of  the  petition.  A 
person  divorced  for  adultery  cannot  marry  the  para- 
mour during  the  life  of  the  former  husband  or  wife. 
Divorces  from  bed  and  board  are  allowed  for  practi- 
callj-  the  same  causes  as  absolute  divorces.  Marriages 
may  be  annulled  for  the  usual  causes,  but  proceedings 
must  be  taken  under  the  Divorce  Acts. 

A  Board  of  Public  Charities,  consisting  of  five 
commissioners,  is  appointed  by  the  governor  with  the 
duty  of  visiting  all  charitable  and  correctional  institu- 
tions at  least  once  a  year,  examining  the  returns  of  the 
several  cities,  counties,  wards,  boroughs,  and  town- 
ships in  relation  to  the  support  of  paupers  and  in  re- 
lation to  birtlis,  deaths,  and  marriages,  and  make  an 
annual  report  as  to  the  causes  and  best  treatment  of 
pauperism,  crime,  disease,  and  insanity,  together  with 
all  desirable  information  concerning  the  industrial  and 
material  interests  of  the  commonwealth  bearing  upon 
these  subjects.  They  have  the  power  of  examining 
the  various  charitable,  reformatory,  and  correctional 
institutions,  including  the  city  and  county  jails,  pris- 
ons, and  almshouses,  and  are  required  to  submit  an 
annual  report  to  the  Legislature.  Institutions  seeking 
state  aid  are  expected  to  give  notice  to  the  Board, 
which  is  to  inquire  carefully  into  the  grounds  for  the 
request  and  report  its  conclusions  to  the  Legislature. 
Before  any  county  prison  or  almshouse  shall  be 
erected  the  plans  must  be  submitted  to  the  Board. 

Prisoners  confined  in  any  prison,  reformatory,  or 
other  institution  have  the  privilege  of  practising  the 
religion  of  their  choice,  and  are  at  liberty  to  procure 
the  services  of  any  minister  connected  with  any  reli- 
gious denomination  in  the  state,  providing  such  service 
shall  be  personal  and  not  interfere  with  the  established 
order  of  the  religious  service  in  the  institution.  E.s- 
tablished  services  shall  not  be  of  a  sectarian  character. 
By  an  Act  of  Assembly  passed  in  1903,  the  active  or 
visiting  committee  of  any  society,  existing  for  the  pur- 
pose of  visiting  and  instructing  prisoners,  are  consti- 
tuted official  visitors  of  jails  and  penitentiaries,  and  are 
permitted  under  reasonable  rules  and  regulations  to 
make  visits  accordingly. 

Intoxicating  liquors  cannot  lawfully  be  sold  in 
Penn.sylvania  except  under  a  licence  granted  by  the 
Court  of  Quarter  Sessions.  The  sale  of  liquor  on 
Sunday  is  forbidden.  It  is  a  misdemeanor  for  any 
person  engaged  in  the  sale  or  manufacture  of  intoxi- 
cating liquors  to  employ  an  intemperate  person  to 
assist  in  such  maiuifacture  or  sale,  or  by  gift  or  sale 
to  funiish  liquor  to  anyone  known  to  be  of  intemper- 
ate habits,  or  to  minors,  or  insane  persons.  Disregard 
of  a  notice  not  to  furnish  liquor  to  intemperate  persons 
issued  by  a  relative  renders  the  party  so  selling  liable 
for  damages.  Any  judge,  justice,  or  clergyman  who 
shall  perform  the  marriage  ceremony  between  parties 
when  either  is  intoxicated  shall  be  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanour. 

Every  person  of  sound  mind  who  has  attained  the 
age  of  twenty-one  years  may  dispose  of  his  or  her 
real  and  personal  property  by  will.  This  includes 
married  women,  reserving  to  the  husband  his  right 
as  tenant  by  the  courtesy  and  his  right  to  take 
against  the  will,  and  to  the  wife  her  right  to  take 
against  the  will.  Wills  must  be  in  writing  and  signed 
at  the  end  either  by  the  testator  himself  or,  in  case  he 
is  prevented  by  the  extremity  of  his  hist  illness,  by 
some  person  in  his  presence  and  by  his  express  direc- 


tion; and  in  all  cases  shall  be  proved  by  oaths  or 
affirmations  of  two  or  more  conipclcnt  witnesses,  who 
need  not  be  attesting  witnesses  except  in  the  case 
where  the  will  makes  a  charitidtlr  <iivi.--c  or  bequest. 
In  the  case  of  the  extremity  of  the  testator's  last  ill- 
ness, he  may  make  an  oral  or  nuncuiiative  will  for  the 
disposition  of  his  ])ersunal  property,  such  will  to  be 
made  during  the  last  illness  in  the  house  of  his  habita- 
tion, or  where  he  has  resided  for  the  space  of  fen  (lays  be- 
fore making  his  will,  or  any  local  ion  where  he  has  been 
surprised  by  sickness  and  dies  before  returning  to  his 
own  house.  No  estate,  real  or  personal,  can  be  be- 
queathed, devised,  or  conveyed  to  any  person  in  trust 
for  any  religious  or  charitable  use,  except  by  deed  or 
will,  attested  by  two  credible,  disinterested  witnesses, 
at  least  one  calendar  month  before  the  decease  of  the 
testator  or  alienor.  No  literary,  religious,  charitable, 
or  beneficial  society,  congregation,  or  corporation  may 
hold  real  and  personal  estate  to  a  greater  yearly  value 
than  $30,000  without  exjjress  legislative  sanction,  or 
on  decree  of  court  in  special  circumstances. 

Anmml  Report  Secretary  of  Internal  Affairs  (Pa.),  pts.  Ill,  IV; 
Report  of  Superinletident  of  Public  Inslruclion  (Pa.)  (190S);  Crop 
Report  Secretary  of  Agriculture  (Pa.)  (1909);  Pennsylvania  Ar- 
chives; HxZAnu,  Annals  of  Pa.  (Philadelphia,  iS50);  Idem,  Register 
of  Pennsylvania  1828-38;  Colonial  Records  (1790) ;  Pbodd,  History 
of  Pennsylvania  (1797);  Bark  Febbee,  Pennsylvania,  a  Primer 
(1904);  Franklin,  Historical  Review  of  the  Constitution  ami  Gov- 
ernment of  Pennsylvania  (1759);  Jenkins,  Pennsylvania  (Phila- 
delphia, 1903);  Fisher,  Pennsylvania,  Colony  and  Commonwealth 
(1897);  Idem,  Pennsylvania,  Province  and  State  (1899);  Idem.  The 
Making  of  Pennsylvania  (189(i);  Kiblin,  Catholicity  in  Philadel- 
phia (1910);  BUENS,  The  Catholic  School  System  in  the  United 
States  (1908);  The  Catholic  Directory  (1910);  Wickersham,  His- 
tory of  Education  in  Pennsylvania  (1886);  Griffin,  Catholics  in 
the  American  Revolution;  BouviER.  Law  Dictionary  (1897); 
Bhiohtlt-Pcbdon,  Digest  (1905);  Du  Bois,  The  Philadelphia 
Negro  (Philadelphia.  1899) ;  Janney,  Life  of  William  Penn  (1852) ; 
Fisher,  The  True  William  Penn;  Facst,  The  German  Element  in 
the  United  States  (1909);  Jacobs,  Guarantees  of  Liberty  in  Penn- 
sylvania (1907). 

Walter  George  Smith. 

Penobscot  Indians,  the  principal  tribe  of  the 
famous  Abnaki  confederacy  of  Maine,  and  the  only 
one  still  keeping  its  name,  territory,  and  tribal  iden- 
tity. The  Abnaki  confederacy,  to  which  the  Penob- 
scot belonged,  consisted  of  a  number  of  small  tribes  of 
Algonquian  linguistic  stock,  holding  the  greater  part 
of  the  present  stale  of  M;iinc,  ;in(l  closely  connected 
linguistically  and  politically  with  tli<>  Penn;icook  of  the 
Merrimac  region  on  the  south  and  with  the  Maliseet 
or  Etchimin  of  the  St.  John  river  on  the  north,  and 
more  remotely  with  the  Micmac  of  eastern  New 
Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia.  In  all  the  colonial  wars 
they  were  active  allies  of  the  French  against  the  Eng- 
lish, and  suffered  correspondingly,  having  dwindled 
from  perhaps  3000  souls  in  1600  to  about  785  in  1910. 
Of  these  the  Penobscot  number  425,  while  the  rest,  all 
of  mixed  blood  and  including  the  descendants  of  the 
broken  and  incorporated  Pennacook,  reside,  under  the 
name  of  Abnaki,  in  the  two  mission  settlements  of 
Saint  Francis  (335)  and  Bdcancourt  (25)  in  Quebec 
province,  Canada. 

The  beginning  of  missionary  work  among  the  Ab- 
naki was  by  the  Jesuits  Pierre  Biard  and  Enemond 
Masse,  of  the  French  post  of  Port-Royal  (Annai)olis, 
Nova  Scotia),  in  1611.  Two  years  later  a  mission 
establishment  was  attempted,  in  connexion  with  a 
French  post,  on  Mount  Desert  island,  Maine,  but  was 
destroyed  by  the  English  commander,  Argall,  before 
it  was  fairlv  completed.  From  1641)  to  1657  the  Jesuit 
Fr.  Gabri('l  I>ruillettes,  of  the  Montagiiiiis  Mission, 
spent  much  time  with  the  Abnaki,  est:iblishing  a  tem- 
porary chapel  on  the  Kennebec,  and  later  drew  off 
many  of  them  to  the  mission  settlements  of  Canada. 
In  1688  the  Jesuit  Fr.  Jacques  Bigot  again  took  up  the 
work  on  the  Kennebec  while  in  the  same  year  Fr. 
Louis-Pierre  Thury,  of  the  Foreign  Missions,  estab- 
lished the  first  regular  mission  at  Panawambskek  ("it 
forks  on  the  white  rocks" — Vetromile)  or  Penobscot, 
at  the  falls  near  the  present  Oldtown.  Here  he  laboured 


PENSION 


645 


PENSION 


until  his  death  in  1699,  and  was  succeeded  by  other 
priests  of  the  same  seminary  until  1703,  when  this 
mission,  like  that  on  the  Kennebec,  was  transferred  to 
Jesuit  control,  under  which  it  continued,  although 
under  (Mnistantly  greater  difficulties,  until  the  fall  of 
Canaihi  iii  17ii:;.  The  most  noted  incumbent  of  this 
earlirr  iirn.id  was  Fr.  Eticnne  Lauveyat  (1718-1729). 

From  the  outbreak  of  King  Philip's  war  in  1675  up 
nearly  to  the  close  of  the  French  period  in  1763  the 
history  of  the  Abnaki  tribes  was  one  of  almost  unceas- 
ing bloody  struggle  against  the  English  advance.  On 
the  side  of  the  English  it  was  a  war  of  extermination, 
with  standing  bounties  for  scalps  (or  heads),  increas- 
ing from  five  pounds  in  1675  to  forty  pounds  in  1703 
for  every  scalp  of  a  male  above  ten  years,  and  at  last 
in  1744  one  hundred  pounds  for  the  scalp  of  every  male 
above  twelve  years  of  age  and  fifty  for  that  of  a  woman 
or  child.  Prisoners  were  sold  as  slaves  (see  William- 
son). In  1706  Governor  Dudley  reported  that  he  had 
not  left  an  Indian  habitation  or  planting  field  unde- 
stroyed.  Shortly  afterward  it  was  estimated  that  one- 
third  of  the  Abnaki  had  been  exterminated  by  war, 
disease,  or  exposure  within  seven  years.  In  1722  three 
hundred  men  were  appointed  to  destroy  the  village  at 
Penobscot  and  four  liundred  others  to  ravage  con- 
stantly throughout  the  whole  Abnaki  country.  To 
draw  off  the  Indians  fron  the  French  interest,  efforts 
were  twice  made  by  the  Enghsh  authorities  of  Massa- 
chusetts to  persuade  them  to  receive  Protestant  mis- 
sionaries, but  the  offer  was  rejected.  Three  times  the 
mission  at  Norridgewock  on  the  Kennebec,  under  the 
devoted  Fr.  Sebastian  Rasles,  was  attacked  and  de- 
stroyed, and  the  third  time  the  missionary  himself  was 
among  the  slain.  The  final  result  was  that  the  Abnaki 
who  survived  withdrew  to  St.  Francis  or  other  mission 
settlements  in  Canada,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Penobscot,  who  made  a  separate  treaty  of  peace  in 
1749,  thus  saving  themselves  and  their  territory,  but 
forever  alienating  the  affection  of  their  kinsmen  by 
whom  they  were  thenceforth  regarded  as  traitors  to 
the  confederacy. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  in  1775  the 
Penobscot,  under  their  chief,  Orono,  tendered  their  ser- 
vices to  the  American  cause,  at  the  same  time  asking 
that  a  priest  be  sent  to  them,  they  having  then  been  for 
nearly  forty  years  without  religious  instruction.  Their 
offer  was  accepted  and  they  gave  good  service  through- 
out the  war,  but  the  Massachusetts  Government  was 
not  then  able  to  find  them  apriest,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
Jesuits  and  other  missionaries  had  for  years  been  out- 
lawed from  New  England.  When  the  war  was  ended 
the  Penobscot  made  another  appeal,  this  time  by  a 
delegation  to  Bishop  Carroll  of  Maryland,  to  whom 
they  presented  the  crucifix  of  the  murdered  Fr  Rasles, 
with  the  result  that  in  1785  the  Penobscot  mission  at 
Oldtown  was  re-established  under  Fr.  Francis  Ciquard, 
a  Sulpician,  sent  from  France  for  that  purpose.  He 
continued  with  it  until  1794,  going  then  to  the  neigh- 
bouring Etchimin  (Malisect).  Orono  died  at  Oldtown 
in  1802.  Of  later  missionaries  the  most  noted  is  the 
Jesuit  Fr.  Eugene  Vetromile,  stationed  at  Oldtown 
from  about  1855  to  about  1880,  author  of  a  small  his- 
tory of  the  Abnaki  and  of  several  works  in  the  lan- 
guage, the  most  important  of  which  is  a  manuscript 
Abnaki  Dictionary,  now  with  the  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology.  The  other  great  dictionary  of  the  lan- 
guage, that  of  Father  Rasles  and  plundered  from  the 
mission  in  the  second  attack  (1722),  was  deposited  in 
Harvard  University  and  published  in  the  Memoirs  of 
the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  (Cam- 
bridge, 1833). 

The  principal  existing  Penobscot  village,  officially 
known  as  Oldtown,  is  on  an  island  in  Penobscot  river, 
a  few  miles  above  Bangor,  and,  as  indicated  by  the 
Indian  name,  about  on  the  ancient  site.  The  church, 
dedicated  to  Saint  Anne,  is  served  by  a  secular  priest. 

In  their  aboriginal  condition  the  Abnaki  tribes  were 


semi-sedentary,  dwelling  in  villages  of  communal  wig- 
wams covered  with  bark  or  woven  mats,  each  village 
having  also  a  larger  central  town-house  for  public 
gatherings.  Tliey  cultivated  corn  and  other  vege- 
tables, and  understood  the  use  of  manure.  They  had 
also  game  and  fish  from  the  woods  and  waters.  They 
had  the  clan  system,  with  fourteen  clans  (Morgan). 
Polygamy  was  rare  and  tribal  government  simple. 
They  buried  their  dead.  In  general  character  they 
were  comparatively  mild  and  tractable  and  not  given 
to  extreme  cruelty  as  were  the  Iroquois.  What  re- 
mains of  their  mythology  has  been  brought  together 
by  Leland  in  his  "Algonquin  Legends  of  New  Eng- 
land". The  modern  Penobscot  are  entirely  Chris- 
tianized and  civilized  in  habit  of  living,  deriving 
subsistence  by  lumbering,  boating,  hunting,  some 
farming,  and  the  making  of  Indian  wares  for  sale. 
They  are  in  friendly  touch  with  their  neighbours,  the 
Passamaquoddy  band  of  the  Maliseet.  See  also  Mis- 
sions, Catholic  Indun,  of  tbe  U.  S.;  Maliseet 
Indians;   Rasles;  Saint  Francis  Mission. 

Leland.  Algonquin  Legends  of  New  England  (Boston,  New 
York,  18S5);  the  Acadia  volumes  of  the  Jesuit  Relations,  ed. 
Thwaites  (73  vols.,  Cleveland,  1896-1901);  Maine  Hid.  Soc. 
Colls,  (first  series,  10  vols.,  Portland  and  Bath,  1831-1S9I; 
second  series,  10  vols.,  Portland,  1890-1899);  Maukault,  His- 
toire  des  Abenakis  (Quebec,  1866);  Vetromile,  The  Abnakis  and 
Their  History  (New  York,  1866);  Williamson.  Hist,  of  Maine 
(2  vols.,  Hallowell,  1832);  Shea,  Catholic  Missions  (New  York, 
1854). 

Jambs  Moonby. 

Pension,  Ecclesiastical,  the  right  to  a  certain 
sum  of  money  to  be  paid  yearly  out  of  the  revenues  of 
a  church  or  benefice  to  a  cleric,  on  account  of  just 
reasons  approved  by  an  ecclesiastical  superior.  The 
term  is  derived,  according  to  some,  from  the  Latin 
word  pendeo,  ' '  to  depend ' ' ;  according  to  others,  from 
the  word  pendo,  "to  pay".  The  term  pcnsio  is  some- 
times used  as  synonymous  with  a  certain  species  of 
benefice,  as  when  a  cleric,  by  the  authority  of  a  supe- 
rior, receives  a  perpetual  vicarship  in  a  church  and  is 
sustained  by  its  revenues.  This  is  looked  on  as  the 
conferring  of  a  real  benefice.  In  its  ordinary  accepta- 
tion, however,  it  does  not  connote  the  bestowal  of  a 
benefice,  but  refers  to  the  money  paid,  for  a  certain 
time,  to  a  third  person  from  the  fruits  of  a  benefice 
belonging  to  another,  acting  under  the  authorization 
of  an  ecclesiastical  superior.  The  obligation  to  pay 
such  a  pension  may  be  incumbent  on  either  the  holder 
of  a  benefice  or  on  the  benefice  itself.  If  the  first,  then 
the  burden  does  not  pass  to  his  successor;  if  the  sec- 
ond, the  obligation  lasts  as  long  as  the  pensioner  lives. 

As  the  pope  has  full  power  over  all  benefices,  he  may 
impose  a  pension  on  any  benefice  whatsoever,  even 
though  it  belong  to  a  patron.  If,  however,  the  patron- 
age belongs  to  a  royal  person,  the  pope  does  not  usu- 
ally impose  the  pension  without  the  patron's  consent. 
For  validity,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  pontiff  give 
any  cause  for  his  act. 

As  to  the  bishop,  or  anyone  inferior  to  the  pope,  he 
may  not,  generally  speaking,  impose  a  perpetual  pen- 
sion on  a  benefice  or  increase  one  already  existing,  nor 
may  he,  in  conferring  a  benefice,  make  a  reservation 
of  a  pension  to  be  paid  to  a  third  party.  It  is  within 
the  bishop's  power,  however,  to  impose  a  pension,  for 
a  reasonable  cause,  to  last  for  a  certain  time,  even  for 
the  life  of  the  holder  of  the  benefice,  if  he  himself  con- 
sents. In  this  case,  the  pension  is  not  imposed  upon 
the  benefice,  but  on  its  incumbent.  The  canons  forbid 
the  bishop  to  constitute  a  pension  out  of  a  certain 
quota  of  the  fruits  of  a  benefice,  as  a  half  or  a  third 
part,  because  this  has  the  appearance  of  a  division  of 
the  benefice.  Just  causes  for  the  constitution  of  a 
pension  by  the  bishop  are:  for  the  sake  of  peace;  for 
the  education  of  a  poor  student;  for  the  utility  of  the 
Church;  for  the  relief  i'>f  [laupers:  for  some  pious 
object;  for  a  reward  of  services  rendered;  and  for  the 
support  of  a  person  who  resigns  a  benefice,  in  which 


FENTACOMIA 


646 


PENTATEUCH 


fast  case  it  should  be  in  moderate  proportion  and  not 
the  result  of  a  bargain.  For  the  causes  mentioned,  a 
bishop  may  not  impose  a  pension  on  a  benefice  itself, 
or  to  have  etTeot  after  the  decease  of  the  incumbent, 
though  some  canonists  have  maintained  the  contrary. 
\\'hen  a  bishop  confers  a  benefice,  he  is  not  allowed  to 
burden  its  collation  with  a  jiension  to  be  paid  to  him- 
self, as  this  would  be  a  simoniacal  transaction. 

When  two  beneficiaries  interchange  benefices,  they 
may  not  make  a  pact  by  which  the  one  receiving  the 
richer  post  is  to  pay  a  pension  to  the  other,  but  the 
bishop  may  make  such  a  stipulation  of  his  own  free 
■btII  on  the  occasion  of  the  exchange  of  two  benefi- 
ciaries. In  like  manner,  while  it  is  simoniacal  for  an 
abdicant  to  stipulate  for  a  pension  out  of  the  benefice 
he  resigns,  yet  he  may,  for  grave  cause,  request  the 
bishop  to  give  liim  such  a  pension,  and  the  bishop  may 
bestow  it  upon  him.  Simoniacal  pacts  are  those  which 
are  made  without  the  intervention  of  the  proper  eccle- 
siastical authority. 

LajTnen  are  incapable  of  receiving  ecclesiastical 
pensions,  and  the  clerical  recipient  must  not  be  ex- 
communicate, suspended,  or  under  interdict.  Pen- 
sions may  be  transferred  to  another  by  the  pensioner, 
if  the  proper  authority  sanctions  it.  The  earliest  men- 
tion of  a  pension  in  Church  history  is  said  to  be  that  of 
Domnus  of  Antioch,  who  received  one  out  of  the  reve- 
nues of  the  bishoi^ric,  which  he  had  vacated  at  the  time 
of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  in  4.51. 

Ferraris,  Bibliotheca  caiwnica.  VI  (Rome.  1890),  s.  v.  Pensio; 
Webnz,  Jus  decretalium,  II  (Rome,  1899). 

William  H.  W.  Fanning. 

Pentacomia,  titular  see  of  Palestine,  suffragan  of 
Arc<i]inlis  (IV  ItMbbah.  It  was  never  a  residential  see; 
the  t'rusadrrs  mistook  the  "Descriptio  orbis  romani" 
of  George  of  Cyprus,  where  it  is  mentioned  (ed.  Gelzcr, 
53),  for  a  "Notitia  episcopatuum ",  whereas  it  is  a 
purely  civil  document.  There  is  a  locality  of  this 
name  in  Arabia  (op.  cit.,  54),  and  a  third  in  Palaestina 
Prima,  now  known  as  Fendacoumieh,  near  Samaria. 
Le  Quien  has  made  the  same  error  ("Oriens  christi- 
anus",  III,  773),  but  without  discovering  the  name  of 
one  bishop.    The  site  of  Pentacomia  seems  unknown. 

S.    VAlLHfi. 

Pentapolis. — The  word,  occurring  in  Wisdom,  x, 
6,  designates  the  region  where  stood  the  five  cities 
(Wn-e,  7r6Xis) — Sodom,  Gomorrha,  Segor  (A.  V.,  Zoar), 
Adama,  Scboim — which  united  to  resist  the  invasion 
of  Chodorlahomor  (Gen.,  xiv),  and  of  which  four  were 
shortly  after  utterly  destroyed.  This  region,  which 
marked  the  southern  limit  of  the  territory  occupied  by 
the  Canaanites,  was  included  in  what  was  known  in  old 
Palestinian  geography  as  the  "Kikkar"  (i.e.  "round" 
or  "oval";  Gen.,  xiii,  10,  11,  12,  etc.;  D.  V.  "the  coun- 
try about  the  Jordan";  A.  V.  "the  plain"),  that  is  to 
say  probably  the  lower  Jordan  Valley  and  the  land 
around  the  Dead  Sea.  The  Kikkar  was  a  very  fertile 
country  (Gen.,  xiii,  10).  Its  fertility  caused  Lot  to 
settle  there  (Gen.,  xiii,  8-13).  About  the  same  epoch,  or 
possibly  a  little  earlier,  the  five  kings  of  the  Pentapo- 
lis had  been  defeated  in  a  battle  fought  in  the  Valley 
of  Siddim  (D.  V.  "the  woodland  Vale")  by  Amraphel 
(most  probably  Hammurabi,  q.  v.),  King  of  Sennaar, 
Arioch  (Rim-Sin),  King  of  EUasar  (Larsa),  Chodorla- 
homor (Kudur-Lagamar),  King  of  Elam  and  Thadal 
(Tid  al),  "king  of  the  nations"  (probably  countries  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Elatn  and  in  its  dependence), 
and  made  tributary.  Twelve  years  later  the  five  kings 
revolting,  the  Pentapolis  was  once  more  invaded  by 
the  .armies  of  the  East,  the  territory  phmdered,  and 
captives  led  away,  among  whom  w-ere  Lot  and  his 
hoM.sehold.  We  read  in  Gen.,  xiv,  how  Abraham  went 
to  the  rescue  of  his  nephew.  The  Pentapolis  soon  re- 
covered from  the  effects  of  its  defeats,  and  in  its  re- 
stored prosperity  renewed  the  shameful  vices  which 


brought  upon  it  the  judgment  of  God.  "The  Lord 
rained  upon  Sodom  and  Gomorrha  brimstone  and  fire 
from  the  Lord  out  of  heaven,  and  he  destroyed  these 
cities  and  all  the  country  about,  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  cities  and  all  tilings  that  spring  from  the  earth" 
(Gen.,  xix,  24-25). 

The  site  of  the  Pentapolis  has  been  sought  in  many 
places  around  the  Dead  Sea,  even  in  its  very  bed. 
According  to  the  holders  of  the  latter  opinion,  we 
should  see,  in  the  Biblical  description  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha,  the  account  of  a  great 
geological  disturbance  which  caused  a  sinking  of  the 
country,  tliis  forming  the  bed  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Trav- 
ellers pointed  out  as  a  remnant  of  the  submerged  cit- 
ies the  "Kujm  el-B4hr",  a  ledge  of  rock  to  the  north 
of  the  sea,  now  entirely  covered  with  water,  but  form- 
ing an  island  or  even  a  peninsula  at  periods  when  the 
lake  was  considerably  lower  than  now  (as,  for  in- 
stance, from  1848  to  1892).  Modern  geologists,  on  the 
other  hand,  while  admitting  that  disturbances  of  that 
character  may  have  occurred  in  that  region  in  the  last 
fifty  or  forty  centuries,  yet  with  one  accord  hold  that 
the  origin  of  that  body  of  water  goes  back  to  pre-his- 
toric  times.  The  site  must  accordingly  be  .sought  else- 
where. There  are  some,  among  them  Armstrong,  Wil- 
son, Conder,  Tristram,  and  recently  Dr.  Huntington 
("Harper's  Monthly  Magazine",  Jan.,  1910,  pp.  186 
sqq.),  who,  deceived  by  a  certain  likeness  in  names, 
searched  for  the  Pentapohs  to  the  north  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  Clermont-Ganneau,  on  the  contrary,  thought 
Gomorrha  was  in  the  Arabah,  about  60  miles  south  of 
the  Dead  Sea  (Recueil  d'Archcol.  Orient.,  I,  pp.  163 
sqq.).  Most  geographers,  however,  think  that  the  site 
of  the  Pentapolis  should  be  sought  partly  in  the  shal- 
low bed  of  the  south  end  of  the  lake,  and  partly  in  its 
immediate  neighbourhood.  This  view  seems  to  be 
supported  by  two  serious  arguments.  First,  the  name 
"Jebel  Usdum",  given  to  a  conspicuous  mountain  of 
salt  on  the  south-west  shore,  echoes  apparently  a  long- 
standing tradition  that  Sodom  was  near  by.  Second, 
Segor,  the  only  city  that  survived  the  ruin,  was  known 
throughout  Biblical  times  (Is.,  xv,  5;  Jer.,  xlviii,  4) 
and  in  the  early  Christian  centuries  [Joseph.,  "Ant.", 
I,  xi,  4;  "Bellum  jud.",  IV,  viii,  4;  Ptolemy,  V,  xvii, 
5;  Euseb.,  "Onomast.",  231,  261;  Madaba  Mosaic 
Map;  medieval  Arabic  geographers  (cf.  Le  Strahge, 
"Palestine  under  the  Moslems",  p.  292);  crusaders 
(Guillaume  de  Tyr,  xxii,  30) ;  Segor,  then  called 
Zoora,  was  an  episcopal  see  at  the  time  of  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  451];  it  was  situated  south-east  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  at  a  distance  of  580  stadia  (almost  66  miles) 
from  the  north  shore  of  the  same,  and  to  all  appear- 
ances should  be  looked  for  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Wady  Qerahy.  The  other  three  cities  were  possibly 
north  of  Segor. 

Commentaries  on  Gen.,  xix;  Armstrong,  Wilson,  Conder, 
Names  and  places  in  the  O.  T.  (London,  1887):  Baedeker-Ben- 
ZIQER,  Palestine  avd  Syria  (4th  Engl,  ed.,  Leipzig,  1906) ;  Con- 
der, Handbook  to  the  Bible  (London,  1887);  Le  Strange,  Pal- 
estine under  the  Moslems  (London,  1890);  Robinson,  Biblical 
Researches  in  Palestine  (London.  18S6) ;  Smith,  The  Historical 
Geography  of  the  Holy  Land  (London,  1894) ;  Tristram,  The  Land 
of  Israel  (London,  1872);  Idem,  The  Land  of  Monb  (London, 
1873);  Abel.  Une  Croisih-e  aulour  de  la  Mer  Mortc  (Paris,  1911); 
Gautier,  Autour  de  la  Mer  Morte  (Geneva,  1901);  Gu^rin.  Des- 
cription de  la  Palestine,  Samarie  (Paris,  1874-1875) ;  Blanken- 
HORN,  Enstehung  und  Geschichte  des  Todten  Meeres  in  Zeitschrift 
des  Deutschen  PalHstina-Vereins,  XIX  (1896),  1-64;  Idem,  Noch 
eintnal  Sodom  und  Gomorrha,  ibid.,  XXI  (1898),  6.3-83;  BuHL, 
Geographie  des  AUen  Paldstina  (Leipzig,  1896). 

Charles  L.  Sotjvay. 

Pentateuch,  in  Greek  vevTarevxl)^,  is  the  name  of 
the  first  five  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  I.  Name. — 
Though  it  is  not  certain  whether  the  word  originally 
was  an  adjective,  qualifying  the  omitted  noun  p/^Xos, 
or  a  substantive,  its  literal  meaning  "five  cases"  ap- 
pears to  refer  to  the  sheaths  or  boxes  in  which  the 
separate  five  rolls  or  volumes  were  kept.  At  what  pre- 
cise time  the  first  part  of  the  Bible  was  divided  into 


PENTATEUCH 


647 


PENTATEUCH 


five  books  is  a  question  not  yet  finally  settled.  Some 
regard  the  division  as  antedating  the  Septuagint  trans- 
lation; others  attribute  it  to  the  authors  of  this  trans- 
lation; St.  Jerome  was  ot  opinion  (Ep.  52,  ad  Paulin., 
8;  P.  L.,  XXII,  54.5)  that  St.  Paul  alluded  to  such  a 
division  into  five  books  in  I  Cor.,  xiv,  19;  at  any  rate, 
Philo  and  Josephus  are  familiar  with  the  division  now 
in  question  ("De  Abrahamo",  I;  "Cont.  Apion.",  I, 
8).  However  ancient  may  be  the  custom  of  dividing 
the  initial  portion  of  the  Old  Testament  into  five  parts, 
the  early  Jews  had  no  name  indicating  the  partition. 
They  called  this  part  of  the  Bible  hdttorah  (the  law), 
or  torah  (law),  or  sepher  hiittorah  (book  of  the  law), 
from  the  nature  of  its  contents  (Jos.,  viii,  3-1;  i,  8; 
lEsdr.,  X,  3;  II  Esdr.,  viii,  2,  3,  U;  x,  35,  37;  II  Par., 
XXV,  4);  they  named  it  torath  IVIosheh  (law  of  Moses), 
eepher  Mosheh  (book  of  Moses),  sepher  tordth  Mosh6h 
(book  of  the  law  of  Moses)  on  account  of  its  author- 
ship (Jos.,  viii,  31,  32;  xxiii,  6;  III  Kings,  ii,  3;  IV 
Kings,  xiv,  16;  xxiii,  25;  Dan.,  ix,  11;  I  Esdr.,  iii,  2; 
vi,  IS;  II  Esdr.,  viii,  1;  xiii,  1;  etc.);  finally,  the 
Divine  origin  of  the  Mosaic  Law  was  implied  in  the 
names:  law  of  Yahweh  (I  Esdr.,  vii,  10;  etc.),  law  of 
God  (II  Esdr.,  viii,  18;  etc.),  book  of  the  law  of  Yah- 
weh (II  Par.,  xvii,  9;  etc.),  book  of  the  law  of  God 
(Jos.,  xxiv,  26;  etc.).  The  word  law  in  the  foregoing 
expressions  has  been  rendered  by  vd/Mos,  with  or  with- 
out the  article,  in  the  Septuagint  version.  The  New 
Testament  refers  to  the  Mosaic  law  in  various  ways: 
the  law  (Matt.,  v,  17;  Rom.,  ii,  12;  etc.);  the  law  of 
Moses  (Luke,  ii,  22;  xxiv,  44;  Acts,  xxviii,  23);  the 
book  of  Moses  (Mark,  xii,  26);  or  simply,  Moses 
(Luke,  xxiv,  27;  Acts,  xv,  21).  Even  the  Talmud  and 
the  older  Rabbinic  writings  call  the  first  part  of  the 
Bible  the  book  of  the  law,  while  in  Aramaic  it  is  simply 
termed  law  (cf.  Buxtorf,  "Lexicon  Chaldaicum  Tal- 
mudicum  Rabbinicum",  791,  983;  Levy,  "Chal- 
daisches  Worterbuch",  268,  16;  Aicher,  "Das  Alte 
Testament  in  der  Mischna",  Freiburg,  1906,  p.  16). 

The  Greek  name  vevTaTevxis,  implying  a  division  of 
the  law  into  five  parts,  occurs  for  the  first  time  about 
A.  D.  150-75  in  the  letter  to  Flora  by  the  Valentinian 
Ptolemy  (cf .  St.  Epiphan.,  "Ha?r.",  XXXIII,  iv;  P.  G., 
XLI,  560).  An  earlier  occurrence  of  the  name  was 
supposed  to  exist  in  a  passage  of  Hippolytus  where  the 
Psalter  is  called  kuI  aird  dXXoi-  Trti'TdTfuxoi'  (cf.  edition 
of  de  Lagarde,  Leipzig  and  London,  1858,  p.  193) ;  but 
the  passage  has  been  found  to  belong  to  Epiphanius 
(cf.  "Hippolytus"  in  "Die  griechischen  Schriftsteller 
der  erstendrei  Jahrhunderte",  Leipzig,  1897, 1. 1, 143). 
The  name  is  used  again  by  Origen  (Comment,  in  Ev. 
Jo.,  t.  II;  P.  G.,  XIV,  192;  cf.  P.  G.,  XIII,  444),  St. 
Athanasius  (Ep.  ad  Marcellin.,  5;  P.  G.,  XXVII,  12), 
and  several  times  by  St.  Epiphanius  (De  mensur.  et 
ponderib.,  4,  6;  P.  G.,  XLIII,  244).  In  Latin,  Tertul- 
lian  uses  the  masculine  form  Penlaleuchus  (Adv. 
Marcion.,  I,  10;  P.  L.,  II,  257),  while  St.  Isidore  of 
Seville  prefers  the  neuter  Pentateuchum  (Etym.,  VI, 
ii,  1,  2;  P.  L.,  LXXXII,  230).  The  analogous  forms 
Octateuch,  Heptateuch,  and  Hexateuch  have  been 
used  to  refer  to  the  first  eight,  seven,  and  six  books  of 
the  Bible  respectively.  The  Rabbinic  writers  adopted 
the  expre.ssion  "the  five-fifths  of  the  law"  or  simply 
"the  five-fifths"  to  denote  the  five  books  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. 

Both  the  Palestinian  and  the  Alexandrian  Jews  had 
distinct  names  for  each  of  the  five  books  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. In  Palestine,  the  opening  words  of  the  several 
books  served  as  their  titles;  hence  we  have  the  names: 
bereshlth,  we'elleh  shemoth  or  simply  shemoth, 
wdyyiqra,  wiiyedhiibber,  and  'elleh  hdddebarim  or 
simply  debarim.  Though  these  were  the  ordinary 
Hebrew  titles  of  the  successive  Pentateuchal  books, 
certain  Rabbinic  writers  denote  the  last  three  accord- 
ing to  their  contents;  they  called  the  third  book 
tordth  kohdnira,  or  law  of  priests;  the  fourth,  hora(?sh 
hdpplqqftdhim,  or  book  of  census;  the  fifth,  mishneh 


thorah,  or  repetition  of  the  law.  The  Alexandrian 
Jews  derived  their  Greek  names  of  the  five  books 
from  the  contents  of  either  the  whole  or  the  begin- 
ning of  each  division.  Thus  the  first  book  is  called 
T^if€(Tis  Kda/xov  or  simply  Tifcats-  the  second,  'E^oSoj 
AiyuTTTov  or'E?o6os;  the  third,  AeueiriKiy  or  AewTu^x; 
the  fourth,  'Apiff/ioi ;  and  the  fifth,  Aci/T-fpo^A/iioc. 
These  names  passed  from  the  Septuagint  into  the 
Latin  Vulgate,  and  from  this  into  most  of  the  transla- 
tions of  the  Vulgate.  'ApW/ioi  however  was  replaced 
by  the  Latin  equivalent  Numeri,  while  the  other  names 
retained  their  form. 

II.  Analysis. — The  contents  of  the  Pentateuch  are 
partly  of  an  historical,  partly  of  a  legal  character. 
They  give  us  the  history  of  the  Chosen  People  from 
the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  death  of  Moses,  and 
acquaint  us  too  with  the  civil  and  religious  legislation 
of  the  Israelites  during  the  Ufe  of  their  great  lawgiver. 
Genesis  may  be  considered  as  the  introduction  to  the 
other  four  books;  it  contains  the  early  history  down 
to  the  preparation  of  Israel's  exit  from  Egypt.  Deu- 
teronomy, consisting  mainly  of  discourses,  is  practi- 
cally a  summary  repetition  of  the  Mosaic  legislation, 
and  concludes  also  the  history  of  the  people  under  the 
leadership  of  Moses.  The  three  intervening  books 
consider  the  wanderings  of  Israel  in  the  desert  and 
the  successive  legal  enactments.  Each  of  these  three 
great  divi'iions  has  its  own  special  introduction  (Gen., 
i,  1-ii,  3;  Ex.,  i,  1-i,  7;  Deut.,  i,  1-5);  and  since  the 
subject  matter  distinguishes  Leviticus  from  Exodus 
and  Numbers,  not  to  mention  the  literary  termina- 
tions of  the  tliird  and  fourth  books  (Lev.,  xxvii,  34; 
Num.,  xxvi,  13),  the  present  form  of  the  Pentateuch 
exhibits  both  a  literary  unity  and  a  division  into  five 
minor  parts. 

A.  Genesis. — The  Book  of  Genesis  prepares  the 
reader  for  the  Pentateuchal  legislation ;  it  tells  us  how 
God  chose  a  particular  family  to  keep  His  Revelation, 
and  how  he  trained  the  Chosen  People  to  fulfil  its 
mission.  From  the  nature  of  its  contents  the  book 
consists  of  two  rather  unequal  parts;  cc.  i-xi  present 
the  features  of  a  general  history,  while  cc.  xii-1  con- 
tain the  particular  history  of  the  Chosen  People.  By 
a  literary  device,  each  of  these  parts  is  subdivided  into 
five  sections  differing  in  length.  The  sections  are  in- 
troduced by  the  phrase  'elleh  tholedhoth  (these  are  the 
generations)  or  its  variant  zeh  sepher  loledholh  (this  is 
the  book  of  the  generations).  "Generations",  how- 
ever, is  only  the  etymological  meaning  of  the  Hebrew 
loledhoih;  in  its  context  the  formula  can  hardly  sig- 
nify a  mere  genealogical  table,  for  it  is  neither  pre- 
ceded nor  followed  by  such  tables.  As  early  Oriental 
history  usually  begins  with  genealogical  records,  and 
consists  to  a  large  extent  of  such  records,  one  naturally 
interprets  the  above  introductory  formula  and  its 
variant  as  meaning,  "this  is  the  history"  or  "this  is 
the  book  of  the  history."  History  in  these  phrases  is 
not  to  be  understood  as  a  narrative  resting  on  folklore, 
as  Fr.  von  Hummelauer  beheves  ("Exegetisches  zur 
Inspirationsfrage,  Biblische  Studien",  Freiburg,  1904, 

IX,  4,  pp.  26-32);  but  as  a  record  based  on  gene- 
alogies. Moreover,  the  introductory  formula  often 
refers  back  to  some  principal  feature  of  the  preced- 
ing section,  thus  forming  a  transition  and  connexion 
between  the  successive  parts.  Gen.,  v,  1,  e.  g.,  refers 
back  to  Gen.,  ii,  7  sqq.;  vi,  9  to  v,  29  sqq.  and  vi,  8; 

X,  1  to  ix,  18,  19;  etc.  Finally,  the  sacred  writer  deals 
very  briefly  with  the  non-chosen  families  or  tribes,  and 
he  always  considers  them  before  the  chosen  branch  of 
the  family.  He  treats  of  Cain  before  he  speaks  of 
Seth;  similarly,  Cham  and  Japhet  precede  Sem;  the 
rest  of  Sem's  posterity  precedes  Abraham;  Ismael 
precedes  Isaac;   Esau  precedes  Jacob. 

Bearing  in  mind  these  general  outlines  of  the  con- 
tents and  the  literary  structure  of  Genesis,  we  shall 
easily  understand  the  following  analytical  table. 

Inlroduclion,  Gen.,  i,  1-ii,  3,  consists  of  the  Hex- 


PENTATEUCH 


648 


PENTATEUCH 


acmeron;  it  teaches  the  power  and  goodness  of  God 
as  manifested  in  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  also 
the  dependence  of  creatures  on  the  dominion  of  the 
Creator. 

(1)  General  Hisl07~y,  ii,  4-xi,  26. —  Man  did  not 
acknowledge  his  dependence  on  God.  Hence,  leaving 
the  disobedient  to  their  own  devices,  God  chose  one 
special  family  or  one  individual  as  the  depositary  of 
His  Revelation. 

(a)  History  of  Heaven  and  Earth,  ii,  4-iv,  26. — 
Here  we  have  the  stoi-y  of  the  fall  of  our  first  parents, 
ii,  5-iii,  24;  of  the  fratricide  of  Cain,  iv,  1-16;  the 
posterity  of  Cain  and  its  eUmination,  iv,  17-26. 

(b)  Historj-  of  Adam,  v,  1-vi,  8. — The  writer  enu- 
merates the  Sethites,  another  line  of  Adam's  descend- 
ants, V,  1-32,  but  shows  that  they  too  became  so 
corrupt  that  only  one  among  them  found  favour  be- 
fore CJod,  vi,  1-8. 

(c)  History  of  Noe,  vi,  9-ix,  29. — Neither  the  Del- 
uge which  destroyed  the  whole  human  race  excepting 
Noe's  family,  vi,  11-viii,  19,  nor  God's  covenant  with 
Noe  and  his  sons,  viii,  20-ix,  17,  brought  about  the 
amendment  of  the  human  family,  and  only  one  of 
Noe's  sons  was  chosen  as  the  bearer  of  the  Divine 
blessings,  ix,  18-29. 

(d)  History  of  the  Sons  of  Noe,  x,  1-xi,  9. — The 
posterity  of  the  non-chosen  sons,  x,  1-32,  brought  a 
new  punishment  on  the  human  race  by  its  pride,  xi, 
1-9. 

(e)  History  of  Sem,  xi,  10-26. — The  posterity  of 
Sem  is  enumerated  down  to  Thare  the  father  of  Abra- 
ham, in  whose  seed  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  shall  be 
blessed. 

(2)  Special  History,  xi,  27-1,  26. — Here  the  inspired 
writer  describes  the  special  Providence  watching  over 
Abraham  and  his  offspring  which  developed  in  Egypt 
into  a  large  nation.  At  the  same  time,  he  eliminates 
the  sons  of  Abraham  who  were  not  children  of  God's 
promise.  This  teaches  the  Israelites  that  carnal  de- 
scent from  Abraham  does  not  suffice  to  make  them 
true  sons  of  Abraham. 

(a)  Historj'  of  Thare,  xi,  27-xxv,  11. — This  section 
tells  of  the  call  of  Abraham,  his  transmigration  into 
Chanaan,  his  covenant  with  God,  and  His  promises. 

(b)  History  of  Ismael,  xxv,  12-18. — This  section 
eUminates  the  tribes  springing  from  Ismael. 

(c)  History  of  Isaac,  xxv,  19-x.xxv,  29. — Here  we 
have  the  history  of  Isaac's  sons,  Esau  and  Jacob. 

(d)  History  of  Esau,  xxxvi,  1-xxxvii,  1. — The  sa- 
cred writer  gives  a  list  of  Esau's  posterity;  it  does  not 
belong  to  the  number  of  the  Chosen  People. 

(e)  History  of  Jacob,  xxxvii,  2-1,  26. — This  final 
portion  of  Genesis  tells  of  the  fate  of  Jacob's  family 
down  to  the  death  of  the  Patriarch  and  of  Joseph. 

^VTiat  has  been  said  shows  a  uniform  plan  in  the 
structure  of  Genesis,  which  some  scholars  prefer  to 
call  "schematism",  (i)  The  whole  book  is  divided  into 
ten  sections,  (ii)  Each  section  is  introduced  by  the 
same  formula,  (iii)  The  sections  are  arranged  accord- 
ing to  a  definite  plan,  the  history  of  the  lateral  genea- 
logical branches  always  preceding  that  of  the  cor- 
responding part  of  the  main  line,  (iv)  Within  the 
sections,  the  introductorj'  formula  or  the  title  is  usually 
followed  by  a  brief  repetition  of  some  prominent  fea- 
ture of  the  preceding  section,  a  fact  duly  noted  and 
explained  by  as  early  a  writer  as  Rhabanus  Maurus 
((Comment. "in  Gen.,  II,  xii;  P.  L.,  CVII,  531-2),  but 
misconstrued  by  our  recent  critics  into  an  argument 
for  a  diversity  of  sources,  (v)  The  history  of  each 
Patriarch  tells  of  the  development  of  his  family  during 
his  lifetime,  while  the  account  of  his  life  varies  be- 
tween a  bare  notice  consisting  of  a  few  words  or  lines, 
and  a  more  lengthy  description,  (vi)  When  the  life  of 
the  Patriarch  is  given  more  in  detail,  the  account 
usually  ends  in  an  almost  uniform  way,  indicating  the 
length  of  his  life  and  his  burial  with  his  ancestors 
(of.  ix,  29;  xi,  32;  xxv,  7;  xxxv,  28;  xlvii,  28).    Such  a 


definite  plan  of  the  book  shows  that  it  was  written 
with  a  definite  end  in  view  and  according  to  precon- 
ceived arrangement.  The  critics  attribute  this  to  the 
final  "redactor"  of  the  Pentateuch  who  ailii])l('(l,  ac- 
cording to  their  views,  the  genealogical  framework 
and  the  "schematism"  from  tlic  I'licstly  Code.  'J'he 
value  of  these  views  will  be  disciis.sc'd  luter;  for  the 
present,  it  suilices  to  know  that  a  striking  unity  pre- 
vails throughout  the  Book  of  Genesis  (cf.  Kurtz,  "Die 
Einheit  der  Genesis",  Berhn,  1846;  Dclattre,  "Plan 
de  la  Gencse"  in  "Revue  des  quest,  hist.",  July,  1876; 
XX,  pp.  5-43;  Delattre,  "  Le  plan  de  la  Cienese  et  lea 
gdnijrations  du  ciel  et  de  la  terre"  in  "La  science 
cath.",  15  Oct.,  1891,  V,  pp.  978-89;  de  Broglie, 
"Etude  sur  les  genealogies  bibliques"  in  "Le  oongres 
Bcientif.  internat.  des  catholiques  de  1888",  Paris, 
1889,  I,  pp.  94-101;  Julian,  "Etude  critique  sur  la 
composition  de  la  Gendse",  Paris,  1888,  pp.  232-50). 

B.  Exodus. — After  the  death  of  Joseph,  Israel  had 
grown  into  a  people,  and  its  history  deals  no  longer 
with  mere  genealogies,  but  with  the  people's  national 
and  religious  development.  T'le  various  laws  are 
given  and  promulgated  as  occasion  required  them; 
hence  they  are  intimately  connected  with  the  history 
of  the  people,  and  the  Pentateuchal  books  in  which 
they  are  recorded  are  rightly  numbered  among  the 
historical  books  of  Scripture.  Only  the  third  book  of 
the  Pentateuch  exhibits  rather  the  features  of  a  legal 
code.  The  Book  of  Exodus  consists  of  a  brief  intro- 
duction and  three  main  parts: 

Introduclion,  i,  1-7. — A  brief  summary  of  the  his- 
tory of  Jacob  connects  Genesis  with  Exodus,  and 
serves  at  the  same  time  as  transition  from  the  former 
to  the  latter. 

(1)  First  Part,  i,  8-xiii,  16. — It  treats  of  the  events 
preceding  and  preparing  the  exit  of  Israel  from  Egypt. 

(a)  Ex.,  i,  8-ii,  25:  the  Israelites  are  oppressed  by 
the  new  Pharao  "that  knew  not  Joseph",  but  God 
prepares  them  a  liberator  in  Moses. 

(b)  iii,  1-iv,  31. — Moses  is  called  to  free  his  people; 
his  brother  Aaron  is  given  him  as  companion;  their 
reception  by  the  Israelites. 

(c)  V,  1-x,  29. — Pharao  refuses  to  listen  to  Moses 
and  Aaron;  God  renews  his  promises;  genealogies  of 
Moses  and  Aaron;  the  heart  of  Pharao  is  not  moved 
by  the  first  nine  plagues. 

(d)  xi,  1-xiii,  16. — The  tenth  plague  consists  in  the 
death  of  the  first-born;  Pharao  dismisses  the  people; 
law  of  the  annual  celebration  of  the  pasch  in  memory 
of  the  liberation  from  Egypt. 

(2)  Second  Part,  xiii,  17-xviii,  27. — Journey  of 
Israel  to  Mt.  Sinai  and  miracles  preparing  the  people 
for  the  Sinaitic  Law. 

(a)  xiii,  17-xv,  21. — The  Israehtes,  led  and  pro- 
tected by  a  pillar  of  cloud  and  fire,  cross  the  Red  Sea, 
but  the  persecuting  J2gyptians  perish  in  the  waters. 

(b)  XV,  22-xvii,  16. — The  route  of  Israel  is  passing 
through  Sur,  Mara,  Elim,  Sin,  Raphidim.  At  Mara 
the  bitter  waters  are  made  sweet ;  in  the  Desert  of  Sin 
God  sent  quails  and  manna  to  the  children  of  Israel; 
at  Raphidim  God  gave  them  water  from  the  rock, 
and  defeated  Amalec  through  the  prayers  of  Moses. 

(c)  xviii,  1-27. — Jethro  visits  his  kinsmen,  and  at 
his  suggestion  Moses  institutes  the  judges  of  the 
people. 

(3)  Third  Part,  xix,  1-xl,  38.— Conclusion  of  the 
Sinaitic  covenant  and  its  renewal.  Here  Exodus 
assumes  more  the  character  of  a  legal  code. 

(a)  xix,   l-x,x,  21. — The  people  journey  to  Sinai, 

f)repare  for  the  coming  legislation,  receive  the  deca- 
ogue,  and  ask  to  have  the  future  laws  promulgated 
through  Moses. 

(b)  XX,  22-xxiv,  8. — Moses  promulgates  certain 
laws  together  with  promises  for  their  observance,  and 
confirms  the  covenant  between  God  and  the  people 
with  a  sacrifice.  The  portion  xx,  1-xxiii,  33,  is  also 
called  the  Book  of  the  Covenant. 


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(c)  xxiv,  9-xxxi,  IS. — Moses  alone  remains  with 
God  on  the  mountain  for  forty  days,  and  receives 
various  instructions  about  the  tabernacle  and  other 
points  pertaining  to  Divine  worship. 

(d)  xxxii,  1-xxxiv,  35. — The  people  adore  the  golden 
calf;  at  this  sight,  Moses  breaks  the  divinely  given 
tables  of  the  law,  punishes  the  idolaters,  obtains  par- 
don from  God  for  the  survivors,  and,  renewing  the 
covenant,  receives  other  tables  of  the  law. 

(e)  XXXV,  1-xl,  38. — The  tabernacle  with  its  appur- 
tenances is  prepared,  the  priests  are  anointed,  and  the 
cloud  of  the  Lord  covers  the  tabernacle,  thus  showing 
that  He  had  made  the  people  His  own. 

C.  Leviticus,  called  by  Rabbinic  writers  "Law  of 
the  Priests"  or  "Law  of  the  Sacrifices",  contains 
nearly  a  complete  collection  of  laws  concerning  the 
Levitical  ministry.  They  are  not  codified  in  any  log- 
ical order,  but  still  we  may  discern  certain  groups  of 
regulations  touching  the  same  subject.  The  Book  of 
Exodus  shows  what  God  had  done  and  was  doing  for 
His  people;  the  Book  of  Leviticus  prescribes  what  the 
people  must  do  for  God,  and  how  they  must  render 
themselves  worthy  of  His  constant  presence. 

(1)  First  Part,  i,  1-x,  20. — Duties  of  Israel  towards 
God  living  in  their  midst. 

(a)  i,  1-vi,  7. — The  different  kinds  of  sacrifices  are 
enumerated,  and  their  rites  are  described. 

(b)  vi,  8-vii,  36. — The  duties  and  rights  of  the 
priests,  the  official  offerers  of  the  sacrifices,  are  stated. 

(c)  viii,  1-x,  20. — The  first  priests  are  consecrated 
and  introduced  into  their  office. 

(2)  Second  Part,  xi,  1-xxvii,  34. — Legal  cleanness 
demanded  by  the  Divine  presence. 

(a)  xi,  1-xx,  27. — The  entire  people  must  be  legally 
clean;  the  various  ways  in  which  cleanness  must  be 
kept;  interior  cleanness  must  be  added  to  external 
cleanness. 

(b)  xxi,  1-xxii,  33. — Priests  must  excel  in  both  in- 
ternal and  external  cleanness;  hence  they  have  to 
keep  special  regulations. 

(c)  xxiii,  1-xxvii,  34. — The  other  laws,  and  the 
promises  and  threats  made  for  the  observance  or  the 
violation  of  the  laws,  belong  to  both  priests  and 
people. 

D.  Numbers,  at  times  called  "In  the  Desert"  by 
certain  Rabbinic  writers  because  it  covers  practically 
the  whole  time  of  Israel's  wanderings  in  the  desert. 
Their  story  was  begun  in  Exodus,  but  interrupted  by 
the  Sinaitic  legislation ;  Numbers  takes  up  the  account 
from  the  first  month  of  the  second  year,  and  brings 
it  down  to  the  eleventh  month  of  the  fortieth  year. 
But  the  period  of  38  years  is  briefly  treated,  only  its 
beginning  and  end  being  touched  upon;  for  this  span 
of  time  was  occupied  by  the  generation  of  Israelites 
that  had  been  condemned  by  God. 

(1)  First  Part,  i,  1-xiv,  4.5. — Summary  of  the  hap- 
penings before  the  rejection  of  the  rebellious  genera- 
tion, especially  during  the  first  two  months  of  the 
second  year.  The  writer  inverts  the  chronological 
order  of  these  two  months,  in  order  not  to  interrupt 
the  account  of  the  people's  wanderings  by  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  census,  of  the  arrangement  of  the  tribes, 
of  the  duties  of  the  various  families  of  the  Levites,  all 
of  which  occurrences  or  ordinances  belong  to  the  sec- 
ond month.  Thus  he  first  states  what  remained  un- 
changed throughout  the  desert  life  of  the  people,  and 
then  reverts  to  the  account  of  the  wanderings  from 
the  first  month  of  the  second  year. 

(a)  i,  1-vi,  27. — The  census  is  taken,  the  tribes  are 
arranged  in  their  proper  order,  the  duties  of  the 
Levites  are  defined,  the  regulations  concerning  clean- 
liness in  the  camp  are  promulgated. 

(b)  vii,  1-ix,  14. — Occurrences  belonging  to  the 
first  month :  offerings  of  the  princes  at  the  dedication 
of  the  tabernacle,  consecration  of  the  Levites  and 
duration  of  their  ministry,  celebration  of  the  second 
paech. 


(c)  ix,  15-xiv,  45. — Signals  for  breaking  up  the 
camp;  the  people  leave  Sinai  on  the  twenty-second 
day  of  the  second  month,  and  journey  towards  Cades 
in  the  desert  Pharan;  they  murmur  against  Moses  on 
account  of  fatigue,  want  of  fle.sh-meat,  etc.;  deceived 
by  faithless  spies,  they  refuse  to  enter  into  the  Prom- 
ised Land,  and  the  whole  living  generation  is  rejected 
by  God. 

(2)  Second  Part,  xv,  1-xix,  22. — Events  pertaining 
to  the  rejected  generation. 

(a)  XV,  1-41. — Certain  laws  concerning  sacrifices; 
Sabbath-breaking  is  punished  with  death;  the  law  of 
fringes  on  the  garments. 

(b)  xvi,  1-xvii,  13. — The  schism  of  Core  and  his 
adherents;  their  punishment;  the  priesthood  is  con- 
firmed to  Aaron  by  the  blooming  rod  which  is  kept 
for  a  remembrance  in  the  tabernacle. 

(c)  xviii,  1-xix,  22. — The  charges  of  the  priests  and 
Levites,  and  their  portion;  the  law  of  the  sacrifice  of 
the  red  cow,  and  the  water  of  expiation. 

(3)  Third  Part,  xx,  1-xxxvi,  13.— History  of  the 
journey  from  the  first  to  the  eleventh  month  of  the 
fortieth  year. 

(a)  XX,  1-xxi,  20. — Death  of  Mar}',  sister  of  Moses; 
God  again  gives  the  murmuring  people  water  from  the 
rock,  but  refuses  Moses  and  Aaron  entrance  to  the 
Promised  Land  on  account  of  their  doubt;  Aaron  dies 
while  the  people  go  around  the  Idumean  mountains; 
the  malcontents  are  punished  with  fiery  serpents. 

(b)  xxi,  21-xxv,  18.— The  land  of  the  Amorrhites 
is  seized;  the  Moabites  vainly  attempt  to  destroy 
Israel  by  the  curse  of  Balaam;  the  Madianites  lead 
the  people  into  idolatry. 

(c)  xxvi,  l-.xxvii,  23. — A  new  census  is  taken  with  a 
view  of  dividing  the  land;  the  law  of  inheritance; 
Josue  is  appointed  to  succeed  Moses. 

(d)  xxviii,  1-xxx,  17. — Certain  laws  concerning  sac- 
rifices, vows,  and  feasts  are  repeated  and  completed. 

(e)  xxxi,  1-xxxii,  40. — After  the  defeat  of  the  Madi- 
anites, the  country  across  Jordan  is  given  to  the  tribes 
of  Ruben  and  Gad,  and  to  half  of  the  tribe  of 
Man  asses. 

(f)  xxxiii,  1-49. — List  of  encampments  of  people  of 
Israel  during  their  wandering  in  the  desert. 

(g)  xxxiii,  .50-xxxvi,  13. — Command  to  destroy  the 
Chanaanites;  limits  of  the  Promised  Land  and  names 
of  the  men  who  are  to  divide  it;  Levitical  cities, 
and  cities  of  refuge;  laws  concerning  murder  and 
manslaughter;  ordinance  concerning  the  marriage  of 
heiresses. 

E.  Deuteronomy  is  a  partial  repetition  and  ex- 
planation of  the  foregoing  legislation  together  with  an 
urgent  exhortation  to  be  faithful  to  it.  The  main 
body  of  the  book  consists  of  three  rliscourses  delivered 
by  Moses  to  (he  people  in  the  eleventh  month  of  the 
fortieth  year;  but  the  discourses  are  preceded  by  a 
short  introduction,  and  they  are  followed  by  several 
appendices. 

Introduction,  i,  1-5. — Brief  indication  of  the  sub- 
ject matter,  the  time,  and  the  place  of  the  following 
discourses. 

(1)  First  Discourse,  i,  6-iv,  40. — God's  benefits  are 
enumerated,  and  the  people  are  exhorted  to  keep  the 
law. 

(a)  i,  6-iii,  29. — The  main  occurrences  during  the 
time  of  the  wandering  in  the  desert  are  recalled  as 
showing  the  goodness  and  justice  of  God. 

(b)  iv,  1-40. — Hence  the  covenant  with  God  must 
be  kept.  By  way  of  parenthesis,  the  sacred  writer 
adds  here  (i)  the  appointment  of  three  cities  of  refuge 
across  the  Jordan,  iv,  41-43;  (ii)  an  historical  pre- 
amble, preparing  us  for  the  second  discourse,  iv,  44-49. 

(2)  Second  Discourse,  v,  1-xxvi,  19. — This  forms 
almost  the  bulk  of  Deuteronomy.  It  rehearses  the 
whole  economy  of  the  covenant  in  two  sections,  the 
one  general,  the  other  particular. 

(a)  The  General  Repetition,  v,  1-xi,  32. — Repeti- 


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tion  of  the  decalogue,  and  reasons  for  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  law  through  Moses;  explanation  of  the 
first  commanilinent,  and  prohibition  of  all  intercourse 
with  the  gi'iitiles;  reminder  of  the  Divine  favours  and 
punishments;  promise  of  victory  over  the  Chanaan- 
itcs;  tiod's  blessing  on  the  observance  of  the  Law, 
His  curse  on  the  transgressors. 

(b)  Special  Laws,  xii,  1-xxvi,  19. — (i)  Duties  to- 
wards (!od:  He  is  to  be  duly  worshipped,  never  to  be 
abandoned;  distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  meats; 
tithes  and  first-fruits;  the  three  principal  solemnities 
of  the  year,  (ii)  Duties  towards  God's  representa- 
tives: towards  the  judges,  the  future  kings,  the  priests, 
and  Prophets,  (iii)  Duties  towards  the  neighbour:  as 
to  life,  external  possessions,  marriage,  and  various 
other  particulars. 

(3)  Third  Discourse,  xxvii,  1-xxx,  20. — A  renewed 
exhortation  to  keep  the  law,  based  on  diverse  reasons. 

(a)  xxvii,  1-26. — Command  to  inscribe  the  law  on 
stones  after  crossing  the  Jordan,  and  to  promulgate 
the  blessings  and  curses  connected  with  the  observ- 
ance or  non-observance  of  the  law. 

(b)  xxviii,  1-68. — A  more  minute  statement  of  the 
good  or  evil  depending  on  the  observance  or  violation 
of  the  law. 

(c)  xxix,  1-xxx,  20. — The  goodness  of  God  is  ex- 
tolled; all  are  urged  to  be  faithful  to  God. 

(4)  Historical  Appendix,  x.\xi,  1-xxxiv,  12. 

(a)  xxxi,  1-27. — Moses  appoints  Josue  as  his  suc- 
cessor, orders  him  to  read  the  law  to  the  people  every 
seven  years,  and  to  place  a  copy  of  the  same  in  the 
ark. 

(b)  xxxi,  2S-xxxii,  47. — Moses  calls  an  assembly  of 
the  Ancients  and  recites  his  canticle. 

(c)  x.xxii,  48-52. — Moses  views  the  Promised  Land 
from  a  distance. 

(d)  xxxiii,  1-29. — He  blesses  the  tribes  of  Israel. 

(e)  xxxiv,  1-12. — His  death,  burial,  and  special 
eulogium. 

in.  Authenticity. — The  contents  of  the  Penta- 
teuch furnish  the  basis  for  the  history,  the  law,  the 
worship,  and  the  life  of  the  Chosen  People  of  God. 
Hence  the  authorship  of  the  work,  the  time  and  man- 
ner of  its  origin,  and  its  historicity  are  of  paramount 
importance.  These  are  not  merely  literary  problems, 
but  questions  belonging  to  the  fields  of  history  of  re- 
ligion and  theology.  The  Mosaic  authorship  of  the 
Pentateuch  is  inseparably  connected  with  the  ques- 
tion, whether  and  in  what  sense  Moses  was  the  author 
or  intermediarj'  of  the  Old-Testament  legislation,  and 
the  bearer  of  pre-Mosaic  tradition.  According  to  the 
trend  of  both  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  according 
to  Jewish  and  Christian  theology,  the  work  of  the 
great  lawgiver  Moses  is  the  origin  of  the  history  of 
Israel  and  the  basis  of  its  development  down  to  the 
time  of  Jesus  Christ;  but  modern  criticism  sees  in  all 
this  only  the  result,  or  the  precipitate,  of  a  purely 
natural  historical  development.  The  question  of  the 
Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  leads  us,  there- 
fore, to  the  alternative,  revelation  or  historical  evo- 
lution; it  touches  the  historical  and  theological 
foundation  of  both  the  Jewish  and  the  Christian  dis- 
pensation. We  shall  consider  the  subject  first  in  th(' 
light  of  Scripture;  secondly,  in  the  light  of  Jewish  and 
Christian  tradition;  thirdly,  in  the  light  of  internal 
evidence,  furnished  by  the  Pentateuch;  finally,  in  the 
Ught  of  ecclesiastical  decisions. 

A.  Testimony  of  Sacred  Scripture. — It  will  be  found 
convenient  to  divide  the  Biblical  evidence  for  the 
Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  into  three  parts: 
(1)  Testimony  of  the  Pentateuch;  (2)  Testimony  of 
the  other  Old-Testament  books;  (3)  Testimony  of  the 
New  Testament. 

(1)  Witness  of  the  Pentateuch. — The  Pentateuch  in 
its  present  form  does  not  present  itself  as  a  complete 
literary  production  of  Moses.  It  contains  an  account 
of  Moses'  death,  it  tells  the  story  of  his  Ufe  in  the 


third  person  and  in  an  indirect  form,  and  the  last 
four  books  do  not  exhibit  the  literary  form  of  memoirs 
of  the  great  lawgiver;  besides,  the  expression  "God 
said  to  Moses"  shows  only  the  Divine  origin  of  the 
Mosaic  laws,  but  does  not  prove  that  Mo.scs  himself 
codified  in  the  Pentateuch  the  various  laws  promul- 
gated by  him.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Pentateuch 
ascribes  to  Moses  the  literary  authorship  of  at  least 
four  sections,  partly  historical,  partly  legal,  partly 
poetical. 

(a)  After  Israel's  victory  over  the  Amalecites  near 
Raphidim,  the  Lord  said  to  Moses  (Ex.,  xvii,  14): 
"Write  this  for  a  memorial  in  a  book,  and  deliver  it 
to  the  ears  of  Josue."  This  order  is  naturally  re- 
stricted to  Amalec's  defeat,  a  benefit  which  God 
wished  to  keep  alive  in  the  memory  of  the  people 
(Deut.,  XXV,  17-19).  The  present  pointing  of  the 
Hebrew  text  reads  "in  the  book",  but  the  Septuagint 
version  omits  the  definite  article.  Even  if  we  sup- 
pose that  the  Massoretic  pointing  gives  the  original 
tex-t,  we  can  hardly  prove  that  the  book  referred  to  is 
the  Pentateuch,  though  this  is  highly  probable  (cf .  von 
Hummelauer,  "Exodus  et  Leviticus",  Paris,  1897,  p. 
182;  Idem,  "Deuteronomium",  Paris,  190l,  p.  152; 
Kley,  "Die  Pentateuchfrage",  Miinster,  1903,  p.  217). 

(b)  Again,  Ex.,  xxiv,  4:  "And  Moses  wrote  all  the 
words  of  the  Lord."  The  context  does  not  allow  us 
to  understand  these  words  in  an  indefinite  manner, 
but  as  referring  to  the  words  of  the  Lord  immediately 
preceding  or  to  the  so-called  "Book  of  the  Covenant", 
Ex.,  xx-xxiii. 

(c)  Ex.,  xxxiv,  27:  "And  the  Lord  said  to  Moses: 
Write  thee  these  words  by  which  I  have  made  a  cove- 
nant both  with  thee  and  with  Israel. "  The  next  verse 
adds:  "and  he  wrote  upon  the  tables  the  ten  words  of 
the  covenant."  Ex.,  xxxiv,  1,  4,  shows  how  Moses  had 
prepared  the  tables,  and  Ex.,  xxxiv,  10-26,  gives  us 
the  contents  of  the  ten  words. 

(d)  Num.,  xxxiii,  1-2:  "These  are  the  mansions  of 
the  children  of  Israel,  who  went  out  of  Egypt  by  their 
troops  under  the  conduct  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  which 
Moses  wrote  down  according  to  the  places  of  their 
encamping. "  Here  we  are  informed  that  Moses  wrote 
the  list  of  the  people's  encampments  in  the  desert; 
but  where  is  this  list  to  be  found?  Most  probably  it 
is  given  in  Num.,  xxxiii,  3-49,  or  the  immediate  con- 
text of  the  passage  telling  of  Moses'  literary  activity; 
there  are,  however,  scholars  who  understand  this 
latter  passage  as  referring  to  the  history  of  Israel's 
departure  from  Egypt  written  in  the  order  of  the 
people's  encampments,  so  that  it  would  be  our  present 
Book  of  Exodus.  But  this  view  is  hardly  probable; 
for  its  assumption  that  Num.,  xxxiii,  3-49,  is  a  sum- 
mary of  Exodus  cannot  be  upheld,  as  the  chapter  of 
Numbers  mentions  several  encampments  not  occur- 
ring in  Exodus. 

Besides  these  four  passages  there  are  certain  indi- 
cations in  Deuteronomy  which  point  to  the  literary 
activity  of  Moses.  Deut.,  i,  5:  "And  Moses  began  to 
expound  the  law  and  to  say";  even  if  the  "law"  in 
this  text  refer  to  the  whole  of  the  Pentateuchal  legis- 
lation, which  is  not  very  probable,  it  shows  only  that 
Moses  promulgated  the  whole  law,  but  not  that  he 
necessarily  wrote  it.  Practically  the  entire  Book  of 
Deuteronomy  claims  to  be  a  special  legislation  pro- 
mulgated by  Moses  in  the  land  of  Moab:  iv,  1-40; 
44-9;  V,  1  sqq.;  xii,  1  sqq.  But  there  is  a  suggestion 
of  writing  too:  xvii,  18-9,  enjoins  that  the  future  kings 
are  to  receive  a  copy  of  this  law  from  the  priests  in 
order  to  read  anrl  observe  it;  xxvii,  1-8,  commands 
that  on  the  west  side  of  the  Jordan  "all  the  words  of 
this  law"  be  written  on  stones  set  up  in  mount  Hebal; 
xxviii,  58,  speaks  of  "all  the  words  of  this  law,  that 
are  written  in  this  volume"  after  enumerating  the 
blessings  and  curses  which  will  come  upon  the  ob- 
servers and  violators  of  the  law  respectively,  and 
which  are  again  referred  to  as  written  in  a  book  in 


PENTATEUCH 


651 


PENTATEUCH 


xxix,  20,  21,  27,  and  xxxii,  4(5,  47;  now,  tne  law  repeat- 
edly referred  to  as  written  in  a  book  must  be  at  least 
the  Deuteronomic  legislation.  Moreover,  xxxi,  9-13 
states,  "and  INIoses  wrote  this  law",  and  xxxi,  26,  adds, 
"take  this  book,  and  put  it  in  the  side  of  the  ark  .  .  . 
that  it  may  be  there  for  a  testimony  against  thee"; 
to  explain  these  texts  as  fiction  or  as  anachronisms 
is  hardly  compatible  with  the  inerrancy  of  Sacred 
Scripture.  Finally,  xxxi,  19,  commands  Moses  to 
write  the  canticle  contained  in  Deut.,  xxxii,  1-43. 

The  Scriptural  scholar  will  not  complain  that  there 
are  so  few  express  indications  in  the  Pentateuch  of 
Moses'  literary  activity;  he  will  rather  be  surprised  at 
their  number.  As  far  as  explicit  testimony  for  its  own, 
at  least  partial,  authorship  is  concerned,  the  Penta- 
teuch compares  rather  favourably  with  many  other 
books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

(2)  Witness  of  other  Old-Testament  Books,  (a)  Josue. 
— The  narrative  of  the  Book  of  Josue  presupposes  not 
merely  the  facts  and  essential  ordinances  contained  in 
the  Pentateuch,  but  also  the  law  given  by  Moses  and 
written  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  Mo.ses:  Jos.,  i,  7-8; 
viii,  31;  xxii,  5;  xxiii,  6.  Josue  himself  "wrote  all 
these  things  in  the  volume  of  the  law  of  the  Lord" 
(xxiv,  26).  Prof.  Hoberg  maintains  that  this  '_'  volume 
of  the  law  of  the  Lord"  is  the  Pentateuch  ("tjberden 
Ursprung  dcs  Pent  at  euchs  "  in  "  Biblische  Zeitschrif  t ' ' , 
1906,  IV,  340);  Mangenot  believes  that  it  refers  at 
least  to  Deuteronomj'  (Diet,  de  la  Bible,  V,  66).  At 
any  rate,  Josue  and  his  contemporaries  were  ac- 
quainted with  a  written  Mosaic  legislation,  which  was 
divinely  revealed. 

(b)  Judges;  I,  II  Kings. — In  the  Book  of  Judges 
and  the  first  two  Books  of  Kings  there  is  no  explicit 
reference  to  Moses  and  the  book  of  the  law,  but  a  num- 
ber of  incidents  and  statements  presuppose  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Pentateuchal  legislation  and  institutions. 
Thus  Judges,  xv,  8-10,  recalls  Israel's  delivery  from 
Egypt  and  its  conquest  of  the  Promised  Land;  Judges, 
xi,  12-28,  states  incidents  recorded  in  Num.,  xx,  14; 
xxi,  13,  24;  xxii,  2;  Judges,  xiii,  4,  states  a  practice 
founded  on  the  law  of  the  Nazarites  in  Num.,  vi,  1-21 ; 
Judges,  X  viii,  31,  speaks  of  the  tabernacle  existing  in  the 
times  when  there  was  no  king  in  Israel;  Judges,  xx, 
26-8,  mentions  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  the  various 
kinds  of  sacrifices,  and  the  .\aronic  priesthood.  The 
Pentateuchal  history  and  laws  are  similarly  presup- 
posed in  I  Kings,  x,  18;  xv,  1-10;  x,  25;  xxi,  1-6; 
xxii,  6  sqq.;  x.xiii,  6-9;  II  Kings,  vi. 

(c)  ///,  IV  Kings. — The  last  two  Books  of  Kings 
repeatedly  speak  of  the  law  of  Moses.  To  restrict  the 
meaning  of  this  term  to  Deuteronomy  is  an  arbitrary 
exegesis  (cf.  Ill  Kings,  ii,  3;  x,  31);  Amasias  showed 
mercy  to  the  children  of  the  murderers  "according  to 
that  which  is  written  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses" 
(IV  Kings,  xiv,  6) ;  the  sacred  writer  records  the  Di- 
vine promise  of  protecting  the  Israelites  "only  if  they 
will  observe  to  do  all  that  I  have  commanded  them 
according  to  the  law  which  my  servant  Moses  com- 
manded them"  (IV  Kings,  xxi,  8).  In  the  eighteenth 
year  of  the  reign  of  Josias  was  found  the  book  of  the 
law  (IV  Kings,  xxii,  8,  11),  or  the  book  of  the  covenant 
(IV  Kings,  xxiii,  2),  according  to  which  he  conducted 
his  religious  reform  (IV  Kings,  xxiii,  1-24),  and  which 
is  identified  with  "the  law  of  Moses"  (IV  Kings,  xxiii, 
25).  Catholic  commentators  are  not  at  one  whether 
this  law-book  was  Deuteronomy  (von  Hummelauer, 
"Deuteronomium",  Paris,  1901.  pp.  40-60,  83-7)  or 
the  entire  Pentateuch  (Clair,  "Les  livres  des  Rois", 
Paris,  1884,  II,  p.  557  seq.;  Hoberg,  "Moses  und  der 
Pentateuch",  Freiburg,  1905,  p.  17  seq.;  "Uber  den 
Ursprung  des  Pentateuchs  "  in  Biblische  Zeitschrift ", 
1906,  IV,  pp.  338-40). 

(d)  Paralipomenon. — The  inspired  writer  of  Parali- 
pomenon  refers  to  the  law  and  the  book  of  Moses 
much  more  frequently  and  clearly.  The  objectionable 
names   and   numbers  occurring  in   these  books  are 


mostly  due  to  transcribers.  The  omission  of  incidents 
which  would  detract  from  the  glory  of  the  Israelite 
kings  or  would  not  edify  the  reader  is  not  detrimental 
to  the  credibility  or  veracity  of  the  work  Otherwise 
one  should  have  to  place  among  works  of  fiction  a 
number  of  biographical  or  patriotic  publications  in- 
tended for  the  young  or  for  the  common  reader.  On 
their  part,  the  modern  critics  are  too  eager  to  dis- 
credit the  authority  of  Paralipomena.  "  After  re- 
moving the  account  of  Paralipomena",  writes  de 
Wette  (Beitrage,  I,  135),  "the  whole  Jewish  history 
assumes  another  form,  and  the  Pentateuchal  investi- 
gations take  another  turn;  a  number  of  strong  proofs, 
hard  to  explain  away,  for  the  early  existence  of  the 
Mosaic  books  have  disappeared,  the  other  vestiges  of 
their  existence  are  placed  in  a  different  light."  A 
glance  at  the  contents  of  Paralipomenon  suffices  to 
explain  the  efforts  of  de  Wette  and  Wellhausen  to  dis- 
prove the  historicity  of  the  books.  Not  only  are  the 
genealogies  (I  Par.,  i-ix)  and  the  description  of  wor- 
ship traced  after  the  data  and  laws  of  the  Pentateuch, 
but  the  sacred  writer  expressly  points  out  their  con- 
formity with  what  is  written  in  the  law  of  the  Lord 
(I  Par.,  xvi,  40),  in  the  law  of  Moses  (II  Par.,  xxiii,  18; 
xxxi,  3),  thus  identifying  the  law  of  the  Lord  with  that 
written  by  Moses  (cf .  II  Par.,  xxv,  4).  The  reader  will 
find  similar  indications  of  the  existence  and  the  Mo- 
saic origin  of  the  Pentateuch  in  I  Par.,  xxii,  12  seq.; 
II  Par.,  xvii,  9;  xxxiii,  4;  xxxiv,  14;  xxv,  12.  By  an 
artificial  interpretation,  indeed,  the  Books  of  Parali- 
pomenon may  be  construed  to  represent  the  Penta- 
teuch as  a  book  containing  the  law  promulgated  by 
Moses;  but  the  natural  sense  of  the  foregoing  passages 
regards  the  Pentateuch  as  a  book  edited  by  Closes. 

(e)  /,  //  Esdras. — The  Books  of  Esdras  and  Nehe- 
mias,  too,  taken  in  their  natural  and  commonly 
accepted  sense,  consider  the  Pentateuch  as  the  book  of 
Moses,  not  merely  as  a  book  containing  the  law  of 
Moses.  This  contention  is  based  on  the  study  of  the 
following  texts:  I  Esd.,  iii,  2  sqq.;  vi,  18;  vii,  14; 
II  Esd.,  i,  7  sqq.;  viii,  1,  8,  14;  ix,  3;  x,  34,  36;  xiii, 
1-3.  Graf  and  his  followers  expressed  the  view  that 
the  book  of  Moses  referrred  to  in  these  texts  is  not 
the  Pentateuch,  but  only  the  Priestly  Code;  but  when 
we  keep  in  mind  that  the  book  in  question  contained 
the  laws  of  Lev.,  xxiii,  and  Deut.,  vii,  2—4;  xv,  2,  we 
perceive  at  once  that  the  book  of  Moses  cannot  be 
restricted  to  the  Priestly  Code.  To  the  witness  of  the 
historical  books  we  may  add  II  Mach.,  ii,  4;  vii,  6; 
Judith,  viii,  23;  Ecclus.,  xxiv,  33;  xlv,  1-6;  xlv,  18, 
and  especially  the  Preface  of  Ecclus. 

(f )  Prophetic  Books. — Express  reference  to  the  writ- 
ten law  of  Moses  is  found  only  in  the  later  Prophets: 
Bar.,  ii,  2,  28;  Dan.,  ix,  11,  13;  Mai.,  iv,  4.  Among 
these,  Baruch  knows  that  Moses  has  been  commanded 
to  write  the  law,  and  though  his  expressions  run  i)aral- 
lel  to  those  of  Deut.,  xxviii,  15,  53,  62-4,  his  threats 
contain  allusions  to  those  contained  in  other  parts  of 
the  Pentateuch.  The  other  Prophets  frequently  refer 
to  the  law  of  the  Lord  guarded  by  the  priests  (cf. 
Deut.,  xxxi,  9),  and  they  put  it  on  the  same  level  with 
Divine  Revelation  and  the  eternal  covenant  of  the 
Lord.  They  appeal  to  God's  covenant,  the  sacrificial 
laws,  the  calendar  of  feasts,  and  other  laws  of  the 
Pentateuch  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  it  jjrobable  that 
a  written  legislation  formed  the  basis  of  their  prophetic 
admonitions  (cf.  Osee,  viii,  12),  and  that  they  were 
acquainted  with  verbal  expressions  of  the  book  of  the 
law.  Thus  in  the  northern  kingdom  Amos  (iv,  4-5; 
V,  22  sqq.)  and  Isaias  in  the  south  (i,  11  sqq.)  employ 
expressions  which  are  practically  technical  words  for 
sacrifice  occurring  in  Lev.,  i-iii;  vii,  12, 16;  and  Deut., 
xii,  6. 

(3)  Witness  of  the  New  Testament — We  need  not 
show  that  Jesus  and  the  Apostles  quoted  the  whole  of 
the  Pentateuch  as  written  by  Moses.  If  they  attrib- 
uted to  Moses  all  the  passages  which   they  happen 


PENTATEUCH 


652 


PENTATEUCH 


to  cite,  if  they  ascribe  the  Pentateuch  to  Moses  when- 
ever there  is  question  of  its  autliorship,  even  the  most 
exuctiiiK  critics  must  admit  that  tlicy  cxpn'ss  their 
conviction  that  the  work  \v;is  iiulccd  writ  ton  liy  Moses. 
AVhon  tlie  Sadilucees  quote  at^ainst  .Icsus  the  marriage 
law  of  Deut.,  xxv,  5,  as  written  by  Moses  (Matt., 
xxii,  24;  Mark,  xii,  19;  Luke,  xx,  2S),  Jesus  doe.^  not 
deny  the  Mosaic  authorship,  but  appeals  to  Ex.,  iii,  6, 
as  equally  written  by  Moses  (Mark,  xii,  20;  Matt., 
xxii,  31;  Luke,  xx,  37).  Again,  in  the  parable  of 
Dives  and  Lazarus  (Luke,  xvi,  29),  He  speaks  of 
"Moses  and  the  prophets",  while  on  other  occasions 
He  speaks  of  "the  law  and  the  prophets"  (Luke,  x\'i, 
10),  thus  showing  that  in  His  mind  the  law,  or  the 
Pentateuch,  and  Moses  are  identical.  The  same  ex- 
pressions reappear  in  the  last  discourse  addressed  by 
Christ  to  His  disciples  (Luke,  xxiv,  44-6;  cf.  27): 
"which  are  written  in  the  law  of  Moses,  and  in  the 
prophets,  and  in  the  psalms  concerning  me".  P'inally, 
in  John,  v,  4.5-7,  Jesus  is  more  explicit  in  asserting  the 
Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch:  "There  is  one 
that  accuseth  you,  Moses  ...  for  he  wrote  of 
me.  But  if  you  do  not  believe  his  writings,  how  will 
you  believe  my  words?"  Nor  can  it  be  maintained 
that  Christ  merely  accommodated  himself  to  the 
current  beliefs  of  his  contemporaries  who  considered 
Moses  as  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch  not  merely  in 
a  moral  but  also  in  the  literary  sense  of  authorship. 
Jesus  did  not  need  to  enter  into  the  critical  study  of 
the  nature  of  Mosaic  authorship,  but  He  could  not 
expressly  endorse  the  popular  belief,  if  it  was  erro- 
neous. 

The  Apostles  too  felt  convinced  of,  and  testified  to, 
the  Mosaic  authorship.  "PhiUp  fin.liili  Nathanael, 
and  saith  to  him :  We  have  found  him  i  >f  \v\\i  mi  Moses 
in  the  law,  and  the  prophets  did  write."  St.  Peter 
introduces  a  quotation  from  Deut.,  xviii,  15,  with  the 
words:  "For  JMoses  said"  (Acts,  iii,  22).  St.  James 
and  St.  Paul  relate  that  Moses  is  read  in  the  syna- 
gogues on  the  Sabbath  day  (Acts,  xv,  21;  II  Cor.,  iii, 
15) .  The  great  Apostle  speaks  in  other  passages  of  the 
law  of  Moses  (Acts,  xiii,  33 ;  I  Cor.,  ix,  9) ;  he  preaches 
Jesus  according  to  the  law  of  Moses  and  the  Prophets 
(Acts,  xxviii,  23),  and  cites  passages  from  the  Penta- 
teuch as  words  written  by  Moses  (Rom.,  x,  5-8;  19). 
St.  John  mentions  the  canticle  of  Moses  (Apoc,  xv,  3). 

B.  Witness  of  Tradition. — The  voice  of  tradition, 
both  Jewish  and  Christian,  is  so  unanimous  and  con- 
stant in  proclaiming  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the 
Pentateuch  that  down  to  the  seventeenth  century  it 
did  not  allow  the  rise  of  any  serious  doubt.  The  fol- 
lowing paragraphs  are  only  a  meagre  outline  of  this 
living  tradition. 

(1)  Jewish  Tradition. — It  has  been  seen  that  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  beginning  with  those  of 
the  Pentateuch,  present  Moses  as  the  author  of  at 
least  parts  of  the  Pentateuch.  The  writer  of  the 
Books  of  Kings  believes  that  Moses  is  the  author  of 
Deuteronomy  at  least.  Esdras,  Nehemias,  Malachias, 
the  author  of  ParaUpomena,  and  the  Greek  authors  of 
the  Septuagint  Version  consider  Moses  as  the  author 
of  the  whole  Pentateuch.  At  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ 
and  the  Apostles  friend  and  foe  take  the  Mosaic  au- 
thorship of  the  Pentateuch  for  granted;  neither  our 
Lord  nor  His  enemies  take  exception  to  this  assump- 
tion. In  the  first  centurj'  of  the  Christian  era,  Jo- 
sephus  ascribes  to  Moses  the  authorship  of  the  entire 
Pentateuch,  not  excepting  the  account  of  the  law- 
giver's death  ("Antiq.  Jud.",  IV,  viii,  3-48;  cf.  I 
Prooem.,  4;  "Contra  Apion.",  I,  8).  The  Alexan- 
drian philosopher  Philo  is  convinced  that  the  entire 
Pentateuch  is  the  work  of  Moses,  and  that  the  latter 
wrote  a  prophetic  account  of  his  death  under  the  in- 
fluence of  a  special  Divine  inspiration  ("De  vita 
Mosis",  11.  II,  III  in  "Opera",  Geneva,  1613,  pp. 
511,  538).  The  Babylonian  Talmud  ("Baba-Bathra", 
II,  col.  140;    "Makkoth",  fol.  Ha;    "Menachoth", 


fol.  30a;  cf.  Vogue,  "Hist,  de  la  Bible  et  de  I'ex6g68e 
biblique  jusqu'il  nos  jours",  Paris,  1881,  p.  21),  the 
Talmud  of  Jerusalem  (Sot a,  v,  5),  the  rabbis,  and  the 
doctors  of  Israel  (cf.  Kiiist,  "Der  Kanon  des  Alten 
Testaments  nach  den  Uberlieferungen  im  Talmud  und 
Midrasch",  Leipzig,  1808,  |)p.  7-9)  bear  testimony  to 
the  continuance  of  this  tradition  for  the  first  thousand 
years.  Though  Isaac  ben  .lasus  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury and  .Miencsra  in  the  twelfth  admitted  certain 
post-Mosaic  additions  in  the  Pentateuch,  still  they  as 
well  as  Maimoiiides  upheld  its  Mosaic  autliorship, 
and  did  not  substantially  differ  in  this  point  from  the 
teaching  of  K.  Hecchai  (thirteenth  cent.),  Joseph  Karo, 
and  Abarbanel  (fifteenth  cent.;  cf.  Richard  Simon, 
"Critique  de  la  Bibl.  des  aut.  eccl6s.  de  E.  Dupin", 
Paris,  1730,  III,  pp.  21.5-20).  Only  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  Baruch  Spinoza  rejected  the  Mosaic  author- 
ship of  the  Pentateuch,  pointing  out  the  possibility 
that  the  work  might  have  been  written  by  Esdras 
("Tract,  theol.-politicus",  c.  viii,  ed.  Tauchnitz,  III, 
p.  125).  Among  the  more  recent  Jewish  writers  sev- 
eral have  adopted  the  results  of  the  critics,  thus  aban- 
doning the  tradition  of  their  forefathers. 

(2)  Christian  Tradition. — The  Jewish  tradition  con- 
cerning the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch 
was  brought  into  the  Christian  Church  b\'  Christ 
Himself  and  the  Apostles.  No  one  will  seriously  deny 
the  existence  and  continuance  of  such  a  tradition  from 
the  patristic  period  onward;  one  might  indeed  be 
curious  about  the  internal  between  the  time  of  the 
Apostles  and  the  beginning  of  the  third  centurj'.  For 
this  period  we  may  appeal  to  the  "Epistle  of  Barna- 
bas" (x,  1-12;  Funk,  "Patres  apostol.",  2nd  ed., 
Tubingen,  1901,  I,  pp.  66-70;  xii,  2-9;  ibid.,  pp.  74- 
6),  to  St.  Clement  of  Rome  (I  Cor.,  xii,  1;  ibid.,  p. 
152),  St.  Justin  ("Apol.  I",  59;  P.  G.,  VI,  416;  1,32, 
54;  ibid.,  377,  409;  "Dial.",  29;  ibid.,  537),  to  the 
author  of  "Cohort,  ad  Grac."  (9,  28,  30,  33,  34;  ibid., 
257,  293,  296-7,  361),  to  St.  Theophilus  ("Ad  Autol.", 
Ill,  23;  iHd.,  1156;  11,  30;  ibid.,  1100),  to  St.  Ire- 
na;us  (Cont.  h;cr.,  I,  ii,  6;  P.  G.,  VII,  715-0),  to  St. 
Hippolytus  of  Rome  ("Comment,  in  Deut.",  xxxi,  9, 
31,  35;  cf.  Achelis,  "  Arabische  Fragmente  etc.",  Leip- 
zig, 1897,  I,  118;  "Philosophumena",  VIII,  8;  X, 
33;  P.  G.,  XVI,  33.50,  3448),  to  Tertullian  of  Carthage 
(Adv.  Hermog.,  XIX;  P.  L.,  II,  214),  to  Origen  of 
Alexandria  (Contra  Cels.,  Ill,  .5-6;  P.  G.,  XI,  928; 
etc.),  to  St.  Eusthatius  of  Antioch  (De  engastrimytha 
c.  Grig.,  21;  P.  G.,  XVIII,  656);  for  all  these  writers, 
and  others  might  be  added,  bear  witness  to  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  Christian  tradition  that  Moses  wrote 
the  Pentateuch.  A  list  of  the  later  Fathers  who  bear 
witness  to  the  same  truth  may  be  found  in  Mangenot's 
articlein  the  "Diet,  de  la  Bible"  (V,  74.seq.).  Hoberg 
(Moses  und  der  Pentateuch,  72  seq.)  has  collected 
the  testimony  for  the  existence  of  the  tradition  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages  and  in  more  recent  times. 

But  Catholic  tradition  does  not  necessarily  main- 
tain that  Moses  wrote  every  letter  of  the  Pentateuch 
as  it  is  to-day,  and  that  the  work  has  come  down  to  us 
in  an  absolutely  unchanged  form.  This  rigid  view  of 
the  Mosaic  authorship  began  to  develop  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  and  practically  gained  the  upper  hand 
in  the  nineteenth.  The  arbitrary  treatment  of  Scrip- 
ture on  the  part  of  Protestants,  and  the  succession  of 
the  various  destructive  systems  advanced  by  Biblical 
criticism,  caused  this  change  of  front  in  the  Catholic 
camp.  In  the  sixteenth  century  Card.  Bellarmine, 
who  may  be  considered  as  a  reUable  exponent  of 
Catholic  tradition,  expressed  the  opinion  that  Esdras 
had  collected,  readjusted,  and  corrected  the  scattered 
parts  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  had  even  added  the  parts 
necessary  for  the  completion  of  the  Pentateuchal  his- 
tory (De  verbo  Dei,  II,  i;  cf.  Ill,  iv).  The  views  of 
Genebrard,  Pereira,  Bonfrcre,  a  Lapide,  Masius,  Jan- 
senius,  and  of  other  notable  Bihlicists  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  are  equally  elastic  with 


PENTATEUCH 


653 


PENTATEUCH 


regard  to  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch. 
Not  that  they  agree  with  the  contentions  of  our  mod- 
ern Biblical  criticism;  but  they  show  that  to-day's 
Pentateuchal  problems  were  not  wholly  unknown  to 
Catholic  scholars,  and  that  the  Mosaic  authorship  of 
the  Pentateuch  as  determined  by  the  Biblical  Com- 
mission is  no  concession  forced  on  the  Church  by 
unbelieving  Bible  students. 

C.  Voice  of  Internal  Evidence. — The  possibility  of 
producing  a  written  record  at  the  time  of  Moses  is  no 
longer  contested.  The  art  of  writing  was  known  long 
before  the  time  of  the  great  lawgiver,  and  was  exten- 
sively practised  both  in  Egypt  and  Babylon.  As  to 
the  Israelites,  Flinders  Petrie  infers  from  certain  Sem- 
itic inscriptions  found  in  190.5  on  the  Sinaitic  penin- 
sula, that  they  kept  written  accounts  of  their  national 
history  from  the  time  of  their  captivity  under  Ramses 
II.  The  Tell-el-Amarna  tablets  show  that  the  lan- 
guage of  Babylon  was  in  a  way  the  official  language  at 
the  time  of  Moses,  known  in  Western  Asia,  Palestine, 
and  Egypt;  the  finds  of  Taanek  have  confirmed  this 
fact.  But  it  cannot  be  inferred  from  this  that  the 
Egyptians  and  Israelites  employed  this  sacred  or 
official  language  among  themselves  and  in  their  reli- 
gious documents  (cf.  Benzinger,  "Hebraische  Archa- 
ologie",  2nd  ed.,  Tubingen,  1907,  p.  172  sqq.).  It  is 
not  merely  the  possibility  of  writing  at  the  time  of 
Moses  and  the  question  of  language  that  confronts 
us  here;  there  is  the  further  problem  of  the  kind  of 
written  signs  used  in  the  Mosaic  documents.  The 
hieroglyphic  and  cuneiform  signs  were  widely  em- 
ployed at  that  early  date;  the  oldest  inscriptions 
written  in  alphabetical  characters  date  only  from  the 
ninth  century  B.  c.  But  there  can  hardly  be  any  doubt 
as  to  the  higher  antiquity  of  alphabetic  writing,  and 
there  seems  to  be  nothing  to  prevent  our  extending  it 
back  to  the  time  of  Moses.  Finally,  the  Code  of  Ham- 
murabi, discovered  in  Susa  in  1901  by  the  French 
expedition  funded  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Dieulafoy,  shows 
that  even  in  pre-Mosaic  times  legal  enactments  were 
committed  to,  and  preserved  in,  %vriting;  for  the  Code 
antedates  Moses  some  five  centuries,  and  contains 
about  282  regulations  concerning  various  contingen- 
cies in  the  civic  life. 

Thus  far  it  has  been  shown  negatively  that  an  his- 
toric and  legal  document  claiming  to  be  written  at  the 
time  of  Moses  involves  no  antecedent  improbability 
of  its  authenticity.  But  the  internal  characteristics  of 
the  Pentateuch  show  also  positively  that  the  work  is  at 
least  probably  Mosaic.  It  is  true  tliat  the  Pentateuch 
contains  no  express  declaration  of  its  entire  Mosaic 
authorship;  but  even  the  most  exacting  of  critics  will 
hardly  require  such  testimony.  It  is  practically  lack- 
ing in  all  other  books,  whether  sacred  or  profane.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  has  already  been  shown  that  four 
distinct  passages  of  the  Pentateuch  are  expressly 
ascribed  to  the  authorship  of  Moses.  Deut.,  xxxi, 
24-9,  is  especially  to  be  noted ;  for  it  knows  that  Moses 
wrote  the  "words  of  this  law  in  a  volume"  and  com- 
manded it  to  be  placed  in  the  ark  of  the  covenant  as  a 
testimony  against  the  people  who  have  been  so  rebel- 
lious during  the  lawgiver's  life  and  will  "do  wickedly  " 
after  his  death.  Again,  a  number  of  legal  sections, 
though  not  explicitly  ascribed  to  the  writing  of  Moses, 
are  distinctly  derived  from  Moses  as  the  lawgiver. 
Besides,  many  of  the  Pentateuchal  laws  bear  evidence 
of  their  origin  in  the  desert;  hence  they  too  lay  an 
indirect  claim  to  Mosaic  origin.  What  has  been  said 
of  a  number  of  Pentateuchal  laws  is  equally  true  of 
several  historical  sections.  These  contain  in  the  Book 
of  Numbers,  for  instance,  so  many  names  and  num- 
bers that  they  must  have  been  handed  down  in  writ- 
ing. Unless  the  critics  can  bring  irrefutable  evidence 
showing  that  in  these  sections  we  have  only  fiction, 
they  must  grant  that  these  historical  details  were 
written  down  in  contemporary  documents,  and  not 
transmitted  by  mere  oral  tradition.    Moreover,  Hom- 


mel  (Die  altisraelitische  tlberlieferung  in  inschrift- 
licher  Beleuchtung,  p.  302)  has  shown  that  the  names 
in  the  lists  of  the  Book  of  Numbers  bear  the  character 
of  the  Arabian  names  of  the  second  millennium  before 
Christ,  and  can  have  originated  only  in  the  time  of 
Moses,  though  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  text  of 
certain  portions,  e.  g..  Num.,  xiii,  has  suffered  in  its 
transmission.  We  need  not  remind  the  reader  that 
numerous  Pentateuchal  laws  and  data  imply  the  con- 
ditions of  a  nomadic  life  of  Israel.  Finally,  both  the 
author  of  the  Pentateuch  and  its  first  readers  must 
have  been  more  familiar  with  the  topography  and 
the  social  conditions  of  Egypt  and  with  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula  than  with  the  land  of  Chanaan.  Cf.,  e.  g., 
Deut.,  viii,  7-10;  xi,  10  sqq.  These  internal  charac- 
teristics of  the  Pentateuch  have  been  developed  at 
greater  length  by  Smith,  "The  Book  of  Moses  or  the 
Pentateuch  in  its  Authorship,  Credibility,  and  Civil- 
isation", London,  1868;  Vigouroux,  "La  Bible  et  les 
di5couvertes  modernes",  6th  ed.,  Paris,  1896,  I,  4.53- 
80;  II,  1-213,  529-47,  586-91;  Idem,  "Les  Livres 
Saints  et  la  critique  rationaliste",  Paris,  1902,  III, 
28-46,  79-99,  122-6;  Heyes,  "Bibel  und  iEgypten", 
Miinster,  1904,  p.  142;  Cornely,  "Introductio  spe- 
cialis  in  histor.  Vet.  Test,  libros",  I,  Paris,  1887,  pp. 
57-60;  Poole,  "Ancient  Egypt"  in  "Contemporary 
Review",  March,  1879,  pp.  757-9. 

D.  Ecclesiastical  Decisions. — In  accordance  with 
the  voice  of  the  triple  argument  thus  far  advanced  for 
the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  Biblical 
Commission  on  27  June,  1906,  answered  a  series  of 
questions  concerning  this  subject  in  the  following  way: 

(1)  The  arguments  accumulated  by  the  critics  to 
impugn  the  Mosaic  authenticity  of  the  sacred  books 
designated  by  the  name  Pentateuch  are  not  of  such 
weight  as  to  give  us  the  right,  after  setting  aside 
numerous  passages  of  both  Testaments  taken  collec- 
tively, the  continuous  consensus  of  the  Jewish  people, 
the  constant  tradition  of  the  Church,  and  internal 
indications  derived  from  the  text  itself,  to  maintain 
that  these  books  have  not  Moses  as  their  author,  but 
are  compiled  from  sources  for  the  greatest  part  later 
than  the  Mosaic  age. 

(2)  The  Mosaic  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch  does 
not  necessarily  require  such  a  redaction  of  the  whole 
work  as  to  render  it  absolutely  imperative  to  maintain 
that  Moses  wrote  all  and  everything  with  his  own 
hand  or  dictatetl  it  to  his  secretaries;  the  hypothesis 
of  those  can  bo  admitted  who  believe  that  he  entrusted 
the  composition  of  the  work  itself,  conceived  by  him 
under  the  influence  of  Divine  inspiration,  to  others, 
but  in  such  a  way  that  they  were  to  express  faithfully 
his  own  thoughts,  were  to  write  nothing  against  his 
will,  were  to  omit  nothmg;  and  that  finally  the  work 
thus  produced  should  be  approved  by  the  same  Moses, 
its  principal  and  inspired  author,  and  published  under 
his  name. 

(3)  It  may  be  granted  without  prejudice  to  the 
Mosaic  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  that  Moses 
employed  sources  in  the  production  of  his  work,  i.  e., 
written  documents  or  oral  traditions,  from  which  he 
may  have  drawn  a  number  of  things  in  accordance 
with  the  end  he  had  in  view  and  under  the  influence 
of  Divine  inspiration,  and  inserted  them  in  his  work 
either  literally  or  according  to  their  sense,  in  an  abbre- 
viated or  amplified  form. 

(4)  The  substantial  Mosaic  authenticity  and  integ- 
rity of  the  Pentateuch  remains  intact  if  it  be  granted 
that  in  the  long  course  of  centuries  the  work  has  suf- 
fered several  modifications,  as:  post-Mosaic  additions 
either  appended  by  an  inspired  author  or  inserted  into 
the  text  as  glosses  and  explanations;  the  translation 
of  certain  words  and  forms  out  of  an  antiquated  lan- 
guage into  the  recent  form  of  sjicech;  finally,  wrong 
readings  due  to  the  fault  of  transcribers,  which  one 
may  investigate  and  pass  sentence  on  according  to  the 
laws  of  criticism. 


PENTATEUCH 


654 


PENTATEUCH 


The  post -Mosaic  additions  and  modifications  al- 
lowed by  the  Biblical  Coniniission  in  the  Pentateuch 
without  removing  it  from  the  ranp:e  of  substantial 
integrity  and  Mosaic  authenticity-  are  variously  inter- 
preted by  Catholic  scliolars.  (1)  We  should  have  to 
understand  them  in  a  rather  wide  sense,  if  we  were  to 
defend  the  views  of  von  Hummelauer  or  Vetter.  This 
latter  writer  admits  legal  and  historical  documents 
b'lsed  on  Mosaic  tradition,  but  written  only  in  the 
times  of  the  Judges;  he  places  the  first  redaction  of 
the  Pentateuch  in  the  time  of  the  erection  of  Solo- 
mon's temple,  and  its  last  redaction  in  the  time  of 
Esdras.  \etter  died  in  1906,  the  year  in  which  the 
Biblical  Ctimniission  issued  the  above  Decree;  it  is  an 
interesting  question,  whether  and  how  the  scholar 
wouUl  have  modified  his  theory,  if  time  had  been 
granted  him  to  do  so.  (2)  A  less  liberal  interpretation 
of  the  Decree  is  implied  in  the  Pentateuchal  hypoth- 
eses advanced  by  Hoberg  ("Moses  und  der  Penta- 
teuch; Die  Pentateuch  Frage"  in  "BibUsche  Stu- 
dicn",  X,  4,  Freiburg,  1907;  "Erkliirung  der  Genesis", 
1908,  Freiburg,  I-L),  Schopfer  (Geschichte  des  Alten 
Testamentes,  4th  ed.,  226  sqq.),  Hopfl  (Die  hohere 
Bibelkritik,  2nd  ed.,  Paderborn,  1906),  Brueker 
("L'eglise  et  la  critique",  Paris,  1907,  103  sqq.),  and 
Selbst  (Schuster  and  Holzammer's  "Handbuch  zur 
Biblischen  Gescliichte",  7th  ed.,  Freiburg,  1910,  II, 
94,  96).  The  last-named  writer  believes  that  Moses 
left  a  writ  tin  law-book  to  which  Josue  and  Samuel 
added  Mipplrinciitary  sections  and  regulations,  while 
David  and  Solcinuni  supplied  new  statutes  concerning 
worship  and  priesthood,  and  other  kings  introduced 
certain  reUgious  reforms,  until  Esdras  promulgated 
the  whole  law  and  made  it  the  basis  of  Israel's  restora- 
tion after  the  Exile.  Our  present  Pentateuch  is, 
therefore,  an  Esdrine  edition  of  the  work.  Dr.  Selbst 
feels  convinced  that  his  admission  of  both  textual 
changes  and  material  additions  in  the  Pentateuch 
agrees  with  the  law  of  historical  development  and  with 
the  results  of  literary  criticism.  Historical  develop- 
ment adapts  laws  and  regulations  to  the  religious, 
civil,  and  social  conditions  of  successive  ages,  while 
literary  criticism  discovers  in  our  actual  Pentateuch 
peculiarities  of  words  and  phrases  which  can  hardly 
have  been  original,  and  also  historical  additions  or 
notices,  legal  modifications,  and  signs  of  more  recent 
administration  of  justice  and  of  later  forms  of  wor- 
ship. But  Dr.  Selbst  believes  that  these  peculiarities 
do  not  offer  a  sufficient  basis  for  a  distinction  of  dif- 
ferent sources  in  the  Pentateuch.  (3)  A  strict  inter- 
pretation of  the  words  of  the  Decree  is  implied  in  the 
views  of  Kaulen  (Einleitung,  n.  193  sqq.),  Kley  ("Die 
Pentateuchfrage,  ilire  Geschichte  und  ihre  Systeme", 
Munster,  1903),  Flunk  (Kirchenlexicon,  IX,  1782 
sqq.),  and  Mangenot  ("L'authenticitfi  mosaique  du 
Pentateuque",  Paris,  1907;  Idem,  "Diet,  de  la 
Bible",  V,  50-119).  With  the  exception  of  those  por- 
tions that  belong  to  the  time  after  the  death  of  Moses, 
and  of  certain  accidental  changes  of  the  text  due  to 
transcribers,  the  whole  of  the  Pentateuch  is  the  work 
of  Moses  who  composed  the  work  in  one  of  the  ways 
suggested  by  the  Biblical  Commission. 

Finally,  there  is  the  question  as  to  the  theological 
certainty  of  the  thesis  maintaining  the  Mosaic  au- 
thenticity of  tlie  Pentateuch.  (1)  Certain  Catholic 
scholars  who  wrote  between  1887  and  1906  expressed 
their  opinion  that  the  thesis  in  question  is  not  revealed 
in  Scripture  nor  taught  by  the  Church;  that  it  ex- 
presses a  truth  not  contained  in  Revelation,  but  a 
tenet  which  may  be  freely  contested  and  discussed. 
At  that  time,  ecclesiastical  authority  had  issued  no 
pronouncement  on  the  (juestion.  (2)  Other  writers 
grant  that  the  Mosaic  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch 
is  not  explicitly  revealed,  but  they  consider  it  as  a 
truth  revealed  formally  implicitly,  being  derived  from 
the  revealed  formula;  not  by  a  syllogism  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word,  but  by  a  simple  explanation  of  the 


terms.  The  denial  of  the  Mosaic  authenticity  of  the 
Pentateuch  is  an  error,  and  the  contradictory  of 
the  thesis  maintaining  the  Mosaic  authenticity  of  the 
Pentateuch  is  considered  crroneti  in  fide  (cS.  M6chi- 
neau,  "L'origine  mosaique  du  Pentateuque",  p.  34). 
(3)  A  third  class  of  scholars  considers  the  INIosaic 
authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch  neither  as  a  freely 
debatable  tenet,  nor  as  a  truth  formally  implicitly  re- 
vealed; they  believe  it  has  been  virtually  revealed,  or 
that  it  is  inferred  from  revealed  truth  by  truly  sj'llo- 
gistic  deduction.  It  is,  therefore,  a  theologically  cer- 
tain truth,  and  its  contradictory  is  a  rash  (temeraria) 
or  even  erroneous  proposition  (cf.  Brueker,  "Authen- 
ticity des  livres  de  Moise"  in  "Etudes",  March,  1888, 
p.  327;  ihid.,  January,  1897,  p.  122-3;  Mangenot, 
" L'authenticitfi  mosaique  du  Pentateuque",  pp.  267- 
310). 

Whatever  effect  the  ecclesiastical  decision  concern- 
ing the  Mosaic  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch  may 
have  had,  or  will  have,  on  the  opinion  of  students  of 
the  Pentateuchal  question,  it  cannot  be  said  to  have 
occasioned  the  conservative  attitude  of  scholars  who 
wrote  before  the  promulgation  of  the  Decree.  The 
following  list  contains  the  names  of  the  principal 
recent  defenders  of  Mosaic  authenticity:  Hengsten- 
berg,  "Die  Biicher  Moses  und  Aegypten",  Berlin, 
1841;  Smith,  "The  Book  of  Moses  or  the  Pentateuch 
in  its  Authorship,  Credibility,  and  Civilisation",  Lon- 
don, 1868;  C.  Schobel,  "Demonstration  de  I'authen- 
ticit6  du  Deut6ronome",  Paris,  1868;  Idem,  "Demon- 
stration de  1 'authenticity  mosaique  de  I'Exode", 
Paris,  1871;  Idem,  "Demonstration  de  I'authenticitfi 
mosaique  du  Levitique  et  des  Nombres",  Paris,  1869; 
Idem,  "Demonstration  de  I'authenticite  de  la  Ge- 
nese'  ,  Paris,  1872;  Idem,  "Le  Moise  historique  et  la 
redaction  mosaique  du  Pentateuque",  Paris,  1875; 
Knabenbauer,  "Der  Pentateuch  imd  die  unglaubige 
Bibelkritik"  in  "Stimmen  aus  Maria-I.aach",  1873, 
IV;  Bredenkamp,  "Gesetz  und  Pni]ih(ten",  Er- 
langen,  1881;  Green,  "Moses  and  the  I'rophets",  New 
York,  1883;  Idem,  "The  H<.bn.w  I'casts",  New  York, 
1885;  Idem,  "The  Pentateuchal  C^u<'stion"  in  "He- 
braica",  1889-92;  Idem,  "The  Higher  Criticism  of 
the  Pentateuch",  New  York,  1895;  Idem,  "The 
Unity  of  the  Book  of  Genesis",  New  York,  1895;  C. 
Elliot,  "Vindication  of  the  Mosaic  Authorship  of  the 
Pentateuch",  Cincinnati,  1884;  Bi.ssel,  "The  Penta- 
teuch, its  Origin  and  Structure",  New  York,  1885; 
Ubaldi,  "Introductio  in  Sacram  Scripturam",  2nd 
ed.,  Rome,  1882,  I,  452-509;  Comely,  "Introductio 
specialis  in  historicos  V.  T.  hbros",  Paris,  1887,  pp. 
19-160;  Vos,  "Mosaic  Origin  of  the  Pentateuchal 
Codes",  London,  1886;  Bohl,  "Zum  Gesetz  und  zum 
Zeugniss",  Vienna,  1883;  Zahn,  "Ernste  Blicke  in 
den  Wahn  der  modernen  Kritik  des  A.  T.",  Giitersloh, 
1893;  Idem,  "Das  Deuteronomium",  1890;  Idem, 
"Israelitische  und  jiidische  Geschichte",  1895;  Rup- 
precht,  "Die  Anschauung  der  kritischen  Schule  Well- 
hausens  vom  Pentateuch",  Leipzig,  1893;  Idem,  "Das 
Rathsel  des  Flinfbuches  Mose  und  seine  falsche 
Losung",  Giitersloh,  1894;  Idem,  "Des  Rathsels 
Losung  oder  Beitriige  zur  richtigen  Losung  des  Pen- 
tateuchriithsels",  1897;  Idem,  "Die  Kritik  nach 
ihrem  Recht  und  Unrecht",  1897;  "Lex  Mosaica, 
or  the  Law  of  Moses  and  the  Higher  Criticism 
(by  Sayce,  Rawlinson,  Trench,  Lias,  Wace,  etc.), 
London,  1894;  Card.  Meignan,  "De  I'Eden  k 
Moise",  Paris,  1895,  1-88;  Baxter,  "Sanctuary  and 
Sacrifice",  London,  1896;  Abbfi  de  Broglie,  "Ques- 
tions bibliques",  Paris,  1897,  pp.  89-169;  Pelt,  "His- 
tou-e  de  I'A.  T.",  3rd  ed.,  Paris,  1901,  I,  pp.  291-326; 
Vigouroux,  "Les  Livres  Saints  et  la  critique  ration- 
aliste",  Paris,  1902,  III,  1-226;  IV,  239-53,  405-15; 
Idem,  "Manuel  biblique",  12th  ed.,  Paris,  1906,  I, 
397-478;  Kley,  "  Die  Pentateuchfrage,  ihre  Geschichte 
und  ihre  Systeme",  Miinster,  1903;  Hopfl,  "Die 
hohere  Bibelkritik",  Paderborn,  1902;  Thomas,  "The 


PENTATEUCH 


655 


PENTATEUCH 


Organic  Unity  of  the  Pentateuch",  London,  1904; 
Wiener,  "Studies  in  Bibhcal  Law",  London,  1904; 
Rouse,  "The  Old  Testament  in  New  Testament 
Light",  London,  1905;  Redpath,  "Modern  Criticism 
and  the  Book  of  Genesis",  London,  1905;  Hoberg, 
"Moses  und  der  Pentateuch",  Freiburg,  1905;  Orr, 
"The  Problem  of  the  Old  Testament  considered  with 
reference  to  Recent  Criticism",  London,  1906. 

E.  Opponents  of  the  Mosaic  Authorship  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch.— A  detailed  account  of  the  opposition  to 
the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  is  neither 
desirable  nor  necessary  in  this  article.  In  itself  it 
would  form  only  a  noisome  history  of  human  errors; 
each  httle  system  has  had  its  day,  and  its  successors 
have  tried  their  best  to  bury  it  in  hushed  oblivion. 
The  actual  difficulties  we  have  to  consider  are  those 
advanced  by  our  actual  opponents  of  to-day;  only 
the  fact  that  the  systems  of  the  past  show  us  the  fleet- 
ing and  transitory  character  of  the  actual  theories 
now  in  vogue  can  induce  us  to  briefly  enumerate  the 
successive  views  upheld  by  the  opponents  of  the 
Mosaic  authorship. 

(1)  Abandoned  Theories. — The  views  advanced  by 
the  Valentinian  Ptolemy,  the  Nazarites,  Abenesra, 
Carlstadt,  Isaac  Peyrerius,  Baruch  Spinoza,  Jean 
Leclerc  are  sporadic  phenomena.  Not  all  of  them 
were  wholly  incompatible  with  the  Mosaic  authorship 
as  now  understood,  and  the  others  have  found  their 
answer  in  their  own  time. — With  the  work  of  John 
Astruc,  published  in  1753,  began  the  so-called  Hy- 
pothesis of  Documents  which  was  further  developed 
by  Eichhorn  and  Ilgen.  But  the  works  of  the  sus- 
pended priest,  Alexander  Geddes,  published  in  1792 
and  ISOO,  introduced  the  Hypothesis  of  Fragments, 
which  in  its  day  was  elaborated  and  championed 
by  Vater,  de  Wette  (temporarily  at  least),  Berthold, 
Hartmann,  and  von  Bohlen.  This  theory  was  soon 
confronted  by,  and  had  to  yield  to  the  Hypothesis 
of  Complements  or  Interpolations  which  numbered 
among  its  patrons  Kelle,  Ewald,  Stiihelin,  Bleek, 
Tuch,  de  Wette,  von  Lengerke,  and  for  a  brief  period 
also  Franz  Delitzsch.  The  theory  of  interpolations 
again  had  hardly  found  any  arUierents  before  Gram- 
berg  (1828),  Stahelin  (1830),  and  Bleek  (1831)  re- 
turned to  the  Hypothesis  of  Documents,  proposing 
it  in  a  somewhat  modified  form.  Subsequently, 
Ewald,  Knobel,  Hupfeld,  Noldeke,  and  Schrader  ad- 
vanced each  a  different  explanation  of  the  documen- 
tary hypothesis.  But  all  of  these  are  at  present  only 
of  an  historical  interest. 

(2)  Present  Hypothesis  of  Documents. — A  course  of 
religious  development  in  Israel  had  been  proposed 
by  Reuss  in  1830  and  1834,  by  Vatke  in  1835,  and  by 
George  in  the  same  year.  In  1865-66  Graf  took  up 
this  idea  and  applied  it  to  the  literary  criticism  of  the 
Hexateuch;  for  the  critics  had  begun  to  consider  the 
Book  of  Josue  as  belonging  to  the  preceding  five  books, 
80  that  the  collection  formed  a  Hexateuch  instead  of 
a  Pentateuch.  The  same  application  was  made  by 
Merx  m  1869.  Thus  modified  the  documentary  the- 
ory continued  in  its  development  until  it  reached 
the  state  described  in  the  translation  of  the  Bible  by 
Kautzsch  (3rd  ed.,  with  Introduction  and  Annotations, 
Tubingen,  1908  .sqq.).  In  itself  there  is  nothing 
against  the  assumption  of  documents  written  by 
Moses;  but  we  cannot  ascribe  with  certainty  any- 
thing of  our  literary  remains  to  the  hands  of  the 
Hebrew  lawgiver.  The  beginning  of  written  accounts 
must  be  placed  towards  the  end  of  the  time  of  Judges; 
only  then  were  fulfilled  the  conditions  which  must  pre- 
cede the  origin  of  a  literature  properly  so  called,  i.  e., 
a  general  acquaintance  with  the  art  of  writing  and 
reading,  stationary  settlement  of  the  people,  and  na- 
tional prosperity.  What  then  are  the  oldest  literary 
remains  of  the  Hebrews?  They  are  the  collections  of 
the  songs  dating  from  the  heroic  time  of  the  nation, 
e.  g.,  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord  (Num.,  xxi, 


14),  the  Book  of  the  Just  (Jos.,  x,  12  sqq.),  the  Book  ol 
Songs  (III  Kings,  viii,  53;  cf.  Budde,  "Geschichtc  der 
althebr.  Litcratur",  Leipzig,  1906,  17).  The  Book  of 
the  Covenant  (Ex.,  xx,  24-xxiii,  19)  too  must  have 
existed  before  the  other  sources  of  the  Pentateuch. 
The  oldest  historical  work  is  probably  the  book  of  the 
Yahwist,  designated  by  J,  and  ascribed  to  the  priest- 
hood of  Juda,  belonging  most  probably  to  the  ninth 
century  B.C. 

Akin  to  this  is  the  Elohim  document,  designated  by 
E,  and  written  probably  in  the  northern  kingdom 
(Ephraim)  about  a  century  after  the  production  of 
the  Yahweh  document.  These  two  sources  were  com- 
bined by  a  redactor  into  one  work  soon  after  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century.  Next  follows  the  law- 
book almost  entirely  embodied  in  our  actual  Book  of 
Deuteronomy,  discovered  in  the  temple  621  B.  c,  and 
containing  the  precipitate  of  the  prophetic  teaching 
which  advocated  the  abolition  of  the  sacrifices  in  the 
so-called  high  places  and  the  centralization  of  worship 
in  the  temple  of  Jerusalem.  During  the  Exile  orig- 
inated the  Priestly  Code,  P,  based  on  the  so-called  law 
of  holiness,  Lev.,  x\-ii-xx-vi,  and  the  programme  of 
Ezechiel,  xl-xlviii;  the  substance  of  P  was  read  before 
the  post-exilic  community  by  Esdras  about  444  B.  c. 
(II  Esd.,  \-iii-x),  and  was  accepted  by  the  multitude. 
History  does  not  tell  us  when  and  how  these  divers 
historical  p.nd  legal  sources  were  combined  into  our 
present  Pentateuch;  but  it  is  generally  assumed  that 
there  was  an  urgent  call  for  a  compilation  of  the  tra- 
dition and  pre-exilic  historj'  of  the  people.  The  only 
indication  of  time  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the 
Samaritans  accepted  the  Pentateuch  as  a  sacred  book 
probably  in  the  fourth  century  B.  c.  Considering 
their  hatred  for  the  Jews,  one  must  conclude  that  they 
would  not  have  taken  this  step,  unless  they  had  felt 
certain  of  the  Mosaic  origin  of  the  Pentateuch.  Hence 
a  considerable  time  must  have  intervened  between  the 
compilation  of  the  Pentateuch  and  its  acceptance  by 
the  Samaritans,  so  that  the  work  of  combining  must 
be  placed  in  the  fifth  century.  It  is  quite  generally 
agreed  that  the  last  redactor  of  the  Pentateuch  com- 
pleted his  task  with  great  adroitness.  Without  alter- 
ing the  text  of  the  older  sources,  he  did  all  within 
man's  power  to  fuse  the  heterogeneous  elements  into 
one  apparent  (?)  whole,  wnth  such  success  that  not 
only  the  Jews  after  the  fourth  century  B.  c,  but  also 
the  Christians  for  many  centuries  could  maintain 
their  conviction  that  the  entire  Pentateuch  was  writ- 
ten by  Moses. 

(3)  Deficiencies  of  the  Critical  Hypothesis. — As 
several  Pentateuchal  critics  have  endeavoured  to 
assign  the  last  redaction  of  the  Pentateuch  to  more 
recent  dates,  its  placement  in  the  fifth  century  may  be 
regarded  as  rather  favourable  to  conservative  views. 
But  it  is  hard  to  understand  why  the  patrons  of  this 
opinion  should  not  agree  in  considering  Esdras  as  the 
last  editor.  Again,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  last 
edition  of  the  Pentateuch  must  have  notably  preceded 
its  acceptance  on  the  part  of  the  Samaritans  as  a 
sacred  book;  but  is  it  probable  that  the  Samaritans 
would  have  accepted  the  Pentateuch  as  such  in  the 
fourth  century  B.  c,  when  the  national  and  religious 
opposition  between  them  and  Jews  was  well  devel- 
oped? Is  it  not  more  probable  that  the  mixed  nation 
of  Samaria  received  the  Pentateuch  through  the 
priest  sent  to  them  from  As.syria?  Cf .  IV  Kings,  xvii, 
27.  Or  again,  as  this  priest  instructed  the  Samaritan 
population  in  the  law  of  the  god  of  the  country,  is  it 
not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  he  taught  them  the 
Pentateuchal  law  which  the  ten  tribes  carried  with 
them  when  they  separated  from  Juda?  At  any  rate, 
the  fact  that  the  Samaritans  accepted  as  sacred  only 
the  Pentateuch,  but  not  the  Prophets,  leads  us  to  infer 
that  the  Pentateuch  existed  among  the  Jews  before 
a  collection  of  the  prophetic  writings  was  made,  and 
that  Samaria  chose  its  sacred  book  before  even  Juda 


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656 


PENTATEUCH 


placed  the  works  of  the  Prophets  on  the  same  level 
with  the  work  of  Moses.  But  this  natural  inference 
finds  no  favour  among  the  critics;  for  it  implies  that 
the  historical  and  legal  traditions  coiiified  in  the 
Pentateuch,  described  the  beginning,  and  not  the 
end,  of  Israel's  religious  development.  The  view  of 
Israel's  religious  development  prevalent  among  the 
critics  implies  that  the  Pentateuch  is  later  than  the 
Prophets,  ami  that  the  Psalms  are  later  than  both. 
After  these  general  considerations,  we  shall  briefly 
examine  the  main  principles,  the  methods,  the  results, 
and  the  arguments  of  the  critical  theory. 

(a)  Principles  of  the  Critics. — Without  pretending 
to  review  all  the  principles  involved  in  the  theories  of 
the  critics,  we  draw  attention  to  two:  the  historical 
development  of  religion,  and  the  comparative  value 
of  internal  e\ddenoe  and  tradition. 

(i)  The  theorj-  of  the  historical  evolution  of  Israel- 
itie  religion  leads  us  from  Mosaic  Yahwehism  to  the 
etliical  monotheism  of  the  Prophets,  from  this  to  the 
universalist  conception  of  God  developed  during  the 
Exile,  and  from  this  again  to  the  ossified  Phariseeism 
of  later  days.  This  religion  of  the  Jews  is  codified  in 
our  actual  Pentateuch,  but  has  been  fictitiously  pro- 
jected backwards  in  the  historical  books  into  the 
Mosaic  and  pre-prophetic  times. 

The  idea  of  development  is  not  a  purely  modern 
discovery.  Meyer  ("Der  Entwicklungsgedanke  bei 
Aristoteles",  Bonn,  1909)  shows  that  Aristotle  was 
acquainted  with  it;  Gunkel  ("  Weiterbildung  der 
Religion",  Munich,  1905,  64)  maintains  that  its  ap- 
plication to  religion  is  as  old  as  Christianity,  and  that 
St.  Paul  has  enunciated  this  principle;  Diestel  ("Ge- 
schichte  des  A.  T.  in  der  christhchen  Kirche",  Jena, 
1869,  .56  sqq.),  AVillmann  (Geschichte  des  Idealismus, 
2nd  ed.,  II,  23  sqq.),  and  Schanz  (Apologie  des  Christ- 
entums,  3rd  ed.,  II,  4  sqq.,  376)  find  the  same  apphca- 
tion  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  though  Hoberg 
("Die  Forschritte  der  bibl.  WLssenschaften",  Frei- 
burg, 1902,  10)  grants  that  the  patristic  writers  often 
neglect  the  external  forms  which  influenced  the  ideas  of 
the  Chosen  People.  The  Fathers  were  not  fully  ac- 
quainted with  profane  historj',  and  were  more  con- 
cerned about  the  contents  of  Revelation  than  about 
its  historical  development.  Pesch  ("Glaube,  Dog- 
men  imd  geschichtliche  Thatsachen"  in  "Theol. 
Zeitfragen",  IV,  Freiburg,  1908,  183)  discovers  that 
St.  Thomas,  too,  admits  the  principle  of  development 
in  his  "Summa"  (II-II,  Q.  i,  a.  9,  10;  Q.  ii,  a.  3; 
etc.).  But  the  Catholic  conception  of  this  principle 
avoids  two  extremes:  (a)  the  theorj-  of  degeneracy, 
based  on  the  teaching  of  the  early  Lutheran  theolo- 
gians (cf.  Giesebrecht,  "Die  Degradationshypothese 
und  die  altl.  Geschichte",  Leipzig,  1905;  Steude, 
"Entwicklung  und  Offenbarung",  !>tuttgart,  1905,  18 
sqq.);  (^)  the  theory  of  evolution  which  dissolves  all 
truth  and  history  into  purely  natural  development  to 
the  exclusion  of  everj'thing  supernatural. 

It  is  this  latter  extreme  that  is  advocated  by  the 
Biblical  critics.  Their  description  of  the  early  religion 
of  Israel  is  contradicted  by  the  testimony  of  the  oldest 
Prophets  whose  authority  is  not  questioned  by  them. 
These  inspired  seers  know  of  the  fall  of  Adam  (Osee, 
vi,  7),  the  call  of  Abraham  (Is.,  xxix,  23;  Mich.,  vii, 
20 J,  the  destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha  (Osee, 
xi,  8;  Is.,  i,  9;  Amos,  iv,  11),  the  history  of  Jacob 
and  his  struggle  with  the  angel  (Os.,  xii,  2  sqq.), 
Israel's  exodus  from  Egypt  and  dwelling  in  the  desert 
(Os.,  ii,  14;  vii,  16;  xi,"l;  xii,  9,  13;  xiii,  4,  5;  Am., 
ii,  10;  iii,  1;  ix,  7),  the  activity  of  Moses  (Os.,  xii,  13; 
Mich.,  yi,  4;  Is.,  Ixiii,  11,  12),  a  written  legislation 
(Os.,  viii,  12),  and  a  number  of  particular  statutes  (cf. 
Kley,  "Die  Pentateuchfrage",  Munster,  1903,  223 
sqq.).  Again,  the  theory  of  development  is  more  and 
more  contradicted  by  the  results  of  historical  inves- 
tigation. Weber  ("Theologie  und  Assyriologie  im 
Streit  um  Babel  und  Bibel",  Leipzig,  1904,  17)  points 


out  that  the  recent  historical  results  imply  decadence 
rather  than  development  in  ancient  oriental  art,  sci- 
ence, and  religion;  Winckler  ("Keligionsgcschichtler 
und  gescliiclitl.  Orient",  Leipzig,  I'.lOti,  lili)  considers 
the  evolutionary  view  of  the  primitive  state  of  man  as 
false,  and  believes  that  the  (leveloi)mcnt  theory  has, 
at  least,  been  badly  shaken,  if  not  actually  destroj-ed 
by  recentOriental  rescuich  (cf.  Hiintsch,  ".\ltorientali- 
scher  und  israelitischer  Monothei.'^mus",  Tubingen, 
1906).  Koberle  ("Die  Theologie  der  Gegenwart", 
Leipzig,  1907,  I,  2)  says  that  the  develci))ment  theory 
has  exhausted  itself,  reimiduciiig  only  tlie  thoughts  of 
Wellhausen,  and  deciiling  jiarticulai-  (lucstiims  not  in 
in  the  hght  of  facts,  but  according  to  tlie  postulates  of 
the  theory.  Finally,  even  rationalistic  writers  have 
thought  it  necessary  to  replace  the  development 
theory  by  another  more  in  agreement  with  historical 
facts.  Hence  Winckler  ("Ex  Oriente  lux",  Leipzig, 
1905-6;  Idem,  "Der  Alte  Orient",  III,  2-3;  Idem, 
"Die  babylonische  Geisteskultur  in  ihren  Beziehungen 
zur  Kidturentwicklimg  der  Menschheit"  in  "Wissen- 
schaft  und  Bildung",  Leipzig,  1907;  cf.  Landersdorfer 
in  "Histonsch-Politische  Blatter",  1909,  144)  has 
originated  the  theory  of  pan-Babelism  according  to 
which  Biblical  religion  is  conceived  as  a  conscious  and 
express  reaction  against  the  Babylonian  polytheistic 
state  religion.  It  was  not  the  common  property  of 
Israel,  but  of  a  religious  sect  which  was  supported  in 
Babylon  by  certain  monotheistic  circles  irrespective 
of  nationality.  This  theory  has  found  powerful  op- 
ponents in  Budde,  Stade,  Bezold,  Koberle,  Kugler, 
Wilke,  and  others;  but  it  has  also  a  number  of  adher- 
ents. Though  wholly  untenable  from  a  Christian 
point  of  view,  it  shows  at  least  the  weakness  of  the 
historical  development  theory. 

(ii)  Another  principle  involved  in  the  critical  theory 
of  the  Pentateuch  supposes  that  the  internal  evidence 
of  literary  criticism  is  of  higher  value  than  the  evi- 
dence of  tradition.  But  thus  far  the  results  of  excava- 
tions and  historical  research  have  been  favourable  to 
tradition  rather  than  to  internal  evidence.  Let  the 
reader  only  remember  the  case  of  Troy,  Tirj-ns, 
Mycena>,  and  Orchomenos  (in  Greece);  the  excava- 
tions of  the  English  explorer  Evans  in  Crete  have 
shown  the  historical  character  of  King  Minos  and  his 
labyrinth;  Assyrian  inscriptions  have  re-established 
the  historical  credit  of  King  Midas  of  Phrygia;  sim- 
ilarly, Menes  of  Thebes  and  Sargon  of  Agade  have 
been  shown  to  belong  to  history;  in  general,  the  more 
accurate  have  been  the  scientific  investigations,  the 
more  clearly  have  they  shown  the  reliability  of  even 
the  most  slender  traditions.  In  the  field  of  New- 
Testament  criticism  the  call  "back  to  tradition"  has 
begun  to  be  heeded,  and  has  been  endorsed  by  such 
authorities  as  Harnack  and  Deissmann.  In  the  study 
of  the  Old  Testament  too  there  are  unmistakable  signs 
of  a  coming  change.  Hommel  ("Die  altisraelitische 
ttberlieferung  in  inschriftlicher  Beleuchtung",  Mu- 
nich, 1897)  maintains  that  Old-Testament  tradition, 
both  as  a  whole  and  in  its  details,  proves  to  be  reliable, 
even  in  the  light  of  critical  research.  Meyer  ("Die 
Entstehung  des  Judentums",  Halle,  1896)  comes  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  foundations  of  the  critical 
Pentateuchal  theory  are  destroyed,  if  it  can  be  proved 
that  even  part  of  the  impugned  Hebrew  tradition  is 
reUable;  the  same  writer  proves  the  credibility  of  the 
sources  of  the  Books  of  Esdras  (cf.  "Grundriss  der 
Geographic  und  Geschichte  des  alten  Orientes", 
Munich,  1904,  167  sqq.).  S.  A.  Fries  has  been  led  by 
his  critical  studies,  and  without  being  influenced  by 
dogmatic  bias,  to  accept  the  whole  traditional  view  of 
the  history  of  Israel.  Cornill  and  Oettli  express  the 
conviction  that  Israel's  traditions  concerning  even  its 
earliest  history  are  reliable  and  will  withstand  the 
bitterest  attacks  of  criticism;  Dawson  (cf.  Fonck, 
"Kritik  und  Tradition  im  A.  T."  in  "Zeitschrift  fur 
kathoUsche  Theologie",    1899,   262-81)   and  others 


PENTATEUCH 


657 


PENTATEUCH 


ipply  to  tradition  the  old  principle  which  has  been  so 
frequently  misapplied,  "magna  est  Veritas,  et  pra;- 
valebit";  Gunkel  ("Religionsgeschichtliche  Volks- 
bticher",  II,  Tilbingen,  19f56,  8)  grants  that  Old-Tes- 
tament criticism  has  gone  a  little  too  far,  and  that 
many  Biblical  traditions  now  rejected  will  be  re- 
established. 

(b)  Critical  Method. — The  falsehood  of  the  critical 
method  does  not  consist  in  the  use  of  criticism  as  such, 
but  in  its  illegitimate  use.  Criticism  became  more 
common  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries; 
at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  it  was  applied  to  classical 
antiquity.  Bernheim  ("Lehrbuch  der  historischen 
Methode",  Leipzig,  1903,  296)  believes  that  by  this 
means  alone  history  first  became  a  science.  In  the 
application  of  criticism  to  the  Bible  we  are  limited, 
indeed,  by  the  inspiration  and  the  canonicity  of  its 
books;  but  there  is  an  ample  field  left  for  our  critical 
investigations  (Pesch,  "Theol.  Zeitfragen",  III,  48). 

Some  of  the  principal  sins  of  the  critics  in  their 
treatment  of  Sacred  Scripture  are  the  following:  (i) 
They  deny  everything  supernatural,  so  that  they  re- 
ject not  merely  inspiration  and  canonicity,  but  also 
prophecy  and  miracle  a  priori  (cf.  Metzler,  "Das 
Wunder  vor  dem  Forum  der  modernen  Geschichts- 
wissenschaft"  in  "Katholik",  1908,  II,  241  sqq.). 
(ii)  They  seem  to  be  convinced  a  priori  of  the  credibil- 
ity of  non-Biblical  historical  documents,  while  they 
are  prejudiced  against  the  truthfulness  of  Biblical 
accounts.  (Cf.  Stade,  "Geschichte  Israel's",  I,  86 
seq.,  88,  101.)  (iii)  Depreciating  e.xternal  evidence 
almost  entirely,  they  consider  the  questions  of  the 
origin,  the  integrity,  and  the  authenticity  of  the  sa- 
cred books  in  the  light  of  internal  evidence  (Encyl. 
Prov.  Deus,  .52).  (iv)  They  overestimate  the  critical 
analysis  of  the  sources,  without  considering  the  chief 
point,  i.  e.,  the  credibihty  of  the  sources  (Lorenz, 
"  Die  Geschichtswissenschaft  in  ihren  Hauptricht- 
ungen  und  Aufgaben",  ii,  329  sqq.).  Recent  docu- 
ments may  contain  reliable  reports  of  ancient  history. 
Some  of  the  critics  begin  to  acknowledge  that  the  his- 
torical credibility  of  the  sources  is  of  greater  impor- 
tance than  their  division  and  dating  (Stark,  "DieEnt- 
stehung  des  A.  T.",  Leipzig,  1905,  29;  cf.  Vetter, 
"Tiibinger  theologische  Quartalschrift",  1899,  552). 
(v)  The  critical  division  of  sources  is  based  on  the 
Hebrew  text,  though  it  is  not  certain  how  far  the 
present  Massoretic  text  differs  from  that,  for  instance, 
followed  by  the  Septuagint  translators,  and  how  far 
the  latter  differed  from  the  Hebrew  text  before  its 
redaction  in  the  fifth  century  B.  c.  Dahse  ("Text- 
kritische  Bedenken  gegen  den  Ausgangspunkt  der 
heutigen  Pentateuchkritik"  in  "Archiv  fiir  ReHgions- 
geschichte",  VI,  1903,  305  sqq.)  shows  that  the 
Divine  names  in  the  Greek  translation  of  the  Penta- 
teuch differ  in  about  180  cases  from  those  of  the 
Hebrew  te.xt  (cf.  Hoberg,  "Die  Genesis",  2nd  ed.,  p. 
xxii  sqq.);  in  other  words  and  phrases  the  changes 
may  be  fewer,  but  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  deny 
the  existence  of  any.  Again,  it  is  antecedently  prob- 
able that  the  Septuagint  text  differs  less  from  the 
Massoretic  than  from  the  ante-Esdrine  text,  which 
must  have  been  closer  to  the  original.  The  starting 
point  of  literary  criticism  is  therefore  uncertain. 

(vi)  It  is  not  an  inherent  fault  of  literary  criticism 
that  it  was  applied  to  the  Pentateuch  after  it  had 
become  practically  antiquated  in  the  study  of  Homer 
and  the  Nibelungenlied  (cf.  Katholik,  1896,  I,  303, 
306  sqq.),  nor  that  Reuss  considered  it  as  more  pro- 
ductive of  difference  of  opinion  than  of  results  (cf. 
Katholik,  1896,  I,  304  seq.),  nor  again  that  Well- 
hausen  thought  it  had  degenerated  into  childi.sh  play. 
.\mong  Bible  students,  Klostermann  ("Der  Penta- 
teuch", Leipzig.  1893),  Kijnig  ("Falsche  Extreme  ira 
Gebiete  der  neueren  Kritik  des  A.  T.",  Leipzig,  1885; 
"Neueste  Prinzipien  der  alt.  Kritik",  Berlin,  1902; 
"Im  Kampfe  um  das  A.  T.",  Berlin,  1903),  Bugge 
XL— 42 


("Die  Hauptparabeln  Jesu",  Gies,sen,  1903)  are  scep- 
tical as  to  the  results  of  literary  criticism,  while 
OrelU  (Der  Prophet  Jesaja,  1904,  V),  Jeremias  (Das 
alte  Testament  im  Lichte  des  Alten  Orients,  1906, 
VIII),  and  Oettli  (Geschichte  Israels,  V)  wish  to  insist 
more  on  the  exegesis  of  the  text  than  on  the  criss-cross 
roads  of  criticism.  G.  Jacob  ("Der  Pentateuch", 
Gottingen,  1905)  thinks  that  the  past  Pentateuchal 
criticism  needs  a  thorough  revision;  Eerdmans  ("Die 
Komposition  der  Genesis",  Giessen,  1908)  feels  con- 
vinced that  criticism  has  been  misled  into  wrong  paths 
by  Astruc.  Merx  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  next 
generation  will  have  to  revise  backwards  many  of  the 
present  historico-literary  views  of  the  Old  Testament 
(Religionsgeschichtliche  Volksbucher,  II,  1907,  3,  132 
sqq.). 

(c)  Critical  Results. — Here  we  must  distinguish  be- 
tween the  principles  of  criticism  and  its  results;  the 
principles  of  the  historical  development  of  religion,  for 
instance,  and  of  the  inferiority  of  tradition  to  internal 
evidence,  are  not  the  outcome  of  literary  analysis,  but 
are  its  partial  basis.  Again,  we  must  distinguish  be- 
tween those  results  of  literary  criticism  which  are  com- 
patible with  the  Mosaic  authenticity  of  the  Penta- 
teuch and  those  that  contradict  it.  The  patrons  of  the 
Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  even  the 
ecclesiastical  Decree  relating  to  this  subject,  plainly 
admit  that  Moses  or  his  secretaries  may  have  utilized 
sources  or  documents  in  tlie  composition  of  the  Penta- 
teuch; both  admit  also  that  the  sacred  text  has  suf- 
fered in  its  transmission  and  may  have  received  addi- 
tions, in  the  form  of  either  inspired  appendices  or 
exegetical  glosses.  If  the  critics,  therefore,  can  suc- 
ceed in  determining  the  number  and  the  limits  of  the 
documentary  sources,  and  of  the  post-Mosaic  addi- 
tions, whether  inspired  or  profane,  they  render  an 
important  service  to  the  traditional  tenet  of  Penta- 
teuchal authenticity.  The  same  must  be  said  with 
regard  to  the  successive  laws  established  by  Moses, 
and  the  gradual  fidelity  of  the  Jewish  people  to  the 
Mosaic  law.  Here  again  the  certain  or  even  probable 
results  of  sane  literary  and  historical  criticism  will  aid 
greatly  the  conservative  commentator  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. We  do  not  quarrel  with  the  legitimate  conclu- 
sions of  the  critics,  if  the  critics  do  not  quarrel  with 
each  other.  But  they  do  quarrel  with  each  other. 
According  to  Merx  (loc.  cit.)  there  is  nothing  certain 
in  the  field  of  criticism  except  its  incertainty;  each 
critic  proclaims  his  views  with  the  greatest  self-reli- 
ance, but  without  any  regard  to  the  consistency  of  the 
whole.  Former  views  are  simply  killed  by  silence; 
even  Reuss  and  Dillmann  are  junk-iron,  and  there  is  a 
noticeable  lack  of  judgment  as  to  what  can  or  cannot 
be  known. 

Hence  the  critical  results,  in  as  far  as  they  consist 
merely  in  the  distinction  of  documentary  sources,  in 
the  determination  of  post-Mosaic  material,  e.  g.,  text- 
ual changes,  and  profane  or  inspired  additions,  in  the 
description  of  various  legal  codes,  are  not  at  ^'ariance 
with  the  Mosaic  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch.  Nor 
can  an  anti-Mosaic  character  be  pointed  out  in  the 
facts  or  phenomena  from  which  criticism  legitimately 
infers  the  foregoing  conclusions;  such  facts  or  phe- 
nomena are,  for  instance,  the  change  of  the  Divine 
names  in  the  text,  the  use  of  certain  words,  the  differ- 
ence of  style,  the  so-called  double  accounts  of  really, 
not  merely  apparently,  identical  events;  the  truth  or 
falsehood  of  these  and  similar  details  does  not  directly 
affect  the  Mosaic  authorship  of  the  Pentateuch.  In 
which  results  then  does  criticism  clash  with  tradition? 
Criticism  and  tradition  are  incompatible  in  their 
views  as  to  the  age  and  sequence  of  the  documentary 
sources,  as  to  the  origin  of  the  various  legal  codes,  and 
as  to  the  time  and  manner  of  the  redaction  of  the 
Pentateuch. 

(i)  Pentateuchal  Documents. — As  to  the  age  and 
sequence  of  the  various  documents,  the  critics  do  not 


PENTATEUCH 


658 


PENTATEUCH 


agree.  Dillmann,  Kittcl,  Konig,  and  Winckler  place 
the  Elohist,  who  is  subdivided  by  several  writers  into 
the  first,  second,  and  third  Elohist,  before  the  Ynh- 
wist,  who  also  is  divided  into  the  first  and  second 
Yahwist;  but  Wellhausen  and  most  critics  believe 
that  the  Elohist  is  about  a  century  younger  than  the 
Yahwist.  .Vt  any  rate,  both  are  assigned  to  about  the 
ninth  and  eighth  centuries  B.  c;  both  too  incorporate 
earlier  traditions  or  even  documents. 

All  critics  appear  to  agree  as  to  the  composite  char- 
acter of  Deuteronomy;  they  admit  rather  a  Deuter- 
onomist  school  than  single  writers.  Still,  the  succes- 
sive la\ers  composing  the  whole  book  are  briefly 
designated  by  D',  D',  D',  etc.  As  to  the  character 
of  these  layers,  the  critics  do  not  agree:  Montet  and 
Driver,  for  instance,  assign  to  the  first  Deuteronomist 
cc.  i-.\xi;  Kuenen,  Konig,  Reuss,  Renan,  Westphal 
ascribe  to  D',  iv,  45-9,  and  v-x.xvi;  a  third  class  of 
critics  reduce  D'  to  xii,  l-x-wi,  19,  allowing  it  a  double 
edition:  according  to  Wellhausen,  the  first  edition 
contained  i,  1-iv,  44;  xii-xxvi;  x.\vii,  while  the  second 
comprised  iv,  45-,\i,  39;  xii-xxvi;  x.xviii-xxx;  both 
editions  were  combined  by  the  redactor  who  inserted 
Deuteronomy  into  the  Hexateuch.  Cornill  arranges 
the  two  editions  somewhat  differently.  Horst  con- 
siders even  cc.  xii-xxvi  as  a  compilation  of  pre-existing 
elements,  gathered  together  without  order  and  often 
by  chance.  Wellhausen  and  his  adherents  do  not  wish 
to  assign  to  D'  a  higher  age  than  621  b.  c,  Cornill  and 
Bertholet  consider  the  document  as  a  summary  of  the 
prophetic  teaching,  Colenso  and  Renan  ascribe  it  to 
Jeremias,  others  place  its  origin  in  the  reign  of  Ezechias 
or  Manasses,  Klostermann  identifies  the  document 
with  the  book  read  before  the  people  in  the  time  of 
Josaphat,  while  Kleinert  refers  it  back  to  the  end  of 
the  time  of  the  Judges.  The  Deuteronomist  depends 
on  the  two  preceding  documents,  .J  and  E,  both  for  his 
history  and  his  legislation;  the  historical  details  not 
found  in  these  may  have  been  derived  from  other 
sources  not  known  to  us,  and  the  laws  not  contained 
in  the  Sinaitic  legislation  and  the  decalogue  are  either 
pure  fiction  or  a  crystallization  of  the  prophetic 
teaching. 

Finally,  the  Priestly  Code,  P,  is  also  a  compilation : 
the  first  stratum  of  the  book,  both  historical  and  legal 
in  its  character,  is  designated  by  P'  or  P«;  the  second 
stratum  is  the  law  of  holiness,  H  or  Lev.,  xvii-xxvi, 
and  is  the  work  of  a  contemporary  of  Ezechiel,  or  per- 
haps of  the  Prophet  himself  (H,  P',  P'') ;  besides,  there 
are  additional  elements  springing  rather  from  a  school 
than  from  any  single  writer,  and  designated  by  Kilnen 
as  P',  P*,  P',  but  by  other  critics  as  P'  and  P'.  Ber- 
tholet and  Biintsch  speak  of  two  other  collections  of 
laws:  the  law  of  sacrifices,  Lev.,  i-vii,  designated  as 
P";  and  the  law  of  purity.  Lev.,  xi-xv,  designated  as 
P".  The  first  documentary  hypothesis  considered  P' 
as  the  oldest  part  of  the  Pentateuch ;  Duston  and  Dill- 
mann place  it  before  the  Deuteronomic  code,  but 
most  recent  critics  regard  it  as  more  recent  than  the 
other  documents  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  even  later 
than  Ezech.,  xliv,  10-xlvi,  15  (57.3-2  b.  c);  the  fol- 
lowers of  Wellhau.sen  date  the  Priestly  Code  after  the 
return  from  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  while  Wildeboer 
places  it  either  after  or  towards  the  end  of  the  cap- 
tivity. The  historical  parts  of  the  Priestly  Code  de- 
Eend  on  the  Yahwistic  and  the  Elohistic  documents, 
ut  Wellhausen's  adherents  believe  that  the  material 
of  these  documents  has  been  manipulated  so  as  to  fit 
it  for  the  special  purpo.se  of  the  Priestly  Code;  Dill- 
mann and  Driver  maintain  that  facts  have  not  been 
invented  or  falsified  by  P,  but  that  the  latter  had  at 
hand  other  historical  documents  besides  ,1  and  E.  As 
to  the  legal  part  of  P,  Wellhausen  considers  it  as  an 
a  priori  programme  for  the  Jewish  priesthood  after  the 
return  from  the  captivity,  projected  backwards  into 
the  past,  and  attributed  to  Moses;  but  other  critics 
believe  that  P  has  systematized  the  pre-exilic  customs 


of  worship,  developing  them,  and  adapting  them  to  the 
new  circumstances. 

\\'hat  has  been  said  clearly  shows  that  the  critics  are 
at  variance  in  many  respects,  but  they  are  at  one  in 
maintaining  the  post-Mosaic  origin  of  the  Penta- 
tcuchal  documents.  What  is  the  weight  of  the  reasons 
on  which  they  base  their  opinion?  (a)  The  conditions 
laid  down  by  the  critics  as  prerequisites  to  literature 
do  not  prove  that  the  sources  of  the  Pentateuch  must 
be  post-Mosaic.  The  Hebrew  people  had  lived  for,  at 
least,  two  hundred  years  in  Egypt;  besides,  most  of 
the  forty  years  spent  in  the  desert  were  passed  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Cades,  so  that  the  Israelites  were  no 
longer  a  nomadic  people.  Whatever  may  be  said  of 
their  material  prosperity,  or  of  their  proficiency  in 
writing  and  reading,  the  above-mentioned  researches 
of  Flinders  Petrie  show  that  they  kept  records  of  their 
national  traditions  at  the  time  of  Moses.  (^)  If  the 
Hebrew  contemporaries  of  Moses  kept  written  records, 
why  should  not  the  Pentateuchal  sources  be  among 
these  documents?  It  is  true  that  in  our  actual  Penta- 
teuch we  find  non-Mosaic  and  po.st-Mosaic  indica- 
tions; but,  then,  the  non-Mosaic,  impersonal  style 
may  be  due  to  a  literary  device,  or  to  the  pen  of  secre- 
taries; the  post-Mosaic  geographical  and  historical 
indications  may  have  crept  into  the  text  by  way  of 
glosses,  or  errors  of  the  transcribers,  or  even  inspired 
additions.  The  critics  cannot  reject  these  suggestions 
as  mere  subterfuges;  for  they  should  have  to  grant  a 
continuous  miracle  in  the  preservation  of  the  Penta- 
teuchal text,  if  they  were  to  deny  the  moral  certainty 
of  the  presence  of  such  textual  changes. 

(7)  But  would  not  the  Pentateuch  have  been  known 
to  the  earlier  Prophets,  if  it  had  been  handed  down 
from  the  time  of  Moses?  This  critical  exception  is 
really  an  argument  e  silenlio  which  is  very  apt  to  be 
fallacious,  unless  it  be  most  carefully  handled.  Be- 
sides, if  we  keep  in  mind  the  labour  involved  in  multi- 
plying copies  of  the  Pentateuch,  we  cannot  be  wrong 
in  assuming  that  they  were  very  rare  in  the  interval 
between  Closes  and  the  Prophets,  so  that  few  were 
able  to  read  the  actual  text.  Again,  it  has  been 
pointed  out  that  at  least  one  of  the  earlier  Prophets 
appeals  to  a  written  Mosaic  law,  and  that  all  appeal 
to  such  a  national  conscience  as  presupposes  the  Pen- 
tateuchal history  and  law.  Finally,  some  of  the  critics 
maintain  that  J  views  the  history  of  man  and  of  Israel 
according  to  the  religious  and  the  moral  ideas  of  the 
Prophets;  if  there  be  such  an  agreement,  why  not  say 
that  the  Prophets  write  according  to  the  religious  and 
moral  ideas  of  the  Pentateuch?  (S)  The  critics  urge 
the  fact  that  the  Pentateuchal  laws  concerning  the 
sanctuary,  the  sacrifices,  the  feasts,  and  the  priesthood 
agree  with  different  stages  of  post-Mosaic  historical 
development;  that  the  second  stage  agrees  with  the 
reform  of  Josia.s,  and  the  third  with  the  enactments 
enforced  after  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  Exile.  But 
it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  Mosaic  law  was  in- 
tended for  Israel  as  the  Christian  law  is  intended  for 
the  whole  world;  if  then  1900  years  after  Christ  the 
greater  part  of  the  world  is  still  un-Christian,  it  is  not 
astonishing  that  the  Mosaic  law  required  centuries 
before  it  penetrated  the  whole  nation.  Besides,  there 
were,  no  doubt,  many  violations  of  the  law,  just  as  the 
Ten  Commandments  are  violated  to-day  without  det- 
riment to  their  legal  promulgation.  Again  there  were 
times  of  religious  reforms  and  disasters  as  there  are 
periods  of  religious  fervour  and  coldness  in  the  history 
of  the  Christian  Church;  but  such  human  frailties  do 
not  imply  the  non-existence  of  the  law,  either  Mosaic 
or  Christian.  As  to  the  particular  laws  in  question,  it 
will  be  found  more  satisfactory  to  examine  them  more 
in  detail. 

(ii)  Pentateuchal  Codes. — The  critics  endeavour  to 
establish  a  triple  Pentateuchal  code:  the  Book  of 
the  Covenant,  Deuteronomy,  and  the  Priestly  Code. 
Instead  of  regarding  this  legislation  as  applying  to 


PENTATEUCH 


659 


PENTATEUCH 


different  phases  in  the  forty  years'  wandering  in  the 
desert,  they  consider  it  as  agreeing  with  three  histor- 
ical stages  in  the  national  history.  As  stated  above, 
the  mam  objects  of  this  triple  legislation  are  the  sanc- 
tuary, the  feasts,  and  the  priesthood. 

(a)  The  Sancluarij. —At  first,  so  the  critics  say,  sacri- 
fices were  allowed  to  be  offered  in  any  place  where  the 
Lord  had  manifested  his  name  (Ex.,  xx,  24-6);  then 
the  sanctuary  was  limited  to  the  one  place  chosen  by 
God  (Deut.,  xii,  5);    thirdly,  the  Priestly  Code  sup- 
pose.s  the  unity  of  sanctuary,  and  prescribes  the  proper 
religious  rites  to  be  observed.     Moreover,  the  critics 
point  out  historical  incidents  showing  that  before  the 
enforcement  of  the  Deuteronomic  law  sacrifices  were 
offered  in  various  places  quite  distinct  from  the  resting 
place  of  the  ark.    What  do  the  defenders  of  the  Mosaic 
authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  answer?    First,  as  to  the 
triple  law,  it  points  to  three  different  stages  in  Israel's 
desert  life:  before  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  at  the 
foot  of  Mt.  Sinai,  the  people  were  allowed  to  erect 
altars  and  to  offer  sacrifices  everywhere  provided  the 
name  of  the  Lord  had  been  manifested;  next,  after  the 
people  had  adored  the  golden  calf,  and  the  tabernacle 
had  been  erected,  sacrifice  could  be  offered  only  before 
the  tabernacle,  and  even  the  cattle  killed  for  consump- 
tion had  to  be  slaughtered  in  the  same  place,  in  order 
to  prevent  a  relapse  into  idolatry;   finally,  when  the 
people  were  about  to  enter  the  promised  land,  the  last 
law  was  abolished,  being  then  quite  impossible,  but  the 
unity  of  sanctuary  was  kept  in  the  place  which  God 
would  choose.     Secondly,  as  to  the  historical  facts 
urged  by  the  critics,  some  of  them  are  caused  by  direct 
Divine  intervention,  miracle  or  prophetic  inspiration, 
an(l  as  such  are  fully  legitimate;  others  are  evidently 
violations  of  the  law,  and  are  not  sanctioned  by  the 
mspired  writers;    a  third  class  of  facts  may  be  ex- 
plained in  one  of  three  ways:   (a')  Poels  ("Le  sanctu- 
aire  de  Kirjath  Jeraim",  Louvain,  1894;    "Examen 
critique  de  I'histoire  du  sanctuaire  de  I'arche",  Lou- 
vain, 1897)  endeavours  to  prove  that  Gabaon,  Mas- 
phath,  and  Kiriath-Jarim  denote  the  same  place,  so 
that  the  multiplicity  of  sanctuaries  is  only  apparent, 
not  real.    (^')  Van  Hoonacker  ("  Le  lieu  du  culte  dans 
la  legislation  ntuelle  des  H^breux"  in  "Museeon" 
April-Oot.,   1894,  XIII,   195-204,  299-320,  533-41; 
XIV,  17-38)  distinguishes  between  private  and  public 
altars;  the  public  and  national  worship  is  legally  cen- 
tralized in  one  sanctuary  and  around  one  altar,  while 
private  altars  may  be  had  for  domestic  worship.     (7') 
But  more  commonly  it  is  admitted  that  before  God 
had  chosen  the  site  of  national  sanctuary,  it  was  not 
forbidtlen  by  law  to  sacrifice  anywhere,  even  away 
from  the  place  of  the  ?,rk.    After  the  building  of  the 
temple  the  law  was  not  considered  so  stringent  as  to 
bind  under  all  circumstances.    Thus  far  then  the  argu- 
ment of  the  critics  is  not  conclusive. 

(^)  The  Sacrifices. — According  to  the  critics,  the 
Book  of  the  Covenant  enjoined  only  the  offering  of  the 
finst-fruits  and  the  first-born  of  animals,  the  redemp- 
tion of  the  first-born  of  men,  and  a  free-will  offering  on 
visiting  the  sanctuary  (Ex.,  xxii,  28-9;  x.xiii,  15,  [Heb., 
xxiii,  19]);  Deuteronomy  more  clearly  defines  some  of 
these  laws  (xv,  19-23;  xxvi,  1-11),  and  imposes  the 
law  of  tithes  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor,  the  widows 
the  orphans,  and  the  Levites  (xxvi,  12-5) ;  the  Priestly 
Code  distinguishes  different  kinds  of  sacrifices,  deter- 
mines their  rites,  and  introduces  also  incense  offering. 
But  history  hardly  bears  out  this  view:  as  there  ex- 
isted a  permanent  priesthood  in  Silo,  and  later  on  in 
Jerusalem,  we  may  safely  infer  that  there  existed  a 
permanent  sacrifice.  The  earliest  prophets  are  ac- 
quainted with  an  excess  of  care  bestowed  on  the  sacri- 
ficial rites  (cf.  Amos,  iv,  4,  5;  v,  21-2,  25;  Osee 
passim).  The  expressions  of  Jeremias  (vii,  21-3)  may 
be  explained  in  the  same  sense.  Sin  offering  was  known 
long  before  the  critics  introduce  their  Priestly  Code 
(Osee,  iv,  8;  Mich.,  vi,  7;  Ps.,  xxxix  [xl],  7;  I  Kings 


in,  14).  Trespass  offering  is  formally  distinguished 
from  sin  offering  in  IV  Kings,  xiii,  16  (cf.  I  Kings,  vi, 
3-15;  Is.,  liii,  10).  Hence  the  distinction  between  the 
different  kinds  of  sacrifice  is  due  neither  to  Ezech.,  xlv, 
22-5,  nor  to  the  Priestly  Code. 

(7)  The  Feasts.— The  Book  of  the  Covenant,  so  the 
critics  tell  us,  knows  only  three  feasts:  the  seven-days' 
feast  of  the  azymes  in  memory  of  the  exodus  from 
Egypt,  the  feast  of  the  harvest,  and  that  of  the  end  of 
the  harvest  (Ex.,  xxiii,  14-7);   Deuteronomy  ordains 
the  keeping  of  the  feasts  at  the  central  sanctuary,  adds 
the  Pasch  to  the  feast  of  the  azymes,  places  the  second 
feast  seven  weeks  after  the  first,  and  calls  the  third, 
'  feast  of  tabernacles",  extending  its  duration  to  seven 
days  (Deut.,  xvi,  1-17);  the  Priestly  Code  prescribes 
the  exact  ritual  for  five  feasts,  adding  the  feast  of 
trumpets  and  of  atonement,  all  of  which  must  be  kept 
at  the  central  sanctuary.    Moreover,  history  appears 
to  endorse  the  contention  of  the  critics:   Judges,  xxi 
19  knows  of  only  one  annual  feast  in  Silo ;  I  Kings,  i,  3,' 
7,  21  testifies  that  the  parents  of  Samuel  went  every 
year  to  Silo  to  the  sanctuary;  Jeroboam  I  established 
in  his  kingdom  one  annual  feast  similar  to  that  cele- 
brate_d  m  Jerusalem  (III  Kings,  xii,  32-3);  the  eariiest 
Prophets  do  not  mention  the  names  of  the  religious 
feasts;  the  Pasch  is  celebrated  for  the  first  time  after 
the  discovery  of  Deuteronomy  (IV  Kings,  xxiii,  21-3)- 
Ezechiel  knows  only  three  feasts  and  a  sin  offering  on  the 
first  day  of  the  first  and  the  seventh  month.    But  here 
again,  the  critics  use  the  argument  e  silcntio  which  is 
not  conclusive  in  this  case.    The  feast  of  atonement 
for  instance,  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 
outb^ide  the  Pentateuch;    only  Josephus  refers  to  its 
celebration  in  the  time  of  John  Hyrcanus  or  Herod 
Will  the  critics  infer  from  this,  that  the  feast  was  not 
kept  throughout  the  Old  Testament?     History  does 
not  record  facts  generally  known.    As  to  the  one  an- 
nual feast  mentioned  in  the  eariy  records,  weighty 
commentators  are  of  ojiinion  that  after  the  settlement 
of  the  people  in  the  promised  land,  the  custom  was 
gradually  introduced  of  going  to  the  central  sanctuary 
only  once  a  year.    This  custom  prevailed  before  the 
critics  allow  the  existence  of  the  Deuteronomic  law 
(111  Kings,  XII,  26-31),  so  that  the  latter  cannot  have 
mtrociuced  it.     Isaias  (xxix,  1 ;    xxx,  29)  speaks  of  a 
cycle  of  feasts,  but  Osee,  xii,  9  alludes  already  to  the 
feast  of  tabernacles,  so  that  its  establishment  cannot 
be  due  to  the  Priestly  Code  as  the  critics  describe  it 
Ezechiel  (xlv,  18-25)  speaks  only  of  the  three  feasts 
which  had  to  be  kept  at  the  central  sanctuary 

(5)  The  Priesthood.~The  critics  contend  that  the 
Book  of  the  Covenant  knows  nothing  of  an  Aaronitio 
priesthood  (Ex.,  xxiv,  5);    that  Deuteronomy  men- 
tions priests  and  Levites  without  any  hierarchical  dis- 
tinction and  without  any  high  priest,  determines  their 
rights,  and  distinguishes  only  between  the  Levite  liv- 
ing in  the  country  and  the  Levite  attached  to  the 
central  sanctuary;    finally,   that  the   Priestly  Code 
represents  the  priesthood  as  a  social  and  hierarchical 
institution,  with  legally  determined  duties,  rights  and 
revenues.    This  theory  is  said  to  be  borne  out  by  the 
evidence  of  history.     But  the  testimony  of  history 
points  m  the  opposite  direction.    At  the  time  of  Josue 
and  the  early  Judges,  Eleazar  and  Phinees,  the  son  and 
nephew  of  Aaron,  were  priests  (Num.,  xxvi   1  •  Deut 
""'  ^hJ.'^'w'''^'  1, sqq.;   xxii,  13,  21;  xxiv,  33;'judges; 
XX,  28).    From  the  end  of  the  time  of  Judges  to  Solo- 
mon, the  priesthood  was  in  the  hands  of  Heli  and  his 
descendants  (livings,  i,  3  sqq.;  xiv,  3;  x.xi,  1;  x.xii  1) 
who  sprang  from  Ithamar  the  younger  son  of  Aaron 
(I  Par.,  XXIV,  3;  cf.  I  Kings,  xxii,  29;  xiv,  3;  ii,  7  sqq  ) 
bolomon  raised  Sadoc,  the  son  of  Achitob,  to  the  dig- 
nity of  the  high  priesthood,  and  his  descendants  held 
the  office  down  to  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  Cap- 
tivity (II  Kings,  viii,  17'    xv,  24  sqq.;    xx,  25-    III 
Kings  11,  26,  27,  35;  Ezech.,  xliv,  15);  that  Sadoc  too 
was  of  Aaronic  descent  is  attested  by  I  Par.,  vi  8. 


PENTATEUCH 


660 


PENTATEUCH 


Bcsiiles,  the  Biniks  of  Josuo  and  Paralipomenon  ac- 
kuowktige  the  distinction  between  priests  and  Levites; 
according  to  I  Kings,  vi,  15,  the  Levitos  handled  the 
ark,  but  the  Bethsaniites,  the  inhabitants  of  a  priestly 
city  (Jos.,  xxi.  13-()),  offered  sacrifice. 

A  simihir  distinction  is  made  in  II  Kings,  xv,  24; 
111  Kings,  viii,  3  sq.;  Is.,  Ixvi,  21.  Van  Hoonacker 
("Les  pretres  ot  Ics  levites  dans  le  livre  d'Ezcchiol" 
in"Kevuc  bibliquc",  1899,  VIII,  180-189,  192-194) 
Bhows  tliat  ICzochiel  did  not  create  the  distinction 
between  priests  and  Levites,  but  that  supposing  the 
traditional  distinction  in  existence,  he  suggested  a 
divisiim  into  these  classes  according  to  merit,  and  not 
according;  to  hirtli  (xliv,  15-xlv,  5).  Unless  the  critics 
simply  set  lu-iide  all  this  historical  evidence,  they  must 
grant  the  existence  of  an  Aaronitic  priesthood  in  Israel, 
and  its  division  into  priests  and  Levites,  long  before 
the  D  and  F  codes  were  i)ronmlgated  according  to  the 
critical  t  heory .  It  is  true  that  in  a  number  of  passages 
persons  are  said  to  offer  sacrifice  who  are  not  of 
Aaronitic  descent:  Judges,  vi,  25  sqq.;  xiii,  9;  I 
Kings,  vii,  9;  x,  8;  xiii,  9;  II  Kings,  vi,  17;  xxiv,  25; 
III  Kings,  \Tii,  5,  62;  etc.  But  in  the  first  place,  the 
phrase  "to  offer  sacrifice"  means  either  to  furnish  the 
victim  (Lev.,  i,  2,  5)  or  to  perform  the  sacrificial  rite; 
the  victim  might  be  furnished  by  any  devout  lay- 
man; secondly,  it  would  be  hard  to  prove  that  God 
committed  the  priestly  office  in  such  a  way  to  Aaron 
and  his  sons  as  not  to  reserve  to  himself  the  liberty  of 
delegating  in  extriordinary  cases  a  non-Aaronite  to 
perform  the  pric-stK  fuiirlii.ns. 

(iii)  Penlalevilhil  lirilnclinn. — The  four  documen- 
tary sources  of  tlu'  I'cnt^iteuch  thus  far  described  were 
combined  not  by  any  one  individual;  critics  require 
rather  three  ditferent  stages  of  combination:  first,  a 
Yahwislic  redactor  Hie  or  Ri  combined  J  and  E  with 
a  view  of  harmonizing  them,  and  adapting  them  to 
Deuteronomic  ideas;  this  happened  either  before  or 
after  the  redaction  of  D.  Secondly,  after  D  had  been 
completed  in  the  sixth  century  b.  c,  a  redactor,  or 
perhaps  a  school  of  redactors,  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  D  combined  the  document  with  JE  into  JED,  intro- 
ducing however  the  modifications  necessary  to  secure 
consistency.  Thirdly,  a  last  redactor  Rp  imbued  with 
the  letter  and  the  spirit  of  P,  combined  this  document 
with  JED,  introducing  again  the  necessary  changes. 
The  table  of  nations  in  Gen.,  xiv  was  according  to 
Kunen  atldcd  by  this  last  redactor. 

At  first  sight,  one  is  struck  bj-  the  complex  character 
of  this  theory;  as  a  rule,  truth  is  of  a  more  simple 
texture.  Secondly,  one  is  impressed  by  the  unique 
nature  of  the  liypotlicsis;  antiquity  has  nothing  to 
equal  it.  Thirdly,  if  one  reads  or  studies  the  Penta- 
teuch in  the  light  of  this  theorj',  one  is  impressed  by  the 
whimsical  character  of  the  redactor;  he  often  retained 
what  shoidd  have  been  omitted,  and  omitted  what 
should  have  been  retained.  The  critics  themselves 
have  to  take  refuge,  time  and  time  again,  in  the  work 
of  the  redactor,  in  order  to  save  their  own  views  of  the 
Pentateuch.  A  recent  writer  does  not  hesitate  to  call 
the  complex  redactor  ein  genialer  Esel.  Fourthly,  a 
truth-loving,  straightforward  reader  is  naturally 
shocked  by  the  literary  fictions  and  forgeries,  the 
editorial  changes  and  subterfuges  impUed  in  the  crit- 
ical theory  of  the  Pentateuchal  documents  and  redac- 
tion. The  more  moderate  critics  endeavour  to  escape 
this  inconvenience:  some  appeal  to  the  difference 
between  the  ancient  and  the  modem  standard  of  liter- 
ary property  and  (editorial  accuracy;  others  practi- 
cally .sanctify  the  means  by  the  end.  Oettli  considers 
the  dilemma  "either  the  work  of  Moses  or  the  work 
of  a  deceiver"  as  the  expression  of  sheer  imprudence; 
Kautzsch  unctiously  points  to  the  depth  of  the  wis- 
dom and  the  knowledge  of  God  whose  ways  we  cannot 
fathom,  but  must  admire.  The  left  wing  of  criticism 
openly  acknowledges  that  there  is  no  use  in  hushing 
up  matters;   it  actually  is  the  result  of  scientific  re- 


search that  both  form  and  contents  of  a  great  part  of 
the  Old  Testament  are  based  on  conscious  fiction  and 
forgery. 

IV.  Style  of  the  PENTATEncH. — In  some  general 
introductions  to  the  Pentateuch  its  Messianic  proph- 
ecies are  specially  considered,  i.  e.,  the  so-called 
proto-evangelium,  Gen.,  iii,  15;  the  blessing  of  Sem, 
Gen.,  ix,  2(>-7;  the  patriarchal  promises.  Gen.,  xii,  2; 
xiii,  16;  xv,  5;  xvii,  4-6,  16;  xviii,  10-15;  xxii,  17; 
xxvi,  4;  xxviii,  14;  the  blessing  of  the  dying  Jacob, 
Gen.,  xlix,  8-10;  the  Prophecy  of  Balaam,  Num., 
xxiv,  15  sqq.;  and  the  great  Prophet  announced  by 
Moses,  Deut.,  xviii,  15-19.  But  these  prophecies  be- 
long rather  to  the  province  of  exegesis  than  introduc- 
tion. Again,  the  text  of  the  Pentateuch  has  been  con- 
sidered in  some  general  introductions  to  the  work. 
We  have  seen  already  that  besides  the  Massoretic  Text 
we  have  to  take  into  account  the  earlier  text  followed 
by  the  Septuagint  translators,  and  the  still  earlier 
readings  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch;  a  detailed 
investigation  of  this  subject  belongs  to  the  field  of 
textual  or  lower  criticism.  But  the  style  of  the  Penta- 
teuch can  hardly  be  referred  to  any  other  department 
of  Pentateuchal  study. 

As  Moses  employed  no  doubt  pre-existent  docu- 
ments in  the  composition  of  his  work,  and  as  he  must 
have  made  use  too  of  the  aid  of  secretaries,  we  expect 
antecedently  a  variety  of  style  in  the  Pentateuch.  It 
is  no  doubt  due  to  the  presence  of  this  literary  phe- 
nomenon that  the  critics  have  found  so  many  points  of 
support  in  their  minute  analysis.  But  in  general,  the 
style  of  the  work  is  in  keeping  with  its  contents. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  material  in  the  Pentateuch: 
first,  there  are  statistics,  genealogies,  and  legal  for- 
mularies; secondly,  there  are  narrative  portions; 
thirdly,  there  are  parenetic  sections. 

No  reader  will  find  fault  with  the  writer's  dry  and 
simple  style  in  his  genealogical  and  ethnographic  lists, 
in  his  table  of  encampments  in  the  desert,  or  his  legal 
enactments.  Any  other  literary  expression  would  be 
out  of  place  in  records  of  this  kind.  The  narrative 
style  of  the  Pentateuch  is  simple  and  natural,  but  also 
lively  and  picturesque.  It  abounds  in  simple  charac- 
ter .sketches,  ilialogues,  and  anecdotes.  The  accounts 
of  Abraham's  purchase  of  a  burying-ground,  of  the 
history  of  Joseph,  and  of  the  Egyptian  plagues  are 
almost  dramatic.  Deuteronomy  has  its  peculiar  style 
on  account  of  the  exhortations  it  contains.  Moses 
explains  the  laws  he  promulgates,  hut  urges  also,  and 
maiidy,  their  practice.  As  an  orator,  he  shows  a  great 
deal  of  unci  ion  and  persuasiveness,  but  is  not  destitute 
of  t  lie  earnest  iiess  of  the  Prophets.  His  long  sentences 
reiiiaiti  al  times  incomplete,  thus  giving  rise  to  so- 
called  anacolutha(cf.  Dt.,  vi,  10-12;  viii,  11-17;  ix,9- 
ll;xi,  2-7;  xxiv,  1-4).  Being  necessarily  a  popular 
preacher,  he  is  not  lacking  in  repetitions.  But  his 
earnestness,  persuasiveness,  and  unction  do  not  inter- 
fere with  the  clearness  of  his  statements.  He  is  not 
merely  a  rigid  legislator,  but  he  shows  his  love  for  the 
people,  and  in  turn  wins  their  love  and  confidence. 

Many  workg  referring  to  the  Pentateuch  have  been  cited 
throughout  tlie  course  of  this  article.  We  shall  here  add  a  list  of 
mainly  exegetical  works,  both  ancient  and  modern,  without  at- 
tempting to  give  a  complete  catalogue. 

Patristic  Writers. — Eastern  Church: — Origen,  Selecta  in  Gen., 
P.  C,  XII,  91-145;  Idem,  Homil.  in  Gen.,  ibid..  145-62;  Idem. 
Selecta  el  homil.  in  Ex.,  Lev.,  Num.,  Deut.,  ibid.,  263-818;  Idem, 
Fragmenta  in  P.  G.,  XVII,  11-36;  St.  B.isil,  Homil.  in  Hexatmer. 
in  P.  a.,  XXIX.  3-208;  St.  Gregorv  of  Ntssa.  In  Hexatmer.  in 
P.  G.,  XLIV,  61-124;  Idem,  De  homin.  opific,  ibid.,  124-297; 
Idem.  De  vita  Moysis.  ibid.,  297-430;  .St.  John  Chryh..  Homil.  in 
Gen.  in  P.  G.,  LIII,  LIV,  23-580;  Idem,  Serm.  in  Gen.  in  P.  G., 
LIV.  581-630;  St.  Ephr..  Comment,  in  Pentat.  in  Oper.  syr.,  I.  1- 
115;  St.  Ctril  op  Alex..  De  adoratione  in  spiritu  in  P.  Q., 
LXVIII,  133-1125;  Glaphyra  in  P.  G.,  LXIX,  13-677;  Theo- 
DORETUS.  Qutest.  in  Gen.,  Ex.,  Lev.,  Num.,  Deut.  in  P.  G.,  LXXX. 
76-456;  Procopius  of  Gaza.  Comment,  in  Oclateuch.  in  P.  G., 
I.XXXVII,  21-992;  Nicephorus.  Catena  in  Oclateuch.  et  libroa 
Reg.  (Leipzig.  1772).  . 

Western  Church: — St.  Ambrose.  In  Hexatmer.  in  P.  L.,  AlV, 
123-274;  Idem,  De  Paradiso  terrestri,  ibid.,  275-314;  Idem.  De 
Cain  el  Abel,  ibid.,  315-60;   Idem,  De  Noe  et  area,  ibid.,  361-416; 


PENTECOST 


661 


PEORIA 


Idem,  Tie  Abraham,  ibid.,  419-500;  Idem.  De  Isaac  et  anima,  ibid., 
501-34;  Idem,  De  Josipli  palriarcha,  ibid.,  641-72;  Idem.  De 
benedictionibus  palriarchurum,  ibid.,  673-94;  St.  Jerome,  Liber 
quasi,  hebraic.  in  Gen.  inP.  L..  XXIII,  935-1010;  St.  Augustine, 
De  Gen.  c.  Manu-h.  II.  duo  in  P.  L.,  XXXIV,  173-220;  Idem,  De 
Ger.  ad  lit.,  ibid.,  219-4G;  Idem,  De  Gen.  ad  tit.  II,  duodecim,  ibid., 
245-486;  Idem,  Qwest,  m  Heptateuch.,  ibid.,  547-776;  Rufinus, 
De  benedictionibas  patrmrcharum  in  P.  Z...  XXI,  295-336;  .St. 
Vem.  Bedf.  Hexaemcron  in  P.  L.,  XCI.  9-190;  Idem,  In  Penta- 
tejirh  rn„nfi^',r'irii,  ibid.,  189-394;  Idem.  De  tabernaculo  et  vasibus 
( J  (  I  ,  .I'l  ;  r.tS;  RhaBjvnus  Maurus,  Comm.  in  Gen.  in /*.  L., 
(  \  II  ;i  ,  1. 71,  laEyi,Comment.inEx..Lev„Num.,Deut.iBP.L., 
c,'\  111,  't  I  '•.,  Walafrid  Strabo,  Glossa  orditiaria  in  P.  L., 
CXUl.  1,7   .Mill. 

Middle  ,V(.;es: — St.  Bruno  of  Asti,  Expositio  in  Pentateuch. 
in  P.  L.,  CLXIV.  147-5.W;  Rupert  of  Deutz.  De  SS.  Truiitate 
et  operib.  ejus  in  P.  L..  CLXVII.  197-1000;  Hugh  of  St.  Victor, 
Adnolatiune.?  elucidatoria:  in  Pent,  in  P.  L.,  CLXXV,  29-86;  Ho- 
NORiusoF  AuTuN,  .ffcjaemeron  in  P.  L.,  CLXXII,  253-66;  Idem, 
De  decern  plufjis  Mgypti,  ibid.,  265-70:  Abelard,  Expositio  in 
Hexameron  in  P.  L..  CLXXVIII,  731-84;  Hugh  of  St.  Cher. 
Postilla  (Venice,  1588);  NicOLAUS  OF  Lyra,  Postilla  (Rome. 
1471);  TosTATu.'i.  Opera,  I-IV  (Venice,  1728);  DiONYBlus  the 
Carthu.sian,  Comment,  in  Pentateuch,  in  Opera  omnia,  I,  II 
(Montreuil,  1S96-7). 

More  Recent  Works. — Jewish  Writers: — Tiie  Commentaries  of 
Rashi  (1040-11.50),  Abenesba  (1092-1167),  and  David  Kimchi 
(1160-1235)  are  contained  in  the  Rabbinic  Bibles;  Abarbanel, 
Comment.  (Venice,  5539  a.  m.  ;  1579  B.  c);  Cahen,  French  tr.  of 
Pent.  (Paris,  1831) ;  Kalisch,  Historical  and  Critical  Comment  on 
theOld  Test.  (London),  Gm.  (1SS5);  Lev.  (1867.  1872);  Ex.  (18.55); 
HIRSCH.  Der  Pent,  iibersetzt  und  erkUrt  (2nd  ed..  Frankfurt,  1893, 
1895) ;  Hoffmann,  Das  Buch  Lev.  iibersetzt  und  erkldrt  (Berlin, 
1906). 

Protestant  Writers: — The  works  of  Luther,  Melanchthon, 
Calvin,  Gerhart,  Calovius,  Drusius,  de  Dieu,  Cappel,  Coc- 
CEius.  I^IicHAELis,  Le  Clerc.  Rosen.muller,  and  even  of  Tuch 
and  B,^UMGARTEN,  are  of  minor  importance  in  our  days;  Knobel, 
Gen.  (6th  ed.,  by  Dillmann.  1892;  tr..  Edinburgh.  1897) ;  Ryssel, 
Ex.  and  Lev.  (3rd  ed..  1897) ;  Dillmann,  Numbers,  Deut.,  Jos. 
(2nd  ed.,  1886) ;  Lanqe.  Theologisch-homiletisches  Bibelwerk 
(Bielefeld  and  Leipzig):  Idem.  Gen.  (2nd  ed.,  1877):  Idem,  Ex., 
Lev.,  and  Numbers  (1874);  Stosch,  Deut.  (2nd  ed.,  1902);  Keil 
and  Franz  Delitzsch.  Biblischer  Comment,  iiber  das  .4.  T.:  Keil, 
Gen.  and  Ex.  (3rd  ed..  Leipzig.  1878) :  Idem,  Lev.,  Numbers,  Deut. 
(2nd  ed.,  1870:  tr.,  Edinburgh,  1881,1885);  Strack  and  ZoCK- 
LER,  Kurzgefasster  Komment.  zu  den  h.  Scbriften  A.  und  N.  T. 
(Munich):  Stb.^ck,  Gen.  (2nd  ed.,  1905);  Idem,  Ex.,  Lev..  Num- 
bers (,l89i);  Oettli, />e^i(.  (1893):  Notvxck,  Handkomment.  zum 
A.  T.  (Gottingen):  Gunkel.  Gen.  (1901);  Bantsch.  Ex.,  Lev., 
Numbers  {\9QZ);  Z)eu(.  by  Steuernagel  (1900);  Marti,  .^urzer 
Handkommentar  z.  A.  T.  (Freiburg):  Holzinger,  Gen.  (1898), 
Ex.  (1900),  Numbers  (1903);  Bertholet,  Lev.  (1901),  Deut. 
(1899);  BoHMER,  Das  crsie  BucA  Mose  (Stuttgart,  1905) ;  Cook, 
The  Holy  Bible  according  to  the  .Authorised  Version,  I-II  (London, 
1877);  Spence  and  Exell,  The  Pulpit  Commentary  (London): 
Whitelaw,  Gen.;  Rawlinson,  Ex.;  Meyrick,  Lev.;  Winter- 
botham,  Numbers;  Alexander.  Deut.;  The  Expositor's  Bible 
(London):  Dods,  Gen.  (1887);  Chadwick,  Exod.  (1890);  Kel- 
logg. Lev.  (1891);  Watson,  Numbers  (1889);  Harper,  Deut. 
(1895):  The  International  Critical  Commentary  (Edinburgh): 
Gray,  ATumbers  (1903) ;  Driver,  Deaf.  (1895);  Spurrell,  Notes 
on  the  Hebrew  Text  of  Gen.  (2nd  ed..  Oxford.  1896);  Ginsburg, 
The  Third  Book  of  Moses  (London,  1884) ;  Driver,  The  Book  of 
Gen.  (London,  1904);  Maclaben.  The  Books  of  Ex.,  Lev.,  and 
Numbers  (London,  1906) ;  Idem,  Deut.  (London,  1906) ;  Reu.ss, 
Uhistoire  sainte  et  la  loi  (Paris.  1879);  Kuenen,  Hosykaas,  and 
OoRT,  Het  Oude  Testament  (Leyden,  1900-1). 

Catholic  Works: — The  works  of  Cajetan.  Oleaster,  Steuchus 
EuGUBiNus,  Sante  Pagnino.  Lippomannus,  Hammer,  B.  Pe- 
REiRA,  AsORius  Martinengus,  Lorinus,  Tirinius,  a  Lapide, 
Corn.  Jansenius,  BoNFRfeRE,  Frassen,  Calmet,  Brentano, 
Dereser,  and  Scholz  are  either  too  well  known  or  too  unimpor- 
tant to  need  further  notice.  La  Sainte  Bible  (.Paris):  Crelier.  La 
Genise  (1889);  Idem,  VExode  et  le  Livitique  (1886):  Thochon, 
Les  Nombres  et  le  Deuteronome  (1887-8) ;  Cursus  Scripturtx  Sacrw 
(Paris):  von  Hummelauer,  (Jen.  (1895);  Ex.,  Lev.  {ISilT);  Num. 
(1899):  DeuJ.  (1901);  Sohrank,  Comment.  ?i(eraJ.  in  Gen.  (1835); 
Lamt,  Comment  in  I.  Gen.  (Mechlin,  1883-4);  Tappehorn,  Erkld- 
rung  der  Gen.  (Paderborn.  1888);  Hoberg,  Die  Gen.  nach'dem 
Literalsinn  erkldrt  (Freiburg.  1899) ;  Fillion.  La  Sainte  Bible,  I 
(Paris,  1888) ;  Neteler,  Das  Buch  Genesis  der  Vulgata  und  des 
hebrdischen  Textes  ubersetzt  und  erkldrt  (Miinster,  1905) :  Gigot, 
Special  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Old  Testament,  I  (New 
York,  1901).  A.   J.    MaaS. 

Pentecost.     See  Whitsunday. 

Pentecost  (of  the  Jews),  Fea.st  of,  the  second 
in  importance  of  the  great  Jewish  feasts.  The  term, 
adopted  from  the  Greek-speaking  Jews  (Tob.,  ii,  1 ;  II 
Mac,  xii,  32;  Joseph.,  "Ant.",  Ill,  x,  6;  etc.)  alludes 
to  the  fact  that  the  feast,  known  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment as  "thefeast  of  harvest  of  the  firstfruits"  (Exod., 
xxiii,  16),  "the  feast  of  weeks"  (Exod.,  xxxiv,  22; 
Deut.,  xvi,  10;  II  Par.,  viii,  1.3),  the  "  day  of  firstfruits" 
(Num.,  xxviii.  26),  and  called  by  later  .lews  'n.-iereth 
or'asartha  (solemn  assembly,  and  probably  "closing 
festival",  Pentecost  being  the  closing  festival  of  the 


harvest  and  of  the  Paschal  season),  fell  on  the  fiftieth 
day  from  "the  next  day  after  the  sabbath"  of  the 
Passover  (Lev.,  xxiii,  11).  The  interpretation  of  this 
passage  was  early  disputed  and  at  the  time  of  Je.sus 
Christ  two  opinions  touching  the  exact  day  of  the 
feast  were  held.  Most  doctors  (and  the  bulk  of  the 
people)  understood  (on  the  force  of  Lev.,  xxviii,  7)  the 
sabbath  spoken  of  in  verse  11  to  be  the  first  day  of  the 
unleavened  bread,  Nisan  15;  whereas  the  Sadducees 
(later  also  the  Karaites)  held  that  the  weekly  sabbath 
falling  during  the  Passover  festivities  was  meant  (Tal- 
mud, Treat.  Menach.,  x,  1-3;  Chagiga,  ii,  4).  Which 
opinion  is  more  in  accordance  with  the  natural  meaning 
of  the  passage,  we  shall  leave  undecided;  the  dissent 
is  long  since  over,  all  Jews  celebrating  the  Pente- 
cost on  the  fiftieth  day  after  Nisan  16.  As  the  ofTer- 
ing  of  a  sheaf  of  barley  marked  the  beginning  of  the 
harvest  season,  so  the  offering  of  loaves  made  from 
the  new  wheat  marked  its  completion.  This  is  no 
proof  that  Pentecost  was  originally  a  mere  nature- 
festival;  but  it  shows  that  the  Mosaic  legislation  had 
in  view  an  agricultural  population,  to  whose  special 
needs  and  disposition  it  was  perfectly  adapted.  Since 
the  close  of  Biblical  times,  an  entirely  new  significance, 
never  so  much  as  hinted  at  in  Scripture,  has  been 
attached  by  the  Jews  to  the  feast:  the  Pentecost 
is  held  to  commemorate  the  giving  of  the  Law  on 
Mount  Sinai,  which,  according  to  Exod.,  xix,  1,  took 
place  on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  departure  from 
Egypt.  This  view,  admitted  by  several  Fathers  of 
the  Church  (St.  Jer.,  "Epist.",  Ixxviii,  12,  P.  L., 
XXII,  707;  St.  August.,  "Cont.  Faust",  xxxii,  12, 
P.  L.,  XLII,  503;  St.  Leo,  "De  Pent.  Serm.",  I,  P.  L., 
LIV,  400),  has  passed  into  some  modern  Jewish  litur- 
gical books,  where  the  feast  is  described  as  ' '  the  day  of 
the  giving  of  the  Law"  (^laimon.  More  Neb.,  iii,  41). 
In  accordance  with  this  interpretation,  modern 
Jews  pass  the  eve  in  reading  the  Law  and  other  appro- 
priate Scriptures.  Among  them  the  feast  lasts  two 
days,  a  tradition  dating  from  the  difficulty  which  the 
Jews  of  the  Diaspora  found  in  ascertaining  exactly 
what  day  the  month  begins  in  Palestine  (Talmud, 
Treat.  Pesach.,  Iii,  1 ;  Rosh  hashsh.,  v,  1).  On  the  day 
of  Pentecost  no  servile  work  was  allowed  (Lev., 
xxiii,  21).  The  oblation  consisted  of  two  loaves  of 
leavened  bread  made  from  two-tenths  of  an  ephah 
(about  seven  quarts  and  a  fifth)  of  flour  from  the 
new  wheat  (Lev.,  xxiii,  17;  Exod.,  xxxiv,  22).  The 
leavened  bread  could  not  be  placed  on  the  altar  (Lev., 
ii,  11),  and  was  merely  waved  (D.  V.,  "lifted";  see 
Offerings);  one  loaf  was  given  to  the  High  Priest, 
the  other  was  divided  among  the  priests  who  ate  it 
within  the  sacred  precincts.  Two  yearhng  lambs  were 
also  offered  as  a  peace-offering,  and  a  buck-goat  for 
sin,  together  with  a  holocaust  of  seven  lambs  without 
blemish,  one  calf,  and  two  rams  (Lev.,  xxiii,  18-19). 
According  to  Num.,  xxviii,  26-31,  the  number  of 
victims  to  be  offered  in  holocaust  on  that  day  differs 
from  the  above.  The  Jews  of  later  times  regarded  the 
two  enactments  as  supplementary  (Jos.,  "Ant.",  Ill, 
X,  6;  Talmud,  Treat.  Menaoh.,  iv,  2,  5).  The  feast 
was  an  occasion  for  social  and  joyful  gatherings 
(Deut.,  xvi,  11)  and  we  may  infer  from  the  New 
Testament  that  it  was,  like  the  Passover,  attended  at 
Jerusalem  by  a  great  home-coming  of  the  Jews  from 
all  parts  of  the  world  (Act.,  ii,  5-11). 

Green,  The  Hebrew  Feasts  (1880);  Bahr,  Symbolik  des  Mosni- 
schen  Culliia  fniidclbcrg.  1839) ;  Benzinger,  Hebrdische  .irchdolo- 
gie  (Fr.  il  Ml  t  L',  1  ^'i  I  TTitzio,  Ostern  und  Pfingsten  (1838) ;  Schecg, 
Bibli:  I  ^    :  Freiburg,  1887);  SchCrer,  GescA.rfe.5  Ju<K- 

srhe„\.  ".r  ./.  C.  (Leipzig.  1886-90);  Wellhausen. 

Prolpiinin,  •:  .  ,  .,,  ./,  I.traels  (Berlin.  1895) ;  WoouE.  Catechisme 
(Pans.  1.>7J);  iKEN.  Antiquitates  Hebraicm  (Bremen.  1741); 
Reland.  Antiquitates  Sacra:  (Utrecht.  1741). 

Charles  L.  Souvay. 

Peoria,  Diocese  of  (Peoriensts),  comprises  that 
part  of  central  Illinois  south  of  the  Counties  of  White- 
side, Lee,  Dekalb,  Grundy,  Kankakee,  and  north  of 


PEORIA 


662 


PEPIN 


the  Counties  of  Adams,  Brown,  Cass,  Menard,  San- 
gamon, Xacon,  Moultrie,  Douglas,  and  Edgar.  It 
was  cut  off  from  the  Uiocese  of  Chicago  in  187.5.  Six 
years  later  it  was  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  Liisalle, 
Bureau,  Henry,  Putnam,  and  Uock  Islai\d  Counties. 
Catholicism  in  this  region  dates  from  the  days  of 
Father  Marquette,  who  rested  at  the  Indian  village 
of  Peoria  on  his  voyage  up  the  Illinois  River  in  1673. 
Opposite  the  present  site  of  the  eijiscopal  city.  La 
Salle  and  Tonti  in  ICSO  built  Fort  Creveca'ur,  in 
which  Mass  was  celebrated  and  the  Gospel  preached 
by  the  Recollect  Fathers,  Gabriel  Ribourdi,  Zcnobius 
Membre,  and  Louis  Hennepin.  With  some  breaks  in 
the  succession,  the  line  of  missionaries  extends  to 
within  a  short  period  of  the  founding  of  inodern 
Peoria.  In  1839  Father  Relio,  an  Italian,  visited 
Peoria,  remaining  long  enough  to  build  the  old  stone 
church  in  Kickajjoo,  a  small  town  twelve  miles  dis- 
tant. St.  Mary's,  the  first  Catlidlic  church  in  the  city 
proper,  was  erected  by  Father  .John  A.  Drew  in  1846. 
Among  his  successors  was  the  poet.  Rev.  Abram  J. 
Ryan. 

Many  of  the  early  Irish  immigrants  came  to  work  on 
the  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal;  owing  to  the  failure 
of  the  contracting  company,  they  received  their  pay 
in  land  scrip  instead  of  cash,  and  were  thus  forced  to 
settle  upon  hitherto  unfilled  farm-land.  These  Irish 
farmers,  with  the  Germans  who  began  to  arrive  a  little 
later,  were  the  pioneer  Catholics  whose  descendants 
now  constitute  the  strength  of  the  Church.  In  more 
recent  years  Poles,  .Slavonians,  Slovenians,  Croafians, 
Lithuanians,  and  Italians  have  come  in  considerable 
numbers  to  work  in  the  coal  mines.  They  are  organized 
in  parishes  looked  after  by  priests  of  their  own  nation- 
ality. The  first  appointee  to  the  see.  Rev.  Michael 
Hurley,  requested  to  be  spared  the  responsibility  of 
organizing  and  governing  the  new  diocese.  After 
many  years  of  fruitful  labour  in  Peoria,  he  died,  vicar- 
general  in  189S.  and  was  mourned  universally  in  the 
city  and  throughout  the  diocese. 

Rt.  Rev.  John  Lancaster  Spalding  was  consecrated 
first  Bishop  of  Peoria,  1  May,  1877.  Born  of  the  dis- 
tinguished Spalding  family,  in  Lebanon,  Kentucky, 
in  1840,  and  educated  at  Bardstown,  Mount  St. 
Marj''s,  Emmittsburg,  Louvain,  and  Rome,  his  career 
as  pastor  in  Louisville,  Kentucky,  as  orator,  and  as 
author  had  been  marked  by  signal  successes.  The 
promise  of  his  earlier  hfe  was  more  than  fulfilled  by 
the  long  years  of  his  episcopate.  Besides  creating  a 
new  spirit  in  the  Catholic  life  of  the  diocese,  which 
found  expression  in  new  churches,  schools,  and  insti- 
tutions of  education  and  charity,  he  sought  fields  of 
larger  efforts  for  his  zeal.  He  laboured  earnestly  in 
the  cause  of  Catholic  colonization  in  the  West.  He 
preached  the  truths  of  life  to  an  ever-increasing  and 
deeply  appreciative  audience  of  American  people.  He 
ranks  high  among  the  educators  of  the  country.  The 
Catholic  University  of  America  owes  its  origin  largely 
to  his  zeal.  Spakiing  Institute,  Peoria,  a  Catholic 
school  for  boys,  built  and  equipped  by  his  generosity, 
is  another  monument  to  his  abiding  faith  in  education. 
His  writings  are  assured  of  permanent  use  and  admira- 
tion by  future  generations.  At  the  height  of  his  use- 
fulness he  was  stricken  with  paralysis  on  6  Jan.,  190.5, 
and  resigned  the  see,  11  Sept.,  1908,  residing  in  Peoria 
as  Archbishop  of  Scitopolis,  to  which  honour  he  was 
rai.sed  in  1009. 

Right  Reverend  Edmund  M.  Dunne,  D.D.,  the 
second  and  present  Bishop  of  Peoria,  was  bom  at 
Chicago,  2  Feb.,  1864.  He  began  his  classical  studies 
at  St.  Ignatius's  College.  Chicago,  and  finished  at  the 
Petit  Seminaire  at  Floreffe,  Belgium.  Completing  his 
theological  course  at  I^ouvain,  he  was  ordained  priest, 
24  June,  1887.  Later  .studies  in  Rome  prepared  him 
for  the  doctor's  degree,  which  was  conferred  by  the 
Gregorian  University  in  1890.  Eight  years  of  parish 
work  in  St.  Columbkill's  church,  Chicago,  led  to  his 


appointment  as  pastor  of  Guardian  Angels'  Parish. 
His  ministrations  among  the  poor  Italians  of  Chicago 
were  remarkably  successful.  It  was  with  ])rofound 
regret  that  they  saw  him  removed  to  the  chancellor- 
ship of  the  archdiocese,  after  seven  years  of  unselfish 
labour.  He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Peoria,  1  Sept., 
1909. 

Statistics:  Bishops,  2;  mitred  abbot,  1;  secular 
priests,  169;  regular  priests,  43;  churches  with  resi- 
dent priests,  151;  churches,  mission,  69;  stations,  19; 
ecclesiastical  students,  14;  colleges  for  boj's,  4;  stu- 
dents, 355;  academies  for  girls,  8;  students,  1457; 
parishes  with  parochial  schools,  69;  pupils,  10,672; 
orphan  asylums,  1;  orphans,  75;  industrial  and  re- 
form schools,  1;  total  young  people  under  Catholic 
control,  12,559;  hospitals,  12;  homes  for  the  aged, 
2;  marriages,  1037;  baptisms,  4527;  burials,  1487; 
Catholic  poi)ulation,  96,000;  number  of  square  miles 
in  diocese,  18,554. 

Jas.  J.  Shannon. 

Peoria  Indians,  a  principal  tribe  of  the  confed- 
erated Illinois  Indians  (q.  v.)  having  their  chief  resi- 
dence, in  the  seventeenth  century,  on  Illinois  river, 
upon  the  lake,  and  about  the  site  of  the  modern  city 
that  bears  their  name.  The  first  white  man  ever 
known  to  the  Illinois  was  probably  the  Jesuit  Claude 
AUouez,  who  met  some  of  them  as  visitors  at  his 
mission  on  Lake  Superior  at  La  Pointe  (Bayfield), 
Wisconsin,  in  1067.  Six  years  later  Marquette  passed 
through  their  country,  where  he  soon  established  a 
temporary  mission.  In  1680  the  French  commander. 
La  Salle,  built  Fort  Creveca?ur  on  Peoria  lake,  near 
the  village  of  the  tribe,  about  the  present  Rockfort. 
It  was  abandoned,  but  reoccupied  in  1684,  when  a 
regular  mission  was  begun  among  the  Peoria  by 
Fr.  AUouez.  His  successor  in  1687  was  Fr.  Jacques 
Gravier,  to  whom  we  owe  the  great  manuscript  "Dic- 
tionary of  the  Peoria  Language",  now  at  Harvard 
University,  the  principal  literary  monument  of  the 
extinct  Illinois.  The  Peoria,  however,  proved  obsti- 
nate in  their  old  beliefs,  and  in  1705,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  medicine  men,  Gravier  was  attacked  and  dan- 
gerously wounded.  He  narrowly  escaped  with  his 
life,  but  died  from  the  effects  on  12  Feb.,  1708,  near 
Mobile,  after  having  vainly  sought  a  cure  in  France. 
The  mission  continued  under  other  workers,  but  so 
late  as  1721  the  tribe  was  still  almost  entirely  heathen, 
although  the  majority  of  the  Illinois  were  then  Chris- 
tian. The  Peoria  shared  in  the  vicissitudes  and  rapid 
decline  of  the  Illinois,  and  infl832  the  remnant  of  the 
confederated  tribes,  hardly  300  souls  in  all,  sold  all 
their  claims  in  Illinois  and  Missouri  and  removed  to 
a  small  reservation  on  the  Osage  River,  Kansas.  In 
1854  the  remnant  of  the  Wea  and  Piankishaw  of  In- 
diana were  consolidated  with  them,  and  in  1868  the 
entire  body  removed  to  a  tract  in  north-east  Okla- 
homa, where  they  now  reside,  being  officially  des- 
ignated as  "Peoria  and  confederated  tribes",  and 
numbering  altogether  only  about  200  souls,  all  mixed- 
bloods,  and  di\'ided  between  Catholic  and  Methodist. 
(See  also  Miami  Indians.) 

Thwaites  (ed.).  The  Jesuit  Relations  (Illinois  missions)  (73 
vols..  Cleveland,  1896-1901) ;  Shea,  Catholic  Missions  (New  York, 
18.54):  Pilling,  Bihliographif  of  the  Algonquian  Languages  (Wash- 
ington, 1891):  RoYCE  AND  Thomas,  Indian  Land  Cessions, 
Eighteenth  Kept.  But.  Am.  Eth..  II  (Washington,  1899). 

James  Mooney. 

Pepin  the  Short,  Mayor  of  the  Palace  of  the  whole 

Frankish  kingdom  (both  Austrasia  and  Neustria),  and 
later  King  of  the  Franks;  b.  714;  d.  at  St.  Denis,  24 
Sept.,  768.  He  was  the  son  of  Charles  Martel.  Pepin 
and  his  older  brother  Carloman  were  taught  by  the 
monksof  St.  Denis,  and  the  impressions  received  during 
their  monastic  education  had  a  controlling  influence 
upon  the  relations  of  both  princes  to  the  Church. 
When  the  father  died  in  741  the  two  brothers  began  to 


PEPUZIANS 


663 


PEPUZIANS 


reign  jointly  but  not  without  strong  opposition,  for 
Griffon,  the  son  of  Charles  Martel  and  the  Bavarian 
Sonnichilde,  demanded  a  share  in  the  government. 
Moreover,  the  Duke  of  the  Aquitanians  and  the  Duke 
of  the  Alamannians  thought  this  a  favourable  oppor- 
tunity to  throw  off  the  Frankish  supremacy.  The 
young  kings  were  repeatedly  involved  in  war,  but  all 
their  opponents,  including  the  Bavarians  and  Saxons, 
were  defeated  and  the  unity  of  the  kingdom  re-estab- 
lished. As  early  as  741  Carloman  had  entered  upon 
his  epoch-making  relations  with  St.  Boniface,  to  whom 
was  now  opened  a  new  field  of  labour,  the  reformation 
of  the  Frankish  Church.  On  21  April,  742,  Boniface 
was  present  at  a  Frankish  synod  presided  over  by 
Carloman  at  which  important  reforms  were  decreed. 
As  in  the  Frankish  realm  the  unity  of  the  kingdom  was 
essentially  connected  with  the  person  of  the  king, 
Carloman  to  secure  this  unity  raised  the  Merovingian 
Childeric  to  the  throne  (743).  In  747  he  resolved  to 
enter  a  monastery.  The  danger,  which  up  to  this 
time  had  threatened  the  unity  of  the  kingdom  from 
the  division  of  power  between  the  two  brothers,  was 
removed,  and  at  the  same  time  the  way  was  prepared 
for  deposing  the  last  Merovingian  and  for  the  crowning 
of  Pepin.  The  latter  put  down  the  renewed  revolt  led 
by  his  step-brother  Griffon  and  succeeded  in  com- 
pletely restoring  the  boundaries  of  the  kingdom. 
Pepin  now  addressed  to  the  pope  the  suggestive  ques- 
tion: In  regard  to  the  kings  of  the  Franks  who  no 
longer  possess  the  royal  power,  is  this  state  of  things 
proper?  Hard  pressed  by  the  Lombards,  Pope  Zacha- 
rias  welcomed  this  advance  of  the  Franks  which  aimed 
at  ending  an  intolerable  condition  of  things,  and  at 
laying  the  constitutional  foundations  for  the  exercise 
of  the  royal  power.  The  pope  replied  that  such  a  state 
of  things  was  not  proper.  After  this  decision  the  place 
Pepin  desired  to  occupy  was  declared  vacant.  The 
crown  was  given  him  not  by  the  pope  but  by  the 
Franks.  According  to  ancient  custom  Pepin  was  then 
elected  king  by  the  nation  at  Soissons  in  751,  and  soon 
after  this  was  anointed  by  Boniface.  This  consecra- 
tion of  the  new  kingdom  by  the  head  of  the  Church 
was  intended  to  remove  any  doubt  as  to  its  legitimacy. 
On  the  contrary,  the  consciousness  of  having  saved  the 
Christian  world  from  the  Saracens  produced,  among 
the  Franks,  the  feeling  that  their  kingdom  owed  its 
authority  directly  to  God.  Still  this  external  co- 
operation of  the  pope  in  the  transfer  of  the  kingdom 
to  the  Carolingians  would  necessarily  enhance  the 
importance  of  tlie  Church.  The  relations  between  the 
two  controlling  powers  of  Christendom  now  rapidly 
developed.  It  was  soon  evident  to  what  extent  the 
alliance  between  Church  and  State  was  to  check  the 
decline  of  ecclesiastical  and  civil  life;  it  made  possible 
the  conversion  of  the  still  heathen  German  tribes,  and 
when  that  was  accomplished  provided  an  opportunity 
for  both  Church  and  State  to  recruit  strength  and  to 
grow. 

Ecclesiastical,  political,  and  economic  developments 
had  made  the  popes  lords  of  the  ducnluf:  Rnmanua. 
They  laid  before  Pepin  their  claims  to  the  central 
provinces  of  Italy,  which  had  belonged  to  them  before 
Liutprand's  conquest.  When  Stephen  II  had  a  con- 
ference with  King  Pepin  at  Ponthion  in  January,  754, 
the  pope  implored  his  assistance  against  his  oppressor 
the  Lombard  King  Aistulf,  and  begged  for  the  same 
protection  for  the  prerogatives  of  St.  Peter  which  the 
Byzantine  exarchs  had  extended  to  them,  to  which  the 
king  agreed,  and  in  the  charter  establishing  the  States 
of  the  Church,  soon  after  given  at  Quiercy,  he  prom- 
ised to  restore  these  prerogatives.  The  Frankish  king 
received  the  title  of  the  former  representative  of  the 
Byzantine  Empire  in  Italy,  i.  e.  "Patricius",  and  was 
also  assigned  the  duty  of  protecting  the  privileges  of 
the  Holy  See. 

When  Stephen  II  performed  the  ceremony  of  an- 
ointing  Pepin  and  his  son  at  St.  Denis,  it  was  St. 


Peter  who  was  regardetl  as  the  mystical  giver  of  the 
secular  power,  but  the  emphasis  thus  laid  upon  the 
religious  character  of  political  law  left  vague  the  legal 
relations  between  pope  and  king.  After  the  acknowl- 
edgement of  his  territorial  claims  the  pope  was  in 
reality  a  ruling  sovereign,  but  he  had  placed  himself 
under  the  protection  of  the  Frankish  ruler  and  had 
sworn  that  he  and  his  people  would  be  true  to  the  king. 
Thus  his  sovereignty  was  limited  from  the  very  start 
as  regards  what  was  external  to  his  domain.  The  con- 
nexion between  Rome  and  the  Frankish  kingdom  in- 
volved Pepin  during  the  years  754-56  in  war  with  the 
Lombard  King  Aistulf,  who  was  forced  to  return  to 
the  Church  the  territory  he  had  illegally  held.  Pepin's 
commanding  position  in  the  world  of  his  time  was 
permanently  secured  when  he  took  Septimania  from 
the  Arabs.  Another  particularly  important  act  was 
his  renewed  overthrow  of  the  rebellion  in  Aqui- 
taine  which  was  once  more  made  a  part  of  the  king- 
dom. He  was  not  so  fortunate  in  his  campaigns 
against  the  Saxons  and  Bavarians.  He  could  do  no 
more  than  repeatedly  attempt  to  protect  the  boun- 
daries of  the  kingdom  against  the  incessantly  restless 
Saxons.  Bavaria  remained  an  entirely  independent 
State  and  advanced  in  civilization  under  Duke  Tas- 
silo.  Pepin's  activity  in  war  was  accompanied  by  a 
widely  extended  activity  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
Frankish  kingdom,  his  main  object  being  the  reform 
of  legislation  and  internal  affairs,  especially  of  eccle- 
siastical conditions.  He  continued  the  ecclesiastical 
reforms  commenced  by  St.  Boniface.  In  doing  this 
Pepin  demanded  an  unlimited  authority  over  the 
Church.  He  himself  wished  to  be  the  leader  of  the 
reforms.  However,  although  St.  Boniface  changed 
nothing  by  his  reformatory  labours  in  the  ecclesiastico- 
political  relations  that  had  developed  in  the  Frankish 
kingdom  upon  the  basis  of  the  Germanic  conception  of 
the  State,  nevertheless  he  had  placed  the  purified  and 
unified  Frankish  Church  more  definitely  under  the 
control  of  the  papal  see  than  had  hitherto  been  the 
case.  From  the  time  of  St.  Boniface  the  Church  was 
more  generally  acknowledged  by  the  Franks  to  be  the 
mystical  power  appointed  by  God.  When  he  deposed 
the  last  of  the  Merovingians  Pepin  was  also  obliged  to 
acknowledge  the  increased  authority  of  the  Church  by 
calling  upon  it  for  moral  support.  Consequently  the 
ecclesiastical  supremacy  of  the  Frankish  king  over  the 
Church  of  his  country  remained  externally  imdimin- 
ished.  Nevertheless  by  his  life-work  Pepin  had  power- 
fully aided  the  authority  of  the  Church  and  with  it  the 
conception  of  ecclesiastical  unity.  He  was  buried  at 
St.  Denis  where  he  died.  He  preserved  the  empire 
created  by  Clovis  from  the  destruction  that  menaced 
it;  he  was  able  to  overcome  the  great  danger  arising 
from  social  conditions  that  threatened  the  Frankish 
kingdom,  by  opposing  to  the  unruly  lay  nobility  the 
ecclesiastical  aristocracy  that  had  been  strengthened  by 
the  general  reform.  When  he  died  the  means  had  been 
created  by  which  his  greater  son  could  solve  the  prob- 
lems of  the  empire.  Pepin's  policy  marked  out  the 
tasks  to  which  Charlemagne  devoted  himself:  quiet- 
ing the  Saxons,  the  subjection  of  the  duchies,  and 
lastly  the  regulation  of  the  ecclesiastical  question  and 
witli'it  that  of  Italy. 

Hahn-.  Jahrhdcher  des  frUnkUchen  Reiches  741-762  (Berlin, 
1S63) ;  Oelsner,  Jahrbiicher  des  frankischen  Reiches  unter  Konig 
Pippin  (Leipzig,  1871);  Muhlbacher,  Deutsche  Oeschichte  unter 
der  KaTolingern  (Stuttgart,  1896) ;  Paris,  La  legende  de  PSpin  le 
Bre/inMelariges  (Havre,  1895):  Hampers,  Kar!  der  Gmise  (Mainz, 
1910). — Of  the  large  bibliography  concerning  the  question  of  the 
Donation  of  Pepin  ma.v  be  mentioned:  Scheffer-Boichorst, 
Pepins  und  Karls  d.  Gr.  Schenkungsversprechen  in  Milteilungen  des 
Osterr.  Instituts  fiir  Geschichts/orschung,  V;  Martens,  Die  drei 
undchten  Kapilel  der  Vita  Hadrians  1  in  Theolog.  Quartalschrift, 
LXVIII:  ScHNTJRER,  Die  Entstehung  des  Kirchenstaats  (Cologne, 
1894):  Martens,  Beleuchtung  der  neuerten  Kontroversen  iiber  die 
rdmische  Frage  unter  Pippin  und  Karl  d,  Gr.  (Miinster,  1898); 
Crivellucci,  Delle  Origim'dello  Stato  Ponteficio  in  Studi  storici, 

X,  XI,  XII.  Franz  Kampers. 

Pepuziaxis.    See  Montanists. 


PERAT^ 


664 


PEREZ 


PeratsB.    See  Gnosticism. 

Percy,  John  {alias  John  Fisher),  b.  at  Holmesido, 
Durham,  27  Sep.,  15(59;  il.  at  London,  3  Dec,  1G41. 
Converted  when  only  fourteen  years,  he  went  first  to 
Reims,  in  1580,  then  to  the  English  College,  Rome, 
15S9-94.  Returning  to  Belgium,  he  entered  the 
Jesuit  novitiate,  2  May,  1594,  and  then  set  out  for 
England  in  1590.  He  was,  however,  arrested  by  the 
Dutch,  tortured,  and  sent  prisoner  to  London.  He 
managed  to  escape,  and  became  the  companion  of 
Father  Cierard  in  several  adventures.  He  was  seized 
at  Harrowden  (Xoveinber,  1005)  at  the  time  of  the 
Gunpowtler  Plot,  but  was  eventually  banished  at  the 
requcjst  of  the  Spanish  amba,s.sador  (1000).  Retiring 
to  Belgium  he  was  for  a  time  head  of  the  English  Jesu- 
its, then  professor  of  Scripture  at  Louvain,  after  which 
he  returned  again  to  England,  and  was  again  impris- 
onc<l  and  condemned  to  death  (1610) .  He  had  already 
begun  to  write  on  current  controversies,  and  when 
James  I  desired  a  series  of  disputations  in  1622,  Percy, 
who  wa.s  then  in  a  prison  in  London,  was  required  to 
defend  the  Catholic  side.  In  these  disputations  King 
James  himself  and  Laud  took  a  leading  part.  .\s  a  re- 
sult of  these  disputations,  Mary  Countess  of  Bucking- 
ham, and  Chillingworth  became  converts  to  the 
Church.  These  controversies  were  afterwards  printed 
and  discussed  by  Percy  and  Floyd  on  the  Catholic 
side,  and  by  Laud,  Francis  White,  John  White,  Feat- 
ley,  and  Wotton  on  the  Protestant.  Percy  was  event  u- 
alh'  relea-sed  in  1625  and  ordered  to  banishment  in 
1635,  but  he  was  suffered  to  remain  in  London  till  his 
death. 

Foley,  Records  of  the  English  Province  S.  J.  (London.  1S77) ; 
SoMMERVoaEL,  BiMiolhique  de  la  C.  de  J.  (Paris,  1892) ;  Laud, 
Conference  iHth  Fisher  Ihc  Jesuit  (London,  1901). 

J.  H.  Pollen. 

Peregrine  Latiosi,  S.\int.    See  Servite  Order. 

Peregrinus. — The  canons  of  Priscillian,  prefixed  to 
the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  in  many  (chiefly  Spanish) 
MSS.,  are  preceded  by  an  introduction  headed  "  Proce- 
mium  sancti  Peregrini  episcopi  in  epistolas  Pauli  .4pos- 
toli",  in  which  it  is  explained  that  the  canons  were  not 
written  by  St.  Jerome  but  by  Priscillian,  and  that  they 
are  given  in  an  expurgated  edition.  The  prologue  of 
Priscillian  himself  to  his  canons  follows;  it  shows  none 
of  the  characteristics  of  style  found  in  the  tractates  of 
Priscillian;  it  has  presumably  been  rewritten  by  Pere- 
grinus, if  the  tractates  are  genuine. 

The  Codex  Gothicus  of  the  cathedral  of  Leon  con- 
tains a  prayer,  and  the  words  "et  Peregrini  f.  o  karis- 
simi  memento".  The  preface  of  St.  Jerome  to  his  lost 
translation  of  the  Books  of  Solomon  from  the  Septua- 
eint  occurs  in  some  MSS.  after  his  preface  to  his  trans- 
lation of  those  books  from  the  Hebrew;  in  most  of 
these  MSS.  (Spanish,  or  under  Spanish  influence)  a 
note  is  appended  ex-plaining  that  both  prefaces  are 
given  because,  to  the  Vulgate  text  which  follows,  there 
have  been  added  in  the  margin  the  additions  found  in 
the  Septuagint;  then  come  the  words  "et  idcirco  (\m 
legis  semper  Peregrini  memento".  The  Stowe  codex 
of  St.  John  also  has  a  subscription,  in  which  the  writer 
describes  himself  lis  "Sonid  Peregrinus".  Sonid  is 
said  to  be  Celtic  for  a  warrior;  it  reminds  us  of  "Vin- 
centius",  and  .St.  Vincent  of  Lerins  in  fact  wrote  his 
Commonitorium  under  the  pseudonym  of  Peregrinus. 
But  he  cannnot  be  identified  with  the  Spanish  Pere- 
grinus, as  he  was  not  a  bishop.  The  latter  has  been 
identified  by  Schepss,  Berger,  Fritsche,  and  Klinstle 
with  Bachiarius,  a  Spaniard  who  left  his  country,  and 
is  fond  of  speaking  of  his  percgrinnlio;  he  was  accused 
of  Priscillianism,  and  defended  his  own  orthodoxy ;  but 
he  was  a  monk,  and  we  do  not  know  that  he  ever  be- 
came a  bishop.  It  is  however  most  probable  that  the 
Spanish  Peregrinus  lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century,  and  he  cannot  be  later  than  the  eighth.  Klin- 
stle is  wTong  in  attributing  to  him  the  Pseudo-Jerome's 
prologue  to  the  Catholic  Epistles. 


ScHEPBS,  Priscilliani  qua  supersunl,  C.  S.  E.  L.,  XVIII  (Vienna, 
I8S9),  179;  Beroer,  Hisloire  de  la  Vulgate  (Paris,  1893) ;  Fritschb 
in  Zcilschr.  fur  Kirchengesch.,  XVII  (1897),  212;  Ki'NSTLE,  £)o« 
Comma  Johanneum  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1905) ;  CHArM.\N,  Early  his- 
tory of  the  ruioafe  Gospels  (Oxford,  1908). 

John  Chapman. 

Pereira  (Pereyra,  Pereha,  Pererius),  Bene- 
dict, philosopher,  theologian,  and  exegete,  b.  about 
1535,  at  Ruzafa,  near  Valencia,  in  Spain;  d.  6 
March,  1610,  at  Rome.  He  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  1552  and  taught  successively  literature, 
philosophy,  theology,  and  Sacred  Scripture  in  Rome. 
He  published  eight  works,  and  left  a  vast  deal  of  manu- 
script. (Sommervogel,  infra,  mentions  twelve  sets.) 
The  main  diflSculties  of  Genesis  are  met  in  "Comnien- 
tariorum  et  disputationum  in  Genesim  tomi  quattuor" 
(Rome,  1591-99).  This  is  a  mine  of  information  in 
regard  to  the  Deluge,  ark  of  Noe,  tower  of  Babel,  etc., 
and  is  highly  esteemed  by  Biblical  scholars,  even  by 
men  of  the  critical  bias  of  Richard  Simon  (Histoire 
critique  du  Vicux  Testament,  IH,  xii).  The  "Com- 
mentariorum  in  Danielcm  prophctam  libri  sexdecim" 
(Rome,  15S7)  are  much  less  diffuse,  and  evidence  the 
critical  acumen,  untiring  energy,  and  historical  re- 
search of  the  author.  Other  writings  of  importance 
pubhshed  by  Pereira  were  five  volumes  of  exegetical 
dissertations  on:  "E.xodus",  137  dissertations  (Ingol- 
stadt,  1601);  "The  Epistle  to  the  Romans",  188  dis- 
sertations (Ingolstadt,  1603);  "The  Apocalypse", 
183  dissertations  (Lyons,  1606);  "The  Gospel  of  St. 
John",  214  dissertations  on  the  first  nine  chapters 
(Lyons,  1608) ;  144  dissertations  on  five  following 
chapters  (Lyons,  1610).  To  the  fourth  volume  of  the 
dissertations  is  appended  a  curious  work  of  twenty- 
three  dissertations  to  show  that  Mohammed  was  not 
the  Antichrist  of  the  .Apocalypse  and  of  Daniel. 

Sommervogel,  Bibl.  de  lu  Cnmpagnie  de  JHus,  VI,  499-507;  IX. 
764;  Hl-rter,  Nomenclator,  I  (Innsbruck,  1S92),  182. 

Walter  Drum. 
Peretti,  Felice.    See  Sixtus  V,  Pope. 

Perez,  Juan,  d.  before  1513.  At  one  time  he  held 
the  office  of  contador  or  accountant  to  the  Queen  of 
Spain,  showing  he  was  of  noble  family.  Later  he  en- 
tered the  Franciscan  Order  and  distinguished  himself 
for  piety  and  learning.  Queen  Isabella  chose  him  for 
her  confessor.  Finding  court  life  distracting  he  asked 
permission  to  retire  to  his  monastery.  Soon  after  he 
was  elected  guardian  of  the  convent,  half  a  league 
from  Palos  in  Andalusia,  La  Rdbida  (Arabian  for 
hermitage,  because  it  had  once  served  as  a  Mohamme- 
dan place  of  retreat).  In  1200  it  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  Knights  Templar,  who  in  1221  ceded  it  to  the 
Friars  Minor.  Father  Francisco  Gonzaga,  Superior 
General  of  the  Order  (1579-87),  declares  that  La 
Rdbida  became  a  Franciscan  monastery  in  1261;  and 
that  it  belonged  to  the  Franciscan  Custody  of  Seville, 
which  by  Decree  of  Alexander  VI,  21  Sept.,  1.500,  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  province.  The  convent  re- 
mained in  charge  of  the  Friars  Minor  without  inter- 
ruption until  the  general  confiscation  of  religious 
houses  in  1835.  It  is  now  the  property  of  the  nation, 
and  used  as  a  museum. 

Here  Christopher  Columbus  in  1484  or  1485  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Perez.  Father  Antonio  de  Mar- 
chena,  a  cosmographer  of  some  note,  lived  here,  and  in 
him  the  navigator  discovered  a  man  bent  on  the  pro- 
ject of  discovering  a  new  world.  The  historian  Fran- 
cisco Lopez  Gomara  (q.  v.)  in  1.5.52  seems  to  have 
started  the  blunder,  copied  by  almost  every  subse- 
quent writer  on  the  subject,  of  making  the  two  names 
Perez  and  Marchena  serve  to  describe  one  and  the 
same  person  by  speaking  of  the  Father  Guardian  of  La 
Rdbida  as  Father  Juan  Perez  de  Marchena.  Both 
fathers  materially  assisted  Columbus,  who  acknowl- 
edges his  obligation  in  one  of  his  letters  to  the  king  and 
queen.    He  writes  that  everybody  ridiculed  him  save 


PEREZ 


C65 


PERFECTION 


two  friars,  who  always  remained  faithful.  Navarrete, 
indeed,  claims  that  Columbus  in  this  passage  spoke  of 
Perez,  the  Franciscan,  and  Diego  de  Deza,  the  Domin- 
ican. As  the  latter  was  Bishop  of  Palencia  when  the 
naviixator  wrote  his  letter,  and  Columbus  on  all  other 
occasions  spiaks  of  him  as  Bishop  of  Palencia,  or  lord 
bisli.i]),  ii  would  seem  strange  that  in  this  one  instance 
he  sliould  omit  the  title.  Deza  aided  Columbus  to  the 
best  of  his  aliility  among  the  scientists  of  Salamanca; 
but  lie  could  not  pre\'ent  the  adverse  decision  of  the 
Spanish  Coiut.  It  was  Juan  Perez  who  persuaded  the 
na\'igator  not  to  leave  Spain  without  consulting  Isa- 
Ijella,  when,  footsore  and  dispirited,  he  arrived  at  La 
Rabida,  determined  to  submit  his  plan  to  the  King  of 
France.  At  the  invitation  of  the  queen,  Perez  made  a 
journey  to  Santa  F6  for  a  personal  interview  with  her. 
As  a  result  Columbus  was  recalled,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  Cardinal  Mendoza  and  others  his  de- 
mands were  finally  granted. 

When  the  navigator  at  last  on  3  August,  1492,  set 
sail  in  the  Santa  Maria,  Perez  blessed  him  and  his 
fleet.  Some  writers 
assert  that  Perez  ac- 
companied his  illus- 
trious friend  on  the 
first  voyage,  but  the 
silence  of  Columbus 
on  this  point  renders 
the  claim  improba- 
ble. It  appears  cei- 
tain,  however,  thit 
Perez  joined  his 
friend  on  the  second 
voyage  in  1493.  The 
earliest  and  best 
writers  also  agree 
that  when  the  second 
expedition  reached 
Haiti,  Father  Perez 
celebrated  the  hist 
Mass  in  the  New 
World  at  Point  Con- 
ception on  8  Dec  , 
1493,  in  a  temporar> 
structure;  that  this 
was  the  first  church 
in  America;  and  that  Father  Perez  preserved  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  there.  He  also  became  the  guar- 
dian of  the  first  convent  which  Columbus  ordered  to 
be  erected  at  Santo  Domingo.  There  all  trace  of 
him  is  lost.  Whether  he  returned  to  La  Rdbida 
or  died  in  America  is  uncertain.  All  we  know  is 
that,  in  the  legal  dispute  between  Diego  and  Columbus, 
the  royal  fiscal,  Dr.  Garcia  Hernandez,  testified  in 
l.'jlS  that  Father  Perez  was  then  dead. 

Go.NZAGA,  Dc  Origine  Seraphicm  Retigionis  Franciscantp,  II 
(Rome,  1.5S7);  Las  Casas,  Historia  de  las  Indias  (Madrid,  1875); 
Daza,  Crmira  general  (Valladolid,  1611);  Olmo,  Arbol  Serafico 
(Barcelona.  170;i);  Melendez,  Tesoros  Verdaderos  de  las  Indias 
(Rome,  ICSll:  Harold.  Epitome  Annahnm  Ordinis  Minorum 
(Roinr,  l(;r,J;  f-.ii,  (•,,/>  V  r.i  Frhih,  'Madrid,  1892);  Irvinq, 
Lijr   „,„l    1..,  ''I       '      '■      '     '■'-      (New  York,    186S); 

Tari.i,.]./     ,  ,     .  ■  I    Hrownson  (Detroit, 

1891);  CiM  //v,  .','...  (  ,     ,  ,  \     I :.,,,,.-.  1861);  Clarke,  Old 

and  New  Li„l,l.^  „„   <   ,Anml,u.,    ,.\r»i    \  oi  k,    1893). 

Zephyrin  Engelhaudt. 

Perez  deHita,  Gin^s,  Spanish  writer,  b.  at  Murcia. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life  except  that  he  lived  during 
the  second  ludf  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  probably 
took  ))art  in  campaigns  against  the  Moors  in  1.560 
and  following  years.  The  work  that  has  made  him 
famous  is  his  "Guerras  civiles  de  Granada".  It  is  in 
reality  two  separate  works,  dealing  with  events  and 
persons  separated  in  point  of  time  by  more  than  half  a 
century.  The  first,  when  it  was  printed,  contained 
the  following  note:  "History  of  the  Zegries  and  Aben- 
cerrages,  Moorish  bands  of  Granada;  of  the  civil  war 
which  occurred  at  Vega  between  the  Christians  and 


the  Moors,  and  was  won  by  King  Ferdinand  \'  now 
newly  published  in  an  Arabic  book,  the  author  of 
which  is  a  Moor  named  Aben-Hamin  of  Granada; 
translated  into  Spanish  by  Ciines  Perez"  (Zaragoza, 
159.5;  Valencia,  1597).  Not  even  the  Arabic  origin 
of  this  book  is  genuine  nor  is  it  a  real  history,  but 
merely  a  novel  founded  upon  fact.  Perez  de  Hita 
did  not  live  when  the  Moors  were  in  the  height  of 
their  power  in  Granada,  but,  as  he  served  in  cam- 
paigns against  the  Moors,  he  was  able  to  study  their 
customs  and  ideas,  and  witness  the  remains  of  their 
glory.  The  second  work  deals  with  the  Moorish  up- 
rising, and  was  published  at  Barcelona  in  1619.  This 
part  passed  through  many  editions,  among  which  the 
later  ones  are  that  published  in  Madrid,  1833,  and 
the  one  forming  part  (vol.  Ill)  of  " La  Biblioteca  de 
Autores  Espanoles  "  of  Rivadeneira.  The  first  may 
be  characterized  as  an  historical  novel,  while  the  sec- 
ond may  be  called  a  history  partaking  of  the  nature  of 
the  novel.  A  striking  peculiarity  of  PcTez  de  Hita 
is  that  he  uses  the  language  of  to-day,  and  we  look 
almost  in  vain  for 
an  archaic  form. 
The  phraseology  is 
modern,  and  the  dic- 
tion is  pure,  terse, 
and  sonorous. 

Buenaventura  Car- 
los Aribau  in  Biblioteca 
de  Autores  Espafioles,  III 
(Madrid,   1848). 
V  ENTURA  FUENTES. 

Perfection, 

(   IIRISTIAN   AND   Re- 

I  1  lous. — A  thing  is 
I  (  rf  ect  in  which 
nothing  is  wanting 
I  its  nature,  pur- 
I  ose,  orend.  It  may 
I  I  perfect  in  nature, 
\tt  imperfect  inas- 
much as  it  has  not 
\  et  attained  its  end, 
whether  this  be  in 
the  same  order  as  it- 
self, or  whether,  by 
the  will  of  God  and  His  gratuitous  liberality,  it  be 
entirely  above  its  nature,  i.  e.  in  the  supernatural 
order.  From  Revelation  we  learn  that  the  ultimate 
end  of  man  is  supernatural,  consisting  in  union  with 
God  here  on  earth  by  grace  and  hereafter  in  heaven 
by  the  beatific  vision.  Perfect  union  with  God  cannot 
be  attained  in  this  life,  so  man  is  imperfect  in  that  he 
lacks  the  happiness  for  which  he  is  destined  and  suffers 
many  evils  both  of  body  and  soul.  Perfection  there- 
fore in  its  absolute  sense  is  reserved  for  the  kingdom  of 
heaven . 

Chrlstian  Perfection  is  the  supernatural  or  spir- 
itual union  with  God  which  is  possible  of  attainment 
in  this  life,  and  which  may  be  called  relative  perfec- 
tion, compatible  with  the  absence  of  beatitude,  and 
the  presence  of  human  miseries,  rebellious  passions, 
and  even  venial  sins  to  which  a  just  man  is  hable 
without  a  special  grace  and  privilege  of  God.  This 
perfection  consists  in  charity,  in  the  degree  in  which 
it  is  attainable  in  this  life  (Matt.,  xxii,  36-40;  Rom., 
xiii,  10;  Gal.,  v,  14;  I  Cor.,  xii,  31,  and  xiii,  13). 
This  is  the  universal  teaching  of  the  Fathers  and  of 
theologians.  Charity  unites  the  soul  with  God  as  its 
supernatural  end,  and  removes  from  the  soul  all  that 
is  opposed  to  that  union.  "God  is  charity;  and  he 
that  abideth  in  charity  abideth  in  God,  and  God  in 
him"  (I  John,  iv,  16).  Suarez  explains  that  per- 
fection can  be  attributed  to  charity  in  three  ways: 
(] )  suhslantinlh/  or  essentially,  because  the  essence  of 
union  with  God  consists  in  charity  for  the  habit  as 
well  as  for  the  endeavour  or  pursuit  of  perfection;   (2) 


PERFECTIONISTS 


GOG 


PERGAMUS 


principally,  because  it  has  the  chief  share  in  the  pro- 
cess of  perfection;  (3)  entirely,  for  all  other  virtues 
necessarily  accompany  charity  and  are  ordained  by  it 
to  the  supreme  end.  It  is  true  that  faith  and  hope 
are  prerequisites  for  perfection  in  this  life,  but  they 
do  not  constitute  it,  for  in  heaven,  where  perfection 
ia  complete  and  absolute,  faith  and  hope  no  longer 
remain.  The  other  virtues  therefore  belong  to  per- 
fection in  a  secondary  and  accidental  manner,  because 
charity  cannot  exist  without  them  and  their  exercise, 
but  they  without  charity  do  not  unite  the  soul  super- 
naturally  to  God.  (Lib.  I,  De  Statu  Perfectionis, 
Cap.  iii). 

Christian  perfection  consists  not  only  in  the  habit 
of  charity,  i.  e.  the  possession  of  sanctifying  grace  and 
the  constant  will  of  preserving  that  grace,  but  also  in 
the  pursuit  or  practice  of  charity,  which  means  the 
service  of  God  and  withdrawal  of  ourselves  from  those 
things  which  oppose  or  impede  it .  "  Be  it  ever  remem- 
bered", says  Reginald  Buckler,  "that  the  perfection 
of  man  is  determined  by  his  actions,  not  by  his  habits 
as  such.  Thus  a  high  degree  of  habitual  charitv  will 
not  suffice  to  perfect  the  soul  if  the  habit  pass  not 
into  act.  That  is,  if  it  become  not  operative.  For  to 
what  purpose  does  a  man  possess  virtue  if  he  uses  it 
not?  He  is  not  virtuous  because  he  can  live  virtu- 
ously but  because  he  does  so."  (The  Perfection  of 
Man  by  Charity.    Ch.  vu,  p.  77.) 

The  perfection  of  the  soul  increases  in  proportion 
with  the  possession  of  charity.  He  who  possesses  the 
perfection  which  excludes  mortal  sin  obtains  salvation, 
is  united  to  God,  and  is  said  to  be  just,  holy,  and  per- 
fect. The  perfection  of  charity,  which  excludes  also 
venial  sin  and  all  affections  wliich  separate  the  heart 
from  God,  signifies  a  state  of  active  service  of  God  and 
of  frequent,  fervent  acts  of  the  love  of  God.  This  is 
the  perfect  fulfilment  of  the  law  (Matt.,  xxii,  37),  as 
God  is  the  primary  object  of  charity.  The  secondary 
object  is  our  neighbour.  This  is  not  limited  to  neces- 
sary and  obligatory  duties,  but  extends  to  friends, 
strangers,  and  enemies,  and  may  advance  to  a  heroic 
degree,  leading  a  man  to  sacrifice  external  goods,  com- 
forts and  life  itself  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  others. 
This  is  the  charity  taught  by  Christ  by  word  (John, 
XV,  13)  and  example.  (See  Love,  Theological  Vir- 
tue OF.) 

Religious  Perfection. — Christian  perfection,  or 
the  perfection  of  charity  as  taught  by  our  Saviour, 
applies  to  all  men,  both  secular  and  religious,  yet 
there  is  also  religious  perfection.  The  religious  state 
is  called  a  school  idisciplina)  of  perfection  and  it  im- 
poses an  obUgation,  more  strict  than  that  of  the 
secular  state,  of  striving  after  perfection.  Seculars 
are  obliged  to  perfection  by  the  observance  of  the 
precepts  or  commandments  only;  while  religious  are 
obliged  to  observe  also  the  evangelical  counsels  to 
which  they  freely  bind  themselves  by  the  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience.  The  counsels  (see 
Counsels,  Evangelical)  are  the  means  or  instru- 
ments of  perfection  in  both  a  negative  and  positive 
sense.  Negatively:  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  per- 
fection, which  are  (I  John,  i,  16)  concupiscence  of 
the  eyes,  concupiscence  of  the  flesh,  and  pride  of  life 
are  removed  by  the  vows  of  poverty,  chastity  and 
obedience,  respectively.  Positively:  the  profession  of 
the  counsels  tends  to  increase  the  love  of  God  in  the 
soul.  The  affections,  freed  from  earthly  ties,  enable 
the  soul  to  cling  to  God  and  to  spiritual  things  more 
intensely  and  more  willingly,  and  thus  promote  His 
glory  and  our  own  sanctification,  placing  us  in  a  more 
secure  state  for  attaining  the  perfection  of  charity. 

It  is  true  that  seculars  who  also  tend  to  perfection 
have  to  perform  many  things  that  are  not  of  precept 
but  they  do  not  bind  themselves  irrevocably  to  the 
evangelical  counsels.  It  is,  however,  expedient  only 
for  those  who  are  called  by  God  to  take  upon  them- 
selves these  obligations.    In  no  state  or  condition  of 


life  IS  such  a  degree  of  perfection  attainable  that  fur- 
ther progress  is  not  possible.  God  on  his  i)urt  can 
always  confer  on  man  an  increase  of  sanctifying  grace 
and  man  in  turn  by  cooperating  witli  it  can  increase 
in  charity  and  grow  more  perfect  by  becoming  more 
intimately  and  steadfastly  united  to  God. 

Buckler,  pc  Perfection  of  Man  hi,  Charily  (London,  1900); 
Devine.  1  Wanuai  of  Ascetical  Thealngy  (London.  1902);  Idem 
Convent  L./f  (London,  1904);  St.  Fbancis  de  Sales,  TreLliZ  on 
the  Lore  of  Cod  (Dublin.  1860) ;  Scahez,  De  religione  tr  7  L  I  • 
bT.  TH9MA8.  Summa,  II-II,  Q.  clxMiv;  lo^K.Opus Deperfectione 
vitcF  spmluahs:  Vermberscb,  De  religiosi.,  inslilulis  el  personia 
traclalus  canomco  rnoralis  (Rome.  1907) ;  Rodriouez.  The  Praclice 
of  Christian  and  Religious  Perfection  (New  York)-  Humphrey 
Elements  of  Religious  Life  [London,  1905) .  ' 

Arthur  Devinb. 

Perfectionists.    See  Socialistic  Communitie8. 

Pergamus,  titular  see,  suffragan  of  Ephesus.  This 
city  was  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Selinus.  It  was 
at  first  a  city  of  refuge,  as  its  name  indicates,  for  the 
people  of  the  plain,  and  has  been  regarded  as  a  colony 
of  Arcadians.  The  Greek  historians  have  recon- 
structed for  it  a  complete  history  because  they  con- 
fused it  with  the  distant  Teuthrania.  It  is  mentioned 
for  the  first  time  by  Xenophon  ("  Anab.",  VU,  viii,  8; 
"Hellen.",  Ill,  i,  6).  Captured  by  Xenophon  in  399 
and  immediately  recaptured  by  the  Persians,  it  was 
severely  punished  in  362  after  a  revolt.  It  did  not 
become  important  until  Lysimachus,  King  of  Thrace, 
took  possession,  301  B.  c.  His  lieutenant  Philetairoa 
enlarged  the  town,  which  in  281  he  made  the  capital 
of  the  new  kingdom  which  he  founded.  In  261  he 
bequeathed  his  possessions  to  his  nephew  Eumenius  I 
(263-41  B.  c),  who  increased  them  greatly,  leaving 
as  heir  his  cousin  Attains  I  (241-197  b.  c.)". 

Its  highest  prosperity  was  reached  under  his  son 
Eumemus  II  (197-59  b.  c).  He  founded  a  school  of 
sculpture,  built  in  memory  of  his  exploits  a  magnifi- 
cent marble  altar  adorned  with  a  battle  of  the  giants 
(Ampelius,  "Miracula  Mundi",  14),  the  splendid 
remains  of  which  are  in  the  museum  of  Berlin,  and 
finally  founded  the  celebrated  library.  Attalus  III 
at  his  death  in  133  B.  c.  bequeathed  his  kingdom  to 
Rome.  Aristonicus,  natural  son  of  Eumenius  II,  en- 
deavoured to  restore  the  monarchy,  but  he  was  cap- 
tured in  129  B.  c.  by  Perpenna,  and  the  kingdom  was 
annexed  to  the  Roman  Empire  under  the  name  of 
Asia  Propria.  It  is  worthy  of  mention  t  hat  parchment 
was  discovered  there,  and  that  the  physician  Galen 
was  a  native. 

The  Apocalypse  (ii,  12),  mentions  the  martyr  An- 
tipas  in  connexion  with  Pergamus.  Gains,  to  whom 
was  addressed  the  Third  Epistle  of  St.  John,  became 
bishop  of  this  city,  according  to  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
tutions (vii,  46).  Attalus,  martyred  at  Lyons  under 
Marcus  Aurelius,  was  a  native  of  Pergamus.  Euse- 
bius  of  CiPsarea  (Hist,  eccl.,  IV,  15,  48),  mentions  the 
martyrs  Carpus,  Papylus,  and  Agathonice,  executed 
in  March,  250.  Out  of  a  population  of  120,000  inhab- 
itants which  Pergamus  then  possessed,  a  large  number 
were  Christians.  Among  its  bishops  may  be  men- 
tioned: Theodotus  who  about  150  was  active  against 
the  Gnostic  sect  of  Colorbasiani ;  Eusebius,  present 
at  the  Councils  of  Sardica  and  Philippopolis  in  344; 
Dracontius,  deposed  in  360  at  the  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople; Philip,  present  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  in 
431;  Eutropius,  at  the  Robber  Synod  of  449;  John, 
d.  about  549;  Theodore,  at  the"  Sixth  (Ecumenical 
Council  in  681;  Basil,  at  the  Seventh  in  787;  Metho- 
dius at  the  Eighth  in  878;  George,  living  in  1256; 
Arsenius,  1303-16.  Pergamus  was  a  suffragan  of 
Ephesus  until  the  twelfth  century,  when  it  became  a 
metropolitan  see.  Although  long  occupied  by  the 
Turks  the  town  was  still  a  metropolis  in  1387,  when 
the  title  was  removed  and  it  became  once  more  a  dio- 
cese (Miklosich  and  Muller,  "  Actapatriarchatus  Con- 
stantinopolitani",  II,  103,  397).  The  diocese  itself 
soon  disappeared. 


PERGE 


667 


PERICUI 


In  610  the  body  of  Emperor  Phocas  was  burned 
in  a  brazen  ox  brought  from  Pergamus.  In  the  sev- 
enth century  an  Armenian  colony,  much  attached  to 
Monophysitism,  and  from  which  sprang  the  Byzan- 
tine Emperor  Phihppicus  Bardanes  (711-13),  estab- 
lished itself  there.  In  716  the  Arab  general  INIaslama 
captured  the  town.  From  this  period  dates  its  decline. 
It  was  rebuilt  on  a  smaller  scale  and  formed  part  of  the 
theme  of  Thralcesion.  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus 
still  spealvs  of  it  (De  themat. ,1,24,  5-13)  as  a  brilliant 
city  of  Asia.  In  1197  the  French  of  the  Second  Cru- 
sade halted  there.  The  town  had  already  suffered 
from  Turkish  incursions.  It  then  became  the  capital 
of  the  theme  of  Neocastra,  and  a  stronghold  against 
the  sultans  of  Iconium.  In  1306  the  Emir  of  Karasi 
captured  it  from  the  Greelis,  but  thirty  years  later 
Sultan  Orlihan  took  it  from  him.  Save  for  the  tem- 
porary occupation  of  Timur-Leng  in  1402,  it  has  since 
belonged  to  the  Osmanlis.  Under  the  name  of  Bergama 
it  now  forms  a  caza  of  the  \'ilaj'et  of  Smyrna  and  num- 
bers 20,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  10,000  are  Turks, 
700  Jews,  and  9,300  Christians  (300  Armenians  and 
9000  Greek  schismatics).  The  latter  have  two  schools 
for  boys  and  girls,  with  about  SOO  pupils,  and  five 
churches.  The  remains  of  three  ancient  churches  have 
been  discovered,  among  them  the  magnificent  basilica 
of  St.  John.  The  church  of  St.  Sophia  was  converted 
into  a  mosque  in  1398. 

Le  Quiex.  OHens  ckrislianus,  I,  713-16;  III,  957-60;  van 
C.\FELLEN,  De  regibus  et  antiquitatihus  pergamenis  (Amsterdam, 
1S40) ;  Imhoof-Blumer.  Die  Mumen  der  Dynastic  von  Pergamon 
(Berlin,  1SS4);  Ublichs,  Pergamon,  Geschichte  und  Kunst  (Leip- 
zig. 1883);  CoNZE,  HuMANN  AND  BoNN.  Die  Ergebnisse  der  Aus- 
grabungen  zu  Pergamon  (Berlin,  1880-88) ;  Pedroli,  //  regno  di 
Pergamo  (Turin,  1896);  Humann,  Fiihrer  durch  die  Ruinen  von 
Pergamon  (Berlin.  1887);  AUerlumer  von  Pergamon  (8  vols..  Ber- 
lin) ;  CoNZE,  Pro  Pergamo  (Berlin.  1898) ;  Pergamon  in  Baumeis- 
TER,  Denkmdler  des  klassischen  AUertums,  II,  1206-87;  Ussing, 
Pergamos,  seine  Geschichte  und  Monumenta  (Berlin,  1899);  CoL- 
LiGNON  et  Pontremoli,  Pergame  (Paris,  1900) ;  Acad,  des  Inscrip- 
tions et  BeUes-LeUres  (Paris,  1901),  823-30;  Cardinali,  11  regno  di 
Pergamo  (Rome,  1906);  Gelzer,  Pergamon  unter  Byzantinern  und 
Osmancn  (Berlin,  1903);  CniNET,  La  Turguie  d'Asie,  III.  472-78; 
Lampakes,  Les  sept  astres  de  I'Apocalypse  (Athena,  1909),  251- 
300;  Ramsay,  The  Seven  Churches  of  Asia;  Journal  of  Hellenic 
Studies,  passim.  S.    VaILH^. 

Perge,  titular  metropolitan  see  in  Pamphylia  Se- 
cunda.  Perge,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Pamphylia, 
was  situated  between  the  Rivers  Catarrhactes  (Duden 
sou)  and  Cestrus  (Ak  sou),  60  stadia  from  the  mouth 
of  the  latter;  now  the  village  of  Murtana  on  the 
Suridjik  sou,  a  tributary  of  the  Cestrus,  in  the  vilayet 
of  Koniah.  Its  ruins  include  a  theatre,  a  palaestra,  a 
temple  of  Artemis,  and  two  churches.  The  very  fa- 
mous templeof  Artemis  was  located  outside  the  town. 
Sts.  Paul  and  Barnabas  came  to  Perge  during  their 
first  missionary  journey,  but  probably  stayed  there 
only  a  short  time,  and  do  not  seem  to  have  preached 
there  (Acts,  xiii,  13);  it  was  there  that  John  Mark 
left  St.  Paul  to  return  to  Jerusalem.  On  his  return 
from  Pisidia  St.  Paul  preached  at  Perge  (Acts,  xiv, 
24).  The  Greek  "Notitia;  episcopatuum"  mentions 
the  city  as  metropolis  of  Pamphylia  Seeunda  until  the 
thirteenth  century.  LeQuien  (Oriens  christ.,  I,  1013) 
gives  1 1  bishops :  Epidaurus,  present  at  the  Council  of 
Ancyra  (314);  Callicles  at  Nicxa  (325);  Berenianus, 
at  Constantinople  (426);  Epiphanius  at  Ephesus 
(449),  at  Chalcedon  (451),  and  signer  of  the  letter 
from  the  bishops  of  the  province  to  Emperor  Leo 
(458) ;  Hilarianus,  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople 
(536) ;  Eulogius,  at  Constantinople  (553) ;  Apergius, 
condemned  as  a  Monothelite  at  Constantinople  (680); 
John,  at  the  TruUan  Council  (692) ;  Sisinnius  Pastillas 
about  754,  an  Iconoclast,  condemned  at  NicEea  (787); 
Constans,  at  Nicaea  (787);  John,  at  Constantinople 
(869). 

Ramsat  in  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies  (1880),  147-271;  Hill, 
Catalogue  of  the  British  Museum:  Pamphylia  (London,  1897). 
129-31;  Idem,  Catalogue  of  the  Greek  coins  of  Lycion:  Pamphylia 
(London,  1897),  119-42;  Lanckor6n8ki,  Les  villes  de  la  Pamphy- 
He  et  de  la  Pisidie,  I  (Paris,  1890),  35-67. 

S.  PETRIDfcs. 


Pergola.    See  Cagli  e  Pergola,  Diocese  of. 

Pergolesi,  Giovanni  Battista,  b.  at  Naples,  3 
Jan.,  1710;  d.  16  March,  1736,  at  Pozzuoli,  near 
Naples.  This  young  man  of  delicate  and  poetic  musi- 
cal gifts  might  have  done  great  things  for  the  music  of 
the  Church  had  he  not  lived  when  composers  were  try- 
ing to  serve  two  masters.  Of  frail  constitution,  he 
shortened  his  career  by  irregular  conduct.  At  an  early 
age  he  entered  the  Conservatory  "dei  poveri  di  Gesi 
Christo"  in  his  native  city,  studied  the  violin  under 
Domenico  Matteis  and  afterwards  enjoyed  the  guid- 
ance in  composition  of  Gaetano  Greco,  Francesco 
Durante,  and  Francesco  Feo.  As  a  student  he  at- 
tracted attention  by  his  sacred  drama  "San  Gugli- 
elmo  d'Aquitania"  but,  following  the  trend  of  his 
time,  he  devoted  the  next  few  years  to  the  theatre, 
producing  with  more  or  less  success  "La  Sallustia", 
"Amor  fa  I'uomo  cieco",  and  "Recimero".  He  was 
not  satisfied  with  these  latter  achievements,  and  when 
Naples  was  visited  by  an  earthquake,  Pergolesi  was 
commissioned  to  write  a  mass  for  the  solemn  services 
of  thanksgiving  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  della 
Stella.  Through  tliis  work  for  two  five-part  choirs 
and  two  orchestras,  he  became  known  as  one  of  the 
most  resourceful  composers  of  the  Neapolitan  school. 
Shortly  after  lie  produced  another  mass  for  two  choirs 
and  later  a  third  and  fourth.  Then  the  young  master 
once  more  yielded  to  the  allurements  of  the  theatre. 
The  intermezzo,  "Serva  padrona",  survived  his  more 
pretentious  works  of  this  period.  Although  requiring 
for  performance  but  two  singers  and  a  quartette  of 
stringed  instruments,  it  had  instantaneous  and  lasting 
success.  The  last  two  years  of  his  life  Pergolesi  de- 
voted almost  entirely  to  the  interpretation  of  liturgi- 
cal texts  (masses,  a  "Salve  Regina",  etc.),  almost  all 
of  them  for  chorus  and  orchestra.  The  work,  by  wliich 
he  is  most  remembered,  is  the  "Stabat  mater"  for 
two-part  choir  and  stringed  orchestra  and  organ,  which 
he  wrote  shortly  before  his  death  for  tlie  Minorite 
monastery  of  San  Luigi  in  Naples.  Requiring  great 
flexibihty  of  execution  on  the  part  of  the  vocalists,  it 
especially  displays  the  author's  chief  characteristic, 
namely,  delicacy  and  tenderness  of  feeling  and  ex- 
quisite workmanship.  Though  of  lasting  artistic 
value,  Pergolesi's  compositions  are  not  available  for 
liturgical  purposes  because  for  the  most  part  they  par- 
take of  the  nature  and  form  of  contemporaneous 
operatic  productions.  They  are  better  suited  for  per- 
formance at  sacred  concerts.  The  latest  arrangement 
of  Pergolesi's  "Stabat  mater",  for  chorus  and  modern 
orchestra,  is  by  Alexis  Lwow. 

BoYER,  Notice  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages  de  Giovanni  Battista 
Pergolesi  in  Mercure  de  France  (Paris,  1772) ;  Blasis,  Biografia  di 
Pergolesi  (Naples,  1817);  Facstini-Fasini.  G«ora«ni  Ba«is(a  dt 
Pergolesi  attraverso  i  suoi  biografi.  (Naples.  1900);  Villarosa, 
Littera  hiografica  (Naples,  1831);  Idem,  Memorie  di  compositori 
di  musica  del  regno  di  Napoli  (Naples,  1840). 

Joseph  Otten. 

Pericope.  See  Gospel  in  the  Liturgy;  Lessons 
IN  the  Liturgy. 

Pericui  Indians,  a  rude  and  savage  tribe,  of  un- 
known linguistic  affinity,  formerly  occupying  tlie 
extreme  southern  end  of  the  peninsula  of  California. 
With  the  neighbouring  and  allied  tribe,  the  Cora,  they 
numbered  originally  about  4000  souls.  In  general 
habit  they  closely  resembled  the  Guaicuri  (q.  v.)  as 
described  by  Baegert,  but  exceeded  them  in  intract- 
able savagery,  being  in  chronic  hostility,  not  only  with 
the  Spaniards,  but  with  most  of  the  other  tribes  of  the 
adjacent  region.  In  1720  the  Jesuit  Fiithers  Bravo 
and  Ugarte  founded  among  tijem  the  ini.Ksicm  of  Nues- 
tra  Senora  del  Pilar,  at  La  Paz,  followed  in  a  few  years 
by  several  other  Jesuit  establishments.  In  1734  tinder 
the  leadership  of  two  chiefs  of  negro  origin,  the  two 
tribes  revolted  against  the  strictures  of  the  mission- 
aries upon  polygamy  and  other  immoralities,  butch- 
ered Fathers  Carranco  and  Tamaral,  with  a  number 


PERIGUEUX 


668 


PERIGUEUX 


of  the  mission  followors,  and  plundered  and  burned  a  poem  on  the  life  of  St.  Martin  and  another  poem  on 

the  missions  of  Santiago,  San  Jos(?,  Santa  Rosa,  and,  the  miraculous  euro  of  his  grandson  by  St.  Martin; 

La  Paz.     For  some  time  there  was  danger  of  an  out-  two  named  .Aiifhcdius;  and  l/upus,  imct,  rlictorician, 

break  throughout  the  wliole  peninsula,  but  order  was  and  ni:itlicnialician.    Two  provincial  .synods  of  Hor- 

rcstored  and  mission  work  resumed.     From  1742  to  deaux  were  held  at  I'crigucux  in  VM'iS  and  1S.')I). 
1748,  a  series  of  epidemic  visitations,  probably  small-         The  history  of   the   church   of   St.    Front  of  P6ri- 

Eox,  reduced  them  to  one-sixth  of  their  former  num-  gueux   gave   rise   to   numerous   discussions   between 

er,'  and  two  of  the  four  missions  were  abandoned,  archa'ologists.      F(51ix    de    Verneihl   claims   that   St 


in  1769  another  pestilential  visitation  wasted  their 
numbers  and  jjrovoked  another  outbreak,  which  was 
suppres.sed  by  Governor  Gonzalez  in  person.  Hy  1772 
less  than  400  remained  alive  and  these  were  hopelessly 


Front  was  a  copy  of  St.  Mark's  (Venice);  Quicherat, 
that  it  was  copied  from  the  church  of  the  Holy  Apos- 
tles of  Constantinople.  M.  Brutails  is  of  opinion  that 
if  St.  Front  reveals  an  imitation  of  Oriental  art,  the 


diseased  from  contact  with  the  pearl  fishers  and  Span-  construction  differs  altogether  from  Byzantine  meth- 

ish  soldiery.    Missions  were  continued  at  San  Jos6  and  ods.    The  dates  9S4-1047,  often  given  for  the  erection 

La  Paz  (Todos  Santos)  under  Franciscan  and  Domin-  of  St.  Front,  he  considers  too  early;  he  thinks  that 

ican  auspices  into  the  last  century,  but  the  tribe  is  long  the  present  church  of  St.  Front  was  built  about  1120- 

since  extinct.  1173,  in  imitation  of  a  foreign  monument  by  a  native 

For  bibliography  see  Gdaicuri  Indians.  local  school  of  architecture  which  erected  the  other 

James  Mooney.  domed  buildings  in  the  south-west  of  France. 

St.  Vincent  de  Paul  was  ordained  jiriest  2.3  Sept., 

Perigueux,  Diocese  of  (Petrocoricensis),  com-  1600,  by  Bourdeilles,  Bishop  of  Periguenx.     Fenelon 

prises  the  Heiiartiuent  of  Dordogne  and  is  suffragan  (q.  v.),  born  in  the  Diocese  of  Sarlat,  was  titular  of  the 

to  the  .\nhliislio|irie  of  Bordeaux.    By  the  Concordat  priory  of  Carinac  which  his  uncle  Francois  de  Salignac, 


of  1801,  the  Dio- 
ceses of  Perigueux 
and  Sarlat  were 
united  to  the  See  of 
Angouleme;  in  1821 
Perigueux  was  again 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
which  united  the  for- 
mer Dioceses  of  Peri- 
gueux and  Sarlat,  ex- 
cepting 60  parishes 
given  to  Agen  and 
Angouleme  and  49 
parishes  which  had 
once  belonged  to 
Limoges,  Cahors,  and 
Tulle. 

The  Martyrology 
of  Ado  gives  St. 
Front  as  the  first 
Bishop  of  Perigueux ; 
St.  Peter  is  said  to 
have  sent  him  to  this 
town  with  the  St. 
George  to  whom  later 


The  Cathedral,  Perigueux 


Bishop  of  Sarlat,  had 
given  him.  The 
Church  of  Perigueux 
is  the  only  one  in 
France  to  celebrate 
the  feast  of  Charle- 
magne  (28  Jan.). 
This  Church  has  a 
special  veneration  for 
Saints  Silanus,  Sever- 
inus,  Severianus,  and 
Frontasius,  martyrs, 
disciplesof  St.  Front; 
St.  Mundana,  mar- 
tyr, mother  of  St. 
Sacerdos,  Bishop  of 
I.iinoges  (sixth  cen- 
tuiv);  the  Benedic- 
tine St.  Cyprian,  Ab- 
bot of  the  Perigueux 
niona.stery  (sixth  cen- 
tury) ;  St.  Sour 
(Sorus),  a  hermit 
who  died  about  580, 
foimder  of  the  Abbey 


traditions  assign  the  foundation  of  the  church  of  Le  Puy  of  Terrasson.     The  Carmelite  monk  St .  Peter  Thomas 

(q.  v.).    Subsequent  biographies,  which  appeared  be-  (1305-1366),  a  native  of  Salles  in  the  Diocese  and  Pa- 

tween  the  tenth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  make  St.  triarch  of  Constantinople,  died  in  Cyprus  during  the 

Front's  life  one  with  that  of  St.  Fronto  of  Nitria,  crusade  which  for  a  short  time  gave  Alexandria  to  the 

thereby  giving  it  an  Egyptian  colouring.    At  all  events  Christians. 
we  know  by  the  Chronicle  of  Sulpicius  Severus  that  a         The  Diocese  of  Perigueux  has  a  remarkable  relic 


Bishop  of  Perigueux,  Paternus,  was  deposed  for  her- 
esy about  361.  Among  the  bishops  are:  Raymond  V, 
Cardinal  of  Pons  (1220-1223);  the  future  cardinal. 
Blessed  Klie  de  Bourdeilles  (1447-1468);  Claude  de 
Longwy,  Cardinal  of  Givry  (1540-1547);  the  future 
Canlinal  Gousset  (1836-1840),  subsequently  Arch- 
bishop of  Reims 


Pierre  Raoul  or  Gerard,  a  parish  priest  in  Perigord, 
brought  back  after  the  first  crusade  the  Holy  Shroud 
of  Christ,  entrusted  to  him  by  a  dying  ecclesiastic  of 
Le  Puy,  who  himself  obtained  this  relic  from  the  legate 
Adh6mar  de  Monteil.  The  Cistercians  who  founded 
the  monastery  of  Cadouin  in  1115  had  a  church 
erected  in  honour  of  this  relic;  its  cloister,  a  marvel  of 


The  Abbey  of  Saint-Sauveur  of  Sarlat,  later  placed  art,  was  consecrated  in  1154.  Notwitlistandmg  the 
under  the  patronage  of  St.  Sacerdos,  Bishop  of  Li-  strict  rules  of  the  order  interdicting  the  use  of  gold 
moges,  seems  to  have  existed  before  the  reigns  of  Pepin  vases,  the  Chapter  of  CIteaux  permitted  a  gold  reli- 
the  Short  and  Charlemagne  who  came  there  in  pil-  quary  for  the  Holy  Shroud.  As  early  as  1140,  the 
grimage  and  because  of  their  munificence  deserved  to  Holy  See  instituted  a  confraternity  in  honour  of  the 
be  called  "founders"  in  a  Bull  of  Eugene  111  (1153).  Holy  Shroud,  tliought  to  be  tlie  oldest  m  France.  St. 
About  936  St.  Odo,  Abbot  of  Cluny,  was  sent  to  reform 
the  abbey.  The  abbey  was  made  an  episcopal  see  by 
John  XXII,  13  Jan.,  1318. 

Among  the  bishops  of  Sarlat  were  Cardinal  Nicolas 
de  Gaddi  (1535-1546)  and  the  preacher  Jean  de  Lin- 
gendes  (1639-1650). 

Vesuna  (subsequently  P6rigucux)  was  in  the  fifth 
centurj'  the  site  of  an  important  school ;  it  had  distin- 
guished professors:  Paulinus  the  rhetorician;  his  son 
Paulinus  the  poet,  who  wrote  (between  465  and  470) 


Louis  in  1270  venerated  tlie  Holy  Shroud  at  Cadouin; 
Charles  VI  had  it  exposed  for  one  month  in  Paris; 
Louis  XI  founded  at  Cadouin  in  1482  a  daily  Mass. 
Bishop  Lingendes  in  1444  held  an  official  investigation 
which  asserted  the  authenticity  of  the  relic.  The 
other  chief  places  of  [lilgrimage  are:  at  Belves,  a 
shrine  of  Notre-Danie  de  Capelou,  mentioned  in  1153 
in  a  Bull  of  Eugene  III.  Notre-Dame  de  Fontpey- 
rines;  Notre-Dame  du  Grand  Pouvoir  at  P6rigueux, 
dating  back  to  1673;  Notre-Dame  des  Vertus,  dating 


PERIODI 


669 


PERIODICAL 


back  to  1653;  Notre-Dame  dp  Temniac,  near  Sarlat, 
a  shrine  where  Clement  V  established  a  priory;  Notre- 
Dame  de  Coulaures;  Notre-Dame  des  Ronces  at 
Nontron,  dating  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

Prior  to  the  enforcement  of  the  Law  of  1901,  there 
were  in  the  Diocese  of  Perigueux,  Capuchins,  Carthu- 
sians, Traiijiists,  Sulpicians,  and  various  orders  of 
teaching  Brothers.  The  Congregation  of  Sisters  of  St. 
iVIartlia,  founded  in  1643  (mother-house  at  Perigueux), 
is  an  important  nursing  and  teaching  order.  The  con- 
vent of  Clarisses  of  Notre-Dame  de  la  Garde,  at  Peri- 
gueux, was  founded  by  two  nuns  whom  St.  Clare  had 
personally  sent  from  Assisi.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century  the  Diocese  of  Perigueux  had  the 
following  religious  institutions:  15  infant  schools,  1 
orphanage  for  boys,  5  orphanages  for  girls,  4  houses  of 
shelter,  25  hospitals  or  asylums,  3  houses  of  visiting 
nurses,  1  house  of  retreat.  In  1905  (the  end  of  the 
period  covered  by  the  Concordat)  the  diocese  had  a 
population  of  452,951  inhabitants,  with  69  parishes, 
467  succursal  parishes,  and  45  vicariates  supported  by 
the  State. 

Gallia  ChrisHana  (nova),  II  (1720).  1446,  14S7,  1508,  1533  and 
instTum.,  485-500:  Dtjchesne,  Fastes  ipiscopaux,  IT;  Labroue, 
Vtcoh  de  Perigueux  au  V  siicle:  poil,.':  el  rlifleurs  (Paris.  1903); 
DuPVY,  L'Estat  del'Eglise  du  Periftv!'!  <  ,' :  /  • 'rt  tlanisme,  ed. 
AuDlERNE  (2  vols.,  Perigueux,  1842-1  ^  i  ,  !■  .  .  ,ui.t.  Organisa- 
tion des  deux  diochses  du  Perigord  in  /i  <  .  hist,  et  arch, 
du  Perigord,  I  and  III  (Perigueux,  1S7  1  :,uA  1  .7(1  ;  Villepelet, 
Hist,  de  la  ville  de  Pirigueux  et  de  ses  iri^titurii^yin  jnunicipales 
jusqu'au  traite  de  Bretigny  (Perigueux,  1908);  Bbutails,  La 
Question  de  Saint-Front  (Caen,  1895);  De  la  Nauze,  Hist,  de 
I'iglise  de  Sarlat  (Paris,  1857) ;  Tahde,  Chroniques  contenant  Vhist. 
religieuae  et  politique  de  la  ville  et  du  diockse  de  Sarlat  depuis  les 
origines  jusqu^aux  premieres  annSes  du  X  VII°  siicle,  ed.  de 
GERARD  (Paris,  1887) ;  Mayjonade,  Le  Saint  Suaire  de  Cadouin 
(Paris,  1905);  Roumejodx,  Bosredon,  and  Villepelet,  5i6/i(;- 
graphie  generate  du  Perigord  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1898.  1902). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Period!  (Petri),  the  name  under  which  the  Pseudo- 
Clementine  writings  are  quoted  by  Epiphanius, 
Jerome,  and  the  "Philocalia".    See  Clementines. 

Periodical  Literature,  Catholic. — The  inven- 
tion of  printing,  besides  exerting  a  great  influence  or 
literature  in  general  and  on  education,  gave  birth  to  a 
new  species  of  literature:  pubhcations  appearing  at 
intervals  either  regular  or  irregular.  These  sheets,  or 
broadsides  as  they  were  called,  dealing  mostly  with  re- 
ligious and  political  events,  can  be  traced  back  to  the 
year  1493.  The  oldest  existing  broadsides  were  pub- 
lished in  Germany,  the  earliest  Italian  periodicals  were 
the  "Notizie  scritte"  of  Florence,  which  were  called 
Gazetta  from  the  coin  paid  for  reacUng  them.  These 
early  precursors  of  the  modern  newspaper  were  of 
course  very  rudimentary,  and  without  any  set  form  or 
scheme.  From  the  first,  however,  religious  interests 
found  an  echo  in  them.  The  broadsides  were  later 
succeeded  by  the  "relations"  and  the  title  of  the 
Jesuit ' '  Relations  ",  which  has  become  almost  a  house- 
hold word  in  American  history,  shows  how  early  the 
Church  authorities  appreciated  the  possibilities  of  this 
new  kind  of  periodical  publication.  In  the  present 
article  the  reader  will  find  not  only  a  history  of  Catho- 
lic periodical  literature  in  the  most  prominent  coun- 
tries of  the  western  world,  but  also  an  account  of  its 
present  status. 

Our  article  treats  of  periodical  literature  whether 
appearing  daily,  weekly,  semi-weekly,  monthly,  quar- 
terly, or  annually.  It  includes  not  merely  the  political 
newspaper,  of  which  the  American  daily  is  the  most 
characteristic  specimen,  but  also  the  weekly,  of  which 
the  London  "Tablet"  and  the  New  York  ".America" 
may  serve  as  types;  the  monthly,  dcaliriK  mostly  with 
historical,  scientific,  religiou.s,  and  Htrrary  subjects,  for 
which  the  English  "Month"  or  tlic  I'rrnrh  "Corres- 
pondant"  may  be  cited  as  examples;  the  quarterly,  of 
which  there  are  two  kinds,  the  one  being  more  general 
in  character,  the  other  treating  of  special  sciences  and 


interests.  Of  the  former  chiss  the  "Dublin  Review" 
may  be  adduced  as  an  instance;  of  the  latter  there  is  a 
great  variety  extending  from  such  publications  as  the 
"Revue  des  Questions  Scientifiques"  to  the  special  re- 
views on  dogmatic  and  moral  theology,  canon  law,  the 
history  of  religious  orders,  and  even  hagiography,  like 
the  "Analecta  BoUandiana".  It  will  be  perceived  at 
once  that  many  of  the  last  mentioned  publications  ap- 
peal only  to  a  very  limited  public  and  that  in  their 
case  the  circulation  of  500  may  be  evidence  of  great 
merit  and  influence,  though  the  number  of  their  sub- 
scribers is  small  compared  with  the  thousands  of 
patrons  of  which  our  dailies  and  some  of  our  magazines 
can  boast. 

In  order  to  enable  the  reader  to  appreciate  justly  the 
information  laid  before  him  below,  we  submit  the  fol- 
lowing general  remarks: — (1)  Prior  to  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  and  in  fact  almost  up  to  the 
time  of  the  French  Revolution,  all  the  periodicals  pub- 
lished in  a  country  reflected  the  spirit  of  the  religion 
dominant  in  that  country;  in  other  words,  in  Cathohc 
countries  they  were  animated  by  the  Catholic  spirit 
and  may  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  Catholic  Uterature. 
(2)  Even  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and  especially  dur- 
ing its  first  half,  the  Press  of  the  various  countries  of 
the  western  world  largely  represented  the  feelings  and 
ideas  of  the  majority  of  their  inhabitants.  Thus  at  the 
present  time,  the  Spanish  journals  are  largely  written 
from  the  Catholic  point  of  view.  (3)  The  daily  jour- 
nals of  continental  Europe  still  differ  markedly  from 
the  typical  American  daily.  The  latter  aims  above 
all  at  gathering  and  printing  the  political,  social,  in- 
cluding criminal  and  economical,  news  of  the  day, 
while  art,  literature,  and  religion  occupy  a  secondary 
rank  and  the  editorials  have  grown  gradually  less  im- 
portant. In  continental  Europe,  editorial  articles, 
feuilletons,  and  varied  essays  often  fill  much  more 
space  than  telegraphic  and  other  news.  This  state  of 
things  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  continental  Euro- 
pean journal  requires  much  less  capital  than  a  great 
American  daily.  It  also  explains,  why,  in  general,  the 
non-Catholic  European  Press  is  characterized  by  much 
greater  animosity  to  the  Church  and  why  Catholic 
dailies  are  more  easily  established  and  supported  in 
some  of  the  European  countries.  (4)  The  European 
weekly  Press  hardly  makes  any  effort  to  publish 
contemporary  news.  The  Catholic  weeklies  confine 
themselves  for  the  most  part  to  the  discussion  of 
topics,  either  purely  religious  or  involving  ecclesias- 
tical interests. 

The  following  articles  have  been  written  by  men 
specially  well-informed  on  the  Press  of  their  several 
countries,  deserving  of  every  confidence. 

Austria. — The  Catholic  Press  is  represented  in 
Austria  by  140  newspapers  and  152  other  periodicals. 
Of  the  former,  79  are  in  German;  22  in  the  Czech,  or 
Bohemian,  language;  16  in  Polish;  3  in  Ruthenian; 
8  in  Slovenian;  5  in  Croatian;  7  in  Italian.  The  79 
German  newspapers  are  distributed  as  follows :  Lower 
Austria,  22;  Upper  Austria,  12;  Salzburg,  3;  Styria, 
6;  Tyrol,  13;  Vorarlberg,  3;  Bohemia,  9;  Moravia, 
5;  Silesia,  1;  Carinthia,  4;  Carniola,  1.  Of  the  Czech 
newspapers,  12  are  published  in  Bohemia,  10  in 
Mor.avia;  the  Polish  are  published  in  Silesia  (4), 
Galicia  (11),  and  Bukowina  (1);  the  Ruthenian  are 
all  published  in  Galicia;  the  Slovenian,  1  in  Carinthia, 
4  in  Carniola,  2  in  Gorz,  and  1  in  Istria;  the  Croatian, 
4  in  Dalmatia  and  1  in  Istria;  the  Italian,  3  in  the 
Tyrol,  2  in  Gorz,  and  2  in  Istria.  The  other  period- 
icals are  distributed  as  follows:  Lower  Austria,  33; 
Upper  Austria,  8;  Salzburg,  5;  Styria,  7;  the  Tyrol, 
11;  Vorarlberg,  4;  Bohemia,  31;  Moravia,  18;  Si- 
lesia, 5;  fialieia,  26;  Bukowina,  1;  Carinthia,  1; 
Carniola,  11;  Gorz  and  Gradisca,  1 ;  Istria,  including 
Triest,  5;   Dalmatia,  1. 

The  distribution  of  the  Catholic  daily  papers  is  as 


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670 


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follows:  Lower  Austria,  4,  of  which  2  appear  twice 
daily.  Of  these  the  "Reichspost"  (Dr.  Funder, 
editor-in-chief)  is  issued  twice  daily,  and  prints  16,000 
copies  to  each  edition;  "Vaterland"  (P.  Siebert, 
editor-in-chief),  two  editions  daily  of  'i.'jOO  copies  each; 
"Neuigkoits-Weltblatt",  August"  Kirscli,  owner,  5000 
copies  to  each  edition;  "Xeue  Zeitunp;",  50,000  copies 
to  each  edit  ion.  .\11  these  papers  are  published  at  Vienna. 
Upper  Austria  has  the  "Linzer  Volksblatt",  4,500 
copies  to  each  edition;  in  Salzburg,  the  ".Salzburger 
Chronik",  3500  copies;  in  Styria,  the  "Grazer  Volk.s- 
blatt",  8500  copies;  the  "Kleino  Zcitung",  26,000 
copies  to  an  edition,  the  last  two  i>ublished  at  Graz. 
In  the  Tyrol  3  daily  papers  are  jjublislied:  at  Inns- 
bruck the  "Allgemeiner  Tiroler  Anzeiger",  with  an 
edition  of  3000  copies,  and  the  "Neue  Tiroler  Stim- 
men",  with  an  edition  of  1500  copies;  at  Trent,  the 
ItaUan  "Trentino",  with  an  edition  of  5000  copies. 
At  Bregenz  in  \'orarlberg  is  published  the  "Vorarl- 
berger  \'olksblatt",  with  an  edition  of  3500  copies. 
Bohemia  has  only  one  daily  in  the  Czech  language, 
the  "Cech"  of  Prague,  with  an  edition  of  3800  copies; 
in  Mora\'ia,  the  Czech  "Hlas"  is  published  at  Brtinn, 
2000  copies  to  an  edition.  Polish  papers  are  the 
"Czas",  pubUshed  at  Lemberg,  ,5000  copies  twice 
daily;  the  "Gazeta  Lwowska",  2000  copies  to  an 
edition;  the  "Gazeta  Narodoya",  published  at  Lem- 
berg, 4500  copies;  the  "Glos  narodu",  published  at 
Cracow,  8800  copies  twice  daily;  two  other  papers 
at  Lemberg  are  the  "Ruslau"  and  the  "Przeglad", 
each  5000  copies  to  an  edition.  At  Klagenfurt  in 
Carinthia  is  published  the  "Karntner  Tagblatt", 
edition  of  2000  copies;  at  Laibach  in  Carniola,  the 
Slovenian  "Slovenec",  edition  of  3700  copies;  at 
Triest,  the  Italian  "Giornale".  In  Dalmatia  the 
"Hryatska  kruna"  is  pubUshed  in  Croatian,  with  an 
edition  of  9000  copies. 

The  local  Press,  weekly  and  monthly,  is  very  large; 
this  is  especially  the  case  in  the  Alpine  provinces 
and  northern  Bohemia.  The  learned  periodicals  show 
work  of  high  quality.  Among  them  should  be  men- 
tioned: the  "Kultur",  pubhshed  at  Vienna  by  the 
Leo-Gesellschaft,  and  the  "  Allgemeines  Literatur- 
blatt",  also  the  "Correspondenzblatt  fiir  den  Clerus", 
edition  of  7000  copies,  the  "Theologischpraktische 
Quartalschrift",  published  at  Linz,  edition  of  12,000 
copies;  ".-^nthropos"  at  Salzburg,  "Christliche 
Kunstblattcr"  at  Linz,  "  Kunstfreund  "  at  Innsbruck, 
"Immcrgrun"  at  Warnsdorf,  "Vla.st"  at  Prague.  As 
regards  illustrated  family  periodicals  the  non-Catholic 
Press  is  decidedly  in  the  lead. 

The  actual  condition  of  the  Catholic  Press  in  Aus- 
tria is  far  from  satisfactory,  though  by  no  means  hope- 
less. Its  defects  are  fully  recognized  by  those  who 
are  best  able  to  remedy  them.  The  daily  papers,  in 
particular,  suffer  from  the  lack  of  funds.  There  is  no 
wealthy  Catholic  middle  class,  the  prosperous  city 
population  being  to  a  great  extent  (politically  at  least) 
anti-Catholic,  while  most  of  the  zealous  Catholics  are 
found  among  the  rural  population,  who,  in  Austria, 
care  little  for  newspapers.  This  state  of  things  renders 
Catholic  journalism  an  uninviting  field  for  business 
investment,  and  the  dearth  of  capital  employed  in 
Catholic  journalism  as  business  enterprise  is  only  in- 
adequately supplied  by  donations  from  the  nobility 
and  clergj',  who  have  neither  the  inclination  nor  the 
experience  to  secure  an  advantageous  employment  of 
the  funds  subscribed  by  them.  Subsisting  on  the.se 
slender  contributions  by  supporters  of  the  party,  the 
Catholic  papers  are  unable  to  make  any  efforts  for 
their  own  improvement  or  for  the  increase  of  their 
circulation  by  advertising;  they  are  party  institu- 
tions, not  business  enterprises,  and  have  to  be  satisfied 
with  keeping  their  expenditures  down  to  the  limits  of 
the  party  contributions.  .At  the  same  time,  the  con- 
duct of  the  papers  is  in  the  hands  of  persons  who,  be- 
sides having  no  pecuniary  interest  in  pushing  them  as 


enterprises,  generally  lack  journalistic  training.  This 
technical  inferiority,  indeed,  affects  the  whole  working 
value  of  the  Austrian  Critholic  Press;  the  remunera- 
tion of  contributors,  as  well  as  (if  editors,  being  consider- 
ably below  the  standard  of  the  Liberal  Press,  the  best 
talent  of  the  country  avoids  Catholic  journalism  and 
enlists  itself  in  the  service  of  the  opposition.  Lastly, 
its  financial  weakness  places  the  Catholic  Press  at  a 
serious  disadvantage  in  n'ganl  to  the  supply  of  scien- 
tific matter  and  foreign  news,  both  of  which  are  abun- 
dantly commanded  by  the  aHluent  Libera!  Press. 

These  enormous  difficulties  are  to  some  extent  coun- 
teracted, it  is  true,  by  Catholic  zeal  and  self-sacrifice, 
but  the  strain  of  ceaseless  effort  necessarily  results  in 
a  lack  of  effective  force.  External  difficulties  aggra- 
vate the  disheartening  conditions.  The  control  of 
public  affairs  by  a  Liberal  Press  lasted  so  long  that  the 
whole  reading  jniblic,  good  Catholics  included,  became 
habituated  to  it,  and  this  acquiescence  in  a  wrong 
state  of  things  resulted  in  intellectual  inertia.  Only 
in  the  first  decade  of  the  present  century  did  the  more 
practically  Catholic  elements  begin  to  realize  that 
those  aristocratic-conservative  influences  which  are 
po])ularly  regarded  as  reactionary  are  not  necessarily 
the  most  favourable  to  Catholic  interests.  The  Chris- 
tian-Socialist popular  party  has  taken  up  the  Catholic 
programme  and  thus  opened  a  way  for  it  among  the 
masses;  a  spirited  agitation  resulted  in  diminishing 
the  political  power  of  the  Liberal  Press;  but,  in  spite 
of  all  this,  the  public,  long  accustomed  to  the  style  of 
Liberal  journalism,  find  CathoUc  periodicals  lacking  in 
piquancy. 

One  more  external  difficulty  with  which  Catholic 
periodical  literature  in  Austria — in  contrast  to  the 
conditions  of  LTnited  Germany — has  to  contend,  is  the 
multiplicity  of  races  and  languages  among  the  popula- 
tions of  the  empire.  The  national  rivalries  are  not 
always  held  in  check  by  the  profession  of  a  common 
faith.  The  Catholics  of  each  race  insist  upon  main- 
taining distinct  Catholic  periodicals  in  their  respective 
languages;  hence  a  large  number  of  periodicals  each 
with  a  circulation  far  too  small  to  ensure  success. 
This  difficulty  has  recently  increased  rather  than  di- 
minished. The  "Vaterland",  e.  g.,  a  Vienna  period- 
ical, formerly  read  by  Catholics  throughout  the  Aus- 
trian crown  lands,  irrespective  of  their  own  national 
languages,  has  now  had  its  circulation  curtailed 
through  this  cause.  And  in  general  it  may  be  said 
that  no  Catholic  paper  in  Austria  can  count  upon  a 
circulation  among  all  Catholics  under  the  Austrian 
Crown;  a  separate  Press  has  to  be  organized  for  the 
Catholics  of  each  language. 

The  result  of  all  these  internal  and  external  difficulties 
is  the  present  embarrassed  position  of  the  Catholic  Press 
of  Austria.  Attempts  have  been  made,  with  the  best 
intentions,  at  various  times,  by  individuals,  corporate 
bodies,  and  congresses;  all,  however,  have  failed  of 
lasting  success,  because  they  lacked  system  and  or- 
ganization. It  is  greatly  to  the  credit  of  some  that 
this  defect  was  finally  recognized,  and  an  effort  made 
to  correct  it,  by  the  Pius-Verein.  As  attempts  to 
obtain  money  for  the  Press  from  the  few  rich  have 
failed,  a  constant  appeal  is  made  to  the  great  mass  of 
people  of  small  means,  and  large  sums  are  thus  col- 
lected. In  this  way  the  question  of  means  is  to  be 
settled.  By  constant  agitation,  or  by  frequent  meet- 
ings, local  groups,  and  confidential  agents,  the  apathy 
of  the  people  is  to  be  ended. 

Although  the  condition,  taken  as  a  whole,  of  the 
Catholic  Press  in  Austria  is  not  prosperous,  still  the 
great  efforts  that  have  been  made  of  late  years  and  are 
still  making  with  ever-increasing  zeal,  at  the  present 
time,  justify  the  hope  that  the  apathy  of  large  sections 
of  the  reading  public  may  be  overcome,  an  apprecia^ 
tion  arouseil  of  the  importance  of  a  Press  that  is 
honourable  and  steadfast  in  the  Faith.  Only  when 
this  is  attained  will  the  sacrifices  in  money  and  labour 


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671 


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that  have  been  made  for  many  years  for  the  sake  of 
the  Cathohc  Press  bear  fruit,  and  a  powerful  press  will 
be  the  strongest  protection  against  the  opponents  of 
the  Church  in  Austria. 

Anton  Weiman. 

Belgium. — Historical  Outline  of  the  Press  in  Bel- 
gium.— Periodical  literature  in  Belgium  may  be  traced 
back  to  1605,  when  the  Archduke  and  Archduchess 
Albert  and  Isabella  granted  Abraham  Verhoeven  of 
Antwerp  the  privilege  of  publishing  his  newspaper 
"Nieuwe  Tijdingen".  But  it  is  in  the  Dutch  period 
of  Belgian  history  that  Catholic  literature  really  orig- 
inated. At  that  time  appeared  the  "Spectateur 
Beige"  of  Father  de  Foere,  which  several  times  pro- 
voked the  anger  of  William  I;  the  "Courrier  de  la 
Meuse",  founded  at  Liege  in  1820  by  Kersten;  the 
"Catholique  des  Pays-Bas"  and  the  "Vaderland", 
both  founded  at  Ghent  by  de  Neve;  the  "Politique 
de  Gand",  the  "Noord-Brabanter",  all  showing  re- 
markable zeal  in  defending  the  Catholic  Church  at  a 
time  when  Catholic  journalists  were  threatened  with 
imprisonment.  A  few  years  after  the  establishment  of 
Belgian  independence  the  "Courrier  de  la  Meuse" 
was  transferred  from  Liege  to  Brussels,  and  took  the 
name  of  "Journal  de  Bru.xelles".  Long  afterwards 
under  the  editorsliip  of  the  Baron  Prosper  de  HauUe- 
ville  (d.  1899)  it  became  the  leading  Cathohc  organ; 
but  now  it  has  lost  its  prominence. 

Causes  which  stopped  its  Development. — The  Revo- 
lution of  1830  brought  Belgium  the  liberty  of  the  press. 
The  majority  of  the  population  and  of  the  National 
Congress  were  Catholics,  but  the  Catholic  Press  from 
1830  to  1874  improved  very  slowly.  The  first  cause  of 
this  was  the  disagreement  between  the  Catholics  and 
the  Catholic  Liberals;  the  next  was  the  neglect  of  the 
old  and  the  establishment  of  new  publications.  Among 
the  new  publications  were  "Le  nouveau  conserva- 
teur  beige",  an  ecclesiastical  and  literary  magazine, 
founded  in  1830  and  discontinued  in  1835;  the  "Mes- 
sager  des  sciences  historiques  et  des  arts  de  la  Bel- 
gique",  founded  in  1833  and  discontinued  in  1896;  the 
"  Revue  Beige  "  of  1834,  which  lasted  only  a  few  years; 
the  "Revue  catholique  de  Louvain",  devoted  to  reh- 
gious  controversy,  history,  and  apologetics;  from  1843 
till  1884  it  counted  among  its  contributors  the  fore- 
most professors  of  the  University  of  Louvain.  An- 
other obstacle  to  the  growth  of  the  Catholic  Press  is 
the  fact  that  the  people  of  Belgium  consist  of  two 
races  with  different  languages,  customs,  and  habits. 
Also  the  competition  of  French  journals  injured  the 
growth  of  the  Belgian  press.  French  periodicals  and 
newspapers  appear  in  Brussels  almost  at  the  same 
time  as  in  Paris.  Besides  their  intrinsic  merits,  they 
have  the  advantage  of  being  fashionable.  Moreover, 
many  Belgian  writers  have  contributed  to  French 
periodicals.  As  an  instance  we  may  name  the  "Me- 
langes theologiques",  a  review  of  moral  theology  and 
canon  law  founded  by  a  society  of  Belgian  ecclesiastics 
at  Li^ge  in  1847.  This  magazine  removed  to  Paris  in 
1856,  where  it  was  styled  "Revue  Thdologique",  and 
was  conducted  by  a  committee  of  French  and  Belgian 
priests.  In  1861  it  settled  at  Louvain,  and  there  con- 
tinued many  years. 

Present  State. — About  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, the  religious  question  became  prominent  in 
Belgium.  Catholics  felt  the  need  of  a  vigorous  defence 
against  irreligion  and  Freemasonry.  New  life  was 
infused  into  the  Catholic  Press  and  to-day  its  condi- 
tion is  more  satisfactory. 

(1)  Dailies. — Out  of  a  total  of  86  political  daily 
papers  38  are  Catholic.  In  consequence  of  the  con- 
stant political  activity  all  the  important  towns,  even 
the  suburbs  of  Brussels,  have  their  local  daily  papers. 
Bruges  has  "La  Patrie";  Charleroi,  "Le  Pays  Wal- 
lon",  a  democratic  journal  of  wide  and  vigorous 
efficiency;    Liege,   the  "Gazette  de  Lifige",   which 


under  editorship  of  Demarteau  (1909)  has  reached  a 
larger  circulation  than  all  the  other  Liege  newspapers 
together.  The  "Bien  Public",  founded  at  Ghent  in 
1853  by  Senator  Lammens,  Count  de  Hemptine,  and 
others,  circulates  in  all  the  provinces  of  Belgium,  es- 
pecially among  the  clergy.  Its  chief  editor,  Count 
Verspeyen,  who  has  just  celebrated  his  fiftieth  anni- 
versary as  a  journahst,  has  secured  for  it  a  well- 
deserved  reputation  on  thoroughly  Catholic  lines. 
The  most  influential  Catholic  journal  in  Belgium  is  the 
"Patriote",  founded  in  Brussels  in  1883  by  M.  Jour- 
dain,  which  with  its  local  issue  the  "National"  has  a 
circulation  of  180,000.  His  bold  and  skilful  attacks 
brought  about  the  downfall  of  the  Liberal  Govern- 
ment in  1884.  The  "XX'  Siecle",  founded  also  in 
Brussels  by  the  late  Duke  d'LIrsel,  the  present  minis- 
ters Helleputte,  de  Brocqueville,  and  others,  is  more 
democratic.  In  Brussels  also  is  published  "Het 
Nieuws  van  den  Dag",  the  most  popular  newspaper 
among  the  Flemings. 

(2)  Weeklies.— Oi  the  1200  Belgian  weeklies,  the 
Catholics  certainly  control  more  than  one-half.  Each 
important  locality  has  its  political  and  illustrated 
weeklies.  Many  jjarishes  have  their  "Bulletin  parois- 
sial".  Each  diocese  publishes  its  "Semaine  reli- 
gieuse".  In  Mechlin  the  organ  of  the  archbishopric, 
which  is  styled  "La  Vie  diocesaine",  receives  contri- 
butions from  Cardinal  Mereier. 

(3)  Revieu's  and  Magazines. — About  a  thousand 
reviews  and  magazines  are  published  in  Belgium, 
many  of  them  by  Catholics. 

(a)  Theology  and  Religion. — The  "Revue  th6olo- 
gique"  mentioned  above  was  replaced  in  1907  by 
the  "Nouvelle  revue  theologique",  edited  by  Father 
Besson.  Besides  this  small  but  useful  review,  about 
150  periodicals  of  various  descriptions  treat  of  theol- 
ogy, apologetics,  missions,  special  devotions  etc.  The 
Jesuits  have  their  "Missions  beiges  de  la  Compagnie 
de  J(5sus",  a  well-illustrated  monthly  magazine,  which 
in  1899  took  the  place  of  the  old  "Pri5cis  historiques", 
founded  by  Father  Terwecoren.  The  Fathers  of 
Scheut  (near  Brussels)  have  their  "Missions  en  Chine, 
au  Congo  et  aux  Philippines".  Other  religious  con- 
gregations and  some  large  monasteries  issue  reports  of 
their  pious  works,  or  reviews  of  piety,  of  lituigy, 
hagiography,  etc. 

(b)  Scientific  Reviews. — The  Catholic  standard 
scientific  review  is  the  "Revue  des  questions  scien- 
tifiques",  a  large  quarterly  to  which  is  joined  a  smaller 
one  of  a  more  technical  character.  Both  were  founded 
in  1877  by  Father  Carbonnelle,  S.J.,  and  a  Franco- 
Belgian  committee  of  prominent  Catholic  scientists. 
Their  motto:  Nulla  unquam  inter  fidem  et  rationem 
vera  dissensio  esse  potest  (Cone.  Vatican.)  found  a  prac- 
tical confirmation  in  the  sound  scientific  character  of 
the  whole  series.  The  present  editors  are  Prof.  Man- 
sion and  Father  Thirion.  The  "Revue  n<io-scolas- 
tique"  was  founded  in  1894by  Cardinal  Mereier,  while 
directing  his  Institut  de  philosophic  thomiste  at  Lou- 
vain, with  which  it  is  closely  connected  (quarterly: 
present  editor.  Prof,  de  Wulf).  With  the  same  institu- 
tion is  connected  the  "Revue  catholique  de  droit",  of 
Prof.  Crahay  of  Liege,  and  the  "Revue  sociale  catho- 
lique", of  Mgr  Deploige,  Prof.  Thiery,  Prof.  Defourny, 
and  others.  At  Louvain  also  appear  some  special 
scientific  reviews,  such  as  the  "Revue  medicalo"  and 
the  celebrated  magazine  of  cytology  entitled  "La 
Cellule"  of  the  late  Canon  Carnoy  (present  editor. 
Prof.  Gilson).  Also  some  philosophical  reviews:  "Le 
Mus6on"  of  the  late  Mgr  de  Harlez,  continued  by 
Prof.  Colinet,  Prof.  Lefort,  and  others;  "Le  Mu.s6e 
beige"  of  Prof.  CoUard  and  Prof.  Waltzing  (the  latter 
of  the  Lifige  University) ;  the  "  Leucensche  Bijdragen  " 
(for  Dutch  philology),  edited  by  Prof.  Colinet,  Lecou- 
tere,  and  others.  There  is  also  the  Belgian  law  re- 
view, "Revue  pratique  des  soci(5tfe  civiles",  founded 
by  Prof.  Nyssens,  Minister  of  Labour,  and  continued 


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PERIODICAL 


by  Prof.  Corbiau.  Outside  of  Louvain,  wo  notice 
"Matliesis''  (Prof.  Mansion  of  Ghent);  the  "Cour- 
rior  littoraire  et  niath<?matique",  edited  by  Prof.  II. 
Gelin  and  tlio  present  writer  as  a  guide  for  preparing 
for  publio  exaniination.s. 

U')  Historical  Reviews. — The  hirgest  is  the  impor- 
tant "Revue  d'histoire  eccl<5siastique",  a  quarterly 
founded  in  1900  by  Canon  Cauchie  antl  Canon 
Ladeuze.  now  !\lgr  Ladeuze,  Rector  of  Louvain  Uni- 
versitv.  Otliersare:  the  "Revue  l)riioilii'tinc",  which 
hi  IS'.io  took  the  place  of  the  "Messagcr  dcs  lidrlcs", 
edited  since  18S4  at  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Marcd- 
sous  by  Dom  Gerard  van  Caloen;  the  "Archives 
Beiges"  (Prof.  G.  Kurth,  at  Liege,  since  1899);  the 
"Analectes  pour  servir  ;\  I'histoire  de  I'Ordre  de  Prd- 
montriS",  edited  at  the  Park  Abbey  (Louvain)  by 
Father  van  \\'atTclghera.  Mention  should  also  be  made 
of  the  ".\nalecta  Bollandiana"  (see  Bollandists). 

(d)  Literature. — The  "Revue  G6n6rale",  though  it 
deals,  according  to  its  title,  with  all  matters  of 
common  interest,  is  chiefly  a  literary  review.  This 
monthly  publication,  founded  in  1863,  reckoned 
among  its  ordinary  contributors  the  distinguished 
statesmen  Malou,  Deschamps,  and  Nothomb,  Deputy 
Coomans,  Prof,  de  Monge,  the  publicist  Prosper  de 
Haulleville  etc.  To-day  the  parliamentary  leader, 
M.  Ch.  Woeste,  makes  it  the  vehicle  of  his  political 
views.  M.  Eug.  Gilbert  regularly  contributes  to  it  a 
most  valuable  literary  chronicle.  With  this  magazine 
we  may  mention  the  "Dietsche  Warande  en  Belfort". 
Other  Catholic  literary  reviews  are:  "Le  Magasin 
Litt(5raire",  of  Ghent;  "La  Lutte"  and  "Le  Journal 
des  gens  de  lettres  beiges",  of  Brussels,  which  have 
pleaded  for  Catholic  art,  but  have  been  succeeded  by 
younger  magazines  such  as  "Durandal",  a  monthly 
illustrated  review  edited  by  Abb6  Moeller,  "Le  Cath- 
olique",  and  "La  Revue  Jeune". 

(e)  Art  Reviews. — Most  of  these  literary  reviews 
touch  upon  art  questions,  but  there  are  also  "Revue 
de  I'art  chr^tien",  a  review  of  medieval  archa;oIogy; 
the  "Courrier  de  Saint  Gregoire"  and  "Musica 
sacra"  which  aims  at  promoting  the  use  of  sound 
music  in  Church  services;  "Le  Bulletin  de  la  Soci(?t6 
d'art  et  d'histoire  du  diocese  de  Liege",  of  which 
Mgr  Rutten,  now  Bishop  of  Liege,  was  the  president 
for  a  long  time;  the  "Bulletin  des  metiers  d'art", 
which  serves  as  the  organ  of  the  St.  Luke  schools, 
founded  by  Brother  Mares  for  teaching  the  technical 
arts  on  Christian  principles.  Ath.  Glouden. 

Canada. — Under  the  French  domination,  periodical 
literature,  still  in  its  infancy  in  France  even  as  late  as 
the  close  of  1 1 1 1  ■■  i  M 1 1 1 1  I  Ti  t  h  century ,  was  totally  unknown 
in  Canada.  1  he  iir.st  newspapers  founded  in  the  colony, 
the  "Quebec  Gazette"  (1764)  and  the  "Montreal 
Gazette"  (1778),  both  weeklies  with  a  double-column 
page  alternatelj'  in  English  and  in  French,  without  be- 
ing professedly  Cathohc,  were  not  unfriendly  towards 
the  Church. 

Provin'ce  ofQuebec,  or  Lower  Canada. — Thefinst 
periodical  of  importance  was  "LeCanadien",  founded 
in  Quebec  (1806)  by  Pierre  BiSdard.  Although  essen- 
tially political  and  patriotic,  nevertheless  by  its  vin- 
dication of  religious  as  well  as  civil  liberty,  and  owing 
to  the  unexceptionable  Catholicism  of  the  French 
Canadian  population  whose  interests  it  represented, 
"  Le  Canadi('n  "  may  safely  be  styled  a  Catholic  organ. 
This  same  principle  applies  to  the  greater  number  of 
French  papers  published  in  Canada.  After  a  series  of 
suppressions  and  interruptions,  "Le  Canadien"  (first 
weekly,  then  daily)  lasted  for  over  fifty  more  years, 
during  a  long  period  of  which  its  chief  editor  was 
Etienne  Parent,  whose  valiant  pen  ably  defended  the 
rights  of  his  fellow-citizens  and  helped  to  maintain 
their  national  dignity  and  autonomy. 

Next  in  order  of  importance,  if  not  of  date,  follows 
"La  Minerve"  (first  weekly,  then  daily),  founded  in 


Montreal  (1826)  by  Augustin-Norbert  Morin.  It 
had  a  career  of  seventy  years,  and  numbered  among 
its  ablest  editors  Antoine  G(^rin-Lajoie,  Raphael 
Bellemare,  and  Joseph  Tas.se.  The  chief  organ  of  the 
English-speaking  Catholics  was  (be  "True  Witness" 
(w^eekly),  founded  in  Montreal  (1850)  by  George 
E.  Clerk,  a  convert  from  Anglicanism,  who  loyally 
and  generously  served  the  cause  of  the  True  Faith 
during  his  prolonged  editorship.  The  "  True  Witness" 
had  been  precnlcd  by  the  short-hved  "Irish  Vindica- 
tor" of  IMonlical  (1S2N),  and  still  exists  under  the 
lately  assumed  name  of  "The  Tribune". 

In  1857  was  founded  in  Quebec  "Le  Courrier  du 
Canada"  (first  weekly,  then  daily).  It  had  an  hon- 
ourable and  fruitful  career  of  forty-five  years  under  the 
leadership  of  such  learned,  vigorous,  and  elegant 
writers  and  uncompromising  Catholics  as  Doctor 
Joseph  Charles  Tache,  Auguste-Eugeno  Aubry,  and 
Thomas  Chapais.  Montreal  gave  birth  to  two  en- 
tirely Catholic  daily  papers:  "Le  Nouveau-Monde" 
(1867-81)  with  the  Honourable  Alphonse  Desjardins 
as  chief  editor,  and  "L'Etendard"  (1883-)  under  the 
direction  of  the  Honourable  Senator  Anselme  Trudel. 
A  weekly,  "Les  M61anges  Religieux",  founded  in 
Montreal  (1839)  by  Reverend  J.  C.  Prince,  lasted  till 
1846.  "L'Opinion  Publique",  an  illustrated  weekly, 
published  in  Montreal  for  fourteen  years  (1870-83) 
counted  many  brilliant  litteraleurs  among  its  contrib- 
utors. Most  noteworthy  among  the  monthlies  are, 
in  order  of  date,  "Le  Journal  de  I'Instruction  Pub- 
lique", founded  in  Montreal  (1857)  by  the  Honourable 
Pierre-J.-O.  Chauveau,  a  distinguished  orator  and 
writer,  who  was  its  cluef  editor  until  its  cessation 
(1878);  "Les  Soirees  Canadiennes",  Quebec  (1861-5); 
"Le  Foyer  Canadien",  Quebec  (1863-6);  "La  Re- 
vue Canadienne",  Montreal  (1864),  still  flourish- 
ing under  the  direction  of  the  Montreal  branch 
of  the  University  of  Laval;  "Le  Canada  Frangais", 
semi-monthly,  edited  by  the  parent  University  of 
Quebec  (1888-91).  These  five  reviews  form  a  col- 
lection replete  with  the  best  productions  of  French 
Canadian  literature. 

For  divers  reasons,  the  Catholic  Press  in  Lower 
Canada,  in  fact  throughout  the  whole  Dominion, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  short-lived  ventures, 
cannot  boast  of  a  daily  newspaper  published  in  the 
English  language.  In  the  Province  of  Quebec  the  only 
organ  of  the  English-speaking  Catholics  is  the  above 
mentioned  "Tribune"  (weekly).  Of  the  existing 
French  Catholic  dailies,  "L'Action  Sociale",  founded 
in  Queljec  (1907)  by  Archbishop  L.-N.  Begin,  is  totally 
independent  of  politics,  appreciating  men  and  events 
from  an  exclusively  Catholic  and  non-partisan  view- 
point; its  present  circulation,  comprising  the  weekly 
edition,  is  28,000,  as  compared  with  the  90,000  of  the 
non-Catholic  "Montreal  Star".  Another,  "Le  De- 
voir", advocating  nationalism,  founded  in  Montreal 
(1909)  and  cUreeted  by  Henri  Bourassa,  has  also  a 
good  circulation.  The  foremost  weekly,  still  in  ex- 
istence, is  "La  V(?rit6",  founded  in  Quebec  (1881)  by 
Jules-Paul  Tardivel,  who  has  been  called  the  Cana- 
dian Veuillot.  This  paper,  during  the  career  of  its 
founder,  exerted  a  considerable  influence  on  Catholic 
opinion.  "Le  Courrier  de  St-Hyacinthe"  (18.53), 
"Le  Journal  de  Waterloo"  (1879),  "Le  Bien  Public", 
Three-Rivers  (1909),  all  weeklies  still  in  operation, 
deserve  a  special  mention  for  their  soundness  of  judg- 
ment and  dutiful  submission  to  the  guidance  of  the 
spiritual  authority.  Among  the  existing  monthlies 
may  be  mentioned  "Le  Naturaliste  Canadien", 
Quebec,  founded  by  the  Abb6  L6on  Provancher(1868), 
the  only  Catholic  scientific  review  in  Canada;  "La 
Nouvelle-France",  a  high-class  review  with  a  com- 
prehensive programme;  "Le  Bulletin  du  Parler- 
frangais",  a  technical  review  of  a  chiefly  philological 
character,  both  founded  in  Quebec  in  1902;  "1,'En- 
Beignement  Primaire",   a  pedagogical   review,   now 


PERIODICAL 


673 


PERIODICAL 


in  its  thirty-second  year,  published  in  Quebec,  and 
distributed  by  the  Government  to  all  the  Catholic 
primary  schools  of  the  province,  renders  good  service 
to  the  cause  of  elementary  education.  The  outlook  of 
the  Catholic  Press  in  the  old  French  province  seems 
very  hopeful,  thanks  to  the  improvement  of  higher 
education,  to  the  inculcation  of  a  more  thorough 
Catholic  spirit,  and  a  more  dutiful  compliance  with 
the  directions  of  the  Vicar  of  Christ. 

Ontario. — The  first  Catholic  paper  published  in 
Upper  Canada  was  the  "CathoUc",  founded  and  ed- 
ited in  Kingston  (1830)  by  Very  Rev.  William  Peter 
MacDonald,  and  published  later  in  Hamilton  (1841- 
44).  In  1837  Toronto  had  its  first  Catholic  organ, 
"The  Mirror",  which  lasted  till  1862.  It  was  fol- 
lowed successively  by  "The  Canadian  Freeman" 
(1858-63),  under  the  editor.ship  of  J.  J.  Mallon  and 
James  G.  Moylan;  "The  Irish  Canadian",  established 
by  Patrick  Boyle  (1863-92;  1900-01) ;  "The  Tribune" 
(iS74-S5),  with  the  Hon.  Timothy  Warren  Anglin 
for  its  latest  editor;  "The  Catholic  Record",  London 
(1878),  is  by  far  the  most  flourishing  Catholic  weekly 
in  Canada,  with  its  circulation  of  27,000.  Toronto 
likewise  claims  the  following  noteworthy  Catholic 
periodical:  "The  CathoUc  Weekly  Review"  (1887- 
93) ;  its  editors  were  successively  F.  W.  G.  Fitzgerald, 
H.  F.  Mcintosh,  P.  DeGruchy,  Revs.  F.  W.  Flannery 
and  J.  D.  McBride;  in  1893  it  was  merged  into  the 
"Catholic  Register",  whose  editors  were,  in  order  of 
date.  Rev.  Doctor  J.  R.  Teefy,  J.  C.  Walsh,  and  P.  P. 
Cronin.  In  1908,  under  the  title  of  "Register-Ex- 
tension", it  became  the  organ  of  the  Catholic  Church 
Extension  Society,  under  the  editorship  of  Rev.  A.  E. 
Burke,  D.D. 

Maritime  Provinces.  —  Nova  Scotia.  —  Though 
Halifax  can  boast  of  the  first  newspaper  in  Canada, 
now  inclucUng  the  Maritime  Provinces  (the  "Royal 
Gazette",  1752),  the  first  Catholic  periodical,  "The 
Cross",  was  founded  only  in  1845,  by  the  future  Arch- 
bishop W.  Walsh,  and  lasted  till  1857.  By  far  the 
most  important  Catholic  organ  of  the  province  is 
"The  Casket"  (weekly),  of  Antigonish,  founded  in 
1852  and  still  in  full  activity.  Its  editorial  chair  was 
successively  filled  by  the  learned  theologians.  Doctors 
M.  McGregor,  N.  McNeil,  and  Alex.  McDonald,  the 
two  last  named  since  appointed  respectively  to  the 
Sees  of  Vancouver  and  Victoria,  British  Columbia. 
Sureness  of  doctrine  and  vigilance  in  denouncing  con- 
temporary errors  are  its  chief  characteristics. 

New  Brunswick. — "The  Freeman",  a  political 
paper,  was  founded  in  St.  John,  1851,  with  Hon.  T. 
W.  Anglin  as  editor.  He  w.is  succeeded  by  W.  R. 
Reynolds.  Under  the  name  of  "The  New  Freeman" 
since  1902,  its  character  is  exclusively  Catholic. 
While  strongly  advocating  temperance  and  total  ab- 
stinence, it  strives  to  enlighten  non-Catholics  and  to 
foster  vocations  for  the  priesthood.  French  Acadian 
journalism  is  chiefly  represented  by  "Le  Moniteur 
Acadien",  founded  at  Shediac  (1866),  and  "L'Evan- 
geline",  of  Moncton. 

Prince  Edward  Island. — The  first  CathoUc  paper 
of  the  island  was  the  "Palladium"  (1843-5).  It  was 
followed  by  the  "Examiner"  (1847-67),  both  edited 
by  Edward  Wlielan.  Then  came  "The  Vindicator" 
(1862-4),  strictly  non-political,  to  be  succeeded  by 
"The  Charlottetown  Herald",  still  in  existence. 

North-West  Provinces. — Catholic  journalism  in 
the  north-west  begins  in  1871  with  "Le  Metis",  the 
organ  of  the  half-breeds,  under  the  ecUtorship  of  Hon. 
J.  Royal.  Next  comes  "Le  Manitoba",  a  valiant 
champion  of  the  Catholic  schools,  founded  by  Hon. 
J.  Bernier,  and  now  edited  by  his  son.  The  first  Cath- 
olic paper  in  English  was  "The  North-West  Review", 
begun  in  1885,  long  edited  by  Rev.  L.  Drummond, 
S.J.,  and  stiU  fighting  the  good  fight.  The  German 
Catholics  have  also  their  organ,  "West  Canada",  and 
the  Poles  their  "Gazeta  KatoUcka".  These  three 
XL— 43 


papers  are  issued  by  the  same  printing-house  in 
Winnipeg,  under  the  patronage  of  the  present  Arch- 
bishop of  St.  Boniface  (1911).  A  Ruthenian  CathoUc 
paper  will  shortly  appear  under  the  same  auspices. 
"Le  Patriote"  began  pubhcation  in  1910,  at  Duck 
Lake,  Sask.  Edmonton,  Alta,  has  "Le  Courrier  de 
rOuest",  and  Vancouver,  British  Columbia,  "The 
Western  CathoUc". 

TuRCOTTE,  Le  Canada  sous  V  Union  (Quebec.  1871);  Dionne. 
Inventaire  chronologique  (Quebec,  1905);  Morice,  //i.s(.  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Western  Canada  (Toronto,  1909) ;  Hopkins, 
Canada  (Quebec,  1899). 

Lionel  Lindsay. 

England. — Not  until  the  toleration  acts  of  the 
early  nineteenth  century  and  the  CathoUc  revival 
incident  upon  the  immigration  of  the  French  clergy, 
were  English  Catholics  in  any  position  to  conduct  a 
periodical  Uterature  of  their  own,  though  occasional 
pamphlets  on  various  questions  of  CathoUc  interest 
had  been  issued.  With  the  agitation  over  the  Veto 
and  Emancipation,  a  beginning  was  made  with  a 
monthly  review,  the  pioneer  Catholic  pubhcation  of 
the  kind,  "Andrews'  Orthodox  Journal",  first  issued 
in  1812  by  Eusebius  Andrews,  a  Catholic  printer  and 
bookseller  of  London.  It  had  but  a  few  years  of 
chequered  existence,  as  there  was  not  a  sufficiently 
large  reading  public  to  make  it  self-supporting.  The 
real  beginnings  of  Catholic  periodical  literature  were 
made  more  than  twenty  years  later,  by  which  time  the 
growth  of  the  Catholic  bodj'  in  its  newly  won  freedom, 
the  progress  of  Catholic  education,  and  the  interest 
excited  by  the  Tractarian  movement  had  all  combined 
to  supply  a  wider  circle  of  readers.  A  great  step  was 
taken  by  Wiseman  and  O'Connell  in  the  foundation  of 
a  quarterly,  the  "Dublin  Review"  (1836).  The  fame  of 
the  "Edinburgh"  suggested  a  territorial  title,  and 
Dublin  was  chosen  as  a  great  Catholic  centre,  though 
from  the  first  it  was  edited  and  published  in  London. 
The  review  was  intended  to  provide  a  record  of  current 
thought  for  educated  Catholics  and  at  the  same  time 
to  be  an  exponent  of  Catholic  views  to  non-Catholic 
inquirers.  Beginning  before  the  first  stirrings  of  the 
O.xford  Movement,  it  presents  a  record  of  the  intellec- 
tual life  of  the  century  and  produced  articles  which 
had  an  immense  influence  upon  the  religious  thought 
of  the  times.  It  was  in  the  August  of  1839  that  an 
article  by  Wiseman  on  the  Anglican  Claim  caught  the 
attention  of  Newman.  Impressed  by  the  application 
of  the  words  of  St.  Augustine,  securus  judical  orbis 
terrarum,  which  interpreted  and  summed  up  the 
course  of  ecclesiastical  history,  he  saw  the  theory  of 
the  Via  media  "absolutely  pulverized"  (Apologia, 
1 16-7) .  It  was  a  turning  point  for  Newman  and  for  the 
whole  course  of  the  Oxford  Movement,  and  the  incident 
is  worth  remembering  as  an  example  of  the  power  of  a 
good  CathoUc  Press.  Gradually  the  Tractarian  con- 
verts appeared  in  the  lists  of  contributors:  Ward  (q. 
v.),  Oakeley,  Marshall,  Morris,  Christie,  Formby, 
Capes,  Allies  (q.  v.),  Anderson  (q.  v.).  Manning  (q. 
v.),  and  a  glance  through  the  volumes  of  the  "  DubUn 
will  reveal  names  prominent  in  the  great  religious, 
scientific,  and  hterary  movements  of  the  century. 
During  the  sixties  and  the  early  seventies  it  was  under 
the  vigorous  direction  of  Dr.  W.  G.  Ward.  After  his 
retirement  it  was  edited  by  Dr.  Hcdley,  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Newport,  and  then  acquired  by  Cardinal 
Manning,  who  appointed  Canon  Moyes  editor.  It  is 
now  the  property  and  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Wil- 
frid Ward,  son  of  its  famous  editor. 

The  first  issue  of  the  annual  "Catholic  Directory" 
appeared  in  1837.  Owing  to  the  Oxford  Movement,  the 
forties  were  a  time  of  marked  literary  activity.  In  1840 
two  new  enterprises  were  inaugurated.  Mr.  Dolman, 
a  Catholic  publisher  in  London  who  had  issued  a  num- 
ber of  really  important  boots  including  the  writings  of 
Lingard  and  Husenbeth,  produced  in  "Dolman's 
Magazine"  a  high  class  Uterary  monthly,  and  on  16 


PERIODICAL 


G74 


PERIODICAL 


May,  1840,  Frederick  Lucas  (q.  v.)  became  the  pioneer 
of  tlie  Catholic  newspaper  Press  in  England  by  pub- 
lishing the  first  number  of  "The  Tablet",  a  weekly 
ncwspaiior  and  review.  Lucas  was  a  strong  man,  and 
regarded  his  work  as  founder  and  editor  of  a  Catholic 
paper  as  a  sacred  mission.  lie  threw  into  it  all  his  zeal 
and  energj-,  realizing  the  enormous  ])ossibilitics  for 
good  of  thereligiovis  Press  when  many  were  hopelessly 
blind  to  such  coiisidrrations.  His  uncompromising 
views  led  to  ditticultii'S  with  his  financial  supporters, 
but  he  emerged  triumphant.  For  awhile  after  the 
crisis  of  184S  Lucas,  then  active  in  Irish  politics,  re- 
moved "The  Tablet"  office  to  Dublin,  but  it  was 
brought  back  to  London  by  the  new  proprietors,  into 
whose  hands  it  passed  when  failing  health  compelled 
Lucas  to  give  up  the  editorship.  It  was  not  easy  to 
replace  such  a  man.  He  had  not  been  content  to  chron- 
icle events;  he  had  influenced  them.  P'or  many  years 
after  his  death ,  in  1 855, "  The  Tablet "  w-as  a  mere  hum- 
drum record  of  news.  Among  the  distinguished  edi- 
tors was  Cardinal  Vaughan  (q.  v.)  who  conducted  the 
"Tablet"  during  the  stormy  discussions  on  Papal 
Infallibility  and  the  Vatican  Council.  When  he  be- 
came Bishop  of  Salford,  he  placed  the  editorship  in  the 
hands  of  IVIr.  Elliot  Ranken,  who  was  succeeded  by 
Mr.  Snead-Cox,  the  present  editor.  "The  Tablet", 
besides  championing  the  Catholic  cause,  assists  in  the 
propagation  of  the  Faith  in  far-off  lands,  as  under  the 
terms  of  the  trust  created  by  the  late  Cardinal 
Vaughan  its  profits  go  to  the  support  of  St.  Joseph's 
Missionarj-  College,  of  which  he  was  the  founder. 

Two  other  notable  periodicals  were  founded  in  the 
forties.  "The  Tablet"  was  a  sixpenny  paper,  reduced 
to  its  present  price,  five  pence,  on  the  abolition  of  the 
newspaper  stamp  duty.  Its  price  put  it  beyond  the 
reach  of  tens  of  thousands  of  Catholic  workers.  To 
supply  them  with  a  penny  magazine  Mr.  Bradley  in 
lS46founded  "TheLamp".  It  gave  much  of  its  space 
to  Catholic  fiction,  descriptive  articles,  and  the  like, 
and  ventured  on  an  occasional  illustration,  a  portrait 
or  a  picture  of  a  new  church;  but  it  also  supplied  news 
and  reported  in  full  Wiseman's  lectures  and  other 
notable  Catholic  utterances.  For  years  it  struggled 
with  lack  of  capital,  and  for  awhile  Bradley  edited  his 
paper  from  his  room  in  the  debtors'  prison  at  York. 
His  name  deserves  honourable  record  as  the  pioneer 
of  the  popular  Catholic  Press.  The  other  paper,  "The 
Rambler",  of  which  the  first  issue  appeared  on  1 
January,  1848,  was  intended  to  be  a  high  class  weekly 
review  of  literature,  art,  and  science.  In  1859,  Lord 
Acton  (q.  v.),  who  had  then  just  returned  from 
the  Contment,  succeeded  Newman  in  the  editorship. 
The  price,  sixpence,  limited  its  public  and  in  1862 
it  became  a  quarterly  under  the  title  of  "The  Home 
and  Foreign  Review".  In  its  last  years  this  review, 
which  had  once  done  good  service,  was  a  source 
of  trouble  and  disedification,  but  its  sale,  which 
dwindled  yearly,  was  largely  among  Anghcans  and 
other  non-Catholics.  In  the  mid  years  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  abolition  of  the  various  taxes  on 
newspapers  and  the  cheapening  of  the  processes  of 
production  led  to  the  coming  of  the  penny  newspapers. 
The  first  Catholic  penny  paper  with  permanent  suc- 
cess was  "The  London  Universe".  Its  origin  was  con- 
nected with  the  earlier  activity  of  Lucas,  who  success- 
fully advocated  the  introduction  of  the  Conferences  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  into  England.  It  was  a  group  of 
members  of  the  London  Conferences  who  produced 
"The  Univer.sc".  Speaking  to  their  president,  Mr. 
George  Blount,  one  evening  in  1860,  Cardinal  Wise- 
man, after  alluding  to  the  flood  of  calumny  then 
poured  out  in  the  Press  against  the  Holy  See,  said: 
"Cannot  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  do  some- 
thing to  answer  those  frightful  calumnies,  by  publish- 
ing truths,  as  M.  Louis  Veuillot  is  doing  in  Paris  in 
'L'Univers'?  We  want  a  penny  paper,  and  now  that 
the  tax  has  been  removed  it  should  be  possible."    It 


was  decided  that,  though  the  society,  as  such,  could  not 
found  a  newspaper,  a  conunittcc  of  its  incnibers  should 
unilcrtake  the  ta.sk.  It  iMchidod  (leorge  Blount, 
Stuart  KruU  (afterwards  tlic  first,  Cathcilic  Lcird  Mayor 
of  London),  V'iscoiuit  Fielding  (Lord  Denbigh),  Vis- 
count Campden  (Lord  Cainsborough),  Sidney  Les- 
cher,  Archibald  Dimn,  Arthur  a  Bet^kett,  and  George 
J.  Wigley,  the  London  corr(-si)onilent  of  the  Paris 
"Univers".  Wigley  secured  :i,  foreign  news  service  for 
the  projected  paper  from  M.  NCuiliol's  Paris  otiice,  and 
at  his  suggestion  the  name  of  "The  Universe"  was 
chosen.  Mr.  Denis  Lane  undertook  the  ])rinting,  Mr. 
Dunn  the  echtorship,  and  on  8  Decenilier,  ISCiO,  the 
first  Catholic  penny  paper  in  England  was  started. 
At  first  it  was  strictly  non-political.  The  editor  and 
staff  gave  their  services  gratuitously,  but  even  with 
this  help  expenses  were  greater  than  receipts.  To 
attract  a  larger  circulation  political  articles  were  in- 
serted, which  led  to  the  resignation  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  staff.  Mr.  Lane  then  took  over  the  paper  and 
conducted  it  for  many  years  as  a  Catholic  paper,  giv- 
ing a  general  support  to  the  Liberals  and  the  Irish 
national  cause.  He  had  always  a  priest  as  "theologi- 
cal editor";  amongst  those  who  thus  assisted  him 
were  Father  W.  Eyre,  S.J.,  Father  Lockhart,  and 
Cardinal  Manning.  The  movement  for  the  rescue  of 
destitute  Catholic  children  originated  in  "The  Uni- 
verse" office.  It  has  lately  celebrated  its  fiftieth  anni- 
versary, and  has  amalgamated  with  another  paper, 
"The  Catholic  Weekly",  founded  to  give  a  record  of 
Catholic  news  without  any  party  politics.  "The  Uni- 
verse" has  thus  reverted  to  its  original  programme. 

"The  Lamp"  was  reorganized  about  the  same  time 
and  had  for  some  j'ears  a  prosjierous  existence  as  a 
popular  magazine.  Fathers  Rawes  and  Caswall,  Lady 
Georgiana  FuUerton,  Miss  Drane,  Cecilia  Caddell  were 
among  its  contributors.  In  1864  Mi.ss  Taylor  founded 
"The  Month",  at  first  an  illustrated  magazine  giving 
much  of  its  space  to  fiction  and  the  lighter  forms  of 
literature.  When  she  founded  her  first  community  of 
nuns  (Poor  Servants  of  the  Mother  of  God),  her  maga- 
zine passed  to  the  Jesuits,  and  under  the  able  editor- 
ship of  the  late  Father  Henry  J.  Coleridge,  "The 
Month"  became  a  high-class  review.  It  had  many 
notable  contributors,  and  in  its  pages  Newman's 
"Dream  of  Gerontius"  first  appeared.  Numerically, 
the  main  strength  of  English  Catholicism  has  always 
been  in  the  North,  and  after  the  foundation  of  "The 
Universe"  several  efforts  were  made  to  produce  a 
Catholic  penny  paper  in  Lancashire.  Three  succes- 
sive enterprises  had  a  brief  career.  A  fourth,  a  paper 
known  as  "TheNorthern  Press"  was  barely  existing, 
when,  in  1867,  it  was  taken  over  by  a  remarkable  man, 
the  late  Father  James  Nugent  of  Liverpool.  He  re- 
named it  "The  Catholic  Times"  and  gradually  made 
it  the  moat  widely  circulated  Catholic  paper  in  Eng- 
land. Printed  for  many  years  by  the  boys  of  the 
refuge  he  had  founded  in  Liverpool,  when  it  became 
a  profit-earning  paper  it  helped  support  this  work  of 
charity.  Ofliices  were  opened  in  Manchester  and  Lon- 
don. A  special  London  edition  was  produced,  and  in 
1878  a  Christmas  supplement  issued  under  the  title  of 
"The  Catholic  Fireside"  was  so  successful  that  it  was 
continued  as  a  monthly  penny  magazine;  in  1893 
it  was  made  a  weekly  publication.  "The  Catholic 
Times"  appeals  largely  to  the  Catholics  of  Irish  de- 
scent in  Great  Britain,  and  has  always  championed 
the  Nationalist  cause.  It  gives  considerable  space  to 
reviews  and  literary  matter,  and  has  a  well  organized 
service  of  correspondents.  Mr.  P.  L.  Beazley,  the 
present  editor,  has  directed  it  for  twenty-seven  years 
and  is  now  the  dean  of  Catholic  journalism. 

In  the  sixties  other  papers  were  founded,  for  awhile 
fairly  prosperous,  though  they  never  won  the  estab- 
h.shed  position  of  "The  Catholic  Times"  and  "The 
Tablet".  "The  Weekly  Register"  was  a  threepenny 
paper,  of  much  the  same  character  as  "The  Tablet", 


PERIODICAL 


675 


PERIODICAL 


but  favouring  the  Liberals  and  Nationalists.  Later, 
under  the  editorship  of  Charles  Kent  and  then  of  Mr. 
Wilfrid  Meynell,  it  had  a  marked  literary  quality,  but 
in  England  it  is  found  that  no  pajjer  is  a  permanent 
success  at  any  price  between  the  popular  penny  and 
the  sixpence  that  gives  a  margin  of  profit  on  a  mod- 
erate circulation.  "The  Weekly  Register "  has  ceased 
to  e.xist  and  with  it  "TheWestminsterGazette",  whose 
name  is  now  that  of  a  London  evening  paper.  The 
"Westminster"  was  owned  and  edited  by  Pursell, 
afterwards  biographer  of  Manning.  During  the 
months  of  newspaper  controversy  that  preceded  the 
definition  of  Papal  Infallibility  the  "Westminster" 
was  "non-opportunist",  and  Cardinal  Vaughan,  while 
he  avoided  all  controver.sy  on  the  subject  in  "The Tab- 
let", contributed,  v.'eek  after  week,  letters  to  the 
"Westminster",  combating  its  editorial  views.  It 
never  had  much  circulation,  and  Vaughan  was  able  a 
few  years  later  to  end  its  competition  by  buying  and 
stopping  it.  The  late  Father  Lockhart  edited  for  some 
years  "Catholic  Opinion",  a  penny  paper  giving  ex- 
tracts from  the  Catholic  Press  at  home  and  abroad. 
After  his  death  it  was  amalgamated  with  "The  Catho- 
lic Times".  A  remarkable  development  in  connexion 
with  the  popular  Press  is  that  directed  by  Mr.  Charles 
Diamond,  for  some  time  a  member  of  the  Irish  Parlia- 
mentary party,  who  started  (1884)  "The  Irish  Trib- 
une" in  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  Shortly  after,  he  pur- 
chased two  other  Catholic  papers,  the  Glasgow 
"Observer"  and  the  Preston  "Catholic  News",  which 
were  in  difficulties  for  want  of  capital.  He  then  formed 
the  idea  of  working  several  papers  from  a  common  cen- 
tre, much  of  the  matter  being  common  to  all,  but  each 
appearing  under  a  local  title  and  having  several  col- 
umns of  special  matter  of  local  interest.  He  now 
issues  "The  Catholic  Herald"  from  London,  as  the 
centre  of  the  organization,  and  thirty-two  other  local 
weekly  papers  in  various  towns  of  England,  Wales, 
and  Scotland.  He  also  produces  on  the  same  system 
ten  different  parish  magazines  and  "The  Catholic 
Home  Journal",  with  which  the  old  "Lamp"  has 
been  amalgamated. 

There  are  a  considerable  number  of  minor  Catholic 
monthlies,  mostly  founded  in  recent  years  to  advocate 
and  promote  special  objects.  The  "Annals  of  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith"  and  "Illustrated  CathoHc 
Missions"  specialize  on  the  news  of  the  mission  field. 
"Catholic  Book  Notes",  a  monthly  issued  by  the 
Catholic  Truth  Society  and  edited  by  Mr.  James  Brit- 
ten, is  an  admirable  record  of  current  literature  and  a 
model  of  scholarly  and  thoroughly  honest  reviewing. 
"The  Second  Spring",  edited  by  Father  Phihp  Flet- 
cher, is  a  record  of  the  work  of  the  Ransom  League  for 
the  conversion  of  England.  "The  Crucible"  is  a 
monthly  review  of  social  work  for  Catholic  women. 
There  are  a  number  of  devotional  magazines  issued 
by  various  religious  orders,  the  most  widely  circulated 
of  which  is  the  "Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart", 
edited  by  the  Jesuits.  There  are  also  several  college 
magazines,  some  of  which  produce  work  of  a  high  liter- 
ary standard.  It  might  be  a  gain  if  there  were  more 
concentration  and  fewer  publications  with  larger  circu- 
lation. Many  of  these  have  a  comparatively  small 
circle  of  readers;  even  the  most  widely  circulated 
Catholic  publication  in  England  has  an  issue  that  falls 
far  below  that  of  its  more  powerful  non-Catholic  com- 
petitors. The  result  is  that  the  scale  of  pay  in  Cath- 
olic journalism  is  below  the  ordinary  press  standards, 
and  many  Catholic  writers  in  working  for  the  Catholic 
Press  are  making  a  continual  sacrifice;  but  the  stand- 
ard of  work  produced  has  steadily  risen,  and  the  Cath- 
olic Press  in  England  to-day,  with  all  its  deficiencies 
and  difhc\ilties,  is  doing  most  useful  work  and  exercLses 
an  ever  growing  influence. 

The  foregoing  article  is  b.^sed  on  personal  knowledge  and  on 
information  kindly  supplied  by  the  editors  of  various  publi- 
cations. The  following  may  be  con.sulted:  Lttcas,  The  Life  of 
Frederick  Lucas,  M.  P.  (London,  1886);     Snead-Cox,  Life  of 


Cardinal  Vaughan  (London,  1910);  Gabqdet,  Lord  Acton  and 
his  Circle  (London,  1906);  Ward,  Life  and  Times  of  Cardinal 
Wiseman  (London.  1897);  Idem,  W.  G.  Ward  and  the  Oxford 
Movement  (London,  1889);  Idem,  W.  (J.  Ward  and  the  Catholic 
Reviml  (London,  1893).  A.    HiLLlARD    AtTERIDGE. 

Fr.\ncb. — The  first  periodical  published  in  France 
was  the  "Gazette  de  France",  founded  in  May,  1631, 
by  the  physician  Th^ophraste  Renaudot.  It  first 
appeared  weekly,  in  four  pages;  in  1632  it  had  eight 
pages  divided  into  two  parts,  one  called  the  "Ga- 
zette", the  other  "Nouvelles  ordinaires  de  divers 
endroits".  It  soon  had  a  monthly  supplement,  en- 
titled "Relations  des  nouvelles  du  monde  rcgues  dans 
tout  le  mois",  and  then  additional  pages  called  "Ex- 
traordinaires".  From  1652  to  1665  the  "Muse  His- 
torique",  edited  by  Loret,  related  in  verse  the  hap- 
penings of  each  week.  The  "Mercure  Galant", 
founded  in  1672  by  Donneau  de  Vis6,  was  a  literary 
and  political  journal  which  in  1724  became  the 
"Mercure  de  France".  In  1701,  in  opposition  to  the 
"Nouvelles  de  la  Ri^publique  des  Lettres",  which  the 
philosopher  Bayle  edited  from  Holland,  appeared  a 
pubHcation  called  "M^moires  pour  servir  a  I'histoire 
des  sciences  et  des  beaux  arts,  recueillis  par  I'ordre  de 
S.  A.  Mgr.  le  prince  souverain  de  Dombes".  It  was 
edited  by  the  Jesuits  and  is  known  in  history  as  the 
"Journal  de  Tr(;voux",  and  was  maintained  until  the 
suppression  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  The  "Ann^e 
Litt^raire",  edited  by  Freron  (1754-76),  was  a  for- 
midable opponent  of  the  philosophes,  and  especially  of 
Voltaire,  whose  doctrines  it  combatted.  It  was  pub- 
lished every  ten  days.  An  Anglo-French  paper,  the 
"Courrier  de  Londres",  was  founded  in  London  in 
1776.  It  appeared  twice  a  week,  and  was  very  in- 
fluential in  developing  the  Revolutionary  spirit.  The 
first  French  daily  was  founded  in  1777  and  was  called 
the  "Journal  de  Paris  ou  la  Poste  du  soir".  The 
"Gazette  de  France"  became  a  daily  in  1792. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  twenty 
journals  were  printed  in  Paris,  and  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  this  number  had  been  trebled. 
Between  May,  1789,  and  May,  1793,  about  a  thousand 
periodicals  saw  the  light.  The  most  important  organ 
of  the  Royalist  oppo.sition  was  called  the  "Actes  des 
Apotres",  to  which  such  writers  as  Rivarol,  Bergasse, 
and  Montlosier  contributed  under  the  editorship  of 
Peltier.  Under  the  Directory  forty  journals  suspected 
of  Royalism  were  suppressed,  and  their  editors  de- 
ported. The  Consulate  would  tolerate  only  thirteen 
political  dailies,  and  the  First  Empire  only  four.  The 
"Journal  des  Dcbats",  owing  to  the  idea  of  its  found- 
ers, the  Berlin  brothers,  of  uniting  with  it  a  literary 
feuilleton  written  by  the  critic  Geoffroy,  took  first 
rank  under  the  Empire.  Geoffroy's  influence  was  im- 
portant from  a  religious  point  of  view,  for  in  his 
feuiltelons  he  voluntarily  treated  all  the  philosophical 
questions,  and  carried  on  a  most  intelligent  campaign 
against  Voltaireanism. 

Under  the  Restoration  Catholicism  was  defended 
by  the  "Gazette  de  France",  the  "Quotidiennc",  the 
"Memorial  religieux",  the  "Defenseur",  the  "Cath- 
olique",  the  "Correspondant",  the  "Memorial",  and 
the  "Conservateur".  The  last-named  was  one  of  the 
most  important;  Chateaubriand,  Bonald,  Lammenais, 
and  the  Cardinal  de  La  Luzerne  were  among  its  con- 
tributors. But  even  then  the  divisions  among  Cath- 
olics weakened  the  influence  of  their  Press.  Under 
the  Restoration  the  Voltairean  spirit  had  in  the  Press 
of  the  Left  a  representative  who  was  very  formidable 
to  religious  ideas,  namely  the  pamphleteer  Paul-Louis 
Courrier.  The  Galilean  spirit  was  represented  in  the 
"Drapeau  Blanc"  by  the  Comte  do  Montlosier,  while 
the  Monarchist  journal,  the  "Constitutinnncl",  in 
order  to  retain  a  certain  clientele,  systcMiutically  pub- 
lished, several  times  a  week,  absurd  and  calumniating 
tales  concerning  the  clergy.  The  systematic  Anti- 
clerical Press  in  France  dates  from  the  period  of  the 


PERIODICAL 


676 


PERIODICAL 


Rcstonition,  anil  at  tin'  samo  tiiiip  a  largo  section  of- 
the  Monarchist  press  was  hotitilc  to  the  C'luin-h.  In 
his  book  on  the  "Congregation"  M .  ( ieolTroy  dri',  rand- 
maison  has  drawn  up  a  list  of  eighteen  antielerical 
articles  puhlished  hv  tlie  " Constitutionnel "  in  the 
single  month  of  September,  1826. 

Under  the  Monarchy  of  July  the  first  noteworthy 
incident  waa  the  publication  of  the  "Avenir"  (see 
Lamennais).  The  Legitimist  Press,  of  Catholic  ten- 
dencies, offered  a  \igorous  opposition  to  the  Monarchy 
of  July,  the  chief  organs  being  the  "Quotidienne" 
(see  Lauuentie)  and  the  old  "Gazette",  of  which  the 
Abb6  de  Genonde  was  long  the  principal  editor. 
Cr^tineau-Joly  (q.  v.)  issued  a  provincial  journal,  the 
"Gazette  du  Dauphind",  a  fearless  instrument  of 
Catholic  and  Legitimist  propaganda.  The  first  really 
serious  attempt  at  Catholic  journalism  belongs  to  this 
period.  On  Sunday,  3  Nov.,  1S33,  appeared  the  first 
number  of  the  "Univers  religieux,  politique,  scien- 
tifique  et  litteraire".  Its  motto  was:  "Unity  in  what 
is  certain,  liberty  in  what  is  doubtful,  charity,  truth, 
and  impartiality  in  all.  "  It  was  founded  by  the  Abb6 
Migne.  Offsetting  the  "Ami  de  la  Religion"  and  the 
"Journal  des  villes  ct  dcs  campagnes",  which  were 
of  Galilean  tendencies,  the  "Univers",  with  which 
the  "Tribune",  founded  by  Bailly,  was  soon  merged, 
represented  the  most  distinctly  Roman  tendency. 
Montalembert  became  associated  with  the  "Univers" 
in  1835;  Louis  Veuillot  contributed  to  it  his  first 
article  in  1839.  The  "Univers",  as  the  centre  of  the 
Catholic  campaigns  for  liberty  of  instruction,  assured 
a  widespread  circulation  to  the  claims  of  the  bishops 
and  the  speeches  of  Montalembert  and  Lacordaire. 
The  "Opinion  Publique",  founded  in  1848  by  Alfred 
Nettement,  was  a  Royalist  Catholic  journal,  which 
was  assured  a  literary  reputation  by  the  contributions 
of  Barbey  d'Aurevilly  and  Arraand  de  Pontmartin. 
In  the  same  year,  at  the  instance  of  Ozanam  and  the 
Abbe  Maret,  Lacordaire  founded  the  "Ere  Nouvelle", 
which  within  three  months  received  3200  subscrip- 
tions, chiefly  among  the  younger  clergy,  but  which 
did  not  last  long. 

Under  the  Second  Empire  several  very  serious  dis- 
cussions occupied  the  attention  of  the  Catholic  Press: 
viz.,  the  use  of  the  pagan  classics  in  secondary  studies 
(see  Gau.me)  ;  the  controversy  aroused  by  the  baptism 
of  the  Jewish  child  Mortara,  of  Bologna,  who  had 
been  baptized  during  a  serious  illness  by  a  Christian 
servant  without  the  knowledge  of  his  parents,  and 
subsequently  reared  as  a  Christian  at  the  command  of 
the  Pontifical  Government;  and  the  discussions  con- 
cerning the  Roman  question.  In  the  course  of  the 
discussions  on  the  last-named  topic  the  "Univers" 
was  suppressed  by  an  imperial  decree  of  29  Jan.,  1860, 
as  being  guilty  of  having  "compromised  public  order, 
the  independence  of  the  State,  the  authority  and  the 
dignity  of  religion".  It  reappeared  15  April,  1867, 
and  played  a  very  important  part  during  the  years 
preceding  the  Vatican  Council.  The  "Frangais", 
founded  1  April,  1868,  by  Augustin  Cochin  and  Mgr 
Dupanloup,  received  contributions  from  the  Due  de 
Broglie,  M.  Thureau-Dangin  (at  present  permanent 
secretary  of  the  French  Academy),  and  the  future 
minister  Buffet,  and  was  constantly  engaged  in  contro- 
versy with  the  "Univers". 

The  law  of  29  July,  1881,  definitely  established  the 
complete  freedom  of  the  press,  and  submitted  to 
juries  formed  of  simple  citizens  the  political  suits 
brought  by  officials  against  newspapers.  The  law  of 
1893  against  Anarchist  abuses  was  a  restriction  of  the 
absolute  liberty  of  the  Press,  but  this  law  is  seldom 
enforced.  The  characteristic  fact  of  the  history  of  the 
Press  under  the  Third  Republic  is  the  development  of 
five-centime  journals,  inaugurated  as  early  as  1836  by 
the  foundation  of  the  "Presse"  under  the  auspices  of 
Emile  de  Girardin. 

At  the  present  time  the  two  Catholic  journals  of 


Paris  arc  the  "Univers"  and  the  "Croix".  For  the 
former,  see  France.  The  "Croix"  is  published  by 
the  Maison  de  la  Bonne  Presse,  which  originated  in 
the  foundation  in  1873  of  the  "Pelerin",  a  bulletin  of 
societies  and  an  organ  of  pilgrimages,  which  in  1867 
became  an  illustrated  journal,  amusing  and  sometimes 
satirical;  its  present  circulation  is  3fJ(),000.  In  1880 
a  monthly  review,  the  "Croix",  was  founded,  which 
became  a  daily  in  June,  1883,  after  the  second  peni- 
tential crusade  to  the  Holy  Places  organized  by 
the  Assumptionists.  After  the  Associations  Law  the 
Maison  de  la  Bonne  Presse  was  purchased  in  1900  bj' 
M.  Paul  Feron-Vrau;  it  employs  a  staff  of  about  600 
persons.  For  its  great  journal,  the  "Croix",  it  has 
throughout  the  country  more  than  10,000  committees 
and  nearly  50,000  promoters.  It  has  more  direct  sub- 
scriptions than  any  Parisian  journal,  and  its  circula- 
tion places  it  fourth  in  rank.  It  costs  one  sou  (five 
centimes),  and  since  1  Jan.,  1907,  has  had  six  large 
pages.  For  purposes  of  propaganda  there  is  a  smaller 
paper  issued  daily,  which  is  delivered  in  quantities  to 
the  clergy  for  8  or  9  centimes  weekly.  The  "  Croix  du 
Dimanche  ",  appearing  weekly,  besides  the  news  of  the 
week,  gives  agricultural  information  in  a  supplement 
called  the  "Laboureur".  The  "Croix  illustrde"  has 
appeared  since  24  Dec,  1900,  and  soon  reached  a  cir- 
culation of  50,000  copies.  The  Ligue  de  I'Ave  Maria, 
founded  Oct.,  1888,  under  the  inspiration  of  Admiral 
Guicquel  des  Touches,  has  had  a  monthly,  the  "Petit 
Journal  bleu",  since  1897,  with  a  circulation  of  over 
100,000.  Its  direct  subscription  price  is  only  25  cen- 
times yearly,  and  a  number  of  copies  for  propaganda 
may  be  secured  for  a  half-centime  per  copy. 

The  Maison  de  la  Bonne  Presse  also  publishes  the 
"Action  Catholique"  (founded  1899),  a  monthly  re- 
view; the  "Chronique  de  la  Bonne  Presse",  a  weekly, 
founded  25  April,  1900,  to  give  information  concerning 
the  movement  of  ideas  in  the  Press;  the  "Confe- 
rences", a  semi-monthly  review  which  supplies  ac- 
counts of  conferences;  the  "Fa.scinateur",  which  gives 
notes  on  photographic  slides  and  views  for  Catholic  con- 
ferences; the  "Cosmos",  a  popular  scientific  review, 
founded  by  the  Abbe  Moigno  in  1852;  the  "Contem- 
porains",  founded  in  1892,  which  each  week  gives 
the  biography  of  some  celebrated  person;  "Echos 
d'Orient",  founded  in  1896  and  devoted  to  Oriental 
and  Byzantine  questions;  "Questions  Actuelles",  a 
weekly,  founded  in  1887,  which  publishes  all  recent 
documents  bearing  on  political  and  religious  ques- 
tions; the  "Revue  d'Organization  et  de  D(?fense  Reli- 
gieuse",  foundedin  1908,  asemi-monthly  review,  which 
studies  religious  questions  from  a  legal  standpoint; 
the  "Mois  Litt(5raire  et  Pittoresque",  a  popular  re- 
view founded  in  1899;  the  "Vies  des  Saints",  founded 
in  1880;  "Noel",  for  children,  founded  in  1895;  and 
two  reviews  devoted  to  the  two  capitals  of  Chris- 
tendom :  "Rome",  founded  Dec,  1903;  and  "Jeru- 
salem", founded  July,  1904.  In  a  single  year  350,000 
letters  reach  the  Maison  de  la  Bonne  Presse. 

Another  Parisian  Catholic  daily  is  the  "D6mo- 
cratie",  founded  by  M.  Sangnier,  former  president  of 
the  "Sillon".  The  first  number  appeared  a  few  days 
previous  to  the  Encyclical  of  Pius  X  on  the  "Sillon" 
(Aug.,  1910),  and  the  publication  has  continued  with 
the  authority  of  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val.  The  "Libre 
Parole",  an  anti-Semitic  journal  founded  in  1891  by 
M.Edouard  Drumont,has  since  1910been  marked  by  a 
Catholic  tendency  owing  to  the  collaboration  of  several 
members  of  the  Association  Catholique  de  la  Jeunesse 
Frangaise.  At  Saint-Maixent  (Deux-S6vres)  has  been 
founded  the  Maison  de  la  Bonne  Presse  de  I'Ouest, 
which  publishes  parochial  bulletins  and  almanacs. 
The  circulation  of  the  bulletins  equalled  (1908)  nearly 
100,000  monthly  copies  for  300  parishes,  that  of  yearly 
almanacs  nearly  200,000  copies  for  more  than  800 
parishes. 

By  means  of  fourteen  combinations  the  "Croix"  of 


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Paris  is  transformed  into  a  local  journal,  partly  general 
in  character,  but  always  retaining  its  title  of  the 
' '  Croix ' ' .  Under  the  title  of  "  Libert^  pour  tous ' ' ,  the 
Maison  de  la  Bonne  Presse  de  I'Ouest  publishes  a  four- 
page  journal;  two  pages  forming  the  common  section 
figure  in  all  the  local  journals  which  wish  to  borrow 
them,  the  other  two  form  the  special  section  and 
vary  according  to  locality.  In  August,  1905,  M.  Paul 
F6ron-Vrau  founded  the  ' '  Presse  Rdgionale  " ,  a  society 
for  the  creation  or  purchase  in  each  diocese  of  a  num- 
ber of  Catholic  journals.  At  present  this  society  owns 
the  "Express  de  Lyon",  the  "Nouvelliste  de  Bre- 
tagne"  at  Rennes,  the  "Republique  de  I'ls^re"  at 
Grenoble,  the  "Journal  d' Amiens",  the  "Express  de 
rOuest"  at  Nantes,  the  "Eclair  de  I'Est"  at  Nancy, 
and  the  "Eclair  Comtois"  at  Besan9on. 

The  "Nouvellistes",  which  are  journals  with  Royal- 
ist tendencies,  are  all  Catholic.  Bordeaux,  Rennes, 
and  Rouen  have  such  publications.  The  best  known 
is  the  "Nouvelliste  de  Lyon",  noted  for  its  political 
news.  In  the  north  the  Catholics  have  numerous 
local  journals;  the  Lille  "Depeche",  the  "  Journal  de 
Roubaix",  and  the  "Croix  du  Nord"  have  together 
about  170,000  subscribers.  The  "  Ouest-Eclair  "  has  a 
wide  circulation  in  Catholic  Brittany.  The  depart- 
ments of  the  South  have  no  Catholic  journal  capable  of 
combating  seriously  with  the  "  Depeche  de  Toulouse", 
a  radical  anticlerical  journal  and  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful political  organs  in  France.  The  organization  of 
the  "Presse  pour  tous",  founded  in  1903  by  Mme 
Taine,  widow  of  the  celebrated  philosopher,  collects 
subscriptions  for  the  distribution  of  good  papers 
among  study  circles  or  shops  having  many  customers. 

The  Catholics  of  France  founded  in  1905  the 
"  Agence  de  la  Presse  nouvelle",  a  telegraphic  agency 
for  Catholic  news.  It  supplied  the  news  for  1908  to 
about  one  hundred  papers.  There  is  also  a  religious 
and  social  information-bureau,  the  objectof  which  is  to 
centralize  the  religious  news  of  various  countries,  and 
which  as  early  as  1908  had  correspondents  in  forty-two 
dioceses.  The  most  important  French  Catholic  review 
is  the  "Correspondant",  issued  on  the  10th  and  25th 
of  every  month.  It  was  at  first  (March,  1S29)  a  semi- 
weekly  ijaper.  Its  founders  were  Came,  Cazales,  and 
Augustin  de  Meaux,  and  its  motto  was  Canning's 
words:  "Civil  and  religious  liberty  throughout  the 
world".  Its  object  was  to  reconcile  Catholicism  and 
modern  ideas.  During  the  Monarchy  of  July  it  under- 
went various  vicissitudes.  In  18.53  Montalembert 
wished  to  build  it  up  in  order  to  offset  the  influence  of 
Louis  Veuillot  and  the  "Univers",  and  he  secured  the 
co-operation  of  Albert  de  Broglie,  Falloux,  and  Dupan- 
loup.  Its  frequent  praise  of  English  parliamentary 
institutions  aroused  the  suspicions  of  the  empire. 
The  " Correspondant "  was  at  one  with  the  "Univers" 
in  defending  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  and  also 
felt  at  times  the  harshness  of  the  imperial  police.  Dur- 
ing the  Vatican  Council  there  was  sharp  conflict  be- 
tween the  "Univers",  which  was  for  Infallibility,  and 
the  "Correspondant",  which  was  against  it.  Under 
the  Third  Republic  the  "Correspondant"  was  succes- 
sively edited  by  I\IM.  Li5on  Lavedan,  Etienne  Lamy, 
of  the  French  Academy,  and  Etienne  Trogau,  and 
endeavoured  to  show,  according  to  the  terms  of  its 
programme  of  1829,  that  Catholicism  "still  holds 
within  its  fruitful  breast  the  wherewithal  to  satisfy  all 
the  needs,  wishes,  and  hopes  of  humanity".  The 
"  Bulletin  de  la  Semaine",  published  since  1905,  gives 
weekly  a  number  of  documents  and  articles  of  present 
interest  on  religious  questions.  Founded  by  M.  Im- 
bart  de  La  Tovir,  this  paper,  while  not  concerning  itself 
with  dogmatic  questions,  recalls  in  certain  respects,  by 
the  spirit  of  its  religious  policy,  the  tendency  of  the 
"Correspondant"  during  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IX. 

In  1851)  the  Jesuits  Charles  Daniel  and  Jean  Gaga- 
rin founded  the  "Etudes  de  thfologie,  de  philosophie 
et  d'histoire",  with  the  aim  of  furthering  Russia's  re- 


turn to  the  Catholic  Church.  This  soon  became  a  semi- 
monthly, deaUng  with  all  important  religious  ques- 
tions and  entitled  "Etudes  reUgieuses,  historiques  et 
litt(5raires,  publiees  par  des  Peres  de  la  Compagnie  de 
Jdsus".  Consequent  on  the  decrees  of  1880  against 
congregations  it  was  suspended,  but  resumed  publica- 
tion in  1888.  In  1910  was  founded  the  "Recherches", 
wherein  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  treat  the 
most  interesting  problems  of  religious  knowledge.  The 
Assumptionists  own  the  "Revue  Augustinienne";  the 
Dominicans  the  "Revue  Thomiste"  (1893),  and  the 
"Revue  de  la  Jeunesse"  (1909),  published  in  Belgium. 
Since  1892  the  Dominicans  of  Jerusalem  have  owned  the 
"Revue  Biblique".  The  Institut  Catholique  of  Paris 
has  a  bulletin;  many  of  the  professors  of  the  Catholic 
University  of  Lyons  contribute  to  the  "University 
Catholique"  of  that  city.  The  Catholic  University  of 
Angers  has  the  "Revue  des  Facultes  Catholiques  de 
I'Ouest";  the  Institut  Catholique  of  Toulouse  the 
"Bulletin  d'histoire  et  litterature  religieuse".  There 
are  two  Catholic  philosophical  reviews:  the  "Revue  de 
Philosophie",  founded  in  1900  by  M.  Peillaube,  in 
connexion  with  the  school  of  philosophy  which  is  striv- 
ing for  a  compromise  between  Thomism  and  contem- 
porary results  in  physiology  and  psychology;  and  the 
"Annales  de  philosophie  chretienne",  founded  in  1828 
by  Augustin  Bonnetty.  The  chief  editors  of  the  latter 
are  MM.  Laberthonniere  and  Maurice  Blondel,  and 
its  motto  the  saying  of  St.  Augustine:  "Let  us  seek  as 
those  who  would  find,  and  find  as  those  who  would 
still  seek". 

The  ' '  Revue  des  Questions  Historiques  " ,  founded  in 
1866,  does  great  credit  to  Catholic  learning.  Its  pres- 
ent editor  is  M.  Jean  Guiraud,  professor  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Besangon.  Since  1907  the  French  Benedictines 
who  have  emigrated  to  Belgium  have  created  the 
"Revue  Mabillon",  an  important  review  of  Benedic- 
tine history.  The  "Revue  d'histoire  de  I'Eglise  de 
France"  (Analecta  Gallicana)  was  founded  in  1910. 
The  two  chief  reviews  for  the  clergy  are  the  "Ami  du 
clerge'',  published  at  Langres  since  1878,  and  the 
"Revue  du  Clerge  Fran^ais",  published  at  Paris 
since  1894.  The  "Revue  pratique  d'Apolog^tique", 
founded  in  1905,  is  edited  by  Mgr  Baudrillart,  rector 
of  the  Paris  Institut  Catholique.  A  characteristic  of 
recent  years  is  the  issue  of  political  and  social  bulletins 
published  by  various  female  Catholic  sodalities  and 
intended  for  Catholic  women.  One  of  the  chief  re- 
views of  the  Catholic  social  movement  is  the  "Chron- 
ique  sociale  de  France"  (formerly  "Chronique  du  Sud- 
Est"),  the  organ  of  the  group  which  organized  the 
Seraaines  sociales.  A  powerful  movement  of  Catholic 
social  jomnalism  is  due  to  the  bureaux  of  the  Action 
populaire  organized  at  Reims  (see  France).  The  peri- 
odical yellow  pamphlets  issued  by  the  Action  Popu- 
laire between  1903  and  1911  have  reached  the  number  of 
236.  Besides  its  annual  "  Guides  sociaux"  it  publishes 
a  theoretical  review  of  social  studies,  founded  in  1876 
by  the  organization  of  Catholic  workmen  as  the  "As- 
sociation Catholique",  now  called  the  "Mouvement 
social,  revue  catholique  Internationale".  It  issues  a 
popular  social  review  called  the  "Revue  verte",  or 
"Revue  de  1' Action  populaire".  Finally,  the  Action 
populaire  publishes  "Brochures  periodiques  d'Action 
religieuse",  which  are  unquestionably  the  most  inter- 
esting sources  of  information  with  regard  to  the  under- 
takings of  the  Church  of  France  since  its  separatioD 
from  the  State. 

Tavernier,  Du  journalisme,  son  histoire,  son  Tdle  politique  ei 
religieux  {Paris,  1902):  Guide  d'Action  /?citffli?u.sc,  published  by 
the  Action  populaire  of  Reims  (1908). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Germany. — The  Catholic  periodical  press  of  Ger- 
many is  a  product  of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  is 
only  within  the  last  forty  years  that  it  has  become 
important  by  its  circulation  and  its  ability.  A  num- 
ber of  Catholic  journals  are,  however,  much  older. 


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The  oldest,  the  "Aujislniif;  ['"stzcitunp",  was  founded 
in  U)95.  nnd  five  otiicrs  were  established  in  the  eif;ht- 
eentli  century.  Of  those  wliieh  were  founded  in  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  most  impor- 
tant is  the  "  WestfiUischer  Merkur",  established  at 
Miinster  in  1822,  which  at  first,  it  is  true,  had  a 
Liberal  tendency.  Until  1848  Catholic  journalism 
did  not  prosper.  In  this  reactionary  period  the  severe 
censorship  of  the  gOv'ernracnt  authorities  was  a 
drawback  to  the  Press  in  general;  Catholic  journals 
were  viewed  in  an  even  less  friendly  spirit  than 
the  others.  In  Wtlrtemberg  and  Hesse  no  Catholic 
journals  were  allowed  to  be  published.  Up  to 
the  second  and  third  decades  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Catholics  them- 
selves seemed  to  be  in  a  condition  of  intellectual 
torpor.  For  the  most  part,  the  clergy  were  under 
the  influence  of  Protestantism  and  the  prevail- 
ing philosophy  of  the  times.  Cultured  society,  the 
Catholic  no  less  than  the  Protestant,  was  under  the 
influence  of  the  "all-embracing  religion  of  humanity", 
which  diluted  Christianity. 

The  "Theologische  Zeitschrift"  of  Bamberg,  edited 
by  J.  J.  Batz  and  Father  Brenner,  maybe  regarded  as 
the  oldest  periodical,  but  its  existence  lasted  only 
from  1809  to  1S14.  It  was  followed  by  the  "Katho- 
lische  Literaturzeitung",  first  edited  by  Father  K. 
Felder,  then  by  Kaspar  Anton  von  Mastiaux,  who  was 
succeeded  by  Friedrich  von  Kerz  and  Anton  von  Bes- 
nard  (1810-36).  The  oldest  of  the  periodicals  still  in 
existence  is  the  "Tiibinger  Theologische  Quartal- 
schrift",  founded  in  1819,  which  has  always  had  a 
high  reputation  on  account  of  its  genuinely  scholarly 
spirit.  Among  its  editors  ha\-e  been  Hirscher,  Mohler, 
Kuhn,  Hefele,  Welte,  Linsemann,  Funke,  and  Schanz, 
names  of  the  highest  repute  in  the  history  of  theology. 
In  1821  the  "Katholik"  was  founded  by  Andreas 
Rass  and  Nikolaus  Weis,  afterwards  Bishops  of  Stras- 
burg  and  Speyer  respectively.  The  purpose  was 
stated  to  be  "to  offer  the  necessary  opposition  to  the 
attacks,  partly  open,  partly  concealed,  against  the 
Church,  by  orthodox  articles  on  the  doctrines  of  faith 
and  morals.  Church  history  and  liturgy,  the  training 
of  children,  devotional  exercises  by  the  people,  and 
all  that  belongs  to  the  Catholic  Faith".  The  chief 
collaborator  in  1824-26  was  the  great  publicist  Joseph 
von  Gorres,  but  the  responsible  editors  were  G. 
Scheiblein  and  Fr.  L.  Br.  Liebermann.  In  1827,  Weis 
again  became  the  chief  editor.  He  was  followed  by 
Franz  Xaver  Dieringer  (1841-43);  Franz  Sausen 
(1844-49);  Johann  Baptist  Heinrich  and  Christoph 
Moufang  (1850-90);  Michael  Raich  (1891-1906); 
Joseph  Becker  and  Joseph  Selbst  (from  1907).  Since 
the  appearance  of  the  new  Scholasticism  the  "Kath- 
olik" has  been  its  exponent. 

The  Catholic  movement  was  greatly  aided  by  the 
arrest  in  1837  of  the  Archbishops  of  Cologne  and 
Posen-Gnesen,  von  Droste-Vischering  and  von  Dunin. 
Connected  with  this  is  the  founding  of  the  "Histo- 
risch-politische  Blatter",  by  Georn  Phillips  and  Guido 
Gorres  in  1838.  This  periodical  contended  against 
false  theories  of  the  state,  ecclesiastical  Liberalism, 
and  the  writing  of  historj-  from  a  Protestant  point  of 
view.  Distinguished  publicists  such  as  Joseph  Gorres, 
father  of  Guido,  and  the  converted  jurist  Karl  Ernst 
Jarck  collaborated  on  the  journal  and  gained  for  it 
a  lasting  influence.  Up  to  1871  it  was  the  most  prom- 
inent journalistic  organ  of  the  Catholics.  Its  position 
in  politics  was  that  of  Greater  Germany.  After  the 
death  of  Gorres  (18.52)  the  chief  editor  was  Edmund 
Jorg ;  the  assistant  editor  from  1 858  up  to  Jorg's  death 
in  1901  was  Franz  Binder.  From  1903  Binder  and 
Georg  Jochner  have  shared  the  editorial  responsibil- 
ity. Other  periodicals  were  only  .short-lived,  as  the 
Hermesian  "Zeitsehrift  fiir  Philosophic  und  katho- 
lische  Theologic"  that  existed  from  1833  to  18.52; 
the  "Jahrbiicher  fiir  Theologic  und  christlichc  Phi- 


losophic" (18.34-47),  edited  by  the  theological  faculty 
of  (;i<'ssen;  the  "Zeitschrift  fvn-  Theologic",  edited  at 
Freiburg  in  1839— 19;  the  "Arehiv  fur  tlieologische 
Literalur",  edited  by  Dollinger,  Haneberg,  etc.,  from 
1812  to  1843;  the  "Katholische  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Wissenschaft  und  Kunst",  edited  by  Dieringer 
1844-40,  and  the  continuation  of  this  periodical,  the 
"Katholische  \'ierteljahrsschrift  fiir  Wissenschaft  und 
Kunst",  IS  17-49.  In  addition  there  were  various 
church  weeklies. 

The  year  IMS  and  the  political  and  religious  eman- 
cipatiiins  which  it  linuinlit  were  (if  much  importance 
for  Catholic  life  and  the  Catholic  press.  The  free- 
dom of  the  Press  enabled  the  journals  to  express  pub- 
lic opinion.  From  this  time  on  each  important  period- 
ical became  the  advocate  of  some  definite  political 
idea.  Moreover,  another  result  of  1848  was  freedom 
of  association,  of  which  the  Catholics  at  once  made 
use  to  the  largest  possible  extent.  An  increase  in  the 
circulation  of  the  journals  already  existing  and  the 
founding  of  new  ones  was  very  materially  aided  by  the 
Catholic  societies.  A  rich  Catholic  life  arose  and 
came  into  public  notice  wdth  unexpected  power.  Thus 
in  the  years  directly  succeeding  1848  a  large  number 
of  new  periodicals  appeared.  Among  them  were,  to 
mention  only  the  more  important,  the  "Echo  der 
Gegenwart"  of  Aachen;  the  "Rheinische  Volkshalle" 
of  Cologne,  which,  from  2  Oct.,  1849,  took  the  name 
of  "Deutsche  Volkshalle";  the  "Mainzer  Journal", 
edited  by  Franz  Sausen:  the  "Deutschcs  Volks- 
blatt"  of  Stuttgart;  the  " Niederrheinische  Volks- 
zeitung"of  Krefeld;  in  1849  the  "  Westf alisches  Volks- 
blatt"  of  Padcrborn;  in  1852  the  " Miinsterische 
Anzeiger";  in  1853  the  "Rheinischen  Volksblatter" 
of  Cologne;  in  1854  the  "Neue  A  ugsburger  Zeitung"; 
in  1856  the  "Bayrischer  Kurier"  of  Munich.  In  addi- 
tion the  conference  of  bishops  held  at  WUrzburg 
(November,  1848)  expressed  the  wish  that  there 
should  be  founded  in  all  dioceses  Sunday  papers  con- 
taining edifying  and  instructive  matter.  Of  such 
journals  the  one  that  attained  the  most  importance 
was  the  "Frankfurter  katholisches  Kirchenblatt". 
The  most  important  journals  during  the  fifth  decade 
of  the  nineteenth  century  were  the  "Deutsche  Volks- 
halle" of  Cologne,  the  "Mainzer  Journal",  and  the 
"Deutschcs  Volksblatt".  The  "Deutsche  Volks- 
halle" was  suppressed  10  July,  1855,  because  its  atti- 
tude towards  the  Government  had  not  been  friendly. 
Its  place  was  taken  by  a  journal  planned  on  a  large 
scale,  the  "  Deutschland "  of  Frankfort,  founded  in 
1855  by  the  city  parish  priest  and  well-known  writer, 
Beda  Weber.  After  two  years  it  ceased,  not  from  lack 
of  vitality,  but  on  account  of  bad  financial  manage- 
ment. The  "Kolnische  Blatter",  issued  from  1  April, 
1860,  by  J.  P.  Bachem  of  Cologne,  had  a  more 
fortimate  fate.  From  1  Jan.,  1869,  this  well-edited 
paper  bore  the  name  of  "Kolnische  Volkszeitung". 
Further,  during  the  sixties  appeared  the  "Frei- 
burger  Bote"  (1865);  the  "Friinkische  Volksblatt" 
of  Wiirzburg  (1867);  the  "Essener  Volkszeitung" 
(1868);  the  "Osanbriicker  Volkszeitung"  (1868); 
and  the"Schlesische  Volkszeitung"  (1869). 

In  1862  the  "  Literarischer  Handweiser"  was 
founded  at  Miinster  by  Franz  Hlilskamp  and  Her- 
mann Rump,  to  give  information  concerning  the  latest 
hterary  publications.  From  1876,  after  Rump's 
death,  Hulskamp  edited  it  alone;  from  1904  it  has 
been  edited  by  Edmund  Niesert.  The  "Chilianeum", 
a  general  review  for  "learning,  art,  and  life"  was 
founded  at  Wiirzburg  and  edited  by  J.  B.  Stam- 
minger;  the  review  had  excellent  collaborators,  but 
lived  only  from  1.862  to  1869.  During  the  sixties 
there  was  also  established  the  organ  of  the  German 
Jesuits,  the  "Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach",  which  orig- 
inally (from  1865)  appeared  at  irregular  intervals  as 
pamphlets  on  burning  questions  of  Catholic  prin- 
ciples.    It  was  called  into  existence  by  the  storm 


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PERIODICAL 


against  the  Syllabus  and  the  Encyclical  of  8  Dec, 
1864.  From  1871  it  has  been  issued  regularly  and  has 
included  within  the  scope  of  its  observation  all  im- 
portant questions  and  events.  Its  circle  of  collabora- 
tors includes  the  most  noted  German  Jesuits,  as  Alex- 
ander Baumgartner  (now  deceased),  Stephan  Beissel, 
Viktor  Cathrein,  Franz  Ehrle,  Wilhelm  Kreiten  (now 
deceased),  Augustin  Lehmkuhl,  Christian  and  Til- 
mann  Pesch,  etc.  In  1866  the  excellent  "Theolo- 
gisches  Literaturblatt"  of  Bonn  was  founded,  but 
after  1S7()  it.  became  an  organ  of  the  Old  Catholics. 

The  Kiitliirkdiiipf  now  broke  out,  which  consoli- 
dated the  Catholics,  and  impressed  on  them  most 
powerfully  the  necessity  of  a  press  of  their  own.  Con- 
sequently the  larger  number  of  Catholic  periodicals 
have  appeared  from  the  seventies  on.  Simultaneous 
with  the  occurrence  of  the  Kulturkampf  was  the  found- 
ing of  the  Centre  Party  (Dec,  1870).  Since  then  a 
Catholic  paper  and  a  paper  that  is  the  organ  of  the 
Centre  Party  are  with  very  few  exceptions  identical. 
During  the  exciting  years  of  the  ecclesiastico-political 
struggle  small  papers  particularly,  such  as  the  "Kap- 
lanspresse"  (curate's  press),  shot  up  like  mushrooms. 
On  1  Jan.,  1871  the  "Germania"  newspaper  appeared 
at  Berlin,  as  the  new  and  most  important  organ  of  the 
Centre  Party ;  it  was  founded  as  a  company  by  mem- 
bers of  the  CathoUc  societies  of  BerUn  with  the  active 
and  praiseworthy  aid  of  the  embassy  councillor  Fried- 
rich  Kehler  (d.  iOOl).  Up  to  1878  Paul  Majunke  (d. 
1899)  wrote  for  it  articles  that  were  exceedingly  sharp 
and  contentious  in  tone.  He  was  followed  as  editor 
up  to  1881  by  the  learned  and  more  moderate  Dr. 
Adolf  Franz,  who  was  succeeded  by  Theodor  Stahl, 
Dr.  Eduard  Marcour,  and,  from  1894,  Hermann  ten 
Brink.  Besides  the  "Germania"  and  the  "Kolnische 
Volkszeitung",  which  latter  has  been  edited  from  1876 
by  Dr.  Hermann  Cardauns  with  great  skill  and  in- 
telligence, there  are  important  provincial  periodicals 
that  maintain  Catholic  interests.  Of  these  should  be 
mentioned:  the  "Deutsche  Reichszeitung"  founded 
at  Bonn  in  1872;  the  " Dusseldorfer  Volksblatt",  that 
developed  greatly  under  the  ecUtorial  guidance  of  Dr. 
Eduard  Hiisgen;  the  "  Niederrheinische  Volkszeitung  " 
of  Krefeld;  the  "Essener  Volkszeitung";  the  "Trier- 
ische  Landeszeitung",  founded  in  1873  by  the  ener- 
getic chaplain  Georg  Friedrich  Dasbach  (d.  1907); 
the  "Westfiilischer  Merkur"  of  Munster,  edited  by 
J.  Hoffmann  and  Chaplain  Karl  Boddinghaus;  the 
"Tremonia"  of  Dortmund,  founded  in  1875;  the 
"MiinsterischerAnzeiger";  the  "  Westfalisches  Volks- 
blatt" of  Paderborn;  the  "Schlesische  Volkszeitung" 
of  Breslau,  edited  by  Dr.  Arthur  Hager,  one  of  the 
"most  dashing  champions  of  the  Centre  Party";  the 
"Deutsches  Volksblatt"  of  Stuttgart;  the  "Mainzer 
Journal";  the  "Badischer  Beobachter";  the  "Aug.s- 
burger  Postzeitung " ;  the  "Bayerischer  Kurier"  of 
Munich.  The  editors  had  to  make  great  personal  sac- 
rifices, for  the  legal  actions  against  them  for  violations 
of  the  press  laws,  the  confiscations,  fines,  and  im- 
prisonments were  almost  endless.  It  must  be  ac- 
knowledged that  there  were  some  editorial  elements 
whose  speech  and  method  of  fighting  did  no  honour 
to  their  cause.  Among  the  weekly  papers  the  "  Kath- 
olisches  Volksblatt"  of  Mainz  had  a  large  circulation 
(35,000),  and  great  influence  in  Southern  Germany; 
the  "Schwarzes  Blatt"  was  pubhshed  at  Berlin  as  a 
paper  of  general  scope  for  the  common  people. 

It  was  in  the  era  of  the  Kulturkampf  (1875)  that  the 
first  large  illustrated  family  periodical  "Der  Deutsche 
Hausschatz"  was  founded  at  Ratisbon;  it  had  a  large 
circulation  and  was  edited  1875-88  by  Venanz  Miiller; 
1888-98  by  Heinrich  Keiter;  at  present  by  Dr.  Otto 
Denk.  A  new  literary  journal  was  also  established  in 
1875  by  the  secular  priest  J.  Kohler  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Literarische  Rundschau  fiir  das  katholische 
Deutschland  ".  From  this  time  on  the  Catholic  Press 
has  steadily  grown.    The  number  of  political  news- 


papers and  ecclesiastico-political  Sunday  papers  was: 
in  1880, 186;  in  1890, 272;  in  1900,  419;  in  1908,  500. 
In  Prussia  alone  the  Catholic  periodicals  numbered  in 
1870,  49;  in  ISSO,  109;  in  1890,  149;  in  1900,  270. 
The  number  of  Catholic  periodicals  appearing  in  Ger- 
many in  1890  was  143.  Since  tliis  date  the  number 
has  more  than  doubled. 

The  present  condition  of  the  Cathohe  Press  is  as 
follows:  (1)  Daily  political  newspapers,  278;  political 
newspapers  appearing  four  times  weekly,  14;  three 
times  weekly,  134;  twice  weekly,  83;  once  weekly,  64; 
in  addition  there  are  19,  the  time  of  appearance  of 
which  is  unknown,  making  altogether  592.  In  regard 
to  the  extent  of  the  circulation  of  these  newspapers, 
statements  as  to  the  issue  have  been  given  by  the  pub- 
lishers of  338  of  them.  The  total  issue  of  all  for  one 
number  amounts  to  1,938,434.  The  issue  printed  by 
the  remaining  254  can  be  averaged  as  15(K)  for  each 
number,  altogether  as  381,000.  According  to  this  all 
the  political  newspapers  taken  together  issue  a  total 
edition  of  2,319,4.34  for  one  number.  In  1880  the  num- 
ber of  subscribers  to  the  Catholic  papers  was  estimated 
at  596,000;  in  1890  Keiter  estimated  it  at  over  1,000,- 
000.  The  growth,  therefore,  was  very  large.  Unfor- 
tunately, a  comparison  with  the  Protestant  Press  can- 
not be  made,  because  comprehensive  statistics  are 
lacking,  and  because  there  is  some  uncertainty  as  to 
just  what  would  be  meant  by  a  "Protestant  newspa- 
per". Yet  it  may  be  accepted  that  the  Catholic  Press 
would  equaJ  it  in  the  number  of  its  organs  and  sub- 
scribers. 

An  important  Catholic  newspaper  is  the  "  Kolnische 
Volkszeitung",  which  appears  three  times  daily;  the 
editor-in-chief  from  1907  is  Dr.  Karl  Hoeber,  the  pub- 
lisher J.  P.  Bachem  of  Cologne;  circulation  26,500 
copies.  Its  quiet,  dignified,  conciliatory  tone,  com- 
bined with  firmness  of  principle,  has  gained  for  it  the 
respect  of  all,  especially  the  cultured  circles,  and  its 
influence  extends  far  beyond  the  limits  of  Germany. 
The  "Germania"  is  next  to  it  in  rei)Utation;  the 
editor-m-chief  of  the  "Germania"  is  Hermann  ten 
Brink,  the  publisher.  Financially  it  is  less  favourably 
situated  than  the  Cologne  journal,  because  being  pub- 
lished in  a  Protestant  city,  it  lacks  advertisements.  In 
1882  its  circulation  was  7000  copies;  its  present  circu- 
lation is  unknown,  but  it  is  probably  from  12,000  to 
14,000.  The  other  newspapers  previously  mentioned 
in  speaking  of  the  Kulturkampf  have  also  prospered 
and  developed,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
"Westfiilischer  Merkur",  which  has  dechned  some- 
what. The  one  with  the  largest  number  of  subscribers 
is  the  "Essener  Volkszeitung"  (54,500). 

(2)  There  are  published  in  the  German  Empire  over 
300  Catholic  periodicals,  which  have  about  5,000,000 
subscribers.  Among  these  are:  (a)  General  reviews,  8. 
The  most  important,  finest  in  tone,  contents,  and 
artistic  execution  is  the  monthly  "  Hochland  ",  founded 
in  1903  and  edited  by  Karl  Muth;  the  publisher  is  J. 
Kosel  of  Munich,  and  an  edition  contains  10,000 
copies.  The  list  of  collaborators  contains  the  names 
of  Biiumker,  Cardauns,  Finke,  Grauert,  von  Handel- 
Mazzetti,  von  Hertling,  Kiefl,  Mausbach,  Pastor, 
Schanz  (now  deceased),  Schell  (now  deceased),  Schon- 
bach,  Spahn,  Streitberg,  Willmann.  The  monthly 
called  "Der  Aar",  founded  in  1910,  seeks  to  compete 
with  the  "Hochland",  but  falls  a  little  below  the 
other;  the  editor  is  Dr.  Otto  Denk,  the  publisher  is 
Pustet  at  Rati-sbon.  The  semi-monthly  "Die  His- 
torisch-politische  Blatter",  published  by  Riedel  at 
Munich,  edition  3000  copies,  and  the  "Stimmen  aus 
Maria-Laach",  published  ten  times  a  year  by  Herder 
at  Freiburg,  edition  5200  copies,  are  carried  on,  on  the 
same  lines  as  heretofore.  The  "Allgemeine  Rund- 
schau", a  semi-monthly  edited  and  published  by  Dr. 
Armin  Kausen  at  Munich,  devotes  itself  to  the  living 
questions  of  political  and  religious  life.  It  specially 
combats  immorality  in  hfe  and  art. 


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PERIODICAL 


(b)  Theological  reviews,  10,  diocesan  and  parochial 
papers,  about  20.  A  description  has  already  been 
given  of  the  "Theolot^ische  (^uartalsclirift  ",  published 
by  Laupp  at  Tnliingcii,  edition  ti3()  cdijics;  and  the 
"Katholik",  pubhslied  liy  Kircliheini  at  Mainz,  edi- 
tion 8f)0  copies.  A  Rood  periodical  for  theological 
literature  is  the  "Thcolofji.-ii'lic  Hcvuc",  edited  by 
Prof.  Diekamp,  published  by  AschendortT  at  Miinstcr, 
edition  i)oO  copies. 

(c)  Family  and  religious-popular  periodicals,  90. 
The  subscription  list  of  the  oldest  and  highest  in  repute 
of  this  class,  the  "Deutsche  Hausschatz",  has  de- 
clined; it  is  published  by  Pustet  at  Ratisbon,  and  its 
edition  in  1000  was  38,000  copies;  in  1908,  28,000; 
the  number  of  copies  forming  an  edition  at  present  is 
unknown.  Large  circulations  are  enjoyed  by:  the 
"Stadt  Gottes",  edited  by  the  Society  of  the  Word  of 
God,  at  Steyl,  edition  140,000 copies;  the  "Christliche 
Familie",  edited  by  Dr.  Jos.  Burg,  published  by 
Fredebeul  and  Koenen  at  Essen,  edition  150,000 
copies;  the  " Katholisches  Sonntagsblatt "  of  Stutt- 
gart, edition  75,0(K)  copies. 

(d)  Legal,  national,  and  socio-economic,  6;  among 
these  is  the  "Archiv  fiir  katholisches  Kirchenrecht", 
founded  by  Ernst  von  Moy  in  1857,  edited  later  by 
Friedrich  H.  Vering,  and  at  present  by  Franz  Heiner, 
published  by  Kirchheim  at  Mainz. 

(e)  Scientific  periodicals,  3.  The  most  important  of 
these  is  "Natur  und  Oflfenbarung",  edited  by  Dr. 
Forch,  published  by  Aschendorff  at  Mtinster,  edition 
900  copies;  (f)  Philosophical  periodicals,  2;  (g)  Edu- 
cational periodicals,  34;  (h)  Historical  periodicals,  10. 
Among  these  one  of  general  importance  is  the  "His- 
torisches  Jahrbuch  der  Gorresgesellschaft ",  founded 
in  1880.  Its  former  editors  are:  Hiiffer,  Hermann 
Grauert,  Joseph  Weiss;  its  present  editor  is  Max  Jan- 
sen;  it  is  published  by  Herder  at  Munich,  edition 
about  750  copies. 

(i)  Periodicals  for  historical  art,  6.  Among  these 
are  the  two  illustrated  monthlies  "Zeitschrift  fiir 
christliche  Kunst",  edited  by  Prof.  Dr.  Schnlitgen, 
published  by  Schwann  at  Diisseldorf,  edition  900 
copies;  and  "Die  christliche  Kunst",  edited  by  J. 
Staudhamer,  published  by  the  Society  for  Christian 
Art  of  Munich,  edition  6400  copies;  (j)  Periodicals  for 
church  music,  8. 

(k)  Literary  journals,  18.  Among  these  are  the 
" Literarischer  Handweiser",  published  by  Theissing 
at  Munster,  and  the  "  Literarische  Rundschau  fiir  das 
katholische  Deutschland ",  edited  by  Prof.  Joseph 
Sauer,  published  by  Herder  at  Freiburg;  (I)  Mission- 
ary periodicals,  14;  (m)  Periodicals  for  children  and 
youth,  21;  (n)  Periodicals  issued  by  Catholic  associa- 
tions, 24. 

Up  to  the  present  time  the  growth  of  the  Catholic 
Press  of  Germany  has  been  both  rapid  and  steady. 
As  theCatholicsin  Germany  number  about  21, 000,000, 
there  is  room  for  an  increase  in  the  sales  of  these  peri- 
odicals, and  their  circulation  will  probably  grow  still 
larger.  On  the  other  hand  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  organs  is  less  necessary  and  desirable.  The  effort 
should  rather  be  ma<ie  to  overcome  the  decided  dis- 
parity between  quantity  and  quality.  There  are,  per- 
haps, no  more  than  a  dozen  Catholic  dailies  which 
have  a  really  high  value.  Most  of  the  others  limit 
themselves  to  a  systematic  use  of  correspondence,  the 
collection  of  notices,  and  polemics  that  are  not  always 
very  skilful;  they  are  also,  in  part,  so  monotonous 
that  thej'  can  only  be  enjoyed  by  an  una,ssuming  circle 
of  readers.  The  relatively  small  subscription  lists  of 
the  really  important  journals  and  the  undue  number  of 
small  periodicals  show  that  the  cultivated  cla.sses  sat- 
isfy their  need  of  reading  in  part  with  non-Catholic 
periodicals.  The  ca-sc  is  the  same  with  the  family 
papers.  An  issue  of  10,000  copies  is  very  small  for  so 
excellent  a  review  as  "Hochland".  The  satisfaction 
expressed    in   each   succeeding   edition   of    Keiter's 


"Ilandbucli  der  katholisclicn  I'ressc"  over  the  growth 
of  the  Catholic  press  refers  only  to  quantity.  In  regard 
to  quality  there  is  little  choice. 

Kl,EMI!NS    LOPFLER. 

Hoi^LAND. — Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  grinding  oppression,  under  which  the 
Catholic  Faith  in  the  Northern  Netherlands  had 
laboured  so  long,  began  to  grow  less  marked,  and  the 
Catholics,  upon  whose  printing-presses  the  Govern- 
ment had  always  kept  a  vigilant  eye,  now  ventured  to 
assert  themselves  more  in  public  life  and  even  to  issue 
periodicals  in  order  to  proclaim  and  uphold  their 
religious  ])rinciples.  The  first  attempt  was  on  a  most 
modest  .scale  and  appeared  under  the  title  of  "Ker- 
kelijke  Hililiotheek"  (6  vols.,  1794-96),  followed  by 
the  "Mengclingen  voor  Roomsch-Catholijken"  (5 
vols.,  1807-14),  edited  by  Prof.  J.  Schrant,  Rev.  J.  W. 
A.  Muller,  and  Prof.  J.  fl.  Lexius.  But  the  man  who 
inspired  Catholic  periodical  literature  with  life  and 
vigour  an<l  brought  it  to  comparative  perfection  was 
Joachim  George  le  Sage  ten  Broek  (d.  1847),  a  convert 
from  Protestantism  (1806)  and  known  in  Holland  as 
the  "Father  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Press".  In  1818 
he  founded  "De  Godsdienstvriend  "  (102  vols.,  1818- 
69),  containing  articles  of  local  interest,  recent  ecclesi- 
astical intelligence,  and  especially  moderate  polemics 
against  Protestant  and  Liberal  pretensions,  by  which 
he  united  the  efforts  of  the  Catholics  in  their  strug- 
gle for  emancipation.  Assisted  by  his  adopted  son, 
Josud  Witz,  Le  Sage  displayed  a  great  and  wonderful 
energy  not  only  in  his  books,  but  also  in  several  serials, 
edited  by  him  or  at  least  with  his  collaboration,  viz., 
the  works  of  the  "R.  Cath.  Maatschappy"  (1821-2), 
suppressed  in  1823,  the  "R.  Kath.  Bibliotheek"  (6 
vols.,  1821-6),  the  "Godsdicnstige  en  zcdekundige 
mengelingen"  (1824-8),  the  "Bijdragen  tot  de  Gods- 
dienstvriend" (2  vols.,  1824-7),  "De  Ultramontaan " 
(5  vols.,  1826-30)  with  its  sequels,  "De  Morgenstar" 
(2  vols.,  1831-2)  and  "De  Morgenstar  der  toekernst" 
(7  vols.,  1832-5),  finally,  "De  Correspondent"  (3 
vols.,  1833-4)  continued  later  by  Josu6  Witz  in  the 
"Catholijke  Nederlandsche  Stemmen"  (22  vols., 
1835-56),  appearing  under  the  title  of  "Kerkelijke 
Courant"  from  1857  till  1873.  Besides  this  in  1844 
Witz  started  a  popular  magazine,  "LTitspannings- 
lectuur"  (40  vols.,  1844-52).  In  the  mean  time  other 
serials  were  published  in  the  Catholic  interest,  viz., 
"Minerva"  (6  vols.,  1818-20),  continued  in  "De 
Katholijke"  (3  vols.,  1822-4),  "Katholikon"  (3  vols., 
1828-30),  "  De  Christelijke  Mentor"  (2  vols.,  1828-9), 
"Magazijn  voor  R.-Katholieken"  (9  vols.,  1835-45), 
and  " Godsdienstig,  gcschied-en  letterkundig  Tijd- 
schrift"  (2  vols.,  1838-39),  but  none  of  these  survived. 
A  new  generation  of  Catholic  writers  soon  arose,  by 
whom  the  struggle  for  emancipation  was  continued  on 
a  more  scientific  basis. 

In  1842  F.  J.  van  Vree,  later  Bishop  of  Haarlem, 
Th.  Borret,  C.  Broere,  J.  F.  Leesberg,  and  others 
founded  the  best  and  oldest  of  the  periodicals  still 
existing,  "De  Katholiek"  (138  vols.,  1842-1910). 
This  periodical  in  the  course  of  time  introduced  many 
new  features  which  have  increased  its  usefulness,  the 
most  important  being  the  admission  of  lengthier  arti- 
cles contributed  by  prominent  Catholic  scholars. 
A  fresh  impetus  in  the  field  of  art  and  literature  was 
given  by  Jos.  Alberdingk  Thijm's  "Dietsche  Wa- 
rande"  "(27  vols.,  1855-90)  and  his  more  popular 
"Volksalmanak"  (.50  vols.,  18,52-1901),  the  later 
issues  being  entitled  "Jaarboekje"  (7  vols.,  1902-08) 
and  finally  consolidated  with  the  "Annuarium  der 
Apologetische  Vereeniging  Petrus  Canisius"  (2  vols., 
1909-10).  Under  Thijm's  direction  two  eminent 
writers  were  formed:  Dr.  H.  J.  Schaepman,  poet  and 
politician,  and  Dr.  W.  Nuijens,  the  historian,  who,  hav- 
ing jointly  founded  the  "Kath.  Nederl.  Brochuren- 
vereeniging"  (27  brochures,  1869-70),  transformed  it 


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681 


PERIODICAL 


later  into  the  more  scientific  monthly  "  Onze  Wachter" 
(23  vols.,  1874-85),  combined  with  "De  Wachter"  (6 
vols.,  1871-3),  afterwards  named  "De  Katholiek"  in 
1885.  Meanwhile  "  De  Wachter"  (12  vols.,  1874-85), 
more  especially  devoted  to  studies  of  Dante,  continued 
to  exist  under  the  editorship  of  J.  Bohl  and  was  finally 
merged  in  "De  wetenschappelijke  Xederlander"  in 
which  the  Rev.  J.  Brouwers  published  many  inter- 
esting Essays  (8  vols.,  1881-90).  Recently  "De 
Katholiek"  has  found  powerful  competitors  in  "Van 
onzen  tijd"  (at  first  a  monthly,  15  vols.,  1900-10;  then 
a  weekly,  1  vol.,  1910-1911)  and  in  the  "  Annalen  der 
vereeniging  tot  het  bevorderen  van  de  beoefening  der 
wetenschap  onder  de  katholieken  in  Nederland"  (2 
vols.,  1907-10),  which  contain  articles  of  a  most 
scholarly  character.  In  this  country  as  elsewhere  the 
Jesuits  have  edited  a  periodical  of  their  own,  the  val- 
uable "Studien.  Tijdschrift  voor  godsdienst,  weten- 
schap, letteren"  (74  vols.,  1868-1910),  while  in  "De 
katholieke  missien"  (35  vols.,  1876-1910)  they  have 
kept  up  a  lively  interest  in  the  foreign  missions,  towards 
which  Holland  has  alwa}'s  been  so  generous. 

In  the  field  of  purely  historical  research  there  are 
the  "Bijdragen  voor  de  geschiedenis  van  het  bisdom 
van  Haarlem"  (33  vols.,  1873-1910)  and  the  "Archief 
voor  heb  aarbsbisdom  Utrecht"  (36  vols.,  1875-1910), 
which  together  with  the  historical  contributions  ap- 
pearing in  the  other  periodicals  fully  answer  the  ex- 
isting interest;  it  was  this  that  led  to  the  early  collapse 
of  the  " Geschiedkundige  Bladen"  (4  vols.,  1905-6). 
No  better  fate  awaited  the  only  periodical  on  ecclesias- 
tical art.,  "Het  Gildeboek"  (3"vols.,  1873-81;  "Versla- 
gen",  11  vols.,  1886-90)  edited  byMgr  vanHenkelum, 
dean  of  St.  Bernulph's  Guild,  but  its  work  is  still 
carried  on  in  part  bv  the  Belgian-Dutch  review  "Sint 
Lucas"  (2  vols.,  1908-10).  "De  katholieke  Gids" 
(20  vols.,  1889-1908),  a  monthly,  the  contents  of 
which  were  never  of  any  great  moment,  met  a  similar 
fate;  as  did  the  weekly  "Stemmen  onzer  Eeuw" 
(1905-06),  while  the  only  educational  paper  "Opvoe- 
dingenOnderwijs"  (2  vols.,  1908-10),  recently  founded, 
seems  already  to  be  on  the  wane.  Among  the 
apologetic  papers  there  are  some  that  deserve  special 
mention:  "Het  Dompertjc  van  den  onden  Valentijn" 
(32  vols.,  1867-1900),  succeeded  by  "Het  nieuwe 
Dompertje"  (4  vols.,  1901-4),  and  "Het  Dompertje" 
(6  vols.,  1905-10),  the  works  of  the  " Willibrordus- 
vereeniging"  (180  brochures,  1896-1910),  the  series 
"Geloof  en  Wetenschap"  (36  booklets,  1904-10)  as 
well  as  the  publications  issued  by  the  "  Apologetische 
vereeniging  Pet rusCanisius"  (some  40  booklets,  1906- 
10).  Among  the  apologetic  journals  may  also  be 
reckoned  "  Boekenschouw "  (5  vols.,  1906-10;  for- 
merly called  "Lectuur",  2  vols.,  1904-5),  a  critical 
book  review.  The  "  Central  Office  for  Social  Action  " 
at  Leiden  issues  no  fewer  than  four  periodicals  under 
the  chief  editorship  of  P.  J.  Aalberse:  the  excellent 
"Katholiek  sociaal  Weekblad"  (9  vols.,  1902-10), 
the  "Volksbibliotheek"  (25  numbers,  1905-10),  the 
"Politieke  en  Sociale  studien",  at  first  two  separate 
serials,  now  united  (3  and  5  vols.,  1906-10),  and  the 
"Volkstijdschrift"  (27  numbers,  1909-10).  Sobrie- 
tas  (4  vols.,  1907-10)  is  the  chief  organ  of  the  Catholic 
temperance  movement. 

In  addition  Holland  possesses  a  flourishing  exclu- 
sively theological  monthly,  "  Nederlandsche  Katho- 
lieke stemmen"  (10  vols.,  1901-10),  which  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  an  older  ecclesiastical  paper  of  the  same 
name  (22  vols.,  1879-1900).  The  " Sint-Gregorius- 
blad"  (35  vols.,  1876-1910)  is  devoted  to  church 
music,  while  the  "Koorbode"  (5  vols.,  1906-10) 
upholds  the  modern  movements.  The  Catholic 
university  students  have  their  "Annuarium  der  R. 
Kath.  studenten"  (8  vols.,  1902-10),  and  recently  they 
started  a  weekly  paper  "Roomsch  Studenten-blad" 
(1  vol.,  1910-1)".  Finally  Catholic  ladies  have  the 
Belgian-Dutch  magazine,  "De  Lelie"  (2  vols.,  1909- 


10).  Besides  those  already  mentioned  there  are  some 
fifty  other  periodicals  some  of  which  supply  enter- 
taining literature,  such  as  the  "  Katholieke  Illustratie" 
(44  vols.,  1867-1910)  and  the  "Leesbibliotheek  voor 
christelijke  huisgezinnen"  (56  vols.,  1856-1910),  while 
others,  mostly  published  for  the  benefit  of  the  for- 
eign missions,  are  of  a  devotional  character.  Men- 
tion must  be  made  of  the  annual  Catholic  directories 
of  Holland.  The  first  of  these  was  the  "Almanach 
du  clerge  catholique"  (7  vols.,  1822-29),  issued  when 
Holland  and  Belgium  were  politically  united.  Then 
came  the  "R.-Kath.  Jaarboek"  (9  vols.,  1835-44), 
succeeded  by  "Kerkelijk  Nederland"  (10  vols.,  1847- 
56),  together  with  the  interesting  "Handboekje  voor 
dezaken  der  R.-Kath.  eeredienst"  (by  J.  C.  Willemse, 
32  vols.,  1847-80),  while  the  statistics  of  more  mod- 
ern times  and  the  present  day  and  all  desirable  in- 
formation can  be  found  carefully  arranged  in  the 
"  Pius-almanak "  (36  vols.,  1875-1910),  which  had  a 
temporary  rival  in  "Onze  Pius-almanak"  (6 vols., 
1900-05). 

Among  the  journals  the  three  most  prominent 
dailies  are:  "De  Tijd",  started  by  the  Rev.  J.  A. 
Smits,  J.  W.  Cramer,  and  P.  van  Cranenburgh  in  1846, 
which  is  considered  the  chief  leader  and  representa- 
tive of  public  opinion  amongst  Catholics;  the  more 
militant  "De  Maasbode",  founded  in  1868,  and  the 
democratic  "Het  Centrum",  begun  in  1884.  All 
these  Dutch  papers  and  periodicals  are  irreproachably 
orthodox.  As  to  the  circulation  the  dailies  enjoy,  no 
figures  are  available.  But  "  De  Voorhoede",  a  weekly 
paper  established  in  1907,  is  known  to  have  an  edition 
of  25,000  copies.  In  all,  Holland  has  15  Catholic 
dailies,  of  which  only  "De  Maasbode"  issues  a  morn- 
ing and  an  evening  edition  (since  1909).  In  addition 
to  these  there  are  31  papers  published  more  than  once 
a  week,  with  76  weeklies  and  some  70  monthlies. 
BoNAV.  Kruitwagen. 

India. — See   India. 

Ireland. — Owing  to  the  ferocity  of  the  penal  laws, 
such  a  thing  as  Catholic  periodical  literature  was  im- 
possible in  Ireland  during  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries.  It  was  not  until  1793  that  any  nota- 
ble relaxation  was  made  in  the  disabilities  under  which 
Irish  Catholics  laboured,  and  the  only  form  of  litera- 
ture, even  in  the  first  quarterof  the  nineteenth  century, 
was  polemical  The  sporadic  pamphlets  issued  by  the 
leaders  of  the  Catholic  Committee,  especially  in  regard 
to  the  Veto  question  and  theQuarantotti  rescript,  can 
scarcely  be  regarded  as  periodical  literature,  nor  yet 
the  able  series  of  "Letters  of  Hierophilus"  (1820-23) 
by  Bishop  Doyle.  After  Catholic  Emancipation 
(1829),  Irish  Cathohcs  began  to  use  the  power  of  the 
press.  In  1834  the  "Cathohc  Penny  Magazine"  was 
started  as  a  weekly,  published  by  Caldwell  of  Dublin. 
The  first  number  was  issued  in  February,  1834,  and 
the  last  in  December,  1S35.  A  new  era  opened  with 
the  foundation  of  the  "Dublin  Review  "  in  May,  1836, 
a  journal  Irish  in  more  than  name,  its  founders  being 
Dr.  Nicholas  Wiseman  and  Daniel  O'Connell.  Twice 
subsequently  O'Connell  made  a  personal  appeal  on  its 
behalf.  The  first  editor,  to  whom  Cardinal  ^^'iseman 
gives  the  original  credit  of  the  project,  was  W.  Michael 
Quin  (q.  v.).  In  a  short  time  it  came  under  the  con- 
trol of  W.  Henry  R.  Bagshawe,  but  he  was  rather  sub- 
editor with  ample  authority  under  Dr.  Wiseman.  The 
history  of  the  "Review"  belongs  to  the  English  sec- 
tion of  this  article,  but  Ireland  can  claim  a  great  share 
in  this  arduous  enterprise.  At  least  one-half,  often 
much  more,  of  the  literary  matter  of  the  original  series 
was  produced  in  Ireland;  and  Irish  topics,  political, 
social,  educational,  or  literary,  constituted  a  large  part 
of  thecontents.  Dr.  C.W.Russell  of  Maynooth  was  the 
chief  support  of  Dr.  Wiseman  who,  writing  in  January, 
1846,  calls  him  editor.  When  Dr.  W.  G.  Ward  became 
proprietor,  the  editorial  work  was  done  by  another 
Irishman,  John  Cashel  Hoey.     An  Irish  editor  of  a 


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later  date  was  Mptr  Moves.  A  number  of  influential 
Ulster  Catholics  pstablisiiotl  the  Belfast  "Vindicator", 
in  1S39,  with  Charles  davan  Duffy  as  editor,  whose 
Buccessor  in  1S42  was  Kevin  T.  Buggy.  This,  though 
an  able  weekly,  ceased  soon  after  1S44.  In  IStO,  a 
magazine,  entitled  "The  Catholic  Luminary",  was 
established  in  Dublin,  which  appeared  every  alternate 
Saturday,  was  managed  by  a  committee  of  priests  and 
laymen,  the  subscription  price  being  eight  shillings 
yearly,  and  lasted  from  20  June  to  11)  December,  1840. 
Its  successor  was  the  "Catholic  Magazine",  pub- 
lished by  James  Duffy  in  1S47,  a  monthly  journal 
devoted  to  national  literature,  arts,  antiquities,  etc. 
Although  ably  conducted  by  Denis  Florence  ^lac- 
Carthy,  Richard  D.  Williams,  and  Father  Kenyon,  it 
declined  in  1S4S,  owing  to  political  excitement,  and 
ceased  publication  in  the  following  December.  A 
weekly  paper,  entitled  "Catholic  Advocate  ",wasissu;d 
in  1S.")1,  but  only  one  number  was  published.  James 
Duffy  ventured  on  another  monthly,  called  "Duffy's 
Fireside  Magazine",  which  ran  from  1851-54.  He  also 
published  a  weekly  magazine,  "The  Catholic  Guar- 
dian", devoted  to  national  and  religious  literature,  but 
it  ceased  after  forty-three  numbers,  the  last  issue  be- 
ing dated  20  Nov.,  18.52.  Frederick  Lucas,  a  convert 
from  Quakerism,  had  founded  the  "Tablet",  the  first 
number  of  which  appeared  16  May,  1840.  After 
some  years  he  came  to  know  Irishmen  like  Gavan 
Duffy  and  John  O'Hagan;  and,  as  he  was  dissatisfied 
with  the  support  given  by  English  Catholics,  he  trans- 
ferred the  "Tablet"  to  Dublin  at  the  end  of  1849. 
After  his  death  (1855)  it  was  transferred  back  to 
London.  The  "Catholic  Layman",  a  monthly  po- 
lemical magazine,  price  one  shilling,  ran  from  1852  to 

1854.  The  "Catholic  University  Gazette",  a  weekly 
paper  under  the  auspices  of  Cardinal  Newman,  had  a 
brief  existence  from  June,  1 854,  until  the  end  of  August, 

1855.  Its  price  was  but  one  penny.  Another  weekly, 
the  "Irish  Catholic  Magazine",  edited  by  W.  J. 
O'Neill  Daunt,  ran  from  January  to  August,  1856. 
The  "Harp",  edited  by  M.  J.  McCann,  was  issued  in 
1859.  It  was  an  excellent  Catholic  monthly,  but  had 
a  sporadic  existence  under  varying  titles,  and  finally 
disappeared  in  February,  1864.  Among  its  contrib- 
utors were  Canon  O'Hanlon,  Dr.  R.  D.  Joyce,  Dr. 
Sigerson,  Dr.  Campion,  and  John  Walsh.  McCann, 
still  remembered  as  the  author  of  the  song  "O'Don- 
nell  Abu",  died  in  London  in  1883.  In  July,  1860, 
James  Duffy  founded  the  "Hibernian  Magazine", 
edited  by  Martin  Haverty,  a  distinguished  alumnus  of 
the  Irish  College,  Rome.  It  was  a  monthly,  price 
eight  pence,  and  ran  for  two  years.  The  contributors 
included  Father  C.  P.  Meehan,  Prof.  Kavanagh,  D. 
F.  MacCarthy,  Dr.  O'Donovan,  William  Carleton, 
D'Arcy  Magee,  and  W.  J.  Fitzpatrick,  and  the  articles 
were  all  signed.  It  ceased  after  two  years,  but  a 
second  series  was  started  in  1862,  with  Father  Meehan 
as  editor,  which  extended  to  six  volumes  and  ended  in 
June,  18ti5.  A  higher-class  magazine  was  "Atlantis", 
the  official  literary  organ  of  the  Catholic  LTniversity, 
of  which  four  volumes  appeared  between  the  years 
18.59  and  1861,  the  contributors  being  Cardinal  New- 
man, O'Curry,  John  O'Hagan.  and  others.  In  1870 
Father  Robert  Kelly,  S.J.,  founded  the  "Monitor", 
a  small  penny  monthly,  mainly  as  a  temperance  organ. 
Its  success  was  so  great  that  he  issued  it  in  an  en- 
larged form  as  the  "Illustrated  Monitor"  in  1873. 
Father  Kelly  died  15  June,  1876,  but  the  pubHcation 
was  continued  by  the  publisher,  Joseph  Dollard.  It 
steadily  declined  in  1877.  and  came  to  an  abrupt  end 
in  1878.  In  June,  1906,  Mgr  O'Riordan  edited  a 
really  high-class  quarterly,  the  "Seven  Hills  Maga- 
zine", published  by  DuiTy  of  Dublin,  but  it  also 
ceased  with  the  issue  of  September,  1908. 

In  regard  to  existing  periodicals,  there  is  no  dis- 
tinctively Catholic  daily  paper  in  Ireland,  but  the 
"Freeman's  Journal"  is  frankly  Catholic  in  tone,  and 


gives  prominence  to  Catholic  toi)ics.  As  to  the  week- 
liesMihcreisbutone,  the  "Irish  Catholic",  founded  by 
T.  D.  Sullivan  in  18S8.  Its  first  editor  was  Robert 
Donovan  (now  professor  in  the  National  University), 
who  after  five  weeks  was  replaced  by  W.  F.  Dennchy 
in  August  of  the  same  year.  It  may  be  described  as  a 
Conservative-National  organ,  supporting  the  Irish 
hierarchy  in  their  corporate  decisions  on  all  religious 
and  political  matters.  In  1890,  at  the  time  of  the 
Parnell  "split",  it  loyally  stood  by  the  bishops.  In 
1891,  the  "Nation"  was  merged  into  the  "Irish  Cath- 
olic" and  in  1897  it  became  a  daily.  Though  the 
"Daily  Nation"  ceased  in  1900,  the  "Irish  Catholic" 
continued  as  a  weekly,  with  Mr.  Dennehy  as  editor  and 
publisher.  It  remains  unconnected  with  any  of  the 
existing  political  parties,  but  is  markedly  opposed  to 
any  union  with  British  Liberalism  and  Radicalism. 
The  paper  has  a  circulation  throughout  Great  Britain, 
America,  and  the  colonies.  Among  monthlies  the 
"  Irish  Ecclesiastical  Record  "  can  claim  premier  place. 
Founded  in  March,  1864,  by  Cardinal  CuUcn,  who 
appointed  Rev.  Dr.  Conroy  and  Rev.  Dr.  Moran  as 
editors,  it  was  to  be  a  link  between  Ireland  and  Rome, 
and  its  policy  was  expressed  in  its  motto:  " Ut  Chris- 
tiani,  ita  et  Romani  sitis".  In  1871,  both  of  the 
editors  were  raised  to  the  episcopate,  Dr.  Conroy  to 
Ardagh,  and  Dr.  Moran  (now  Cardinal  Primate  of 
Australia)  to  Ossory.  Dr.  Verdon  and  Dr.  Tynan 
edited  it  for  over  four  years,  and  Dr.  Walsh  took 
charge  of  it  for  the  last  six  months  of  1876,  when  it 
was  allowed  to  lapse.  A  third  series  was  started  in 
1880,  with  Dr.  Carr  (now  Archbishop  of  Melbourne) 
as  editor,  and  published  from  Maynooth  College.  Dr. 
Healy  (now  Archbishop  of  Tuam)  was  editor  from 
1883  to  1884,  after  whom  came  Dr.  Browne  (Bishop 
of  Cloyne),  who  worked  zealously  for  ten  years.  In 
1894,  Rev.  Canon  Hogan  became  editor.  A  mere 
glance  at  the  twenty-nine  volumes  of  the  "Record"  is 
sufficient  to  vindicate  its  long  existence,  and  the  list 
of  contributors  includes  some  of  the  greatest  names  in 
theology,  liturgy,  canon  law,  Church  history.  Scrip- 
ture, etc.  The  "Irish  Monthly",  founded  in  July, 
1873,  can  boast  the  longest  continuous  existence  of  any 
Irish  Catholic  magazine,  and,  moreover,  it  enjoys  the 
unique  distinction  of  having  had  but  one  editor  in 
thirty-eight  years,  namely  Rev.  Matthew  Russell, 
S.J.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  Father  Russell's 
personality  has  been  the  secret  of  the  popularity  of 
this  magazine,  and  the  list  of  contributors  includes 
Lady  FuUerton,  Sir  C.  Gavan  Duffy,  Judge  O'Hagan, 
Aubrey  de  Vere,  D.  F.  MacCarthy,  Rev.  Dr.  Russell, 
Rev.  Dr.  O'Reilly,  S.J.,  Rev.  Ignatius  Ryder,  Father 
Bridgett,  C.SS.R.,  Mother  Raphael  Drane,  Lady 
Gilbert  (Rose  Mulholland),  Rev.  T.  A.  Finlay,  S.J., 
Archbishop  Healy,  Rev.  D.  Bearne,  S.J.,  and  a  host 
of  others.  Among  the  writers  discovered  by  the 
"Irish  Monthly"  are':  Oscar  Wilde,  "M.  E.  Francis", 
Lady  Gilbert,  Katherine  Tynan,  Hilaire  Belloc,  Alice 
Furlong,  and  Francis  Wynne,  author  of  "Whisper". 
Intended  for  lay  readers,  it  is  always  bright,  readable, 
and  healthy.  The  "New  Ireland  Review",  founded 
March,  1894,  is  a  purely  hterary  monthly,  the  suc- 
cessor of  the  short-lived ' '  Lyceum ' ' ,  founded  and  edited 
by  Rev.  T.  A.  Finlay,  S.J.,  in  1890.  Its  contributors 
included  the  most  distinguished  clerical  and  lay  writ- 
ers, and  it  continued  as  a  powerful  Catholic  organ, 
with  special  reference  to  history  and  economics — 
under  the  able  editorship  of  Father  Finlay — until  it 
ceased  with  the  February  number,  1911.  "The  Irish 
Rosary",  founded  in  April,  1897,  as  a  small  magazine, 
edited  by  the  Irish  Dominicans,  was  enlarged  to 
eighty  pages  in  1901,  and  its  scope  widened.  Father 
Ambro.se  Coleman,  O. P.,  who  became  editor  in  1903, 
added  a  certain  journalistic  tone  to  it,  thus  making 
it  bright  and  up-to-date.  The  present  editor  is 
Father  Finnbar  Ryan,  O.P.  Among  its  contributors 
are  many  able  Dominican  writers,  well-known  laymen 


PERIODICAL 


683 


PERIODICAL 


like  Professor  Stockley,  Dr.  Fitzpatrick,  R.  F.  O'Con- 
nor, Shane  Leslie,  Jane  Martyn,  S.  M.  Lyne,  Sister 
Gertrude,  and  Nora  O'Mahony.  The  only  quar- 
terly is  the  "Irish  Theological  Quarterly",  founded 
in  January,  1900,  by  six  Maynooth  professors,  one  of 
whom  (Dr.  McKenna)  has  since  become  Bishop  of 
Clogher.  Ably  conducted,  it  keeps  thoroughly  abreast 
of  all  theological  and  Scriptural  matters. 

Power,  Irish  Literary  Enquirer  (London,  1807);  Flood,  Irish 
Catholic  Periodicals  (MS.) ;  (5asartelli  in  Dublin  Review  (April, 

isgej. 

W.  H.  Grattan-Flood. 

Italy. — Without  going  back  to  the  Acta  Diurna, 
Acta  Scnatus,  or  Acta  pubiica,  existing  in  Rome  in 
Cjesar's  time,  the  modern  newspaper  had  its  birth  in 
Venice.  From  the  first  years  of  the  sixteenth  century 
we  learn  of  journals  issued  in  that  city  every  two  or 
three  days,  sometimes  even  daily,  under  the  surveil- 
lance of  the  Government.  These  sheets,  called  Avvisi, 
for  the  most  part  in  manuscript,  were  distributed 
among  the  governors  of  provinces  and  the  ambassa- 
dors to  foreign  courts;  they  were  later  read  in  public, 
and  sold  after  the  reading  for  a  gazzelta  (14.6  gazzettas 
=  1  lira),  hence  the  name  "gazette".  At  first  these 
journals  had  an  official  character;  but  in  1538,  during 
the  Turkish  War,  their  publication  was  entrusted  to 
private  enterprise,  though  they  continued  to  be  super- 
vised by  the  Government.  Under  these  new  auspices 
journalism  was  carried  on  without  serious  competition 
up  to  the  first  decades  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

It  was  natural  that  the  example  of  Venice  should  be 
imitated  elsewhere,  but  in  Italy  its  functions  were 
mainly  confined  to  pandering  to  a  scandal-loving  pub- 
lic. In  Rome  this  was  carried  to  such  a  degree  that  in 
157S  Grcogry  XIII  issued  a  Bull  of  excommunication 
against  the  journalists  who  propagated  the  true  and 
false  scandals  of  society  and  the  court.  After  Venice 
came  Florence,  where  they  printed  Notizie  or  Gazzetta. 
In  Rome  the  first  permanent  journal  was  "II  Diario  de 
Roma",  begun  in  171G  during  the  war  against  the 
Turks  in  Hungary,  printed  by  Luca  and  Giovanni 
Cracas,  hence  its  familiar  name  "II  Cracas".  After 
1718  it  was  published  twice  a  week,  with  a  supple- 
ment. At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  sub- 
scription was  24  paoli  (12  lira)  per  annum.  Towards 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  more  intense 
journalistic  life  became  manifest  in  Venice.  In  1760 
another  journal,  the  "Gazzetta  Veneta"  appeared, 
edited  by  Gaspere  Gozzi,  who  in  the  succeeding  year 
founded  a  literary  review  called  the  "Osservatore 
Veneto".  The  directorship  of  the  "Gazzetta  Veneta" 
was  then  assumed  by  the  priest  Chiari ;  this  paper  sur- 
vived until  1798,  though  its  title  was  changed  a  num- 
ber of  times. 

The  following  papers  also  deserve  mention:  the 
"Diario  Veneto"  (1765);  the  "Gazzetta",  with  sub- 
title "Notizie  del  mondo"  (1769);  the  "Novellista 
Veneto"  (1775,  daily);  "Avvisi  Pubblici  de  Venezia" 
(1785);  the  "Gazzetta  delle  Gazzette"  (1786),  the 
only  one  that  also  treated  of  political  questions;  the 
"Nuovo  Postiglione"  (1789).  From  1768  to  1791  the 
"Gazzetta  Fiorentina"  was  circulated  at  Florence. 
Besides  the  foregoing,  a  number  of  scientific  and  liter- 
ary journals  made  their  appearance.  The  first  of 
these  is  the  "Giornale  dei  letterati",  founded  in  Rome 
by  the  learned  Benedetto  Bocchini  (1650-1700).  In 
1718  the  "Giornale  dei  letterati  d'ltalia"  of  Apostolo 
Zeno  appeared  at  Venice,  where  also  in  the  same  year 
Pavini  translated  from  the  French  the  "Mercurio 
Storico".  To  these  was  added  in  1724  the  "Gran 
Giornale  d'Europa",  later  the  "Foglio  per  le  Donne", 
the  "Influssi"  of  Pasiello,  the  "Diario"  of  Cristoforo 
Zane  (1735),  and  the  "Giornale  enciclopedico"  (1777- 
87).  The  "Osservatore"  of  Gozzi,  already  mentioned, 
belongs  to  this  category.  The  most  famous  literary 
journal  of  this  epoch  was  the  "Frusta"  of  Barretti  at 
Turin,  which  unceasingly  attacked  the  decadent  litera- 


ture of  the  times.  Other  literary  and  educational 
periodicals  were:  the  "Analisi  ragionata  dei  libri 
nuovi",  published  in  Naples,  later  changed  its  title  to 
"Giornale  letterario"  (1793-99).  We  may  mention 
also  the  raccoUe  (collections)  of  various  works  and 
dissertations,  which  were  pubUshed  in  a  number 
of  cities.  Such  was  the  "Raccolta  Milanese",  the 
"Opuscoli"  of  Calogera  at  Pisa,  the  "Simbole"  by 
Gori,  even  the  "Saggi",  etc.  of  the  various  academies 
in  the  cities  of  Italy.  Beginning  with  1710,  Cracas 
printed  a  species  of  almanac,  the  ' '  Notizie  per  I'anno  " ; 
while  the  Roman  "Calendario"  was  the  precursor  of 
the  "Gerarchia  Cattolica"  of  to-day. 

With  the  French  Revolution,  other  papers  were 
founded  throughout  Italy  to  advocate  the  new  regime. 
In  Venice  in  1797  was  printed  the  "Monitore  lom- 
bardo-veneto-traspadano " ;  the  "Libero  Veneto"; 
the  "Italiano  rigenerato";  and  the  "Raccolta  delle 
carte  pubbliche".  When  Venice  became  Austrian, 
these  journals  disappeared,  and  the  former  "Gazzetta 
Urbana"  became  the  "Gazzetta  Veneta  privilegiata" 
(1799).  The  "Diario  di  Roma"  was  discontinued 
from  the  close  of  1798  until  October  of  the  succeeding 
year,  again  from  1808  to  1814,  and  from  this  last  date 
continued  up  to  the  middle  of  the  century.  During 
the  first  French  occupation  the  "Monitore  di  Roma 
was  published  in  Rome;  the  "Gazzetta  Romana", 
founded  in  1808  and  edited  in  two  languages,  was  fol- 
lowed in  1809  by  the  "Giornale  del  Campidoglio", 
and  in  1812  by  the  "Giornale  politico  del  diparta- 
mento  di  Roma",  containing  treatises  on  antiquities 
and  the  results  of  excavations,  and  other  items  of 
interest.  Mention  may  also  be  made  of  the  "Giornale 
patriotico  della  Repubblica  Napolitana". 

The  pre-revolutionary  journals  were  all  Catholic. 
In  the  Reign  of  Terror  the  publication  of  Catholic 
journals  became  impossible.  During  the  time  of  the 
Restoration  the  government  in  Italy  held  the  censor- 
ship of  the  press  in  regard  to  all  questions  of  political 
import;  but  journals  were  free  to  exert  themselves  in 
behalf  of  Catholicism.  Foreign  books,  however,  were 
circulated,  propagating  the  political,  social,  and  reli- 
gious maxims  of  the  Revolution.  Thus  the  need  of  a 
conservative  Catholic  press  made  itself  felt.  The  first 
to  appear  upon  the  field  was  in  1831,  the  "Voce  della 
Verity"  of  Modena,  founded  under  the  auspices  of 
Duke  Francis  V,  and  under  the  directorship  of  Antonio 
Parenti  and  Professor  Bartolommeo  Veratti.  These 
journals  continued  to  appear  only  until  1841.  In  this 
year  Ballerini  founded  the  "Amico  Cattolico"  at 
Milan.  The  Revolution  of  1848  (although  signalized  by 
the  founding  at  Rome  of  the ' '  Ballade ' '  and  the  satirical 
paper  "Don  Pirlone";  at  Piacenza,  the  "Eridano", 
representing  the  Provisional  Government,  the  "Tri- 
buno"  representing  the  Opposition),  made  the  neces- 
sity of  good  papers  very  urgent.  On  the  return  of  Pius 
IX  the  "Giornale  di  Roma"  was  founded  at  Rome 
(18.50-65),  to  which  was  added  an  evening  paper,  the 
"Osservatore  Romano",  which,  when  the  "Giornale" 
was  suspended,  became  the  organ  of  the  Pontificial 
Government. 

At  Turin  the  "Armonia"  was  founded  in  1849, 
which  fought  strenuously  for  the  cause  of  the  Church. 
The  "Unitii,  Cattolica"  appeared  in  1862,  directed  by 
Margotti,  and  the  "Armonia"  was  transferred  to 
Florence;  at  Genoa  the  "Eco  d'ltalia"  was  estab- 
lished in  1849,  an  illustrated  daily  paper,  still  pub- 
lished under  the  name  of  "Liguria  del  Popolo".  At 
Locarno,  Canton  of  Ticino,  Switzerland,  the  "Cre- 
dente  Cattolico"  .appeared  in  1856;  in  the  same  year 
the  "Osservatore  Bolognese",  at  Bologna  founded  by 
Fangarezzi,  Casoni,  Acquaderni,  etc.,  afterwards  sup- 
pressed in  1859  by  the  provisional  Government;  in 
Florence  the  "Contemporaneo"  (1857),  founded  by 
Stefano  San  Pol;  in  Naples,  beginning  in  1860,  was 
published  the"Omnibus",  directed  by  VincenzoTorello. 
After  the  annexation  of  a  large  part  of  Italy  to  Sardinia, 


PERIODICAL 


GS4 


when  the  influence  of  a  Catholic  Press  was  urRentlv 
needed  its  freedom  was  continually  hampered  by  all 
sorts  of  petty  vexiitions.  Papers  that,  had  been  sup- 
pressed reappeared  under  other  names.  This  per- 
scoution  IS  explained  either  by  the  se<>tarian  spirit  of 
lL'"f!.'"  R^V;."""  ^y  *'>'^  impression  tlini  iirevailiim 
that  the  Catholic  party  was  the  declared  enemy  of  the 

?s.M   ;?'''"™,!'"-'"^-  J^"^^  ""''''■  'W'peared  at  Bologna  m 
ISbl  the     Leo  delle  Romagne",  substituted  for  the 
Osservatore    Uolognese",  which  in  turn    was  sup- 
pressed in  1SG3  and  succeeded  by  the  "Patriotto  Cat- 
tohco    ,  followed  again  by  the  "Conservat<ire"  (ISliS) 
and  by  the  •'  Unione  "  (1878).    A  similar  fate  befell  the 
_  Usservatore  Lombardo"  of  Brescia  (l,St)'2-63)     The 
Uifensore"  of  Modena  was  sin.ilarlv  treated  and 
suppressed  in  1867;  and  the  vear  following  I\Igr  Ha- 
lan  founded  the  ';Diritto  Cattol.co",  still  publishe.l. 
in  Florence  the  " Contemporaneo "  succeeded  to  the 
Corriere  Toscano".    In  Venice  the  "Veneto  Catto- 
i'f  ?,  r^PPe^red  m  1866  and  in  1867  assumed  the  name 
P«ff!^i     "   '  "^H"^  still  survives.    The  "Osservatore 
Cattohco     was  founded  at  Milan  in  1864,  and  was 
entrusted  to  the  editorship  of  Don  Albertario     This 
journal  undertook  the  refutation  of  the  Rosminian 
doctrines    and  was  a  faithful  advocate  of  the  papal 
policy.    At  this  period  religious  papers  were  founded 
n8fi6^^h   'V^    o^'^l-  ,.tl^e,';Liberta",  at  Locarno 
(1866),  the'  Voce  Cat  tohca"    1866);  the  "Gazzetta 
N.l^''n^r7^  ^'f^^K'J^'  "Lib^rtft  CattoVicI-'^of 
m^lT-  ^  f  ^  ir.***?     ^'"'"^  Cattohca"  of  Palermo 
(1869)'  °  Cattohco"   of  Reggio  Emilia 

Meanwhile  Pius  IX  felt  the  need  at  Rome  of  a 
politico-religious  organ  for  the  support  of  his  own 
programme,  for  the  refutation  of  pernicious  doctrines 
and  to  serve  as  a  medium  of  official  communication 
to  the  Cathohc  world.  This  was  realized  bv  the  foun- 
dation of  the     Correspondance  de  Rome",  and  the 

of  t"h!  -r"*""  ^""^'f  ^\?'^''^)-  The  chief  principles 
ot  the  Correspondance"  were  the  support  of  the 
Holy  bee  and  opposition  to  the  Liberal  Catholics  and 
Opportunists^  In  1870  this  paper  was  moved  to 
Geneva  by  Mgr  Mermillod,  where  it  altered  its  title 
to     Correspondance  de  Geneve".    It  then  became  an 

m.tTX"^  °^  ^^°T  '^  ^^  '''^?'°"'  -campaign  against 
Bismarck,  especially  during  the  Kullurkmnpf.  This 
paper  supported  the  intransigent  party  favoured  bv 
the  pope,  though  It  failed  to  obtain  the  sympathy  of 
Cardinal  Antonelh.  At  the  death  of  Pius  "IX  the  con- 
dition of  Cathohc  journals  was  very  favourable.  Thev 
rn'fnrm "^f  "'^^"°'  •"  the.Papers  of  their  opponents 
in  form,  but  w-ere  unrivalled  as  to  the  ability  of  their 
writers  and  the  vigour  and  intelligence  of  their  po- 

Xdisting°ufst*'^^''^"'^'^^"°'-''--^P- 

The  year  1870  beheld  a  revival  of  governmental  and 

sectarian  opposition  to  Catholic  journals,  which  how" 

t?f»  I'f '''^Jli,"  ""'"i*''"  '^"^P'^"  the  hostility  mani- 
fested toward  them.  This  was  particularly  the  case 
with   those   papers    of   periodical    issue.  '^Thus   fn 

Ve,?K""/''v  r^"'  ^''■J  •^"""^''d  the  "Voce  della 
Venti       (which    ceased    in    1904):    the   "Eco    del 

hSsit'^iT^'^''''  ".Amico'del  Popob",tt 

ft  Genoa  (1873);  at  Turin  the "'corrile  Nalb'ale " 
(1873     which  in   1894  was  fused  with  the  "Itaha 

?f  the  "  Unirrr^tT f'^'^  ?/'"  '\'r  '^^"^^^^  to  Florin  e 
?1S7Rt  ;  Tri  .^^l]"^  '  ^t  Venice  the  "Berico" 
(1876);  at  Udine  the  "Cittadino  Italiano"  (1878)   at 

Po^r-^'etJ""""  ^'^''^'  -^tTrevisothe-VHidd 
Leo  XIII  also  realized  the  need  of  a  papal  journal 
through  which  he  could  communicate  wifh  ?he  foreTgn 
press,  and  he  consequently  created  the  "Journafde 
Rome  ';  thi.s  paper  did  not  fulfil  his  expectations  so 
it  was  succeeded  by  the  "Moniteur  de  Rome"  assi- 


PEBIODICAL 


95).  The  most  prominent  developments  of  Italian 
purnahsm  of  the  last  few  years  are  the  union  o  he 
Osservatore  Cattohco"  of  Milan  with  the  ■'Lega 

fus'.M  T  1  ^^""l^ '■'"' '").  '^^V-  ^^'^l^  two  papers  v^^re 
tu.Md  ih  the  Unione".  Another  event  in  Italian 
journalism  w-as  the  foundation  of  the  "Momento" 

d'Italia"'rm."''  ""ir''  \?'?''^  ^y  the  "CorHere 
wif  h  ;L  ^.  A  '  "".^"'^y  called  "Giornale  di  Homa") 
with  the  .  Avvemre  d'ltalia"  of  Bologna  and  with 
the  'Corriere  della  Sicilia"  (Palermo).  The  "Corre- 
spondance de  Rome",  founded  in  1907  with  the  titfe 
ihZ'u^Ztl'^  Komana",  has  a  scope  similar  to 
t  lie  paper  of  the  same  name  under  Pius  IX.    Like  its 

e^hn[?heV\°t^;fin"''^  °«^^'=''  '"  ^^--^--  ^^ 
Before  we  consult  the  actual  statistics  of  the  Cath- 
ohc press  of  Italy  it  may  be  well  to  survey  the  history 
o  ti^at  class  of  Cathohc  j.eriodicals  which  comprises 
literature  and  erudition  to  the  exclusion  of  po  it ics 
Among    hese  periodicals    we  may  mention  first    he 

1888  wifh  tr'l^r  A°^  "?T  (1819-68),  revived  in 
1888  with  the  title  "Arcadia",  and  in  1898  reassum- 

n^-«v  ll"^'lu'"K    Then  'came  the   "Tiber  Z" 
hr^eh/  of  t\?h"'"'"    i-^ -^*1'  illustrated  and  treating 
h?'R-  <^'^^,''J?gr,'TP'^''''  of  contemporaneous  menl 
he     Rivista"  (  83  ),  devoted  to  the  theatre;    the 
Giornale  Ecclesiastico"  (182.5),  a  periodical  devoted 
to  canon  law,  m  1835  issued  again  as  the  "Annali 
delle  scienze  religiose",  directed  by  Mgr  Antonio  de 
iheC^^U  rTv'"'^  'i^  the  organ  of  the  Academy  of 
the  Cathohc  Religion     In  1865  de  Ro.ssi  founded  the 
*u  "  '^t"'"°  '^l  Archeologia  Cristiana",  reappearine  as 
the  "Nuovo  Bullettino"  etc.    In  Modenafto  tK 
"Met,     •^^'p*',''  '''^^J  -"^"tioned  were  added  the 
Memorie  di  Religione";  the  "Opuscoli  rehgiosi,  let- 
teran  e  morai";   the  "Strenne  filologiche";   in  1858 
he  founded  there  a  collection  of  "Letture  amene  ed 
oneste  ".    Under  the  title  of  ■  ■  Letture  Cattoliche  "  and 
Padf/  v''?'  Periodicals  existed   in   various   citls. 
Eon  Bo.S  et'c.'"'^""'^'  ^"""  ^'""'^  ''''  ^-^^ed  by 
cit^'^r^.'i'^  periodicals  of  an  earlier  date  we  must 
p/te  the      Giornale  scientifico  letterario"   and   the 
Rivista  di  scienze,  lettere  e  arti ".    Strictly  religious 
periodicals,  such  as  "Settimane  Religiose";  etc  were 
printed  in  many  cities,  often  for  the  benefit  of  some 
sanctuary  or  in  behalf  of  some  pious  work.     T™e 
Donna  e  la  Famigha"  (Genoa,  1862),  which  had  a 
CeZ  'iTqw? ^i< l^?  '.'Consighere  ddle  Famiglie" 
Genoa,  18.9) ;  tlie^"  Missione  del  la  Donna"  (Sciacca, 
1875),  were  published  for  circulation  in  families.    At 
the  present  time  we  should  name  especially  the  "Pro 
Famiha     (Bergamo,  splendidly  illustrated)^    In  many 
cities   (Turin,   Genoa,   Massa  Carrara,   etc.)   papers 
were  published  for  workmen;    others 'were  devoted 
especially  to  the  peasants.     For  education  and  the 
cause  of  Christian  schools  were  founded  the  "Scuola 
Itahana  Moderna"  (Milan,  1893)  and  the  "Vittorino 
da  Feltre"  (Feltre,  1890).    The  "Maseo  delle  Mis- 

\IZ  -WM°^'^T",?."^  1'^^^) '  the  "  Missioni  citto- 
l-„  (Milan);  the  "Missioni  francescane  in  Pales- 
tina  (Rome) ;  the  "  Oriente  Serafico  "  (Assisi,  1889)  • 
Gerusalemme  '  (Genoa,  1877)  and  other  bulletins 
of  this  kind  indicate  their  subject-matter  by  their 
titles.  With  the  periodical  "La  Scienza  e  la  Fede" 
banseverino  the  celebrated  philosopher  of  Naples 
assisted  by  Signoriello  and  by  d'Amelio,  carried  on  a 
Thomis"  philosophy  and  theology  of  St. 

hJIl""  Pf '"^Z'^^'  "Scienza  Italiana",  founded  in  1814 
by  the  Jesuit  Cornoldi  and  the  physician  Venturini 
had  a  .similar  scope.  After  the  encyclical  "yEternl 
Patris  various  other  periodicals  of  this  kind  ap- 
Fparrn^  T^Jof  ^^^r.^^'V]}  ^-  Tommaso  d'Aquino" 
tL  '^#'  1.^/9  ;"pivus  Thomas"  (Piacenza,  1880): 
InL  F"''}?^  (Palermo);  finally  the  "Rivista  Neol 
tomistica     was  founded  at  Florence  (1910).     The 


PERIODICAL 


085 


PERIODICAL 


"Catechista  Cattolico"  (Piacenza,  1877),  and  the 
"Risveglio  del  catechismo"  (Chieri,  1893),  the  "Pred- 
icatore  Cattolico"  (Giarre),  the  "Poliantea  oratoria" 
(Caltagirone,  1881),  the  "Crisostomo"  (Rome)  ex- 
press their  subjects  in  their  titles,  as  also  the  "Moni- 
tore  Liturgico"  (Macerata,  1888),  the  "Ephemerides 
liturgicise"  (Rome,  1887),  the  "Rassegna  Gregoriana" 
(Rome),  the  "Scuola  Veneta  di  Musica  Sacra"  of 
Tebaldini,  etc.  The  "  Bessarione"  (1897)  is  devoted  to 
Oriental  Christian  studies.  The  "Scuola  Cattolica", 
founded  by  Cardinal  Parocchi  (1878),  embraces  all 
branches  of  theology  and  disciphne.  For  social  stud- 
ies made  after  the  encyclical  "Rerum  Novarum" 
in  1892,  Benigni  founded  the  "Rassegna  sociale" 
(Perugia,  afterwards  Genoa);  and  in  the  next  year 
Mgr  Talamo  began  the  "Rivista  internazionale  di 
Bcienze  sociali ",  etc.  In  1898  Murri  founded  a  period- 
ical of  social  studies,  the  "Cultura  sociale",  which 
deviated  into  forbidden  tendencies  of  thought. 

Historical  periodicals  are:  "Rivista  storica"  of 
Pavia  (now  at  Saronne);  the  "Muratori"  (Pubbh- 
cazione  di  testi  per  la  storia  d'ltalia);  the  "Rivista 
storica  benedettina";  the  "Archivum  franciscanum 
historicum"  (Rome);  the  "Miscellanea  francescana" 
of  Mgr  Faloci  Pulignani  (Foligno,  1887);  the  "Mis- 
cpllanea  di  Storia  Ecclesiastica  e  studi  ausiliari" 
(Home,  1904-07),  and  the  "  Rivista  storico-critica  delle 
scienze  teologiche  "  (Rome,  1905),  recently  condemned 
by  the  Holy  Office.  Among  the  e.xisting  scientific  and 
literary  reviews,  the  oldest  and  most  widely-circulated 
is  the  "Civilti  Cattolica",  conducted  by  priests  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  forming  a  community  by  themselves, 
and  directly  subject  to  the  general.  This  was  founded 
in  1850  under  the  auspices  of  Pius  IX.  Among  the 
founders  and  early  writers  Bresciani,  Curci,  Bruncngo, 
Taparelli,  Cornoldi,  Liberatore,  etc.  won  distinction. 
Mention  must  be  made  of  "Acta  Apostolica'  Sedis", 
the  official  bulletin  of  the  Holy  See,  founded  by  molu 
proprio  in  1908,  in  which  are  published  the  Bulls, 
Constitutions,  Encyclicals,  and  other  acts  of  the  pope, 
together  with  the  Decrees  of  the  Roman  Congrega- 
tions. Several  periodicals  of  the  same  kind  are  and 
have  been  published  in  Rome,  such  as  the  "Nuntius 
Romanus"  (1882-1904),  the  "Analecta Ecclesiastica" 
(1893),  the  "Acta  Pontificia",  etc.,  besides  the  "Acta 
S.  Sedis"  already  mentioned.  The  "Monitore  Eccle- 
siastico",  founded  in  Conversano  by  Mgr  Gennari, 
afterwards  cardinal,  not  only  gives  the  more  impor- 
tant pontifical  news,  but  treats  of  moral  theology  and 
canon  law,  and  publishes  decisions  concerning  eccle- 
siastical matters."  The  "Nuova  Rivista  delle  Riviste" 
of  Macerata  gives  a  digest  of  important  articles  ap- 
pearing in  national  and  foreign  periodicals  upon  mat- 
ters of  interest  to  the  clergy.  Finally  it  is  necessary 
to  note  satirical  and  humorous  periodicals.  Among 
these  the  "Vespra"  of  Florence  and  the  "Frusta"  of 
Rome  were  well-known  for  a  time,  but  ceased  on 
account  of  the  frequent  actions  for  damages  brought 
against  them.  With  these  may  be  classed  the  "Follia" 
of  Naples,  the  "Mulo"  of  Bologna,  and  the  "Bas- 
tone"  of  Rome. 

The  above  statistics  have  been  largely  gathered 
from  the  "Annuario  Ecclesiastico  "  which  undertakes 
to  register  all  Catholic  papers  published  throughout 
Italy.  This  registration,  however,  is  neither  complete 
nor  exact,  some  existing  periodicals  being  omitted, 
whilst  others  that  have  stopped  publication  are  still 
on  the  list.  Moreover  the  "Annuario  Ecclesiastico" 
does  not  inform  us  whether  the  journal  is  a  daily  or  a 
weekly.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  well  to  note  that  a 
number  of  so-called  daily  journals  appear  at  the  most 
only  three  times  a  week.  Of  such  there  were  three 
published  at  Rome  and  two  published  at  Turin  and 
Genoa.  Besides  the  above  mentioned  there  are  101 
political  and  social  journals  issued  several  times  a 
month;  81  religious  periodicals  appearing  once  or 
twice  a  month;   five  periodicals  of  general  erudition; 


and  five  devoted  to  philosophical  and  theological  stud- 
ies, in  which  class  might  be  included  the  "Rivista 
Rosminiana";  and  ten  reviews  consecrated  to  canon 
law.  This  last  enumeration  comprises  a  few  bulletins 
of  episcopal  courts.  Apart  from  the  foregoing  there 
are  also  two  reviews  devoted  to  preaching;  six  to 
missionary  interests;  three  to  education;  and  one  to 
social  studies.  Other  periodicals  may  be  counted 
among  CathoUc  ones  by  the  notably  Catholic  charac- 
ter of  their  managers:  such  as  the  "Rivista  di  Mate- 
matiche",  etc.,  founded  by  Tartellini,  then  professor 
in  the  University  of  Rome;  now  edited  by  Cardinal 
Maffi.  Among  the  political  and  social  reviews  it  must 
be  observed  that  two  tendencies  existed,  one  decidedly 
liberal,  and  the  other  absolutely  papal.  The  first 
dealt  with  the  "Roman  Question"  as  obselete.  It 
advocated  a  larger  individual  liberty  and  independ- 
ence from  the  particular  views  of  the  Holy  See  and  the 
episcopate  in  politics  and  social  matters.  The  reviews 
taking  this  liberal  attitude  never  failed  however  to 
profess  their  allegiance  and  obedience  to  authority. 
On  the  other  hand  there  existed  the  papal  press,  which 
might  be  characterized  by  its  perfect  submission  to 
and  advocacy  of  the  prevailing  opinions  of  the  Vati- 
can and  the  episcopate.  To  this  last  class  belong: 
the  "Riscossa"  of  Braganze  (Mgr  Scotton);  the 
"Unit^  Cattolica"  (Florence);  the  "Italia  Reale" 
(Turin);  the  "Liguria"  (Genoa);  the  "Difesa" 
(Venice);  the  "Osservatore  Romano"  (Rome);  the 
"Liberta"  (Naples);  the" Correspondance de Rome ", 
and  some  other  small  sheets. 

With  regard  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
Catholic  press,  there  is  an  enormous  disproportion 
between  the  north  and  the  south.  Southern  Italy 
(Naples  and  Palermo)  has  only  two  daily  papers. 
But  even  in  the  North  there  are  large  cities  without 
a  daily  Catholic  publication,  e.  g.,  Padua  and  Ancona, 
while  Ravenna  and  Rimini  have  not  even  a  weekly 
one.  The  need  of  weekly  journals  is  naturally  felt 
still  more  in  Southern  Italy. 

Ferrandina.  Censimento  della  stampa  Cattolica  (Asti,  1893) ;  Gl- 
ACCHI,  II  giornalismo  in  Italia  (Rome,  1883) ;  Caboni,  Cinquanf 
anni  di  giornalismo  (Bologna,  1907) ;  Chiaudano,  II  giornalismo 
cattolico  (Turin,  1910);  Santelena,  Giornali  veneziani  net  sette- 
cento  (Venice,  1908);  Chierici,  Ilquinto  potere  a  Roma:  storia  dei 
giornali  e  giornalisli  romani  (Rome,  1905) ;  RoviTO,  Dizionario  dei 
letterati  e  giornalisli  italiani  contemporanei  (Naples,  1907) ;  della 
Casa,  /  Nostri  (Trevigo,  1903),  Uvea  of  iliustrioua  Catholic  presa- 

U.  Benigni. 

Mexico. — Colonial  Period. — During  the  administra- 
tion of  the  viceroy  Baltasar  de  Zuniga  Guzmdn  de 
Sotomayor,  Marques  de  Valero,  the  first  newspaper, 
supervised  by  J.  Ignacio  Maria  de  Castorena  y  Ursua 
(precentor  of  the  Cathedral  of  Mexico  and  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Yucatan),  was  published  in  Mexico,  Janu- 
ary, 1722,  with  the  heading  "Gaceta  de  Mexico  y 
Noticias  de  Nueva  Espaiia  que  se  imprimir^n  Cada 
mes  y  comienzan  desde  primero  de  Enero  de  1722" 
(Gazette  of  Mexico  and  notices  of  New  Spain,  which 
will  be  published  every  month,  and  which  will  begin 
the  first  of  January,  1722).  Later  the  name  was 
changed  to  "Florilegio  Historial  de  Mexico  etc.",  and 
in  June  of  this  year  the  enterprise  was  abandoned. 
In  the  numbers  published,  the  news  items  were  ar- 
ranged according  to  the  principal  cities  of  the  colony. 
With  the  second  issue  brief  notices  of  the  books  being 
published  in  Mexico  and  Spam  were  added  and  also 
accounts  of  important  events  in  Lower  California  and 
the  principal  cities  of  Europe.  In  January,  1728,  the 
second  pubfication,  the  "Compendio  de  Noticias  Mex- 
icanas",  edited  by  J.  Francisco  Sahagiin  de  Ar^valo 
Ladr6n  de  Guevara,  appeared.  This  continued  in  cir- 
culation until  November,  1739,  when  it  was  succeeded 
by  the  "Mercurio  de  Mexico",  edited  by  the  same 
person.  The  "Mercurio"  was  issued  monthly  and  in 
the  same  form  as  the  "Gaceta"  and  "Florilegio". 
Among  its  news  items  were,  accounts  of  rehgious  festi- 


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vals,  autos  defd,  competitions  for  the  university  facul- 
ties, European  events,  sliipping  news  at  the  port  of 
Vera  Cruz,  and  news  from  tlie  I'liiUppines,  Cliina,  and 
even  Morocco.  \\'hen  there  was  an  abuiKhince  of 
news  a  fortnightly  issue  appeared.  The  desire  to  Iceep 
readers  inforiiied  on  the  most  important  events  con- 
nected with  tile  Spanish  Monarchy,  e.  g.,  the  eouciiiest 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  is  evident.  In  1712  the 
"Mercurio"  discontinued  publication  and  no  paper 
existed  until  1784,  when  the  new  "Gaceta  de 
Mexico",  edited  by  M.  A.  Valdds,  appeared  and  con- 
tinued without  interruption  until  IStJO.  It  was  issued 
bi-monthly,  modelled  more  or  less  on  the  gazettes  of 
1722  and  172S;  it  indicated  the  price  of  bread  and 
meat  in  the  City  of  Mexico  and  published  officially 
and  integrally  the  royal  orders.  To  Ignacio  Bartola- 
che  and  the  Rev.  Jose  Antonio  Alzatc  (ci-  v.),  well- 
known  Mexican  writers  of  the  eighteenth  century,  is 
due  the  honour  of  having  issueil  the  first  scientific 
publications.  The  former  published  (1772)  the  "Mer- 
curio Volante",  which  was  short-lived;  it  was  charac- 
terized as  a  newspaper  giving  curious  and  important 
notices  upon  various  matters  bearing  on  physics  and 
medicine  ("con  noticias  curiosas  6  importantes  sobre 
varies  asuntos  de  Fisica  y  Medicina").  Alzate  began 
(1768)  the  "Diario  Literario  de  Mexico";  this  was 
suppressed,  but  reappeared  on  26  October  under  the 
title  of  "Asuntos  Varios  Sobre  Ciencias  y  Artes". 
After  eleven  numbers  were  published  it  was  again 
suppressed,  only  to  reappear  (1787)  under  the  title 
of  "Observaciones  sobre  I'^lsica,  Historia  Natural  y 
Artes  Utiles",  fourteen  numbers  of  which  were  issued. 
In  January,  1788,  the  famous  "  Gaceta  de  Literatura" 
appeared  and  was  issued  monthly,  though  with  some 
irregularity,  until  1799.  This  publication  was  a  literary 
and  scientific  review;  all  subjects  were  examined  and 
discussed  by  the  learned  priest-editor.  Here  might  be 
read  with  benefit  articles  on  medicine,  botany,  miner- 
alogy, Mexican  archa;ology,  architecture,  philosophy, 
ethnology,  jurisprudence,  physics,  astronomy,  topog- 
raphy, etc.  The  files  are  a  veritable  encyclo|iedia,  and 
the  number  and  variety  of  the  subjects  treated,  as  well 
as  the  scholarly  manner  in  which  they  are  handled,  are 
evident  proof  of  Father  Alzate's  remarkable  erudition. 
On  1  October,  1805,  Jacobo  Villaurrutia  established  the 
"Diario  de  Mexico",  the  first  daily  paper  published 
in  the  colony;  it  was  issued  every  day,  including  holi- 
days, until  1816.  Among  its  contributors  were  Nava- 
rette,  Sanchez  de  Tagle,  Barguera,  Anastasio  Ochoa, 
and  Lacunza  y  Burazdbal.  The  "  Gaceta  del  Gobierno 
de  M(5xico",  founded  in  1810,  was  the  official  organ  of 
the  viceregal  Government  until  1821. 

Period  of  the  War  of  Independence. — The  first  news- 
paper devoted  to  the  cause  of  independence  was  the ' '  El 
Despertador  M^xicauo",  edited  by  Francisco  Severo 
Maldonado.  It  was  begun  on  20  December,  1810,  but 
did  not  last  long.  The  second  newspaper  controlled  by 
the  insurgents  was  the  "Ilustrador  Nacional".  The 
editor,  Dr.  Jos6  Maria  Cos,  made  the  type  from  wood 
and  mixed  iniligo  for  the  printing  ink.  When  he  was 
able  to  procure  inetul  type,  he  continued  to  publish  his 
news[)aper  imder  the  title  "EI  Ilustrador  Americano". 
It  lasted  from  May,  1812,  until  April,  1813.  The  vice- 
regal Government  and  the  ecclesiastical  authorities 
rigidly  prohibited  it.  The  latter  obliged  the  faithful 
to  give  up  their  copies,  and  denounced  those  who  re- 
tained any.  The  third  newspaper,  "El  Correo  Ameri- 
cano del  Sur",  appeared  in  February,  1813.  The 
pri&st,  Jos<;  Maria  Morelos,  after  conquering  Oaxaca 
and  organizing  his  government,  established  it  and  con- 
fided the  editing  first  to  J.  M.  de  Herrera,  formerly 
parish  priest  of  Huamustitldn,  and  afterwards  to  the 
lawyer.  Carlos  M.  Bustamante.  The  paper  was  issued 
every  Thursday  until  27  May  of  the  same  year.  Upon 
the  proclamation  of  the  freedom  of  the  press,  two  news- 
papers, "EI  Juguetillo"  and  "El  PensadorMexicano", 
edited  respectively  by  C.  M.  Bustamante  and  Joaquin 


Fernandez  de  Lizardi,  appeared;  they  fearlessly  at- 
tacked the  abuses  of  the  viceregal  Government.  The 
"Juguetillo"  published  only  six  numbers,  and  both 
were  suppressed  by  the  \iceroy  Venegas  in  December, 
1812.  Lizardi  was  inipri.soni^d,  but  was  liberated 
shortly  .-iftcrwards,  and  continued  the  ))ublication  of 
his  i)apcr,  cliiniiial  ing,  however,  its  olVcnsive  tone. 
Bustamante  escaped  im|)risonment  and  pul)lisli<'d  two 
more  immbers  of  the  "Juguetillo",  the  lust  in  1.S21. 
Among  other  newspapers  published  during  this  period 
may  be  mentioned:  "Clamores  de  la  Kidelidad  .Vmeri- 
cana",  published  in  Yucatan  by  Jo.se  Matias  Quin- 
tana,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned;  the  "  Boletln 
Militar",  published  by  General  Mina  from  the  printing- 
press  which  he  carried  with  his  expedition:  the  army 
of  Iturbide  published  several  sheets,  "K\  Mexicano 
Independiente",  "Ejercito  Imp<Tial  ile  las  Tres  Cia- 
rantias",  "Diario  Politico  Militar  M6xicano".  The 
"Centinela  contra  Seductores"  was  an  anti-insurgent 
paper,  issued  towards  the  end  of  1810:  the  "Es- 
peculador  Patriotico"  (1810-11),  a  weekly  dedicated 
to  the  Viceroy  Venegas.  J.  M.  Wenceslas  Sanchez  de 
la  Barquera  issued  several  interesting  papers,  includ- 
ing "Semanario  econ6mico  de  noticias  curiosas  y 
eruditas  sobre  Agricultura  y  demds  Artes  y  Oficios" 
(1808-10);  "El  Correo  de  los  Niilos"  (1813),  the  first 
juvenile  paper  published  in  Mexico;  and  "El  Amigo 
de  los  Hombres"  (1815).  The  "Noticioso  General" 
(181.5-22),  the  largest  newspaper  of  the  colony,  pub- 
lished official  documents  and  news  of  all  kinds.  At 
first  it  was  issued  every  fortnight,  hut  afterwards  it 
appeared  on  Monday,  \\ednes(lay,  and  I'Viilay. 

After  the  War  of  Independence. — When  the  Inde- 
pendence of  Mexico  was  established  newspajjers  were 
multiplied.  Some  approved,  others  condemned,  the 
new  regime,  according  to  the  policies  adopted  by  the 
new  Government.  Carlos  Maria  Bustamante  pub- 
lished (1821-26)  thirty  numbers  of  "La  Avispa  de 
Chilpancingo",  attacking  the  Iturbide  administra- 
tion. In  1822  were  published  "El  Sol"  and  "El 
Correo  de  la  Federaci6n",  organs  respectively  of  the 
Freemasons  of  the  Scottish  (centralistic),  and  York 
(federalistic),  Rite.  The  Liberals  controlled  two  im- 
portant publications,  "El  Siglo  XIX"  and  "El  Mo- 
nitor Republicano".  G6mez  Pedraza,  Otero,  Payno, 
de  la  Rosa,  Zarco  Vigil,  and  others  contributed  to  the 
first,  and  to  the  second,  which  was  even  more  radical 
in  its  ideas,  Florencio  Castillo,  Valente,  Baz,  Mateos 
etc.,  and  Castelar  as  Spanish  correspondent.  The 
Conservatives  published  "La  Sociedad"  (edited  by 
Jos(S  M.  Roa  Barcena)  and  "La  Cruz"  (edited  by 
Ignacio  Aguilar  y  Marocho).  The  first  number  of 
"La  Cruz"  appeared  on  1  Nov.,  1855;  its  heading 
states  that  "it  is  an  exclusiv-ely  religious  paper, 
founded  ex-professo  to  diffuse  orthodox  doctrines, 
and  to  defend  and  vindicate  them  against  the  prev- 
alent errors".  In  its  prologue  it  sums  up  the  situa- 
tion of  that  time,  deplores  the  attacks  on  the  Church, 
and  the  satires  against  the  clergy;  it  urges  the  faith- 
ful to  prepare  themselves  for  the  struggle  in  defence 
of  religion.  The  paper  had  four  divisions;  the  first 
explained  the  teachings  of  the  Church  on  points  which 
circumstances  deemed  it  most  opportune  to  treat; 
the  second  refuted  all  errors  advanced  against  this 
teaching;  the  third  published  short  e.ssays  on  reli- 
gious subjects ;  the  fourth  gave  accounts  of  all  notable 
events,  in  the  Republic  and  in  other  countries,  that 
had  a  bearing  on  the  special  object  of  the  publica- 
tion. Unfortunately  this  weekly  lasted  only  until  29 
July,  1858.  Its  battles  against  the  Liberals  were  sharp 
and  brilliant,  and  its  contributors  gave  striking  exam- 
ples of  their  learning  and  profound  adhesion  to  the 
teaching  of  the  Church.  During  the  civil  wars  the 
Press  in  many  instances,  particularly  during  the  heated 
discussions  that  characterized  the  period  prior  to  the 
Constitution  of  1857,  deserted  its  office  of  peacemaker 
and  seemed  to  have  for  its  only  object  the  arousing 


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of  political  enmities.  And  it  was  not  without  danger 
that  a  journalistic  career  was  followed  in  those  days. 
The  "  Veracruzano "  of  7  October,  1862,  referring  to 
the  overthrow  of  the  Government  of  Miram6n  and  the 
capture  of  the  capital  of  Mexico  by  Juarez  (1  Jan., 
18(31),  announced  the  assassination  of  Vicente  Segura, 
editor  of  "Diaro  de  Avisos"  and  political  antagonist 
of  the  victorious  party,  declaring  that  "in  this  truly 
significant  manner  demagogism  fulfilled  the  first  of 
the  guarantees  of  the  system  of  Liberalism,  freedom  of 
the  pre-ss".  Notwithstanding  the  risks  involved  in 
the  expression  of  animus  in  connexion  with  this  crime, 
several  publications  endeavoured  to  stem  the  torrent 
of  pernicious  ideas  which  had  been  loosed.  The  editor 
of  the  "  Pajaro  Verde  "  had  to  close  his  establishment; 
and  the  principal  contributor  to  "El  Amigo  del 
Pueblo"  was  imprisoned.  A  Spaniard,  suspected  of 
circulating  pamphlets,  was,  without  proof  of  any  sort, 
thrown  into  prison.  His  printing-press  was  confis- 
cated, and  later  he  was  e.xiled. 

During  the  Empire  of  Maximilian. — Four  papers, 
the  "Diario  del  imperio",  "L'Ere  Nouvelle",  "La 
Razon",  and  "L'Estafette",  supported  more  or  less 
openly  by  the  Imperial  Government,  may  be  men- 
tioned, in  their  attitude  towards  religion  (favourable 
or  unfavourable,  according  to  the  dictates  of  the 
members  of  the  imperial  cabinet)  they  lacked  the 
freedom  and  independence  which  make  a  paper  the 
representative  of  the  sentiments  of  the  people.  Some 
independent  journals  ("La  Sociedad")  were  also 
issued,  and  from  time  to  time  published  articles  which 
called  the  attention  of  the  Imperial  Government  to 
their  columns. 

The  Present  Time. — After  the  fall  of  the  empire  and 
especially  since  the  presidential  tenure  of  office  of 
General  Porfirio  Diaz,  the  Catholic  Press  has  enjoyed 
a  little  more  freedom.  With  the  exception  of  the  local 
papers  published  in  the  various  states,  which  did  not 
cease  to  work  for  the  cause  ("El  Amigo  de  la  Verdas" 
of  Pueblo  and  others),  the  first  newspaper  to  continue 
the  traditions  of  the  Catholic  journalists  of  other  days 
was  "La  Voz  de  Mexico"  (1870-1900).  It  counted 
many  distinguished  writers  on  its  staff,  and,  as  a  paper 
which  had  never  been  aught  but  loyal  to  the  cause 
it  had  espoused,  it  earned  the  respect  and  good  will 
of  everyone.  Shortly  before  it  cea.sed  publication, 
"El  Pais"  (now  in  its  twelfth  year,  and  an  active 
defender  of  Catholic  interests)  was  founded.  "El 
Nacional",  another  Catholic  paper,  published  for  a 
number  of  years,  rendered  good  service  to  the  Catholic 
cause.  On  1  July,  1S83,  Victoriano  Agueros  founded 
"El  Tiempo",  which  is  undoubtedly  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  political  daily  papers  of  the  republic 
supporting  Catholic  interests.  In  two  years  its  cir- 
culation increased  from  1000  to  6000  copies.  By  the 
vigour  with  which  it  attacked  the  errors  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Manuel  Gonzdlez  it  won  great  popularity, 
but  this  attitude  won  persecution  for  the  editor  and 
contributors,  who  were  several  times  imprisoned.  In 
1887  the  editorial  office  was  closed  and  publication 
suspended  for  eleven  days.  But  to-day  the  paper 
defends  its  ideals  as  undauntedly  as  before.  The 
literary  edition  (begun  in  188.3),  published  every 
Sunday  and  to  which  many  notable  writers,  including 
Ipandro  Arcdico  (Arcadian  name  of  the  Bishop  of 
S.  Luis  Potosi),  Joaquin  Garcia  Icazbalceta,  J.  Maria 
Roa  Barcena,  Jose  Sebastidn  Segura,  and  others  con- 
tributed, gave  prominence  to  the  work  of  many  native 
authors,  which  would  otherwise  have  remained  un- 
published. Its  columns  have  always  been  open  to 
the  discussion  of  all  questions  contributing  to  the 
progress  and  aggrandizement  of  Mexico.  An  illus- 
trated Sunday  edition,  "El  Tiempo  Ilustrado",  has 
also  been  added  to  the  publications  connected  with 
"El  Tiempo".  .4mong  the  illustrated  monthly  re- 
views may  be  mentioned  "El  Mensajero  del  Coraz6n 
de  Jesus  ",  which  has  received  much  favourable  notice. 


The  principal  organ  of  the  Liberal  party,  "El  Li- 
beral ",  has  the  largest  circulation  of  any  newspaper  in 
the  Republic. 

Leon,  Bibliografia  mezicana  del  siglo  X  VIII  (Mexico,  1902-7) ; 
Obreg6n,  Mexico  viejo:  La  prensa  colonial  (Mexico,  1900) ; 
Alzate,  Gaceta  de  Literatura  (4  vola.,  Puebla,  1831):  Mexico 
d  traves  de  los  sigtos,  5  vols.:  Icazb.\lceta,  Biograpkia  de  D.  C. 
M.  Bustamante  (Mexico,  1853) ;  Ramos  t  Duarte,  Diccionario  de 
curiosidades  histdricas  (Mexico,  1899);  Le  Mexigue  au  debut  du 
XX  siicle  (2  vols..  Paris,  1905) ;  Mixico,  su  emlucidn  social  (3  vols., 
Mexico,  1901);  Coleccidn  de  La  Cruz  (7  vola.);  Lefevke,  Hist, 
de  I'intervention  frauQaise  au  Mexique  (Brussels  and  London,  1869); 
Arranqoiz,  Mexico  desde  1808  hasla  1867  (Madrid,  1872);  Gar- 
cf  A  CuBAS,  El  Libra  de  mis  recuerdos  (Mexico,  1904) ;  Figueroa 
Domenech,  Guia  general  descriptiva  de  la  Republica  Mexicana 
(Mexico,  1899) ;  Cavo,  Los  tres  siglos  de  Mexico  (Jalapa,  1870). 

Camillus  Crivelli. 

Poland. — There  was  a  period  of  slow  development 
from  1831  to  1864,  and  a  period  of  progress  from  1864 
to  the  present  day.  During  the  first  period  there  were 
published  at  Warsaw  5  daily  papers,  14  weeklies,  and 
1  monthly  periodical;  in  Galicia,  3  daily  papers,  3 
semi-weeklies,  and  3  weeklies;  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Posen,  1  daily  paper;  in  Austrian  Silesia,  1  weekly. 
Several  of  these  that  appeared  before  1863  are  still 
pubUshed.  The  Polish  Press  reflects  the  political  con- 
ditions of  the  countries  that  have  annexed  the  terri- 
tory of  Poland.  In  Galicia  (Austria)  it  is  entirely  free; 
in  Russia  it  is  subject  to  a  severe  censorhsip,  which  is 
also  the  case  in  Germany. 

One  of  the  oldest  publications  in  Galicia  is  the 
"Czas"  (Time),  daily,  the  organ  of  the  Conservative 
party,  and  well  edited  from  the  literary  as  well  as 
from  the  political  point  of  view.  Its  publication 
began  in  1848.  In  1866  there  appeared  the  "Przegl^d 
polski"  (Polish  Review),  which  had  from  its  begin- 
ning the  collaboration  of  Count  Stanislas  Tarnowski 
and  Stanislas  Kozmian.  It  remains  the  most  impor- 
tant historical  and  literary  periodical  of  Poland.  The 
"Czas"  and  the  "Przegl^d  polski"  have  always  main- 
tained a  strictly  Catholic  character.  In  1867  Julius 
Starkla  and  Thaddeus  Romanowicz  established  at 
Lemberg  the  "Dziennik  Literacki"  (Literary  Jour- 
nal), which  had  a  short  life;  John  Dobrzaiiski  founded 
the  "Gazeta  Narodowa"  (National  Gazette),  to  which 
was  united  in  1869  the  "Dziennik  Polski"  (Polish 
Journal).  In  1871  Rev.  Edward  Podolski  established 
the  "Przeglqd  Iwowski"  (Lemberg  Review),  which 
strenuously  defended  Catholic  interests  during  its 
existence.  In  the  same  city  there  appeared  the 
"Gazeta  Lwowska"  (Lemberg  Gazette),  the  organ 
of  the  imperial  viceroy  in  Galicia.  In  1884  the  Polish 
Jesuits  began  at  Cracow  the  publication  of  the 
"Przeglfid  powszechny"  (Universal  Review),  a  pe- 
riodical still  published,  and  which  has  rendered  impor- 
tant services  to  the  Catholic  cause  from  the  scientific 
and  literary  points  of  view.  In  the  same  city  there  was 
published  from  1881  to  1886  the  "Przegl^d  literacki  i 
artystyczny"  (Literary  and  ArtLstic  Review).  In 
1894  in  the  whole  of  Austria  there  were  published  126 
Polish  periodicals  and  daily  papers,  of  which  65  ap- 
peared at  Lemberg  and  29  at  Cracow.  At  Lemberg 
the  daily  papers  were  the  "Dziennik  polski",  the 
"Gazeta  lwowska",  the  "Gazeta  narodowa",  the 
"  Kurj  er  Lwowski " ,  and  the  "  Przeglqd  " .  There  were 
two  Catholic  weeklies,  the  "Gazeta  katolicka"  and 
the  "Tygodnik  katolicki".  At  the  present  time  the 
Catholic  Press  is  chiefly  represented  by  the  "Gazeta 
koScielna"  (Ecclesiastical  Gazette),  a  small  semi- 
weekly,  poor  in  doctrine  and  immersed  in  politics. 
From  the  scientific  standpoint  the  most  important 
periodical  is  the  "Kwaltarnik  hy.storyczny "  (Tri- 
monthly  historical  periodical),  which  began  publica- 
tion in  1886,  and  the  numbers  of  which  constitute  a 
valuable  collection  of  historical  works.  No  less  im- 
portant are  the  "Pamietniki  literacki"  (Literary 
Monuments),  the  "Ateneum  polskie",  the  "Kosmos" 
(the  organ  of  the  society  of  naturalists  of  Lemberg), 
and  the  "Nasz  kraj".     In  1911  there  appeared  the 


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688 


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only  philosophical  periodical  of  Galicia,  the  "Ruch 
filozoticzny"  (Philosophical  Movement). 

At  Cracow,  besides  the  "Czas",  there  are  the 
"Nowa  Reforma"  and  the  "Glos  narodii"  (Voice  of 
the  People),  an  organ  of  the  clergy  and  of  the  militant 
Catholic  party.  The  Socialists  publish  there  the 
"Naprz6d"  (Forward),  the  oflicial  organ  of  their 
party,  and  the  monthly  periodical  "Krytyka".  In 
recent  years  there  has  been  established  the  "Swiat 
Slowianski"  (Slav  World),  the  organ  of  the  Slav  club 
of  Cracow,  containing  \'aluable  information  relating 
to  the  various  Slav  countries.  The  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  Cracow  publishes  a  "Bulletin  interna- 
tional", monthly;  and  the  "Rozprawy"  (Disserta- 
tions) of  mathematics,  physics,  and  biology.  Daily 
papers  and  periodicals  are  published  also  in  the  other 
Galician  cities  of  Tarnow,  Rzeszowo,  Sambor,  Stan- 
islaw,  Jaroslaw,  and  Przemysl. 

One  of  the  oldest  Polish  daily  papers  existing  in 
Prussia  ia  the  "  Dziennik  poznaliski  (Posen  Journal), 
established  in  1859.  From  1845  to  1865  there  ap- 
peared the  "Przegl^d  poznaiiski",  an  ardent  defender 
of  Catholicism,  edited  by  Rev.  John  Ko^mian;  in 
1860  Rev.  John  Prusinowski  published  the  "Tygod- 
nik  katoheki"  (Illustrated  Week).  In  1865  Louis 
Rzepecki  began  the  publication  of  the  scientific  pe- 
riodical "OSwiata"  (Culture),  which,  however,  had 
only  a  short  hfe,  and  was  followed  by  the  "Przegl^d 
Wielkopolski"  (Re^aew  of  Great  Poland),  edited  by 
EmiUus  Kierski.  In  1870  Edmond  Callier  ffiundeil 
the  "Tygodnik  Wielkopolski",  to  wliich  tlic  best 
Polish  writers  contributed.  The  "Kurjer  Poznaiiski ", 
established  by  Theodor  Zychliiiski  in  1872,  also 
acquired  great  importance.  In  1894  there  were  pub- 
lished in  Prussia  and  in  the  Grand  duchy  of  Posen 
the  following  daily  papers:  the  "  Dziennik  poznanski", 
the  "Goniec  wielkopolski",  the  "Kurjer  poznanski", 
the  "Or^downik"  (Advocate),  and  the  "Wielko- 
polanin".  The  "Przeglivd  poznanski"  resumed  its 
publications  under  the  direction  of  Wladislaw  Rabski, 
while  other  daily  papers  were  published  at  Danzig, 
Thorn,  Pelplin,  and  Allenstein.  In  1909,  under  the 
direction  of  Wladislaw  Hozakowski,  rector  of  the 
seminars'  of  Posen,  there  was  published  the  "Unitas", 
a  monthly  periodical  for  the  clergy,  well  edited  from 
the  theological  standpoint. 

In  1841  the  publication  of  the  "Biblioteka  War- 
szawska",  a  monthly  periodical  dedicated  especially 
to  literature,  began  in  Russian  Poland.  Its  excellence 
is  still  maintained.  In  1904  there  were  published  in 
Warsaw  9  dailies,  33  weeklies,  7  fortnightlies,  and  5 
monthly  periodicals.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
published  in  Warsaw  the  "Dzien"  (Day);  the 
"Dziennik  powszechny"  (Universal  Journal);  the 
"Glos  Warszawski"  (Voice  of  Warsaw);  "Glos 
poranny"  (Voice  of  Morning);  the  "Kurjer  polski"; 
"Kurjer  Warszawski";  "Nowa  Gazeta";  "Przegl^d 
poranny";  "WidomoSci  Codzienne"  (Daily  News); 
"Slovo"  (Word),  a  Nationalist  paper  that  has  great 
influence;  and  the  "Warszawska  Gazeta".  Other 
dailies  are  published  at  Lublin,  Kieff  ("Dziennik 
kijowski"),  at  Vilna  ("Kurjer  litewski"  and  "Goniec 
Wilenski"),  at  Lodz,  and  at  St.  Petersburg.  Among 
the  periodicals,  besides  the  "Biblioteka  Warszawska", 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  "Biesiada  literacka" 
(Literary  Banquet),  splendidly  illustrated;  the  "Kul- 
tura",  hostile  to  Catholicism;  the  "Przeglqd  filozofi- 
czny"  (Philosophical  Review),  a  quarterly  publica- 
tion; the  "Przeglqil  historyczny"  (Historical  Review), 
scientific.  Iwiir-  monthly;  the  "Swiat"  (World),  an 
illustrated  weekly;  and  the  "Tygodnik  illustrowane". 
The  Catholic  press  until  two  years  ago  was  repre- 
sented by  the  "Przegl^d  katolicki",  of  Warsaw,  a 
publication  of  very-  httle  value  theologically,  and  dedi- 
cated more  to  politics.  This  paper  was  the  one  most 
read  by  the  clergy.  Count  Roger  Lubienski  estab- 
lished the  "Wiara"   (Faith),  a  weekly  devoted  to 


ecclesiastical  news;  and  these  two  publications  are 
now  vmited  into  one.  A  scientifically  imjiortant  pe- 
riodical, the  "Kwartalnik  teologiczny  ",  lasted  only  a 
few  years.  At  the  present  time,  of  the  daily  papers 
or  periodicals  for  the  clergy,  or  having  a  strictly  Cath- 
olic programme,  tlmsc  most  read  are:  the  "Polak- 
katolik";  the  "Mysl  katolicka",  of  Censtochowa: 
and  the  "Atherieum  ku|)tanskie",  of  the  seminary  of 
Wloslawek,  a  monthly  sciiMitilic  ])ul)licalion. 

In  Russia  the  Lithuanians  ])ul>lish  at  Vilna  the 
"Litwa"  (Lithuania)  in  defence  of  their  nationality; 
while  the  Jews  publish  at  Warsaw  the  "Izraelita",  a 
weekly.  The  "Przewodnik  bibliograficzny "  (Biblio- 
graphical Guide)  of  Cracow,  a  monthly  ]Hiblication, 
and  the  "Przegliid  bibliograficzny"  of  Przemysl  are 
bibliographical  pciicxlicals  which  mention  all  Polish 
writings  that  appear,  of  all  writings  that  concern 
Poland,  and  of  the  writings  that  are  published  in  the 
principal  Polish  reviews.  The  number  of  scientific 
periodicals  devoted  to  medicine,  veterinary  surgery, 
pharmaceutics,  architecture,  the  fine  arts,  heraldry, 
archoeology,  philology,  etc.,  is  about  100,  which  is 
proof  of  the  intense  scientific  work  of  the  Poles,  who, 
notwithstanding  their  difficult  political  conditions, 
co-operate  with  much  ardour  in  modern  scientific 
movements.  The  Mariavites  have  a  special  organ, 
"Maryawita";  and  their  "Wiadomo^ci"  appears 
twice  each  week.  At  Warsaw  there  is  published  the 
tri-monthly  periodical  "My^l  niepolegta"  (Inde- 
jjendeiit  Thought"),  full  of  vulgar  calumnies  and  accu- 
sations against  Cathiilicism. 

In  l.St)4  Polish  fugitives  established  the  "Ojczyna" 
(Native  Land)  at  Leipzig,  the  "PrzyszloSd"  (The 
Future)  at  Paris,  and  the  "Przeglqd  powszechny"  at 
Dresden.  At  Chicago,  U.  S.  A.,  the  chief  centre  of 
Polish  emigration,  are  published  the  "Dziennik 
chicagoski",  the  " Dzie6iwiety "  (Holy  Day),  the 
"Gazeta  katoficka",  the  "Gazeta  polska",  the 
"Nowe  2ycie"  (New  Life),  the  "Sztandar",  "Tygod- 
nik naukowo-powie^eiowy",  "Wiara.  i  ojczyna", 
"Zgoda",  and  "Ziarno",  a  musical  publication. 
Other  papers  are  published  at  Milwaukee.  Buffalo, 
New  York,  Detroit,  Philadelphia,  Winona,  Cleveland, 
Toledo,  Baltimore,  Pittsburg,  Stevens  Point,  Manito- 
woc, Mohanoy  City,  and  Wilkes-Barre.  Brazil  also 
has  a  Polish  publication. 

Chmielowski,  Zarys  najnowszfj  titeralury  polskiej  (Cracow, 
1895),  3-213;  Nagla,  Dziennikarstwo  polskie  w  Ameryce  i  jego 
30-htnie  dzieje  (Polish  Periodical  Literature  in  America,  and  its  his- 
tory for  30  years)  (Chicago,  1894).       AURELIO   PaLMIERI. 

Portugal. — An  ephemeral  news-sheet  appeared  in 
1625,  and  a  monthly  gazette  relating  the  progress  of 
the  War  of  Independence  commenced  in  1641,  but 
Portuguese  periodical  hterature  reallj'  begins  with  the 
"Gazeta  de  Lisboa",  founded  by  Jos6  Freire  de  Mon- 
terroyo  Mascarenhas,  which  lasted  from  1715  until 
1760.  Until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  any  dif- 
ferences of  opinion  in  matters  of  faith  wliich  might  ex- 
ist were  not  discussed  in  print,  but,  notwithstanding 
the  censorship,  French  ideas  began  to  filter  into  Por- 
tugal, and  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  press 
began  to  be  divided  between  Liberal  and  Absolutist; 
the  former  advocating  radical  changes  in  State  and 
Church,  the  latter  defending  Absolutism  in  politics, 
and  Catholic  orthodoxy.  In  1798  appeared  the  "  Mer- 
curio"  to  combat  the  French  Revolution,  and  this  was 
follower!  by  other  anti-French  journals,  among  them 
the  "Observador  Portuguez".  On  the  Liberal  side 
came  the  " Investigador  Portuguez"  in  1811  and  the 
"Portuguez"  in  1814,  both  published  in  London,  from 
which  city  the  Liberal  exiles  directed  their  assaults  on 
the  old  regime.  These  attacks  were  met  by  the  "Ex- 
pectador  Portuguez".  The  Revolution  of  1820  gave  a 
great  stimulus  to  journalism,  and  the  "Diario  do  Go- 
verno"  began  to  be  issued  in  that  year.  At  first  the 
Liberal  papers  were  rather  anti-Absolutist  than  anti- 
CathoUc,  but  the  Civil  War  led  to  the  formation  of 


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689 


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two  political  camps,  and  Liberaliam  in  politics  came  to 
mean  Liberalism  in  religion.  The  activity  of  Free- 
masonry and  the  unprogressive  ideas  of  the  Absolu- 
tists were  the  causes.  As  early  as  1S23  the  "Archivo 
da  Religiao  Christa"  was  founded  "to  combat  error 
and  impiety",  but  the  papers  of  this  period  were  de- 
voted almost  entirely  to  politics,  all  being  very  vio- 
lent. Among  those  which  argued  for  a  constitution, 
the  "Portuguez".  directed  by  Garrett,  showed  the 
greatest  literary  skill.  The  year  1827  saw  the  issue  of 
an  avowedly  anti-clerical  print,  while  the  defence  of 
Throne  and  Altar  was  carried  on  by  the  redoubtable 
Father  Jose  Agostinho  de  Macecio  (q.  v.)  in  the 
"Besta  Esfolada"  (Flayed  Beast)  and  many  other 
periodicals  of  a  most  bellicose  character.  From  1829 
to  1833  the  "Defensor  dos  Jesuitas"  was  issued  to  de- 
fend the  Society,  which  fell  with  the  other  orders  when 
the  Liberals  triumphed  and  Dom  Migml  lust  his  throne. 

The  constitutional  monarc-hy  hail  an  anti-clerical 
character  from  the  first,  and  most  of  the  jiapers  took  on 
the  same  tone.  A  Catholic  Press  became  an  absolute 
necessity,  but  as  its  supporters  were  mostly  Mieuel- 
ists,  it  was  too  political,  and  never  exercised  much  re- 
ligious influence  over  the  nation.  "The  Peninsula", 
organ  of  the  Miguelist  exiles,  supported  the  Catholic 
Absolutist  cause  until  1872,  and  the  "Na?ao",  of  the 
same  party,  still  exists.  From  1840  to  1892  the  chief 
Radical  paper  was  the  "Revolu^ao  de  Septembro". 
The  purely  reHgious  organs  included  the  "Annaes  da 
Propagagao  da  Fe"  (1838);  the  "Cruz",  an  Oporto 
weekly;  and  the  "Atalaia  Catholica",  printed  at 
Braga;  but  the  other  Catholic  papers  had  a  short  life, 
though  the  "Bern  PubUco"  (Public  Weal)  lastc<l  from 
1859  to  1877.  In  1863  came  the  " Bolctini  do  Clero  e 
do  Professorado",  a  pedagogic  paper,  in  18(16  the 
"Uniao  Catholica",  a  religious  and  literary  weekly, 
and  in  1871  the  "F6".  The  "Palavra"  of  Oporto  was 
founded  in  1872,  and  in  1874  the  "Mensageiro  do 
Cora^ao  de  Jesus",  the  monthly  organ  of  the  Apostle- 
ehip  of  Prayer,  which  in  1881  .slightly  changed  its  title. 
In  1883  was  founded  the  " Instituigoes  Christas",  a 
fortnightly  religious  and  scientific  review,  which,  how- 
ever, ceased  in  1893;  in  1885  the  "Clero  Portuguez",  a 
weekly  ecclesiastical  review;  and  in  1SS9  the  "  \'oz  do 
Evangelho",  a  monthly.  While  the  Catholic  papers 
lacked  support,  the  secular  press  was  ex-panding  rap- 
idly, and  developed  a  more  and  more  irreligious,  or  at 
least  indifferentist ,  character.  This  is  even  more  true  of 
the  Republican  papers.  It  would  take  too  much  space 
even  to  name  the  principal  secular  newspapers,  but  it 
is  enough  to  say  that  they  favoured  the  subjection  of 
Church  to  State  and  defended  the  laws  of  Aguiar 
("Kill-friars")  which  suppressed  the  religious  orders. 
This  attitude  has  become  more  marked  since  the 
Revolution,  nearly  all  the  Monarchical  papers  having 
ceased  publication,  or  passed  over  to  the  Republicans, 
who  are  mostly  anti-Catholic. 

The  present  Catholic  Press  consists  of  the  following 
papers:  Dailies. — The  "Palavra",  with  a  circulation 
of  12,000  and  the  "Correio  do  Norte",  with  6,000, 
both  at  Oporto.  The  "  Portugal "  of  Lisbon  had  a  cir- 
culation of  11,500,  but  ceased  when  the  Republic  was 
proclaimed.  The  circulation  of  the  irreligious  "Se- 
culo"  and  "Mundo"  is  no  doubt  greater  than  that  of 
the  three  Catholic  dailies  combined.  Weeklies. — The 
publishing  house,  "Veritas",  at  Guarda,  prints  a 
paper  which  appea.s  under  distinct  titles  in  various 
provincial  towns.  Lisbon  has  the  "Bem  Publico", 
Guimaraes  the  "RestauraQao",  Oporto  the  "Ensino", 
and  Vizeu  the  "Revista  Catholica".  Monthlies. — 
The  "Novo  Mensageiro  do  Coragao  de  Jesus",  pub- 
hshed  by  the  Jesuits,  ceased  when  the  .Society  w.as  ex- 
pelled in  October,  1910;the  "\'oz  ilc  S:i,iitos  .\ntonio", 
a  Franciscan  print,  had  alre:i(l\-  been  suspended  by 
order  of  the  Holy  See  for  its  Modernism,  and  the  only 
existing  review  of  importance  is  the  "Rosario",  is- 
sued by  the  Irish  Dominicans  at  Lisbon. 
XL— 44 


If  the  Catholic  Press  limits  itself  in  future  to  reli- 
gious and  social  action,  and  lays  aside  the  old  methods 
m  which  it  identified  religion  with  the  monarchy,  it 
may  regain  some  influence  over  those  who  have  not 
altogether  lost  Christian  sentiments.  For  some  years 
before  the  Revolution  it  was  too  political  and  fought 
the  enemies  of  the  Church  with  their  own  arms. 

Edgar  Prestage. 

Scotland. — No  Catholic  periodical  of  any  kind 
seems  to  have  made  its  appearance  in  Scotland  until 
after  the  Emancipation  Act  of  1829.  Three  years 
subsequent  to  the  passing  of  that  act,  namely  in  April, 
1832,  James  Smith,  an  Edinburgh  solicitor,  and  father 
of  William  Smith  (Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  and 
Edinburgh,  1885-92),  started  a  monthly  journal  called 
the  "Edmburgh  Catholic  Magazine",  editing  it  him- 
self. The  publication  was  suspended  with  the  number 
of  November,  1833,  but  was  resumed  in  February, 
1837.  In  April,  1838,  however,  Mr.  Smith  having 
removed  to  England,  the  word  "Edinburgh"  was 
dropped  from  the  title  of  the  magazine,  which  con- 
tinued to  be  published  in  London  until  the  end  of  1842. 
More  than  fifty  years  later  another  monthly  magazine, 
the  "Scotti.sh  Catholic  Monthly",  was  established 
and  edited  by  Goldie  Wilson.  It  existed  for  three 
years,  from  October,  1893,  until  December,  1896.  The 
Benedictines  of  Fort  Augustus  founded  and  conducted 
a  magazine  called  "St.  Andrew's  Cross",  from  August, 
1902,  to  November,  1903,  as  a  quarterly,  and  from 
January,  T904,  to  December,  1905,  as  a  monthly,  after 
which  it  was  discontinued.  The  French  Premonstra- 
tensian  Canons,  who  made  a  foundation  in  the  Diocese 
of  Galloway  in  1889,  and  remained  there  for  a  few 
years,  published  for  a  short  time,  at  irregular  inter- 
vals, a  periodical  called  the  "Liberator",  which 
was  something  of  a  literary  curiosity,  being  written  in 
EngUsh  by  French  fathers  whose  acquaintance  with 
that  language  was  very  rudimentary.  A  quarterly 
magazine,  called  "Guth  na-Bliadhna"  (the  "Voice  of 
the  Year"),  was  started  in  1904  by  the  Hon.  R. 
Erskine,  a  convert  to  Catholicism,  who  still  (1911) 
edits  it.  The  articles,  which  are  of  Catholic  and  gen- 
eral interest,  are  nearly  all  written  in  the  Gaelic 
language.  A  little  monthly,  called  the  "Catholic 
Parish  Magazine",  is  printed  in  Glasgow,  and  is  local- 
ized (with  parochial  news)  for  a  number  of  missions 
in  Glasgow  and  Galloway. 

No  Catholic  daily  paper  has  ever  been  published  in 
Scotland,  although  the  possibility  of  successfully  con- 
ducting such  a  paper,  in  Glasgow,  has  been  more  than 
once  under  consideration.  Of  weekly  papers  the  first 
issued  seems  to  have  been  the  "Glasgow  Free  Press", 
which  came  into  Catholic  hands  about  1850,  and  was 
published,  under  various  editors,  for  several  years.  The 
"Northern  Times"  was  started  in  opposition  to  this, 
but  only  survived  about  eighteen  months.  Thj  "  Irish 
E.xile",  another  weekly,  was  started  in  1884,  and  ran 
for  about  eighteen  months.  Finally,  in  1885,  the 
"Glasgow  Observer"  came  into  existence,  and  is  now, 
with  its  affiliated  papers,  printed  for  circulation  in 
Edinburgh,  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  and  Lanarkshire,  the 
only  Catholic  weekly  published  in  Scotland.  The 
Glasgow  "Star",  which  was  started  in  1895,  and  was 
conducted  for  some  years  in  the  interest  of  the  pub- 
licans, in  opposition  to  the  temperance  policy  of  the 
"Observer",  was  finally  (in  1908)  acquired  by  the 
latter  paper,  which  now  issues  it  mid-weekly. 

D.  O.  Hunter-Blair. 

Spain. — ^The  periodical  Press  in  Spain  began  to 
exist  early  in  the  history  of  that  country.  The 
" Enciclopedia  Hispano-Americana",  in  the  article 
"periodismo",  mentions  news  publications  as  early 
as  the  time  of  Charles  V;  and  "F^l  Mundo  de  los 
periodicos",  of  1898-99  (p.  945),  gives  1661  as  the 
date  when  the  first  periodical  appeared  in  Spain.    The 


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publication  of  this  kind  of  literature  continued  to 
develop  in  succeeding  years  until  it  reached  a  maxi-- 
mum  in  1702,  when  fourteen  periodicals  were  pub- 
lished; the  number  then  diminished  until,  in  17S0, 
it  had  sunk  to  two,  increasing  once  more  to  fourteen 
in  1786.  The  publications  of  this  period  treated  of 
political,  commercial,  and  literary  matters,  though 
such  a  periodical  as  the  "Apologista  Universal",  be- 
lieved to  have  been  edited  by  Fray  Pedro  de  Centeno, 
denounced  abuses  and  refuted  errors. 

The  Catholic  Press  as  we  now  have  it  did  not  exist 
until  a  later  period,  when  the  attacks  of  gallicizing 
Liberals  and  Voltaireans  upon  the  Catholic  Religion 
roused  Catholics  to  defend  the  traditional  doctrines. 
The  liberty  of  the  Press  decreed  by  the  Cortes  of 
Cadiz,  in  1812,  resulted  in  a  remarkable  ebulhtion 
among  Liberal  writers,  and  in  1814  the  number  of 
periodicals  amounted  to  twenty-three,  while  Father 
Alvarado,  the  Dominican,  wrote  his  famous  articles, 
under  the  title  "Cartas  de  un  fiWsofo  rancio"  (Let- 
ters of  a  Soured  Philosopher),  against  the  new  doc- 
trines which  the  French  Revolutionists  had  planted 
in  Spain,  and  the  nascent  Liberal  Press  were  striving 
to  popularize.  At  this  time,  too  (1S13-1.5),  Fray 
Agustin  de  Castro,  the  Hieronymite,  edited  "La 
Atalya  de  la  Mancha"  (The  ^\'atch-Tower  of  La 
Mancha).  On  25  April,  1815,  a  decree  of  Ferdinand 
VII  prohibited  the  publication  of  any  periodical  ex- 
cept "La  Gaceta"  and  "El  Diario  de  Madrid".  But 
when  the  Constitution  of  1820  proclaimed  the  liberty 
of  the  Press,  the  number  of  Liberal  periodicals  rose  to 
sixty-five.  Mesonero  Romanes,  in  his  "Recollections 
of  a  Septuagenarian"  (Madrid,  1880),  p.  453,  speaking 
of  this  era  in  Spanish  history,  uses  the  expression: 
"the  indiscreet  attempt  made  by  the  political  press 
in  the  turbulent  constitutional  period  of  1820-23". 
No  Catholic  periodicals  were  published  at  this  time, 
since,  as  the  same  author  tells  us  (p.  2.32),  "The 
Serviles  and  Absolutists  maintained  a  complete  silence 
as  the  only  means  of  avoiding  the  attacks  of  the  jour- 
nalists". It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Catholics 
of  that  time  were,  as  a  general  rule.  Absolutists.  In 
1823  the  king  was  again  absolute,  and  once  more  he 
silenced  the  Press,  which  declined  for  a  number  of 
years,  until  the  triumph  of  Liberalism  during  the 
regency  of  Dona  Cristina  gave  it  new  life.  The 
number  of  periodicals  reached  forty  in  1837,  and  con- 
stantly increased  thereafter. 

Among  the  Catholic  periodicals  which  appeared 
during  the  reign  of  Isabella  II,  may  be  mentioned  the 
Carlist  publications,  "El  Cat61ico"  and  "La  Esper- 
anza",  the  latter  founded  by  Pedro  de  la  Hoz.  "El 
Pensamiento  de  la  naci6n  "  was  edited  by  the  famous 
philosopher  Balmez,  who  had  begun  his  career  as  a 
journalist  with  "La  Ci\'ilizaci6n",  published  at  Bar- 
celona, in  collaboration  with  Ferrer  y  Subirana,  before 
leaving  him  to  found  "Sociedad".  Navarro  Villoslada 
was  the  editor  of  "El  Pensamiento  Espanol",  and 
such  distinguished  writers  as  Gabino  Tejado,  Juan 
M.  Orti  y  Lara,  and  Suarez  Bravo  were  among  its 
contributors.  Candido  Nocedal  founded  "La  Con- 
stancia",  a  shortlived  publication,  in  which  the  dis- 
tinguished Catholic  journalist  and  writer  Ram6n 
Nocedal  made  his  first  efforts.  All  these  periodicals 
disappeared  during  the  period  of  the  Revolution. 
After  the  Revolution,  and  when  the  Carlist  War  had 
been  brought  to  a  conclusion,  Candido  Nocedal, 
having,  with  other  moderate  members  of  the  Isabel- 
list  Party,  joined  the  Carlists,  founded  "El  Siglo 
Futuro"  in  1874.  Vicente  de  la  Hoz,  son  of  the 
former  editor  of  "La  Esperanza",  founded  "La  F&", 
and  Suarez  Bravo  "El  Fenix",  which  lasted  only  two 
years.  Alejandro  Pidal  revived  "La  Espana  Cat6- 
lica",  which  had  existed  before  the  Revolution.  At 
Seville  there  appeared  "El  Diario  de  Sevilla",  which 
will  always  be  associated  with  the  name  of  that  illus- 
trious writer  Padre  Francisco  Mateos  Gago.     Upon 


the  death  of  Candido  Nocedal,  who  had  been  thr 
leader  of  the  Carlist  Party  since  the  end  of  the  Civil 
War,  differences  arose  between  his  son  Ram6n  and  the 
other  chiefs  of  that  party,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
"  Burgos  Manifesto  "  of  1888.  The  Carlists  separated 
from  the  Integrists,  who  were  led  by  Ramon  Nocedal. 
That  same  year,  1888,  saw  the  first  appearance  of 
"El  Correo  Espanol",  now  (1910)  the  organ  of  Don 
Jaime's  party.  In  1897  "El  Universo"  was  founded 
by  Juan  M.  Orti,  who,  a  few  years  earlier,  had  left  the 
Intergist  Party. 

Forty-eight  Catholic  dailies  are  now  published  in 
Spain.  They  may  be  grouped  as  Integrist,  Jaimist, 
and  Independent.  The  first  and  second  of  these 
groups  represent  the  two  Traditionalist  parties;  the 
third  is  formed  of  those  journals  which  maintain 
Catholic  doctrines  without  adhering  to  any  political 
party.  Of  the  forty-eight,  eleven  are  Integrist,  eleven 
Jaimist,  and  the  remainder  Independent.  The  most 
important  are  "El  Siglo  Futuro",  Integrist,  founded 
in  1874,  now  edited  by  Manuel  Senante,  a  member  of 
the  Cortes;  "El  Correo  Espaiiol",  Jaimist,  founded 
in  1888,  owned  by  the  Duke  of  Madrid,  edited  by 
Rafael  Morales;  "El  Universo",  founded  in  1899, 
owned  by  the  Junta  Social  de  Acci6n  Cat6hca,  edited 
by  Rufino  Blanco  (these  three  published  at  Madrid); 
"La  Gaceta  del  Norte",  founded  in  1901,  published 
at  Bilbao,  edited  by  Jos6  Beccrra.  The  number  of 
copies  printed  by  these  papers  naturally  varies  with 
circumstances;  it  is  safe  to  say,  however,  that  on  an 
average  "El  Siglo  Futuro"  prints  7000  copies;  "EI 
Correo  Espanol",  18,000;  "El  Universo",  14,000; 
"La  Gaceta  del  Norte",  12,000.  Again.st  this  the 
anti-Catholic  dailies  publish:  "El  Pais",  Socialist 
Republican,  18,000  copies;  "El  Heraldo  de  Madrid", 
70,000;  "El  Liberal",  40,000.  The  Moderate  period- 
icals— e.  g.,  "A.  B.  C",  "La  Correspondencia  de 
Espana",  and  "La  Epoca",  the  organ  of  the  Conserv- 
ative Party — have  a  large  number  of  readers. 

The  other  Catholic  periodicals  are:  2  tri-monthly; 
7  bi-weekly;  63  weekly;  5  published  every  ten  days; 
9  semi-monthly;  9  monthly.  Of  these  11  are  Cath- 
olic-social; 9  liitegrist;  19  Jaimist;  the  rest  Inde- 
pendent. The  illustrated  papers  worthy  of  mention 
among  them  are  "La  Lectura  Dominical"  (Sunday 
Reading),  organ  of  the  Apostolate  of  the  Press,  "El 
Iris  de  Paz",  conducted  by  the  Missionary  Sons  of 
the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary,  at  Madrid;  "La 
Hormiga  de  Oro"  (The  Golden  Ant),  Catholic  illus- 
trated, Barcelona;  "La  Revista  Popular",  edited  by 
Felix  Saeda  y  Salvany,  Barcelona.  There  are  twenty- 
four  semi-monthly  and  seventy-four  monthly  reviews 
published  in  Spain;  twenty-eight  of  them  deal  with 
social  questions,  one  is  devoted  to  Spanish  Sacred 
Music,  four  deal  with  ecclesiastical  sciences  in  gen- 
eral, while  the  remainder  handle  religious  and  literary 
topics.  About  twelve  of  these  are  illustrated,  the 
principal  being:  "La  Ciudad  de  Dios",  founded  in 
1881,  a  semi-monthly  review  conducted  by  the  .\ugus- 
tinian  Fathers  of  the  Escorial,  and  including  among  its 
notable  contributors  the  late  Padre  Camara,  formerly 
Bishop  of  Salamanca;  "Raz6n  y  Fe",  founded  in 
1901,  a  monthly  review  published  by  the  Jesuit 
Fathers  at  Madrid;  "Revista  de  Estudios  Francis- 
canos",  founded  1907,  published  by  the  Capuchin 
Fathers  at  Sarria  (Barcelona),  and  including  among 
its  most  noteworthy  contributors  Padre  Francisco 
E.splugas;  "  La  Ciencia  Tomista",  bi-weekly,  founded 
in  March,  1910,  published  by  the  Dominican  Fathers; 
"El  Mensajero  del  Coraz6n  de  Jesus"  (Messenger  of 
the  Sacred  Heart),  a  monthly  review,  founded  in  1869 
by  Father  de  la  Ramiere,  and  now  edited  by  Padre 
Remigio  Vilarino.  (Padre  Coloma,  S.J.,  a  member 
of  the  .\cademy  of  the  Language,  and  celebrated  as  a 
novelist,  has  published  in  "El  Mensajero"  his  most 
notable  works.)  "Revista  Cat6lica  de  Cuestiones 
Sociales",  founded  in  1895,  at  Madrid,  organ  of  the 


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general  association  of  the  "Dames  de  la  buena 
prensa",  edited  by  Jose  Ignacio  de  Molina.  "Revista 
Social  Hispano-Amcricana",  founded  in  1902,  semi- 
monthly publication  of  the  "Accion  Popular",  Bar- 
celona. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  anything  with  certainty  as  to 
the  future  of  the  Catliolic  Press  in  Spain,  though  there 
is  reasonable  ground  for  a  hopeful  view.  The  one 
thing  evident  is  that,  within  the  last  few  years,  the 
number  of  Catholic  publications  in  this  country  has 
considerably  increased,  and  that  an  active  propa- 
ganda is  in  progress  in  favour  of  the  Catholic  Press. 
Many  Catholics,  it  seems,  are  awakening  from  their 
lethargy  and  are  beginning  to  realize  the  necessity  of 
using  every  possible  means  to  counteract  the  per- 
nicious effect  of  the  evil  press.  The  "Asociaci6n  de 
la  Buena  Prensa",  organized  with  the  approval  of 
Cardinal  Spinola,  Archbishop  of  Heville,  has  already 
(1910)  held  two  conferences.  A  Catholic  agency  has 
been  formed  to  supply  news  to  Catholic  periodicals, 
and  some  of  the  new  periodicals,  such  as  "  La  Gaceta 
del  Norte",  give  much  information  and  are  equipped 
with  excellent  typographic  facilities. 

Manuel  del  Propaganda  (Seville,  1908) ;  C.\s.v8,  Anuario  de  la 
prensa  catdlica  Hispano-Portuguesa  (Orenae,  1909);  Criado.  Las 
ordenes  religiosas  en  el  periodismo  espaHol  (Madrid,  1907) ;  Pe- 
LAEZ,  La  impoTtancia  de  la  prensa  (Barcelona,  1907);  Idem.  La 
Cruzada  de  la  Buena  Prensa  (Barcelona.  1908);  DnESO,  Escdn- 
dalo,  Escdndalo  (Madrid,  1907);  La  Agenda  Catdlica  de  informa- 
c\6n  (Saragossa,  1910). 

Enrique  Jimenez. 

Switzerland. — The  history  of  Swiss  journalism 
goes  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  first  Swiss  newspaper  being  issued  at  Basle  in  1610. 
It  is  significant  that  the  early  newspapers  of  Switzer- 
land, which  was  at  that  time  only  nominally  free, 
hardly  discussed  political  matters  excepting  those  of 
foreign  countries  and  tliis  was  the  case  until  well  into 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  censorship  exercised  at 
that  time  was  so  strict  that  it  did  not  seem  advisable 
to  raise  questions  concerning  home  politics.  Even  in 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  writers  of  objec- 
tionable articles  were  bluntly  notified  to  give  up  writ- 
ing for  newspapers.  The  political  newspaper  did  not 
appear  until  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  tiie  free- 
dom of  the  Press  was  gradually  allowed.  This  freedom, 
however,  for  a  long  time  existed  chiefly  in  the  Protes- 
tant cantons.  Catholic  journalism  in  the  present 
sense  is  a  recent  growth,  and  does  not  extend  farther 
back  than  the  third  decade  of  the  last  century,  when 
the  first  Catholic  newspapers  appeared  at  Lucerne  and 
St.  Gall.  The  reasons  for  this  were  partly  of  a  political 
and  partly  of  an  economic  character.  Switzerland  is  a 
federation  of  twenty-five  cantons,  each  of  which  up  to 
184S  was  absolutely  sovereign  and  up  to  1S74  was 
practically  sovereign.  Even  now  the  cantons  possess 
many  of  the  rights  of  sovereignty,  though  not  as  many 
as  the  States  of  the  American  Union.  Hence  the  polit- 
ical Press  has  mainly  a  cantonal  or  local  character, 
dealing  with  the  interests  of  the  sub-divisions  of  a 
small  state. 

All  the  Catholic  cantons  are  relatively  small,  some 
of  them  not  having  more  than  20,000  or  30,000  inhabi- 
tants. Moreover,  the  population  is  mostly  rural. 
Except  Lucerne  and  Fribourg,  they  do  not  contain 
important  cities,  and,  finally,  the  Catholic  party  for 
many  years  totally  misjudged  the  importance  and 
influence  of  the  political  Press  in  general,  and  let  itself 
be  outstripped  by  their  opponents.  The  first  strong 
impulse  to  the  founding  of  a  Catholic  Press  was  given 
by  the  civil  war  of  1847,  called  the  war  of  the  Sonder- 
bund;  the  war  ended  with  the  defeat  of  the  seven 
Catholic  cantons,  which  placed  them  largely  at  the 
mercy  of  a  violent  Liberalism.  This  was  still  more  the 
ca.se  in  the  cantons  made  up  of  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant districts.  The  Catholic  Press  grew  very  rapidly 
during  the  sixth  decade  of  the  past  century  and  still 


more  so  duiing  the  Swiss  Kulturkampf  of  the  seventies. 
More  recently  a  large  emigration  of  Catholics  into 
Protestant  cantons  led  to  the  founding  of  Catholic 
newspapers  in  these  cantons.  Switzerland  has  now  a 
Catholic  Press  in  the  Catholic  cantons,  in  those  where 
Catholics  and  Protestants  are  on  a  parity,  and  in  the 
Protestant  cantons. 

The  statistics  are  as  follows:  In  1911  Switzerland 
had  399  political  newspapers,  of  which  64  were  Cath- 
olic. Of  these  Catholic  papers,  1  is  issued  7  times  a 
week,  10  are  issued  6  times  weekly,  1  is  issued  5  times 
weekly,  3  appear  4  times  weekly,  22  appear  3  times,  13 
appear  twice  weekly,  and  14  once  a  week.  50  are  pub- 
lished in  German,  9  in  French,  4  in  Italian,  and  1  in 
Rhato-Romanic.  The  number  of  copies  issued  at  an 
edition  are,  taken  altogether,  as  follows:  the  4  daily 
papers,  including  1  issued  5  times  weeklj-,  have  a  circu- 
lation of  52,000  copies ;  3  that  appear  4  times  weekly, 
8000  copies;  22  appearing  3  times  weekly,  57,000;  13 
appearing  twice  weekly,  30,000;  14  appearing  once  a 
week,  60,000.  Thus  the  64  Catholic  papers  have  a  total 
circulation  of  207,000.  The  Canton  of  Aargau  has  6; 
Appenzell  Outer  Rhodes,  none;  Appenzell  Inner 
Rhodes,  1 ;  half-canton  of  Basel-Stadt,  1 ;  half-canton 
of  Basel-Land,  none;  Berne,  3;  Fribourg,  4;  St.  Gall, 
12;  Geneva,  1;  Glarus,  1;  Grisons,  3;  Lucerne,  5; 
Neuch&tel,  none;  Schaffhausen,  1;  Schwyz,  5;  Solo- 
thurn,  3;  Ticcino,  3;  Thurgau,  1;  half-canton  of 
Nidwald,  1;  half-canton  of  Obwald,  1;  LTri,  1;  Vaud, 
none;  Valais,  5;  Zug,  1;  Zurich,  4.  The  Catholic 
cantons  have  28  Catholic  papers,  including  3  dailies, 
the  cantons  having  parity,  27,  including  5  dailies;  the 
Protestant  cantons,  9,  including  4  dailies  and  I  appear- 
ing 5  times  weekly. 

Although  the  Catholic  Press  of  Switzerland  has 
grown  enormously  in  the  last  thirty  years,  and  need 
not  fear  comparison  with  that  of  other  countries,  even 
entirely  Catholic,  yet  the  result  is  much  less  satisfac- 
tory and  even  disappointing  if  we  compare  the  Cath- 
olic with  the  anti-Catholic  press.  According  to  the 
census  of  1910  Switzerland  has  in  round  numbers 
3,700,000  inhabitants.  Of  these  about  1,. 500,000  are 
Catholics.  From  this  we  should  deduct  the  liberal 
Catholics,  a  fairly  large  element,  and  the  foreign  work- 
men, Italian  men  and  women,  journeymen-mechanics, 
servants,  etc.,  that  are  only  temporary  residents. 
Consequently  only  about  1,200,000  Catholics  can  be 
taken  into  consideration  for  the  present  purpose.  We 
shall  compare  only  the  dailies.  A  comparison  between 
the  weekly  papers  would  not  yield  a  much  better  re- 
sult, as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  there  are  only  64 
Catholic  political  papers  to  counterbalance  399  non- 
Catholic,  and  for  269  non-Catholic  weeklies  that  ap- 
pear 1  to  4  times  weekly  there  are  only  53  Catholic 
ones.  The  daily  non-Catholic  Press  of  Switzerland 
includes  67  newspapers;  of  these  44  are  extreme  Lib- 
eral, that  is,  hostile  to  the  Church  and  in  part  disposed 
to  renew  the  Kulturkampf:  3  of  these  appear  twice  a 
day,  total  circulation,  244,000;  7  Liberal-Conserva- 
tive, Protestant  in  faith,  and  generally  friendly  to 
Catholics,  total  circulation  46,000;  10  Social-Demo- 
cratic and  belonging  to  the  Democratic  party  of  the 
Left,  partly  hostile  to  Catholics  but  not  inclined  to 
carry  on  a  Kidlurkampf ,  total  circulation  54,000;  7 
politically  indifferent,  total  circulation  164,000.  Taken 
altogether,  as  before  said,  67  papers  with  a  total  circu- 
lation of  508,000,  opposed  to  which  arc  12  Catholic 
dailies,  one  of  which  appears  5  times  weekly,  with  a 
total  circulation  of  ,52,000.  In  proportion  to  the  popu- 
lation there  should  be  at  least  20  with  a  circulation  of 
150,000.  The  total  circulation  of  all  the  64  Catholic 
Swiss  papers  is  207,000  copies,  not  the  half  of  the  total 
circulation  of  the  non-Catholic  dailies,  and  the  total 
circulation  of  the  extreme  Liberal  dailies  alone  is  much 
larger  than  the  total  circulation  of  all  the  Catholic 
papers  taken  together.  It  should  be  further  added 
that  up  to  now  the  Catholic  Press  contains  no  paper 


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of  two  daily  editions,  and  that  the  best  non-Catholic 
newspapers  exceed  the  Catholic  ones  in  copiousness 
of  matter,  etc.  It  is  also  worthv  nf  notice  (liat  the 
Catholic  daily  with  tliclart;cst  circulation,  tlic  "  Vater- 
land",  has  about  11,000  suliscrihcis  aiiionf;  Catholics, 
while  among  the  ()3,000  suliscrihcrs  tn  the  politically 
and  ecclesiastically  iiulilTcrciit  ■'Zinclicr  Tagesan- 
zeigcr",  there  are  about  20,000  Calliolics.  Again,  it 
is  not  a  Catholic  weekly  that  has  the  largest  circula- 
tion among  Catholics,  but  it  is  the  rather  Liberally 
inclined  "Schweiz.  Wochenzeitung"  of  Zurich.  Yet 
the  Catholic  party  is  the  second  in  strength  in  Switzer- 
land. 

But  the  Liberal  and  Protestant  parties  are  socially 
and  economically  in  a  far  better  position,  they  control 
the  larger  part  of  the  cities,  while  the  majority  of  the 
Catholic  jjopulation  represent  the  country  and  moun- 
tain districts,  which  have  less  need  of  a  daily  paper. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  daily  Press  of  the  Social  Demo- 
cratic party  and  of  the  Democratic  party  of  the  Left 
have  a  total  circulation  of  .54,000,  although  they  draw 
their  readers  almost  entirely  from  the  lower  classes  of 
the  population.  However,  the  Swiss  Catholic  Press 
is  earnest,  courageous,  and  on  the  whole  is  able  and 
efficient,  and  exerts  a  greater  influence  than  is  the 
case  with  the  greater  part  of  the  Liberal  Press.  The 
principal  Catholic  newspapers  of  Switzerland  are: 
the  "Vaterland",  founded  at  Lucerne  in  1873;  the 
"  Neuen-Ziircher  Nachrichten",  established  at  Zurich 
in  1904;  the  "Ostschweiz",  in  1874  at  St.  Gall;  the 
"Easier  Volksblatt",  in  1873  at  Basle;  and  the  "Lib- 
ert6",  in  1865  at  Fribourg.  Among  the  pioneers,  now 
deceased,  of  the  Catholic  Press  of  Switzerland  spe- 
cial mention  should  be  made  of:  Bishop  Augustinus 
Egger,  Landamman  Baumgartner,  and  Joseph  Gmiir 
of  St.  Gall,  Schultheiss  von  Segesser  of  Lucerne, 
Landamman  Hanggi  of  Solothurn,  the  episcopal  com- 
missary von  Ah,  and  Landamman  Th.  Wirz  of  Ob- 
wald,  iVIgr  Jurt  of  Basle,  and  Canon  Schorderet  of 
Fribourg.  Among  Catholic  periodicals  the  following 
should  be  mentioned:  "Dieschweiz.  Kirchenzeitung", 
of  Lucerne,  a  theological  review  that  has  a  high  reputa- 
tion among  the  German  clergy  also:  the  "Schweiz. 
Rundschau",  issued  at  Stans,  a  Catholic  scientific  and 
Uterary  review;  the  "Schweiz.  sozialpolit.  Blatter", 
of  Fribourg;  the  "Alte  und  Neue  Welt",  of  Einsie- 
deln,  an  illustrated  Catholic  family  paper,  which  has 
a  large  circulation  also  in  Germany  and  Austria;  the 
"Zukunft",  of  Einsiedeln,  a  Catholic  review  for  the 
Swiss  associations  for  young  men;  various  religious 
Sunday  papers  for  the  people;  an  illustrated  supple- 
ment for  Catholic  newspapers;  a  large  number  of 
Catholic  calendars,  as  well  as  the  organs  of  Catholic 
societies,  etc.  The  five  papers  for  Catholic  workmen 
and  working  women  have  been  included  among  the 
political  newspapers. 

Georo  Baumberger. 

The  United  States. — According  to  "The  Official 
Catholic  Directory"  for  1911,  there  are  321  Catholic 
periodicals  published  in  the  ijnited  States.  Of  these 
about  two-thirds,  or  201,  are  printed  in  English,  51  in 
German,  24  in  French,  24  in  PoUsh,  7  in  Bohemian,  5 
in  Italian,  2  in  Slavonic,  2  in  Magyar,  2  in  Dutch,  1  in 
Croatian,  1  in  Spanish,  1  in  an  Indian  dialect.  These 
make  up  13  dailies,  115  weekUes,  128  monthlies,  29 
quarterlies,  2  bi-weeklies,  5  semi-weeklies,  4  semi- 
monthlies, 9  bi-monthlie.s,  and  16  annuals.  Of  the 
dailies  7  are  French,  4  Polish,  2  German,  and  1  Bohe- 
mian; none  is  English.  The  French  Canadians  of 
Maine,  Massachu.setts,  and  Rhode  I.sland  support 
seven  dailies,  eleven  weeklies,  one  semi-weekly,  one 
monthly,  and  a  quarterly,  all  of  which  are  printed 
in  French.  From  1809  to  1911  some  .5.50  Catholic 
periodicals  were  started  in  the  United  States,  but  only 
five  of  those  published  during  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  survive.    Several  attempts  have  been 


made  to  establish  a  news  association  of  Catholic 
papers,  not.ibly  at  Cincinnati,  in  May,  1890,  but 
nothing  ])ractical  came  of  these  efTorts. 

Aeeonling  to  localities  the  C'atholic  publications  are 
divided  up  as  follows:  Alabama,  2;  Arizona,  1; 
Arkansas,  1;  California,  9;  Colorado,  2;  Connecticut, 
5;  Delaware,  4;  District  of  Columbia,  7 ;  Illinois,  30; 
Indiana,  14;  Iowa,  8;  Kansas,  4;  Kentucky,  5; 
Louisiana,  2;  Maine,  2;  Maryland,  10;  Massachu- 
setts, 15;  Michigan,  11;  Minnesota,  7;  Missouri,  15; 
Montana,  1;  Nebraska,  2;  New  Hampshire,  1;  New 
Jersey,  4;  New  Mexico,  1;  New  York,  61;  North 
Carolina,  2;  Ohio,  23;  Oregon,  7;  Pennsylvania,  29; 
Rhode  Island,  1;  South  Carolina,  2;  Tennessee,  2; 
Texas,  6;  Utah,  1;  Washington,  2;  West  Virginia,  1 ; 
Wisconsin,  21. 

Many  publications  advocating  Irish  interests  are, 
and  have  been,  edited  by  Catholics  and  addressed  to 
a  Catholic  constituency,  but  they  are  secular  political 
enterprises,  and  are  not  to  be  properly  enumerated 
under  the  head  of  religious  publications  (see  Irish, 
The,  in  Covntries  other  than  Ireland. — I.  In  the 
United  States). 

Neivspapers. — The  first  Catholic  newspaper  printed 
in  the  United  States  was  due  to  the  enterprise  of 
Father  Gabriel  Richard,  of  Detroit,  Michigan.  In 
1808  he  visited  Baltimore,  and  while  there  bought  a 
printing  press  and  a  font  of  type  which  he  sent  over 
the  mountains  to  Detroit  (then  a  frontier  town)  and 
set  up  in  the  house  of  one  Jacques  Lasselle,  in  the 
suburb  of  Springwells.  On  this  press,  the  lever  of 
which  is  still  preserved  in  the  museum  of  the  Michigan 
Historical  Society,  he  printed,  on  31  August,  1809,  the 
first  issue  of  "The  Michigan  Essay,  or  Impartial  Ob- 
server", containing  sixteen  columns  and  a  half  in 
English,  and  one  column  and  a  half  in  P>ench,  on  mis- 
cellaneous topics.  There  is  no  local  news  included  in 
its  contents  and  only  one  advertisement,  that  of  St. 
Anne's  school,  Detroit.  The  imprint  says  the  paper 
was  printed  and  published  by  James  M.  Miller,  but 
under  the  direction  of  Father  Richard.  It  was  to  ap- 
pear every  Thursday;  only  one  issue,  however,  was 
made,  and  of  this  but  five  copies  are  extant.  The  next 
journalistic  effort  was  in  New  York,  where  Thomas 
O'Connor,  father  of  the  jurist  Charles  O'Conor  (q.  v.), 
began,  10  December,  1810,  a  weekly  called  the  "Sham- 
rock, or  Hibernian  Chronicle",  which  ceased  publica- 
tion 17  August,  1817.  It  was  revived  as  a  monthly 
called  "The  Globe"  in  1819  and  lasted  a  year.  His 
pen,  says  his  son,  "was  ever  directed  in  vindicating 
the  fame  of  Ireland,  the  honour  of  our  United  Ameri- 
can States,  or  the  truth  and  purity  of  his  cherished 
mother  the  Apostolic  Church".  Although  these  two 
papers  were  not  distinctively  religious  journals,  they 
were  Catholic  in  tone  and  teaching,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  their  Catholic  direction.     , 

Bishop  England  of  Charleston  (see  England,  John) 
follows,  in  1822,  with  his  "United  States  CathoHc 
Miscellany".  "The  writer  would  add",  says  the 
bishop,  in  a  history  of  his  diocese  which  he  published 
while  on  a  visit  to  Dublin,  in  1832,  "that  during  up- 
wards of  ten  years  he  and  his  associates  have,  at  a  very 
serious  pecuniary  loss,  not  to  mention  immense  labour, 
published  a  weekly  paper,  'The  United  States  Catho- 
lic Miscellany',  in  which  the  cause  of  Ireland  at  home 
and  Irishmen  abroad,  and  of  the  Catholic  religion 
through  the  world,  has  been  defended  to  the  best  of 
their  ability.  This  paper  is  published  every  week  on  a 
large  sheet  of  eight  pages  containing  twenty-four 
pages  of  letter  press,  in  the  city  of  Charleston."  Its 
publication  ceased  in  1861,  as  a  result  of  the  War  of 
Secession.  One  of  the  bishop's  most  efficient  as.sist- 
ants  in  this  enterprise  was  his  sister  Johanna,  a 
woman  of  fine  culture  and  much  mental  vigour,  who 
ha.s  never  received  proper  credit  for  all  the  variety  of 
solid  work  she  did  on  the  paper.  With  the  second 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  came  the  great 


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influx  of  Catholic  immigrants  and  a  consequent  devel- 
opment of  the  Catholic  Press.  The  pioneer  journal  of 
this  era  was  "The  Truth  Teller",  the  first  number  of 
which  appeared  in  New  York,  on  2  April,  1825,  with 
the  imprint  of  W.  E.  Andrews  &  Co.,  which  was  con- 
tinued on  the  first  six  issues  of  the  paper.  William 
Eusebius  Andrews  (q.  v.)  was  the  English  publisher 
who  was  so  active  in  England,  during  Bishop  Milner's 
time,  and  his  connexion  with  the  New  York  venture 
is  now  explainable  only  as  he  was  then  printing  a 
"Truth  Teller"  in  London.  In  the  issue  of  19  Octo- 
ber, 1825,  William  Denman  (q.  v.)  and  George  Pardow 
are  given  as  the  proprietors  of  the  New  York  ' '  Truth 
Teller",  and  so  continued  until  2  January,  1830,  when 
Pardow  sold  his  interest  to  Denman,  and  the  latter 
remained  its  sole  proprietor  until  31  March,  1855, 
when  he  disposed  of  it  to  the  owners  of  the  "Irish 
American",  who  shortly  after  merged  it  in  that  paper. 

Denman,  in  the  early  days  of  the  "Truth  Teller", 
had  the  assistance,  as  contributors,  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
John  Power,  rector  of  St.  Peter's  Church,  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Levins,  a  former  Jesuit  and  a  man  of  ripe 
learning  and  ability.  Dr.  William  James  MacNeven 
(q.  v.),  the  Rev.  Joseph  A.  Schneller,  the  Rev.  Felix 
Varela,  andThomasO'Connor,  but  the  paper  becoming 
tainted  with  trusteeism  (see  Trustee  System),  and 
opposing  Bishop  Dubois,  a  rival,  the  "Weekly  Regis- 
ter and  Catholic  Diary"  was  started  on  5  October, 
1833,  by  Fathers  Schneller  and  Levins.  It  lasted  three 
years,  and  was  succeeded,  in  1839,  by  the  "Catholic 
Register  ",  which,  the  next  year,  was  combined  with  the 
"Freeman's  Journal ",  then  a  year  old.  The  editors  at 
first  were  James  W.  and  John  E.  White,  nephews  of 
Gerald  Griffin,  the  Irish  novelist.  Eugene  Casserly 
(q.  V.)  and  John  T.  Devereux  succeeded  them,  and  in 
1842  Bishop  Hughes  took  the  paper  to  keep  it  alive, 
and  made  his  secretary,  the  Rev.  James  Roosevelt 
Bayley  (afterwards  Archbishop  of  Baltimore),  its  edi- 
tor. In  1S48  the  bishop  offered  to  give  the  paper  to 
Orestes  A.  Brownson  (q.  v.),  but  soon  after  sold  it  to 
James  A.  McMaster  (q.  v.),  the  latter  borrowing  the 
money  for  its  purchase  from  George  Hecker,  a  brother 
of  the  Rev.  Isaac  T.  Hecker  (q.  v.),  founder  of  the 
Paulists.  McMaster  continued  as  its  editor  and  pro- 
prietor until  his  death,  29  Dec.,  1886.  In  1861,  be- 
cause of  its  violent  State's  Rights  editorials,  it  was 
suppressed  by  the  Government,  and  did  not  resume 
pubUcation  until  19  April,  1862.  Maurice  Francis 
Egan  was  editor  of  the  paper  for  two  years  after 
McMaster's  death,  and  in  1894  the  Rev.  Dr.  Louis 
A.  Lambert  (b.  at  Allenport,  Pennsylvania,  11  Febru- 
ary, 1835;  d.  at  Newfoundland,  New  Jersey,  25  Sep- 
tember, 1910)  took  the  position  and  so  continued  until 
his  death. 

New  York  City  was,  during  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  the  leader  in  Catholic  journalism. 
The  pioneer  papers  devoted  their  space  mainly  to  con- 
troversial articles  explanatory  of  the  truths  of  the 
Faith,  and  in  defence  of  the  teachings  of  the  Church  in 
answer  to  attack  and  calumny.  The  assaults  of  the 
Native  American  and  Know-nothing  periods  also 
largely  engaged  their  attention.  In  this  they  were 
assisted  by  a  number  of  journals  not  strictly  religious, 
but  political  and  social,  edited  by  Catholics,  and  for  a 
numerous  constituency  Irish  by  birth  or  descent.  Of 
these  the  oldest,  "The  Irish  American",  founded  12 
August,  1849,  bv  Patrick  Lynch  (b.  at  Kilkenny,  Ire- 
land, 1811;  d.  in  Brooklyn,  New  York,  May,  1857); 
edited  from  1857  until  1906  by  his  step-son  Patrick  J. 
Meehan  (b.  at  Limerick,  Ireland,  17  July,  1831;  d. 
Jersey  City,  New  Jersey,  20  April,  1906),  with  the 
"Catholic  Telegraph"  of  Cincinnati  (founded  1831), 
"Pilot"  of  Bo.ston  (1837),  "Freeman's  Journal"  of 
New  York  (1840),  and  "Catholic"  of  Pittsburg 
(1846),  alone  survive  in  1911,  of  the  many  Catholic 
papers  in  existence  in  the  Lfnited  States  during  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.     In  October, 


1848,  Thomas  D'Arcy  McGee  began  in  New  York  a 
paper  called  "The  Nation"  which  lasted  until  June, 
1850,  its  end  being  ha.stened  by  McGee's  violent  con- 
troversy with  Bishop  Hughes.  Another  venture  of 
his,  "The  American  Celt",  completed  in  June,  1857, 
had  a  peripatetic  existence  of  four  years — in  Boston, 
Buffalo,  and  New  York — when  it  was  purchased  by 
D.  &  J.  Sadlier  and  made  over  into  a  new  paper,  "The 
Tablet",  the  first  number  of  which  appeared  on  5  June 
of  that  year,  with  Bernard  Doran  Killian  as  its  editor. 
His  successors  in  that  position,  until  the  paper  died  in 
1893,  included  Dr.  J.  V.  Huntington,  William  Den- 
man, Mrs.  M.  A.  Sadlier,  Dr.  Henry  J.  Anderson, 
O.  A.  Brownson,  Lawrence  Kehoe,  and  D.  P.  Conyng- 
hani.  Archbishop  Hughes  started,  in  1859,  as  his 
personal  organ,  "The  Metropolitan  Record",  which 
ceased  publication  in  1873.  During  all  this  time 
John  Mullaly  was  its  editor. 

In  1872  "The  Catholic  Review",  a  paper  combining 
the  ideals  of  progressive  modern  journalism  under  the 
direction  of  a  man  who  had  had  practical  newspaper 
training,  was  begun  by  Patrick  V.  Hiekey  (b.  in  Dub- 
lin, Ireland,  14  Feb.,  1846;  d.  in  Brooklyn,  New  York, 
21  Feb.,  1889).  For  a  time  it  met  with  success  as  a 
high-class  weekly,  and,  to  meet  the  demand  for  a 
cheap  popular  paper,  Hiekey  printed  also,  in  1888, 
"The  Cathohc  American"  and  the  "Illustrated  Cath- 
olic American".  After  his  death,  the  Rev.  J.  Talbot 
Smith  edited  "The  Review",  which  cea.sed  to  exist  in 
1899.  Mr.  Herman  Ridder  foundi-d  "Tlie  Catholic 
News"  in  1886,  and  it  is  notable  that  the  historian  Dr. 
John  Gilmary  Shea  closed  his  long  and  sjilciidid  career 
as  its  editor,  22  Feb.,  1892.  The  "News"  attained  a 
very  large  and  widespread  circulation  as  a  medium  of 
entertaining  and  instructive  reading  matter  for  the 
masses  under  the  business  management  of  Henry 
Ridder  and  the  editorial  direction  of  Michael  J. 
Madigan. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  establish  a 
paper  in  the  Dioce.se  of  Brooklyn,  notably  the  "  Cath- 
olic Examiner",  in  1882,  and  the  "Leader",  in  1884. 
Both  were  shortlived.  In  June,  1908,  the  "Tablet" 
was  started.  In  February,  1909,  it  was  made  a  dioce- 
san organ  and  purchased  by  a  company  made  up  of 
diocesan  priests.  Albany  had  a  "  Catholic  Pioneer  "in 
1853,  followed  by  several  other  ventures  with  brief 
existences.  The  "Catholic  Sun"  of  Syracuse,  in  1892, 
succeeded  the  "Catholic  Reflector"  of  the  early  sixties 
and  the  equally  shorthved  "Vindicator"  and  "Senti- 
nel". The  "Sun"  is  also  circulated  as  the  "Catholic 
Chronicle"  in  Albany  and  the  "Catholic  Light"  in 
Scranton,  Penn.  The  Newark,  New  Jersey,  "Moni- 
tor" was  begun  in  September,  1906.  Buffalo,  New 
York,  also  had  several  experiences,  beginning  with 
D'Arcy  McGee's  "American  Celt",  in  1852,  and  cul- 
minating in  the  "Catholic  Union  and  Times",  the 
"Union"  starting  in  1872,  and  being  combined  later 
with  the  "Times",  founded  in  1877  by  the  Rev.  Louis 
A.  Lambert,  at  Waterloo.  For  most  of  the  years  of  its 
progress  the  editor  was  the  Rev.  Patrick  Cronin  (b.  in 
Ireland,  1835;  d.  at  North  Tonawanda,  New  York,  12 
Dec,  1905),  a  forceful  and  able  writer  and  a  recog- 
nized leader  among  the  Irish-American  element  in  the 
United  States. 

The  Catholic  papers  of  Philadelphia  start  with  the 
Hogan  schism  (see  Conwell,  Henry),  the  "Catholic 
Herald  and  Weekly  Register"  being  issued  30  Nov., 
1822,  by  E.  F.  Crozet  to  support  the  rebellious  priest. 
To  offset  its  influence  and  assist  Bishop  Conwell, 
the  "Catholic  Advocate  and  Irishman's  Journal" 
was  started  22  Feb.,  1823.  In  August,  1822,  the 
"Erin",  a  national  paper,  was  first  issued.  These 
were  followed  in  1833  by  the  "Catholic  Herald", 
which  had  a  stormy  existence  under  the  editorial  man- 
agement of  a  convert,  Henry  Major,  who  was  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  diocesan  seminary.  Disapi)ointed  in  hie 
ambition.  Major  relapsed  to  EpiscopaUanism,  though 


PERIODICAL 


694 


PERIODICAL 


he  reppntcd  in  his  liist  illness.  He  was  a  bitter  antag- 
onist of  Orestes  A.  Hrownson  in  the  controversies  that) 
were  oarried  on  dviriiis  tlie  fifties  by  the  editors  of  the 
Catholic  j)ublioatioMs  of  that  period.  .Vnotlier  "Catli- 
olic  Herald"  was  i.^siied  22  June,  1S72,  by  Marc  V. 
Vallctte,  and  had  a  brief  c.^stencc.  The  "Catholic 
Standard",  started  6  June,  1S66,  was  suspended  20 
Feb.,  1867,  but  resumed  publication  on  22  June  of  the 
same  year.  Its  first  editor  was  the  Rev.  Dr.  James 
Keogh;  others  were  Mark  Wilcox,  George  D.  Wolf, 
and  F.  T.  Furcy.  In  1874  Hardy  &  Mahony  became 
its  publishers,  and  7  Dec,  1895,  it  combined  (under 
the  title  of  "Catholic  Standard  and  Times")  with 
the  "Catholic  Times",  a  rival  which  had  the  Rev. 
Louis  A.  Lambert  as  editor,  and  the  first  number  of 
which  was  dated  3  Dec,  1892.  Its  news,  editorials, 
and  correspondence  are  regarded  as  authoritative,  and 
frequently  quoted  by  the  secular  Press.  A  monthly, 
the  "  Irish  Catholic  Benevolent  Union  Journal",  with 
Martin  I.  J.  Griffin  as  editor,  began  in  March,  1873; 
had  its  title  changed  in  March,  1894,  to  "Grifiin's 
Journar',  and  suspended  in  July,  1900. 

Bishop  Michael  O'Connor,  of  Pittsburg,  founded 
(16  March,  1S44)  "The  Pittsburg  Catholic".  Its 
manager  and  proprie*^or  was  J.  F.  Boylan,  with  whom 
was  associated  a  printer  named  Jacob  Porter,  a  con- 
vert. On  30  June,  1847,  Porter  and  Henry  McNaugh- 
ton  bought  the  paper  witli  whirh  Porter  retained  his 
coane.xion  until  1889.  Hedicd  in  his  eighty-third  year, 
14  January,  1908.  An  early  editur  was  the  Rev.  Hugh 
P.  Gallagher,  president  of  the  Pittsburg  seminary,  born 
in  County  Donegal,  Ireland,  in  1815,  and  ordained 
priest  in  1840.  In  1852  he  went  to  San  Francisco, 
where  he  started  the  "Catholic  Standard"  the  follow- 
ing year.  He  died  there  in  1883.  The  "Cathohc  Ob- 
server" of  Pittsburg  dates  from  1899.  The  "  Emerald 
Vindicator"  began  at  Pittsburg,  May,  1882,  moved  to 
Norfolk,  Virginia,  in  .\ugust,  1888,  suspended  in  July, 
1889.  During  the  seventies,  under  Bishop  Mullen's 
patronage  the  "Lake  Shore  \'isitor"  was  published  at 
Erie,  Pennsylvania,  for  several  years. 

Bishop  Fenwick,  feefing  that  a  journaUstic  organ 
was  needed  in  Boston,  started  "  The  Jesuit,  or  Catholic 
Sentinel",  the  first  number  of  which  was  dated  5  Sep- 
tember, 1829.  "The  rapid  increase  and  respectability 
of  Roman  Catholics  in  Boston  and  throughout  the 
New  England  States",  says  the  prospectus,  "loudly 
calls  for  the  publication  of  a  Newspaper,  in  which  the 
Doctrine  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church,  ever  the  same, 
from  the  .\postolic  Age  down  to  our  time,  may  be  truly 
explained,  and  moderately,  but  firmly  defended." 
Objection  having  been  made  that  the  name  "The 
Jesuit"  was  prejudicial  to  the  increase  of  circulation. 
Bishop  Fenwick,  after  four  months,  allowed  the  title 
to  be  changed  to  "  The  Catholic  Intelligencer",  but  in 
a  short  time  went  back  to  the  original  style.  This  did 
not  improve  conditions,  and,  on  27  December,  1834, 
another  title,  "The  Irish  and  Cathohc  Sentinel",  was 
annovmced;  during  1835,  however,  the  pa;^er  was 
called  "The  Literary  and  Catholic  Sentinel",  and  on 
2  January,  1836,  evolved  into  "The  Boston  Pilot",  a 
name  subsequently  changed  to  "The  Pilot".  The 
first  editors  were  George  Pepper  and  Dr.  J.  S.  Bart- 
lett,  and  the  printers  aad  publishers  Patrick  Don- 
ahoe  and  Henry  L.  Devereux.  Patrick  Donahoe  (q. 
v.),  who  became  connected  with  "The  Pilot",  in  1835, 
by  the  withdrawal  of  Devereux,  assumed  the  owner- 
ship of  the  enterprise,  which  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  grew  into  a  most  important  paper  of  national 
circulation  and  influence,  advocating  Catholic  and 
Irish  interests.  The  editors  under  whose  direction 
this  success  was  attained  were  Thomas  D'Arcy  Mc- 
Gee,  the  Rev.  J.  P.  Roddan,  the  Rev.  Joseph  M. 
Finotti  (q.  v.).  John  Boyle  O'Reilly,  James  J.  Roche, 
and  Katherine  E.  Conway.  Over  the  pen  name  of 
"Laffan",  Michael  Hennessy,  of  the  editorial  staff  of 
the  New  York  daily  "  Times    (b.  at  Thomastown,  Co. 


Kilkenny,  Ireland,  8  Sept.,  1833;  d.  in  Brooklyn,  New 
York,  23  July,  1892),  contributed  for  yc^sirs  weekly 
articles  on  Catholic  and  Irish  historical  and  genealo- 
gical topics  that  had  a  very  wid(>  pojiularity.  The 
Rev.  .lolin  P.  Hoddan  w.'is  a  Boston  priest  educatc^d  at 
the  Pr(i|>:igandM,  Rome,  and  on  his  return  home  made 
pastoral  t^uiiicy,  Mass.,  where,  in  addition  to  his  pas- 
toral duties,  lie  edited  "The  Pilot".  He  w:us  a  friend 
of  Orestes  A.  Bnjwnson,  and  wrote  many  articles  for 
his  "Review".  Hcjylc  O'Reilly's  connexion  with  "The 
Pilot"  began  about  1.S70,  and  continued  till  his  death 
in  1S90.  On  the  failure  of  Patrick  Donahoe's  bank 
and  publishing  house  in  1876,  Archbishop  Williams 
came  to  his  rescue  and  purchased  a  three-fourths  in- 
terest in  "The  Pilot"  for  the  benefit  of  the  depositors 
in  the  bank.  O'Reilly  held  the  other  fourth,  and  was 
given  the  business  as  well  as  the  editorial  manage- 
ment. In  1890  the  venerable  Patrick  Donahoe,  who 
had  bravely  gone  to  work  to  reliabilitati'  his  fortunes, 
was  able  to  buy  back  "The  Pilot"  and  resumed  its 
management,  which  he  held  until  liis  cleuth,  IS  M.arch, 
1891.  In  June,  1!»0S,  .VrelihislHjp  d'Connell  bought 
"The  Pilot"  from  the  Donahoe  fanuly  and  made  it  the 
official  diocesan  organ  of  the  diocese  and  a  distinc- 
tively Catholic  journal. 

When  Orestes  A.  Brownson  became  a  Catholic  he 
attended  tlie  church  in  East  Boston  of  which  the  Rev. 
Nicholas  ( )'Brien  was  pastor.  Father  O'Brien  in  1847 
persuaded  Brownson  to  join  him  in  the  publication  of 
"The  Catholic  Observer".  He  soon  proved  his  unfit- 
ness for  the  management  of  the  paper,  which  sus- 
pended after  two  years'  existence.  In  1888  a  numVjer 
of  priests  organized  a  corporation  which  began  the 
publication  of  "The  Sacred  Heart  Review".  Under 
the  direction  of  Mgr  John  O'Brien  it  attained  a  great 
reputation  for  enterprise  and  literary  merit.  Another 
Boston  paper,  "The  Republic",  was  started  in  1881  by 
Patrick  Maguire,  but  more  as  a  political,  than  a  strictly 
Catholic  organ.  In  Connecticut  Bishop  Fenwick  was 
even  earlier  with  his  journalistic  venture  than  he 
was  in  Boston,  for  the  "Catholic  Press"  was  begun  in 
Hartford,  on  11  July,  1829.  In  its  office  he  started  the 
first  Sunday  school,  19  July,  1829,  and  there,  too, 
Mass  was  offered  up  for  the  few  Catholics  composing 
the  pioneer  colony.  The  "Press"  did  not  long  sur- 
vive, and  its  successor  did  not  arrive  until  1876,  when 
the  ' '  Connecticut  Catholic ' '  was  begun.  Twelve  years 
later  Bishop  Tierney  purchased  this  paper  and  made 
it,  as  the  "Catholic  Transcript",  official  diocesan 
property,  with  the  Rev.  T.  S.  Duggan  as  editor.  In 
Rhode  Island  the  Providence  "Visitor"  dates  from 
1877. 

The  "Catholic  Mirror"  was  established  at  Balti- 
more in  1849,  and,  as  an  expression  of  Southern  opin- 
ion and  the  diocesan  organ,  had,  in  its  early  years, 
considerable  influence.  After  the  War,  however,  its 
prestige  waned,  and,  in  spite  of  several  efforts  to  keep 
it  alive,  it  suspended  in  1908.  Kentucky's  first  Cath- 
olic paper,  the  "Catholic  Advocate",  was  founded  in 
1835  by  Ben.  J.  Webb,  then  foreman  printer  of  the 
Louisville  "Journal",  encouraged  in  the  scheme  by 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Reynolds  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Martin  J. 
Spalding.  It  took  the  place  of  the  "Minerva",  a 
monthly  magazine,  founded  in  1834,  and  edited  by  the 
faculty  of  St.  Joseph's  College,  Bardstown.  In  the  old 
"Advocate"  many  of  the  most  valuable  papers  writ- 
ten by  Bishop  Spalding  first  appeared.  In  May,  18.58, 
it  was  succeeded  by  the  "Catholic  Guardian",  started 
in  Louisville  by  the  members  of  the  local  Particular 
Council  of  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society,  which  had 
a  fair  success,  but  was  forced  to  suspend  by  the  Civil 
War  in  July,  1862.  The  "Cathohc  Advocate"  was 
revived  later  as  the  "Central  Catholic  Advocate", 
and  in  1896  the  "Midland  Review"  was  started  to 
rival  it.  There  was  not  room  for  both  so  the  new 
absorbed  the  old  journal;  but,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
the  publication  was  high-class,  it  died  after  a  check- 


PERIODICAL 


695 


PERIODICAL 


ered  existence  of  five  years.  Its  editor  was  a  versatile 
writer  of  both  poetry  and  prose,  Charles  J.  O'Malley, 
who  left  the  "  Angelus  "  magazine  of  Cincinnati  to  edit 
the  Louisville  paper.  When  he  found  that  his  field 
there  was  too  limited  for  any  practical  success,  he  took 
the  editorial  management  of  the  "Catholic  Sun"  of 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  whence  he  went  to  Chicago  to  take 
charge  of  the  "New  World",  in  which  position  he  died 
26  March,  1910.  He  was  born  in  Kentucky  9  Febru- 
ary, 1857.  In  the  period  before  the  Civil  War,  the 
"Advocate"  and  the  Baltimore  "  Mirror"  were  impor- 
tant and  influential  factors  in  Catholic  affairs.  The 
Louisville  "Cathohc  Record",  a  diocesan  organ,  dates 
from  1878. 

Other  Southern  papers  are  the  New  Orleans  "  Morn- 
ing Star",  established  in  1867,  and  of  which  two  poets, 
the  Rev.  Abram  J.  Ryan  and  James  R.  Randall,  were 
at  times  editors;  "The  Southern  Catholic",  begun  in 
1874  at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  suspended,  and  followed  by 
the  "Catholic  Journal".  In  Missouri  "The  Shepherd 
of  the  Valley"  started  at  St.  Louis  in  1832  with  a  con- 
vert, R.  A.  Bakewell,  as  its  editor.  It  suspended  in 
1838,  was  revived  in  1851,  and  lasted  three  years 
longer.  Bakewell,  who  died  in  1909,  created  much 
trouble  by  his  editorials,  which  were  used  for  years  as 
anti-CathoUc  ammunition  by  the  Native  American 
and  Know-nothing  politicians.  It  was  the  time  of 
O'Connell's  Irish  agitation  for  repeal  of  the  union  with 
England,  and  the  Revolutionary  movement  of  1848, 
and  he  also  antagonized  the  Irish-American  element. 
Although  the  Catholic  constituency,  to  which  their 
publications  appealed,  was  mainly  Irish,  many  of  these 
convert  editors  went  out  of  their  way  to  offend  Irish 
susceptibilities.  Bakewell's  denunciations  of  Thomas 
Francis  Meagher,  John  Mitchell,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cahill, 
and  other  popular  Irishmen  enraged  "my  Irish  con- 
stituents", he  tells  Brownson,  in  a  letter  dated  7  Jan- 
uary, 1853.  Brownson,  in  an  article  in  his  "Review" 
of  July,  18.54,  on  Native-Americanism  raised  a  storm 
by  the  manner  in  which  he  referred  to  the  Irish  ele- 
ment. After  it  was  printed,  Father  Heeker,  founder 
of  the  Paulists,  wrote  to  him:  "The  Irish  prelates  and 
prie.sts  have  become  mighty  tender  on  the  point  of 
Nationality.  Your  dose  on  Native-Americanism  has 
operated  on  them  and  operated  powerfully,  and  espe- 
cially at  the  West.  They  felt  sore,  and  let  me  add  also 
weak  from  its  effects.  .  .  .  The  truth  is,  I  fear, 
that  there  may  before  long  come  a  collision  on  this 
point  in  our  Church.  The  American  element  is  in- 
creasing steadily  in  numerical  strength,  and  will  in 
time  predominate;  and  at  the  present  moment,  on 
account  of  the  state  of  the  public  mind,  has  great 
moral  weight,  and  this  in  itself  must  excite  unpleasant 
feelings  on  the  other  side."  The  "Western  Watch- 
man" of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  edited  and  controlled  by 
the  Rev.  D.  S.  Phelan,  may  be  called  the  last  of  the  old 
style  personal  organs,  and  has  been  running  a  strenu- 
ous course  since  1865.  In  1846  a  predecessor,  the 
"Catholic  News  Letter",  began  an  existence  of  three 
years,  and  in  1878  a  stock  company  was  formed  which 
combined  an  existing  weekly,  the  "Catholic  World", 
until  then  published  in  Illinois,  with  the  "Church 
Progress"  as  a  rival  to  the  "  Watchman  ".  For  several 
years  Conde  B.  Fallen  held  the  position  of  editor  of 
the  "Progress". 

The  Cincinnati  "Catholic  Telegraph",  established 
in  1831,  now  the  oldest  surviving  Catholic  publication 
of  the  LInited  States,  enjoyed  during  the  early  years  of 
Bishop  Purcell's  administration  a  national  reputation 
under  the  editorial  direction  of  his  brother,  the  Rev. 
Edmund  Purcell,  the  Rev.  S.  H.  Rosecranz,  and  the 
Rev.  J.  F.  Callaghan.  Bishop  Gilmour,  of  Cleveland, 
was  a  strong  advocate  of  the  value  of  a  Catholic  paper, 
and,  beginning  in  1874,  spent  a  considerable  amount  of 
money,  time,  and  personal  effort  in  trying  to  establish 
the  "Catholic  Universe"  in  his  cathedral  city.  Manly 
Tello  was  the  editor  during  its  early  years.     The 


"Catholic  Columbian"  of  Columbus  started  in  1875, 
and  the  "Record"  of  Toledo  in  1905. 

The  best  known  and  most  widely  circulated  West- 
ern pubhcation  is  the  "Ave  Maria",  a  scholarly  liter- 
ary weekly,  founded  by  Father  Sorin  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Holy  Cross,  at  Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  in 
1865.  For  the  first  issues  the  editor  was  Father  Gilles- 
pie, C.S.C.,  and  his  sister,  the  well  known  Mother 
Mary  St.  Angela  Gillespie  (see  Gillespie,  Eliza 
Mari.\),  was  a  frequent  auxihary.  In  1874  the  Rev, 
Daniel  E.  Hudson,  C.S.C.,  took  charge.  An  early 
venture  in  Chicago  was  the  "Western  Tablet",  in 
1852,  under  the  editorial  direction  of  a  convert,  M.  L. 
Linton.  Another  editor  was  James  A.  Mulligan,  more 
famous  as  the  colonel  of  the  23rd  Illinois  volunteers  of 
the  Civil  War  (the  Western  Irish  Brigade).  He  was 
born  at  Utica,  New  York,  25  June,  1830,  and  went  to 
Chicago  in  1836.  He  studied  law  before  becoming  an 
editor.  His  heroic  defence  of  Lexington,  Ky.,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1861,  where,  with  2800  men,  he  withstood  an 
army  of  22,000,  made  him  a  popular  hero.  He  died,  26 
July,  1864,  from  wounds  received  two  days  before  at 
the  battle  of  Kernrtown,  Va.  The  "Western  Tablet" 
did  not  survive,  and  it  had  several  ill-starred  succes- 
sors until  the  "New  World"  appeared  in  1892.  Three 
years  later  the  "Western  Catholic"  was  printed  at 
Quincy,  111.  The  "Michigan  Catholic"  of  Detroit 
dates  from  1872.  In  October,  1869,  the  "Star  of  Beth- 
lehem" was  established  as  a  monthly  at  Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin,  by  the  St.  Louis  Brothers.  Two  years  later 
they  sold  the  paper  to  the  "Catholic  Vindicator", 
which  had  been  established  in  November,  1870,  at 
Monroe,  Wis.,  by  Dr.  D.  W.  Nolan  and  the  Rev.  John 
Casey.  The  "Catholic  Vindicator"  and  "Star  of 
Bethlehem"  were  consolidated,  and  established  in 
Milwaukee,  November,  1871.  In  November,  1878, 
Edward  A.  Bray  and  the  Rev.  G.  L.  Willard,  having 
purchased  the  "Catholic  Vindicator"  from  Dr.  D.  W. 
Nolan,  changed  the  name  to  the  "Catholic  Citizen". 
In  1880  H.  J.  Desmond  undertook  its  editorial  man- 
agement. 

Other  Western  papers  are  the  "Catholic  Tribune", 
Dubuque,  Iowa  (1899);  "Intermountain  Catholic", 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  (1399);  the  "Catholic  Bulletin", 
St.  Paul,  Minn.  (1911);  "True  Voice",  Omaha,  Neb. 
(1903) ;  "  Catholic  Register",  Kansas  City,  Mo.  (1899) ; 
"Cathohc  Sentinel",  Portland,  Oregon  (1870).  In 
San  Francisco,  Cal.,  the  "Monitor"  is  one  of  the 
veterans  dating  as  far  bark  as  1852.  Later  enterprises 
are  the  "Leader"  of  the  same  city  (1902);  the  "Cath- 
olic Herald"  of  Sacramento  (1908);  and  "Tidings"  of 
Los  Angeles  (1895). 

Magazines  and  Periodicals. — The  first  Catholic  mag- 
azine was  the  "Metropolitan,  or  Cathohc  Monthly 
Magazine"  issued  at  B.iltimore,  Md.,  January,  1830. 
It  lived  a  year.  Another  "Metropolitan"  began  in 
February,  1853,  but  also  failed  to  make  a  permanent 
impression.  In  January,  iS42,  the  "Religious  Cabi- 
net", a  monthly,  edited  by  Rev.  Dr.  Charles  J.  White 
and  Rev.  James  Dolan,  was  started  in  Baltimore. 
After  a  year  its  title  was  changed  to  the  "  United  States 
Catholic  Magazine",  which  lasted  until  1847.  The 
Rev.  Dr.  White  and  Dr.  J.  V.  Huntington  were  its 
most  noted  editors,  and  the  contributors  included 
Archbishop  M.  J.  Spalding,  Bishop  Michael  O'Connor, 
the  Rev.  Dr.  C.  C.  Pise,  and  B.  N.  Campbell.  In  New 
York  the  "Cathohc  Expositor",  edited  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Charles  C.  Pise  and  the  Rev.  Fehx  Varela,  lasted 
three  years  (1842-44).  Father  Varela  was  also  instru- 
mental in  the  publication  in  New  York,  by  C.  H. 
Gottsberger,  of  the  "Young  Catholic's  Magazine"  in 
March,  1838;  it  was  suspended  in  lebri.Ty,  1840. 
The  "National  Catholic  Register",  a  monthly,  the 
first  issue  of  which  appeared  at  Philadelphia,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1844,  did  not  last  long. 

When  Father  Heeker  started  the  "Catholic  World", 
in  1865,  its  editor  for  the  first  five  years  was  John  R.  G. 


PERIPATETIC 


696 


PERJURY 


Hassard  (q.  v.),  and  the  publisher  Lawrence  Kchoe 
(b.  in  Co.  Wexford,  Ireland,  24  July,  1832;  d.  in 
Brooklyn.  New  York,  20  Feb.,  1890).  To  the  latter 
was  due  much  of  the  early  success  of  the  magazine  and 
of  the  Catholic  Publication  Society.  Under  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  Christian  Hrothers  the  "De  La  Salle 
Monthly"  was  begun  in  ISti".  Its  name  was  later 
changed  to  the  "Manliattan  Monthlj-"  and  the  Irish 
patriot  and  poet  .lolui  S;ivage  wa.-i  for  a,  time  its  editor. 
The  •■Young  Crusader"  of  Boston  U^'i''^),  "Catholic 
Record",  riul:id('li>liia  (1.S71),  "Central  Magazine", 
St.  Louis  (1S72),  "Donahoe's  Magazine",  Boston 
(187S),follo\vin  the  list  of  failures.  The  "Rosary  Maga- 
zine," begun  by  the  Dominicans  in  New  York,  in  1891, 
was  transferred  to  Somerset,  Ohio.  The  Sisters  of 
Mercy  liave  published,  since  1908,  at  Manchester,  New 
Hampshire,  "The  Magnificat".  In  April,  1866,  the 
Rev.  B.  Sestini,  S.J.,  founded  the  "Messenger  of  the 
Sacred  Heart"  at  GeorgetowTi,  D.  C;  thence  it  was 
moved  to  Woodstock,  Md.,  next  to  Philadelphia,  and 
finally  to  New  York,  in  1893.  Later,  in  1907,  the 
"Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart"  was  devoted  en- 
tirely to  the  interests  of  the  Confraternity  of  the  Sa- 
cred Heart,  and  the  "  Messenger",  a  separate  magazine 
of  general  literary  character,  was  issued.  The  latter 
publication,  in  April,  1910,  was  changed  to  a  weekly 
review,  "America",  which,  by  authority  of  the  Gen- 
eral of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  was  made  the  joint  work 
of  the  provincials  of  the  Society  in  North  America. 
It  took  immediate  rank  as  an  exponent  of  Catholic 
opinion  with  a  national  scope  and  circulation.  The 
Rev.  John  J.  Wynne,  S.J.,  was  its  founder  and  first 
editor-in-chief.  The  Catholic  University,  Washing- 
ton, publishes  two  magazines,  the  "Catholic  Univer- 
sity Bulletin  "  and  the  "  Catholic  Educational  Review" 
(1911),  and  nearly  all  the  Catholic  colleges  and  the 
academies  have  monthhes  edited  and  compiled  by  the 
students. 

For  historical  work  Philadelphia  hiis  two  quar- 
terly magazines,  "American  Catholic  Historical  Re- 
searches" and  "Records  of  the  American  Catholic 
Historical  Society".  New  Y'ork  has  one,  "Historical 
Records  and  Studies",  of  the  United  States  Catholic 
Historical  Society.  When  the  reading-circle  move- 
ment began,  Warren  E.  Mosher  (b.  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
1860;  d.  at  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  22  March,  1906), 
who  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Catholic  Summer 
School,  started  the  "Catholic  Reading  Circle  Re- 
view". This  title  was  later  changed  to  "Mosher's 
Magazine",  but  the  periodical  did  not  survive  its 
founder.  The  "CathoUc  Fortnightly  Review",  of 
Techny,  111.,  edited  by  Arthur  Preass,  and  the  "St. 
John's  Quarterly",  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  edited  by  the 
Rev.  Dr.  J.  F.  Mullany,  are  personal  organs  of  the 
editors.  "Benziger's  Magazine",  New  York,  1898, 
and  "Extension",  Chicago,  1907,  are  illustrated 
monthlies.  The  "Ecclesiastical  Review",  Philadel- 
phia (1889),  supplies  a  varied  and  interesting  quantity 
of  professional  information  for  the  clergy.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  offer  from  the  same  oflSce  in  "The  Dol- 
phin", a  similarly  important  publication  for  the  laity, 
but  it  failed  to  attract  the  necessary  support.  Another 
failure,  for  a  like  reason,  was  made  in  New  York  in  the 
"New  York  Review,  a  journal  of  Ancient  Faith  and 
Modern  Thought",  issued  bi-monthly  from  St. 
Joseph's  Seminary,  Dunwoodie,  June,  1905 — May- 
June,  1908. 

The  first  quarterly  review  established  in  the  United 
States  was  the  "American  Review  of  History  and 
Politics",  founded  by  a  CathoHc,  Robert  Walsh,  at 
Philadelphia,  and  of  which  two  volumes  were  pub- 
lished (1811-12).  Walsh  wa.s  born  at  Baltimore,  Md., 
in  1784,  and  educated  at  (ieorgetown  College.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  literary  abilitv,  and  died  United 
States  consul  at  Paris,  7  Feb.,  1859.  The  first  and 
most  important  Catholic  quarterly  was  "Brownson's 
Quarterly  Review",  which  Orestes  A.  Brownson  began 


in  January,  1S14,  at  Boston  (moved  to  New  York, 
1855),  after  his  conversion.  He  suspended  its  publica- 
tion in  1861  "becau.se  he  was  iniwilling",  lu'  saiil,  "to 
continue  a  periodical  wliich  had  not,  the  full  conliilence 
of  the  Cntliolir  liicrar.liv".  It  was  rcxivcd  in  1873, 
and  liiiallv  ivascil  piil. lira)  ion  in  Octolicr,  1S75,  with 
the  slalcmi  lit:  "I  (lis(  mil  inuc  the  Review  solely  on 
ac<-c)unt  of  my  ]iiriariiius  health  and  the  failure  of  my 
eyes."  The  iirst  number  of  the  "American  Catholic 
Quarterly  Re\iew  "  was  issued  at  Philadelphia,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1876,  and  the  Rev.  James  A.  Corcoran  (q.  v.), 
George  D.  Wolf,  and  Archbishop  Patrick  .lohn  Ryan 
are  notable  as  its  editors.  The  "Globe  Keview",  of 
Philadelphia,  edited  by  the  erratic  V\  illiam  Henry 
Thorne,  had  a  short  career  of  violent  iconoclastic 
character. 

Special  Orgayis. — The  fraternal  organizations  have 
their  special  organs — as,  for  example,  the  "National 
Hibernian"  (Washington,  1900),  of  the  Ancient  Order 
of  Hibernians — which  devote  their  pages  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  social  organizations  which  they  represent. 
The  German  Catholic  Press,  led  by  two  influential 
dailies,  has  made  much  more  substantial  and  prac- 
tical progress  than  its  English  contemporaries.  Prom- 
inent among  the  editors  who  contributed  to  these 
achievements  were  Dr.  Maximilian  Oertel  (q.  v.) 
and  Edward  Frederic  Reinhold  Preuss  (b.  at  Ko- 
nigsberg,  Germany,  10  July,  1834;  d.  at  St.  Louis, 
Missouri,  July,  1904).  There  are  sixty-nine  Polish 
papers  printed  in  the  United  States,  twenty  odd 
being  thoroughly  Catholic,  and  the  others  ranging 
from  neutrality  to  violent  anti-clericalism.  Of  the 
nine  dailies  four  are  cUstinctively  Catholic.  The 
oldest  paper  is  the  "Gazeta  Katolicka",  founded 
by  Father  Barzynski.  He  also  founded,  in  18S9,  the 
"Dziennik  Chicagoski"  (Chicago  Daily  News),  the 
controlling  interest  in  which  is  owned  by  the  Resur- 
rectionist Fathers.  There  are  eighteen  Polish  papers 
printed  in  Chicago,  four  of  them  dailies,  and  of  the 
eighteen  seven  are  Catholic.  The  Bohemians  have 
a  number  of  prosperous  periodicals  including  1  daily, 
1  serai-weekly,  2  weeklies,  1  monthly,  and  1  bi- 
monthly. (See  also  Bohemians  in  the  United 
States;  French  Catholics  in  the  United  States; 
Germans  in  the  United  States. — The  Press; 
Italians  in  the  United  States. — Religious  Or- 
ganizations; Poles  in  the  United  States.) 

FiNOTTi,  Bibliographia  Calh.  Americana  (New  York,  1872); 
Brownson's  Quarterly  Review  CSewYork,  Jan.,  1S49);  Middleton 
in  Records  of  Am.  Calh.  Hist.  Soc.  (Pliilaclelpliia.  Sept.,  1893; 
March,  1908)  ;  Griffin  in  Catholic  Hist.  Researches  (Pliiladel- 
phia) ;  U.  S.  Cath.  Hist.  Soc.  Cath.  Hist.  Records  and  Studies, 
III  (New  Yorli,  Jan.,  1903),  part  i;  Mdrray,  Popular  Hist,  of 
Cath.  Church  in  U.  S.  (New  York,  1876);  Catholic  Citizen  (Mil- 
waukee, Wis.),  files;  Catholic  News  (New  York,  11  and  18  April, 
1908);  H.  F.  BE0WN80N,  Brownson's  Middle  Life;  Idem,  Later 
Life  (Detroit,  1899-1900);  Catholic  Directory,  files;  Messmeh, 
Works  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  England  (Cleveland,  1908) ;  Kehoe, 
Il'or*s  of  Most  fffj.  John  Hughes  (New  York,  1864);  Baylet, 
Brief  Sketch  of  Hist,  of  Cath.  Church  on  the  Island  of  New  York 
(New  York,  1870)  ;  Mullany,  Catholic  Editors  I  Have  Known 
in  St.  Johns  Quarterly  (Syracuse,  1910-11),  files. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 

Peripatetic  SchooL     See  Arlstotle. 

Perjury  (Lat.  per,  through  and  jurare,  to  swear)  is 
the  crime  of  taking  a  false  oath  (q.  v.).  To  the  guilt  of 
the  sin  of  lying  it  adds  an  infraction  of  the  virtue  of 
religion.  An  oath  properly  taken  is  an  act  of  worship 
because  it  implies  that  God  as  witness  to  the  truth  is 
omniscient  and  infallible.  Hence  the  wickedness  of 
invoking  the  Divine  testimony  to  confirm  an  untruth 
is  specially  criminal.  Prescinding  from  cases  of  ignor- 
ance or  in.sufhcient  deliberation  this  sin  is  reputed  to 
be  always  mortal.  When  in  doubt  one  cannot  without 
perjury  swear  to  a  thing  as  certain.  When  mental 
reservation  is  permissible  it  is  lawful  to  corroborate 
one's  utterance  by  an  oath,  if  there  be  an  adequate 
cause.  It  is  obvious,  however,  th.at  if  in  generjil  it  be 
true  that  there  is  need  of  caution  in  the  use  of  mental 
reservations  lest  they  be  simply  lies,  there  will  be  an 


PERLO 


697 


PERPETUAL 


additional  motive  for  care  when  they  are  to  be  distin- 
guished with  the  solemnity  of  an  oath.  According  to 
the  common  doctrine  as  to  co-operation  in  another's 
sin,  it  would  be  a  grievous  offense  to  require  a  person 
to  take  an  oath  when  we  know  he  is  going  to  perjure 
himself.  This  teaching,  however,  does  not  apply  to 
cases  in  which  justice  or  necessity  demand  tliat  a  state- 
ment be  sworn  to.  Hence,  for  instance,  a  trial  judge 
may  insist  that  evidence  be  presented  under  oath  even 
though  it  be  clear  that  much  or  all  of  the  testimony  is 
false.  Perjury,  according  to  the  divisions  in  vogue  in 
Canon  Law,  belongs  to  the  category  of  crimes  called 
mixed.  These  may  fall  under  the  cognizance  of  either 
the  ecclesiastical  or  civil  court,  according  as  they  are 
reputed  to  work  damage  either  to  the  spiritual  or  civil 
commonwealth.  No  canonical  penalty  is  incurred  by 
one  guilty  of  perjury,  at  least  directly.  When,  how- 
ever, a  person  has  been  convicted  of  it  before  a  com- 
petent tribunal  and  sentence  imposed,  he  is  esteemed 
infamous  {infamia  juris)  and  therefore  irregular. 

Taunton,  The  Law  of  the  Church  (London,  1906);  Slater. 
Manual  of  Moral  Theology  (New  York,  1908);  Ballerini,  Opus 
Theotogicum  Morale  (Prato,  1899V 

Joseph  F.  Delant 
Perlo,  Philip.    See  Keni.\,  Vicariate  Apostolic 

OF. 

Permaneder,  Franz  Michael,  canonist,  b.  at 
Traunstein,  Bavaria,  12  Aug.,  1794;  d.  at  Ratisbon,  10 
Oct.,  1862.  He  studied  theology  and  jurisprudence  at 
Landshut  and  in  1818  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood 
at  Ratisbon.  He  was  appointed  in  1834  professor  of 
church  history  and  canon  law  at  the  "Lyceum"  of 
Freising,  and  in  1847  joined  the  theological  faculty  of 
the  University  of  Munich.  He  was  contributor  to  the 
first  edition  of  the  "Kirchenlexicon",  and  also  wrote: 
"Handbuch  des  gemeingultigen  kathohschen  Kirch- 
enrechts  mit  steter  Rucksicht  auf  Deutschland" 
(Landshut,  1840);  "Die  kirchliche  Baulast"  (Mu- 
nich, 1853);  "Bibliotheca  patristica"  (incomplete; 
Landshut,  1841-44);  a  continuation  of  the  "Annales 
almae  hterarum  universitatis  Ingolstadii"  (Munich, 
1859). 

ScHULTE,  Gcschichte  der  Quell,  u.  Lit,  des  Kan,  Rechts,  III 
(Stuttgart,  1880),  i,  356-57. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Pemter,  Joseph  Maria,  scientist,  b.  at  Neumark, 
Tyrol,  15  March,  1848;  d.  at  Arco,  20  Dec,  1908.  He 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  after  graduation  from  the 
Gymnasia  at  Bozen  and  Meran.  For  a  time  he  acted 
as  professor  of  physics  at  Kalocsa  and  Kalksburg.  In 
1877  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  order,  on  account  of  an 
ailment  in  his  head.  He  then  studied  physics  at  the 
University  of  Vienna  and  received  the  doctor's  degree. 
After  entering  the  Central  Institute  as  volunteer  in 
October,  1878,  Pemter  became  assistant  in  1880,  and 
adjunct  in  1884;  in  1885  he  also  began  to  act  as  a  pri- 
vatdozent  at  the  university.  In  1890  he  was  called  to 
the  University  of  Innsbruck  in  the  capacity  of  extraor- 
dinary professor,  and  in  1893  was  appointed  ordi- 
nary professor  of  cosmic  physics.  At  Innsbruck  he 
began  a  number  of  works  including  papers  on  the 
conditions  of  wind,  humidity,  radiation,  and  meteor- 
ological optics.  In  his  most  important  work  "Atmos- 
pherische  Optik",  he  collected  all  published  treatises 
and  also  supplied  original  papers  necessary  to  com- 
plete certain  subjects.  Unfortunately  he  died  be- 
fore he  had  finished  this  valuable  publication.  His 
German  translation  of  Abercromby's  work,  "The 
weather",  is  also  noteworthy. 

In  1897  Pemter  became  professor  at  the  University 
of  Vienna,  and  director  of  the  Central  Meteorological 
Institute.  He  reorganized  the  institute  and  extended 
it  considerably,  increasing  the  staff  from  fifteen  to 
thirty-one.  He  made  it  possible  for  the  institute  to 
take  part  in  balloon  ascents  for  scientific  purposes.  A 
laboratory,  a  printing  office,  a  reading  room,  etc., 


were  added,  also  a  bureau  for  seismic  observations. 

Instruments  for  recording  earth  tremors  were  set  up, 
and  the  institute  supervised  the  network  of  stations 
for  the  study  of  earthquakes,  its  name  being  changed 
to  "Zentralanstalt  ftir  Meteorologie  und  Geodyna- 
mik".  He  introduced  various  improvements  in  prac- 
tical weather  forecasting,  such  as  the  free  delivery  of 
forecasts  in  the  summer  to  all  telegraph  stations. 
During  his  directorate  were  introduced  the  experi- 
ments on  so-called  "weather-shooting",  as  a  preven- 
tion of  the  dangers  due  to  hail.  These  experiments 
created  considerable  excitement  in  the  agricultural 
circles  of  Austria  and  Italy.  Pernter  examined  the 
matter  carefully  and  fearlessly,  and  came  to  a  con- 
clusion that  proved  to  be  the  deathblow  of  this 
practice. 

He  was  kind  towards  his  subordinates  and  inter- 
ested in  their  welfare.  It  will  take  some  time  before  a 
full  appreciation  is  had  of  all  that  he  accomplished 
for  the  institute.  The  most  important  of  his  numerous 
political  papers  is  "  Voraussetzungslose  Forschung, 
freie  Wissenschaft  und  Katholizismus",  published 
during  the  Mommsen  agitation.  In  this  essay  he 
sought  to  prove  the  possibility  of  combining  strict  re- 
hgious  faith  with  exact  research.  Pernter  was  also 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  "Leo-Gesellschaft"  in 
Vienna  and  of  the  branch  at  Innsbruck.  These  socie- 
ties have  suffered  a  great  loss,  because  he  took  an  ac- 
tive part  as  long  as  he  could  in  all  their  work  and  prop- 
aganda. During  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  was  a 
victim  to  sclerosis  of  the  arteries,  which  especially 
affected  his  heart.  He  suffered  very  much  through 
weakness  of  the  heart,  difficulty  of  breathing,  and  oc- 
casional fainting  spells.  He  was  also  depressed  by  the 
sickness  and  death  of  his  beloved  young  daughter  and 
of  his  wife.  These  numerous  blows  combined  to 
hasten  his  end. 

Wilhelm  Trabert. 

Perpetua,  Saint.  See  Felicitas  and  Perpettja, 
Saints. 

Perpetual  Adoration.  See  Adoration,  Perpet- 
ual. 

Perpetual  Adoration,  Religious  of  (Belgium),  a 
congregation  with  simple  vows,  founded  at  Brussels, 
1857,  by  Annade  Meeus,  daughter  of  Count  Ferdinand 
de  Meeus,  for  whose  head  a  price  was  offered  by  the 
insurgents  during  the  Revolution  of  1830.  In  1843 
Mile  de  Meeus,  then  twenty  years  of  age,  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  rector  visited  the  sacristy  of  the  church 
near  their  chateau  and  other  churches.  Impressed  by 
the  miserable  state  of  the  vestments  and  all  that  per- 
tained to  the  altar,  she  found  the  inspiration  of  her 
life's  work.  Considering  the  poverty  and  neglect  of 
Jesus  Christ  in  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  desiring  to 
make  reparation  to  Him,  she  conceived  the  idea  of  an 
association  with  the  object  of  reviving  faith  in  the 
Real  Presence:  by  adoration,  night  and  day;  persons 
undertaking  to  make  monthly  an  hour  of  adoration, 
and  give  yearly  an  offering  for  the  benefit  of  poor 
churches;  by  working  to  enhance  the  dignity  of  Divine 
worship  by  providing  the  necessaries  for  the  becoming 
celebration  of  the  sacred  mysteries.  The  Association 
of  Perpetual  Adoration  and  Work  for  Poor  Churches 
was  organized  in  1848  under  the  direction  of  Rev.  Jean 
Bapti.ste  Boone,  S.J.,  "the  apostle  of  Bru.ssels".  The 
necessity  was  .soon  felt  that  a  rcligicius  body  should  be 
its  centre  and  support,  one  which  would  be  wholly  de- 
voted to  the  propagation  of  the  knowledge,  love,  and 
adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 

As  no  community  existed  which  made  this  work  its 
special  vocation,  the  project  of  a  new  religious  insti- 
tute was  formed  and  realized  when  Mile  de  Meeus,  di- 
rected by  Father  Boone,  founded  the  Religious  of  the 
Perpetual  Adoration.  The  constitutions  were  defin- 
itively approved  by  Pius  IX  (March,  1872).  The  re- 
ligious must  not  only  be  adorers  but  also  missionaries 


PERPETUAL 


698 


PERPETUAL 


of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  devoting  themselves  to  all 
that,  compatible  with  a  life  of  retirement,  can  further 
Its  Klory:  relijiious  instruction,  iircpuration  for  first 
Communion,  retreats,  etc.  Their  clunTlics  with  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  exposed  are  always  open  to  the 
public.  By  their  principal  \vorl<,  the  association,  they 
strive  to  increase  love  for  tlic  Blessi'd  .Sacrament,  by 
hours  of  adoration,  grants  of  vestments  to  poor 
churches,  the  Forty  Hours  Devotion,  etc.  The  asso- 
ciation s])rcad  rapidly  thronnhout  the  world  (in  Amer- 
ica it  is  frccjuently  called  "Tabernacle  Society").  In 
185:5  it  \v:is  erected  an  archassociation  with  power  to 
affiliate  others.  The  decree  of  Leo  XIII  transferrins 
it  to  Rome  (February,  1879)  declares:  "The  archasso- 
ciation is  one  with  the  institute  in  name  and  in  its  ob- 
ject, it  is  subordinate  to  the  institute  as  to  its  head,  and 
must  be  subordinate  to  it  in  virtue  of  the  constitutions 
approved  by  the  Holy  See".  The  archassociation  was 
raisetl  to  the  rank  of  primn  priinaria,  July,  1,S95.  The 
institute  lias  many  houses  in  Europe.  In  August, 
1880,  it  was  introduced  into  England  by  Cardinal 
Herbert  Vaughan,  then  Bishop  of  Manchester.  Its 
first  foundation  in  America  was  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
October,  1900. 

C.  L.  Martin. 

Perpetual  Adoration,  Religious  of  the,  a  con- 
templative religious  congregation,  founded  in  1.526  by 
Sister  Elizabetli  Zwirer  (d.  1.540),  at  Einsiedeln,  Swit- 
zerland, and  following  the  Benedictine  rule.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  year  17.89  they  commenced  the  prac- 
tice of  adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  during  the 
day  before  the  closed  tabernacle.  A  lay  association 
was  established,  the  members  of  which  contributed  a 
small  sum  of  money  for  the  expenses  of  the  sanc- 
tuary necessitated  by  perpetual  adoration.  On  2  May, 
1798,  during  the  French  invasion  the  sisters  were  ex- 
pelled and  their  monastery  ruined.  Five  years  later, 
after  the  Concordat  of  Napoleon,  the  community 
returned.  Acting  on  the  advice  of  their  confessor, 
Father  Pierre  Perrot,  the  sisters,  on  8  January,  1846, 
began  the  practice  of  adoration  by  night  as  well  as  by 
day.  In  1852  to  signify  their  devotion  to  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  they  decided  to  wear  a  figure  of  an  osten- 
sorium  on  the  breast  of  their  habit.  In  1859  Empress 
Elizabeth  of  Austria  presented  the  monastery  with  a 
magnificent  chalice  and  a  reliquary.  A  new  church 
was  opened  in  1882,  and  is  adorned  with  three  beauti- 
ful paintings,  representing  the  adoration  of  Christ. 
The  convent  at  Einsiedeln  is  the  only  house  of  its  kind, 
and  has  its  own  novitiate.  In  1909  the  community 
numbered  46  professed  sisters  and  5  novices. 

Arthur  Letellier. 

Perpetual  Adoration,  Sisters  of  the  (Quimper, 

France),  an  institute  of  nuns  devoted  to  perpetual 
adoration  of  the  Bl&ssed  Sacrament  and  to  the  educa- 
tion of  orphan  children;  founded  at  Quimper  (Brit- 
tany), bv  Abb^'  Francois-Marie  Langrez  (b.  at  Saint 
Servan,  "20  July,  1787;  d.  at  Quimper,  10  August, 
1862).  In  early  youth  Frangois-Marie  had  been  an 
apprentice  rope-maker,  but  he  began  to  study  the 
classics  at  sixteen,  and  was  ordained  19  December, 
1812.  In  December,  1821,  he  conceived  the  first 
idea  of  the  work  he  subsequently  founded.  Two 
poor  homeless  little  girls  crossed  his  path.  He  con- 
fided them  to  Marguerite  Le  Mattre,  a  domestic  serv- 
ant. Other  orphans  were  found  and  sheltered.  In 
1826  Marguerite's  home  contained  an  oratory  and 
was  provided  with  a  dormitory  holding  thirty  beds. 
Three  years  later  she  received  her  first  two  co-labour- 
ers, and  on  21  November,  1829,  the  first  chapel  of  the 
institute  was  opened.  In  1S;!2,  Mile  Olympe  de 
Moi^ien,  in  whose  family  Marguerite  I.e  Maitre  had 
been  a  servant  when  she  began  her  charitable  work, 
entered  the  little  society,  being  made  superioress,  10 
March,  1833.     On  20  January,  1835,  M^re  Olympe 


and  her  companions  first  put  on  the  religious  habit. 
In  September,  1835  a  tentative  rule  of  life  was  drawn 
up  by  Abb6  L.anprez.  In  Marcli.  1S36,  the  first 
sisters  made  their  vows.  On  27  Mareli,  1837,  Sis- 
ter Marguerite  Le  Mai'tn-  died.  .Vdoration  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  which  was  l>egun  in  March,  1836, 
did  not  become  perpetual,  day  and  night,  till  1843, 
eight  days  after  the  death  of  I\lere  Olympe,  who  left 
after  her  a  great  reputation  for  sanctity.  At  that 
time  the  community  numbered  11  choir  sisters,  4 
postulants,  and  had  charge  of  70  children.  In  1845 
their  rule  was  appmved  by  Mgr  (iniveran.  Bishop  of 
tjuimper.  .\  little  later  tliey  were  recognized  by  the 
C!o\-ernment  under  the  title  of  Sisters  of  the  Perpetual 
Adoration.  On  10  May,  1851,  a  house  was  founded 
at  Recouvrance,  transferred,  28  October,  1856,  to 
Coat-ar-Gu^ven,  near  Brest.  This  and  the  house  at 
Quimper  are  the  only  ones  that  practise  perpetual 
adoration.  In  1882,  the  institute  contained  400  or- 
phan girls  and  128  religious.  Since  its  foundation, 
it  has  received  1754  orphan  girls,  of  whom  1000  have 
embraced  the  reUgious  life  in  dilTercnt  congregations. 
Arthur  Letellier. 

Perpetual  Adorers  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 

(S.\CRAMENTiNEs). — Anton  Le  Quien,  b.  in  Paris,  23 
Feb.,  1601,  the  founder  of  the  first  order  exclusively 
devoted  to  the  practice  of  Perpetual  Adoration,  en- 
tered the  Dominican  Order,  and  after  ordination  was 
named  m.aster  of  novices  at  Avignon,  and  later  prior 
of  the  convent  at  Paris.  "During  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury", we  read  in  his  works,  edited  by  Pot  ton,  "we  find 
only  two  religious  orders  that  have  Perpetual  .Adora- 
tion. The  first  is  that  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  founded  by  Pere  Antoine,  O.P. ;  the  second 
that  of  the  Benedictine  Adoratrices,  founded  first  at 
Paris  and  af  I  erwan  Is  in  several  other  cities,  by  the  cele- 
brated Mother  Meehtilde.  This  religious,  .supported 
by  powerful  protectors,  easily  accomplished  her  task. 
Perpetual  Adoration  began  among  her  daughters  in 
1654,  while  the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  re- 
ceived the  privilege  of  reserving  the  Blessed  Sacra- 
ment only  in  1659.  But  Pere  .A.ntoine  had  begun  the 
establishment  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
about  1639,  while  Mere  Mechtilde's  work  appears,  ac- 
cording to  Helyot,  to  date  back  no  further,  even  in 
project,  than  1(351.  Pere  Antoine  may,  then,  be  con- 
sidered as  possessing  priority,  especially  as  his  order 
was  intended  solely  for  the  worship  of  the  Holy  Eu- 
charist, while  that  of  Mere  Meehtilde,  although  in  ex- 
istence, was  adapted  to  that  end  only  at  a  later  pe- 
riod". Migne's  " Dictionnaire  des  Ordres  religieux" 
mentions  no  religious  order  exclusively  destined  for 
the  worship  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  except  that  of 
Pere  Antoine,  and  that  of  the  Adoration  R^paratrice, 
established  in  France  for  the  first  time  in  1848. 

In  1639  Pere  .\ntoine  began  his  work  at  Marseilles. 
Sister  Anne  Negrel  was  named  the  first  sunerioress. 
But  the  definitive  establishment  of  the  religious  took 
place  only  in  1659-60,  when  Mgr  de  Puget,  Bishop  of 
Marseilles,  erected  them  into  a  congregation  under  the 
title  of  .Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  The  final 
formalities  for  the  approval  of  the  order  having  been 
concluded  in  Rome  (1680),  Innocent  XI  expedited  a 
Brief,  which  could  not  be  put  in  execution  because 
of  a  change  of  bishop.  Innocent  XII  issued  a  new 
Brief  the  same  year  in  which  the  Apostolic  Process 
was  opened  for  the  canonization  of  its  founder. 
The  only  foundation  of  the  order  in  the  eighteenth 
century  was  made  at  Boll^ne  (Vaucluse)  in  1725. 
Sixty  years  later,  under  the  government  of  M^re  de 
La  Fare,  this  monastery  had  the  honour  of  offering  to 
God  thirteen  victims,  who  succeedetl  one  another  on 
the  scaffold,  from  the  fifth  to  the  twenty-sixth  of  July, 
1794.  The  process  for  the  canonization  of  these 
martyrs  was  opened  at  Rome,  January,  1907. 

Mire  de  La  Fare,  having  escaped  the  guillotine. 


PERPETUAL 


699 


PERPETUAL 


gathered  together  her  community  in  1802,  and  made  a 
foundation  at  Avignon  in  1807.  The  same  year  a  Sac- 
ramentine  of  Marseilles  founded  a  convent  at  Aix-en- 
Provence.  In  181(3  the  convent  of  Marseilles  was  re- 
opened, and  Mere  de  La  Fare  made  a  new  foundation 
at  Carpentras.  In  1859  six  religious  of  Aix  founded 
a  house  at  Bernay,  Normandy,  and  in  1S63  some 
Sisters  from  Bollene  founded  a  convent  of  Perpetual 
Adoration  at  Taunton,  England.  Oxford  also  has  a 
foundation.  All  the  houses  of  this  order  arc  autono- 
mous and  dependent  on  the  ordinary  of  the  diocese, 
who  is  their  superior.  In  con.sequence  of  the  persecu- 
tion of  religious  congregations  in  France,  the  Sacra- 
mentines  of  Marseilles  were  obliged  to  abandon  their 
convent.  The  four  other  houses  of  Southern  France, 
being  authorized  by  the  Government,  still  subsist, 
though  their  boarding-school  is  closed.  The  Sacra- 
mentincs  of  Bernay  at  the  time  of  the  expulsion,  July, 
1903,  were  compelled  to  close  their  boarding-school  and 
go  into  exile.  Thirteen  of  the  sisters  retired  to  Belgium, 
and  founded  a  house  at  Hal.  The  rest  of  the  com- 
munity settled  in  England  at  Whitson  Court,  New- 
port, Monmouthshire.  Their  existence  is  precarious, 
for  they  arc  not  permitted  to  open  a  school.  Their 
days  are  spent  in  prayer,  adoration,  and  the  making 
of  altar-breads,  vestments,  and  church  ornaments. 
In  March,  1911,  the  Sacramentines  were  permitted 
by  Archbishop  Farley  to  open  a  house  in  Holy  Trinity 
parish,  Yonker.s,  New  York. 

H^LYOT,  Hisloire  des  Qrdres,  IV,  421  sq.;  Heimbucber,  Die 
Orden  u.  Kongregationen,  s.  v.  SahTamejitinerinnen. 

A.  Letellier. 

Perpetual  Help,  Sisters  op  Our  Ladt  of,  a  con- 
gregation founded  in  the  parish  of  St.  Damien,  Belle- 
chasse,  P.  Q.,  Canada,  28  August,  1892,  by  Abbe  J.  O. 
Brousseau.  The  institute  devotes  itself  to  the  follow- 
ing works;  the  instruction  of  children,  particularly  in 
country  and  city  parochial  schools;  the  education  of 
orphans  and  the  maintenance  of  agricultural  orphan- 
ages in  which,  together  with  religious  instruction  and 
a  good  education,  children  may  be  given  a  taste  for 
fanning;  the  care  of  the  aged  and  infirm  of  both  sexes 

Abbe  J.  O.  Brousseau  laboured  earnestly  to  secure 
funds  for  the  new  foundation  and  to  overcome  the 
obstacles  to  its  progress.  The  pastors  of  a  number  of 
parishes  in  the  Diocese  of  Quebec  authorized  him  to 
seek  pecuniary  aid,  on  condition  that  he  would  admit 
some  of  their  aged  poor  and  orphans  to  his  institu- 
tions. Among  those  who  cooperated  with  hirn  was 
Mile  Virginie  Foumier,  born  at  St.  Joseph  de  L6vis 
but  a  resident  of  F^all  River,  Mass.,  a  woman  of  experi- 
ence and  courage.  She  became  the  first  superior  of  the 
little  community  which  as  Mere  St.  Bernard  she  gov- 
erned for  six  years,  with  great  success.  From  the  first 
year  of  the  community's  existence,  the  sisters  have 
conducted  the  principal  schools  of  the  parish  of  St. 
Damien.  The  demand  for  these  religious  educators 
increa.sed  and,  in  1907,  having  no  more  disengaged 
subjects,  they  were  obliged  to  refuse  the  direction  of 
seventeen  municipal  schools.  The  first  profession  oc- 
curred on  27  March,  1897,  when  fifteen  sisters  pro- 
nounced the  three  vows  of  religion  for  a  year,  renewing 
them  annually  until  the  taking  of  their  perpetual  vows 
on  10  July,  1908.  The  congregation  recruits  its  mem- 
bers from  all  classes  of  society,  poverty  being  no 
obstacle.  None  are  received  save  those  of  upright  in- 
tention, sound  judgment,  a  well-disposed  will,  and 
sufficiently  robust  health.  To  accept  subjects  uniler 
fifteen  years  of  ago  and  over  thirty,  widows  or  persons 
having  already  taken  either  temporary  or  perpetual 
vows  in  another  religious  community,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  the  permission  of  the  Holy  See.  The  dower  is 
fixed  at  a  hundred  dollars;  in  default  of  this  the  aspir- 
ant must  promise  to  give  instead  what  will  later  revert 
to  her  by  right  of  inheritance,  bequest,  or  in  any  other 
legitimate  way.    The  period  of  postulantship  lasts  six 


months,  that  of  noviceship  eighteen  months,  and  after 
six  years,  permanent  vows  are  taken. 

The  institute  has  so  far  confined  its  activities  to 
the  Diocese  of  Quebec.  In  1907-08,  the  constitutions 
were  recast  and  made  conformable  to  the  observa- 
tions in  the  "Guide  canonique"  by  Mgr  Battandier, 
the  superior-general  and  her  councilors  being  directed 
in  this  work  by  the  Rev.  Charles  Gonthier,  S.J.,  of 
Montreal.  At  present  the  congregation  conducts  21 
schools  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  with  2532  pupils,  1 
hospital  with  44  inmates,  and  35  sisters,  and  has 
charge  of  50  orphans.  The  order  numbers  (1911)  112 
professed  sisters,  8  novices,  and  12  postulants. 

Sister  St.  Ignace  de  Loyola. 

Perpetual  Succour,  Our  Lady  of. — The  picture 
of  Our  Lady  of  Perpetual  Succour  is  painted  on  wood, 
with  background  of  gold.  It  is  Byzantine  in  style  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  painted  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. It  represents  the  Mother  of  God  holding  the 
Divine  Child  while  the  Archangels  Michael  and  Ga- 
briel present  before  Him  the  instruments  of  His  Pas- 
sion. Over  the  figures  in  the  picture  are  some  Greek 
letters  which  form  the  abbreviated  words  Mother  of 
God,  Jesus  Christ,  Archangel  Michael,  and  Archangel 
Gabriel  respectively.  It  was  brought  to  Rome  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  by  a  pious  mer- 
chant, who,  dying  there,  ordered  by  his  will  that  the 
picture  should  be  exposed  in  a  church  for  public  vener- 
ation. It  was  exposed  in  the  church  of  San  Matteo, 
Via  Merulana,  between  St.  Mary  Major  and  St. 
John  Lateran.  Crowds  flocked  to  this  church,  and 
for  nearly  three  hundred  years  many  graces  were  ob- 
tained through  the  intercession  of  the  Blessed  Virgin. 
The  picture  was  then  popularly  called  the  Madonna 
di  San  Matteo.  The  church  was  served  for  a  time  by 
the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine,  who  had  sheltered  their 
Irish  brethren  in  their  distress.  These  Augustinians 
were  still  in  charge  when  the  French  invaded  Rome 
(1812)  and  destroyed  the  church.  The  picture  dis- 
appeared; it  remained  hidden  and  neglected  for  over 
forty  years,  but  a  series  of  providential  circumstances 
between  1863  and  1865  led  to  its  discovery  in  an  ora- 
tory of  the  Augustinian  Fathers  at  Santa  Maria  in 
Posterula. 

The  pope,  Pius  IX,  who  as  a  boy  had  prayed  before 
the  picture  in  San  Matteo,  became  interested  in  the 
discovery  and  in  a  letter  dated  11  Dec,  1865  to  Father 
General  Mauron,  C.SS.R.,  ordered  that  Our  Lady  of 
Perpetual  Succour  should  be  again  publicly  venerated 
in  Via  Merulana,  and  this  time  at  the  new  church  of  St. 
Alphonsus.  The  ruins  of  San  Matteo  were  in  the 
grounds  of  the  Redi'nipfdrist  Convent.  This  was  but 
the  first  favour  of  the  Holy  Father  towards  the  pict- 
ure. He  approved  of  the  solemn  translation  of  the 
picture  (26  April,  1866),  and  its  coronation  by  the 
Vatican  Chapter  (23  June,  1867).  He  fixed  the  feast 
as  duplex  secundce  classis,  on  the  Sunday  before  the 
Feast  of  the  Nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  by  a 
decree  dated  May,  1876,  approved  of  a  special  office 
and  Mass  for  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy 
Redeemer.  This  favour  later  on  was  also  granted  to 
others.  Learning  that  the  devotion  to  Our  Lady  under 
this  title  had  spread  far  and  wide,  Pius  IX  raised  a 
confraternity  of  Our  Lady  of  Perpetual  Succour  and 
St.  Alphonsus,  which  had  been  erected  in  Rome,  to 
the  rank  of  an  arch-confraternity  and  enriched  it  with 
many  privileges  and  indulgences.  He  was  amongst 
the  first  to  visit  the  picture  in  its  new  home,  and 
his  name  is  the  first  in  the  register  of  the  arch- 
confraternity.  Two  thousand  three  hundred  fac- 
similes of  the  Holy  Picture  have  been  sent  from  St. 
Alphonsus's  church  in  Rome  to  every  part  of  the  world. 
At  the  present  day  not  only  altars,  but  churclies  and 
dioceses  (e.  g.  in  England,  Leeds  and  Middlesborough; 
in  the  United  States,  Savannah)  are  dedicated  to  Our 
Lady  of  Perpetual  Succour.     In  some  places,  as  in 


PERPETUUS 


700 


PERPIGNAN 


the  United  States,  the  title  has  been  translated  Our 
Lady  of  Perpetual  Help. 

Beata  Virgo  af  Perpetuo  Succursu,  id  esl,  de  aiUiqiia  et  prodigiosa 
Imaginf  in  Ecdesia  S.  Alphonsi  de  Urbe  CuUui  reddita,  necnon  de 
Archisoilalitale  sub  litulo  B.  M.  V.  de  Perpeluo  Succursu  el  S.  Al- 
phonsi M,  de  Liguorio  canonice  erecta  (Rome,  1876). 

J.  Magniek. 

Perpetuus,  S./mn-t,  eighth  Bishop  of  Tours,  d.  1 
January,  or  8  December,  l'.)l).  or  S  April,  491.  He 
w!Ui  a  member  of  tlie  ilhi.-itrious  family  which  produced 
St.  Eu.staehiu.s,  who  had  been  his  prcdcces.sor,  and  also 
Saint  \'olusianus,  who  became  his  successor  in  the  same 
episcopal  see.  Appointed  about  460,  he  guided  the 
Church  of  Tours  for  thirty  years,  and  it  is  apparent, 
from  what  little  information  we  have,  tluit  during  his 
administration  Christianity  was  consideralily  devel- 
oped and  consohdated  in  Touraine.  Shortly  after  his 
elevation,  St.  Perpetuus  presided  at  a  council  in  which 
eight  bishops  who  were  reunited  in  Tours  on  the 
Feast  of  St.  Martin  had  participated,  and  at  this 
assembly  an  important  rule  was  promulgated  relative 
to  ecclesiastical  discipline.  He  maintained  a  careful 
surveillance  over  the  conduct  of  the  clergy  of  his  dio- 
cese, and  mention  is  made  of  priests  who  were  removed 
from  their  office  because  they  had  proved  unworthy. 
He  built  monasteries  and  various  churches,  but  above 
all  he  desired  to  replace  by  a  beautiful  basilica  (470) 
the  little  chapel  that  Saint  Britius  had  constructed, 
to  protect  the  tomb  of  St.  Martin.  The  will  of  St. 
Perpetuus  was  published  for  the  first  time  in  1661  by 
Dom  Luc  d'Achery  in  his  "Spicilegium".  This  curi- 
ous historical  monument  belonging  to  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century  gives  us  an  excellent  idea  of  the  sanctity 
of  its  author. 

B.^RONius,  Ann.  (1595),  47-52,  482;  BouRA83^,  Le  testament  de 
S.  Perpetue,  ivegue  de  Touts,  in  Bull,  de  la  Soc.  arch,  de  Touraine, 
II  (Tours,  1871-3),  256;  Ceillier,  Hist.  gin.  des  auteitrs  sacr.  et 
eccl.,  XV  (Paris,  1748),  189-95;  Henschenius,  in  Act.  SS.  Bol- 
Jond.(1675),Apr.,  1,748-52;  Hts(.K«.  deio  France,  II  (Paris,  1735), 
619-27;  RoBOTTi  del  Fiscale,  Cenni  star,  intorno  al  glor.  vescovo 
d\  Tours,  S.  Perpetuo  (Alessandria,  1859) ;  Tillemont,  Mem. 
pour  servir  A  Vhist.  eccUs.,  XVI  (Paris,  1712),  770-3. 

L£oN  Clugnet. 

Perpignan,  Diocese  of  (Perpinianum),  comprises 
the  Department  of  Pyr6n6es  Orientates;  created  by 
the  union  of  the  ancient  See  of  Elne,  part  of  the  Dio- 
cese of  L^rgel  known  as  French  Cerdagnc,  three  can- 
tons of  the  former  Diocese  of  Alet,  and  two  villages  of 
the  ancient  Diocese  of  Narbonne.  This  department 
was  united  in  1802  to  the  Diocese  of  Carcassonne;  by 
the  Concordat  of  1817  it  received  a  special  see.  This 
see,  though  it  continued  the  aforesaid  ancient  See  of 
Elne,  was  located  at  Perpignan,  where  the  bishops  of 
Elne  had  resided  since  1601  in  virtue  of  a  Bull  of  Clem- 
ent VHL  Elne  was  a  suffragan  of  Narbonne  until 
1511;  from  1511  to  1517  it  was  directly  subject  to  the 
Holy  See;  in  1517  it  became  again  a  suffragan  of  Nar- 
bonne; a  Decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent  made  it  a 
suffragan  of  Tarragona;  after  1678  it  was  again  a  suf- 
fragan of  Narbonne.  The  See  of  Perpignan  as  it  was 
re-established  in  1817  is  suffragan  to  Albi. 

The  first  known  Bishop  of  Elne  is  Dominus,  men- 
tioned in  571  in  the  Chronicle  of  John  of  Biclarum. 
Among  others  are  Cardinal  Ascanio  Maria  Sforza 
(1494-95),  Cardinal  Ca-sar  Borgia  (149.5-98),  Cardi- 
nal Francois  de  Loris  (1499-1.506),  Cardinal  Jacques  de 
Serra  (1.506-12),  Cardinal  Hieronimo  Doria  (1530- 
33);  Olyrape  Gerbet  (18.54-64).  The  Cathedral  of 
Elne  (eleventh  century)  and  the  adjoining  cloister  are 
rich  examples  of  elaborate  medieval  ornamentation. 
In  the  later  Middle  .^ges,  and  under  the  influence  of 
Roman  law,  Roussillon  witnessed  certain  offensive  re- 
vivals of  ancient  slavery;  this  is  provetl  by  numerous 
purchase  deeds  of  Mussulman,  and  even  Christian, 
slaves,  dating  l)ack  to  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centunes.  The  diocese  honours  especiallv  St.  Vincent 
de  Collioure,  m.artyr  (end  of  third  century);  and 
St.  Eulalia  and  St.  JuUa,  virgins  and  martyrs  (end  of 


third  century).  In  memory  of  former  ties  with  the 
metropolis  of  Tarragona,  the  Church  of  Perpignan 
honours  several  Spanish  saints:  St.  Fructuosus, 
Bishop  of  Tarragona,  and  his  deacons  Augurius  and 
Eulogius,  martyred  at  Tarragona  in  259;  some  mar- 
tyrs of  the  Diocletian  persecution  (en<l  of  third  cen- 
tury); Justa  and  Rufina  of  Seville;  Felix  and  N.arcis- 
sus  of  Gerona;  Aciselus  and  Victoria  of  Cordova; 
Leocadia,  of  Toledo;  St.  Ildefonsus  (607-67),  Arch- 
bishop of  Toledo. 

The  Benedictine  Dom  Briard  (1743-1828),  who  con- 
tinued the  important  series  of  "Historiensde  France", 
belonged  to  Perpignan.  At  Perpignan  Benedict  XIII 
(Pedro  de  Luna)  held  a  council  1  Nov.,  1408,  to  rally 
his  partisans;  they  gradually  melted  away  and  on  I 
Feb.,  1409,  the  eighteen  remaining  bishops  advised 


the  antipope  to  send  ambassadors  to  Pisa  to  negotiate 
with  Gregory  XII.  Numerous  councils  were  held  at 
Elne:  in  1027,  10.58,  1114,  1335,  1337,  1338,  1339, 
1340,  and  13S0.  The  council  held  in  1027  decreed  that 
no  one  should  attack  his  enemy  from  Saturday  at 
nine  o'clock  to  Monday  at  one;  and  that  Holy  Mass  be 
said  for  the  excommunicated  for  a  space  of  three 
months,  to  obtain  their  conversion.  The  author  of 
"I'Art  de  verifier  les  Dates"  wrongly  maintains  that 
the  Council  of  Elvira  was  held  at  Elne.  The  chief 
places  of  pilgrimage  of  the  diocese  are :  Notre-Dame  du 
Ch&teau  d'Ultrera,  at  Sorcde;  Notre-Dame  de  Conso- 
lation, at  Collioure;  Notre-Dame  de  Font  Romeu,  at 
Odeillo;  Notre-Dame  de  For?a-R6al,  near  Millas; 
Notre-Djime  de  Juigues,  near  Rivcsaltes;  the  relics  of 
Sts.  Abdon  and  Sennen  at  Aries  on  the  Tech.  Prior  to 
the  application  of  the  law  of  1901,  the  Diocese  of  Per- 
pignan had  Capuchin  Fathers  and  various  orders  of 
teaching  Brothers.  The  Sisters  of  the  Most  Holy  Sac- 
rament, mother-house  at  Perpignan,  are  a  nursing 
and  teaching  order.  At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  the  religious  congregations  directed  in  the 
diocese  1  infant  school,  13  day  nurseries,  1  boys'  or- 
phanage, 2  girls'  orphanages,  8  hospitals  or  asylums, 
and  2  houses  for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  their  own 
homes.  In  1905  there  were  212,121  inhabitants,  26 
parishes,  197succursal  parishes,  and  43  vicariates  sub- 
ventioned  bv  the  state. 

Gallin  Christiana,  nova.  VI  (1739),  1030-79,  In.str.,  474-97; 
Duchesne,  Fastes  Episc.opaux;  Puiggari,  Catalogue.  Biographique 
des  eviguee  d' ElneiPerpignaa,  1842) ;  Gazanyola,  Histoire  du  Rous- 


PERRAUD 


701 


PERRAULT 


sillon  (Perpignan,  18.57) ;  de  Babtii^lemy,  Etudes  sur  Us  etablis- 
semenls  monastiques  du  Roiissillond'uris,  1857) ;  ToLRA  DE  BoRDAS, 
L'ordre  de  Saint  Francois  rfMssi.se  en  Roussillon,  fragments  et  recits 
sur  I'histoire  ecclesiastique  du  diocese  d'Elne  {Paris,  1884);  Bru- 
TAILS,  Etude  sur  Veselamge  en  RoussUlon  du  XII'  au  X  VII'  siiele 
(Paris,  1886);  Idem.  Monographie  de  la  Cathedrale  et  du  Clollre 
d'Elne  (Perpignan,  1887) ;  Toreilles,  Perpignan  pendant  la  Revo- 
lution (3  vols.,  1896-97):  Borrallo,  Promenades  archeologiques; 
Elne  et  sa  cathedrale  (Perpignan,  1909);  de  Beaulieu,  Les  Sanc- 
tuairesdela  Viirge  en  RoussUlon  (2  vols.,  Perpignan,  1903-04). 

Georges  Goyau. 

University  of  Perpignan.— Peter  IV  of  Aragon 
(1.327-87),  having  conquered  (1344)  the  town  of  Per- 
pignan and  reunited  to  his  estates  the  Kingdom  of 
Majorca,  of  which  Perpignan  was  the  capital,  com- 
pensated that  city  for  its  loss  of  power  by  founding, 
at  the  request  of  the  magistrates,  20  March,  1349,  the 
University  of  Perpignan,  for  the  teaching  of  civil 
and  canon  law,  and  other  arts  and  sciences.  In  the 
charter  he  praised  "the  deep  learning  of  the  pro- 
fessors of  Perpignan".  By  the  Bull  of  28  November, 
1379,  the  antipope  Clement  VII  confirmed  the  foun- 
dation and  privileges,  and  the  university,  in  a  petition 
addressed  to  him  in  1393,  declared  him  its  founder: 
"Pater  et  Genitor".  In  1381  John  I,  son  of  Peter  IV, 
granted  permission  to  the  city  authorities  to  build  the 
university  near  the  royal  castle.  The  institution 
spread  in  Perpignan  an  atmosphere  of  learning,  the 
study  of  law  being  specially  developed.  Theology 
was  taught  there  during  the  first  years  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  but  it  was  not  until  21  July,  1447,  that 
the  faculty  of  theology  was  created  by  a  Bull  of 
Nicholas  V  and  it  did  not  receive  its  statutes  until 
1459.    The  university  disappeared  in  1793. 

Rashdall,  Universities,  I  ((Jxford.  1895),  90;  Focrnier, 
StatutsJes  Universites  fran,:aises,  II  (Paris.  1891),  651-716;  Deni- 
ple.  Die  Entstehung  der  Unirersitaten,  I  (Berlin,  1885),  515-17; 
ViDAL,  Histoire  de  la  ville  de  Perpignan  (Paris,  1897). 

Georges  Goyau. 

Perraud,  Adolphe,  cardinal  and  academician;  b. 
at  Lyons,  France,  7  Feb.,  1828;  d.  18  Feb.,  1906.  He 
had  a  brilliant  career  at  the  lycees  Henri  IV  and  St. 
Louis,  and  entered  the  Ecole  normale,  where  he  was 
strongly  influenced  by  Gratry.  In  1850  he  secured 
the  fellowship  of  history  and  for  two  years  he  taught 
at  the  lyc^e  of  Angers.  In  1852  he  abandoned  teach- 
ing to  embrace  the  sacerdotal  state.  He  returned  to 
Paris  where  he  joined  the  Oratory  which  was  then 
being  reorganized  by  Gratry  and  Abb6  Pet^tot,  cure; 
of  St.  Roch.  On  his  ordination  in  1855  after  a  sojourn 
at  Rome  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history  and 
prefect  of  religion  at  the  petit  seminaire  of  St.  L6 
which  had  just  been  confided  to  the  Oratory.  At  the 
same  time  he  devoted  himself  to  preaching,  for  which 
purpose  he  was  recalled  to  Paris.  In  1860  he  visited 
Ireland,  after  which  he  wrote  "Contemporary  Ire- 
land" (1862).  In  1865  he  defended  a  theological 
thesis  at  the  Sorbonne,  where  in  1866  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  ecclesiastical  history  and  dealt  brilliantly 
with  the  history  of  Protestantism.  He  was  appointed 
(1870)  by  E.  OUivier  a  member  of  the  Committee  of 
Higher  Education.  In  1870  he  was  a  chaplain  in 
MacMahon's  army,  and  after  the  war  preached  at 
St.  Philippe  du  Roub  and  at  St.  Augustine.  Made 
Bishop  of  Autun  in  1874  despite  his  liberal  tendencies, 
he  interested  himself  especially  in  working-men.  After 
the  catastrophe  of  Montceau  les  mines,  in  which 
twenty-two  miners  perished,  he  preached  the  funeral 
sermon;  he  gave  several  Lenten  courses  in  his  cathe- 
dral and  preached  the  funeral  sermons  of  Cardinal 
Guibert,  Cardinal  Lavigerie,  and  MacMahon.  He 
was  actively  concerned  in  the  improvement  of  clerical 
studies  in  which  connexion  his  sermon  (1879)  on  "the 
Church  and  light"  caused  a  great  sensation;  after 
the  Congress  of  Brussels  (1894)  he  was  named  hon- 
orary president  of  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement 
of  Higher  Studies  among  the  Clergy.  Elected  to  the 
French  Academy  in  1882  to  replace  Barbier,  in  1885 
he  welcomed  Duruy  and  in  1889  delivered  the  dis- 


course on  the  prizes  of  -irtue.  Having  been  superior- 
general  of  the  Oratory  from  1884,  he  resigned  in  1901 
in  order  not  to  sign  the  request  for  authorization  of 
his  congregation.  He  was  created  cardinal  in  petto, 
16  Jan.,  1893,  the  creation  being  published  at  the 
Consistory  of  1895.  At  the  conclave  of  1903  he  ener- 
getically opposed  the  movement  of  exclusion  directed 
against  Rampolla  by  Puczina,  Archbishop  of  Cracow, 
in  the  name  of  the  Austrian  Government.  His  works 
consist  of  the  "Etudes  sur  I'lrlande  contemporaine" 
(Paris,  1862);  "L'Oratoire  de  France  au  XVIIe 
siecle"  (1865);  "Paroles  de  I'heure  presente"  (1872); 
"Le  Cardinal  de  Richeheu"  (1872);  also  oratorical 
works. 

Baudrillart,  Le  Cardinal  Perraud  in  Le  Correspondant  (25 
Feb.,  1906);  Mathieu,  Discours  de  riception  a  V Academic 
Frantaise  (5  Feb.,  1907);    Chauvin,  L'Oratoire. 

J.  Lataste. 

Perrault,  Charles,  writer,  b.  in  Paris,  12  Jan., 
1628;  d.  16  May,  1703.  His  first  literary  attempts 
were  a  parody  of  the  sixth  book  of  Virgil's  ^Eneid,  and 
a  short  poem,  "Les  Ruines  de  Troie  ou  I'Origine  du 
Burlesque."  After  being  a  lawyer  for  some  time,  he 
was  appointed  chief  clerk  in  the  king's  building,  su- 
perintendent's office  (1664).  He  suggested  to  his 
brother  Claude,  an  architect,  to  build  the  Louvre's 
colonnade,  and  induced  Colbert  to  establish  a  fund 
called  Liste  des  Bienfaits  du  Rni,  to  give  pensions  to 
writers  and  savants  not  only  in  France  but  in  Europe. 
He  took  part  in  the  creation  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences as  well  as  the  restoration  of  the  Academy  of 
Painting.  When  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and 
Belles-Lettres  was  founded  by  Colbert  (1663),  he  was 
made  secretary  for  life.  Having  written  but  a  few 
poems,  he  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy  in  1671, 
and  on  the  day  of  his  inauguration  he  caused  the  pub- 
lic to  be  admitted  to  the  meeting,  a  privilege  that  has 
ever  since  been  continued.  As  a  poet,  he  attempted  to 
revive  the  old  epic,  adapting  it  to  a  Christian  subject, 
in  "Saint-Pauhn"  (1686).  His  preface  to  "Le  siecle 
de  Louis  le  Grand",  soon  followed  by  "Parallele  des 
Anciens  et  des  Modernes",  started  the  famous  literary 
quarrel  of  Ancients  and  Moderns,  which  led  to  endless 
controversy  with  Boileau;  he  stood  for  the  Moderns, 
while  Bossuet,  Fenelon,  and  Boileau  fought  for  the  An- 
cients. All  his  literary  productions  were  surpassed  by 
a  little  masterpiece  that  gave  him  a  lasting  popularity: 
"Contes  de  ma  Mere  I'Oye,  ou  Histoires  du  temps 
passe"  (1697),  a  collection  of  fairy  tales  which,  while 
displaying  no  special  originality,  were  treated  in  a  very 
skilful  manner.  His  complete  works  were  published  in 
Paris,  1697-98,  in  one  volume. 

Memoires  (Paris,  17.59);  Giracd,  Lettre  critique  (Paris,  1864); 
Barine  in  Reviie  des  Deux  Mondes  (Dec,  1890) ;  Bruneti£;re, 
Manuel  de  I'histoire  de  la  litterature  frant;aise  (Paris,  1899). 

Louis  N.  Delamarre. 

Perrault,  Claude,  b.  at  Paris,  1613;  d.  there, 
1688.  He  built  the  main  eastern  fagade  of  the  Louvre, 
known  as  the  "Colonnade".  His  extraordinary  talent 
and  versatility  brought  up  on  him  much  enmity  and 
detraction,  especially  in  his  architectural  work.  He 
achieved  success  as  physician  and  anatomist,  as  archi- 
tect and  author.  As  physician  and  physicist,  he  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  doctor  from  the  University  of 
Paris,  became  one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  foumlod  in  Kiliti,  and  rcjicalcdly  won  prizes 
for  his  thorough  knowledge  <]f  i)liy.sic.s  :ind  chemistry. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  series  of  treat  ises  on  physics 
and  zoology,  as  well  as  on  certain  interesting  machines 
of  his  own  invention. 

Colbert  induced  him  to  translate  Vitruvius,  and 
this  work  inspired  him  with  oiitliusiasm  for  architec- 
ture. Like  his  contemporary,  Blondel,  he  contributed 
to  revive  the  feeling  for  the  rules  and  principles  in 
architecture.  His  Vitruvius  with  a  good  commentary 
and  tables  appeared  in  1673,  and  an  epitome  of  it  in 
1674.    The  same  aims-were  pursued  in  his  "Ordon- 


PERRETVE 


702 


PERRV 


nance  dea  cinq  espSces  des  colonnes  selon  la  m^thode 
dps  anriens"  (1683).  Perrault's  architectural  draw- 
iiiiis  are  regarded  as  excellent  jjieces  of  work;  before 
the  burning  of  the  Louvre  in  1871  there  were  pre- 
served there,  besides  his  drawings  for  the  Vitruvius, 
two  folio  vohunes  containing  among  other  things  the 
designs  for  tlie  Louvre,  whioli  had  been  published  by 
the  master's  brother,  Charles  Perrault. 

In  his  completed  buildings,  much  fault  is  found, 
e.  g.  in  the  Oliservatoire,  the  astronomical  observatory 
of  Paris,  although  in  certain  parts  we  find  traces  of  his 
later  mastery.  Perraiilt's  design  for  a  triumphal  arch 
on  Rue  St-.Vntoine  was  preferred  to  the  designs  of 
Lebnm  and  Leveau,  but  was  only  partly  executed  in 
stone.  When  the  arch  was  taken  down,  it  was  found 
that  the  ingenious  master  had  devised  a  means  of  so 
vmiting  the  stones  without  the  use  of  mortar  that  it 
had  become  an  inseparable  mass.  In  the  competi- 
tion for  the  colonnade  of  the  Louvre  he  was  suc- 
cessful over  all  rivals,  even  Bernini,  who  had  been 
summoned  from  Italy  expressly  for  that  purpose. 
This  work  claimed  his  attention  from  1665  to  1680, 
and  established  his  reputation.  He  was  required  to 
demonstrate  the  feasibility  of  his  plans  by  construct- 
ing a  model.  Perrault  is  reproached  with  lacking  in 
consideration  for  the  work  of  his  predecessors,  and 
with  positively  depreciating  the  same.  The  whole 
palace  could  not  be  completed  at  the  time,  but  the 
colonnade  became  widely  celebrated.  The  simple 
character  of  the  ground  floor  sets  off  the  Corinthian 
columns,  modelled  strictly  according  to  Vitruvius, 
and  coupled  on  a  plan  which  Perrault  himself  devised. 
Perrault  built  the  church  of  St-BenoH-le-B(5tourne, 
designed  a  new  church  of  Ste-Genevieve,  and  erected 
an  altar  in  the  Church  of  the  Little  Fathers,  all  in 
Paris. 

Berty,  Les  grands  architectes  fran^ais   (ParLs.   I860):  L.vNOE, 
Diet,  des  archileeles  franQais  (Paris.  1873):  von  Geymuller,  Die 
Baukunst  der  Reruiissance  in  Frankreich  (Stuttgart,  1898-1901). 
G.  GlETM.\NN. 

Porreyve,  Henri,  b.  at  Paris,  11  April,  1831;  d. 
there,  18  June,  186.5.  His  father  was  professor  at  the 
Facult6  de  Droit.  He  received  his  classical  education 
at  the  College  .'-Jaint-Louis.  .According  to  his  father's 
wish  he  studied  law,  but  having  finished  his  legal 
course  he  studied  jjhilosophy  and  theology.  He  then 
became  closely  united  with  Charles  and  .\dolphe,  later 
Cardinal  Perraud,  and  this  small  group  with  Father 
Gratry,  under  the  guidance  of  Father  P<5t(5tol,  began 
the  restoration  of  the  Oratory  in  France.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  in  18.58,  appointed  chaplain  to  the  Lyc6e 
Saint-Louis  in  1860,  and  one  year  later  was  called  to 
the  professorship  of  ecclesiastical  history  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  For  some  time  he  was  forced  by  illness  to 
abandon  his  lectures. 

He  had  been  united  in  intimate  friendship  with  the 
great  Catholic  leaders  of  the  time  in  France,  including 
Ozanam,  Montalenibert,  Cochin,  and  especially  La- 
cordaire.  By  his  kind  and  affectionate  nature  Per- 
reyve  exercised  a  great  influence  on  those  around  him, 
especially  on  young  men. 

Among  his  works  were:  "De  la  critique  des  Evan- 
giles"  (Paris,  18.59);  "Entretiens  sur  I'Eglise  catho- 
lique"  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1901); "  La  Journce  desmalades" 
(Paris,  1908);  "Biographies  et  panegyriques"  (Paris, 
1907);  ".Souvenirs  de  premiere  communion"  (Paris, 
1899);  "Sermons"  (Paris,  1901);  "Deux  roses  et  deux 
Noels"  (Paris,  1907);  " Meditations  sur  I'Evangile  de 
Saint  Jean"  (Paris,  1907);  "Meditations  sur  les  saints 
ordres"  (Paris,  1901).  Some  of  his  letters  have  also 
been  published  in  book  form. 

Gratry.  Henri  Perreyve  (London,  1872) ;  Bernard,  Les  derniers 
jours  deVabblPerreyve.  GeorGE   M.   SaUVAGE. 

Perrone,  Giovanni,  Jesuit  theologian,  b.  at  Chieri, 
Italy,  11  March,  1794  ;  d.  at  Rome,  28  Aug.,  1876. 
After  studying    theology   and  obtaining    the    doc- 


torate at  Turin,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  on  14 
December,  1815.  The  Society  hafl  been  re-cstablislied 
by  Pius  Vll  only  a  year  Ix'forc,  and  Perrone  w.as  very 
soon  appointed  to  teach  theology  at  Orvieto.  A  few 
years  later  he  was  uv.ulr  profrs^iw  of  dogmatic  theol- 
ogv  in  the  Ronuui  College,  and  held  this  post  till  the 
Roman  Rei'ublic  of  1S4S  forced  him  to  .-^eek  refuge  in 
England,  .\ftcr  an  exile  of  three  years,  I'errone  again 
took  the  chair  of  dogma  in  the  Roman  College,  .and, 
exi'cpting  the  years  of  his  rectonshij)  at  I'errara,  t.aught 
theology  till  prevented  by  old  age.  He  was  consultor 
of  various  congregations  and  was  active  in  oppo.sing 
the  errors  of  George  Hermes,  as  well  as  in  the?  discus- 
sions which  ended  in  the  dogmatic  definition  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  (cf.  "Annali  delle  scienze  re- 
ligiose", VII).  Of  Perrone's  niiiny  writings,  the  most 
important  is  the  "Pra^lectiones  Theologica;",  which 
has  reached  a  thirty-fourth  edition  in  nine  volumes. 
The  compendium  which  Perrone  made  of  this  work 
has  reached  its  forty-seventh  edition  in  two  vohmies. 
His  complete  theological  lectures  were  published  in 
French  and  have  run  through  several  eilitions;  por- 
tions have  been  translati'd  into  Spanish.  I'oli.sh,  Ger- 
man, Dutch,  and  other  huiguages.  ,'>onuiiervogel 
mentions  forty-four  difl'rreiit  works  by  this  great  fel- 
low-professor of  Passaglia  and  Franzelin  in  the  Roman 
College. 

SoMMERVOGEL,  BihHothkque  de  la  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  VI,  558- 
571;   HuRTER  in  Kirchentexikon,  s.  v. 

Walter  Drum. 

Perry,  Stephen  Joseph,  b.  in  London,  26  August, 
1833;  d.  27  Dec,  1889.  He  belonged  to  a  well-known 
Catholic  family.  His  schooling  was  first  at  Gifford 
Hall,  and  then  at  the  Benedictine  College,  Douai, 
whence  he  proceeded  to  Rome  to  study  for  the  priest- 
hood. Ha\'ing  resolved  to  enter  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
he  made  his  noxili.ite  (1853-5)  first  at  Hodder,  and 
then  at  Bi'aumont  Lodge,  after  which  he  pursued  his 
studies  at  St.  Acheul,  near  Amiens,  and  at  Stonyhurst. 
In  consequence  of  his  marked  bent  for  mathematics, 
he  was  sent  to  attend  the  lectures  of  Professor  De 
Morgan,  in  London,  and  those  of  Bertrand,  Lionville, 
Delaunay,  Cauehy,  and  .Serret,  in  Paris.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1860  he  was  recalled  to  .Stonyhurst  to  teach 
physics  and  mathematics,  likewise  taking  charge  of 
the  observatory. 

In  1863  he  commenced  his  theological  studies  at  St. 
Beuno's,  N.  Wales,  and  was  ordained  in  1866.  He  re- 
sumed his  former  duties  at  Stonyhurst,  which  during 
the  rest  of  his  life  were  uninterrupted,  save  by  special 
scientific  engagements.  In  company  with  Fr.  Walter 
Sidgreaves,  he  made  magnetic  surveys,  in  1868  of 
Western,  in  1869  of  Eastern,  France,  and  in  1871  of 
Belgium.  In  1870  he  went  in  charge  of  a  government 
expedition  to  observe  a  solar  eclipse  at  Cadiz;  at  Car- 
riacou  (West  Indies)  in  1886;  at  Moscow  in  1,S87;  and 
at  the  .Salut  Islands  in  1889,  on  which  journey  he  lost 
his  life. 

In  1874  he  headed  a  party  similarly  sent  to  Kergue- 
len  in  the  South  Indian  Ocean,  to  observe  a  transit  of 
Venus,  when  he  also  took  a  scries  of  observations  to 
determine  the  absolute  longitude  of  the  place,  and 
others  for  the  magnetic  elements,  not  only  at  Ker- 
guelen  itself,  but,  on  his  way  to  and  fro,  at  the  Cape, 
Bombay,  Aden,  Port  .Said,  Malta,  Palermo,  Rome, 
Naples,  Florence,  and  Moncalieri.  He  likewise  drew 
up  a  Blue-book  on  the  climate  of  "The  Isle  of  Desola- 
tion", as  Kerguelen  was  called  by  Capt.ain  Cook. 

In  1882  he  went  again  with  W.  .Sidgreaves,  to  ob- 
serve a  similar  transit  in  Mad.-igascar,  and  he  again 
took  advantage  of  the  occasion  for  magnetic  puri)Ose3. 
In  1874  he  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

At  Stonyhurst,  while  he  greatly  developed  the 
meteorological  work  of  llie  observatory,  an<l  in  the 
province  of  astronomy  made  frequent  observations  of 
Jupiter's  s.atellites,  of  stellar  oecullations,  of  comets, 
and  of  meteorites,  it  was  in  the  department  of  solar 


PERSECUTION 


703 


PERSECUTION 


physics  that  he  specially  labouretl,  particular  atten- 
tion being  paid  to  spots  and  faculx-.  For  observation 
in  illustration  of  these  an  ingenious  method  was  de- 
vised and  patiently  pursued.  Father  Perry  was,  more- 
over, much  in  request  as  a  lecturer.  He  died  while 
actually  performing  the  duty  assigned  him  in  conduct- 
ing an  eclipse  expedition  in  the  pestilential  group  mis- 
named the  "Isles  de  Salut".  The  observation  on  this 
occasion  was  exceedingly  successful,  and  Father 
Perry,  though  already  severely  indisposed,  managed  to 
perform  his  part  without  interruption.  As  soon  as  it 
was  over,  however,  he  became  alarmingly  worse,  and 
having  got  on  board  H.M.S.  "Comus",  which  had 
been  detailed  for  the  service,  he  died  at  sea  five  days 
later,  27  Dec,  1889.  He  was  buried  in  the  Catholic 
cemetery  at  Georgetown,  Demerara. 

An  account  of  his  life  and  scientific  works  by  Cortie  is  pub- 
lished by  the  Catholic  Truth  Society. 

John  Gerard. 

Persecution. — General. — Persecution  may  be 
defined  in  general  as  the  unlawful  coercion  of  another's 
liberty  or  his  unlawful  punishment,  for  not  every 
kind  of  punishment  can  be  regarded  as  persecution. 
For  our  purpose  it  must  be  still  further  limited  to  the 
sphere  of  religion,  and  in  that  sense  persecution  means 
unlawful  coercion  or  punishment  for  religion's  sake. 

The  Church  has  suffered  many  kinds  of  persecution. 
The  growth  and  the  continued  existence  of  Christian- 
itj'  have  been  hindered  by  cultured  paganism  and  by 
savage  heathenism.  And  in  more  recent  times  agnos- 
ticism has  harassed  the  Church  in  the  various  states 
of  America  and  Europe.  But  most  deplorable  of  all 
persecutions  have  been  those  that  Catholicism  has 
suffered  from  other  Christians.  With  regard  to  these 
it  has  to  be  considered  that  the  Church  herself  has  aj)- 
pealed  to  force,  and  that,  not  only  in  her  own  defence, 
but  also,  so  it  is  objected,  in  unprovoked  attack.  Thus 
by  means  of  the  Inquisition  (q.  v.)  or  religious  wars 
she  was  herself  the  aggressor  in  many  instances  dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages  and  in  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. And  even  if  the  answer  be  urged  that  she  was 
only  defending  her  own  existence,  the  retort  seems 
fairly  plausible  that  pagan  and  heathen  powers  were 
only  acting  in  their  own  defence  when  they  prohibited 
the  spread  of  Christianity.  The  Church  would  there- 
fore seem  to  be  strangely  inconsistent,  for  while  she 
claims  toleration  and  liberty  for  herself  she  has  been 
and  still  remains  intolerant  of  all  other  religions. 

In  answer  to  this  objection,  we  may  admit  the  fact 
and  yet  deny  the  conclusion.  The  Church  claims  to 
carry  a  message  or  rather  a  command  from  God  and 
to  be  God's  only  messenger.  In  point  of  fact  it  is  only 
within  recent  years,  when  toleration  is  supposed  to 
have  become  a  dogma,  that  the  other  "  champions 
of  Revelation  "  have  abandoned  their  similar  claims. 
That  they  should  abandon  their  right  to  command 
allegiance  is  a  natural  consequence  of  Protestantism ; 
whereas  it  is  the  Church's  claim  to  be  the  accredited 
and  infallible  ambassador  of  God  which  justifies  her 
apiiarent  inc(  insistency.  Such  intolerance,  however,  is 
not  the  same  as  persecution,  by  which  we  understand 
the  unlawful  exercise  of  coercion.  Every  corporation 
lawfully  constituted  has  the  right  to  coerce  its  subjects 
within  due  limits.  And  though  the  Church  exercises 
that  right  for  the  most  part  by  spiritual  sanctions, 
she  lias  never  relinquished  the  right  to  use  other 
means.  Before  examining  this  latter  right  to  physical 
coercion,  there  must  be  introduced  the  important  dis- 
tinction between  pagans  and  Christians.  Regularly, 
force  has  not  been  employed  against  pagan  or  Jew: 
"For  what  have  I  to  do  to  judge  them  that  are  with- 
out?" (I  Cor.,  V,  12);  see  Jews  and  Judaism:  Jwla- 
ism  and  Church  Legislation. 

Instances  of  compulsory  conversions  such  as  have 
occurred  at  different  periods  of  the  Church's  history 
must  be  ascribed  to  the  misplaced  zeal  of  autocratic 


individuals.  But  the  Church  does  claim  the  right  to 
coerce  her  own  subjects.  Here  again,  however,  a  dis- 
tinction must  be  made.  The  non-Catholic  Christians 
of  our  day  are,  strictly  speaking,  her  subjects;  but  in 
her  legislation  she  treats  them  as  if  they  were  not  her 
subjects.  The  "Ne  temere",  e.  g.,  of  Pius  X  (1907), 
recognizes  the  marriages  of  Protestants  as  valid, 
though  not  contracted  according  to  Catholic  condi- 
tions: and  the  laws  of  abstinence  are  not  considered 
to  be  binding  on  Protestants.  So,  with  regard  to  her 
right  to  use  coercion,  the  Church  only  exercises  her 
authority  over  those  whom  she  considers  personally 
and  formally  apostates.  A  modern  Protestant  is  not 
in  the  same  category  with  the  Albigenses  or  Wyclif- 
ites.  These  were  held  to  be  personally  responsible  for 
their  apostasy;  and  the  Church  enforced  her  authority 
over  them.  It  is  true  that  in  many  cases  the  heretics 
were  rebels  against  the  State  also;  but  the  Church's 
claim  to  e.xercise  coercion  is  not  confined  to  such  cases 
of  social  disorder.  And  what  is  more,  her  purpose  was 
not  only  to  protect  the  faith  of  the  orthodox,  but  also 
to  punish  the  apostates.  Formal  apostasy  was  then 
looked  upon  as  treason  against  God — a  much  more 
heinous  crime  than  treason  against  a  civil  ruler,  which, 
until  recent  times,  was  punished  with  great  severity. 
(See  Apostasy;  Heresy.)  It  was  a  poisoning  of  the 
life  of  the  soul  in  others  (St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  II-II, 
Q.  xi,  articles  3,  4.) 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  Church 
claimed  the  right  to  use  physical  coercion  against 
formal  apostates.  Not,  of  course,  that  she  would  exer- 
cise her  authority  in  the  same  way  to-day,  even  if 
there  were  a  Catholic  State  in  which  other  Christians 
were  personally  and  formally  apostates.  She  adapts 
her  discipline  to  the  times  and  circumstances  in  order 
that  it  may  fulfil  its  salutary  purpose.  Her  own  cltil- 
dren  are  not  punished  by  fines,  imprisonment,  or  other 
temporal  punishments,  but  by  spiritual  pains  and 
penalties,  and  heretics  are  treated  as  she  treated 
pagans  :  "Fides  suadenda  est,  non  imponenda" 
(Faith  is  a  matter  of  persuasion,  not  of  compulsion) — 
a  sentiment  that  goes  back  to  St.  Basil  ("Revue  de 
I'Orient  Chraicn",  2nd  series,  XIV,  1909,  38)  and  to 
St.  Ambrose,  in  the  fourth  century,  the  latter  applying 
it  even  to  the  treatment  of  formal  apostates.  It  must 
also  be  remembered  that  when  she  did  use  her  right  to 
exercise  physical  coercion  over  formal  apostates,  that 
right  was  then  universally  admitted.  Churchmen  had 
naturally  the  ideas  of  their  time  as  to  why  and  how 
penalties  should  be  inflicted.  Withal,  the  Roman  In- 
quisition (q.  V.)  was  very  different  from  that  of  Spain, 
and  the  popes  did  not  approve  the  harsh  proceedings 
of  the  latter.  Moreover,  such  ideas  of  physical  coer- 
cion in  matters  spiritual  were  not  peculiar  to  Catholics 
(see  Toleration).  The  Reformers  were  not  less,  but, 
if  anything,  more,  intolerant  (see  Inquisition).  1/ 
the  intolerance  of  Churchmen  is  blamable,  then  that 
of  the  Reformers  is  doubly  so.  From  their  own  stand- 
point, it  was  unjustifiable.  First,  they  were  in  revolt 
against  the  e.st.alilished  authority  of  the  Church,  and 
secondly  they  could  hardly  use  force  to  compel  the 
unwilling  to  conform  to  their  own  principle  of  private 
judgment.  With  this  clear  demarcation  of  the  Re- 
former's private  judgment  from  the  Catholic's  author- 
ity, it  hardly  serves  our  purpose  to  estimate  the  rela- 
tive violence  of  Catholic  and  Protestant  Governments 
during  the  times  of  the  Rcforiiiution.  And  yet  it  is 
well  to  remember  that  the  methods  of  the  maligned 
Inquisition  in  Spain  and  Italy  were  far  less  destructive 
of  life  than  the  religious  wars  of  France  and  Germany. 
What  is,  however,  more  to  our  purpose  is  to  notice  the 
outspoken  intolerance  of  the  Protestant  leaders;  for 
it  gave  an  additional  right  to  the  Church  to  appeal  to 
force.  She  was  punishing  her  defaulting  subjects  and 
at  the  same  time  defending  herself  against  their  at- 
tacks. 

Such  compulsion,  therefore,  as  is  used  by  legitimate 


PERSECUTION 


704 


PERSECUTION 


authority  cannot  be  called  persecution,  nor  can  its 
victims  be  called  martyrs.  It  is  not  enough  that  those 
who  are  condemned  to  death  should  be  suffering  for 
their  religious  opiniims.  A  martyr  is  a  witness  to  the 
truth;  whereas  those  who  suffered  the  extreme  pen- 
alty of  the  Churcli  were  at  the  iiiosi  the  uitiii'sscs  to 
their  own  sincerity,  and  therefore  uiilKii)pily  i\o  more 
than  pseudo-martyrs.  We  need  not  dwell  upon  the 
second  objection  which  ))reteiid-;  that  ii  |>:it;:iii  govern- 
ment might  be  justified  in  harassing  Christian  mi.ssion- 
aries  in  so  far  as  it  considered  Christianity  to  be 
subversive  of  estaliUslied  authority.  The  Christian 
revelation  is  the  supernatural  message  of  the  Creator 
to  His  creatures,  to  which  tliere  can  be  no  lawful  resist- 
ance. Its  missioiuuies  have  the  right  and  the  duty 
to  preach  it  everywhere.  They  who  die  in  the  propa- 
gation or  maintenance  of  the  Gospel  are  God's  wit- 
nesses to  the  truth,  suffering  persecution  for  His  sake. 

Std.ney  Smith.  The  Pope  and  the  SpanUh  Inquisition  in  The 
Month,  LXXIV  (1892).  375-99;  cf.  Dublin  Review,  LXI  (1807), 
177-78;  KoHLER,  Reform  und  Ketzerprocess  (Tiiljingen,  1901); 
Camct.  La  Tolerance  protestante  (Paris,  1903) :  Russell.  Mary- 
land; The  Land  of  Sanctuary  (Baltimore.  1907);  Paulus,  Zu 
Lathers  These  iiber  die  Ketzerverbrennung  in  Hist.  Polit.  Blatter, 
CXL  (1908).  357-67;  Moulard,  Le  Catholique  et  le  pouvoir 
coercitif  de  VEglise  in  Revue  pratique  de  VApologUique,  VI  (1908), 
721-36;  Keatin'O,  Intolerance,  Persecution,  and  Proselytism  in 
The  Month,  CXIII  (1909).  312-22;  de  Cadzous,  Histoire  de  fln- 
Quisition  en  France,  I  (Paris,  1909). 

Outline  of  Principal  Persecutions. — The  brief 
outline  here  given  of  persecutions  directed  against  the 
Church  follows  the  chronological  order,  and  is  scarcely 
more  than  a  catalogue  of  the  principal  formal  and 
public  onslaughts  against  Catholicism.  Nor  does  it 
take  into  account  other  forms  of  attack,  e.  g.,  literary 
and  social  persecution,  some  form  of  suffering  for 
Christ's  sake  being  a  sure  note  of  the  True  Church 
(John,  x\-,  20;  II  Tim.,  iii,  12;  Matt.,  x,  23).  For  a 
popular  general  account  of  persecutions  of  Catholics 
previous  to  the  nineteenth  century  see  Leclercq,  "Les 
Martyrs"  (5  vols.,  Paris,  1902-09). 

Roman  Persecutions  {52-312).  The  persecutions  of 
this  period  are  treated  extensively  under  Martyr. 
See  also  Martyrs,  Acts  of  the,  and  the  articles  on 
individual  martyrs  or  groups  of  martyrs  (Martyrs, 
The  Ten  Thousand;  Forty  Marty-rs;  Aqaunum, 
for  the  Theban  Legion).  An  exhaustive  and  reliable 
work  is  Allard,  "Les  Persdcutions "  (5  vols.,  Paris, 
1885);  also  his  "Ten  Lectures  on  the  Martyrs"  (New 
York,  1907);  and  for  an  exhaustive  hterature  see 
Healy,  "The  Valerian  Persecution"  (Boston). 

Under  Julian  the  Apostate  (.361-63). — Constantine'a 
edict  of  toleration  had  accelerated  the  final  triumph 
of  Christianity.  But  the  extreme  measures  passed 
against  the  ancient  religion  of  the  empire,  and  espe- 
cially by  Constans,  even  though  they  were  not  strictly 
carried  out,  roused  considerable  opposition.  And 
when  Julian  the  Apostate  (361-63)  came  to  the  throne, 
he  supported  the  defenders  of  paganism,  though  he 
strove  to  strengthen  the  old  religion  by  recommending 
works  of  charity  and  a  priesthood  of  strictly  moral 
lives  which,  a  thing  unheard  of,  should  preach  and  in- 
struct. State  protection  was  withdrawn  from  Chris- 
tianity, and  no  section  of  the  Church  favoured  more 
than  another,  so  that  the  Donatists  and  Arians  were 
enabled  to  return. 

All  the  privileges  formerly  granted  to  clerics  were 
repealed;  civil  jurisdiction  taken  from  the  bishops, 
and  the  subsidies  to  widows  and  virgins  stopped. 
Higher  education,  also,  was  taken  out  of  the  hands  of 
Christians  by  the  prohibition  of  anyone  who  was  not  a 
pagan  from  teaching  classical  literature.  And  finally, 
the  tombs  of  martyrs  were  destroyed.  The  emperor 
was  afraid  to  proceed  to  diret^  persecution,  but  he 
fomented  the  dissensions  among  the  Christians,  and 
he  tolerated  and  even  encouraged  the  persecutions 
raised  by  pagan  commimities  and  governors,  espe- 
cially in  Alexandria,  Heliopolis,  Maiouma,  the  port  of 
Gaza,  Antioch,  Arethusa,  and  Caisarea  in  Cappadocia 


(cf.  Gergory  of  Nazianzus,  Orat.  IV,  86-95;  P.  G.. 
XXXV,  613-28).  Many,  in  different  places,  suffered 
and  even  died  for  the  Faith,  though  another  pretext 
was  found  for  their  death,  at  least  by  the  emperor. 
Of  the  martyrs  of  this  period  mention  may  be  made 
of  John  and  Paul  (q.  v.),  who  suffered  in  Rome;  the 
soldiers  Juventinus  and  Maximian  (cf.  St.  John  Chry- 
Bostom's  sermon  on  them  in  P.  G.,  L,  571-77);  Mace- 
donius,  Tatian,  and  Theodulus  of  Meros  in  Phrygia 
(Socrates,  III,  15;  Sozomen,  V,  U);  Basil,  a  priest  of 
Ancyra  (Sozomen,  V,  11).  Julian  himself  seems  to 
have  ordered  the  executions  of  John  and  Paul,  the 
steward  and  secretary  respectively  of  Constantia, 
daughter  of  Constantine.  However,  he  reigned  only 
for  two  years,  and  his  persecution  was,  in  the  words  of 
St.  Athanasius,  "but  a  passing  cloud". 

Sozomen,  Hist.  Eccl.,  V,  11;  Socrates.  Ill,  15;  Ammianus 
MAHcELLiNns,  XXI-XXV;  Tillemont.  Mfmoires,  VII.  322-43; 
717-45;  Leclercq,  Les  Martyrs,  III  (Paris,  1904);  Allard,  Le 
Christianisme  et  I'empire  romain  de  Niron  d  Theodore  (Paris, 
1897),  224-31;  Idem,  Julien  VApostat,  III.  ,52-102;  152-158  (Paris, 
1903);  Duchesne,  Histoire  ancienne  de  VEglise,  II  (Paris,  1907), 
328-35. 

In  Persia. — When  the  persecution  of  Christianity 
was  abandoned  by  the  Roman  Government,  it  was 
taken  up  by  Rome's  traditional  enemy,  the  Persians, 
though  formerly  they  had  been  more  or  less  tolerant 
of  the  new  religion.  On  the  outbreak  of  war  betv/een 
the  two  empires.  Sapor  II  (310-80),  under  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  Persian  priests,  initiated  a  severe  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians  in  339  or  340.  It  comprised  the 
destruction  or  confiscation  of  churches  and  a  general 
massacre,  especially  of  bishops  and  priests.  The  num- 
ber of  victims,  according  to  Sozomen  (Hist.  Eccl.,  II, 
9-14),  was  no  less  than  16,0(J0,  among  them  being 
Symeon,  Bishop  of  Seleucia;  there  was  a  respite  from 
the  general  persecution,  but  it  was  resumed  and  with 
still  greater  violence  by  Bahrain  V  (420-38),  who  per- 
secuted savagely  for  one  year,  and  was  not  prevented 
from  causing  numerous  individual  martyrdoms  by  the 
treaty  he  made  (422)  with  Theodosius  II,  guarantee- 
ing liberty  of  conscience  to  the  Christians.  Yezdegerd 
II  (438-57),  his  successor,  began  a  fierce  persecution 
in  445  or  446,  traces  of  which  are  found  shortly  be- 
fore 450.  The  persecution  of  Chosroes  I  from  541  to 
545  was  directed  chiefly  against  the  bishops  and 
clergy.  He  also  destroyed  churches  and  monasteries 
and  imprisoned  Persian  noblemen  who  had  become 
Christians.  The  last  persecution  by  Persian  kings 
was  that  of  Chosroes  II  (590-628),  who  made  war  on 
all  Christians  alike  during  627  and  628.  Speaking 
generally,  the  dangerous  time  for  the  Church  in  Persia 
was  when  the  kings  were  at  war  with  the  Roman 
Empire. 

Sozomen,  op.  cit.,  9-14  ;  Acta  Sanctorum  Martyrum,  ed. 
Assemani,  I  (Rome,  1748),  Svriac  text  with  Lat.  tr.;  Acta  Mar- 
tyrum et  Sanctorum,  II.  Ill,  IV,  ed.  Bedjan  (Leipzig,  1890-95), 
Syriac  text  (for  discussion  of  ttiese  two  authorities  see  Duval, 
Liltiralure  syriaque  (Paris,  1899),  130-43). 

A  list  of  martyrs  who  suffered  under  Sapor  II  was  first  pub- 
lished l>y  Wright  and  reproduced  in  tiie  Martyrologium  Hierony- 
mianum  by  DE  Rossi  and  Duchesne  in  Acta  SS.,  Nov.,  II,  part 
I,  Ixiii  (Brussels,  1894)  ;  Hoffmann,  AuszUge  aus  syrischen 
Akten  persischer  Martyrer,  text,  tr.,  and  notes  (Leipzig,  1886); 
Leclercq,  op.cif.,  Ill;  Duval,  Litterature  syriaque  (Paris,  1897), 
129-i7;  Labourt,  Le  Christianisme  dans  I'empire  perse  (Paris, 
1904);  Duchesne,  op.  cit.  (Paris,  1910),  553-64. 

Among  the  Goths. — Christianity  was  introduced 
among  the  Goths  about  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, and  "Theophilus  Episcopus  Gothi;c"  was  pres- 
ent at  the  Council  of  Nicsea  (.325).  But,  owing  to  the 
exertions  of  Bishop  Ulfilas  (340,  d.  383),  an  Arian, 
Arianism  was  professed  by  the  great  majority  of  the 
Visigoths  of  Dacia  (Transylvania  and  West  Hungary), 
converts  from  paganism ;  and  it  passed  with  them  into 
Lower  Moesia  across  the  Danube,  when  a  Gothic 
chieftain,  after  a  cruel  persecution,  drove  Ulfilas  and 
his  converts  from  his  lands,  probably  in  349.  And 
subsequently,  when  in  376  the  ^'i.sigoths,  pressed  by  the 
Huns,  crossed  the  Danube  and  entered  the  Roman 
Empire,  Arianism  was  the  religion  practised  by  the 


PERSECUTION 


703 


PERSECUTION 


Emperor  Valens.  This  fact,  along  with  the  national 
character  given  to  Arianism  by  Ulfilas  (q.  v.),  made  it 
the  form  of  Christianity  adopted  also  by  the  Ostro- 
goths, from  whom  it  spread  to  the  Burgundians,  Suevi, 
Vandals,  and  Lombards. 

The  first  persecution  we  hear  of  was  that  directed 
by  the  jiasan  \  isigoth  King  Athanaric,  begun  about 
370  and  lastiufj;  for  two,  or  perhaps  six,  years  after 
his  war  with  \'alens.  St.  Sabas  was  drowned  in  372, 
others  were  burnt,  sometimes  in  a  body  in  the  tents 
which  were  used  as  churches.  When,  in  the  fifth  and 
sixth  centuries,  the  Visigoths  invaded  Italy,  Gaul,  and 
Spain,  the  churches  were  plundered,  and  the  Catholic 
bishops  and  clergy  were  often  murdered;  but  their 
normal  attitude  was  one  of  toleration.  Euric  (483), 
the  Visigoth  King  of  Toulouse,  is  especially  men- 
tioned by  Sidonius  Apollinaris  (Ep.  vii,  6)  as  a  hater 
of  Catholicism  and  a  persecutor  of  the  Catholics, 
though  it  is  not  clear  that  he  persecuted  to  death.  In 
Spain  there  was  persecution  at  least  from  time  to  time 
during  the  period  476-5S6,  beginning  with  the  afore- 
said Euric,  who  occupied  Catalonia  in  476.  We  hear 
of  persecution  by  Agila  (549-554)  also,  and  finally  by 
Leovigild  (573-86).  Bishops  were  exiled  and  churcli 
goods  seized.  His  son  Hermenigild,  a  convert  to  the 
Catholic  Faith,  is  described  in  the  seventh  century 
(e.  g.  by  St.  Gregory  the  Great)  as  a  martyr.  A  con- 
temporary chronicler,  John  of  Biclaro,  who  had  him- 
self suffered  for  the  Faith,  says  that  the  prince  was 
murdered  in  prison  by  an  Arian,  Sisibert;  but  he  does 
not  say  that  Leovigild  approved  of  the  murder 
(see  Hermingild;  and  Hodgkin,  "Italy  and  her  In- 
vaders", V,  255).  With  the  accession  of  Reccared, 
who  had  become  a  Catholic,  Arianism  ceased  to  be  the 
creed  of  the  Spanish  Visigoths. 

As  for  the  Ostrogoths,  they  seem  to  have  been  fairly 
tolerant,  after  the  first  violences  of  the  invasion.  A 
notable  exception  was  the  persecution  of  Theodoric 
(524-26).  It  was  prompted  by  the  repressive  meas- 
ures which  Justin  I  had  issued  against  the  Arians  of 
the  Eastern  Empire,  among  whom  Goths  would  of 
course  be  included.  One  of  the  victims  of  the  persecu- 
tion was  Pope  John  I,  who  died  in  prison. 

KArFFMAN,  Aus  deT  Sckule  des  Wulfila:  Auxentii  Dorostorensis 
Epistola  defide,  vita  el  obitu  Wulfda  (Strasburg,  1S99).  AirxEN- 
Tius'a  account  is  also  found  in  Waitz,  Veber  das  leben  itnd  die 
lehredes  Ulfila  (Hanover,  1840);  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her  Invaders, 
I  (Oxford,  1892),  80-93;  Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  II  (Paris,  1908); 
Scott,  Ulfilas,  Apostle  of  the  Goths  (Cambridge,  1885). 

For  Visigoths:  Socbates,  op.  cit.,  IV,  33;  Contemporary  letter 
on  iS(.  Sabas,  Acta  SS.,  12  April;  see  also  later  document 
on  St.  Nicetas,  ibid.,  15  Sept.,  and  Hodokin,  op.  cit.,  I,  1.  175; 
Dahn,  Urgeschichte  der  germanischen  und  romanischen  Volker, 
I  (Berlin,  1881),  426  sq.,  for  Athanaric'a  persecution;  Sidonius 
Apollinaris,  ep.  vii,  6  in  Man.  Germ.  Hist.:  Auct.  Antiq.,  VIII, 
Hodgkin,  op.  cit.,  II,  484,  for  Euric;  John  op  Biclako  in  Mon. 
Germ.  Hist.:  Auct.  Antiq.,  XI,  211;  Gorreb,  Kirche  und  Stuat  im 
Westgotenreich  von  Eurich  bis  Leovigild  in  Theol.  Stud.  u.  Krit. 
(Gotha,  1893).  708-34;  Gams,  Kirchengeschichte  Spaniens,  I,  II 
(Augsburg,  1862),  4;  Leclehcq,  L'Espagne  chretienne  (Paris, 
1906);  AscHBACH,  Gesch.  der  Westgoten  (Frankfort,  1827). 

For  Ostrogoths:  Vita  S.  Severini  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  .Auct. 
Antiq.,  1;  Papencordt,  Gesch.  der  stadt  Rom.  (Paderborn,  1857), 
62  sq.;  Pfeilschhifter,  Z)cr  Os(ro(;o(enA«ni(r  Theodoric  der  Grosse 
und  die  Katholische  Kirche  in  Kirchengeschichtliche  Studien,  III 
(Munster,  1896),  1,  2;  Grisar,  Geschichte  Roms  und  der  Papste 
im  Miltelalter,  I  (Freiburg  im  Br.,  1901),  86,  481. 

For  general  account  of  Goths  and  Catholicism,  see  Uhlhorn, 
Kampfe  und  Siege  des  Christentums  in  der  germanischen  Well 
(Stuttgart,    1898). 

Among  the  Lombards. — St.  Gregory  the  Great,  in 
parts  of  his  "Dialogues",  describes  the  sufferings 
which  Catholics  had  to  endure  at  the  time  of  the  Lom- 
bard invasion  under  Alboin  (568)  and  afterwards. 
But  on  the  whole,  after  Autharis's  death  (590)  the 
Lombards  were  not  troublesome,  except  perhaps  in  the 
Duchies  of  Benevento  and  Spoleto.  Autharis's  queen, 
Theudelinda,  a  Catholic  princess  of  Bavaria,  was  able 
to  use  her  influence  with  her  second  husband,  Agilulf, 
Autharis's  successor,  so  that  he,  although  probably  re- 
maining an  Arian,  was  friendly  to  the  Church  and 
allowed  his  son  to  bo  baptized  a  Catholic  (see  Lom- 
bard y). 

XL— 45 


St.  Gheqort  the  Great,  Dialogues,  III,  27,  28,  37,  39;  IV, 
21-23.  see  Hodgkin,  op.  cit..  VI.  97,  104;  Paul  the  Deacon, 
Historia  Langobardorunl,  I-IV  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Script.  Lart- 
gob.  et  Ital.  (Hanover,  1878),  45  sq.,  see  Hodgkin,  op.  cit.,  V, 
68-80;  Dahn,  op.  cit.;  Grisar,  op.  cit. 

Among  the  Vandals. — The  Vandals,  Arians  like  the 
Visigoths  and  the  others,  were  the  most  hostile  of  all 
towards  the  Church.  During  the  period  of  their  domi- 
nation in  Spain  (422-29)  the  Church  suffered  persecu- 
tion, the  details  of  which  are  unknown.  In  429,  under 
the  lead  of  Genseric,  the  Goths  crossed  over  to  Africa, 
and  by  455  had  made  themselves  masters  of  Roman 
Africa.  In  the  North,  the  bishops  were  driven  from 
their  sees  into  exile.  When  Carthage  was  taken  in  439 
the  churches  were  given  over  to  the  Arian  clergy,  and 
the  bishop  Quodvultdeus  (a  friend  of  St.  Augustine) 
andthegreaterpartof  theCatholic  clergy  were  stripped 
of  what  they  had,  put  on  board  unseaworthy  shijis,  and 
carried  to  Naples.  Confiscation  of  church  property 
and  exile  of  the  clergy  was  the  rule  throughout  the 
provinces  of  the  North,  where  all  public  worship  was 
forbidden  to  Catholics.  In  the  provinces  of  t  he  South, 
however,  the  persecution  was  not  severe.  Some  Cath- 
olic court  officials,  who  had  accompanied  Genseric 
from  Spain,  were  tortured,  exiled,  and  finally  put  to 
death  because  they  refused  to  apostatize.  No  Cath- 
olic, in  fact,  was  allowed  to  hold  any  office. 

Genseric's  son,  Huneric,  who  succeeded  in  477, 
though  at  first  somewhat  tolerant,  arrested  and  ban- 
ished under  circumstances  of  great  cruelty  nearly  five 
thousand  Cauhohcs,  including  bishops  and  clergy,  and 
finally  by  an  edict  of  25  Feb.,  484,  abolished  the  Cath- 
olic wor.ship,  transferred  all  churches  and  church  prop- 
erty to  the  Arians,  exiled  the  bishops  and  clergy,  and 
deprived  of  civil  rights  all  those  who  would  not  receive 
Arian  baptism.  Great  numbers  suffered  savage  treat- 
ment, many  died,  others  were  mutilated  or  crippled 
for  life.  His  successor,  Guntamund  (484-96),  did  not 
relax  the  persecution  until  487.  But  in  494  the  bishops 
were  recalled,  though  they  had  afterwards  to  endure 
some  persecution  from  Trasamund  (496-523).  And 
complete  peace  came  to  the  Church  at  the  accession  of 
Genseric's  son  Hilderic,  with  whom  the  Vandal  domi- 
nation ended  (see  Africa). 

Idatius  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.:  Auct.  Antiq.,  XI.  13-36;  Mione. 
P.  L.,  LI;  Victor  Vitensis,  Historia  persecutionis  .ifrican(B 
provincice,  ed.  Halm  in  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  loc.  cit.,  Ill;  Pet- 
8CHENIG,  Corpus  Script,  eccles.  lat.,  VII  (Vienna.  1881);  Migne, 
P.  L.,LVII;  Prosper,  Chroniconin  Mon.  Germ.  Hist.,  loc.  cit..  IX; 
MiONE,  P.  L.,  LI;  RuiNART,  Hist,  persec.  Vand.  in  P.  L.,  LVIII; 
P\pencordt,  Gesch.  der  Vandalischen  Herrschaft  in  Afrika  (Ber- 
lin 1837);  Dahn,  op.  dt.;  Hodgkin,  op.  cit.,  II,  229-30,  269-82; 
Leclercq.  L'A/rique  chretienne,  II  (Paris,  1904);  Idem.  Lea 
Martyrs,  III  (Paris,  1904);  Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  HI,  625-45. 

In  Arabia. — Christianity  penetrated  into  South 
Arabia  (Yemen)  in  the  fourth  century.  In  the  sixth 
century  the  Christians  were  brutally  persecuted  by 
the  Jewish  King  Dunaan,  no  less  than  five  thousand, 
including  the  prince,  Arethas,  being  said  to  have  suf- 
fered execution  in  523  after  the  capture  of  Nagra. 
The  Faith  was  only  saved  from  utter  extinction  at 
this  period  by  the  armed  intervention  of  the  King  of 
Abyssinia.  And  it  did  in  fact  disappear  before  the 
invading  forces  of  Islam. 

Fell,  Die  Christenver/olgung  in  Siidarabien  in  Zeitsch.  der 
deutschen  morgent.  Geseltschaft  (1881),  XXV.     (See  Arabia.) 

Under  the  Mohammedans. — With  the  spread  of 
Mohammedanism  in  Syria,  Egypt,  Persia,  and  North 
Africa,  there  went  a  gradual  subjugation  of  Chris- 
tianity. At  the  first  onset  of  invasion,  in  the  eighth 
century,  many  Christians  were  butchered  for  refusing 
to  apostatize;  afterwards  they  were  treated  as  helots, 
subject  to  a  special  tax,  and  liable  to  suffer  loss  of  goods 
or  life  itself  at  the  caprice  of  the  caliph  or  the  populace. 
In  Spain  the  first  Mohammedan  ruler  to  institute  a 
violent  persecution  of  the  Christians  was  the  viceroy 
Abderrahman  II  (821-52)^  The  persecution  was  be- 
gun in  850,  was  continued  by  Mohammed  (852-87) 


PERSECUTION 


700 


PERSECUTION 


and  lasted  with  interruptions  till  960,  when  the  Chris- 
tians were  strong  enough  to  intimidate  their  persecu- 
tors. The  number  of  martyrs  was  small,  Eulofjius, 
Archbishop  of  Toledo  (11  Marrh,  SM).  wlio  has  left  us 
an  account  of  the  persecution,  being  himself  the  most 
famous  (see  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism). 

Pargoire,  L'Eglise  byzanline  (Paris,  lOO.'i),  153-6,  275-9; 
Leclebcu,  L'Afriquc  chritiennc,  II  (Paris,  1904);  Idem,  Lea 
Marlurs,  IV  (Paris,  1905).  For  Spaiu:  see  EuLooius  and  Bibli- 
ography; Vila  S.  Eulogii,  by  Alvahus  in  P.  L.,  CXV,  705  sq.; 
EuLOOlus.  Mfmoriale  Sanctorum  sen  libri  III  de  marlyribus  cor- 
dubensibus:  MiONE,  P.  L.,  CXV,  731;  Dozy,  Ilistoire  des  Mussul- 
mans d'Espagne,  II  (Leyden,  1S61);  Gams.  Kirchetigesch.  Spa- 
niens.  II  (Ratisbon.  18G4);  Haines,  Chrisliaiiily  and  Islam  in 
Spain,  756-1031  (Loudon,  1S.S9)  ;  Leclercq,  L'Espagnt  chri- 
tiennc (Paris,  1906). 

Under  the  Iconoclasts. — The  troubles  brought  on  tlie 
Church  of  the  East  by  the  Iconoclastic  emperors  cover 
a  period  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  years.  Leo  III 
(the  Isaurian)  pubhshed  two  edicts  "against  images 
about  726  and  730.  The  execution  of  the  edicts  was 
strenuously  resisted.  Popes  Gregory  II  and  III  pro- 
tested in  vigorous  language  against  the  autocratic 
reformer,  and  the  people  resorted  to  open  violence. 
But  Constantine  V  (Copronymus,  741-75)  continued 
his  father's  policy,  summoning  a  council  at  Constanti- 
nople in  7.54  and  then  persecuting  the  orthodox  party. 
The  monks  formed  the  especial  object  of  his  attack. 
Monasteries  were  demolished,  and  the  monks  them- 
selves shamefully  maltreated  and  put  to  death.  Under 
Constantine  VI  (7SO-97),  through  the  influence  of  his 
mother,  the  regent  Irene,  the  Seventh  (Ecumenical 
Council  was  summoned  in  787,  and  rescinded  the  de- 
crees of  Copronymus's  Council.  But  there  was  a  revi- 
val of  the  persecution  under  Leo  V  (813-20),  the 
bishops  who  stood  firm,  as  well  as  the  monks,  being 
the  special  objects  of  his  attack,  while  many  others 
were  directly  done  to  death  or  died  as  a  result  of  cruel 
treatment  in  pri.son.  This  persecution,  which  was  con- 
tinued under  Michael  II  (820-29),  reached  its  most 
fierce  phase  under  Theophilus  (829-42).  Great  num- 
bers of  monks  were  put  to  death  by  this  monarch ;  but 
at  his  decease  the  persecutions  ended  (842)  (see  Icon- 
oclasm). 

Theodori  Studitre  Epislola,  P.  G.,  XCIX;  Tougard,  La  Perse- 
cution iconoclaste  d'apres  la  corrcspondance  de  S.  Thfodore  Studite 
in  Rerue  des  Questions  hisloriques,  L  (1891),  80,  118;  Hehqen- 
BOTHER,  Pkotius,  I,  226  sqq.  (Ratisbon,  1867) ;  Lombard,  Cojislan- 
tin  V,  Empereur  des  Romains  (Paris,  1902) ;  Pargoire,  VEglise 
byzanline  de  SS7-S47  (Paris,  1905),  contains  abundant  references 
to  lives  and  acts  of  martjTs. 

Modern  Period. — We  have  reviewed  the  persecu- 
tions undergone  by  the  Church  during  the  first  millen- 
nium of  her  existence.  During  her  second  millennium 
she  has  continued  to  suffer  persecution  in  her  mission 
of  spreading  the  Gospel,  and  especially  in  Japan  and 
China  (see  Martyrs,  Japanese;  Martyrs  in  China). 
She  has  also  had  to  face  the  attacks  of  her  own  cliil- 
dren,  culminating  in  the  excesses  and  religious  wars  of 
the  Reformation. 

For  an  account  of  the  persecutions  of  Irish,  English, 
and  Scotch  Cathohcs,  see  England;  Ireland;  Scot- 
land; Penal  Laws;  and  the  numerous  articles  on 
individual  martyrs,  e.  g.  Edmund  Campion,  Blessed; 
Plunkett,  Oliver,  Venerable. 

Poland. — Within  the  last  century,  Poland  has  suf- 
fered what  is  perhaps  the  most  notable  of  recent  per- 
secutions. Catholicism  had  continued  to  be  the  estab- 
lished religion  of  the  country  until  the  intervention  of 
Catherine  II  of  Russia  (1762-96).  By  means  of  politi- 
cal intrigues  and  open  liostility,  she  first  of  all  secured 
a  position  of  political  suzerainty  over  the  country,  and 
then  effected  the  separation  of  the  Ruthenians  from 
the  Holy  See,  and  incorporated  them  with  the  Ortho- 
dox Church  of  Rus.sia.  Nicholas  I  (182.5-55),  and 
Alexander  II  (18.5.5-81),  resumed  her  policy  of  intimi- 
dation and  forcible  suppression.  The  latter  monarch 
especially  showed  himself  a  violent  persecutor  of  the 
Catholics,  the  barbarities  that  were  committed  in  1863 
being  so  savage  as  to  call  forth  a  joint  protest  from  the 


Governments  of  France,  Austria,  and  Great  Britain. 
After  his  death  the  C:itholirs  were  granlcd  a  certain 
mea.sure  of  toleration.  :iiid  in  liior)  Mchohis  11  granted 
them  full  hberty  of  worship  (sec  Poland;  Rij.sma). 

For  the  persecution  of  Catholics  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire  sec  Tdrkey. 

In  modern  times,  however,  a  new  element  has  been 
added  to  the  forces  opposing  the  Church.  There  have 
indeed  been  occasional  recrudescences  of  the  "Re- 
formers", violence  dictated  by  a  frenzied  fear  of  Cath- 
olic progress.  Such  were  for  inst.'uice  the  Charleston 
and  Philadelphia  disturbances  in  ls:i4  and  1x44,  and 
the  "No  Popery"  cries  against  the  estublisliiuent  of 
the  Catholic  hierarchy  in  England  and  Holland  in 
1850  and  1853.  But  this  was  no  more  than  the  spirit 
of  the  Reformation.  For  the  attitude  of  the  South 
American  republics  during  the  nineteenth  century,  see 
the  articles  on  those  countries. 

Liberalism. — A  new  spirit  of  opposition  appears  in 
the  so-called  "Liberalism"  and  in  Free  Thought, 
whose  influence  has  been  felt  in  Catholic  as  well  as 
Protestant  countries.  Its  origin  is  to  be  traced  back 
to  the  infidel  philosophy  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
At  the  end  of  that  century  it  had  gromi  so  strong  that 
it  could  menace  the  Church  with  armed  violence.  In 
France  six  hundred  priests  were  murdered  by  Jourdan, 
"the  Beheader",  in  1791,  and  in  the  next  year  three 
hundred  ecclesiastics,  including  an  archbishop  and  two 
bishops,  were  cruelly  massacred  in  the  prisons  of  Paris. 
The  Reign  of  Terror  ended  in  1795.  But  the  spirit  of 
infidelity  which  triumphed  then  has  ever  since  sought 
and  found  opportunities  for  persecution.  And  it  has 
been  assisted  by  the  endeavours  of  even  so-called 
Catholic  governments  to  subordinate  the  Church  to 
the  State,  or  to  separate  the  two  powers  altogether. 
In  Switzerland  the  Catholics  were  so  incensed  by  the 
attacks  of  the  Liberal  party  on  their  religious  freedom 
that  they  resolved  on  an  appeal  to  arms.  Their 
Sonderbund  (q.  v.)  or  "Separate  League"  was  at  first 
successful  in  the  war  of  1843,  and  in  spite  of  its  final 
defeat  by  the  forces  of  the  Diet  in  1847  the  result  has 
been  to  secure  religious  hberty  throughout  Switzer- 
land. Since  that  time  the  excitement  caused  by  the 
decree  on  Papal  Infallibihty  found  vent  in  another 
period  of  hostile  legislation;  but  the  Catholics  have 
been  strong  enough  to  maintain  and  reinforce  their 
position  in  the  country. 

In  other  countries  Liberalism  has  not  issued  in  such 
direct  warfare  against  the  Church;  though  the  de- 
fenders of  the  Church  have  often  been  ranged  against 
revolutionaries  who  were  attacking  the  altar  along 
with  the  throne.  But  the  history  of  the  nineteenth 
century  reveals  a  constant  opposition  to  the  Church. 
Her  influence  has  been  straitened  by  adverse  legisla- 
tion, the  monastic  orders  have  been  expelled  and  their 
property  confiscated,  and,  what  is  perhaps  most  char- 
acteristic of  modem  persecution,  religion  has  been 
excluded  from  the  schools  and  universities.  The  un- 
derlying principle  is  always  the  same,  though  the 
form  it  assumes  and  the  occasion  of  its  development 
are  peculiar  to  the  different  times  and  places.  Galli- 
canism  in  France,  Josephinism  in  Austria,  and  the 
May  Laws  of  the  German  Empire  have  all  the  same 
principle  of  subordinating  the  Church  to  the  Govern- 
ment, or  .separating  the  two  powers  by  a  secuhirist  and 
unnatural  divorce.  But  the  solidarity  of  Catholics 
and  the  energetic  protests  of  the  Holy  See  succeeded 
often  in  establishing  Concordats  to  safeguard  the 
independent  rights  of  the  Church.  The  terms  of  these 
concessions  have  not  always  been  observed  by  Liberal  or 
Absolutist  Governments.  Still  they  saved  the  Church 
in  her  time  of  peril.  And  the  enforced  separation 
of  Church  from  State  which  followed  the  renunciation 
of  the  Concordats  has  taught  the  Catholics  in  Latin 
countries  the  dangers  of  Secuhirism  (q.  v.)  and  how 
they  must  defend  their  rights  as  members  of  a  Church 
which  transcends  the  limits  of  states  and  nations,  and 


PERSECUTIONS 


707 


PERSECUTIONS 


acknowledges  an  authority  beyond  the  reach  of  pohti- 
cal  legislation.  In  the  Teutonic  countries,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  Church  does  not  loom  so  large  a  target 
for  the  missiles  of  her  enemies.  Long  years  of  per- 
secution have  done  their  work,  and  left  the  Catholics 
with  a  greater  need  and  a  greater  sense  of  solidarity. 
There  is  less  danger  of  confusing  friend  and  foe,  and 
the  progress  of  the  Church  is  made  more  apparent. 

Bruck-Kissung,  Gesch.  der  kaih.  Kirche  im  neunzehnten  Jakrh. 
(5  vola.,  Mainz  and  Munster,  1908);  MacCaffrey.  Histonj  of 
the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (2  vola.,  Dublin. 
1909);  GoTAU,  L'Allemagne  rcligieuse  (3  vols.,  Paris.  1906). 

James  Bhidge. 

Persecutions,  Coptic  (According  to  Greek  and 
Latin  Sources). — During  the  first  two  centuries 
the  Church  of  Alexandria  seems  to  have  been  freer 
from  official  persecution  at  the  hands  of  the  Roman 
Government  than  its  sister  churches  of  Rome  and 
Antioch.  Two  causes  may  have  contributed  to  this: 
(1)  the  privileged  political  and  religious  status  in 
Egypt  of  Jews  from  whom  the  Government  found  it 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  Christians;  (2)  Roman 
citizenship  having  never  been  extended  to  the  Egyp- 
tians, except  in  a  few  individual  cases,  the  inhabitants 
of  Egypt  were  free  from  the  obligations  of  the  Roman 
state  religion  and  consequently  there  was  no  reason 
for  persecution.  For  it  is  well  known  that  the  only 
cause  of  the  persecutions  in  the  first  and  second  cen- 
turies was  the  incompatibihty  of  the  Christian  faith 
with  the  state  religion,  which  eveiy  Roman  citizen, 
the  Jews  excepted,  was  obliged  to  practice,  though  free 
otherwise  to  follow  any  other  form  of  religion  he  chose. 

Persecution  of  Severus  (200-11). — But  when 
Septimius  Severus  by  a  special  edict  (about  a.  d. 
200)  forbade  under  severe  punisliment  "to  make  Jews 
and  Christians",  the  law  applied  to  all  subjects  of  the 
Roman  Empire  whether  citizens  or  not;  the  Egyptian 
Church  with  its  famous  catechetical  school  of  Alex- 
andria, and  the  fresh  impulse  given  by  Demetrius  to 
the  diffusion  of  Christianity  throughout  the  country, 
seem  to  have  attracted  the  attention  of  the  emperor, 
who  had  just  visited  Egypt.  The  school  broke  up 
just  at  that  time;  and  its  director,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, being  obliged  to  leave  Egypt,  the  youthful 
Origen  attempted  to  reorganize  it.  He  was  soon 
arrested  by  the  newly-appointed  prefect  Aquila. 
Shortly  before,  under  Laetus,  his  father  Leonidas 
had  been  the  first  victim  of  the  persecution.  Origen 
had  earnestly  encouraged  liim  to  stand  firm  in  his 
confession,  and  was  himself  now  longing  for  a  martyr's 
death.  His  desire  was  frustrated  through  the  efforts 
of  his  mother  and  friends.  But  he  had  the  consola- 
tion of  assisting  and  encouraging  a  number  of  his 
pupils  who  died  for  the  faith.  Plutarch,  who  had  been 
his  first  disciple,  Serenus  (burnt),  Heraclides,  a  cate- 
chumen, and  Hero,  a  neophyte  (both  beheaded),  a 
woman,  Herais,  a  catechumen  (burnt),  another,  Se- 
renus (beheaded),  and  Basilides,  a  soldier  attached  to 
the  office  of  Aquila.  Potamiaena,  a  young  Christian 
woman,  had  been  condemned  to  be  sunk  by  degrees  in  a 
cauldron  of  boiling  pitch  and  was  being  led  to  death 
by  Basilides,  who  on  the  way  protected  her  against 
the  insults  of  the  mob.  In  return  for  his  kindness  the 
martyr  promised  him  not  to  forget  him  with  her  Lord 
when  she  reached  her  destination.  Soon  after  Pota- 
misena's  death  Basilides  was  asked  by  his  fellow- 
soldiers  to  take  a  certain  oath ;  on  answering  that  he 
could  not  do  it,  as  he  was  a  Christian,  at  first  they 
thought  he  was  jesting,  but  seeing  he  was  in  earnest 
they  denounced  him  and  he  was  condemned  to  be 
beheaded.  While  waiting  in  jail  for  his  sentence  to 
be  carried  out  some  Christians  (Origen  being  possibly 
one  of  them)  visited  him  and  asked  him  how  he 
happened  to  be  converted;  he  answered  that  three 
days  after  her  death,  Potamiaena  had  appeared  to  him 
by  night  anfl  placed  a  crown  on  his  head  as  a  pledge 
that  the  Lord  would  soon  receive  him  into  his  glory. 


Potamisena  appeared  to  many  other  persons  at  that 
time,  calling  them  to  faith  and  martyrdom  (Euseb., 
"Hist.Eccl.",  VI,  iii-v).  To  these  conversions,  Origen, 
an  eyewitness,  testifies  in  his  "Contra  Celsum"  (I,  46; 
P.  G.,  XI,  746).  Marcella,  mother  of  Potamiaena, 
who  likewise  perished  by  fire,  is  the  only  other  martyr 
whose  name  is  recorded  in  authentic  sources,  but  we 
are  told  of  legions  of  Christians  that  were  sent  to 
Alexandria  from  all  points  of  Egypt  and  Thebaid  as 
picked  athletes  directed  to  the  greatest  and  most 
famous  arena  of  the  world  (Euseb.,  "Hist.  Eccl.", 
VI,  i). 

Persecutions  op  Decius  (249-51). — Severus  died 
in  211.  Authentic  sources  mention  no  further  official 
persecution  of  the  Christians  of  Egypt  until  the  edict 
of  Decius,  A.  D.  249.  This  enactment,  the  exact  tenor 
of  which  is  not  known,  was  intended  to  test  the  loyalty 
of  all  Roman  subjects  to  the  national  religion,  but  it 
contained  also  a  special  clause  against  the  Christians, 
denouncing  the  profession  of  Christianity  as  incom- 
patible with  the  demands  of  the  State,  proscribing  the 
bishops  and  other  church  officials,  and  probably  also 
forbidding  religious  meetings.  Disobedience  to  the 
imperial  orders  was  threatened  with  severe  punish- 
ments, the  nature  of  which  in  each  individual  case  was 
left  to  the  discretion  or  zeal  of  the  magistrates  (see 
Gregg,  "Decian  Persecution",  75  sqq.).  During  the 
long  period  of  peace  the  Egyptian  Church  had  enjoyed 
since  Severus'  death  it  had  rapidly  increased  in  num- 
bers and  wealth,  much,  it  seems,  to  the  detriment  of 
its  power  of  endurance.  And  the  fierce  onslaught  of 
Decius  found  it  quite  unprepared  for  the  struggle. 
Defections  were  numerous,  especially  among  the  rich, 
in  whom,  says  St.  Dionysius,  was  verified  the  saying  of 
Our  Lord  (Matt.,  xix,  23)  that  it  is  difficult  for  them  to 
be  saved  (Euseb.,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  VI,  xli,  8).  Diony- 
sius was  then  the  occupant  of  the  chair  of  St.  Mark. 
The  particulars  of  the  persecution,  and  of  the  popular 
outbreak  against  the  Christians  in  Alexandria  (a.  d. 
249)  are  known  to  us  almost  exclusively  from  his  let- 
ters as  preserved  by  Eusebius  (see  Dionysius  of  Alex- 
andria). Decius'  death  in  a.  d.  251  put  an  end  to 
the  persecution. 

Persecution  of  Valerian  (257-61). — The  perse- 
cution of  Valerian  was  even  more  severe  than  that  of 
Decius.  Dionysius  who  is  again  our  chief  authority 
lays  the  responsibility  for  it  to  the  emperor's  chief 
counselor,  Macrianus  "teacher  and  ruler  of  the  Magi 
from  Egypt"  (Eu.seb.,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VII,  x,  4).  A 
first  edict  published  in  257  ordered  all  bishops,  priests, 
and  deacons  to  conform  with  the  state  religion  under 
penalty  of  exile  and  prohibited  the  Christians  from 
holding  religious  assemblies  under  penalty  of  death 
(Healy,  "Valerian  Persecution",  136).  In  258  a  sec- 
ond edict  was  issued  sentencing  to  death  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons,  and  condemning  laymen  of  high 
rank  to  degradation,  exile,  and  slavery,  or  even  death 
in  case  of  obstinacy,  according  to  an  established  scale 
of  punishments  (Healy,  ibid.,  169  sq.),  confiscation 
of  property  resulting  ipso  facto  in  every  case.  Diony- 
sius was  still  in  the  chair  of  St.  Mark.  On  receipt  of 
the  first  edict  jEmilianus,  then  Prefect  of  Egypt,  im- 
mediately seized  the  venerable  bishop  with  several 
priests  and  deacons  and  on  his  refusal  to  worship  the 
gods  of  the  empire  exiled  him  to  Kephro  in  Libya. 
There  he  was  followed  by  some  brethren  from  Alexan- 
dria and  others  soon  joined  him  from  the  provinces  of 
Egypt,  and  Diony.sius  managed  not  only  to  hold  the 
prohibiterl  assemblies  but  also  to  convert  not  a  few  of 
the  heathens  of  that  region  where  the  word  of  God  had 
never  been  preached.  yEmilianus  was  probably  igno- 
rant of  these  facts  which  even  under  the  provisions  of 
the  first  edict  made  the  bishop  and  his  companions 
liable  to  capital  punishment.  Desiring  however  to 
have  all  the  exiles  in  one  district  nearer  at  hand  where 
he  could  seize  them  all  without  difficulty  whenever 
he  wished,  he  ordered  their  transfer  to  Mareotis,  a 


PERSECUTIONS 


708 


PERSECUTIONS 


marshy  district  south-west  of  Alexandria,  "a  coun- 
try", Dionysius  says,  "destitute  of  brethren  arid 
exposed  to  the  annoyances  of  the  travelers  and  in- 
cursions of  robbers",  and  assigned  them  to  different 
villages  tlirougliout  that  desolate  region.  Dionysius 
and  his  companions  were  stationed  at  Colkithion,  near 
the  highway,  so  they  could  be  seized  first.  This  new 
arrangement,  whicli  had  caused  no  small  apprehension 
to  Dionysius,  turned  out  much  better  than  the  former 
one.  If  intercour.se  with  Egypt  was  more  difficult,  it 
was  easier  with  .\lexaiKlria;  Dionysius  had  the  conso- 
lation of  seeing  his  friends  more  frequently,  those  who 
were  nearer  to  his  heart,  and  he  could  hiild  jiartial 
meetings  with  them  as  was  customary  in  tlie  most  re- 
mote suburbs  of  the  capital  (Euseb.,  "  Hist,  cccl.",  VII, 
xi,  1-7).  This  is  unfortunately  all  we  know  of  Valerian 
persecution  in  Egypt.  The  portion  of  Dionysius'  let- 
ter to  Domitius  and  Didymus  in  which  Eusebius  refers 
to  tiie  persecution  of  Valerian  (loc.  cit.,  VII,  xx)  be- 
longs rather  to  the  Decian  times.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  Eusebius  did  not  preserve  for  us  in  its  entirety 
Dionysius'  let  ter  "  t  o  Hermammon  and  t  he  brethren  in 
Egypt,  describing  at  length  the  wickedness  of  Decius 
and  his  successors  and  mentioning  the  peace  under 
Gallienus". 

Immediately  after  Valerian's  capture  by  the  Per- 
sians (260?)  his  son  Gallienus  (who  had  been  asso- 
ciated with  him  in  the  empire  for  several  years)  pub- 
lished edicts  of  toleration  if  not  of  recognition  in  favour 
of  the  Christians  (see  McGiffert's  note  2  to  Eusebius, 
"Hist,  eccl.",  VII,  xiii).  But  Egj'pt  having  fallen  to 
the  lot  of  Macrianus  it  is  probable  that  he  withheld 
the  edicts  orthat  the  terrible  civil  war  which  then  broke 
out  in  Alexandria  between  the  partisans  of  Gallienus 
and  those  of  Macrianus  delayed  their  promulgation. 
After  the  usurper's  fall  (late  in  261  or  early  in  262), 
Gallienus  issued  a  rescript  "to  Dionj'sius,  Pinnas, 
Demetrius,  and  the  other  bishops"  to  apprise  them  of 
his  edicts  and  to  assure  them  that  Aurelius  Cj-renius, 
"chief  administrator  of  affairs",  would  observe  them 
(Euseb.,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VII,  .xiii;andMcGiffert,note3). 

Per.secutions  of  Diocleti.\n  (303-5)  and  Maxi- 
MiNrs  {a.  d.  30.5-13). — For  reasons  on  which  sources 
either  disagree  or  are  silent  (see  Duchesne,  "  Hist.  anc. 
de  I'eglise",  II,  10  sq.;  McGiffert  in  "Select  Lib.  of 
Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers,  N.  S. ",  I,  400),  Dio- 
cletianus,  whose  household  was  full  of  Christians,  sud- 
denly changed  his  attitude  towards  Christianity  and 
initiated  the  longest  and  bloodiest  persecutions  against 
the  Church.  Lactantius  informs  us  (De  mort.  persec, 
IX)  that  Diocletian  acted  on  the  advice  of  a  council  of 
dignitaries  in  which  Galerius  played  the  principal  part. 
It  was  in  a.  d.  303,  the  nineteenth  year  of  his  reign, 
and  the  third  of  Peter  Alexandrinus  as  Bishop  of  Alex- 
andria. Egypt  and  Sj'ria  (as  part  of  the  Diocese  of 
Orient)  were  directly  undertheruleof  Diocletian.  This 
general  outbreak  had  been  preceded  for  three  years  at 
least  by  a  more  or  less  disguised  persecution  in  the 
army.  Eusebius  says  that  a  certain  magister  militum 
Veturius,  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  Diocletian,  forced  a 
number  of  high  rank  officers  to  prove  their  loyalty  by 
the  usual  test  of  sacrificing  to  the  gods  of  the  empire, 
on  penalty  of  losing  their  honours  and  privileges. 
Many  "soldiers  of  Christ's  kingdom"  cheerfully  gave 
up  the  seeming  glory  of  this  world  and  a  few  received 
death  "in  exchange  for  their  pious  constancy"  (Euseb., 
"Hist,  eccl.",  VIII,  iv;"Chron.",  ed.  Schdne,  II,  1S6 
sq.).  On  23  February,  303,  the  Church  of  Nicomedia 
was  torn  down  by  order  of  the  emperors.  The  next 
day  (thus  Lact.,  op.  cit.,  xiii.  Euseb.  says  "in 
March,  on  the  approach  of  the  Passion"),  a  first 
edict  was  published  everywhere  ordering  the  churches 
to  be  destroyed,  the  Holy  Scriptures  to  be  burned, 
and  inflicting  degradation  on  those  in  high  rank  and 
slavery  on  their  households.  Two  other  edicts  .soon 
followed,  one  ordering  the  imprisonment  of  all  church 
officials,  the  other  commanding  them  to  sacrifice  to 


the  gods  (Euseb.,  op.  cit.,  VIII,  ii,  4,  5;  vi,  8,  10). 
In  304,  while  Diocletian  was  seriously  ill,  a  fourth 
edict  was  issued  commanding  all  the  people  to  sacrifice 
at  once  in  the  different  cities  and  offer  libations  to  the 
idols  (Euseb.,  "Mart.  Pal.",  Ill,  i).  On  1  May,  305. 
both  Diocletian  and  Maximian  Ilcrculius  retired 
officially  from  the  pubhc  life  and  a  tetrarchy  was 
organized  with  Galerius  and  Constantius  as  August! 
and  Severus  and  Maximinus  Daia  as  Ca-sars;  and  a 
new  apportionment  of  the  empire  was  made,  Egypt 
and  Syria  with  the  rest  of  the  Diocese  of  Orient  going 
to  Maximinus.  Superstitious  in  the  extreme,  sur- 
rounded by  magicians  without  whom  he  did  not  ven- 
ture to  move  even  a  finger,  ferocious  and  dissolute, 
Ma.ximinus  was  far  more  bitter  against  the  Christians 
than  Galerius  himself. 

To  give  a  fresh  impetus  to  the  persecution,  he  pub- 
lished again  (305)  in  his  provinces,  in  his  own  name, 
the  fourth  edict  which  had  been  issued  the  year  before 
by  all  the  members  of  the  tetrarchy,  thus  making  it 
clear  that  no  mercy  was  to  be  expected  from  him 
(Euseb.,  "Mart.  Pal",  IV,  viii).  In  307,  after  the 
death  of  Constantius,  his  son  Constantine  was  made 
second  Ca;sar  and  Severus  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
Augustus.  The  following  year  Severus,  defeated  by 
Maxentius,  was  obliged  to  take  his  own  life  and  his 
place  and  rank  was  given  by  Galerius  to  Licinius. 
Maximinus  then  assumed  the  title  of  Augustus  against 
the  wish  of  Galerius  who  nevertheless  had  to  recognize 
him  and  bestowed  the  same  title  on  Constantine.  It 
was  probably  on  the  occasion  of  this  quarrel  with 
Galerius  that  Maximinus  for  a  short  while  in  the  sum- 
mer of  308  relaxed  somewhat  his  measures  against  the 
Christians.  "Relief  and  liberty  were  granted  to  those 
who  for  Christ's  sake  were  labouring  in  the  mines  of 
the  Thebaid"  (Mart.  Pal.,  IX,  i).  But  suddenly  in 
the  autumn  of  the  same  year  he  issued  another  edict 
(so-called  fifth  edict)  ordering  the  shrines  of  the  idols 
to  be  speedily  rebuilt  and  all  the  people,  even  infants 
at  the  breast,  to  be  compelled  to  sacrifice  and  taste  of 
the  offerings.  At  the  same  time  he  commanded  the 
things  for  sale  in  the  markets  to  be  sprinkled  with  the 
libations  from  the  sacrifices,  the  entrance  to  the  jiublic 
baths  to  be  contaminated  similarly  (Mart.  Pal.,  IX,  ii). 
And  when  three  years  later  (April,  311)  Galerius,  de- 
voured by  a  terrible  disease  and  already  on  the  point 
of  death,  finally  softened  toward  the  Christians  and 
asked  them  to  pray  to  their  God  for  his  recovery, 
Maximinus  significantly  kept  aloof  (Hi.st.  eccl.,  VIII, 
xvii).  His  name  does  not  appear  with  those  of  Gale- 
rius, Constantinus,  and  Licinius,  in  the  heading  of  the 
edict  of  toleration,  which,  moreover,  was  never  pro- 
mulgated in  his  provinces.  However,  probably  to 
placate  his  two  colleagues  on  the  occasion  of  a  new 
apportionment  of  the  power  as  a  result  of  Galerius' 
death,  he  told  his  chief  official,  Sabinus,  to  instruct  the 
governors  and  other  magistrates  to  relax  the  jiersecu- 
tion.  His  orders  received  wider  interpretat  ion  than  he 
expected,  and  while  his  attention  was  directed  by  the 
division  of  the  Eastern  empire  between  himself  and 
Licinius,  the  confessors  who  were  awaiting  trial  in 
the  prisons  were  released  and  those  who  had  been 
condemned  to  the  mines  returned  home  in  joy  and 
exultation. 

This  lull  had  lasted  about  six  months  when  Maxi- 
minus resumed  the  persecution,  supposeilly  at  the 
request  of  the  various  cities  and  towns  who  prtitioned 
him  not  to  allow  the  Christians  to  ilwcll  within  their 
walls.  But  Eusebius  declares  that  in  the  case  of 
Antioch  the  petition  was  Maximinus'  own  work,  and 
that  the  other  cities  had  sent  their  memorials  at  the 
solicitation  of  his  officials  who  had  been  instructed  by 
himself  to  that  effect.  On  that  occasion  he  created  in 
ea(^h  city  a  high-priest  who.se  office  it  was  to  make 
daily  sacrifices  to  all  the  (local)  gods,  and  with  the 
aid  of  the  priests  of  the  former  orrler  of  things,  to 
restrain  the  Christians  from  building  churches  and 


PERSECUTIONS 


709 


PERSECUTIONS 


holding  religions  meetings,  publicly  or  privately 
(Eusebius,  op.  cit.,  IX,  ii,  4;  Lactant.,  op.  cit., 
XXXVI).  At  the  same  time  everything  was  done  to 
excite  the  heathens  against  the  Christians.  Forged 
Acts  of  Pilate  and  of  Our  Lord,  full  of  every  kind 
of  blasphemy  against  Christ,  were  sent  with  the  em- 
peror's approval  to  all  the  provinces  under  him,  with 
written  commands  that  they  should  be  posted  pub- 
licly in  every  place  and  that  the  schoolmasters  should 
give  them  to  their  scholars  instead  of  their  customary 
lessons  to  be  studied  and  learned  by  heart  (Euseb., 
op.  cit.,  IX,  v).  Members  of  the  hierarchy  and  others 
were  seized  on  the  most  trifling  pretext  and  put  to 
death  without  mercy.  In  the  case  of  Peter  of  Alex- 
andria no  cause  at  all  was  given.  He  was  arrested 
quite  unexpectedly  and  beheaded  without  explanation 
as  if  by  command  of  Maximinus  (ibid.,  IX,  vi).  This 
was  in  April,  312,  if  not  somewhat  earlier.  In  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year  Constantine  defeated 
Maximinus  and  soon  after  conjointly  with  Licinius 
published  the  edict  of  Milan,  a  copy  of  which  was 
sent  to  Maximinus  with  an  invitation  to  publish  it  in 
his  own  provinces.  He  met  their  wishes  half  way, 
publishing  instead  of  the  document  received  an  edict 
of  tolerance,  but  so  full  of  false,  contradictory  state- 
ments and  so  reticent  on  the  points  at  issue,  that  the 
Christians  did  not  venture  to  hold  meetings  or  even 
appear  in  public  (Euseb.,  "Hist.  eccl. ",  IX,  ix,  14-24). 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  following  year,  after 
his  defeat  at  Adrianople  (30  April,  313)  at  the  hands 
of  Licinius,  with  whom  he  was  contending  for  the  sole 
supremacy  over  the  Eastern  empire,  that  he  finally 
made  up  his  mind  to  enact  a  counterpart  of  the  edict 
of  Milan,  and  grant  full  and  unconditional  liberty  to 
the  Christians.  He  died  soon  after,  consumed  by  "an 
invisible  and  God-sent  fii-e"  (Hist,  eccl.,  IX,  x,  14). 
Lactantius  says  he  took  poison  at  Tarsus,  where  he 
had  fled  (op.  cit.,  49). 

Effects  op  the  Persecutions. — On  the  effects 
of  the  persecutions  in  Egypt,  Alexandria,  and  the 
Thebaic!  in  a  general  way  we  are  well  informed  by 
ocular  witnesses,  such  as  Phileas,  Bishop  of  Thmuis, 
in  a  letter  to  his  flock  which  has  been  preserved  by 
Eusebius  (Hist,  eccl.,  VIII,  x),  who  visited  Egypt 
towards  the  end  of  the  persecution,  and  seems  to  have 
been  imprisoned  there  for  the  faith.  Eusebivis  speaks 
of  large  numbers  of  men  in  groups  from  ten  to  one 
hundred,  with  young  children  and  women  put  to 
death  in  one  day,  and  this  not  for  a  few  days  or  a  short 
time,  but  for  a  long  series  of  years.  He  describes  the 
wonderful  ardour  of  the  faithful,  rushing  one  after 
another  to  the  judgment  seat  and  confessing  them- 
selves Christians,  the  joy  with  which  they  received 
their  sentence,  the  truly  Divine  energy  with  which 
they  endured  for  hours  and  days  the  most  excruciating 
tortures;  scraping,  racking,  scourging,  quartering, 
crucifixion  head  downwards,  not  only  without  com- 
plaining, but  singing  and  offering  up  hymns^  and 
thanksgiving  to  God  till  their  very  last  breath.  Those 
who  did  not  die  in  the  midst  of  their  tortures  were 
killed  by  the  sword,  fire,  or  drowning  (Eu.seb.,  "Hist, 
eccl.",  VIII,  viii,  9).  Frequently  they  were  thrown 
again  into  prison  to  die  of  exhaustion  or  hunger.  If 
perchance  they  recovered  under  the  care  of  friends 
and  were  offered  their  freedom  on  condition  of  sac- 
rificing, they  cheerfully  chose  again  to  face  the  judge 
and  his  executioners  (Letter  of  Phileas,  ibid.,  10).  Not 
all,  however,  received  their  crowns  at  the  end  of  a 
few  hours  or  days.  Many  were  condemned  to  hard 
labour  in  the  quarries  of  Porphyry  in  Assuan,  or,  espe- 
cially after  a.d.  307,  in  the  still  more  dreaded  copper 
mines  of  Phtinon  (near  Petra,  see  Revue  Bililique, 
1898,  p.  112),  or  in  those  of  Cilicia.  Lest  they  should 
escape,  they  were  previously  deprived  of  the  use  of 
their  left  legs  by  h.aving  the  sinews  cut  or  burnt  at  the 
knee  or  at  the  ankle,  and  again  their  right  eyes  were 
blinded  with  the  sword  and  then  destroyed  to  the 


very  roots  by  fire.  In  one  year  (308)  we  read  of  97, 
and  again  of  as  many  as  130,  Egyptian  confessors  thus 
doomed  to  a  fate  far  more  cruel  than  death,  because 
of  the  remoteness  of  the  crown  they  were  impatient 
to  obtain  and  the  privation  of  the  encouraging 
presence  and  exhortations  of  sympathetic  bystanders 
(Mart.  Pal.,  VIII,  i,  13). 

God  in  at  least  two  instances  related  by  Eusebius 
inspired  the  tyrant  to  shorten  the  conflict  of  those 
valiant  athletes.  At  his  command  forty  of  them, 
among  whom  were  many  Egyptians,  were  beheaded 
in  one  day  at  Zoara,  near  Phunon.  With  them  was 
Silvanus  of  Gaza,  a  bishop  who  had  been  ministering 
to  their  souls.  On  the  same  occasion,  Bishops  Peleus 
and  Nilus,  a  presbyter,  and  a  layman,  Patermuthius, 
all  from  Egypt,  were  condemned  to  death  by  fire 
probably  at  Phianon,  A.  D.  309  (Euseb.,  "Mart.  Pal.", 
XIII,  Cureton,  pp.  46-8).  Besides  Peter  of  Alex- 
andria, but  a  few  of  the  many  who  suffered  death 
illustriously  at  Alexandria  and  throughout  Egypt  and 
the  Thebaid  are  recorded  by  Eusebius,  viz.,  Faustus, 
Dius,  and  Ammonius,  his  companions,  all  three  pres- 
byters of  the  Church  of  Alexandria,  also  Phileas, 
Bishop  of  Thmuis  and  three  other  Egyptian  bishops; 
Hesychius  (perhaps  the  author  of  the  so-called  Hesy- 
chian  recension,  see  Hastings,  "Diet,  of  the  Bible", 
IV,  44.5),  Pachymius,  and  Theodoras  (Hist,  eccl., 
VIII,  xiii,  7);  finally  Philoromus,  "who  held  a  high 
office  under  the  imperial  government  at  Alexandria 
and  who  administered  justice  every  day  attended  by 
a  military  gu;ird  corresponding  to  his  rank  and  Roman 
dignity"  (ibid.,  ix,  7).  The  dates  of  their  confessions, 
with  the  exception  of  that  of  St.  Peter  (see  above) 
are  not  certain. 

Egyptian  Martyrs  in  Stria  and  Palestine. — 
Among  these,  Eusebius  mentions  Ptesis  and  Alexander, 
beheaded  at  Cajsarea  in  304,  with  six  other  young 
confessors.  Hearing  that  on  the  occasion  of  a  festival 
the  public  combat  of  the  Christians  whQ  had  lately 
been  condemned  to  the  wild  beasts  would  take  place, 
they  presented  themselves,  hands  bound,  to  the 
governor  and  declared  themselves  Christians  in  the 
hope  of  being  sent  to  the  arena.  But  they  were 
thrown  in  prison,  tortured,  and  finally  were  beheaded 
(Mart.  Pal.,  IV,  iii).  Elsewhere  we  read  of  five  young 
Egyptians  who  were  cast  before  different  kinds  of 
ferocious  beasts,  including  bulls  goaded  to  madness 
with  red-hot  irons,  but  none  of  which  would  attack 
the  athletes  of  Christ  who,  though  unbound,  stood 
motionless  in  the  arena,  their  arms  stretched  out  in 
the  form  of  a  cross,  earnestly  engaged  in  prayer. 
Finally  they  were  also  beheaded  and  cast  into  the  sea 
(Hist,  eccl.,  VIII,  vii).  We  must  al.so  mention  with 
Eusebius  a  party  of  Egyptians  who  had  been  sent  to 
minister  to  the  confessors  in  Cilicia.  They  were 
seized  as  they  were  entering  Ascalon.  Most  of  them 
received  the  same  sentence  as  those  whom  they  had 
gone  to  help,  being  mutilated  in  their  eyes  and  feet, 
and  sent  to  the  mines.  One,  Ares,  was  condemned  to 
be  burnt,  and  two,  Probus  (or  Primus)  and  Elias, 
were  beheaded,  a.  d.  308  (Mart.  Pal.,  X,  i).  The 
following  year  five  others  who  had  accompanied  the 
confessors  to  the  mines  in  Cilicia  were  returning  to 
their  homes  when  they  were  arrested  as  they  were 
passing  the  gates  of  Cffisarea,  and  were  put  to  death 
after  being  tortured,  a.  d.  309  (ibid.,  vi-xiii). 

We  close  this  section  with  the  name  of  ^desius, 
a  young  Lycian  and  brother  of  Apphianus  (Mart. 
Pal.,  IV).  He  had  been  condenmod  to  the  mines  of 
Palestine.  Having  soinchiiw  been  released,  he  came 
to  Alexandria  and  fell  in  with  II icrocles,  the  governor, 
while  he  wa.s  trying  some  Christians.  I'nable  to  con- 
tain his  iiidign-iliiin  at  llic  sight  of  the  outrages  in- 
flicted by  this  magistrate  on  the  modesty  of  .some  pure 
women,  he  went,  forward  anil  with  words  and  deeds 
overwhelmed  him  with  shanii-  and  disgrace.  Forth- 
with he  was  committed  tcTthc  executioners,  tortured 


PERSECUTIONS 


710 


PERSECUTIONS 


and  cast  into  the  sea  (Mart.  Pal.,  V,  ii-iii).  This 
glorious  page  of  the  history  of  the  Church  of  Egypt 
is  not  of  course  qviite  free  from  some  dark  spots. 
Many  were  overcome  by  the  tortures  at  various 
stages  of  their  confessions  and  apostatized  more  or 
less  explicitly.  This  is  attested  by  the  "Liber  de 
Pa'nitentia"  of  Peter  of  Alexandria,  dated  from 
Easter,  306  (published  in  Routh,  Reliquia;  Sacra>,  2nd 
ed..  IV,  23  sqq.).     (See  L.\psi.) 

Persecution  of  Diocletian  in  the  Acts  op 
Martyrs  of  the  Coptic  Church. — The  Acts  of 
Martyrs  of  Egypt  in  their  present  form  have  been, 
with  few  exceptions,  written  in  Coptic,  and  were  cur- 
rently road  in  the  churches  and  monasteries  of  Egypt 
at  \ci\st  from  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  century.  Later 
they  were,  like  the  rest  of  the  Coptic  literature,  trans- 
lated into  .\rabic  and  then  into  Ethiopic  for  the  use 
of  the  Aby.ssinian  Church.  The  Coptic  Acts  have 
often  come  down  to  us  both  in  Bohairic  and  in  Sahidic, 
those  in  the  latter  dialect  being  as  a  rule  fragmentary, 
as  most  of  its  hterature.  Where  we  have  the  same 
.A,cts  in  two  or  more  dialects  or  languages,  it  generally 
happens  that  the  various  versions  represent  more  or 
less  different  recensions,  and  this  is  sometimes  the 
case  even  between  two  copies  of  the  same  Acts  in 
the  same  language.  The  greater  part  of  the  extant 
Bohairic  Acts  have  been  published  with  a  French 
translation  by  the  present  writer  of  this  article  in 
"Les  Actes  des  Martyrs  de  I'Egj-pte",  etc.,  I  (here= 
H),  and  by  J.  Balestri  and  the  present  writer,  with  a 
Latin  translation,  in  "Acta  Martyrum",  I  (here= 
B-H).  Two  of  the  Arabic  Acts  have  appeared  in 
French  translation  only,  and  without  indication  of  the 
RI8.S.  from  which  they  were  taken,  under  the  name 
of  E.  Amchneau  in  "Contes  et  romans",  etc.,  II 
(here = A).  For  the  publication  of  some  of  the 
Ethiopic  Acts  we  are  indebted  to  E.  Pereira  in  "Acta 
Martyrum",  I  (here=P). 

Unlike  the  .\cts  of  martyrs  of  the  other  churches, 
those  of  the  Coptic  Church,  almost  ■nithout  any  ex- 
ception, contain  some  historical  data  of  a  more  general 
character,  which  are  as  the  background  of  the  narra- 
tive proper.  Put  side  by  side,  the  data  furnished  by 
the  various  Acts  of  martyrs  referred  to  the  persecu- 
tion of  Diocletian  prove  on  careful  examination  to 
constitute  just  such  an  outline  of  the  history  of  that 
persecution  as  could  result  from  a  condensed  com- 
pilation of  the  writings  of  Eusebius.  Indeed  it  seems 
as  though  each  individual  writer  of  those  Acts  had 
before  his  eyes  a  compilation  of  that  nature  and  took 
from  it  just  what  best  served  his  purpose.  Sometimes 
the  original  text  is  almost  literally  rendered  in  Coptic 
(and  what  is  still  more  surprising  in  Arabic  or  in 
Ethiopic),  with  here  and  there  an  occasional  distor- 
tion owing  to  the  failure  on  the  part  of  the  translator  to 
grasp  the  right  meaningof  a  difficult  orobscure  passage; 
sometimes  it  is  paraphrased;  frequently  it  has  been 
amplified  or  developed,  and  still  more  frequently  we 
find  it  more  or  less  curtailed.  In  other  cases  several 
passages  have  been  condensed  into  one,  so  as  to  rnake 
appear  simultaneous  facts  chronologically  distinct. 
Finally,  it  not  seldom  occurs  that  a  paragraph  or  even 
a  short  passage  of  Eusebius  has  been  transformed 
into  a  real  historical  romance.  In  the  latter  case  all 
proper  names  are  fictitious,  and  the  same  historical 
character  appears  under  various  names,  .\ntiochia 
is  universally  substituted  for  Nicomedia  a-s  the  capital 
of  the  eastern  empire.  Naturally  also  some  violence 
is  inflicted  on  the  original  at  the  point  where  the 
romance  is  grafted  upon  it.  A  few  examples  will 
suffice  to  illustrate  our  ^^ew  and  at  the  same  time  we 
hope  to  show  its  correctness. 

Bringing  together  the  data  furnished  bv  the  "Acts 
of  Claudius"  (P.,  17.5,  and  A.,  3),  and  Theodore 
Stratelates  (B-H,  1.57),  we  can  easily  reconstruct  the 
primitive  Coptic  version  of  the  beginning  of  the  per- 
secution as  follows:  In  the  nineteenth  year  of  Diocle- 


tian, as  the  Christians  were  preparing  to  celebrate  the 
Passion,  an  edict  was  issued  everj'where,  ordering 
their  churches  to  be  destroyed,  their  iloly  Scriptures 
burnt,  and  their  slaves  liberated,  wliile  other  edicts 
were  promulgated  demanding  the  imprisonment  and 
punisiiment  of  the  mini.stcrs  of  the  Christian  Church 
unless  llicy  sacrificed  to  the  gods.  This  is  unmistak- 
al)ly  .-i  translation  of  Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VIII,  ii, 
4-5,  and  although  it  shows  three  omissions,  viz.,  the 
indication  of  the  month;  the  mention  that  this  was 
the  first  edict,  and  the  third  provision  of  the  edict, 
together  with  the  wrong  translation  of  the  fourth 
clause,  however,  two  of  the  omissions  are  supplied  by 
the  "Actsof  Epime"  (B-H,  122;  comp.  Didymus  H., 
285),  in  which  we  find  as  heading  of  the  general  edict 
(fourth  edict,  see  p.  707c)  these  curious  words:  This 
was  the  first  edict  [apographe]  that  was  against  all  the 
saints.  He  [the  king]  got  up  early  on  the  first  day  of 
the  month  of'Pharmuthi  [27  March-25  April],  as  he 
was  to  pass  into  a  new  year  and  wrote  an  edict 
[dintagma]  etc.  It  needs  but  a  superficial  comparison 
between  Eusebius,  "Hist,  eccl.",  VIII,  ii,  4-5,  and 
"Mart.  Pal.",  Ill,  i,  to  see  that  the  italics  in  the 
Coptic  version  above  belong  to  the  former  passage, 
while  the  rest  represent  a  distorted  rendering  of  the 
latter.  The  Coptic  has  even  retained  to  some  extent 
the  difference  of  style  in  the  two  places,  having  apo- 
graphe for  graphe  in  the  first  case  and  diatagma  for 
prostagnia  in  the  latter.  The  other  omission,  viz.,  the 
third  clause  of  the  edict,  may  be  lurking  in  some  other 
te.xt  already  extant  or  yet  to  be  discovered.  As  for 
having  misunderstood  the  fourth  clause  of  the  edict, 
the  Coptic  compiler  may  well  be  forgiven  his  error  in 
view  of  the  divergence  of  opinion  still  obtaining  among 
scholars  as  to  the  right  interpretation  of  this  somewhat 
obscure  passage.  (See  McGiffert  on  the  passage,  note 
6.  In  this  case,  as  the  reader  may  have  observed,  we 
have  departed  from  McGiffert 's  translation  in  supply- 
ing "their"  before  "household",  thus  making  this 
f  ourth  clause  inreality  a  continuation  of  the  third  one.) 
Here  is  now  another  passage  in  which  the  text  of 
Eusebius  is  gradually  transformed  so  as  to  lose  prac- 
tically everything  of  its  primitive  .aspect.  In  the 
"Acts  of  Theodore  the  Eastern"  (one  of  the  most 
legendary  compositions  in  the  Coptic  Martyrology), 
we  read  that  Diocletian,  having  written  the  edict, 
handed  it  to  one  of  the  magi.strates,  Stephen  by  name, 
who  was  standing  by  him.  Stephen  took  it  and  tore 
it  up  in  the  presence  of  the  king.  Whereupon  the 
latter  grasped  his  sword  and  cut  Stephen  in  twain, 
and  wrote  the  edict  over  again  which  he  sends  all 
over  the  world  (P.,  120  sq.).  The  legend  process  has 
begun,  to  say  the  least.  Yet  everybody  will  recog- 
nize in  this  story  a  translation,  distorted  as  it  may  be, 
of  Eusebius,  Vlil,v  (those  in  Nicomedia).  As  in  Euse- 
bius it  is  a  man  in  high  rank  who  tears  the  edict.  Only 
in  Evisebius  the  edict  was  posted  up  instead  of  being 
handed  by  the  emperor,  and  the  act  took  place  "while 
two  of  the  emperors  were  in  the  same  city"  not  "in 
the  presence  of  the  emperor";  finally,  Eusebius  does 
not  say  with  what  death  the  perpetrator  of  the  act 
met  (Lactantius,  "De  mort.  persec",  XIII,  says  he 
was  burnt).  In  the  "Acts  of  Epime",  the  legend 
takes  another  step  forward.  A  young  soldier  of  high 
rank,  seeing  the  edict  (posted  upl  takes  off  his  sword- 
belt  and  presents  himself  to  the  king.  The  king  asks 
him  who  he  is.  The  .soldier  answers  that  he  is  Chris- 
todorus,  son  of  Basilides  the  St  rat  elates,  but  that  hence- 
forth he  shall  not  ser\-e  an  impious  king,  but  confess 
Christ.  Then  the  king  takes  the  sword  of  one  of  the 
soldiers  and  runs  it  through  the  young  man  (B-H,  122 
sq.).  There  is  almo.st  nothing  left  of  Eusebius'  ac- 
count of  this  storv'.  In  fact  it  looks  as  if  the  writer  of 
the  "Acts  of  Epime"  had  taken  it  from  those  of 
Theodore  the  Eastern,  or  some  other  already  dis- 
torted version  of  the  Eusebian  aceount,  and  spoiled 
it  still  more  in  his  effort  to  conceal  his  act  of  plagiarism. 


PERSEVERANCE 


711 


PERSEVERANCE 


We  could  cite  many  more  passages  of  the  Acta  of 
martyrs  of  Egypt,  thus  reproducing  more  or  less 
exactly,  yet  unmistakably,  the  account  of  the  per- 
secution of  Diocletian  as  given  by  Eusebius.  In  fact 
almost  every  chapter  of  the  eighth  book  of  his  "His- 
tory" is  represented  there  by  one  or  more  passages, 
also  some  chapters  of  the  seventh  and  ninth  books, 
and  of  the  book  on  the  Martyrs  of  Palestine,  so  that 
there  can  be  no  serious  doubt  as  to  the  existence  of 
a  Coptic  history  of  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  based 
on  Eusebius.  This  may  have  been  a  distinct  work,  or 
it  may  have  been  part  of  the  Coptic  church  history,  in 
twelve  books,  of  which  considerable  fragments  are 
known  to  be  extant  (see  Egypt,  History).  From 
that  same  Cojstic  church  history  were  taken,  possibly, 
the  several  excerpts  from  Eusebius  to  be  found  in  the 
"History  of  the  Patriarchs"  of  Severus  of  Ashmunein 
(Egypt,  p.  362d),  and  it  might  be  one  of  the  Coptic 
and  Greek  works  to  which  this  author  refers  as  having 
been  used  by  him  [Graffin-Nau,  "Patrologia  Orien- 
talis",  I,  115;  cf.  Crum,  "Proceedings  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Biblical  Archaeology",  XXIV  (1902),  68  sqq.]. 
However,  it  seems  more  likelj'  that  the  Coptic  and 
Greek  works  spoken  of  by  Severus  were  lives  of  the 
individual  patriarchs,  the  compilers  of  which  may 
have  used  either  Eusebius'  original  text  or  moreprob- 
abl.v  the  Coptic  work  in  question. 

There  are  also  in  the  Acts  of  martyrs  of  Egypt  clear 
traces  of  other  sources  of  information  as  to  the  per- 
secution of  Diocletian.  This  is  generally  the  case 
with  some  of  the  more  legendary  pieces.  For  instance, 
in  the  introduction  to  the  "Acts  of  Epime",  we  read 
that  Diocletian,  formerly  a  Christian  (probably  here 
confused  with  Julian  the  Apostate),  apostatized  and 
made  for  himself  seventy  gods,  calling  the  first  of 
them  Apollo,  and  .so  on.  Then  he  called  a  council  of 
dignitaries  of  the  empire  and  told  them  that  Apollo 
and  the  rest  of  the  gods  had  appeared  to  him,  and 
demanded  a  reward  for  having  restored  him  to  health 
and  given  him  the  victory.  In  behalf  of  all,  Romanus 
the  Stratelates  suggested  to  oblige  all  the  subjects  of 
Diocletian  to  worship  his  gods  under  penalty  of  death. 
Is  it  not  clear  that  the  first  author  of  the  narrative 
must  have  read  in  some  form  or  other  the  ninth  chap- 
ter of  Lactantius'  "De  mortibus  persecutorum "?  In 
what  other  source  could  we  have  found  that  Dio- 
cletian acted  on  the  advice  of  a  council,  and  that  of 
Apollo,  no  matter  whether  the  god  volunteered  his 
advice  or  Diocletian  sought  it?  Can  it  be  a  mere  co- 
incidence that  both  Lactantius  and  the  Coptic  WTiter 
explain  practically  in  the  same  way  Diocletian's  deter- 
mination to  persecute  the  Christians? 

Eusebius,  Hisloria  ecdesiastica  in  P.  G.,  XX:  Idem.  De  mar- 
tyribus  PahssiinfE  {ibid.);  both  works  also,  in  Englisli  tr.  (which  we 
follow)  with  Prolegomena  and  notes  by  McGiffert  in  Select 
Library  of  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Church, 
new  series,  I  (Oxford,  1890);  Lactantius,  De  morte  persecutorum 
in  P.  L.,  VII;  Gregg.  The  Decian  Persecution  (Edinburgh,  1897) ; 
Healt,  The  Valerian  Persecution  (Boston,  1905);  Mason,  The 
Persecution  of  Diocletian  (Cambridge,  1876) ;  Schoenaich,  Die 
Christenverfolgung  des  Kaisers  Decius  (Jauer,  1907) ;  Tillemont, 
Memoires  pour  servir  d I' histoire  eccUsiastique  des  six  premiers  si^cles, 
III-V;  Hyvernat,  Les  actes  des  martyrs  de  VEgypte  tires  des 
manuscrits  coptes  de  la  bibliothigue  Vaticane,  etc.,  I  (Paris,  1886-87) ; 
Balestki  and  Hyvernat,  Acta  Martyrum,  I  in  Corpus  Scriptorum 
Christianorum  OrientaKum:  Scriptores  Coptic!,  I  (third  series, 
Paris,  1907);  Pereira,  .Acta  Martyrum,  ibid.,  Scriptores  Xlhi- 
opici.  XXVIII  (second  series,  Paris,  1907);  Am^lineau.  Contes  et 
Tomans  de  I'Egypte  chrHienne  (Paris,  1888).  For  a  complete  bibli- 
ographv  of  the  material  at  hand  see  Bollandists  (Peeters). 
Bibl.  Hagiogr.  Orient.  (Brussels,  1910).  The  only  important  addi- 
tion to  be  made  to  this  very  useful  work  is  the  recent  publication 
of  Winstedt,  Coptic  texts  on  Saint  Theodore  the  General,  St.  Theo- 
dore the  Eastern,  etc.  (with  English  tr.,  London,  1910). 

H.  Hyvernat. 

Perseverance,  Final  (pemevemriHa  jlnali.'i),  is  the 
preservation  of  the  state  of  grace  till  the  end  of  life. 
The  expression  is  taken  from  Matt.,  x.  22,  "He  that 
shall  persevere  unto  the  end,  he  shall  be  saved."  A 
temporary  continuance  in  grace,  be  it  ever  so  long, 
evidently  falls  short  of  the  obvious  meaning  of  the 


above  phrase,  if  it  fails  to  reach  the  hour  of  death. 
On  the  other  hand  the  saying  of  St.  Matthew  does  not 
necessarily  imply  a  lifelong  and  unbroken  continu- 
ance in  grace,  since  it  is  of  faith  that  lost  grace  can  be 
recovered.  Between  the  temporary  continuance  or 
imperfect  perseverance  and  the  lifelong  continuance 
or  most  perfect  perseverance  there  is  room  for  final 
perseverance  as  commonly  understood,  i.  e.,  the  pres- 
ervation of  grace  from  the  last  conversion  till  death. 
It  may  be  viewed  as  a  power  or  as  an  actual  fact.  As 
a  power  it  means  the  ensemble  of  spiritual  means 
whereby  the  human  will  is  enabled  to  persevere  unto 
the  end  if  it  duly  co-operates.  As  an  actual  fact  it 
means  the  de  facto  preservation  of  grace  and  implies 
two  factors,  one  internal,  i.  e.,  the  steadfast  use  of  the 
various  means  of  salvation,  the  other  external,  i.  e., 
the  timely  coming  of  death  while  the  soul  is  at  peace 
with  God.  Theologians,  aptly  or  not,  call  the  former 
active  and  the  latter  passive  perseverance.  There 
may  be  passive  perseverance  without  active,  as  when 
an  infant  dies  immediately  after  Baptism,  but  the 
normal  case,  which  alone  is  considered  here,  is  that  of 
a  good  death  crowning  a  greater  or  lesser  duration  of 
well-doing.  By  what  agency  the  combined  stability 
in  holiness  and  timeliness  of  death  are  brought  about 
is  a  problem  long  debated  among  Christian  writers. 
The  Semipelagians  of  the  fifth  century,  while  forsak- 
ing the  sweeping  ethical  naturalism  of  Pelagius  and 
admitting  on  principle  the  graces  of  the  will,  contended 
nevertheless,  that  the  final  perseverance  of  the  justified 
was  sufficient'y  accounted  for  by  the  natural  power  of 
our  free  will;  if  sometimes,  in  order  to  tally  with  con- 
ciliar  definitions,  they  called  it  a  grace,  it  was  but  a 
misnomer,  as  that  grace  could  be  merited  by  man's 
natural  exertions.  Oppositely,  the  Reformers  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  partly  followed  by  the  Baianist  and 
Jansenist  school,  so  minimized  the  native  power  and 
moral  value  of  our  free  will  as  to  make  final  persever- 
ance depend  on  God  alone,  while  their  pretended 
fiducial  faith  and  inadmissibility  of  grace  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  we  can,  in  this  world,  have  absolute 
certainty  of  our  final  perseverance. 

The  Catholic  doctrine,  outlined  by  St.  Augustine, 
chiefly  in  "De  dono  perseverantiae "  and  "De  correp- 
tione  et  gratia ' ' ,  and  the  Council  of  Orange  in  Southern 
Gaul,  received  its  full  expression  in  the  Council  of 
Trent,  sess.  VI,  c.  xiii,  can.  16  and  22:  (1)  The  power 
of  persevering. — Canon  22  (Si  quis  dixerit  justificatum 
vel  sine  special!  auxilio  Dei  in  accepta  justitia  perse- 
verare  posse,  vel  cum  eo  non  posse,  anathema  sit),  by 
teaching  that  the  justified  cannot  persevere  without  a 
special  help  of  God,  but  with  it  can  persevere,  not  only 
condemns  both  the  naturalism  of  the  Semipelagians 
and  the  false  supernaturalism  of  the  Reformers  but 
also  clearly  implies  that  the  power  of  perseverance  is 
neither  in  the  human  will  alone  nor  in  God's  grace 
solely,  but  in  the  combination  of  both,  i.  e.,  Divine 
grace  aiding  human  will,  and  human  will  co-operating 
with  Divine  grace.  The  grace  in  question  is  called  by 
the  Council  "a  special  help  of  God",  apparently  to 
distinguish  it  both  from  the  concurrence  of  God  in  the 
natural  order  and  habitual  grace,  neither  of  which 
were  denied  by  the  Semipelagians.  Theologians,  with 
a  few  exceptions,  identify  this  special  help  with  the 
sum  total  of  actual  graces  vouchsafed  to  man.  (2) 
Actual  perseverance. — The  Council  of  Trent,  using  an 
expression  coined  by  St.  Augustine,  calls  it  {magnum 
v.ique  in  finem  perseveranlice  dnnum)  the  great  gift  of 
final  perseverance.  "It  consists",  says  Newman,  "In 
an  ever  watchful  superintendence  of  us  on  the  part  of 
our  All-Merciful  Lord,  removing  temptations  which 
He  sees  will  be  fatal  to  us,  succouring  us  at  those  times 
when  we  are  in  particular  peril,  whether  from  our 
negligence  or  other  cause,  and  ordering  the  course  of 
our  life  so  that  we  may  die  at  a  t  ime  when  He  sees  that 
we  are  in  the  state  of  grace."  The  supernatural  char- 
acter of  such  a  gift  is  clearly  asserted  by  Christ :  "Holy 


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PERSIA 


Father,  keep  them  in  thy  name  wIkuii  fliou  h.is 
given"  (John,  xvii,  11);  by  St.  Paul:  "he,  wlio  hath 
begun  a  good  work  in  you,  will  ])crfeet  it  unto  the  clay 
of  Christ  Jesus"  (Phil.,  i,  0);  and  by  St.  Peter:  "Hut 
the  God  of  all  graee,  who  Imth  called  u.s  unto  hi.s  eter- 
nal glory  in  Christ  Jesus,  after  you  have  suiTered  a 
little,  will  himself  perfect  you,  ami  confirm  you,  and 
establish  you  "  (I  Pet.,  v,  10).  The  extreme  preeiou.s- 
ness  of  that  supernatural  gift  places  it  alike  bej'ond 
our  certain  knowledge  and  merit  inn  pcjwer. 

That  we  can  never  in  this  life  be  certain  of  our  final 
perseverance  is  defined  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  Sess. 
\T,  can.  xvi:  "Si  cpiis  niagiuim  illud  usque  in  finem 
perse verantiie  donum  se  certo  habiturinn,  absoluta  et 
infallibili  certitudine  dixerit,  nisi  hoc  ex  speciali  reve- 
latione  didicerit,  anathema  sit".  What  places  it  be- 
yond our  meriting  power  is  the  obvious  fact  that 
revelation  nowhere  offers  final  perseverance,  with  its 
retinue  of  efficacious  graces  and  its  crown  of  a  good 
death,  as  a  reward  for  our  actions,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, constantly  reminds  us  that,  as  the  Council  of 
Trent  puts  it,  "the  gift  of  perseverance  can  come  only 
from  Him  who  has  the  power  to  confirm  the  standing 
and  to  raise  the  fallen".  However,  from  our  incapa- 
city to  certainly  know  and  to  strictly  merit  the  great 
gift,  we  should  not  infer  that  nothing  can  be  done 
towards  it.  Theologians  unite  in  saying  that  final  per- 
severance comes  under  the  impetrative  power  of 
prayer  and  St.  Liguori  (Prayer,  the  great  means  of 
Salvation)  would  make  it  the  dominant  note  and  bur- 
den of  our  daily  petitions.  The  sometimes  distres.sing 
presentation  of  the  present  matter  in  the  pulpit  is  due 
to  the  many  sides  of  the  problem,  the  impossibility  of 
viewing  them  all  in  one  sermon,  and  the  idiosyncrasies 
of  the  speakers.  Nor  should  the  timorousness  of  the 
saints,  graphically  described  by  Newman,  be  so  con- 
strued as  to  contradict  the  admonition  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  that  "all  should  place  the  firmest  hope  in  the 
succour  of  God".  Singularly  eiuiifiirtiui;  is  the  teach- 
ing of  such  saints  as  St.  p'raiM  is  .|e  Sales  (Camus, 
"The  Spirit  of  St.  Francis  dc  Sales",  HI,  xiii)  and  St. 
Catherine  of  Genoa  (Treatise  of  Purgatory,  iv).  They 
dwell  on  God's  great  mercy  in  granting  final  persever- 
ance, and  even  in  the  case  of  notorious  sinners  they  do 
not  lose  hope:  God  suffuses  the  sinners'  dying  hour 
with  an  extraordinary  light  and,  showing  them  the 
hideousness  of  sin  contrasting  with  His  own  infinite 
beauty,  He  makes  a  final  appeal  to  them.  For  those 
only  who,  even  then,  obstinately  cling  to  their  sin  does 
the  saj-ing  of  Ecclus.,  v,  7,  assume  a  sombre  meaning 
"nierey  and  wrath  quickly  come  from  him,  and  hia 
wratli  Idoketh  \ipon  sinners".     (See  Grace). 

M    TliMMAs.  .s.,mm«  ll>,„h„,ir„.   T-II,Q.  oxiv.  a.  9;   Wilhelm 

AND.SCANNELL.  .1    M,l  niUll  nf  I  ' . , ,  I. .  .1 .  r   T1.-..I ,     II   .londOD,  1901), 

242;    B.u^TEH,  Outlines  ,.'  I  .  Ill    (New  York, 

1891).  47;  Newman,  Per...  .        arses  to  Mixed 

Congregations    (London    :i:.  ,         ,     I  ■  i  .,;     Labauche, 

Vhomme  dans  Vetat  de  giu.:    ...  .. :<    iL-.-logie  dogmatique 

(Paris,  1908);  Bareilles,  Lc  calichismc  rumain  (Montrfjeau, 
1906-10),  III,  417,  and  VI,  434.  See  alao  current  theological 
treatises  Z)e  ffrolia.  J.  p.   SoLLIER. 

Persia. — The  history,  religion,  and  civilization  of 
Persia  are  ofTshoots  from  those  of  Media.  Both  Medes 
and  Persians  are  Aryans;  the  .\i\aiis  who  settled  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Irania  n  i  ila  1 1  au  1  leeame  known 
as  Persians,  while  those  of  the  HKmnialn  regions  of  the 
north-west  were  called  Medes.  The  Medes  were  at 
first  the  leading  nation,  but  towards  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century  B.  c.  the  Persians  became  the  dominant 
power,  not  only  in  Iran,  but  also  in  Western  Asia. 

Persia  (in  Heb.  C-;,  in  the  Sept.  Ilfptris,  in  the 
Acha-menian  inscriptions  Parsa,  in  Elamitic  Parsin,  in 
modem  Persian  Pars,  and  in  Arabic  Pars,  or  P/iris) 
w.as  originally  the  name  of  a  province  in  Media,  but 
afterwards — i.  e.,  towards  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century  B.  c. — it  became  the  general  name  of  the  whole 
countrj-  formerly  comprising  Media,  Susiana,  Elam, 
and  even  Mesopotamia.    What  we  now  call  Persia  is 


not  identical  with  the  ancient  empire  design.ated  by 
that  name.  That  empire  covered,  from  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.  c.  to  the  seventh  of  our  (^a,  such  vast,  ri^gions  as 
Persia  proper,  Media,  Klam,  Chaldea,  Babylonia, 
Assyria,  the  highlands  of  yVrmeiiia  and  Bactriana, 
North-lvistern  Arabia,  and  even  J'Jgypt.  Persia  proper 
is  boimded  on  the  north  by  Tran.scaucasia,  the  Cas- 
pian Sea,  and  liussian  Turkestan;  on  the  south  by 
the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Persian  Gulf;  on  tlx'  east  by 
Ku.ssian  Turkestan,  Afghanistan,  and  Beluehist;in, 
and  on  the  west  l)y  .\sialic  Turkey  and  the  Persian 
Gulf;  it  is  over  one-tiftli  as  large  as  the  United  States 
(excluding  Alaska)  and  twice  as  large  as  Germany, 
having  an  area  of  about  f)42,()(IO  square  miles.  The 
whole  country  occupies  a  jilateau  varying  in  height 
from  3000  to  5000  feet,  and  subject  to  wide  extremes 
of  climate,  its  northern  edge  bordering  on  the  Casjiian 
Sea  and  the  plain  of  Turkestan,  its  southern  and  south- 
western on  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  plains  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. The  ancient  Persians  were  vigorous  and  hardy, 
simple  in  manners,  occupied  in  raising  cattle  and 
horses  in  the  mountainous  regions,  and  agriculture  in 
the  valleys  and  plains.  The  four  great  cities  were 
Ecbatana,  in  the  north,  Persepolis  in  the  east,  Susa  in 
the  west,  and  Seleucia-Ctcsiphon  in  the  south-west. 
The  provinces  and  towns  of  modern  Persia  will  be 
given  below. 

I.  History. — Historians  generally  assign  the  begin- 
nings of  Persian  history  to  the  reign  of  Cyrus  the 
Great  (550-529  b.  c),  although,  strictly  speaking,  it 
should  begin  with  Darius  (521-485  B.  c).  Cyrus  was 
certainly  of  Persian  extraction,  but  when  he  founded 
his  empire  he  was  Prince  of  Elam  (Anzan),  and  he 
merely  added  Media  and  Persia  to  his  dominion.  He 
was  neither  by  birth  nor  religion  a  true  Persian,  for 
both  he  and  Cambyses  worshipped  the  Babylonian 
gods.  Darius,  on  the  other  hand,  was  both  by  birth 
and  religion  a  Persian,  descendetl,  like  Cyrus,  from  the 
royal  Achsemenian  house  of  Persia,  and  a  follower  of 
the  Zoroastrian  faith.  The  ancestors  of  Darius  had 
remained  in  Persia,  whilst  the  branch  of  the  family  of 
which  Cyrus  was  a  member  had  settled  in  Elam.  The 
history  of  Persia  may  be  divided  into  five  great  pe- 
riods, each  represented  by  a  dynasty:  A.  The  Acha:'- 
menian  Dynasty,  beginning  with  the  kingdom  of 
Cyrus  the  Great  and  ending  with  the  Macedonian 
conquest  (550-.331  B.  c.) ;  B.  The  Greek,  or  Seleucian, 
Dynasty  (331-250  b.  c);  C.  The  Parthian  Dynasty 
(250  B.  c.-A.  D.  227);  D.  The  Sassanian  Dynasty  (a.  d. 
227-651);  E.  The  Mohammedan  period  (a.  d.  651  to 
the  present). 

A.  The  Achmmenian  Dynasty  (550-331  b.  c). — 
Towards  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  b.  c,  and  a 
few  years  after  the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Nabu- 
chodonosor)  the  Great,  King  of  Babylon  (605-562 
B.  c).  Western  Asia  was  divided  into  three  kingdoms: 
the  Babylonian  Empire,  Media,  and  Lydia;  and  it  was 
only  a  question  of  time  which  of  the  three  would  anni- 
hilate the  other  two.  Astyages  (585-557  b.  c),  the  suc- 
cessor of  Cyaxares  (62.5-585  B.  c),  being  engaged  in 
an  expedition  against  Babylonia  and  Mesopotamia, 
Cyrus,  Prince  of  Anzan,  in  Elam,  profiting  by  his 
absence,  fomented  a  rebellion  in  Media.  Astyages, 
hearing  of  the  revolt,  immediately  returned,  but  was 
defeated  and  overthrown  by  Cyrus,  who  was  pro- 
claimed King  of  Media.  Thus,  with  the  overthrow  of 
Astyages  and  the  accession  of  Cyrus  to  the  throne,  the 
Median  Empire  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Persians 
(.550  B.  c).  In  549,  Cyrus  invaded  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lonia; in  546  he  attacked  Croesus  of  Lydia,  defeated 
him,  and  annexed  Asia  Minor  to  his  realm;  he  then 
conquered  Bactriana  and,  in  539,  marched  against 
Babylon.  In  538  Babylon  surrendered,  Nabonidus 
fled,  the  Syro-Phncnici.an  provinces  submitted,  and 
Cyrus  allowed  the  Hebrews  to  return  to  Palestine. 
But  in  529  he  was  killed  in  bat  t  le,  .and  was  succeed(-d 
by  Cambyses,  the  heir  apparent,  who  put  his  brother 


PERSIA 


713 


PERSIA 


Smerdis  to  death.  In  525  Cambyses,  aided  by  a 
Pha?nieian  fleet,  conquered  Egypt  and  advanced 
against  tiie  Sudan,  but  was  compelled  to  return  to 
Egypt.  On  his  way  home,  and  while  in  Syria,  being 
informed  that  Gaumata,  a  Magian,  pretending  to  be 
the  murdered  Smerdis,  had  seized  the  throne,  Camby- 
ses committed  suicide  (522)  and  was  succeeded,  in  521, 
by  Darius  Hystaspes,  who,  with  six  other  princes,  suc- 
ceeded in  overthrowing  the  usurper  Gaumata. 

With  the  accession  of  Darius,  the  throne  passed  to  the 
second  line  of  descendants  of  Teispes  II,  and  thus  the 
Elamite  dynasty  came  to  an  end.  This  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  a  general  revolt  in  all  the  provinces,  including 
Babylon,  where  a  son  of  Nabonidus  was  proclaimed 
king.  Susiana  also  rose  up  in  arms,  and  Darius  was 
confronted  with  the  task  of  reconquering  the  empire 
founded  by  Cyrus.  In  519  Babylon  was  conquered,  all 
the  other  pro\dnces,  mcluding  Egypt,  were  pacified 
and  the  wliole  empire  reorganized  and  divided  into 
satrapies  with  fixed  administration  and  taxes.  In  515 
the  Asiatic  Greeks  began  to  rebel,  but  were  crushed  by 
Darius.  Thence  he  marched  to  the  Indus  and  subju- 
gated the  country  along  its  banks.  In  499  the  lonians 
revolted,  but  were  defeated  and  the  city  of  Miletus 
destroyed  (494  b.  c).  In  492  Mardonius,  one  of  Da- 
rius's  generals,  set  out  to  reconquer  Greece,  concen- 
trating all  his  forces  in  Cilicia;  but  the  Persians  were 
defeated  at  Marathon  (490  B.  c).  In  485  Darius  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Xerxes  I,  who  immediately  set 
out  to  reconquer  Egypt  and  Babylon,  and  renewed  the 
war  against  Greece.  After  the  indecisive  battles  of 
Thermopyla;  and  Artemisium,  he  was  defeated  by 
Themistocles  at  Salamis  near  Athens  (480).  During 
the  years  479-465,  Xerxes  met  with  constant  reverses; 
he  gradually  lost  Attica,  Ionia,  the  Arcliipelago,  and 
Thrace,  and  at  last  was  assassinated  by  Artabanus 
and  Artaxerxes.  The  latter,  becoming  king  as  Arta- 
xerxes  I,  in  464  quelled  revolts  in  Bactria  and  Egypt 
in  the  year  454.  In  449,  the  Persian  fleet  and  army 
having  been  again  defeated  near  Salamis,  in  Cyprus,  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  made  between  Persia  and  Athens. 
Artaxerxes  died  in  424  and  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son,  Xerxes  II,  who  reigned  but  forty-five  days  and 
was  murdered  by  his  half-brother  Sogdianus.  Sog- 
dianus  reigned  six  months  and  was  murdered  by 
Ochus,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  423  as  Dariua  II 
Nothus  (the  Bastard). 

In  412,  Darius  II  compelled  Sparta  to  recognize 
Persian  suzerainty  over  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  reconquered  the  cities  of  Ionia  and  Caria.  On  his 
death,  in  404,  Arsaees,  his  eldest  son,  ascended  the 
throne  as  Artaxerxes  II,  and  quelled  revolts  in  Cy- 
prus, Asia  Minor,  and  Egypt.  But  in  the  last  seven 
years  of  his  reign,  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor  became  once 
more  independent.  He  died  in  359  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Ochus,  known  as  Artaxerxes  III.  In  this 
same  year,  the  Persians  were  defeated  in  Egypt  and 
lost  Phoenicia  and  Cyprus  (352) ;  but  in  345-340,  Arta- 
xerxes succeeded  in  conquering  and  crushing  Sidon, 
Cyprus,  and  Egypt.  In  338  he  was  murdered  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  youngest  son.  Arses,  who  was  in  his 
turn  put  to  death  by  the  eunuch  Bagoas  (335),  and  was 
succeeded  by  Codomannus,  great-grandson  of  Darius 
II,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Darius  III.  In  334 
Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  began  his 
career  of  conquest  by  subduing  all  Asia  Minor  and 
Northern  Syria.  After  conquering  Tyre,  Phoenicia, 
Judea,  and  Egypt  in  332,  he  invaded  Assyria,  and  at 
Arbela,in  331,  defeated  Darius  and  his  vast  army,  thus 
putting  an  end  to  the  .\cha;menian  dynasty.  Darius 
III  fled  to  Media,  where  he  was  seized  and  murdered 
by  Bessus,  Satrap  of  Bactria  (330),  while  Alexander 
entered  Babylon  and  Susa,  and  subdued  the  provinces 
of  Elam,  Persia,  and  Media.  Bessus,  the  murderer  of 
Darius,  who  had  proclaimed  himself  King  of  Persia 
under  the  name  of  Artaxerxes  IV.  fell  into  Alexander's 
hands  and  was  put  to  death  (330  B.  c). 


B.  The  Greek,  or  Seleucian,  Dynasty  (331-250  B.  c). 
— ^^"ith  Alexander's  signal  victory  over  Darius 
III  at  Arbela  (Guagamela),  in  331,  the  Acha-menian 
Kingdom  of  Persia  came  to  an  end.  Alexander 
founded  more  than  seventy  cities  in  which  he  planted 
Greek  and  Macedonian  colonies.  But  the  great  con- 
queror, greedy  for  sensual  pleasures,  plunged  into  a 
course  of  dissipation  which  ended  in  his  death,  13 
June,  323.  Dissension  and  civil  wars  broke  out  at 
once  in  every  quarter  of  the  vast  empire,  from  India 
to  the  Nile,  and  lasted  for  nearly  forty-two  years. 
Perdiccas,  the  regent  of  Babylon  during  the  minority 
of  Alexander's  son,  was  soon  assassinated,  and  his 
power  claimed  by  Pitho,  Satrap  of  Media;  but  Pitho 
was  displaced  by  a  conspiracy  of  the  other  satraps, 
who,  in  316,  chose  Eumenes  to  occupy  the  throne  of 
Alexander.  Eumenes  was  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  Antigonus,  another  great  Macedonian  general,  who 
again  was  obliged,  in  312,  to  yield  to  Seleucus,  one 
of  the  Alexandrian  generals,  founder  of  the  Seleucid 
djTiasty.  He  built  the  city  of  Seleucia,  on  the  Tigris, 
making  it  the  capital  of  the  Persian,  or  rather  Grajco- 
Persian,  Empire.  The  great  disturbing  element  during 
the  Seleucian  period  was  the  rivalry  between  Greeks 
and  Macedonians,  as  well  as  between  cavalry  and 
infantry.  The  Greek  colonists  in  Bactria  revolted 
against  Macedonian  arrogance  and  were  with  diffi- 
culty pacified  by  Seleucus  Nicator.  But  the  dissat- 
isfaction continued,  and,  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
II,  about  240  b.  c,  Diodotus,  Satrap  of  Bactria, 
revolted  and  founded  a  separate  Greek  state  in  the 
heart  of  Central  Asia.  This  Kingdom  of  Bactria  pre- 
sents one  of  the  most  singular  episodes  in  history. 
A  small  colony  of  foreigners,  many  hundred  miles  from 
the  sea,  entirely  isolated,  and  numbering  probably 
not  over  thirty-five  thousand,  not  only  maintained 
their  independence  for  about  one  hundred  years  in  a 
strange  land,  but  extended  their  conquests  to  the 
Ganges,  and  included  several  hundred  populous  cities 
in  their  dominions. 

The  reign  of  Seleucus  Nicator  lasted  from  312  to 
280  B.  c.  His  first  care  was  to  reorganize  his  empire 
and  satrapies  (seventy-two  in  number),  which  yielded 
him  an  annual  revenue  equivalent  to  about  twenty 
million  dollars.  In  289  he  removed  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment from  Seleucia  to  Antioch,  in  Syria.  But,  as 
it  was  impossible  to  govern  properly  so  extensive  an 
empire  from  so  distant  a  capital,  he  found  it  advisable 
to  make  over  the  upper  satrapies  to  Antiochus,  his 
son,  giving  him  Seleucia  as  his  capital  (293  B.  c).  In 
280,  however,  Seleucus  was  assassinated  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Antiochus  I  (called  Soter), 
whose  reign  of  twenty-one  years  was  devoid  of  in- 
terest. His  second  son,  Antiochus  II  (called  Theos), 
succeeded  him  in  261,  a  drunken  and  dissolute  prince, 
who  neglected  his  realm  for  the  society  of  unworthy 
favourites.  During  his  reign,  north-eastern  Persia 
was  lost  to  the  empire,  and  some  Bactrians,  embold- 
ened by  the  weakness  and  effeminacy  of  Antiochus, 
and  led  by  the  brothers,  Arsaees  and  Tiridates,  moved 
west  into  Seleucid  territory,  near  Parthia.  Pherecles, 
the  Seleucid  satrap,  having  insulted  Tiridates,  was 
slain,  and  Parthia  freed  from  the  Macedonians.  Ar- 
saees, the  brother  of  Tiridates,  was  proclaimed  first 
King  of  Parthia  in  250  B.  c,  and  the  Seleucid  dynasty 
fell  into  decay. 

C.  The  Arsacid,  or  Parthian  Dynasty  (250  B.  c. 
-A.  D.  216). — The  founding  of  the  Parthian  monarchy 
marks  the  opening  of  a  glorious  era  in  the  history  of 
Persia.  The  Parthians,  though  inferior  in  refinement, 
habits,  .and  civilization  to  the  Persians  proper,  form, 
nevertheless,  a  branch  of  \\w  same  stock.  They  were 
originally  a  nom.adic  tribe  and,  Wkv.  the  Persians, 
followers  of  Zoroaster.  They  had  their  own  custorns, 
and  were  famovis  for  their  horsemanship,  their  armies 
being  entirely  composed  of  cavalry,  completely  clad 
in  chain  armour  and  riding-wit  hout  saddles.    They  left 


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PERSIA 


few  records;  indeed,  we  really  know  very  little  of  the 
internal  history  of  the  Parihians,  and  would  ha~ve 
known  still  loss  but  for  the  frequent  wars  between 
them  and  the  Cireeks  and  Romans.  Numbers  of 
Parthian  coins  are  still  found  in  northern  Persia  and 
have  been  of  {treat  value  to  the  historian  who,  thou- 
sands of  years  later,  has  tried  to  put  toRothor  the  dis- 
jointofl  history  of  this  dynasty.  Amid  the  faint  and 
eonfiiscd  outlines  whieh  alone  remain  to  record  the 
career  of  the  mislity  Parthian  race  which  for  over  four 
hunched  jears  ruled  in  Persia  with  a  rod  of  iron,  and 
whieh  repeatedly  hurled  back  the  veteran  legions  of 
Home,  we  are  able  to  discern  two  or  three  grand  figures 
and  some  events  that  will  be  remembered  while  the 
world  lasts. 

Of  tliese  heroes  of  Parthia  the  most  important  was 
Mithridates  the  Great,  who  not  only  repaired  the 
losses  the  empire  had  sustained  in  its  conflicts  with 
the  Seleucids,  but  carried  the  conquests  of  Parthia 
as  far  as  India  in  one  direct  ion,  and  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates  in  the  other.  Parthians  and  Romans  met 
for  the  first  time,  not  for  war,  but  to  arrange  a  treaty 
of  peace  between  the  two  great  powers  of  that  age. 
Soon  after  this  event  Demetrius  III,  head  of  the 
Seleucian  dynasty,  was  forced  to  surrender,  with  his 
entire  army,  to  Klithridates,  and  ended  his  days  in 
captivity.  Armenia  also  fell  under  the  Parthian 
domination  during  the  reign  of  Mithridates.  The 
coins  of  Mithridates  are  very  numerous  and  clearly 
cut;  the  design  shows  the  portrait  of  that  monarch, 
with  a  full  beard  and  strongly  marked,  but  pleasing, 
features.  His  immediate  successors  were  men  of  an 
entirely  different  stamp,  and  Tigranes,  King  of  Ar- 
menia, was  alilc,  nnl  only  tu  revolt,  hut  to  rob  Parthia 
of  some  of  licr  wcsti'in  iirdviuces.  In  time  Phraates 
succeeded  to  the  throne  of  the  .-Vrsaciils  and,  by  calling 
for  aid  from  the  Romans,  caused  the  overthrow  of 
Tigranes;  but  the  haughty  republic  of  the  West 
granted  its  a.ssistance  with  such  ill  grace  that  years  of 
warfare  resulted.  Phraates  was  murdered  by  his  two 
sons.  Orodes,  as  the  Latins  culled  hun  (lluraodha,  in 
the  Perso-Parthian  tongue)  ascended  the  throne;  but 
to  avoid  dissension  it  was  agreed  that  his  brother, 
Mithridates,  should  rule  over  Media  as  an  indepen- 
dent king.  It  was  not  long  before  civil  war  broke  out 
between  the  two,  and  in  the  end  Mithridates  was  taken 
and  put  to  death  in  the  presence  of  his  brother.  In 
.54  B.  c,  the  civil  wars  of  Rome  having  ceased  for  a 
while,  Crassus,  who  with  Ca!sar  and  Pompey,  shared 
the  authority  in  the  republic,  took  command  of  the 
Roman  armies  in  Asia.  He  needed  but  the  merest 
pretext  to  invade  and  attack  Parthia;  the  easy  vic- 
tories of  Pompey  in  Armenia  led  him  to  imagine  that 
he  had  but  to  reach  the  borders  of  the  Persian  Empire 
and  it  would  fall  helpless  into  his  grasp.  He  was  a 
brave  iiuin,  and  led  sixty  thousand  of  the  best  troops 
in  the  world,  but  his  contemjit  of  the  enemy,  and  the 
greed  of  gold  for  which  he  was  notorious,  brought 
him  into  a  terrible  catastrophe.  The  chief  general  of 
Orodes  was  Surenas,  the  first  nobleman  of  the  empire. 
On  16  June,  .'54  b.  c,  the  Romans  and  the  Parthians 
met  at  Carnc,  near  the  sources  of  the  Euphrates. 
Surenas  concealed  the  mass  of  his  army  behind  the 
hills,  allowing  the  Romans  to  see  at  first  only  his 
heavy  cavalry.  Little  suspecting  the  actual  force  of 
the  enemy,  Publius  Crassus,  son  of  the  general, 
charged  with  the  cavalry.  The  Parthians,  following 
their  usual  tactics,  broke  and  fled  as  if  in  dismay. 
When  they  had  drawn  the  Romans  far  enough  from 
the  main  body,  the  entire  army  of  Surenas  re-formed, 
surrounded  them,  and  cut  them  to  pieces.  After  this 
success,  the  Parthians  hovered  on  the  flanks  of  the 
Roman  infantry,  annoying  them  with  missiles.  Of  the 
great  army  which  Cra,s.sushad  led  into  Asia  not  twenty 
thousand  survived,  and  of  these  ten  thousand  were 
taken  captive  and  settled  by  Orodes  in  Margiana. 
Orodes  himself,   after  a  long  reign,   during  which 


Parthia  attained  the  climax  of  her  power,  was  stran- 
gled in  his  eightieth  year  by  his  son  Phraates.  He 
was  the  first  Parthian  king  to  assume  the  title  of 
"King  of  Kings". 

Phraates,  his  successor,  removed  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment from  the  north  of  the  eui|)ire  (o  Taisefoon,  or, 
as  the  (irccks  called  il,  C'tesijihon,  a  suhurl)  of  Seleu- 
eia,  which  (•(inliiuicd  to  be  the  capital  until  the  Mo- 
hanmiedaii  conquest,  more  than  .six  hundred  years 
later.  Ilatra,  in  that  vicinity,  also  acquired  impor- 
tance under  I  he  Parthian  kings,  who  caused  a  splendid 
palace  to  be  erected  there.  Phraates  was  eminently 
successful  in  his  military  operations,  :dl hough  steeped 
in  crime.  Besides  murdering  his  father,  he  had  caused 
all  his  near  relations  to  be  put  to  death,  to  ensure  his 
own  position  on  the  throne.  Phraates  soon  had  an- 
other Roman  war  on  his  hands.  Before  the  death 
of  Orodes,  that  monarch  hatl  associated  with  him  his 
son  Pacorus,  a  soldier  and  statcsnian,  who  conquered 
Syria  and  ruled  both  there  and  in  Palestine  with  a 
mildness  which  contrasted  favourably  with  the  sever- 
ity of  the  Roman  governors  expelled  by  him.  But 
Pacorus  was  finally  defeated  and  killed  by  the  Roman 
consul,  Ventidius,  and  the  territories  he  had  captiu-ed 
on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  were  lost  to  Parthia. 
In  the  year  33  B.  c.  Mark  .\ntony  began  a  campaign 
against  the  Parthians,  whom  the  Romans  never  for- 
gave for  the  crushing  defeat  at  Carra;.  His  army 
numbered  one  hundred  thousand  men,  including  no 
less  than  forty  thousand  cavalry  intended  to  cope 
with  the  terrible  horsemen  of  Parthia.  To  oppose 
this  immense  force,  Phraates  could  collect  only  forty 
thousand  cavalry;  but  he  immediately  began  opera- 
tions by  surprising  the  baggage  trams  of  the  enemy, 
and  cutting  to  pieces  the  escort  of  seven  thousand  five 
hundred  men.  Antony  was  at  the  time  engaged  in 
besieging  Phraaspa.  He  was  obliged  to  abandon  the 
siege,  but  the  pursuit  of  the  Parthians  was  so  vigor- 
ous that  the  Roman  general  was  hardly  able  to  reach 
the  frontier  of  Armenia  after  losing  thirty  thousand 
of  his  best  troops.  For  one  hundred  years  after  this, 
Rome  dared  not  again  attack  Parthia;  and  when,  in 
later  ages,  her  legions  repeated  the  attempts  to  pene- 
trate into  the  heart  of  Persia,  they  invariably  failed. 

Phraates  was  dethroned  by  a  conspiracy  of  his 
brother  Tiridates.  He  fled  to  Touran,  or  Scythia,  of 
which  we  hear  so  often  in  the  legendary  history  of 
Persia.  There  he  succeeded  in  raising  an  immense 
army  of  Tatars,  and,  hurling  the  usurper  from  power, 
forced  him  to  seek  an  asylum  at  Rome,  where  he  en- 
deavoured to  obtain  assistance  from  the  Romans, 
promising  important  concessions  in  return.  But  his 
offers  were  declined.  A  century  later,  Trajan  invaded 
Parthia,  but,  in  spite  of  some  early  successes,  was 
forced  to  retire  to  Syria.  Vologeses  II  is  memorable 
for  his  death,  a.  d.  148,  at  the  age  of  ninety-six, 
after  a  reign  of  seventy-one  years.  During  the  reign 
of  Vologeses  III  Western  Persia  was  invaded  by 
Cassius,  the  Roman  consul.  Vologeses  was  defeated 
in  a  great  battle,  and  Cassius  penetrated  as  far  as 
Babylonia,  the  capital  of  which  was  Seleucia,  a  mo.st 
flourishing  city,  with  a  population  of  over  four  hun- 
dred thousand.  Cassius  sacked  and  burned  Seleucia, 
completely  wiping  it  out  of  existence.  Parthia  never 
recovered  from  the  effects  of  this  last  war  with  Rome. 
The  dynasty  which  had  founded  the  greatness  of  the 
Parthian  empire  had  become  enervated  by  its  suc- 
cesses. In  216  the  war  with  Rome  was  renewed. 
King  Artabanus  had  put  down  several  rivals  and  re- 
duced the  greater  part  of  the  Parthians  under  his 
power.  Macrinus,  the  Roman  Emperor,  suffered  two 
crushing  defeats  from  Artabaiuis,  and  was  obliged 
to  purchase  peace  bv  paving  an  indemnity  of  50,000,- 
000  denarii  (about  $9,000,000)  at  the  very  time  when 
the  doom  of  Parthia  was  impending.  With  the  death 
of  Artabanus,  a.  d.  216,  the  Parthian  dynasty  came 
to  an  end. 


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PERSIA 


D.  Tlie  Sassanian  Dynasty  (a.  d.  227-651).— The 
immediate  causes  wiiich  brought  about  the  overthrow 
of  the  Parthian  kingdom  and  the  establishment  of 
the  dynasty  of  Sassan  in  its  stead  are  not  Icnown.  The 
new  dynasty  of  the  Sassanids  was  a  more  genuine 
representative  of  the  civilized  Iranian  race  than  the 
Parthian  Arsacida',  especially  as  far  as  religion  was 
concerned.  The  founder  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty, 
Ardashir  Papakan  (Artaxerxes,  son  of  Papak),  was 
born  at  Persis,  in  central  Iran;  his  family  claimed 
descent  from  a  mythical  ancestor,  Sassan,  and  he  was 
therefore  of  the  priestly  caste.  Babek,  the  father  of 
Ardashir,  seems  to  have  founded  a  small  kingdom  at 
Persis,  and  to  have  annexed  the  territories  of  other 
lesser  princes,  thus  gradually  encroaching  on  various 
Parthian  provinces.  Vologeses  V,  the  last  king  of  the 
Arsacid  dynasty  of  Parthia,  declared  war  against  the 
rising  chief,  but  was  defeated  and  put  to  death  by 
Ardashir  A.  D.  227.  Thus  the  Parthian  Empire  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty.  The  sur- 
viving Arsacids  fled  to  India,  and  all  the  provinces 
accepted  Ardashir's  rule  without  resistance.  It  was 
in  fact  the  beginning  of  a  new  national  and  religious 
movement,  the  new  dynasty  being  looked  upon  as 
the  true  and  genuine  successor  of  the  old  and  noble 
Ach^menian  dynasty,  and  of  the  Zoroastrian  religion. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  Ardashir  was  to  send  an 
embassy  to  Rome  demanding  that  the  whole  of  West- 
ern Asia  should  be  cedetl  to  him.  Soon  afterwards,  in 
230,  he  sought  to  regain  the  lost  provinces  of  Meso- 
potamia by  force  of  arms.  The  emperor,  Alexander 
Severus,  opposed  the  advance  of  Ardashir's  army,  but 
was  only  partly  successful.  Ardashir  devoted  the  re- 
maining years  of  his  reign  to  founding  new  towns, 
schools,  and  temples,  and  to  reorganizing  the  judicial 
system  of  the  courts  and  the  army.  Everywhere  were 
evidences  of  a  new  development  of  the  true  Iranian 
spirit;  and  it  was  not  long  before  the  Persian  nation 
deemed  itself  sufficiently  strong  once  more  to  enforce 
its  old  claims  to  the  sovereignty  of  Western  Asia. 
Sapor  I,  the  son  of  Ardashir,  who  reigned  from  240  to 
273,  renewed  the  war  with  Rome,  first  against  Gor- 
dian,  then  against  Valerian.  The  latter  emperor  was 
treacherously  seized  at  a  conference  in  260,  and  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  a  Persian  prison  subject  to  most 
barbarous  ill-usage.  Sapor  then  conquered  Syria  and 
destroyed  Antioch,  but  was  finally  driven  back  by 
Odenathus,  King  of  Palmyra.  Aiter  the  death  of 
Odenathus  the  war  was  continued  by  his  widow, 
Zenobia,  who  was  so  elated  by  her  success  that  she 
attempted  to  found  an  independent  Syrian  empire 
under  the  leadership  of  Palmyra,  but  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Romans  under  Aurelian. 

The  third  Sassanid  king,  Hormuz,  reigned  only  one 
year;  liis  successor,  Bahram  I  (274-77),  continued 
the  war  with  Zenobia  and  afterwards  with  Aurelian. 
But  this  war  terminated,  without  any  result,  at  the 
death  of  Aurelian,  in  275.  During  this  period,  the 
revival  of  the  Zoroastrian  religion  became  a  move- 
ment of  great  importance.  Having  attained  ascend- 
ancy in  Persia  under  the  early  Sassanid  kings,  it  grew 
very  intolerant,  persecuting  alike  heathen  and  Chris- 
tian. It  first  turned  against  Mani,  the  founder  of 
Manichseism,  and  his  folio wers,  under  Bahram  I.  Mani 
himself,  at  first  in  favour  at  the  Persian  Court,  was 
crucified  about  the  year  275.  Under  the  next  king, 
Bahram  II  (277-94),  Persia  suffered  severe  reverses 
from  the  Roman  Emperor  Cams,  the  capital  city, 
Ctesiphon,  even  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 
Bahram  III,  son  of  Bahram  II,  reigned  only  eight 
months,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  brother, 
Narsi  I,  who  renewed  the  war  with  Rome  with  disas- 
trous results.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Hormuz 
II  (303-10),  and  he,  again,  by  Sapor  II  (310-81).  It 
was  in  the  latter  reign  that  the  Christians  in  Persia 
suffered  serious  persecution.  During  the  early  years 
of  Sapor  II  the  Christian  religion  received  formal 


recognition  from  Constantine,  and  there  is  no  doubt 
that  this  identification  of  the  Church  with  the  Roman 
Empire  was  the  chief  cause  of  its  disfavour  in  Persia. 
Moreover,  there  is  evidence  that  Christianity  had 
spread  widely  in  the  Persian  dominions,  and  every 
Christian  was  suspected  of  disaffection  towards  the 
Persian  king  and  secret  attachment  to  the  Roman 
Empire,  the  more  so  because  even  the  Persian-speak- 
ing Christians  employed  the  Syriac  language  in  their 
worship.  Probably  this  feeling  of  suspicion  was  in- 
creased by  the  letter  which  Constantine  wrote  to 
Sapor  (Theod.,  "H.  E.",  I,  xxv),  asking  protection 
for  the  Christians  resident  in  Persia.  (See  III,  below.) 
To  this  period  belongs  Aphraates,  a  converted  Persian 
noble,  a  writer  of  homilies.  When  Constantine  was 
dead,  and  the  Magi  had  attained  complete  ascendancy 
over  the  Persian  king,  a  persecution  ensued  which 
was  far  more  severe  than  any  of  those  of  the  Roman 
Emperors. 

This  attack  upon  the  Christians  was  but  part  of 
Sapor's  anti-Western  policy.  In  350  he  openly  de- 
clared war  against  Rome,  and  marched  on  Syria.  The 
first  important  action  was  the  siege  of  Nisibis,  where 
the  famous  Jacob,  foimder  of  the  school  of  Nisibis, 
was  then  bishop.  The  siege  lasted  seventy  days,  and 
then  the  Persians  having  built  a  dam  across  the  River 
Mygdonius,  the  waters  broke  down  the  wall.  The 
siege  was  unsuccessful,  however,  and  the  campaign 
ended  in  a  truce.  Julian,  who  became  emperor  in  361, 
determined  to  invade  the  dominions  of  Sapor.  In 
March,  363,  he  set  out  from  Antioch  to  march  towards 
Carrae.  From  the  latter  point  two  roads  led  to 
Persia:  one  through  Nisibis  to  the  Tigris,  the  other 
turning  south  along  the  Euphrates  and  then  crossing 
the  lower  Tigris.  Julian  chose  the  second  of  these 
and,  passing  through  Callinicum,  Carchemish,  and 
Zaitham,  reached  the  Persian  capital,  Ctesiphon, 
where  he  was  met  with  proposals  of  peace  from  Sapor, 
but  refused  them.  After  crossing  the  Tigris,  he  burned 
his  ships  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy;  but  the  result  was  suinctliing  like  a  panic 
amongst  his  followers.  Supplies  ran  short,  and  the 
army  entered  the  desert,  where  it  seems  to  have  lost 
its  way.  There  had  been  no  battle  as  yet,  but  almost 
daily  skirmishes  with  the  light-armed  Persian  cavalry. 
In  one  of  these  skirmishes  Julian  was  slain  by  a  jave- 
lin, whether  thrown  by  one  of  the  enemy  or  by  one 
of  his  own  followers  has  never  been  known.  The 
soldiers  at  once  elected  Jovian,  one  of  Julian's  gen- 
erals, and  he  began  his  reign  by  making  a  thirty 
years'  truce  with  Persia.  The  Persians  were  to  supply 
guides  and  food  for  the  retreat,  while  the  Romans 
promised  to  surrender  Nisibis  and  give  up  their  pro- 
tectorate over  Armenia  and  Iberia,  which  became 
Persian  provinces.  The  surrender  of  Nisibis  put  an 
end  to  the  school  established  there  by  Jacob,  but  his 
disciple  Ephraim  removed  to  Edessa,  and  there  re- 
established the  school,  so  that  Edessa  became  once 
more  the  centre  of  Syriac  intellectual  life.  With  this 
school  must  be  connected  the  older  Syriac  martyr- 
ologies,  and  many  of  the  Syriac  translations  and  edi- 
tions of  Greek  church  manuals,  canons,  and  theological 
writers.  Thus  were  preserved  Syriac  versions  of  many 
important  works,  the  original  Greek  of  which  is  lost. 

In  spite  of  this  thirty  years'  truce,  the  Persians  for 
a  time  kept  up  a  petty  warfare,  the  Romans  acting  on 
the  defensive.  But  as  age  rendered  Sapor  helpless, 
this  warfare  died  out.  Sapor  died  in  380,  at  the  age  of 
seventy;  being  a  posthumous  son,  he  had  spent  his 
whole  life  on  the  throne.  During  the  reigns  of  Sapor 
III  and  Bahram  IV  Persia  remained  at  peace.  In  379 
the  Emperor  Theodosius  the  Great  received  an  em- 
bassy from  Persia  proposing  friendly  relations.  This 
was  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Persians  had  diffi- 
culties on  their  northern  and  eastern  frontiers,  and 
wished  to  have  their  hands  free  in  the  west.  Inci- 
dentally, it  may  be  noted  that  the  flourishing  period 


PERSIA 


716 


PERSIA 


of  the  "middle  school",  under  the  leadership  of 
Dorotheus,  and  the  spread  of  monasticisni  tlirough 
Persia  and  Mesopotamia  were  conterapoi'ary  vvitli  the 
disasi  rows  expedit  ion  and  peace  of  Jovian.  The  great 
bishop,  .lacol)  of  Nisihis,  forms  a  connecting  link 
between  all  three:  as  hisliop  he  was  contemporary 
with  Sapor  II;  he  encouraged  Nisibis  in  its  first 
resistance  to  the  army  of  Sapor;  his  school  at  Nisil)is 
was  mock'lled  on  that  of  Diodorus  at  Antioch,  and 
he  was  the  patron  and  ijenefactor  of  the  monastery 
foundeil  by  Awgin  on  Mount  Izla. 

In  399  Bahram  IV  was  succeeded  by  his  younger 
brother  Yezdegerd  (399-420).  Early  in  this  reign 
Maruthas,  Bishop  of  Maiperkat,  in  Mesopotamia,  was 
employed  by  the  Roman  Emperor  as  envoy  to  the 
Persian  Court.  Maruthas  quickly  gained  great  in- 
fluence over  the  Persian  king,  to  the  annoyance  of 
the  Zoroastrian  magi,  and  Yezdegerd  allowed  the  free 
spread  of  Christianity  in  Persia  and  the  building  of 
churches.  Nisibis  once  more  became  a  Christian  city. 
The  Persian  Church  at  this  period  seems  to  have  re- 
ceived, under  Maruthas  (q.  v.),  the  more  developed 
organization  under  which  it  lived  until  the  time  of  the 
Mohammedan  conquest.  (See  III,  below.)  Later 
in  the  reign  of  Yezdegerd,  the  Persian  bishop,  Abdas 
of  Susa,  was  associated  with  Maruthas,  and,  by  his 
impetuosity,  put  an  end  to  the  good  relations  between 
the  Persian  king  and  the  Christians.  Abdas  de- 
stroyed one  of  the  fire  temples  of  the  Zoroastrians; 
complaint  was  made  to  the  king,  and  the  bishop  was 
ordereil  to  restore  the  building  and  make  good  all 
damage  that  he  had  committed.  Abdas  refused  to 
rebuild  a  heathen  temple  at  his  own  expense.  The 
result  was  that  orders  were  issued  for  the  destruction 
of  all  churches,  and  these  were  carried  out  by  the 
Zoroastrians,  who  had  regarded  with  great  envy  the 
royal  favour  extended  to  Maruthas  and  his  co-reli- 
gionists. Before  long  the  destruction  of  churches 
developed  into  a  general  persecution,  in  which  Abdas 
was  one  of  the  first  martyrs.  When  Yezdegerd  died 
in  420,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Bahram  V,  the 
persecution  continued,  and  large  numbers  of  Chris- 
tians fled  across  the  frontier  into  Roman  territory.  A 
bitter  feeling  between  Persia  and  Rome  grew  out  of 
Bahram's  demand  for  the  surrender  of  the  Christian 
fugitives,  and  war  was  declared  in  422.  The  conflict 
commenced  with  Roman  success  in  Armenia  and  the 
capture  of  a  large  number  of  Persian  prisoners;  the 
Romans  then  advanced  into  Persia  and  ravaged  the 
border  province  of  Azazena,  but  the  seat  of  war  was 
soon  transferred  to  Mesopotamia,  where  the  Romans 
besieged  Nisibis.  The  Persians,  hard  pressed  in  this 
siege,  called  in  the  Turks  to  their  assistance,  and 
the  united  armies  marched  to  the  relief  of  the  city. 
The  Romans  were  alarmed  at  the  news  of  the  large 
numbers  of  the  Persian  forces  and  raised  the  siege, 
but  soon  afterwards,  when  the  Turks  had  retired, 
there  was  a  general  engagement  in  which  the  Romans 
inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  upon  their  adversaries,  and 
compelled  them  to  sue  for  peace.  Although  the  latter 
half  of  the  fourth  and  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury was  a  period  of  so  much  distress  in  the  Eastern 
provinces,  which  were  exposed  to  the  growing  ambi- 
tion of  Persia,  it  was  a  time  of  extension  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  and  of  literary  activity.  This  literary 
and  ecclesiastical  development  led  to  the  formation  of 
a  Syriac  literature  in  Persia  (Syriac  being  the  litur- 
gical language  of  the  Persian  Church),  and  ultimately 
of  a  Christian  Persian  literature. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  the  Persian 
Emperor  Yezdegerd  (442-59)  was  compelled  to  turn 
his  attention  to  the  passes  of  the  Cauc;xsus;  troops 
of  Hun.s  and  Scythians  had  already  broken  through 
into  Iran.  Peroses  (Firuz),  his  successor,  made  war 
on  the  nomads  of  the  Caspian  regions,  and  in  484 
lost  his  life  in  battle  with  them.  Four  years  later 
the  throne  of  Persia  was  occupied  by  Qubad  I,  who 


reigned  from  488  to  531.  During  this  reign  there 
developed  in  Persia  a  new  sect  of  the  Fire- worshippers 
(the  Nlazdakcaris'l,  who  were  at  first  favoured  by  the 
king,  b\it  wliii  sul)M'(iuently  involved  the  empire  in 
serious  coiiiplicutions.  The  last  decade  of  Qubad's 
reign  was  cliieliy  occupied  by  wars  with  the  Romans, 
in  which  he  found  a  good  means  for  diverting  the 
at  t ention  of  his  people  from  domestic  affairs.  During 
the  very  last  days  of  his  life  Qubad  was  compelled 
once  more  to  lead  an  army  to  the  West  to  maintain 
Persia's  influence  over  Lasistan  in  southern  Caucasia, 
the  prince  of  which  country  had  become  a  convert  to 
Christianity,  and  consequently  an  ally  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire.  It  was  during  the  same  reign  that  the 
Nestorians  began  to  enter  more  fvdly  into  Persian  life, 
and  under  him  that  they  began  their  missionary  ex- 
pansion eastwards.  About  the  year  496  the  patri- 
archal See  of  Seleucia-Ctesiphon  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Nestorians,  and  henceforth  the  Catholicos  of 
Seleucia  became  the  Patriarch  of  the  Nestorian 
Church  of  Persia,  Syria,  China,  and  India.  After  the 
death  of  Qubad  the  usual  quarrels  as  to  the  succession 
arose,  and  finally  ended,  in  531,  with  the  accession  of 
Chosroes  I  Anushirwan,  whom  Qubad  had  looked 
upon  as  the  most  capable  of  his  sons.  Chosroes  was  a 
champion  of  the  ancient  Iranian  spirit,  a  friend  of  the 
priest  class,  and  an  irreconcilable  enemy  of  the  Mazda- 
kites,  who  had  chosen  one  of  his  numerous  brothers 
as  their  candidate  for  the  throne.  During  his  reign 
the  Persian  Empire  attained  the  height  of  its  splen- 
dour; indeed,  the  government  of  Chosroes  I,  "the 
Just",  was  both  equitable  and  vigorous.  One  of  his 
first  acts  was  to  make  peace  with  Byzantium,  the 
latter  agreeing  to  pay  a  large  contribution  towards  the 
fortification  of  the  Caucasian  passes.  In  addition 
to  strengthening  the  Caucasus,  Chosroes  also  sought 
to  fortify  the  north-eastern  frontier  of  his  empire  by 
constructing  a  great  wall,  and  he  asserted  his  claims 
to  a  portion  of  north-western  India  by  force  of  arms, 
but  soon  turned  his  attention  once  more  to  the  West. 
In  531  he  proclaimed  a  general  toleration,  in  which  not 
only  Christians,  but  also  Manichaans  and  Mazda- 
kites,  were  included. 

The  period  532-39  was  spent  in  the  extension  and 
strengthening  of  the  eastern  frontiers  of  Persia.  In 
539  Chosroes  returned  to  Ctesiphon,  and  was  per- 
suaded by  the  Bedouin  Al  Mondar  to  renew  Qubad's 
attempted  conquest  of  Syria.  The  pretext  was  that 
Justinian  was  aiming  at  universal  dominion,  but  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  real  reason  was  that  Al  Mondar 
remembered  the  ease  with  which  he  had  once  plun- 
dered Syrian  territory.  In  540  the  Persians  invaded 
Syria  and  captured  the  city  of  Shurab.  The  prisoners 
taken  from  this  city  were  released  at  the  request  of 
Candidus,  bishop  of  the  neighbouring  town  of  Sergi- 
opolis,  who  undertook  to  pay  a  ransom  of  200  pounds 
of  gold.  Then  Chosroes  took  Mabbogh,  which  paid 
a  ransom,  then  Beroea,  and  finally  proceeded  against 
Antioch  itself,  which  was  captured  after  a  short  re- 
sistance. From  Antioch  Chosroes  carried  otT  many 
works  of  art  and  a  vast  number  of  captives.  On  his 
way  homewards  he  made  an  attack  upon  Edessa,  a 
city  generally  regarded  as  impregnable,  but  was  taken 
ill  during  the  siege. 

During  Chosroes's  illness  trouble  occurred  in  Per- 
sia. He  had  married  a  Christian  wife,  and  his  son 
Nushizad  was  also  a  Christian.  When  the  king  was 
taken  ill  at  Edessa  a  report  reached  Persia  that  he 
was  dead,  and  at  once  Nushizad  seized  the  crown. 
Very  soon  the  rumour  was  proved  false,  but  Nushizad 
was  persuaded  by  persons  who  appear  to  have  been 
in  the  pay  of  Justinian  to  endeavour  to  maintain  his 
position.  The  action  of  his  son  was  deeply  distressing 
to  Chosroes;  but  it  was  necessary  to  take  prompt 
measures,  and  the  commander,  Ram  Berzin,  was  .sent 
against  the  rebels.  In  the  battle  which  followed  Nushi- 
zad was  mortally  wounded  and  carried  off  the  field. 


PERSIA 


717 


PERSIA 


In  his  tent  he  was  attended  by  a  Christian  bishop, 
iirobably  Mar  Aba,  and  to  this  bishop  he  confessed 
his  sincere  repentance  for  having  taken  up  arms 
against  his  father,  an  act  which,  he  was  convinced, 
could  never  win  the  apjiroval  of  Heaven.  Having 
professed  himself  a  Christian  he  died,  and  the  re- 
bellion was  quickly  put  down. 

Mar  Aba  was  probably  the  Nestorian  Catholicos 
from  530  to  552.  He  was  a  convert  from  Zoroastrian- 
ism,  and  had  studied  Greek  at  Nisibis  and  Edessa, 
making  use  of  his  knowledge  to  prepare  and  publish 
a  new  version  of  the  Old  Testament.  This  appears 
to  have  been  a  total  failure,  for  the  Nestorians,  imlike 
the  Jacobites,  steadily  adhered  to  the  Peshito.  On 
being  appointed  catholicos  he  established  a  school  at 
Seleucia,  which  soon  became  a  great  centre  of  Nestor- 
ian scholarship.  He  wrote  commentaries,  homilies, 
and  letters,  the  two  former  classes  of  work  represent- 
ing, no  doubt,  the  substance  of  his  teaching  in  the 
school  which  he  founded.  Hymns  are  extant  which 
are  ascribed  to  him.  Cbosroes,  after  his  return  from 
Syria,  taunted  Mar  Aba  with  professing  a  type  of 
Christianity  unknown  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  But 
Mar  Aba  did  much  to  remove  the  more  marked  pe- 
culiarities of  the  Nestorian  schism,  especially  again 
enforcing  celibacy  amongst  the  bishops.  From  time 
to  time  he  held  discussions  with  Chosroes,  until  on 
one  occasion,  being  tactless  enough  not  to  be  con- 
vinced by  the  arguments  of  the  sovereign,  he  was 
sentenced  to  banishment.  As  he  disobeyed  the  decree, 
he  was  cast  into  prison,  where  he  died  in  552.  In  542 
Chosroes  claimed  from  Bishop  Candidus  the  payment 
of  the  sum  to  which  he  had  pledged  himself  as  ransom 
for  the  captives  taken  at  Shurab ;  but  the  bishop  was 
unable  to  raise  the  money;  in  fact  he  confessed  that 
he  had  only  made  the  promise  in  the  expectation  that 
the  Government  would  find  part  of  the  sum  required, 
and  this  had  not  been  done.  Therefore  Candidus  was 
put  to  death.  In  the  course  of  the  same  year  Chosroes 
advanced  south  and  attacked  Jerusalem,  but  was 
repulsed  by  Belisarius. 

Mar  Aba's  foundation  of  a  school  at  Seleucia  seems 
to  have  suggested  to  Chosroes  the  idea  of  founding  a 
Zoroastrian  school  similar  to  it  and  to  the  Christian 
instructions  at  Edessa  and  Nisibis.  In  pursuance  of 
this  plan  the  king  opened  a  college  at  Djundi  Shapur, 
and  here  many  Greek,  Syrian,  and  Indian  works  were 
translated  into  Persian,  and  the  ancient  laws  of  Persia 
were  rendered  into  the  vernacular  dialect  (Pahlavi). 
Meanwhile  the  school  at  Seleucia  became  a  centre 
of  Nestorian  life.  It  was  a  period  during  which  the 
Nestorians  were  returning  to  a  greater  conformity 
to  the  usages  of  the  rest  of  Christendom.  We  have 
already  mentioned  Mar  Aba's  restoration  of  celibacy, 
at  least  as  far  as  the  bishops  were  concerned.  About 
the  same  time  two  distinguished  monks,  both  bearing 
the  name  of  Abraham  of  Kashkar,  introduced  reforms 
into  monastic  life  which  also  tended  towards  conform- 
ity with  the  practices  of  the  Church  within  the  Roman 
Empire.  Probably  this  tendency  to  conformity  was 
due  to  increase  of  Greek  influence  observable  during 
the  reign  of  Chosroes,  and  the  contact  with  the  empire 
due  to  the  invasion  of  Syria;  nevertheless  the  Nesto- 
rians remained  a  distinct  body. 

Meanwhile  the  Catholicos  Mar  Aba  had  died,  and 
Chosroes  appointed  his  favourite  physician,  Joseph, 
as  Bishop  of  Seleucia  (552).  Many  strange  stories 
are  related  of  his  cruelty  as  bishop;  after  three  years 
he  was  deposerl  on  a  petition  of  the  Christians  of 
Seleucia.  He  lived  twelve  years  after  his  deposition, 
and  during  that  period  no  catholicos  was  appointed. 
About  the  same  time  the  indefatigable  Jacob  Burde- 
ana  consecrated  Achudemma  as  Jacobite  bishop  in 
Persia,  and  made  a  proselyte  of  a  member  of  the  royal 
family.  Amongst  the  Por.sians  it  was  never  permitted 
to  make  converts  from  the  state  religion.  The  Jacob- 
ites however  were  of  little  importance  so  far  east, 


where  Nestorianism  was  the  prevailing  type  of  Chris- 
tianity. After  the  death  of  Joseph  in  567,  Ezechiel,  a 
disciple  of  Mar  Aba,  was  appointed  Catholicos  of 
Seleucia,  under  whom  lived  the  periodeules  Bodh,  the 
translator  into  Syriac  of  the  Indian  tales  known  as 
"Kahlah  and  Dimnah".  It  is  noteworthy  that  the 
Nestorians  were  beginning  to  take  an  interest  in 
Indian  literature,  an  interest  probably  to  be  referred 
to  the  influence  of  the  Djundi  Shapur  school. 

Chosroes  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hormuz  (579- 
90).  For  the  first  three  years  of  his  reign  Hormuz 
was  guided  by  the  statesman-philosopher  Buzurg,  but 
after  his  retirement  Hormuz  gave  himself  up  to  every 
form  of  self-indulgence  and  tyranny.  Under  these 
conditions  the  power  of  Persia  declined,  and  the  land 
suffered  invasion  on  the  north,  east,  and  west.  To 
check  the  Byzantines,  Bahram,  a  general  who  had 
distinguished  himself  under  Chosroes,  was  sent  to 
invade  Colchis,  but  he  was  defeated  and  recalled  in 
disgrace.  Knowing  that  this  was  equivalent  to  sen- 
tence of  death,  Bahram  revolted,  and  succeeded  in 
capturing  Hormuz,  whom  he  put  to  death.  Chosroes, 
the  king's  son,  fled  and  was  well  received  by  Probus, 
Governor  of  Circesium,  and  afterwards  by  the  Emperor 
Mauritius.  With  the  help  of  the  Romans  this  younger 
Chosroes  defeated  Bahram,  and  became  king  as  Chos- 
roes II.  As  he  owed  his  kingdom  and  his  wife  to  the 
Emperor  Mauritius,  Chosroes  was  devoted  to  the 
dynasty  then  reigning  at  Constantinople.  Although 
not  himself  a  Christian,  he  paid  honour  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  and  to  the  martyrs  Sergius  and  Bacchus,  two 
saints  popular  among  the  Sj'rians,  while  his  wife  was 
an  ardent  Jacobite. 

In  604  the  Roman  Emperor  Mauritius  was  assas- 
sinated, and  the  Persian  king  resolved  to  attack  the 
empire  in  order  to  avenge  his  benefactor.  In  604  the 
Persians  again  invaded  the  eastern  provinces  and  took 
the  city  of  Daras.  The  invasion  of  Chosroes  II  was 
the  severest  blow  that  the  Byzantine  power  in  Asia 
had  to  endure,  previous  to  the  rise  of  Islam.  After 
five  years  of  war  Chosroes  II  reached  Constantinople. 
It  was  not  a  mere  plundering  expedition,  but  a  serious 
invasion  whose  success  clearly  proved  the  growing 
weakness  of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  Next  year  (606) 
the  invaders  reached  Amida;  in  607  they  were  at 
Edessa;  in  608  at  Aleppo;  and  by  611  they  had  con- 
quered all  northern  Syria,  and  established  themselves 
at  Antioch.  They  then  turned  south  and  conquered 
Palestine.  In  615  Jerusalem  revolted,  but  was  cruelly 
punished,  some  17,000  persons  being  put  to  death, 
and  about  35,000  led  away  captive.  The  fragment  of 
the  True  Cross,  the  most  precious  relic  of  the  city, 
was  carried  off.  Next  year  (616)  the  Persians  took 
Alexandria,  and  in  617  besieged  Constantinople.  Al- 
though the  imperial  city  was  not  taken,  Asia  Minor 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Persians  until  624. 

Chosroes  II  was  repelled,  not  by  the  Romans,  but 
by  a  people  v/ho  were  yearly  growing  more  powerful, 
and  were  destined  ultimately  to  displace  both  Rome 
and  Persia  in  Asia — the  Arabs.  Chosroes  II  had  a 
harem  of  3000  wives,  as  well  as  12,000  female  slaves, 
but  he  now  demanded  as  wife  Hadiqah,  the  daughter 
of  the  Christian  Arab  Na'aman,  him.self  the  son  of 
Al  Mondir.  Na'aman  refused  to  permit  his  Christian 
daughter  to  enter  the  harem  of  a  Zoroastrian,  and  for 
this  refusal  he  was  trampled  to  death  by  an  elephant, 
whilst  Hadiqah  took  refuge  in  a  convent.  The  news 
of  this  outrage  upon  an  Arab  provoked  all  the  Bedouin 
tribes,  and  the  Arabs  revolted.  Chosroes  II  was 
totally  defeated,  and  fled  to  the  Emiicror  Heraclius. 
This  victory  made  a  great  impression  upon  tlie  Arab 
mind,  and  probably  led  to  the  Mohaiiuncdan  con- 
quests. 

E.  The  Mohammedan  and  Modern  Periods  (a.  d. 
651-1911). — During  the  reign  of  Yezdegerd  III,  the 
successor  of  Chosroes  II,  and  the  last  of  the  Sassanian 
kings,  the  Arab  invaders  attacked  Persia  and  its  Meso- 


PERSIA 


718 


PERSIA 


potamian  territories  more  ami  more  boldly.  In  650 
KhSlid.  one  of  the  Arab  generals,  assuming  the  offen- 
sive, defeated  the  Persian  troops  on  the  border  of  the 
Euplirates  valley.  The  Christians  of  this  region  soon 
submitted  to  him.  Then  the  .\rabs  invaded  the  coun- 
try about  the  Tigris.  In  lilU  .\bu  I'baid  of  Taif,  to 
whom  Khalid  a.ssigned  the  task  of  annexing  Persia, 
was  utterly  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Persians,  who, 
however,  were  routeil  in  ()3.5-t)l'i  by  Caliph  Omar  at 
Bowaib.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year  tiiio,  or  in  ()37, 
they  were  again  defeated  by  the  Arabs,  under  Sa'd, 
at  kadisiyya.  The  victorious  Arabs  entered  Baby- 
lonia and  "took  Seleucia  after  a  lengt  hy  siege.  Thence 
they  crossed  the  Tigris  and  fell  on  Cfesiphnn,  Yezde- 
gerd  fleeing  towards  the  Medo-Bab\lonian  frontier. 
Meantime  another  army  of  Arabs  had  occupied  Lower 
Irak  and  entered  Susiana.  The  decisive  and  final 
victory  took  place  in  640-42  at  Nehavend,  near 
Ecbatana,  when  the  great  Persian  Empire  and  the 
Sassanian  dynasty  were  completely  destroyed. 

During  the  reigns  of  Omar,  Othnian,  and  Ali,  the 
first  caliphs  and  successors  of  Mohammed,  as  well  as 
under  the  Omayyads  (634-720),  Persia  was  ruled  by 
deputy  governors;  but  on  the  accession  of  the  Abba- 
sides  (a.  d.  T.'JO),  Bagdad  became  their  capital,  and 
Khorasan  their  favourite  proWnce,  and  thus  the  very 
heart  of  the  former  territory  of  the  Persian  Empire 
became  the  centre  of  the  cahphate.  But  their  rule 
soon  became  merely  a  nominal  one,  and  ambitious 
governors  established  independent  principalities  in 
various  parts  of  Persia.  Many  of  these  dynasties  were 
short-lived;  others  lasted  for  a  considerable  period 
and  were  powerful  kingdoms.  For  the  next  two  cen- 
turies Persia  was  subject  to  the  caliphs.  But  in  868 
an  adventurer  named  SofTar,  who  had  been  a  pewterer 
and  afterwards  a  bandit,  gathered  a  native  force  and 
expelled  the  viceroys  of  the  caliph,  founding  a  dynasty 
known  as  the  Soffarides.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
tenth  century  Persia  was  divided  between  the  families 
of  Samani  and  Dilami,  the  first  of  which  reigned  over 
eastern  Persia  and  Afghanistan,  and  the  second  over 
the  rest  of  the  country.  Under  these  dynasties  Persia 
fell  beneath  the  yoke  of  the  Seljuks,  and  was  ruled  by 
Togrul  Beg,  Alp  Arslan,  and  Maiek  Shah,  all  of  whom 
were  conquerors  greatly  celebrated  in  oriental  history. 
Their  dynasty  declined  and  perished  in  the  twelfth 
century.  After  a  long  period  of  anarchy  Persia  was 
overrun  and  conquered  by  the  Mongols  led  by  Hulaku 
Khan,  grandson  of  Yenghis  (1258),  who  established 
the  seat  of  his  empire  at  Maragha  in  Azerbejan. 

The  next  important  event  in  the  history  of  Persia 
was  its  conquest  and  devastation  by  Timur-Leng  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Under  his 
successors  civil  war  prevailed  almost  continually,  until 
in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  Ismail,  a 
descendant  of  a  famous  saint.  Sheik  Suffi,  founded 
the  Suffavean  dynasty.  He  died  in  1523,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Tamasp,  whose  reign  of  fifty-three 
years  was  very  prosperous.  Abbas,  who  ascended 
the  throne  about  1587,  was  a  still  greater  sovereign, 
though  to  his  family  he  proved  a  sanguinary  tyrant. 
After  hisdeath  in  1628  the  Suffavean  dynasty  gradually 
declined,  and  was  at  length  overthrown  by  the  Afghans, 
who  conquered  Persia  in  1722,  and  ruled  it  for  seven 
years  with  much  tyranny,  till  they  were  expelled  by 
the  celebrated  Nadir  Shah,  who  ascended  the  throne 
in  1736.  His  reign  was  memorable  for  his  success  over 
foreign  enemies  and  for  his  cruelty  to  his  family  and 
people.  After  his  death  in  1747  a  series  of  revolutions 
occurred,  and  order  was  not  fully  restored  till  toward 
the  close  of  the  century,  when  Agha  Mohammed, 
first  of  the  reigning  dynasty  of  Kadjars,  became  shah. 
His  successors  have  been  Feth-Ali  (1797-18.34),  Mo- 
hammed (183.5-48),  and  Nasr-ed-Din,  who  succeeded 
in  1848,  being  then  18  years  old.  Persia  has  been  in- 
volved in  three  wars  since  the  accession  of  this  dynasty. 
Of  these,  two  were  with  Russia,  the  first  ending  in  1813, 


and  the  second  in  1828,  both  of  them  having  been 
disastrous  to  Persia,  which  lost  Georgia,  Mingrelia, 
Erivan,  Nakhitchevan,  and  the  greater  jjart,  of  Talish, 
the  Ru.ssian  frontier  being  a<lvanced  to  Mount  Ararat 
and  the  left  bank  of  the  .Vras;  the  third  war  was  with 
Cri>at  Britain,  and  was  begun  in  lS5(i  owing  to  a  scries 
of  disputes  between  otheials  of  the  Persian  Govern- 
ment and  the  British  minister  at  Teheran.  After  re- 
peated victories  of  the  Britisti  troops  in  the  .south  of 
Persia  under  Generals  Outram  and  Ilavelock,  it  was 
terminated  on  4  March,  1.S57,  by  a  treaty  signed  at 
Paris,  favourable  to  the  demands  of  the  British.  In 
1860  pestilence  and  famine  devastated  parts  of  the 
country;  and  a  still  greater  famine  in  1870  and  1871 
is  believed  to  have  caused  the  death  of  two  million 
persons.  In  the  summer  of  1873  Nasr-ed-Din  made 
a  tour  through  Europe,  visiting  Vienna,  Paris,  and 
London,  and  in  1878  visited  Russia.  In  1889  he  again 
made  a  tour  of  Europe.  As  a  ruler  he  was  energetic 
and  severe.  He  was  largely  under  the  influence  of 
the  Russian  Court,  though  for  a  time  after  the  failure 
of  his  attempt  to  restore  the  Persian  dominion  over 
Herat  he  maintained  a  somewhat  friendly  attitude 
toward  Great  Britain.  He  sternly  repressed  revolts 
and  conspiracies,  but,  through  the  sale  of  the  tobacco 
monopoly  to  English  speculators,  he  offended  many  of 
his  subjects,  and  his  unpopularity  was  increased  by 
the  scarcity  of  food  in  several  of  the  provinces  in  sub- 
sequent years.  In  1896  he  was  assassinated  as  he 
was  entering  a  shrine  near  Teheran,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Muzaffer-ed-Din. 

The  new  shah  introduced  several  reforms  in  his 
kingdom,  and,  aided  by  twelve  ministers,  assumed 
personally  the  government  of  the  emiiire.  He  visited 
Europe  in  1900  and  narrowly  escaped  assassination 
in  Paris.  He  became  very  friendl3'  with  Russia,  to 
whom  his  friendship  proved  beneficial.  In  1905  a 
revolution  took  place  in  Persia  in  which  royal  princes 
and  mullahs  took  part.  They  left  the  capital  and  took 
refuge  at  Khum,  demanding  reform  and  a  parlia- 
mentary government.  The  shah  hesitated  at  first, 
but  finally  decided  to  convoke  a  Majlis,  5  August,  1906. 
This  was  opposed  by  the  court  party,  but  Muzaffer- 
ed-Din  succeeded  in  forcing  upon  the  reactionaries 
the  establishment  of  a  parhament.  On  4  January, 
1907,  he  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Mo- 
hammed-Ali-Mirza  (8  January,  1907),  who  from  the 
very  first  day  of  his  reign  was  involved  in  difficulties 
with  the  Parliament.  He  was  unduly  influenced  by 
Russia,  and  was  at  times  reluctant  to  conform  with 
the  demands  of  the  Reform  and  Parliamentary  party. 
Unrest  and  antagonism  were  everywhere  visible,  and 
the  tension  was  such  that  a  political  revolution  seemed 
impending.  Meanwhile  Parliament  was  several  times 
suppressed  and  reconvoked;  various  provinces  re- 
belled and  Teheran  was  at  one  time  in  a  state  of  siege. 
Finally  Mohammed-Ali-Mirza  was  forced  to  abdicate 
(1909)  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Ahmed  Mirza, 
a  boy  of  twelve  years. 

Till  1906  the  Government  of  Persia  was  an  absolute 
monarchy.  The  shah  was  assisted  by  a  grand  vizier 
and  several  ministers.  His  will  was  absolute,  and 
that  of  the  imams,  or  priests,  was  paramount.  To- 
day, however,  it  is  divided  into  three  departments, 
viz.,  the  Court;  the  Ministerial  Departments;  and 
the  National  Assembly,  or  Parliament  (Majlis).  Theo- 
retically, however,  the  shah  is  still  the  "king  of  kings" 
and  the  supreme  ruler,  executive,  and  counsellor  in 
every  department.  The  country  is  divided  into  five 
great  mamlikats,  or  large  provinces,  viz.,  Azerbedjan, 
Farsistan,  Ghilan,  Khorasan,  and  Kirman  (their  cor- 
responding capitals  being:  Tabriz,  Shirza,  Resht, 
Meshhed,and  Kirman),  and  thirty  vilayets, or  smaller 
provinces.  The  present  capital  of  the  empire  is 
Teheran.  The  Governorship  of  Azerbedjan  is  always 
given  to  the  heir  apparent,  and  the  governors  of  the 
other  provinces  are  appointed  by  the  shah  for  a  term 


PERSIA 


719 


PERSIA 


of  one  year.  In  all  large  towns  there  are  sub-governors 
and  village  masters.  The  latter  are  really  the  tax- 
collectors.  The  rate  of  taxation  varies  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  The  tax  on  personal  property 
is  light,  while  the  income  tax  is  still  lighter,  being  paid 
chiefly  in  kind.  Justice  is  administered  partly  by  the 
shah  and  partly  by  the  courts  and  the  imams. 

Statistics. — The  area  of  modern  Persia  is  about 
635,000  square  miles,  a  large  part  being  desert;  the 
population  is  about  9,000,000,  one-fourth  of  whom  are 
nomads.  The  estimated  jjopulation  of  the  principal 
cities  is:  Teheran,  280,000;  Tabriz,  200,000;  Ispa- 
han, 70,000;  Meshhed,  60,000;  Kirman,  60,000;  and 
Yezd,  4.5,000.  The  principal  imports,  which  amount 
yearly  to  about  4.50,000,000  krans  (a  kran  is  equivalent 
to  7  cents  of  U.  S.  A.  money),  are  cotton  fabrics,  sugar, 
tea,  woollens,  petroleum,  iron  and  steel  goods,  and  the 
precious  metals.  The  principal  exports,  which  amount 
to  about  400,000,000  krans  annually,  are  fruits,  car- 
pets, cotton,  fish,  rice,  silk  and  cocoons,  rubber,  wool, 
opium,  hides  and  skins,  copper,  cereals,  and  living 
animals.  The  modern  Persians  are  Mohammedans. 
Of  these,  nearly  seven-eighths  are  Shiites,  and  only 
one-eighth  Sunnites.  Besides,  there  are  about  9000 
Parsis,  or  followers  of  Zoroaster,  40,000  Jews,  50,000 
Armenians,  25,000  Nestorians,  and  10,000  Chaldeans 
(Catholic).  Concerning  the  religion  of  the  ancient 
Persians,  from  the- time  of  the  Acha?menian  dynasty 
down  to  the  end  of  the  Sassanian  period,  covering 
about  twelve  centuries  (sixth  cent.  B.  c.-seventh  cent. 
A.  D.),  see  Zoroastrianism;  the  official  rehgion  of  the 
medieval  and  modern  Persians  is  Mohammedanism 
(q.  v.). 

II.  Persian  Language  and  Literature. — The 
term  Persian,  as  applied  both  to  the  people  and  their 
language,  has  now  a  wider  significance  than  it  origi- 
nally bore.  A  more  appropriate  term  would  be  Iran  or 
Iranian.  The  early  inhaliitants  of  Iran  were  Aryans, 
and  their  languages  and  dialects,  for  the  last  three  or 
four  thousand  years,  belong  to  the  so-called  Aryan 
family.  Even  the  Persian  language  of  to-day,  not- 
withstanding the  immense  influence  exercised  upon  it 
by  Arabic,  is  still  the  lineal  offspring  of  the  language 
spoken  by  Cyrus,  Darius,  and  the  Sassanian  kings. 
This  continuity,  however,  is  broken  by  two  great  gaps, 
occasioned  by  the  Greek  and  Parthian  invasions  on 
the  one  hand,  and  by  the  Mohammedan  domination 
on  the  other,  viz.,  from  331  b.  c.-a.  d.  227;  and  635 
and  the  following  years  respectively. 

The  history  of  the  Persian  language  falls,  there- 
fore, into  three  well-defined  periods,  as  follows:  The 
Achxmenian  Period  (550-331  b.  c),  represented  by 
the  edicts  and  proclamations  contained  in  the  Persian 
cuneiform  inscriptions,  which,  though  of  considerable 
extent,  are  similar  in  character  and  style  and  yield  a 
vocabulary  of  about  400  words.  The  language  repre- 
sented by  these  inscriptions,  deciphered  by  Grotefend, 
Sir  H.  Rawlinson,  Hincks,  Oppert,  and  others  towards 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  is  generally  called  Old 
Persian.  The  Sassanian  Period  (a.  d.  227-651),  repre- 
sented by  inscriptions  on  monuments,  medals,  gems, 
seals,  and  coins,  and  by  a  literature  estimated  as  equal 
in  bulk  to  the  Old  Testament.  This  literature  is  en- 
tirely Zoroastrian  and  almost  entirely  theological  and 
liturgical.  The  language  in  which  it  is  written  is  little 
more  than  a  very  archaic  form  of  the  present  language 
of  Persia  devoid  of  the  Arabic  element.  It  is  gener- 
ally known  as  Pahlavi,  or  Middle  Persian.  Properly 
speaking,  the  term  Pahlavi  applies  rather  to  the 
script  than  the  language.  The  Mohammedan  Period 
(from  about  a.  d.  900  until  the  present  day),  repre- 
sented by  the  Persian  language  as  it  was  spoken  by 
the  Persians  after  the  Arab  conquest,  and  after  the 
adoption  of  the  Mohammedan  religion  by  the  vast 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Persia.  The  difference 
between  Late  Pahlavi  and  the  earliest  form  of  Mod- 
ern Persian  was,  save  for  the  Arabic  element  generally 


contained  in  the  latter,  merely  a  difference  of  script. 
This  is  generally  called  Modern  Persian,  or  Neo- 
Persian.  Of  Modern  Persian  there  are  many  dialects 
spoken  in  different  parts  of  Persia  at  the  present  day. 
The  principal  ones  are  those  spoken  in  Mazandardn, 
Ghilan,  and  Talish  in  the  north;  Samn&n  in  the 
northeast;  Kashdn,  Quhrdd  and  Na'in  in  the  centre, 
with  the  peculiar  Gabri  dialect  spoken  by  the  Zoro- 
astrians  inhabiting  Yezd,  Kirman,  Rafsinjan,  etc. 
Siwand  in  the  south;  Luristan,  Behbehan  and  Kurd- 
istan in  the  west;  and  the  Sistdni  and  Bakhtiyari 
idioms. 

In  Persian  literature  we  recognize  four  epochs,  com- 
prising (1)  The  Old  Persian  cuneiform  inscriptions  of 
the  Achfemenian  kings.  (2)  The  Avesta,  the  Sacred 
Books  of  the  Zoroastrians,  believed  by  many  to  date 
from  Zoroaster's  own  time  (about  sixth  cent.  b.  c). 
(3)  The  Pahlavi  literature,  including  the  contempo- 
rary Sassanian  inscriptions.  (4)  The  Post-Moham- 
medan, or  Modern  Persian,  literature  of  the  last 
thousand  years,  which  alone  is  usually  called  and  un- 
derstood as  Persian  literature.  To  this  last  may  be 
added  the  large  Arabic  literature  produced  by  Per- 
sians. The  literature  of  the  first  period  is  very  scanty, 
consisting  mainly  of  the  Acha;menian  inscriptions 
written  in  the  simplest  form  of  the  cuneiform  script; 
principal  among  which  is  the  famous  trilingual  in- 
scription of  Darius  the  Great  (521-486  b.  c),  en- 
graved in  the  rock  on  Mount  Behistun,  near  Ham- 
adan,  and  memorable  in  the  annals  of  Assyriology  for 
furnishing  scholars  with  the  real  clue  for  describing 
and  interpreting  the  Assyro-Babylonian  language  and 
inscriptions  (see  Assyria).  Most  of  these  Achffme- 
nian  inscriptions  date  from  about  the  end  of  the 
sixth  century  b.  c,  although  we  have  specimens  as 
late  as  Artaxerxes  Ochus  (359-38  b.  c).  Very  similar 
to  this  Old  Persian  dialect  is  the  language  in  which 
the  Sacred  Books  of  the  Zoroastrians,  generally  but 
improperly  called  the  Zend-Avesta,  are  written.  This 
Zoroastrian,  or  Avestan,  literature  is  theological  and 
liturgical  in  character,  and  its  production  goes  back 
perhaps  to  the  sixth  century  B.  c,  although  in  its 
present  form  it  includes  many  later  accretions  and 
redactions,  mostly  of  post-Christian  times  and  co- 
inciding with  the  period  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty  (see 
Avesta).  During  the  Parthian,  or  Arsacid  dynasty, 
no  literature  was  produced,  except  the  few  inscrip- 
tions and  coins  written  in  Greek. 

The  Pahlavi  literature  consists  of  inscriptions, 
coins,  and  several  religious,  legendary,  historical,  and 
literary  productions.  The  inscriptions  and  the  coins 
belong  to  the  Sassanian  dynasty,  while  the  rest  ex- 
tends from  their  time  till  about  the  tenth  century. 
Prof.  West  divides  Pahlavi  literature  into  three 
classes:  (1)  Pahlavi  translations  of  Avesta  texts, 
represented  by  twenty-seven  works,  estimated  to 
contain  about  141,000  words;  (2)  Pahla\'i  texts  on 
religious  subjects,  represented  by  fifty-five  works, 
estimated  to  contain  an  aggregate  of  about  446,000 
words,  mostly  commentaries,  prayers,  traditions,  ad- 
monitions, injunctions,  pious  sayings,  etc.;  (3)  Pah- 
lavi texts  on  non-religious  subjects,  represented  by 
only  eleven  works,  comprising  in  all  about  41,000 
words,  but  forming  by  far  the  most  interesting  part  of 
Pahlavi  literature,  as  they  contain  the  record  of  the 
early  legendary  history  of  Iran  and  Persia,  which  forms 
the  background  of  the  great  epic  of  Firddsi,  the 
"Shahnameh",  or  "Book  of  Kings". 

The  Modern,  or  Mohammedan,  Persian  literature 
extends  from  about  the  tenth  century  a.  d.  till  our 
own  days,  and  is  by  far  the  richest  of  the  four. 
The  rise,  development,  and  progress  of  Modern  Per- 
sian literature  is  intimately  connected  with  the  rise, 
development,  and  progress  of  Arabian,  or  Moham- 
medan, religious  life  and  literature.  The  beginning 
of  the  ninth  century  may  be  said  to  be  the  starting- 
point  of  the  modern  national  Persian  independence 


PERSIA 


720 


PERSIA 


and  literature.  The  earliest  writer  of  this  period  was 
a  poet,  AbbSs  by  name,  who  composed  in  a.  d.  SOS) 
a  poem  in  honour  of  the  Abbsisid  Caliph,  Ma  miln. 
Abbas 's  first  poetical  effort  was  improved  upon  by 
men  like  Hanzalah,  Hakim  Firuz,  and  Abu-.Salik,  who 
began  to  imitate  the  Arabic  qasMah  form  of  poetical 
composition.  These  were  soon  followed  by  a  dozen 
other  poets  who  wrote  some  beautiful  lyric-  and  elegiac 
poetry.  The  earliest  Persian  prose  writer  was  Hal- 
ami  who,  by  order  of  Shah  Mansur  1,  translated  into 
Persian,  in  936,  the  Arabic  uni\crsal  hislor\'  of  T;ibari 
(224-310  A.  H.).  Others  translated  Tah'ari's  great 
"Commentary"  on  the  Koran  from  Arabic  into 
Persian.  This  wjia  followed  by  Abu  Mansilr  Wu- 
wafTak's  book  on  medicine  and  by  the  great  phi- 
losopher, Avicenna  (d.  1037),  himself  a  Persian  by 
birth,  who  wrote  some  of  his  works  in  Persian  and 
some  in  Arabic.  But  the  greatest  of  all  Modern 
Persian  poets,  the  forerunner  and  father  of  Modern 
Persian  poetry,  and  the  Homer  of  Persian  epic — 
equal  indeed  in  power  of  imagination,  wealth  of  poet- 
ical descriptions,  and  elevated  style  to  any  old  or 
modern  poet — is  Firdilsi  (a.  d.  940-1020),  the  author 
of  the  "Shahnameh"  or  "Book  of  Kings",  on  which 
the  author  laboured  for  thirty-five  years.  It  is  about 
eight  times  as  long  as  the  Iliad  and  contains  a  lengthy 
detailed  description  of  all  the  historical  and  legendary 
wars,  conquests,  heroes,  traditions,  and  customs  of 
ancient  and  Sassanian  Iran.  Firdflsi  had  many  imita- 
tors, such  as  the  author  of  the  "Garshaspniima",  'Ali 
ibn  Ahmad  Asadi  (about  1066),  written  in  9000  dis- 
tichs;  of  the  "Sdmndma",  in  which  the  heroic  deeds 
of  Rustem's  grandfather  are  celebrated,  and  which 
equals  in  length  the  "Shahnameh"  itself;  the  "Sa- 
"hanhirndma",  the  "Fanimurznjima",  the  "Bilnu- 
Gushashpndma",  the  "Barsundma",  the  "Shahriyar- 
ndma",  the  "Bahmannama",  the  various  "Iskandar- 
ndmas",  the  "  Bustani-Kliayal"  (a  romance  in  fifteen 
volumes),  the  " Anbiyaiiania"  and  many  other 
epopees,  all  written  within  the  period  a.d.  106G-11.50. 

During  the  last  four  or  five  centuries,  several  other 
epic  writers  flourished  in  Persia  such  as  Mu'in  Almis- 
kin  (d.  1501),  who  wrote  in  prose  the  epic  of  Hatim 
Tay,the  celebrated  Arabian  chief;  Hatifi  (d.  1521),  the 
author  of  "Timurndma",  or  the  epic  of  Tamerlane; 
Kasimi  (d.  about  1561),  Kamali  of  Sabawar,  Ishrafl, 
and  the  authors  of  the  "  Shahinshahndma "  and  the 
"Georgendma".  Romantic  fiction  was  also  culti- 
vated with  success  by  such  writers  as  Nizami  of  Ganja 
(1141-1203),  'Am'ak  of  Bokhara  (d.  1149),  author  of 
the  romance  of  Yusuf  and  Zuleikha,  Jam'i  (d.  1492), 
Mauji  Kasim  Khan  (d.  1571),  Nazim  of  Herat  (d. 
1670),  and  Shaukat,  Governor  of  Shiraz,  who  flour- 
ished towards  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. The  best  known  Persian  writers  of  encomium 
and  satire  are:  Abul-Faraj  Runi,  Mas' (id  ibn  Sa'd  ibn 
Salman  (about  1085),  Adib  Sabir  (about  1145),  Jau- 
hari.  Amir  Mu'izzi  (d.  1147),  Rashid  Watwat  (d. 
1172),  Abd-Alwasi  Jabali,  Hasan  Ghaznawi  (d.  1169), 
Auhad-Uddin  Anwari  (d.  about  1196),  Suzani  of 
Samarkand  (d.  1174)  and  his  contemporaries,  Abu-Ali 
Shatranji,  Lamf  of  Bokhara,  KhakAni  (d.  1199),  the 
greatest  rival  of  Anwari,  Ubaid  Zakani  (d.  1370), 
Mujir-Uddin  Bailakani  (d.  1198),  Zahir  Fairabi  (d. 
1202),  Athir  Akhsikati  (d.  1211),  Kamal-uddin 
Isfahan!  (d.  1237),  and  Saif-uddin  Isfarangi  (d. 
1267). 

Didactic  and  my.stic  poetry  was  very  successfully 
cultivated  by  several  Persian  poets,  principal  among 
whom  are  Sheikh  Abu  Said  ibn  Abu-1-Khair  of 
Khorasan  (968-1049),  the  contemporary  of  Firdtlsi 
and  the  inventor  of  the  ruba'i,  or  quatrain,  form  of 
poetical  composition;  Omar  Khayydm,  the  famous 
astronomer  and  tlic  celebrated  author  of  the  Rubd- 
iydt,  made  famous  by  Fitzgerald's  translation,  Xfdal- 
uddin  Kashi  (d.  1307),  Nd^ir  ibn  Kho.srau  (d.  about 
1325),  'All  ibn  'UthmSn  al-juUabi  (d.  about  1342), 


Hakim  Sana'i  of  Ghanza  (about  1130),  .Telal-uddin 
Rumi  (1207-73),  "the  most  uncompromising  Sufic 
follower,  and  the  greatest  pantheistic  writer  of  all 
ages",  Farld-uddin  'Attar  (d.  1230),  and  many  others. 
But  the  greatest  and  most  moderate  of  all  Persian  Sufic 
poets  was  Sa'di  (d.  about  1292),  "wliose  two  best- 
known  works,  the  'Bustan',  or  'Fruit-garden',  and 
the  'GulistAn',  or  'Rose-garden',  owe  their  great 
popularity  both  in  tlie  Fast  and  the  We.st  to  the 
purity  of  their  spiritual  thoughts,  their  sparkling  wit, 
charming  style,  antl  t  lie  very  moderate  use  of  mystic 
theories".  Later  ditlactic  and  my.stic  poets  are 
Nizari  (d.  1320),  Kafibi  (d.  1434),  Hairati  (d.  15,')4), 
lami'  (d.  1  ts7),  Saiia'i,  Iraki  (d.  about  1.309),  Husaini 
(d.  1318),  Malimud  Shabistari  (d.  1320),  Auhadi  (d. 
1338),  Kasim  Anvar  (d.  1434),  Ahli  of  Shiraz  (d. 
1489),  Hilali  (d.  1532),  Baha'-uddin  'Amili  (d.  1621), 
and  many  others.  Like  the  Arabs,  the  Persians  cul- 
tivated with  immense  success  Ij'ric  poetry  and  tlie 
description  and  idealization  of  the  pleasures  of  love, 
of  women,  of  wine,  and  of  the  beauties  of  nature.  The 
prince  of  these  lyric  poets  is  Hafiz  (d.  1389).  He  had 
many  imitators,  such  as  Salmdn  of  Sdwa  (d.  about 
1377),  Kamal  Khujandi,  Muhammcd  Shirin  Maghribi 
(d.  1406),  Ni'mat-ullah  Wall  (d.  1431),  Kasimi- 
Anwar,  Amir  Shahi  (14.53),  Banna'i  (d.  1512),  Baba 
Fighani  of  Shiraz  (d.  1519),  Nargisi  (d.  1531),  Lisani 
(d.  1.534),  Ahlt  of  Shiraz  (d.  1535),  Nau'i  (d.  1610), 
and  innumerable  others  who  strove,  more  or  less  suc- 
cessfully, to  imitate  Hafiz  as  well  as  lami  and  Nizami. 
To  more  recent  date  belong  the  poets  ZuJali  (d. 
1592),  Sa'ib  (d.  1677),  and  Hatif  of  Isfahan  (d.  about 
1785). 

Persian  literature  is  not  very  rich  in  historical  and 
theological  works,  and  even  the  comparatively  small 
number  of  these  is  generally  based  on  Arabic  Mo- 
hammedan historical  and  theological  productions. 
Finall}',  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  from  about  the 
eighth  or  ninth  century  a.  d.  till  about  the  fifteenth 
some  of  the  greatest  Mohammedan  theologians,  his- 
torians, philosophers,  grammarians,  lexicographers, 
and  pliilologists,  who  wrote  in  Arabic,  were  of  Persian 
origin.  It  must  also  be  noted  that  owing  to  the  con- 
stant and  intimate  social,  political,  literary,  and  reli- 
gious intercourse  between  Arabs  and  Persians,  espe- 
cially during  the  Abbasid  dynasty,  Modern  Persian, 
especially  in  its  vocabulary,  has  been  very  extensively 
affected  by  Arabic,  so  much  so  that  a  perfect  knowl- 
edge of  Modern  Persian  is  impossible  without  the 
knowledge  of  Arabic.  Persian,  also,  in  its  turn,  es- 
pecially during  the  last  four  or  five  centuries,  has  very 
perceptibly  affected  the  Turkish  language. 

III.  Christianity  IN  Persia. — A.  Fromlhe  Apostolic 
Age  to  the  Thirteenth  Centurt/. — The  beginning  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Persia  may  well  be  connected  with  what  we 
read  in  Acts  (eh.  ii,  v.  9)  viz.,  that  on  the  Day  of 
Pentecost  there  were  at  Jerusalem  "Parthians,  and 
Medes,  and  Elamites,  and  inhabitants  of  Meso- 
potamia". These,  doubtless,  on  their  return  home, 
announced  to  their  countrymen  the  appearance  of 
the  new  religion.  Early  ecclesiastical  traditions,  fur- 
thermore, both  foreign  and  local,  tenaciously  main- 
tain that  Peter  and  Thomas  preached  the  Gospel  to 
the  Parthians;  that  Thadda>us,  Bartholomew,  and 
Addeus,  of  the  Seventy,  evangelized  the  races  of  Meso- 
potamia and  Persia,  and  that  Mari,  a  noble  Persian 
convert,,  succeeded  Addai  (Addeus)  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Persian  Chri.sfi.an  communities.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  succeeded  by  the  bishops  Abres, 
Abraham,  Jacob,  Ahadabuhi,  Tomarsa,  Shahlufa,  arid 
Papa,  which  brings  us  down  to  the  end  of  the  third 
century.  When  we  read  in  later  Syriac  documents 
that  towards  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  the 
Christians  in  the  Persian  empire  had  some  three 
hundred  and  sixty  churches,  and  many  martyrs,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  imagine  even  if  we  discount  the  many 
legendary  elements  in  these  traditions,  how  vigorous 


PERSIA 


721 


PERSIA 


and  how  successful  the  early  Christian  propaganda 
must  have  been  in  those  distant  regions. 

Owing  to  the  toleration  of  the  Parthian  Kings, 
Christianity  liept  slowly  but  steadily  advancing  in 
various  parts  of  the  emi^ire.  With  the  advent  of  the 
Sassanian  dynasty,  however  (a.  d.  226-641),  Chris- 
tianity was  often  subjected  to  very  severe  trials.  Its 
chief  opponents  were  the  Zoroastrian  Magi  and 
priestly  schools,  as  well  as  the  numerous  Jews  scat- 
tered through  the  empire.  The  Sassanian  kings  in 
general  espoused  the  cause  of  Zoroastrianism,  which 
under  them  became  once  more  the  official  reli- 
gion; and,  though  some  of  this  dynasty  favoured 
Christianity,  the  national  feeling  always  clung  to  the 
ancient  creed.  Many  thousands  of  Persians  embraced 
Christianity,  but  Persia  remained  the  stronghold  of 
Zoroastrianism,  and  there  never  arose  an  indigenous 
Persian  Church,  worshipping  in  the  Persian  language 
and  leavening  the  whole  nation.  The  Persian  Church 
was  of  Syrian  origin,  traditions,  and  tendencies,  and, 
for  about  three  centuries,  regarded  Antioch  as  the 
centre  of  its  faith  and  the  seat  of  authority.  When  the 
Christian  religion  was  accepted  by  Constantine  (a.  d. 
312),  it  was  naturally  regarded  by  the  Persian  em- 
perors as  the  religion  of  their  rivals,  the  Romans. 
Religious  and  national  feeling  thus  united  against  it, 
and  bitter  persecutions  continued  in  Persia  for  a 
century  after  they  had  ceased  in  the  Roman  Empire. 
Some  of  these  persecutions — notably  that  under 
Sapor  II — were  as  terrible  as  any  which  the  Chris- 
tians of  the  West  had  experienced  under  the  Emperor 
Diocletian. 

Notwithstanding  these  obstacles,  the  Christian  reli- 
gion kept  steadily  growing.  Towards  the  beginning 
of  the  fourth  centin-y  the  head  of  the  Persian  Church 
selected  the  city  of  Seleucia-Ctesiphon,  the  capital  of 
the  empire,  for  his  metropolitan  see.  Under  his  juris- 
diction were  several  bishops,  one  of  whom,  John  by 
name,  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Nicjea  (32.5).  In 
410,  a  synod  of  Christians  was  held  at  the  Persian 
capital.  In  420  there  were  metropolitans  at  Merv  and 
Herat.  King  Yezdegerd  himself  sent  the  Patriarch 
of  the  Persian  Church  on  a  mission  to  the  Roman 
emperor.  Between  450  and  500  the  Ncstorians,  per- 
secuted in  the  Roman  Empire,  fled  to  Persia  for  pro- 
tection, and  in  49S  the  whole  Persian  Church  declared 
in  favour  of  Nestorianism.  Henceforth  the  history 
of  Christianity  in  Persia  is  their  history.  In  the  next 
two  centuries  the  Persian  Church  kept  steadily  in- 
creasing till  it  rivalled,  and  perhaps  surpassed,  in 
extent,  power,  and  wealth  any  other  national  Chris- 
tian Church;  having  a  hierarchy  of  two  hundred 
and  thirty  bishops,  scattered  over  Assyria,  Baby- 
lonia, Chaldea,  Arabia,  Media,  Khorasan,  Persia 
proper,  the  very  deserts  of  Turkestan,  the  Oasis  of 
Merv,  both  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  even 
beyond  it,  in  the  Islands  of  Socotra,  and  Ceylon, 
through  the  coasts  of  Malabar,  and  at  last  China  and 
Tatary.  Mgr  Duchesne  rightly  observes  that  "the 
dominion  of  the  'Catholicos'  of  Seleucia  was  of  no 
mean  dimen.sions,  and  by  the  extension  of  his  juris- 
diction this  high  ecclesiastical  dignitary  figures  in  the 
same  light  as  the  greatest  of  the  Byzantine  patri- 
archs. We  might  almost  go  further  and  say  that, 
inasmuch  as  we  can  compare  the  Persian  Empire  to 
the  Roman,  the  Persian  Church  may  be  compared  to 
the  Church  of  the  great  western  Power"  ("The 
Churches  Separated  from  Rome",  tr.  Mathew,  New 
York,  1007,  p.  16). 

The  history  of  Christianity  in  the  Sassanian  empire 
shows  that  there  has  been  a  very  active  and  successful 
propaganda  among  the  Iranians.  We  read  of  Chris- 
tians among  the  landlord  class  about  Mosul  and  in  the 
mountain  region  east  of  that  city.  Some  of  the  Chris- 
tians were  of  high  rank.  The  last  Chosroes  was  killed 
in  an  insurrection  headed  by  a  Christian  who.se  father 
had  been  the  chief  financial  officer  of  the  realm.  Some 
XL— 46 


of  the  patriarchs  of  the  Nestorian  Church  were  con- 
verts, or  sons  of  converts,  from  Magianism.  While 
numerous,  however,  the  Persian  Christians  were  not 
organized  into  a  national  Church.  There  were  certain 
differences  between  them  and  the  Nestorians  farther 
west,  and  these  differences  were  the  beginnings  of 
ecclesiastical  independence,  but  the  patriarchs  as- 
serted their  authority  in  the  end.  Syriac  was  the 
ecclesiastical  and  theological  language  and  even  in 
Persia  proper  there  was  at  most  a  very  scanty  Chris- 
tian literature;  even  the  Scriptures  had  not  been 
translated  into  the  vernacular. 

It  is  clear  that  Christianity  was  widely  diffused  in 
Persia,  that  in  some  localities  the  Christians  were 
very  numerous,  and  that  the  Christian  religion  con- 
tinued to  spread  after  the  rise  of  Mohammedanism. 
The  two  forces  which  had  most  to  do  with  this  spread 
of  Christianity  were  commerce  and  monasticism. 
Christian  merchants  had  a  share  in  the  wholesale 
trade  of  Asia:  trade  with  India  opened  the  way  for 
the  early  introduction  of  Christianity  there,  and  the 
hold  which  Christianity  acquired  on  the  shores  of  the 
Persian  Gulf  was  probably  due  to  the  Indian  and 
Arabian  trade  routes.  The  strong  rule  of  the  early  Ab- 
basid  caliphs  gave  opportunity  for  the  development 
of  commerce.  The  position  of  the  Christians  at  the 
capital  as  bankers  and  merchants  would  give  them  a 
share  in  this  trade.  Christian  artisans,  including 
goldsmiths  and  jewellers,  would  find  employment  in 
the  large  cities.  In  his  account  of  the  mission  of 
the  Nestorian  monks,  Thomas  of  Marga  relates  that 
the  Patriarch  Timothy  sent  his  missionary  with  a 
company  of  merchants  who  were  journeying  together 
to  Mugan  (the  plain  of  Mugan?)  on  the  River  Aras 
(Araxes). 

Monasticism  was  imported  into  Mesopotamia  in  the 
fourth  century  by  monks  from  Egypt.  The  legendary 
account  of  Mar  Awgin,  or  St.  Eugenius,  relates  that 
his  monastery  near  Nisibis  contained  three  hundred 
and  fifty  monks,  while  seventy-two  of  his  disciples 
established  each  a  monastery.  The  number  of  monas- 
teries increased  rapidly  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies. In  the  sixth  century  there  was  a  movement 
in  the  Nestorian  Church  against  the  enforced  celibacy 
of  the  higher  clergy  and  against  celibate  monks,  but 
celibacy  won  the  day,  and  monasticism  was  firmly 
established.  The  monks  must  have  been  numbered 
by  hundreds,  if  not  thousands,  for,  in  addition  to  the 
numerous  monasteries  in  Mesopotamia  and  the  re- 
gions north  of  the  Tigris,  there  were  scattered  monas- 
teries in  Persia  and  Armenia.  Besides  the  cenobites, 
living  in  large  communities,  there  were  numerous 
solitaries  living  in  caves  or  rude  huts.  These  were 
influential  enough  among  the  Qatrayi,  on  the  Persian 
Gulf,  to  call  for  a  separate  letter  from  the  Patriarch 
Ishuyabh  I.  Some  of  these  monks  must  have  been 
full  of  real  missionary  zeal,  although  of  course  the 
prevailing  and  distinctive  spirit  of  their  institute  was 
contemplative  rather  than  missionary. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  all,  Chrifstianity  failed,  and  Islam 
succeeded  in  gaining  the  Iranian  race.  This  failure 
of  Christianity  was  not  wholly  due  to  the  success  of 
Islam:  internal  dissensions,  ambition,  dishonesty,  and 
corruption  among  the  clergy  greatly  contributed  to 
the  gradual  dissolution  of  this  wonderful  Church. 
Under  the  Arabs,  the  Christians  of  Persia  were  not  in 
wholly  unfavourable  circumstances.  Indeed,  the  first 
two  centuries  of  Mohammedan  domination,  especially 
under  the  Abbassids,  were  the  most  glorious  period  in 
the  history  of  the  Persian  Church.  It  is  true  that  at 
times  the  Christians  were  liable  to  excessive  exac- 
tions and  to  persecutions,  but  they  were  recognized 
as  the  People  of  the  Book;  and  the  Nestorians  were 
especially  privileged,  and  held  many  offices  of  trust. 
The  missionary  work  was  carried  on  and  extended. 
It  could  not  take  much  root  in  Persian  soil  after  the 
Persians  became  Moslerag,  but  it  gained  more  and 


PERSIA 


722 


PERSIA 


more  influence  in  Tatary  and  China,  beyond  the 
limits  of  Mohammedan  conquest.  This  was  a  period 
of  comparative  peace  in  those  regions,  antl  of  the 
greatest  missionary  zeal  and  enterprise  on  tlie  part  of 
the  Nestorians,  who  phmted  churclios  in  Transoxiana 
as  far  as  Kashgar,  in  the  regions  of  Mongolia,  and 
throughout  Northern  China.  To  attest  this  fact 
there  are  extensive  Cliristian  graveyards  containing 
memorials  of  the  Turkish  race  on  the  borders  of 
China,  and  the  monument  of  Si-ngan-fu,  in  Shensi, 
giving  the  history  of  the  Xestorian  Mission  in  China 
for  14.^  years  (a.  d.  6.iG-7Sl).  Timothcus,  a  patriarch 
of  the  Church  for  forty  years,  was  zealously  devoted 
to  missionary  work,  and  many  monks  traversed  Asia. 
In  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  there  were  large 
Christianized  communities.  A  Mogul  prince,  I'nkh 
Khan,  g.ave  the  name  to  the  celebrated  I'rcster  John, 
and  his  successors  were  nominal  Christians  till  over- 
thrown by  Jcnghis  Khan.  The  names  of  twenty-five 
metropolitan  sees,  from  Cyprus  in  the  west  to  Pekin 
in  the  east,  are  recorded,  and  their  schools  were 
spread  far  and  wide  through  Western  and  parts  of 
Central  Asia. 

B.  From  Jenghis  Khan  to  the  Present  Time. — The 
last  of  the  race  of  Christ  ian  kings — probably  Christian 
only  in  name — was  slain  by  Jcnghis  Khan  about  a.  d. 
1202.  Jenghis  had  a  Christian  wife,  the  daughter  of 
this  king,  and  he  was  tolerant  towards  the  Christian 
faith.  In  fact  the  Mogul  conquerors  were  without 
much  religion,  and  friendly  towards  all  creeds.  The 
wave  of  carnage  and  conquest  swept  westward,  cov- 
ered Persia,  and  overwhelmed  the  Caliph  of  Bagdad 
in  12.5S.  This  change  was  for  a  time  favourable  to 
Christianity,  as  the  rulers  openly  declared  themselves 
Christians  or  were  partial  to  Christianity.  The  patri- 
arch of  the  Nestorians  was  chosen  from  people  of  the 
same  language  and  race  as  the  conquerors;  he  was  a 
native  of  Western  China;  he  ruled  the  Church 
through  a  stormy  period  of  seven  reigns  of  Mogul 
kings,  had  the  joy  of  baptizing  some  of  them,  and  for 
a  time  hoped  that  they  would  form  such  an  alliance 
with  the  Christians  of  Europe  against  the  IMoham- 
medans  as  should  open  all  Asia,  as  far  as  China,  to 
Christianity.  This  hope  did  not  last  long;  it  ended  in 
a  threat  of  ruin:  the  Nestorians  were  too  degraded, 
ignorant,  and  superstitious  to  avail  themselves  of  their 
opportunity.  After  a  time  of  vacillation  the  Moguls 
found  Mohammedanism  better  suited  to  their  rough 
and  bloody  work.  The  emperor,  having  decided, 
flung  his  sword  into  the  scale,  and  at  his  back  were 
100,000  warriors.  The  whole  structure  of  the  Nes- 
torian  Church,  unequal  to  the  trial,  crumbled  under 
the  persecutions  and  wars  of  the  Tatars.  With 
Timur-Leng  (a.  d.  1.379-140.5)  came  their  utter  ruin. 
He  was  a  bigoted  Moslem,  and  put  to  the  sword  all 
who  did  not  escape  to  the  recesses  of  the  mountains. 
Thus  did  Central  Asia,  once  open  to  Christian  mis- 
sions, see  the  utter  extermination  of  the  Christians, 
not  a  trace  of  them  being  left  east  of  the  Kurdish 
Mountains.  The  Christian  faith  was  thrown  back 
upon  its  last  defences  in  the  West,  where  hunted  and 
despised,  its  feeble  remnant  of  adherents  continued 
to  retain,  as  it  were,  a  death-grip  on  their  churches 
and  worship. 

During  the  last  five  centuries  Christianity  has 
been  simply  a  tolerated  but  oppressed  and  despised 
faith  in  Persia.  From  the  invasions  of  Tini\ir-Leng 
until  the  accession  of  Abbas  the  ( Ireat  (1 .582),  a  period 
of  two  hundred  years,  its  history  is  almost  a  blank. 
In  1603  some  Armenian  chiefs  appealed  to  Shah 
Abbas  for  protection  against  the  Turks:  he  invaded 
Armenia,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  war  decided  to 
deva-state  it,  that  the  Turks  might  be  without  pro- 
visions. From  Kars  to  Bayazid  the  .AniieniMMs  were 
driven  before  the  Persian  soldiery  to  the  banks  of  the 
Aras,  near  Julfa.  Their  cities  and  villages  were 
depopulated.    From  every  place  of  concealment  they 


were  driven  forth.  Convents  were  plundered,  and 
their  inmates  driven  out.  The  captives  were  forced 
to  cross  the  Aras  without  proper  transports.  Many 
women  and  children,  sick  and  aged,  were  carried 
away  by  the  swift  current.  Two  chiefs  were  beheaded 
to  hasten  the  progress.  Women  were  carried  off  to 
Persian  harems.  Through  mifrequcMled  paths,  and 
with  untold  hardshiiis,  they  reached  their  destina- 
tions. The  principal  colony,  five  thousand  souls,  was 
settled  at  New  Julfa,  near  Ispahan,  where  they  were 
granted  many  privileges.  Both  Armenians  anddeor- 
gians  were  scattered  through  Central  Persia,  and  some 
of  their  descendants  are  villagers  in  the  Bakhtiyari 
country.  A  colony  of  seven  thousand  was  planted  at 
Ashraf,  in  Mezanderan,  where  malaria  destroyed  the 
greater  portion  of  them;  the  remnant  were  restored 
to  .Vrmenia  in  the  reign  of  Safi  Shah.  The  colony  at 
Julfa  (now  known  as  Tulfa,  on  the  River  Zendeh) 
prospered  greatly  and  became  very  wealthy  by  trade 
and  the  arts. 

Under  the  Safavean  kings,  the  Christians  of  Azar- 
bedjan  and  Transcaucasia  suffered  much  from  the 
wars  of  the  Turks  and  Persians.  Both  banks  of  the 
Arras  were  generally  in  the  hands  of  the  Persians. 
Some  of  the  shahs  were  tolerant,  and  the  Christians 
prospered;  some  overtaxed  them.  The  last.  Shah 
Sultan  Husain,  oppressed  them:  he  repealed  the  law 
of  retaliation,  whereby  a  Christian  could  exact 
equivalent  punishment  from  a  Mu.ssulman  criminal; 
he  enacted  that  the  price  of  a  Christian's  blood  should 
be  the  payment  of  a  load  of  grain.  Julfa  was  sub- 
jected to  great  suffering  at  the  time  of  the  invasion 
of  the  Afghan  Mahmud.  It  was  captured,  and  a 
ransom  of  seventy  thousand  tomans  and  fifty  of  the 
fairest  and  best-born  maidens  exacted.  The  grief  of 
the  Armenians  was  so  heartrending  that  many  of  the 
Afghans  were  moved  to  pity  and  returned  the  cap- 
tives. When  Mahmud  subsequently  became  a  maniac 
the  Armenian  priests  were  called  in  to  pray  over  him 
and  exorcise  the  evil  spirit.  Nadir  Shah  continued  to 
oppress  the  Armenians,  ostracized  them,  and  inter- 
dicted their  worship.  On  this  account  many  emi- 
grated to  India,  Bagdad,  and  Georgia.  About  eighty 
villages  remained  between  Hamadan  and  Ispahan. 
Under  the  Kajar  dynasty  the  state  of  the  Christians 
is  better  known.  Notices  of  them  abound  in  the 
narrations  of  travellers  of  the  period.  Agha  Moham- 
med, founder  of  the  Kajar  dynasty,  sacked  Tiflis  and 
transported  many  Georgians  into  Persia.  Others 
went  to  Russia.  Their  descendants,  mostly  Mohara- 
metlans,  are  frequently  met  occupying  high  positions 
in  the  Government. 

At  the  time  of  the  Russian  war,  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  nine  thousand  families  of  Armenians 
and  many  Nestorians  emigrated  from  Azarbedjan. 
Some  were  induced  to  come  back  by  Abbas  Mirza, 
uncler  the  protection  of  the  English.  Tho.se  in  Tabriz 
were  exempted  from  taxes  and  had  the  right  to 
appeal  to  the  British  consul.  This  right  of  protection 
was  afterwards  withdrawn,  and  finally,  after  many 
vain  protests  on  the  part  of  the  Armenians,  the 
exemption  from  taxes  was  annulled  in  A.  D.  1894. 
Tlie  condition  of  Christians  in  Persia  under  Nasr- 
ed-Din  and  his  successors,  down  to  the  present  time, 
will  be  described  in  the  following  section. 

C.  Catholic  Missions. — The  history  of  Catholic 
missions  in  Persia  is  intimately  connected  with  the 
various  attempts  made  by  the  Nestorians,  in  the  last 
nine  centuries,  to  join  the  Catholic  Church.  In  some 
cases,  these  movements  were  the  results  of  efforts 
made  by  the  early  Franciscan  and  Dominican,  and, 
after  them,  the  Jesuit  missionaries.  In  1233  the  Nes- 
torian  eatholicos,  Sabarjesus,  sent  to  Pope  Gregory  IX 
an  orthodox  profession  of  faith  and  was  admitted  to 
union  with  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  same  was  done,  in 
1.304,  by  .labalaha  (1281-1317)  during  the  pontificate 
of   Benedict   XI.     lo    1439   Timothcus,    Nestorian 


PERSIA 


723 


PERSIA 


Metropolitan  of  Tarsus  and  Cyprus,  renounced  Nestor- 
ianism,  and  in  1553  the  patriarch  John  Sulaka 
visited  Rome  and  submitted  to  Pope  Julius  III  his 
profession  of  faith,  as  a  result  of  which  several  thou- 
sand Nestorians  of  Persia  became  Catholics.  His 
successor,  Ebedjesus,  followed  his  example,  visited 
Rome,  and  assisted  at  the  last  (twenty-fifth)  session 
of  the  Council  of  Trent.  In  1582  Simeon  Denha  was 
elected  patriarch  of  the  converted  Nestorians,  hence- 
forth called  simply  Chaldeans,  and,  owing  to  Turk- 
ish persecution,  he  transferred  the  patriarchal  see  to 
Urumiah  in  Persia.  Shortly  afterwards,  he  received 
the  pallium  from  Gregory  XIII  through  Laurent  Abel, 
Bishop  of  Sidon,  who  was  commissioned  by  the  pope 
to  investigate  the  condition  of  the  various  churches  of 
the  East.  Mar  Denha's  successors,  Simeon  VIII,  IX, 
X,  XI,  and  XII,  all  remained  faithful  to  Rome,  and 
fixed  their  patriarchal  see  at  Uruniiah  and  Khosrowa; 
Simeon  IX,  in  fact,  in  a  letter  to  Pope  Innocent  X, 
informs  him  that  the  Nestorian  Uniats,  or  Chaldeans, 
under  his  patriarchal  jurisdiction  numbered  some 
200,000  souls.  Simeon  XI  sent  his  profession  of  faith 
to  Alexander  VII  (elected  165.3) ;  and  Simeon  XII,  to 
Clement  X  (1670).  From  1670  to  1770  the  relations 
between  the  Nestorian  patriarchs  and  Rome  were 
suspended. 

But  in  1770  one  of  the  successors  of  Simeon  XII 
addressed  a  letter  to  Pope  Clement  XIV  in  wliich  he 
expresses  his  intention  of  resuming  once  more  or- 
thodox and  friendly  relations  with  Rome.  The  suc- 
cessors of  this  patriarch,  however,  completely  severed 
their  relations  with  Rome,  and  transferred  their  patri- 
archal residence  from  Urumiah  to  Kotchanes,  in  Kurd- 
istan, which  became  thenceforward  the  see  of  the 
Nestorian  patriarchs.  Meanwliile,  the  many  thou- 
sand Nestorian  Uniats,  or  Chaldeans,  who  remained 
faithful  to  the  Catholic  Faith  selected  for  themselves 
an  independent  Catholic  patriarch,  who  was  con- 
firmed with  all  the  patriarchal  privileges  by  Innocent 
XI  on  20  May,  16S1.  To  his  successor,  Joseph  I,  was 
given  the  title  of  "Patriarch  of  Babylon",  i.  e.  of 
Seleucia-Ctesiphon,  the  ancient  patriarchal  see  of  the 
Nestorian  Church.  In  1695  he  resigned  and  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  shortly  afterwards  died.  His  suc- 
cessors were  Joseph  II,  III,  IV,  V,  and  VI,  all  be- 
longing to  the  same  family  of  Mar  Denha.  They 
governed  the  Chaldean  Church  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  their  patriarchal  residence  was  trans- 
ferred from  Persia  to  Mesopotamia — to  Diarbekir, 
Mosul,  and  Aniida  successively. 

Beginning  with  the  early  years  of  this  century, 
several  Capuchin  (1725)  and  Dominican  (17.50)  mis- 
sionaries were  sent  to  Mosul,  and  through  their  efforts 
and  zeal  all  traces  of  Nestorianism  disappeared  from 
the  Chaldean  Church  in  Mesopotamia.  After  the 
death  of  Joseph  VI  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda 
decreed  that  henceforth  but  one  Chaldean  patriarch 
should  be  acknowledged.  Leo  XII  confirmed  the 
decree,  and  Pius  VIII  put  it  into  execution,  5  July, 
1830,  by  creating  Mar  Hanna  (Yuhanna  Hormuz)  the 
sole  and  only  legitimate  patriarch  of  the  Chaldeans. 
He  transferred  his  patriarchal  see  from  Diarbekir  to 
Bagdad,  where  he  died  in  1838.  His  successor, 
Isaiade  Yakob,  who  resided  at  Khosrowa,  near  Sal- 
amas,  in  Persia,  resigned  in  1845,  and  was  succeeded, 
in  1848,  by  Joseph  Audo,  who  died  in  1878,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Elia  Abbolionan,  who  died  in  1894  and 
was  succeeded  by  Ebedjesus  Khayyat,  after  whose 
death  at  Bagdad,  in  1899,  the  patriarchal  dignity  was 
conferred  in  1900  upon  the  present  incumbent, 
Jo.seph  Emanuel.  The  official  title  and  residence  of 
the  Chaldean  patriarchs  is  that  of  Babylon,  but  for 
administrative  reasons  they  reside  at  Mosul,  from 
which  centre  they  govern  5  archdioceses  and  10  dio- 
ceses, containing  100,000  souls. 

The  historv  of  European  Catholic  missions  in  Persia 
dates  from  the  time  of  the  Mongohan  rule,  in  the  thir- 


teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  when  several  em- 
bassies of  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  were  sent  by 
the  popes  to  the  Mongol  rulers  both  in  Central  Asia 
and  in  Persia;  and  although  their  noble  efforts 
brought  no  permanent  results,  they  paved  the  way 
for  future  and  more  successful  Catholic  propaganda. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  political 
aims  led  the  kings  of  Persia  to  contract  friendly  rela- 
tions with  Europe.  This  gave  a  new  impetus  to 
Catholic  missionary  enterprise,  and  Carmelite,  Minor- 
ite, and  Jesuit  mis.sionaries  were  well  received  by  Shah 
Abbas  the  Great,  who  allowed  them  to  establish 
missionary  stations  all  through  his  dominion.  Ispa- 
han was  made  the  centre,  and  several  thousand  Nes- 
torians returned  to  the  Catholic  Church.  These 
missionaries  were  soon  followed  by  Augustinians  and 
Capuchins,  who  enlarged  their  missionary  field,  ex- 
tending it  to  Armenians  and  Mohammedans  as  well. 
The  most  distinguished  of  these  missionaries  was 
Father  de  Rhodes  of  Avignon,  the  Francis  Xavier  of 
Persia,  who  became  the  best  beloved  man  in  Is- 
pahan. On  his  death  in  1646  the  shah  himself, 
with  his  court  and  nobles,  as  well  as  the  largest  part 
of  the  population  of  Ispahan,  attended  his  funeral. 
He  was  called  by  them  "The  Saint ".  After  his  death, 
the  city  of  Ispahan  was  created  an  episcopal  see,  the 
first  incumbent  of  which  was  the  Carmelite  Thaddeus. 
Under  Nadir  Shah  and  Shah  Sultan  Husain,  however, 
the  tide  turned  again,  and  persecution  followed.  The 
missionaries  were  forced  to  flee,  and  thousands  of 
Christians  were  compelled  either  to  migrate  or  to 
apostatize.  This  was  in  the  early  part  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  A  hundred  years  later  missionary 
work  recommenced,  and  thousands  of  Nestorians 
were  converted  to  the  Catholic  Faith. 

The  second  epoch  of  Catholic  missionary  work  in 
Persia  was  begun  in  1840  by  the  Lazarists,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  representations  of  Eugene  Bor^,  a 
French  savant  and  a  fervent  Catholic,  who  in  1838 
was  sent  to  Persia  on  a  scientific  mission  by  the 
French  Academy  and  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion. He  himself  founded  four  schools,  two  in  Tabriz 
and  Ispahan  for  the  Armenians,  and  two  in  Urumiah 
and  Salamas  for  the  Chaldeans.  Condescending  to 
his  advice  and  instructions,  the  Congregation  of 
Propaganda  confided  the  establishment  of  the  new 
mission  to  the  Lazarists,  who  were  joined  later  on 
by  the  French  Sisters  of  Charity.  The  first  Lazarist 
missionary  was  Father  Fornier,  who  arrived  at  Tabriz 
in  1840  as  prefect  Apostolic.  He  was  joined  in  the 
following  year  by  two  other  fathers  of  the  same  so- 
ciety, Darnis  and  Cluzel,  who  took  immediate  charge 
of  the  school  founded  by  M.  Bor6  and  already  at- 
tended by  sixty  pupils.  Two  years  later,  yielding  to 
strong  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  schismatical 
Armenian  clergy,  Darnis  left  Tabriz  and  established 
himself  at  Urumiah,  while  Cluzel  remained  at  Ispahan, 
and  Fornier  in  Tabriz.  Cluzel  was  soon  afterwards 
joined  by  Darnis  in  Urumiah,  the  latter  having  left 
the  school  at  Ispahan  in  charge  of  Giovanni  Dcrder- 
ian,  a  most  zealous  Armenian  Catholic  priest  who 
was  subsequently  elected  bishop  of  tliat  see,  but  did 
not  live  to  receive  consecration. 

On  arriving  at  LTrumiah,  the  fir.st  Lazarists  found  the 
American  Protestant  missionaries  already  well  estab- 
lished in  that  city,  but  soon  outstripped  them  in  in- 
fluence and  zeal,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  within 
two  year.s  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  Catholic  school 
increased  from  200  fo  over  400,  with  two  churches, 
one  in  Urumiah  and  the  other  in  Ardishai,  the  most 
populous  village  in  the  \'icinity  of  LTrumiah.  Here 
again  the  Catholic  missionaries  were  persecuted; 
owing  to  the  intrigues  of  the  Russian  consul  and  the 
opposition  of  the  Nestorians,  they  were  compelled  to 
leave  their  .stations,  while  a  fourth  Lazarite,  Father 
Rouge,  had  meanwhile  arrived  and  established  a  new 
mission  at  Khosrowa.    With  the  estabUshment,  how- 


PERSIA 


724 


PERSIA 


ever,  of  a  new  French  representative  at  the  Persian 
Court,  M.  de  Sartigos,  the  Lazarists  were  permitted 
l)y  the  Persian  Govcrnniont  to  continue  their  work 
uiimolostod,  Father  Cluzd  luivint;  become  a  great 
favourite  with  Mirza  Aghasi,  the  iirimc  minister.  In 
ISGo,  Father  Kouge  dicil  at  Urumiah  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  a  native  Clialdean  priest,  Fatlier  I)l)igou- 
lim,  who  had  joined  the  I>azarist  Order.  In  1852, 
Father  ^'a^^■se  was  sent  to  Urumiah,  and  in  l.S.5(3  was 
followed  by  eight  I'Vench  Sisters  of  Charity.  Mean- 
while, Mgr  Trioche,  Apostolic  Delegate  of  Meso- 
potamia, sent  Dom  Valerga  (afterwards  Latin  Patri- 
arch of  Jerusalem)  to  Khosrowa,  where  he  built  a 
magnificent  stone  church.  Darnis  and  Cluzel  soon 
afterwards  established  there  a  seminary  to  train  in- 
digenous candidates  for  the  priesthood,  teaching  them 
Latin,  French,  Syriac,  and  Armenian,  as  well  as 
theology. 

Some  of  the  seminarians  became  secular  priests, 
others  joined  the  Lazarists,  among  the  latter  being 
Dbigoulim,  Paul  Bedjan  now  residing  in  Belgium, 
and  famous  in  the  scientific  world  for  his  admirable 
edition  of  some  twenty-five  volumes  of  Syriac  texts 
and  literature,  and  Dilou  Solomon.  In  1S52,  Father 
Terral,  a  new  arrival,  took  charge  of  the  seminary 
and  a  few  years  later  became  superior  of  the  mission. 
Besides  the  seminary,  two  other  colleges  were  opened, 
one  for  boys,  the  other  for  girls,  the  latter  under  the 
care  and  direction  of  the  newly-arrived  Sisters  of 
Charity.  To  these  were  soon  added  one  hospital 
and  one  orphan  asylum,  where  all — Mohammedans, 
Nestorians,  Armenians,  and  Catholics  —  were  gra- 
tuitously admitted  and  cared  for.  This  splendid  work 
evoked  the  admiration  of  Shah  Nasr-ed-Din  himself, 
and  he  contributed  a  yearly  allowance  of  200  tomans 
(S400)  towards  the  rnaintenance  of  the  two  institu- 
tions. Soon  after,  two  more  hospitals  were  opened, 
one  at  Urumiah  and  one  at  Khosrowa.  In  1858 
Father  Darnis  died  at  the  age  of  forty-four,  and  in  his 
place  several  new  mis-sionaries  were  sent.  In  1862 
the  Lazarists  established  themselves  permanently  at 
Teheran  under  the  able  direction  of  Fathers  Var^se 
and  Plagnard,  who  soon  built  there  a  church  and  a 
mission  house  around  which  tlie  European  colony  of 
Teheran  gathered,  and  which  soon  afterwards  became 
the  most  beautiful  residential  section  of  the  Persian 
capital.  In  1874  the  Sisters  of  Charity  estabhshed 
themselves  at  Teheran  with  a  house,  a  hospital,  and 
two  schools. 

The  crowning  event  in  the  history  of  Catholic 
missions  in  Persia,  however,  took  place  in  1872,  when 
the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Persia  was  raised  to  the 
dignitj'  of  an  Apostolic  Delegation,  with  Mgr  Cluzel  as 
its  first  incumbent.  In  1S74  he  was  consecrated,  in 
Paris,  Archbishop  of  Heraclea,  and  assumed  the  func- 
tions of  Apostolic  Delegate  of  Persia  and  Adminis- 
trator of  the  Diocese  of  Ispahan,  thus  withdrawing  the 
Persian  Mission  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Apostolic 
Delegation  of  Mesopotamia.  On  his  arrival  in  Persia, 
Mgr  Cluzel  was  immediately  acknowledged  by  the 
shah,  decorated  with  the  insignia  of  the  Lion  and 
Sun,  and  officially  confirmed,  by  a  special  imperial 
firman,  as  the  representative  of  the  Father  of  the 
Faithful.  During  the  seven  years  of  his  episcopal 
activity  in  Persia,  the  Lazarist  mission  made  won- 
derful progress  with  the  Chaldeans  and  Nestorians. 
A  great  cathedral  was  liuilt  at  Urumiah,  and  many 
new  .schools  were  opened  in  the  neighbouring  villages. 
Mgr  Cluzel  died  in  1S82  and  was  succeeded  by  Mgr 
Thomas,  who  built  a  preparatory  school  for  the  sem- 
inary of  Khosro%va  and  successfully  introduced  celi- 
bacy among  the  native  Catholic  Chaldean  clergy. 
Ill-health,  however,  compelled  him  to  retire,  and  he 
was  succeefled  by  Mgr  Montety,  who  also  had  to 
re.sign  for  the  same  reason,  and  was  succeeded,  in 
1896,  by  the  present  delegate  Apostolic,  Mgr  Lcsnc, 
titular  Archbishop  of  Philippopoli.    Under  his  able 


administration,  the  Catholic  mission  has  made  further 
progress,  e.\tending  its  beneficial  work  far  beyond 
the  limits  of  Persia  proper,  into  Sina,  the  Taurus 
mountains,  and  the  regions  of  Persian  Kurdistan  and 
Armenia. 

The  latest  statistics  are  as  follows:  Catholics  of  the 
Latin  Rile.  :!;")();  Catholic  Chaldeans,  aliout  SOOO, 
with  52  native  iirirsts  and  3  dioceses;  Nestorian.s, 
about  35,000;  Catholic  Armenians,  about  7f)0,  with 
5  priests;  Protestants,  about  5(X)0.  —  Catholic  mis- 
sions: Lazarist  Fathers,  19,  with  5  mission  stations; 
churches  and  chapels,  48;  seminaries,  2,  with  17 
students;  schools,  55,  with  800  pupils;  hospitals,  3; 
religious  houses,  3 — 2  for  men,  with  18  religious,  and 
1  for  women,  with  37  sisters. 

D.  Non-Catholic  Missions. — The  earliest  Protestant 
missionaries  in  Persia  were  Moravians  wlio  in  1747 
came  to  evangelize  the  Guebers,  but  owing  to  political 
disturbances  were  compelled  to  withdraw.  The  next 
missioner  was  Henry  Martin,  a  chaplain  in  the 
British  army  in  India,  who,  in  1811,  went  to  Persia 
and  remained  at  Shiraz  but  eleven  months,  having 
completed  there,  in  1812,  his  Persian  translation  of 
the  New  Testament.  After  many  trials  and  much 
opposition,  especially  from  the  Mohammedan  mul- 
lahs, or  priests,  he  was  forced  to  leave  the  country, 
and  died  at  Tokat,  in  Asia  Minor,  on  his  way  back  to 
England.  The  next  labourer  was  a  German,  the  Rev. 
C.  G.  Pfander,  of  the  Basle  Missionary  Society,  who 
visited  Persia  in  1829;  after  some  years  of  fruitless 
labour  in  Kirmanshah  and  Georgia  he  too  had  to 
leave  the  country,  and  died  in  1869  at  Constantinople. 
He  is  well  known  for  his  book  "Mizan-ul-IIakk" 
(The  Balance  of  Truth),  in  which  lie  ]i(iiiits  out  the 
superiority  of  Christianity  over  M()lianimedani.sm. 
In  1833  another  German  missionary',  tlie  Rev.  PVed- 
eric  Haas,  with  some  colleagues,  being  forced  to  leave 
Russia,  entered  Persia  and  for  a  time  made  their 
headquarters  at  Tabriz;  but  thev  also  had  to  leave 
the  country.  In  1838,  the  Rev.  W.  Glen,  a  Scottish 
missionary,  entered  Persia  and  spent  four  years  at 
Tabriz  and  Teheran,  occupied  mainly  in  completing 
and  revising  his  own  Persian  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament.  The  work  of  all  these  missions  was  prin- 
cipally directed  to  the  conversion  of  Mohammedans 
and  was  therefore,  as  such  attempts  have  generally 
proved,  a  complete  failure. 

The  first  organized  Protestant  missionary  attempt 
among  the  Nestorian  Christians  of  Persia  took  place 
in  1834,  when  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners 
of  Foreign  Missions  (Congregational)  commissioned 
Justin  Perkins  and  his  wife,  and  Asahel  Grant  (1835) 
and  his  wife  to  establish  a  mission  among  the  Persian 
Nestorians.  Between  1834  and  1871  some  fifty-two 
missionaries,  we  are  told,  were  sent  by  the  A.  B. 
C.  F.  M.  into  Persia.  Among  these  American  mission- 
aries were  several  physicians  who,  by  ministering 
gratuitously  to  the  poor  Nestorians,  made  some  prog- 
ress. In  1870  the  work  of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  was 
transferred  to  the  Board  of  Missions  of  the  American 
Presbyterian  Church,  and  the  mission  was  divided 
into  those  of  Eastern  and  Western  Persia,  the  fornier 
including  Tabriz,  Teheran,  Hamadan,  Resth,  Kaz- 
win,  and  Kirmanshah  ;  the  latter,  the  Province  of 
Azarbedjan  (Urumiah,  Khosrowa)  and  parts  of  Kurd- 
istan, Caucasus,  and  Armenia.  The  work  has  been, 
and  still  is,  more  of  a  humanitarian  and  semi-educa- 
tional character  than  moral  or  religious.  About 
$600,000  was  expended  on  this  mission  between  1834 
and  1870,  a  larger  amount  between  1870  and  1890, 
and  about  one  million  dollars  from  1890  to  the  present 
time,  i.  e.,  over  two  million  dollars  altogether.  Yet 
it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  any  results  com- 
mensurate with  this  vast  ex-penditure  have  been 
accomplished.  The  latest  statistics  (1909)  are  as 
follows:  Missionaries,  37  (including  6  male  and  3 
female  physicians);  35  native  ministers;  7000  adher- 


PERSICO 


725 


PERSICO 


ents;  3000  communicants;  2092  pupils  distributed 
among  62  schools ;  4  hospitals.  The  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society,  established  in  1869,  has  stations  in 
Kirman,  Yezd,  Shiraz,  and  at  Ispahan.  The  work  is 
mainly  medical  and  educational.  The  statistics  are: 
33  missionaries,  including  4  male  and  5  female  physi- 
cians; native  clergy,  1;  native  teachers,  28;  Chris- 
tians, 412;  communicants,  189;  schools,  8,  with  409 
scholars;  hospitals,  6.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  also  does  an  extensive  work  in  Southern  Persia. 

The  greatest  competitor  of  the  two  above-mentioned 
missionary  societies  is  the  Anglican  mission  known 
as  "The  Assyrian  Mission",  which  was  established 
in  1884  by  Archbishop  Benson  of  Canterbury  with 
headquarters  at  Urumiah  and  Kotchanes,  the  seat 
of  the  Nestorian  patriarch,  and  having  for  its  prin- 
cipal aim  the  union  of  the  Nestorian  with  the 
Anglican  Church.  It  is  interesting  to  read  an  estimate 
of  the  work  of  this  mission  from  the  pen  of  an  Amer- 
ican Presbyterian  missioner:  it  repudiates  the  name 
Protestant,  and  has  for  its  avowed  object  the  streng- 
thening of  the  Nestorian  Church  to  resist  Catholic 
influences  on  the  one  hand  and  Protestant  on  the 
other.  It  has  a  strong  force  of  missionaries,  who  wear 
the  garb  of  their  order,  and  are  under  temporary  vows 
of  celibacy  and  obedience.  Its  present  statistics  are: 
missionaries,  2;  schools,  30,  with  470  scholars,  besides 
12  distinctly  Nestorian  schools  in  various  sections  of 
Kurdistan.  This  mission  originated  in  1842,  when 
"Arehljishop  Howley,  with  the  assistance  of  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  sent  the  Rev. 
G.  P.  Badger  to  Slosul,  to  begin  work  among  the 
mountain  Nestorians.  Just  at  that  time  the  Kurdish 
sheikh,  Bcrd  Khan,  was  raging  in  the  mountains  of 
Kurilistan.  The  general  confusion  and  disorder  were 
such  that  Badger  had  to  retarn  in  despair  to  England 
within  a  year"  (Richter,  "History  of  Protestant 
Missions  in  the  Near  East",  1910).  Thirty-four  years 
later  the  Rev.  E.  L.  Cutts  was  sent  to  Kurdistan,  but 
left  within  a  year.  The  Scandinavian  Wahl,  however, 
remained  for  five  years  (1880-8.5)  in  the  heart  of 
Kurdistan  amidst  great  privations.  After  the  or- 
ganization of  "The  Assyrian  Mission",  in  1886,  one 
of  its  missionaries  settled  at  Kotchhannes,  some  7000 
feet  above  sea-level,  while  its  headquarters  were 
established  at  Urumiah. 

Many  other  small  Protestant  enterprises  have 
lately  sprung  up  in  Persia,  especially  at  Urumiah. 
The  United  Lutheran  Church  of  America  maintains 
a  few  kashas  (Nestorian  priests),  and  in  190.5,  sent 
an  American  missionary,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Possum,  to 
superintend  the  work.  A  Syrian  congregation  at 
Urumiah,  having  left  the  Russian  Church,  has  joined 
this  mission.  The  Swedish-American  "Augustana 
Synode"  employs  a  kasha,  who  conducts  two  day- 
schools.  The  Evangelical  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  the  Nestorian  Church,  founded  at 
Berlin  in  1906,  employs  a  kasha  who  has  had  a  Lu- 
theran training  in  Germany.  He  co-operates  to  some 
degree  with  the  .A.nglicans,  and  has  added  a  fourth  to 
the  already  existing  mission  printing  establishments  at 
Urumiah.  For  ten  years  Dr.  Lepsius's  German 
"Orientmission"  maintained  outside  Urumiah  an 
orphanage  for  Syrian  fugitives  from  the  mountains, 
but  it  is  to  be  closed  soon.  The  English  Plymouth 
Brethren  employ  three  or  four  kashas  in  the  "Awis- 
halum"  Mission,  named  after  the  chief  representative 
of  the  mission  in  Persia,  Awishalum  [Absolora]  Seyad. 
There  are  also  small  missions  connected  with  the 
American  Dunkards,  the  Holiness  Methodists,  the 
American  Southern  Baptists  and  Northern  Baptists, 
and  the  English  Congregationalists. 

The  latest  non-Catholic  missionary  enterprise  in 
Persia  was  that  of  the  Russians,  in  1898.  The  aim  of 
this  mission  is  more  political  than  educational  or  re- 
ligious, and  the  extraordinary  readiness  with  which 
several  thousand  Nestorians  flocked  to  the  Russian 


Orthodox  Church  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
Nestorians  were  very  anxious  for  foreign  protection 
against  the  tyranny  of  Persia  and  Turkey. 

I.  History,  etc. — Maspero,  The  Passing  of  Empires  (London, 
1899);  DiEuLAFOT,  La  Perse,  la  Chaldee,  el  la  Susiane  (Paris, 
18S9);  Benjamin,  Persia  an(i  (Ac  Persians  (Boston,  1887);  Raw- 
LINSON,  The  Sixth  and  Seventh  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient 
Eastern  World  (London,  1886);  db  Ragozin,  History  of  Media 
(London,  1892);  Benjamin,  History  of  Persia  (London,  1892); 
Rawlinson,  History  of  Parthia  (London,  1890)  (these  three 
in  the  History  of  the  Nations  series);  Malcolm,  History  of  Persia 
(London,  1S29);  Bahbier  de  Metnard,  Dictionnaire  geogra- 
phigue,  historigue  et  littiraire  de  la  Perse  (Paris,  1861);  Watson, 
History  of  Persia  from  the  Beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(London,  1873);  Piggot,  Persia,  Ancient  and  Modern  (London, 
1874);  JusTi,  Geschichte  des  alien  Persiens  (Berlin,  1879);  Noi^ 
DEKE,  Aufsiitze  zur  persischen  Geschichte  (Leipzig,  1887);  GcT- 
SCHMIED,  Geschichte  Irons  und  seiner  Nachbarldnder  (Tubingen, 
18S8) ;  JusTi  AND  Horn  in  Geiger  and  Kuhn,  Grundriss  der 
iranische  Philologie,  II  (Strasburg,  1897-1900);  Christensen, 
L' Empire  des  Sassanides,  le  peuple,  Vetat,  la  cour  (Copenhagen, 
1907);  CuRzON,  Persia  and  the  Persian  Question  (London,  1892); 
DE  Morgan,  Mission  scientifique  en  Perse  (Paris,  1894) ;  Sykes, 
Ten  Thousand  Miles  in  Persia  (London,  1902);  Jackson,  Persia, 
Past  and  Present  (New  York,  1906). — On  Persian  Art:  Diehla- 
FOy,  L^Art  antique  de  la  Perse  (Paris,  1884) ;  Perrot  and  Chipiez, 
History  of  Art  in  Persia  [hondoa,  1892);  Gayet,  L'.4r(  persane 
(Paris,  1896);    Adbin,  La  Perse  d'oujourrf'/iui  (Paris,  1908). 

II.  Language  and  Literature. — Hammer,  Geschichte  der 
schonen  Redekunste  Persiens  mit  einer  Blutenlese  (Vienna,  1818); 
OusELET,  Biographical  Notices  of  Persian  Poets  (London,  1846); 
Pizzi.  Storia  delta  letteratura  Persiana  (Turin,  1894);  Idem. 
L'Epopea  persiana  (Turin,  1887) ;  Reed,  Persian  Literature. 
Ancient  and  Modern  (Chicago,  1893);  Chodzko,  Specimens  o/ 
the  Popular  Poetry  of  Persia  (London,  1842) ;  MoHL,  Le  Shah- 
Nameh  de  Firdousi  (Paris.  1876-78);  Rogers,  The  Shah-Namah 
of  Fardusi  (London,  1907);  Dole  and  Walker,  Flowers  from 
Persian  Poets  (New  Yorlc,  1901);  Horn,  Geschichte  der  persischen 
Literatur  (Leipzig,  1901);  and  above  all,  Browne,  Literary 
History  of  Persia,  I  (London,  1902),  II  (1906).— See  also 
bibliographies  to  Avbsta  and  .\vEaTA,  Theological  Aspects  of. 

III.  Christianity  in  Persia. — A.  Earlier  Periods. — Tabari, 
Geschichte  der  Persen  und  Araber  zur  Zeit  der  Sassaniden,  ed. 
NoLDEKE  (Leyden,  1879)  ;  Barhebrjsus,  Chronicon  Ecclesias- 
ticum,  ed.  Abbeloos-Lamy  (Louvain,  1874);  Assemani,  Bihlio- 
theca  Orientalis  (Rome,  1719-28),  especially  III,  pts.  i,  ii;  Bedjan, 
Acta  Martyrum  et  Sanctorum  (Leipzig,  1890-99);  Hoffman, 
Ausziige  aus  Syrischen  Akten  persischer  M&rtyrer  (Leipzig,  1886); 
Thomas  of  Marqa,  Book  of  Governors,  ed.  Budge  (London,  1893) ; 
Bedj.\n,  Fr.  tr.  Chabot,  Jabalaha:  Vie  de  Jabalaha,  etc.  (Paris, 
189.'));  Wright,  A  Short  History  of  Syriac  Literature  (London, 
1891);  Duval,  Littlrature  Syriaque  (Paris,  1899);  Duchesne, 
tr.  Mathew,  Churches  Sepandnl  from  Rome  (New  Yorlt,  1907); 
Bvukitt,  Early  Eastern  C}ni  '/j-i',  ^."'',v  York,  1904) ;  LabourT 
Le  Christianisme  dans  /'- ',  u^  la  dynastic  Sassanide 
(Paris,  1904);  Adeney,  77,. ',.  /  -  /-r/iCAurcAes  (New York, 
1908);  Shedd,  Islam  aiui  // -  ",,.■'7  Diurc/ies  (Philadelphia, 
1904);  O'Leary,  The  Synnc  church  and  Fathers  (London, 
1909);  Wigram,  An  Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Assyr^ 
ian  Church.  100-640  A.  D.  (London,  1910);  Babthold,  Zur 
Geschichte  des  Christenthums  in  Mittel-Asien  bis  zur  mongolischen 
Erobcrung  (Tubingen,   1901). 

B.  Catholic  Missions. — Annates  de  la  Congregation  de  la 
Mission;  Chardin,  Voyages  en  Perse  et  autres  lieux  de  I'Orient 
(Amsterdam,  1711);  Memoires  des  Jesuites  d' Ispahan;  Piolet, 
La  France  au  dehors,  ou  Les  Missions  cathotiques  frangaises  au 
XIX'  siicle,  I:  Missions  d'Orient  (Paris,  1900),  185-222;  Miller- 
Simonis,  Du  Caucase  au  Golfe  Persique  (Paris,  1892) ;  Giamil, 
GenuincE  relationes  inter  syros  orientates  sen  chaldcsos  et  romanoa 
pontifices  (Rome,  1900) ;  Missiones  catholicce  cura  S.  C.  de  Prop. 
Fide  descriptce  (Rome,  annual). 

C.  Non-Catholic  Missions. — Perkins,  Residence  of  Eight 
Years  in  Persia  (Andover,  1843);  Idem,  Missionary  Life  in  Per' 
sia  (Boston,  1861);  Guest,  Story  of  a  Consecrated  Life  (London, 
1870):  Anderson,  History  of  the  Missions  of  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M. 
Oriental  Missions  (Boston.  1874);  Bassett,  Persia;  Eastern 
Mission  (Philadelphia,  1890) ;  Wilson,  Persian  Life  and  Cus- 
toms  (Chicago,  1895);  Idem,  Persia:  Western  Mission  (Phila- 
delphia, 1896);  Richter,  A  History  of  Protestant  Missions  in  the 
Near  East  (New  York,  1910),  279-337;  Riley,  Progress  and  Pros- 
pects of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury's  Mission  (London,  1889); 
Maclean  and  Browne,  The  Catholicos  of  the  East  and  His  People 
(London,  1S92) ;   Lawrence,  Modern  Missions  in  the  East  (New 

^°'^'  i^»^'-  Gabriel  Oussani. 

Persico,  Ignatius,  cardinal,  b.  30  Jan.,  1823,  at 
Naples,  Italy;  d.  7  Dec,  1890.  He  entered  the  Capu- 
chin Franciscan  Order  on  25  April,  1839.  Immedi- 
ately after  ordination  he  was  sent  in  November,  1846, 
to  Patna,  India.  The  vicar  Apostolic,  Anastasiua 
Ilartmann,  made  him  his  sncius  and  confidant.  In 
1850  Persico  accompanied  Bishop  Hartmann  to  Bom- 
bay, when  he  was  transferred  to  that  vicariate,  and  as- 
sisted him  in  founding  a  seminary  .and  establishing  the 
"Bomb.ay  Catholic  Examiner".  At  the  time  of  the 
Goanese  schism  in  18.53,  the  bishop  sent  Persico  to 
Rome  and  London  to  lay^he  Catholic  case  before  the 


PERSON 


726 


PERSON 


pope   and   the   British   Govornnient.     He  obtained 
British  recognition  for  Catliolic  rights. 

He  was  I'onseerated  bishop  on  8  March,  1S54, 
anti  nominatetl  bisliop-auxiliary  to  Bisliop  Hartniann; 
but  the  next  year  he  was  appointed  visitor  of  the 
Vicariate  of  Agra,  anil  afterwards  vicar  Apostohc  of 
that  district.  During  the  Indian  Mutiny  he  was  sev- 
eral times  in  danger  of  his  life.  The  anxieties  of  this 
period  told  upon  his  health  and  in  1860  he  w;vs  com- 
pelled to  return  to  Italy.  Sent  in  1800  on  a  mission  to 
the  United  .Stales,  he  took  part  in  the  Council  of  Bal- 
timore. On  20  March,  1S70,  he  was  nominated  Bishop 
of  Savannah;  but  his  health  again  failing,  he  resigned 
in  1S73.  In  1874  he  was  sent  as  Apostolic  delegate  to 
Canada;  and  in  1877  he  was  commissioned  to  settle 
the  alTairs  of  the  Malabar  schism.  On  20  March,  1879, 
he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Aquino  in  Italy;  but  in 
March,  1887,  he  was  promoted  to  the  titular  Arch- 
bishopric of  Tamiatha  and  sent  as  Apostolic  delegate 
to  Ireland  to  report  upon  the  relations  of  the  clergy 
with  the  political  movement.  He  quickly  saw  that  the 
question  must  be  considered  not  merely  in  relation  to 
present  politics  but  also  in  relation  to  the  past  history 
of  Ireland,  ami  he  d(-laycd  his  final  report  in  order  to 
consider  the  (|uesti(in  in  this  brciailer  aspect.  Mean- 
while the  Ildly  Sec  issued  its  (■ondeinnation  of  the  Plan 
of  Campaign.  I'ersico  returned  to  Rome  much  disap- 
pointed. He  was  at  once  nominated  Vicar  of  the  Vati- 
can Chapter.  On  10  January,  1893,  he  was  created 
cardinal  priest  of  the  title  of  St.  Peter  in  Chains. 

Armlecta  Ord.  Min.  Capp.,  XII,  30-32;  see  also  letters  of 
Persico  in  United  Irishman  (23  April,  1904). 

Father  Cuthbert. 

Person. — The  Latin  word  persona  was  originally 
used  to  denote  the  mask  worn  by  an  actor.  From  this 
it  was  applied  to  the  role  he  assumed,  and,  finally, 
to  any  character  on  the  stage  of  life,  to  any  individual. 
This  article  discusses  (1)  the  definition  of  "person", 
especially  with  reference  to  the  doctrine  of  the  In- 
carnation; and  (2)  the  use  of  the  word  persona  and 
its  Greek  equivalents  in  connexion  with  the  Trinita- 
rian disputes.  For  the  psychological  treatment  see 
Personality. 

(1)  Definition. — The  classic  definition  is  that  given 
by  Boethius  in  "De  persona  et  duabus  naturis", 
c.  ii:  Naluroe  rationalis  individua  substantia  (an  in- 
dividual substance  of  a  rational  nature).  "Sub- 
stance" is  used  to  exclude  accidents:  "We  see  that 
accidents  cannot  constitute  person"  (Boethius,  op. 
cit.).  Substantia  is  used  in  two  senses:  of  the  con- 
crete substance  as  existing  in  the  individual,  called 
substantia  prima,  corresponding  to  Aristotle's  oiirla 
vpiiTTi;  and  of  abstractions,  substance  as  existing  in 
genus  and  species,  called  substantia  secunda,  Aris- 
totle's oiffla  oevT4pa.  It  is  disputed  which  of  the  two 
the  word  taken  by  itself  here  signifies.  It  seems  prob- 
able that  of  itself  it  prescinds  from  substantia  prima 
and  substantia  secunda,  and  is  restricted  to  the  former 
signification  only  by  the  word  individua. 

Individua,  i.  e.,  indivisum  in  sc,  is  that  which,  unlike 
the  higher  branches  in  the  tree  of  Porphyry,  genus 
and  species,  cannot  be  further  subdivided.  Boethius 
in  giving  his  definition  does  not  seem  to  attach  any 
further  signification  to  the  word.  It  is  merely  synony- 
mous with  singutaris. 

Rationalis  naturoE. — Person  is  predicated  only  of 
intellectual  beings.  The  generic  word  which  includes 
all  individual  existing  substances  is  suppositum.  Thus 
person  is  a  subdivision  of  suppositum  which  is  applied 
equally  to  rational  and  irrational,  living  and  non- 
living individuals.  A  person  is  therefore  sometimes 
defined  as  suppositum  naturw  rationalis. 

The  definition  of  Boethius  as  it  stands  can  hardly 
be  considered  a  satisfactory  one.  The  words  taken 
literally  can  be  applied  to  the  rational  soul  of  man, 
and  also  to  the  human  nature  of  Christ.    That  St. 


Thomas  accepts  it  is  presumably  due  to  the  fact 
that  he  found  it  in  po.ssession,  and  recognized  as  the 
traditional  definition,  lie  explains  it  in  terms  that 
praclicaiiy  constitute  a  new  definition.  Individua 
subslanlid  signifies,  he  says,  .•iiibstarttia,  comphta,  per 
se  subsistcns,  st-parata  ah  aliis,  \.  e.,  a  substance,  com- 
plete, subsisting  per  se,  existing  apart  from  others 
(III,  Q.xvi,  a.  12,  ad  2""').  If  to  this  be  added  ratio- 
nalis natura,  we  have  a  definition  comprising  the  five 
notes  that  go  to  make  up  a  person:  (a)  substantia — 
this  excludes  accident;  (b)  comjikta — it  must  form  a 
complete  nature;  that  which  is  a  ])urt,  either  actually 
or  "aptitudinally"  does  not  .■satisfy  the  definition; 
(c)  per  se  subsistens — the  person  exists  in  himself  and 
for  himself;  he  is  sui  juris,  the  ultimate  possessor  of 
his  nature  and  all  its  acts,  the  ultimate  subject  of 
predication  of  all  his  attributes;  that  which  exists  in 
another  is  not  a  person;  (d)  separata  ab  aliis — this 
excludes  the  universal,  substajilia  secunda,  which  has 
no  existence  apart  from  the  individual;  (e)  rationalis 
naturce — excludes  all  non-intellectual  supposita.  To 
a  person  therefore  belongs  a  threefold  incommunica- 
bility,  cx'pre.s.sed  in  notes  (b),  (c),  and  (d).  The 
human  soul  belongs  to  the  nature  as  a  part  of  it,  and 
is  therefore  not  a  person,  even  when  existing  sepa- 
rately. The  human  nature  of  Christ  does  not  exist 
per  se  scorsum,  but  in  alio,  in  the  Divine  Personality 
of  the  Word.  It  is  therefore  communicated  by  as- 
sumption and  so  is  not  a  person.  Lastly  the  Divine 
Essence,  though  subsisting  per  sr,  is  so  communicated 
to  the  Three  Persons  that  it  does  not  exist  apart  from 
them;   it  is  therefore  not  a  iierson. 

Theologians  agree  that  in  the  Hypostatic  Union  the 
immediate  reason  why  the  Sacred  Humanity,  though 
complete  and  individual,  is  not  a  person  is  that  it  is 
not  a  subsistence,  not  p(r  sc  scorsum  subsistens.  They 
have,  h()we\iT,  (liNputnl  fur  centuries  as  to  what  may 
be  the  ultimate  (leteniiiiialion  of  the  nature  which  if 
present  would  make  it  a  subsistence  and  so  a  per.son, 
what  in  other  words  is  the  ultimate  foundation  of 
personality.  According  to  Scotus,  as  he  is  usually 
understood,  the  ultimate  foundation  is  a  mere  nega- 
tion. That  indixidual  intellectual  nature  is  a  person 
which  is  neither  of  its  nature  destined  to  be  commu- 
nicated— as  is  the  humtui  soul — nor  is  actually  com- 
municated— as  is  the  Sacred  Humanity.  If  the  Hy- 
postatic Union  ceased,  the  latter  would  ipso  facto, 
without  any  further  determination,  become  a  person. 
To  this  it  is  objected  that  the  person  possesses  the  na- 
ture and  all  its  attributes.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
this  possessor,  as  distinct  from  the  objects  possessed, 
is  constituted  only  by  a  negative.  Consequently,  the 
traditional  Thomists,  following  Cajetan,  hold  that 
there  is  a  positive  determination  which  they  call  the 
"mode"  of  subsistence.  It  is  the  function  of  this 
mode  to  make  the  nature  incommunicable,  terminated 
in  itself,  and  capable  of  receiving  its  own  esse,  or  exis- 
tence. Without  this  mode  the  human  nature  of 
Christ  exists  only  by  the  uncreated  esse  of  the  Word. 

Suarez  also  makes  the  ultimate  foundation  of  per- 
sonality a  mode.  In  his  view,  however,  as  he  holds 
no  real  distinction  between  nature  and  esse,  it  does 
not  prepare  the  nature  to  receive  its  own  existence, 
but  is  something  added  to  a  nature  conceived  as  al- 
ready existing.  Many  theologians  hold  that  the  very 
concept  of  a  mode,  viz.,  a  determination  of  a  substance 
really  distinct  from  it  but  adding  no  reality,  involves  a 
contradiction.  Of  more  recent  theories  that  of  Tipha- 
nus  ("  De  hypo.stasi  et  persona",  1634) has  found  many 
adherents.  He  holds  that  a  substance  is  a  suppositum, 
an  intelligent  substance  a  person,  from  the  mere  fact 
of  its  being  a  whole,  totum  in  se.  This  totality,  it  is 
contended,  is  a  positive  note,  but  adds  no  reality,  as 
the  whole  adds  nothing  to  the  parts  that  compose  it. 
In  the  Hypostatic  Union  the  human  nature  is  perfected 
by  being  assumed,  and  so  ceases  to  be  a  whole,  being 
merged  in  a  greater  totality.    The  Word,  on  the  other 


PERSON 


727 


PERSONALITY 


hand,  is  not  perfected,  and  so  remains  a  person.  Op- 
posing theologians,  however,  hold  that  this  notion  of 
totality  reduces  on  analysis  to  the  Scotistic  negative. 
Lastly  the  nco-Thomists,  Terrien,  Billot,  etc.,  con- 
sider personality  to  be  ultimately  constituted  by  the 
esse,  the  actual  existence,  of  an  intelligent  substance. 
That  which  subsists  with  its  own  esse  is  by  that  very 
fact  incommunicable.  The  human  nature  of  Christ 
is  possessed  by  the  Word  and  exists  by  His  infinite 
esse.  It  has  no  separate  esse  of  its  own  and  for  this 
reason  is  not  a  person.  The  suppositum  is  a  supposi- 
litm  as  being  ens  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term.  Of 
all  Latin  theories  this  appears  to  approach  most 
nearly  to  that  of  the  Greek  fathers.  Thus  in  the 
"  Dialogues  of  the  Trinity  "  given  by  Migne  among  the 
works  of  St.  Athanasius,  the  author,  sjieaking  of  per- 
son and  nature  in  God,  says:  'H  yap  virbixTaai.s  rb  ehai 
aitixalvti  7)  5i  eedrri!  ri)  t(  ehai  (Person  denotes  esse, 
the  Divine  nature  denotes  the  quiddity;  M.  28, 
1114).  An  elaborate  treatment  is  given  by  St.  John 
Damascene,  Dial.  xlii. 

(2)  The  use  of  the  word  persona  and  its  Greek  equiva- 
lents in  connexion  with  Ike  Trinitarian  disputes. — For 
the  constitution  of  a  person  it  is  required  that  a  reality 
be  subsistent  and  absolutely  distinct,  i.  e.  incom- 
municable. The  three  Divine  reahties  are  relations, 
each  identified  with  the  Divine  Essence.  A  finite  rela- 
tion has  reality  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  an  accident;  it 
has  the  reality  of  inherence.  The  Divine  relations, 
however,  are  in  the  nature  not  by  inherence  but  by 
identity.  The  reality  they  have,  therefore,  is  not  that 
of  an  accident,  but  that  of  a  subsistence.  They  are 
one  with  ipsum  esse  subsistens.  Again  every  relation, 
by  its  very  nature,  implies  opposition  and  so  distinc- 
tion. In  the  finite  relation  this  distinction  is  between 
subject  and  term.  In  the  infinite  relations  there  is  no 
subject  as  distinct  from  the  relation  itself;  the  Pater- 
nity is  the  Father — and  no  term  as  distinct  from  the 
opposing  relation;  the  Filiation  is  the  Son.  The 
Divine  realities  are  therefore  distinct  and  mutually 
incommunicable  through  this  relative  opposition;  they 
are  subsistent  as  being  identified  with  the  subsistence 
of  the  Godhead,  i.  e.  they  are  persons.  The  use  of  the 
word  persona  to  denote  them,  however,  led  to  contro- 
versy between  East  and  West.  The  precise  Greek 
equivalent  was  irpSsojwov,  likewise  used  originally  of 
the  actor's  mask  and  then  of  the  character  he  repre- 
sented, but  the  meaning  of  the  word  had  not  passed  on, 
as  had  that  of  persona,  to  the  general  signification  of 
individual.  Consequently  tres  persona',  rpia.  Trpiswira, 
savoured  of  Sabellianism  to  the  Greeks.  On  the  other 
hand  their  word  inr6(7Ta<Tis,  from  invb-'larrjiii,  was  taken 
to  correspond  to  the  Latin  substantia,  from  sub-stare. 
Tres  hypostases  therefore  appeared  to  conflict  with 
the  Nica?an  doctrine  of  unity  of  substance  in  the 
Trinity.  This  difference  was  a  main  cause  of  the 
Antiochene  schism  of  the  fourth  century  (see  Mele- 
Tius  OF  Antioch).  Eventually  in  the  West,  it  was 
recognized  that  the  tiTie  equivalent  of  inrdcrraffis  was 
not  substantia  but  siibsistcntia,  and  in  the  East  that 
to  understand  Trpbiunop  in  the  sense  of  the  Latin 
persona  precluded  the  possibility  of  a  Sabellian  inter- 
pretation. By  the  First  Council  of  Constantinople, 
therefore,  it  was  recognized  that  the  words  u7r6trTa(ri!, 
Trp6<Tuirov,  and  persona  were  equally  applicable  to  the 
three  Divine  realities.  (See  Incarnation;  Nature; 
Substance;  Trinity.) 

BnETHlus.  De  Persojia  et  Dunbus  Naturis.  ii,  iii,  in  P.  L., 
I.XIV.  1342  sqq.;  Rickaby,  General  Melaphysics.  92-102.  279- 
97  (London.  ISflfl);  de  Regnon.  Etudes  sur  la  TriniU.  I, 
studies  i,  iv;  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  III,  Q.  xvi,  a.  12;  De  Polenlia, 
ix,  1-4:  Terrien,  S.  Thomce  Doctrina  de  Unione  Hypostatica,  bk. 
I,  c.  vii;  bk.  Ill,  cc.  vi-vii  (Paris,  1894):  Franzelin,  De  Verho 
Incarnato,  sect.  Ill,  cc.  iii-iv  (Rome,  1874):  Harper,  Metaphysics 
of  the  School,  vol.  I,  bk.  Ill,  0.  ii,  art.  2  (London.  1879). 

L.  W.  GEDnES. 

Person,  Ecclesiastical. — In  its  etymological  .sense 
this  expression  signifies  every  person  who  forms  a  part 


of  the  external  and  visible  society  which  constitutes 
the  Church,  and  who  has  not  been  canonically  expelled 
therefrom.  But  the  expression  is  rarely  used  in  this 
sense;  customarily  it  indicates  persons  whom  a  special 
tie  connects  with  the  Church,  either  because  they  have 
received  ecclesiastical  tonsure,  minor,  or  higher  orders, 
and  are  a  fortiori  invested  with  a  power  of  jurisdic- 
tion; or  because  they  have  taken  vows  in  a  religious 
order  or  congregation  approved  by  the  Church.  This 
more  intimate  union  with  the  Church  involves  partic- 
ular duties  which  are  not  incumbent  on  the  general 
faithful  (see  Cleric). 

Scheher,  Uandbuch  des  Kirchenrechts,  I  (Graz,  1886),  309-12. 

A.  Van  Hove. 
Persona  Gobelinus.     See  GobeI/Inus. 

Personality. — It  is  proposed  in  this  article  to  give 
an  account  (1)  of  the  physical  constituents  of  person- 
ality in  accordance  with  the  scholastic  theory;  (2) 
of  concepts  of  personality  that  conflict  with  the  theory; 
(,3)  of  abnormalities  of  consciousness  with  reference  to 
their  bearing  on  theories  of  personality. 

(1)  The  Physical  Constituents  op  Personal- 
ity.— A  man's  personality  is  that  of  which  he  has 
cognizance  under  the  concept  of  "self".  It  is  that 
entity,  substantial,  permanent,  unitary,  which  is  the 
subject  of  all  the  states  and  acts  that  constitute  his 
complete  life.  An  appeal  to  self-consciousness  shows 
us  that  there  is  such  a  subject,  of  which  thought,  will, 
and  feeling  are  modifications.  It  is  substantial,  i.  e. 
not  one  or  all  of  the  changing  states  but  the  reality 
underlying  tftem,  for  our  self-consciousness  testifies 
that,  besides  perceiving  the  thought,  it  has  immediate 
perception  in  the  same  act  of  the  subject  to  whom  the 
thought  belongs.  Just  as  no  motion  can  be  appre- 
hended without  some  sort  of  apprehension  of  the 
object  moved,  so  the  perception  of  thought  carries 
with  it  perception  of  the  thinker.  The  changing 
states  are  recognized  as  determinations  of  the  "self", 
and  the  very  concept  of  a  determination  involves 
the  presence  of  something  determined,  something  not 
itself  a  determination,  i.  e.  a  substance.  It  is  per- 
manent, in  that  though  one  may  say,  "I  am  com- 
pletely changed",  when  referring  to  a  former  state, 
still  one  knows  that  the  "I"  in  question  is  still  the 
same  numerically  and  essentially,  though  with  cer- 
tain superadded  differences. 

This  permanence  is  evident  from  a  consideration 
of  our  mental  processes.  Every  act  of  intellectual 
memory  implies  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that  I, 
thinking  now,  am  the  "self"  as  the  one  who  had  the 
experience  which  is  being  recalled.  My  former  ex- 
periences are  referred  to  something  which  has  not 
passed  as  they  have  passed,  to  my  own  self  or  person- 
ality. From  this  permanence  springs  the  conscious- 
ness of  self  as  a  unitary  principle.  The  one  to  whom 
all  the  variations  of  state  belong  is  perceived  as  an 
entity  complete  in  itself  and  distinguished  from  all 
others.  Unity  of  consciousness  does  not  constitute 
but  manifests  unity  of  being.  The  physical  principle 
of  this  permanence  and  unity  is  the  simple,  spiritual, 
unchanging  substance  of  the  rational  soul.  This  does 
not  mean,  however,  that  the  soul  is  identical  with  the 
personal  self.  There  are  recognized  as  modifications 
of  the  self  not  merely  acts  of  thought  and  volition, 
but  also  sensations,  of  which  the  immediate  subject 
is  the  animated  body.  Even  in  its  own  peculiar  sphere 
the  soul  works  in  conjunction  with  the  body;  intel- 
lectual rea.soning  is  accompanied  and  conditioned  by 
sen.sory  images.  A  man's  personality,  then,  consists 
physically  of  soul  and  body.  Of  these  the  body  is 
what  is  termed  in  schola.stic  language  the  "matter", 
the  determin.able  principle,  the  soul  is  the  "form", 
the  determining  principle.  '  The  soul  is  not  merely  the 
seat  of  the  chief  functions  of  man — thought  and  will; 
it  also  determines  the  nature  and  functioning  of  the 
body.    To  its  permanence  is  due  the  abiding  unity 


PERSONALITY 


728 


PERSONALITY 


of  the  whole  personality  in  spite  of  the  constant  dis- 
intenration  and  rebuilding  of  the  body.  Though  not 
therefore  the  only  constituent  of  personality,  the  soul 
is  its  formal  principle.  Finally,  for  the  complete 
constitution  of  personality  this  composilum  must  exist 
in  such  a  way  as  to  be  "subsistent"  (see  Person). 

(2)    NON-8cHOLASTIC    THEORIES    OF    PeHSONALITT. 

— Slany  modern  schools  of  philosophy  hold  that  per- 
sonality is  constituted  not  by  any  underlying  reality 
which  self-consciousness  reveals  to  us,  but  by  the 
self-consciousness  itself  or  by  intellectual  operations, 
Locke  held  that  personality  is  determined  and  consti- 
tuted by  identity  of  consciousness.  Without  denying 
the  existence  of  the  soul  as  the  substantial  principle 
underlying  the  state  of  consciousness,  he  denied  that 
this  identity  of  substance  had  any  concern  with  per- 
sonal identity.  From  what  has  been  said  above  it  is 
clear  that  consciousness  is  a  manifestation,  not  the 
principle,  of  that  unity  of  being  which  constitutes  per- 
sonality. It  is  a  state,  and  presupposes  something 
of  which  it  is  a  state.  Locke's  view  and  kindred 
theories  are  in  conflict  with  the  Christian  revelation, 
in  that,  as  in  the  Incarnate  Word  there  are  two  in- 
tellects and  two  "operations",  there  are  therefore 
two  consciousnesses.  Hence  accepting  Locke's  defini- 
tion of  personality  there  would  be  two  persons. 

From  Locke's  theory  it  was  but  a  step  to  the  denial 
of  any  permanent  substance  underlying  the  perceived 
states.  For  Hume  the  only  knowable  reality  consists 
in  the  succession  of  conscious  thoughts  and  feelings. 
As  these  are  constantly  changing  it  follows  that  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  permanence  of  the  Ego.  Conse- 
quently, the  impression  of  abiding  identity  is  a  mere 
fiction.  Subsequent  theorists  however,  could  not  ac- 
quiesce in  this  absolute  demolition;  an  explanation 
of  the  consciousness  of  unity  had  somehow  to  be 
found.  Mill  therefore  held  personality  to  consist  in 
the  series  of  states  "aware  of  itself  as  a  series".  Ac- 
cording to  James,  personality  is  a  thing  of  the  mo- 
ment, consisting  in  the  thought  of  the  moment:  "The 
passing  thought  is  itself  the  thinker".  But  each 
thought  transmits  itself  and  all  its  content  to  its 
immediate  successor,  which  thus  knows  and  includes 
all  that  went  before.  Thus  is  established  the  "stream 
of  consciousness"  which  in  his  view  constitutes  the 
unitj'  of  the  Ego.  Besides  the  fundamental  difficul- 
ties they  share  in  common,  each  of  these  theories  is 
open  to  objections  peculiar  to  itself.  How  can  a  num- 
ber of  states,  i.  e.  of  events  ex  hypothesi  entitatively 
distinct  from  one  another,  be  collectively  conscious 
of  themselves  as  a  unity?  Similarly,  in  the  theory  of 
James,  successive  thoughts  are  distinct  entities.  As 
therefore  no  thought  is  ever  present  to  the  one  pre- 
ceding it,  how  does  it  know  it  without  some  underlying 
principle  of  unity  connecting  them? 

Again,  James  does  not  believe  in  unconscious  states 
of  mind.  In  what  sense  then  does  every  thought 
"know"  all  its  predecessors?  It  is  certainly  not  con- 
scious of  doing  so.  But  the  objection  fundamental 
to  all  these  theories  is  that,  while  pretending  to 
account  for  all  the  phenomena  of  self-consciousness, 
its  most  important  testimony,  namely  that  to  a  self 
who  is  not  the  thought,  who  owns  the  thought,  and 
who  is  immediately  perceived  in  the  act  of  reflexion 
upon  the  thought,  is  treated  as  a  mere  fiction.  Against 
any  such  position  may  be  urged  all  the  arguments 
for  the  permanent  and  unitary  nature  of  the  self. 
The  modem  school  of  empirical  psychologists  shows 
a  certain  reaction  against  systems  which  deny  to 
personality  a  foundation  in  substance.  Thus  Ribot: 
"Let  us  set  aside  the  hypothesis  which  makes  of  the 
Ego  'a  bundle  of  .sensations',  or  states  of  conscious- 
ness, as  is  frequently  repeated  after  Hume.  This  is 
...  to  take  effects  for  their  cause"  (Diseases  of 
Personality,  8.5).  For  them  the  vmity  of  the  Ego 
rests  merely  on  the  unity  of  the  organism.  "The 
organism,  and  the  brain,  as  its  highest  representation. 


constitute  the  real  personality  "  (op.  cit.,  154).  A  sys- 
tem which  ignores  the  existence  of  the  human  soul 
fails  to  account  for  the  purely  intellectual  phenomena 
of  consciousness,  abstract  ideas,  judgineiit,  and  infer- 
ence. These  require  a  simple,  i.  e.  non-cxteiuled,  .and 
therefore  immaterial  principle.  The  variou.s  theories 
we  have  been  considering  make  the  whole  personality 
consist  in  what  is  really  some  part  of  it.  Its  substan- 
tial constituents  are  soul  and  body,  its  accidental  con- 
stituents are  all  the  sensations,  emotions,  thoughts, 
volitions,  in  fact  all  the  experiences,  of  this  com- 
positum. 

(3)  Abnormalities  of  Consciousnesb.^ — We  may 
here  review  briefly  some  forms  of  what  are  known  as 
"disintegrations  of  personahty",  and  consider  to  what 
extent  they  affect  the  scholastic  theory  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  person.  In  double  or  multiple  personality 
there  are  manifested  in  the  same  individual  two  or 
more  apparently  distinct  series  of  conscious  states. 
There  is  a  break  not  merely  of  character  and  habit, 
but  of  memory  also.  Thus  in  1887  a  certain  Ansel 
Bourne  disappeared  from  his  home  at  Coventry, 
Rhode  Island,  and  two  weeks  later  set  up  business 
as  A.  J.  Browne,  a  baker,  at  Norristown,  Pennsyl- 
vania. This  new  "  pensonality "  had  no  knowledge 
of  Ansel  Bourne.  After  eight  weeks  he  one  morning 
woke  up  to  find  himself  again  Ansel  Bourne.  The 
adventures,  even  the  existence,  of  A.  J.  Browne  were 
a  vanished  episode.  Subsequently  under  hypnotic 
influence  the  latter  "personality"  was  recalled,  and 
recounted  its  adventures.  The  phenomena  of  double 
personality  may  also  be  recurrent  apart  from  hyp- 
nosis. In  such  cases  the  two  states  reappear  alter- 
nately, each  having  the  chain  of  memories  proper  to 
itself.  The  instance  most  frequently  cited  is  that  of 
"Felida  X",  observed  for  many  years  by  Dr.  Azam. 
Two  states  of  consciousness  alternated.  In  state  II 
she  retained  memory  of  what  happened  in  state  I, 
but  not  vice  versa.  Her  character  in  the  two  states 
was  widely  different.  Frequently  in  such  cases  the 
character  in  the  second  state  tends  to  become  more 
Uke  the  character  in  the  original  state,  appearing 
finally  as  a  blend  of  the  two,  as  in  the  case  of  Mary 
Reynolds  (cf.  "Harper's  Magazine",  May,  1860). 

In  "multiple  personality"  the  most  extraordinary 
abnormalities  of  memory  and  character  occur.  In  the 
case  of  "  Miss  Beauchamp  "  (Proceedings  of  the  Society 
for  Psychical  R  esearch,  xv,  466  sq . ) ,  besides  the  original 
personality,  there  were  no  less  than  four  other  states 
periodically  reappearing,  different  from  one  another 
in  temperament,  and  each  with  a  continuous  memorj'. 
Owing  to  a  mental  shock  in  1893  Miss  Beauchamp's 
character  changed,  though  memory  remained  con- 
tinuous. Thisstate  was  afterwards  called  B  I.  Under 
hypnotism  two  other  states  manifested  themselves 
B  II,  and  B  IIL  Of  these  B  III  ("Sally")  practically 
developed  an  independent  existence,  and  continually 
manifested  itself  apart  from  hypnotic  suggestion. 
B  I  had  no  memory  of  B  II  or  B  III.  B  II  knew  B  I, 
but  not  B  III,  while  B  III  knew  both  the  others. 
Eventually  in  1899  after  another  mental  shock  there 
appeared  a  fourth  "personality"  B  IV,  who.se  memory 
presented  a  complete  blank  from  the  "disappearance" 
of  the  original  Miss  Beauchamp  after  the  first  shock 
till  the  appearance  of  B  IV  after  the  second,  six  years 
later.  Her  character  was,  however,  very  unlike  that 
of  the  original  personality.  B  III  had  memory  of  all 
that  happened  to  B  IV,  but  did  not  know  her  thoughts. 
Furthermore,  B  III  was  exceedingly  jealous  both  of 
her  and  of  B  I,  and  plajed  spiteful  tricks  on  them. 
In  connexion  with  these  phenomena,  the  theory  has 
been  proposed  that  the  original  personality  became 
"disintegrated"  after  the  first  shock,  and  that  B  I 
and  B  IV  are  its  components,  while  B  II  and  B  III 
are  varying  manifestations  of  the  "subHminal  self". 

Sometimes  again  the  phenomena  of  "double  per- 
sonality" are  manifested  in  an  individual,  not  in  alter- 


PERSONS 


729 


PERSONS 


nating  periods,  but  simultaneously.  Thus  M.  Taine 
cites  tlie  case  of  a  lady  who  while  continuing  a  con- 
versation would  write  a  whole  page  of  intelligent  and 
connected  matter  on  some  quite  alien  subject.  She 
had  no  notion  of  what  she  had  been  writing,  and  was 
frequently  surprised,  sometimes  even  alarmed,  on 
reading  what  she  had  written. 

In  dealing  with  the  problems  suggested  by  such 
phenomena,  one  must  first  of  all  be  sure  that  the  facts 
are  well  attested  and  that  fraud  is  excluded.  It 
should  also  be  noted  that  these  are  abnormal  condi- 
tions, whereas  the  nature  of  personality  must  be 
determined  by  a  study  of  the  normal  individual. 
Nor  is  it  permissible  even  in  these  exceptional  cases 
to  infer  a  "multiple"  personality,  so  long  as  the 
phenomena  can  be  explained  as  symptoms  of  disease 
in  one  and  the  same  personality. 

The  various  groups  of  phenomena  enumerated 
above  would  merit  the  title  of  different  "personal- 
ities", if  it  could  be  shown  (a)  that  personality  is 
constituted  by  functioning  as  such,  and  not  by  an 
underlying  substantial  principle,  or  (b)  that,  granted 
that  there  be  a  formal  principle  of  unity,  such  cases 
showed  the  presence  in  the  individual,  successively  or 
simultaneously,  of  two  or  more  such  principles,  or 
(e)  that  the  principle  was  not  simple  and  spiritual  but 
capable  of  division  into  several  separately  function- 
ing components.  The  hypothesis  that  functioning,  as 
such,  constitutes  personality  has  already  been  shown 
insufficient  to  account  for  the  facts  of  normal  con- 
sciousness, while  the  other  theories  are  opposed  to  the 
permanence  and  simplicity  of  the  human  soul.  Nor 
are  any  of  these  theories  necessary  to  account  for  the 
facts.  The  soul  not  being  a  pure  spirit  but  the  "form  " 
of  the  body,  it  follows  that  while  it  performs  acts  in 
which  the  body  has  no  share  as  a  cause,  still  the  soul  is 
coniUtioned  in  its  activity  by  the  state  of  the  physical 
organism.  Now,  in  the  case  of  non-simultaneous 
double  personality,  the  essential  feature  is  the  break 
of  memory.  Some  experiences  are  not  referred  to  the 
same  "self"  as  other  experiences;  in  fact,  the  mem- 
ory of  that  former  self  disappears  for  the  time  being. 
Concerning  this  one  may  remark  that  such  failures 
of  memory  are  exaggerated ;  there  is  no  complete  loss 
of  all  that  has  been  acquired  in  the  former  state. 
Apart  from  the  memory  of  definite  facts  about  oneself 
there  remains  always  much  of  the  ordinary  intel- 
lectual possession.  Thus  the  baker  "A.  J.  Browne" 
was  able  to  keep  his  accounts  and  use  the  language 
intelligently.  That  he  could  do  so  shows  the  perma- 
nence of  the  same  intellectual  and  therefore  non-com- 
posite principle.  The  disappearance  from  his  memory 
of  most  of  his  experiences  merely  shows  that  his 
physical  organism,  by  the  state  of  which  the  action 
of  his  soul  is  conditioned,  was  not  working  in  the 
normal  way. 

In  other  words,  while  the  presence  of  any  form  of 
intellectual  memory  shows  the  continuance  of  a  per- 
manent spiritual  principle,  the  loss  of  memory  does 
not  prove  the  contrary;  it  is  merely  absence  of  evi- 
dence either  way.  Thus  the  theory  that  the  soul  acts 
as  the  "form"  of  the  body  explains  the  two  partially 
dissevered  chains  of  memory.  What  sort  of  change 
in  the  nervous  organism  would  be  necessary  to  account 
for  the  calling  up  of  two  completely  different  sets 
of  experiences,  as  occurs  in  double  personality,  no 
psychologists,  even  those  who  consider  the  physical 
organism  the  sole  principle  of  unity,  pretend  to 
explain  satisfactorily.  It  may  be  remarked  that  such 
manifestations  are  almost  always  found  in  hysterical 
subjects,  whose  nervous  organization  is  highly  un- 
stable, and  that  frequently  there  are  indications  which 
point  to  definite  lesion  or  disease  in  the  brain. 

The  alleged  cases  of  simultaneous  double  person- 
ality, manifested  usually  by  speech  in  the  case  of 
one"  and  writing  in  the  case  of  the  other,  present 
special  difficulty,  in  that  there  is  question  not  of  loss 


of  memory  of  an  action  performed,  but  of  want  of 
consciousness  of  the  action  during  its  actual  perform- 
ance. There  are  certainly  degrees  of  consciousness, 
even  of  intellectual  operation.  The  doubt  therefore 
always  remains  as  to  whether  the  so-called  uncon- 
scious writing,  if  really  indicative  of  mental  operation, 
be  literally  unconscious  or  only  very  faintly  conscious. 
But  there  is  a  further  doubt,  namely,  as  to  whether 
the  writing  of  the  "secondary  personality"  is  intel- 
lectual at  all  at  the  moment.  The  nervous  processes 
of  the  brain  being  set  in  motion  may  run  their  course 
without  any  demand  arising  for  the  intellectual  action 
of  the  soul.  In  the  case  of  such  highly  nervous  sub- 
jects, it  is  at  least  possible  that  images  imprinted  on 
the  nervous  organism  are  committed  to  writing  by 
purely  automatic  and  reflex  action. 

Finally,  there  remains  a  sense  in  which  phenomena 
of  the  same  nature  as  those  we  have  been  considering 
may  be  indicative  of  the  presence  of  a  second  person- 
ality, e.  g.  when  the  body  is  under  the  influence  of  an 
alien  spirit.  Possession  is  something  the  possibility 
of  which  the  Church  takes  for  granted.  This,  how- 
ever, would  not  imply  a  true  double  personality  in 
one  individual.  The  invading  being  would  not  enter 
into  composition  with  the  body  to  form  one  person 
with  it,  but  would  be  an  extrinsic  agentcommunicating 
local  motion  to  a  bodily  frame  which  it  did  not  "in- 
form".    (See  Consciousness;   Soul.) 

MvEBS,  Human  Personality  and  its  Survival  of  Bodily  Death,  1 
(London,  1903),  ii.  and  appendix:  Ribot,  Les  Maladies  de  la  Fer~ 
sonnalite  (Paris,  1885),  tr.  The  Diseases  of  Personality  (Chicago, 
1906);  Mahe-!,  Psychology  (London,  1903);  Roube,  Eludes, 
LXXV,  35,  492,  636;  Richmond,  An  Essay  on  Personality  as  a 
Philosophical  Principle  (London,  1900);  Illingwobth,  Person- 
ality, Human  and  Divine  (London,  1894),  i,  ii;  Harper,  Meta- 
physics of  the  .School,  bk.  V  (London,  1879),  ii,  iii;  Binet,  Lee 
Allirations  de  la  Personnalite  (Paris,  1892),  tr.  (London,  1896); 
On  Double  Consciousness  (Chicago,  1905). 

L.  W.  Geddes. 

Persons  (also,  but  less  correctly,  Parsons),  Rob- 
ert, .losiut,  b.  at  Nether  Stowey,  Somerset,  24  June, 
l."j  Hi;  a.  in  Rome,  15  April,  1610. 

I.  Eakly  Life. — His  parents  were  of  the  yeoman 
class  (for  the  controversy  about  them,  see  below 
"Memoirs",  pp.  36-47),  but  several  of  his  many 
brothers  rose  to 
good  positions. 
By  favour  of  the 
local  parson,  Julm 
Hay  ward  (onci'  ;i 
monk  at  Tmin- 
ton),  Robert  w:is 
sent  to  St.  Mar\  s 
Hall,  Oxfor.l 
(1562).  After  tak- 
ing his  degrees 
with  distinction  he 
became  fellow  and 
tutor  at  Balliul 
(1568);  but  i:; 
Feb.,  1574,  he  was 
forced  to  resign, 
partly  because  of 
his  strong  Cath- 
olic leanings,  part- 
ly through  coll(>ge 
quarrels.  Before 
long,  he  went 
abroad,  and  was 
reconciled,  proba- 
bly by  Father 
William  Good, 
S.J.,  and  after  a  year  spent  in  travel  and  study,  he 
became  a  Jesuit  at  Rome  (3  July,  1575). 

II.  English  Mission,  1579-1581. — At  Rome  he 
suggested  the  PInglish  mission  for  the  Society,  ana 
when  the  students  of  llic  iMiglish  ('(illcgo  (q-  v.)  there 
came  into  ililliciillies  with  their  first  rector,  he  exerted 
himself  to  maintain  peace,  and  proposed  the  "oath  of 


PERSONS 


730 


PERSONS 


the  missions",  an  idea  wliich  was  taken  up,  and  is  now 
in  vogue  throughout  the  Church.  When  the  college 
Wiis  entrusted  to  tlie  Jesuits,  he  was  teniponirily  in- 
stalled a.-;  rector  (19  March,  1579).  Dr.  Allen  ul-  \  ■) 
came  to  Konie,  10  Oct.,  1579,  to  complete  the  college 
arrangements,  already  so  well  begun,  and  at  his  in- 
stance the  Jesuit  mi.ssion  to  England  was  decided  upon 
(Dec,  1579).  The  year  of  mission  in  England  (12 
June,  1580,  to  late  August,  1581)  was  the  most  useful 
of  Persons's  Ufe.  Ever  at  the  post  of  danger,  he  yet 
managed  to  avoid  seizure,  while  he  organized  means 
of  missionary  enterprise  not  for  Jesuits  only  but  for 
the  whole  country.  LajTiien  and  secular  priests  car- 
ried i>ut  his  plans  with  whole-hearted  enthusiasm,  and 
deserve  unstinted  praise  for  the  results  that  followed. 
Persons  not  only  preached,  confessed,  arranged  mis- 
sionary tours,  and  posts,  he  also  wrote  books  and 
pamphlets,  and  set  up  his  "magic  press"  (q.  v., 
Brinkley,  Stephen),  which  printed  and  set  forth  Cam- 
pion's "Decern  Rationes",  while  several  books  of  his 
own,  answers  to  onslaughts  of  Protestants,  were 
brovight  out  within  a  few  days  of  the  attack.  Consid- 
ering the  losses  pre\-iously  incurred  through  want  of 
courage  and  energy,  it  would  be  impossible  to  praise 
this  pioneer  work  too  highly.  But  later  on  the  mis- 
sitjuary  methods  had  to  be  modified:  the  presses  were 
transferred  abroad,  and  the  challenges  to  disputation 
were  dropped.  Though  not  initiated  by  Persons,  they 
had  been  subsequently  approved  by  him.  (See 
CorxTER-REFORMATioN,  VII.  England;  Edmund 
C.^.MPioN,  Blessed.) 

III.  Politics,  1582-84. — After  Campion  h.ad  been 
taken  (17  July,  1581)  and  the  press  captured  (8 
August),  Persons  slipped  across  to  France  hoping  to 
do  some  business  with  Allen,  to  set  up  a  new  press,  and 
return.  The  press  was  begun  again  under  George 
Flinton  at  Rouen,  but  Persons  never  saw  England 
again,  and  found  himself  in  entirely  new  circum- 
stances, which  led  to  new,  and  much  less  desirable  re- 
sults. He  was  now-  living  under  t  he  French  Provincial 
Pere  Claude  Mat  thieu,  an  advocate  of  armed  resistance 
to  the  Huguenots;  and  he  was  necessarily  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  King  of  Spain  and  the  Duke  of  Guise, 
afterwards  the  leader  of  "La  Sainte  Ligue"  and  the 
champion  of  Mary  Stuart.  A  great  change  too  had 
come  over  her  fortunes.  Esm6  Stuart,  Sieur  d'Au- 
bigny,  created  Duke  of  Lennox,  the  favourite  of  the 
youthful  King  James,  espoused  her  side  (7  March, 
1582).  Never  had  she  had  such  an  ally,  who  actually 
controlled  the  chief  ports  of  Scotland,  and  enjoyed  the 
king's  entire  confidence.  Father  William  Crichton, 
S.J.,  an  enthusiastic  Scot,  who  had  just  gone  to  Edin- 
burgh as  a  missioner,  was  completely  carried  away  by 
the  prospect,  and  returned  at  once  to  lay  Lennox's 
offers  before  the  Duke  of  Guise.  Persons  and  Allen 
were  summoned  for  advice,  and  a  meeting  was  held  in 
Paris  (18-24  May),  in  which  both  they  and  the  papal 
nuncio,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Glasgow  took  part. 
Everyone  agreed  that  the  King  of  Spain  and  the  pope 
should  be  called  upon  to  help.  If  they  did  not,  there 
was  no  chance  of  Lennox  maintaining  his  position  for 
long,  with  England  and  the  Scottish  Kirk  allied 
against  him.  The  congress  decided  that  Persona 
should  go  to  Philip,  and  Crichton  to  Pope  Gregory; 
and  though  the  two  Jesuits  demurred,  as  having  other 
orders  from  their  superiors,  the  papal  nuncio  insisted 
and  his  authority  of  course  prevailed.  Persons  now 
undertook  two  journeys,  to  Philip  in  Spain  (June- 
Oct.,  1.582)  and  to  Rome  (Sept.,  158.3).  Pope  Gregory 
fully  approved  the  plans,  but  the  king  always  refused 
to  con.sent,  with  quaUfications,  however,  which  led 
Allen  and  Persons  to  hope  on  till  the  beginning  of 
1584,  by  which  time  Lennox  had  fallen,  and  the  other 
favourable  circumstances  had  ceased.  Looking  back 
we  now  recognize  how  great  Father  Persons's  error 
was;  but  it  is  also  easy  to  see  that  with  the  approba- 
tion of  the  pope  and  of  Allen  and  the  other  leading 


English  Catholii's  living  abroad,  he  had  many  excuses. 
He  certainly  dill  not  contemplate  the  subjection  of  his 
country,  but  its  liberation  from  an  insufferable  burden 
of  persecution  (sec  also  Armada,  The  Spanish,  IV. 
( 'alltolic  Co-opcratioH). 

IV.  Si'AiN,  1.588-97.— Recalled  to  Rome  in  1.585, 
he  was  professed  there  (7  May,  1587)  and  sent  to 
Spain  at  the  close  of  1588,  to  conciliate  King  Philip, 
who  was  offended  with  Father  Acquaviva.  Persons 
was  successful,  and  then  made  use  of  the  royal  favour 
to  found  the  seminaries  of  Valladolid,  Seville,  and 
Madrid  (1589,  1592,  1598)  and  the  residences  of  San- 
Lucar,  and  of  Lisbu  (wliieh  liec  anie  a  college  in  1622). 
Already  in  1582  he  had  founded  a  school  at  Eu,  the 
first  English  Catholic  boys'  school  since  the  Reforma- 
tion; and  he  now  succeeded  in  establishing  at  St. 
Omers  (1594)  a  larger  institution  to  which  the  boys 
from  Eu  were  transferred,  and  wliieh,  after  a  long  and 
romantic  history,  still  flourishes  at  Stonyliursl  (q.  v.). 
Whilst  in  Rome  and  Spain  I'ersoiis  wnjte  several  still 
extant  State  papers,  which  show  that  he  was  still  in 
favour  of  armed  intervention  on  behalf  of  the  English 
Catholics,  but  his  main  policy  was  to  wait  for  the  next 
succession,  when  he  expected  there  would  be  a  variety 
of  claimants,  for  it  was  one  of  Elizabeth's  manias 
to  leave  the  succession  an  open  question.  Persons 
thought  that  a  Catholic  successor  and  by  preference 
the  Infanta  (who  was  a  representative  of  the  house  of 
Lancaster)  would  have  a  fair  chance.  On  this  topic 
there  appeared  in  1594,  under  the  pseudonym  of  N. 
Dolman,  the  important  "Conference  on  the  next  suc- 
cession". The  penman  was  really  Richard  Verstegan 
(q.  v.;  see  also.  Record  Office,"  Dom.  Eliz.",252,  n.  66, 
and  Vatican  Archives,  "Borghese",  448,  ab,  f.  339) 
but  both  Cardinal  Allen  and  Sir  Francis  Englefield 
had  helped  and  approved,  while  Persons  had  also  re- 
vised the  MS.  and  rewritten  many  passages.  The 
book  was  a  manifesto  of  his  party,  and  though  de- 
clining the  authorship,  he  always  defended  its  prin- 
ciple, which  was  the  people's  right  of  participation  in 
the  settlement  of  a  ruler,  as  opposed  to  the  Galilean 
theory  of  the  Divine  right  of  kings.  (See  Origin  of 
Government;  Gallicanism.)  But  though  Persons's 
theory  is  praiseworthy,  his  practical  conclusion  (men- 
tioned above)  was  illusory.  Owing  to  the  unpopu- 
larity of  Spain,  the  book  was  very  badly  received,  and 
he  could  not  effectively  prevent  its  popular  attri- 
bution to  himself.  Ten  years  earlier  (1584)  another 
political  publication  in  favour  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
widely  known  as  "Leicester's  Commonwealth",  had 
also  been  popularly  ascribed  to  him;  presumably  be- 
cause he  very  unwisely  allowed  a  Jesuit  lay-brother, 
Ralph  Emerson,  to  take  the  first  consignment  of  them 
to  England,  where  they  were  seized.  The  real  author 
was  probably  Charles  Arundel. 

V.  The  Appellants,  1598-1603.— Cardinal  Allen 
died  in  1594  and  after  he  had  gone,  the  English 
Catholics  were  tried  by  a  series  of  the  most  distressing 
disturbances,  which  originated  in  the  misery  and  con- 
sequent discontent  of  the  exiles,  and  which  gradually 
affected  the  seminaries,  the  clergy,  and  even  the 
Catholic  prisoners.  Allen  had  ruled  by  personal  in- 
fluence; and  left  no  successor.  The  clergy  were  with- 
out superior  or  organization.  Persons  returned  to 
Rome  (April,  1597)  to  quiet  the  disturbances  at  the 
English  College,  which  no  one  else  could  calm.  He 
was  immediately  and  remarkably  successful;  and 
there  was  talk  of  making  him  a  cardinal.  But,  as  the 
pope  never  intended  to  do  so,  it  is  unnecessary  to  dis- 
cuss what  might  have  happened  had  he  received  that 
dignity.  Cardinal  Cajetano,  the  Protector,  now  or- 
dered him  to  draw  up  a  scheme  of  government  for  the 
rest  of  the  clergy.  His  first  idea  was  to  establish  an 
archbishop  in  Flanders,  and  a  bishop  in  England,  but 
considering  the  fury  of  the  persecution  a  hierarchy  of 
priests  was  preferred.  In  England  an  archpriest  with 
assistants  was  appointed  (7  March,  1598);   in  Flan- 


PERTH 


731 


PERTH 


ders,  Spain,  and  Rome,  "Prefects  of  the  Mission", 
while  the  nuncio  in  Flanders  was  to  be  the  vicegerent 
of  the  cardinal-protector,  with  supreme  jurisdiction. 
In  point  of  fact  it  was  foimd  more  convenient  to  deal 
directly  with  the  archpriest,  George  Blackwell,  who, 
albeit  a  good  scholar  and  an  amiable  man,  had  not  the 
skill  and  experience  necessary  to  calm  the  disputes 
then  raging,  and  his  endeavours  turned  the  com- 
plainants against  himself.  An  appeal  was  carried 
against  him  to  Rome;  but  was  decided  in  his  favour, 
6  April,  1599.  But  Father  Persons,  who  had  de- 
fended him,  misunderstood  the  nature  of  the  op- 
position, and  treated  the  appellant  envoj's  like 
recalcitrant  scholars,  and  Blackwell  misused  his 
victory.  A  second  appeal  ensued  (Nov.,  1600),  which 
was  backed  up  by  the  publication  of  many  books, 
some  of  which  contained  scandalous  attacks  on  Father 
Persons,  who  defended  himself  in  two  publications 
"A  briefe  Apologie"  (St.  Omers?,  1601),  and  the 
"Manifestation"  (1601).  The  appellants  were  pat- 
ronized by  the  French  ambassador,  the  archpriest 
by  the  Spanish,  and  the  debate  grew  very  warm. 
Father  Persons's  pen  being  busily  engaged  the  whole 
time.  Clement  VIII  in  the  end  maintained  the  arch- 
priest's  authority,  but  justified  the  grounds  of  the  ap- 
peal, ordering  that  six  of  the  appellant  party  should  be 
admitted  among  the  assistants,  cancelled  the  instruc- 
tion which  commanded  the  archpriest  to  seek  the 
advice  of  the  Jesuit  superior  in  matters  of  greater 
moment,  and  forbade  all  further  books  on  either  side. 
Thus  the  appellants  won  the  majority  of  points,  and 
a  party  supported  by  France,  but  hostile  to  Persons, 
became  influential  among  the  English  clergy. 

VI.  Conclusion,  1602-10. — Persons  remained  till 
his  death  rector  of  the  English  College,  but  he 
nearly  lost  that  post  in  1604.  Clement  VIII  had 
been  told  by  the  French  ambassador  that  James 
would  be  favourably  impressed,  if  he  proved  his  in- 
dependence of  the  Jesuits,  by  sending  Father  Persons 
away.  Persons,  as  it  happened,  was  ill,  and  had  to 
go  to  Naples  (Nov.,  1604);  whereupon  the  pope  gave 
orders  for  him  not  to  return.  But  the  pontiff  himself 
died  3  March,  1605,  and  his  successor,  Paul  V,  re- 
versed his  policy,  which  was  unpopular  at  Rome. 
Persons  returned  to  his  post,  and  enjoyed  full  papal 
favour  until  his  death.  Father  Persons's  greatest 
work,  his  "Christian  Directory"  [originally  called 
"The  Book  of  Christian  Exercise",  and  known  as 
"The  Book  of  Resolution"  (Rouen,  1582),  with  in- 
numerable editions  and  translations],  had  been  con- 
ceived during  his  heroic  mission  in  England.  His 
edition  of  Sander's  "  De  Schismate  AngUcano"  (Rome, 
1506)  had  also  an  immense  circulation.  His  later 
works,  were  controversial,  written  with  wonderful 
vigour,  irony,  incisiveness,  and  an  easy  grasp  of  the 
most  complex  subjects;  but  they  lack  the  deep  sym- 
pathy and  human  interest  of  his  missionary  books. 
Father  Persons  was  a  man  of  great  parts,  eloquent, 
influential,  zealous,  spiritual,  disinterested,  fearless. 
Yet  he  had  some  of  the  defects  of  his  qualities.  He 
was  masterful,  sometimes  a  special  pleader,  and 
greater  as  a  pioneer  or  sectional  leader  than  as  Gen- 
eralissimo. Though  his  services  in  the  mission  field, 
and  in  the  education  of  the  clergy  were  priceless,  his 
participation  in  politics  and  in  clerical  feuds  cannot 
be  justified  except  in  certain  aspects. 


Persons,  Memoirs  (C. 
don.    1906.    1907) 
Omers,  Ititidi ,    K 
Pollen,  Vnlr, 
Kretzschmai:.    / 
England  (Liii 


■  Record  Society),  II,  IV  (Lon- 

,    Historia    Provincial   Anglicana    (St. 

Vr.s  of  Cardinal  Allen  (London,  1882); 

/'    Catholics  in    The   Month   (1902-04); 

'r-ijecte   der   katholischen    M&chte  gegen 

^. ^_  .,,_,.      _   ,    .Meyer,  England  und  die  katholinche 

kirche'unler' Eli!nbrl)i  (Home,  1911);  Bellesheim.  Cardinal 
Allen  und  die  englische  Seminare  (Mainz,  1885) ;  Dodd-Tierney, 
Church  History  of  England  (London,  1838) ;  Law,  AppellarU  Con- 
troversy (Camden  Society,  1896,  1898) ;  Couzard,  Une  ambassade 
i  Rome  sous  Henri  IV  (Pans.  1900?);  Lafleur  de  Kebmainqant 
Christophe  de  Harlay,  comle  de  Beaumont  (Pans,  189.5) ;  OssAT, 
Letters,  in  various  editions  by  Amelot  de  La  Hocbsaie  (Amster- 
dam,   1708);    DAgert   (Paris,    1894),   Tamibez   de   Labroque 


(Pans,  1872),  etc.;  de  Fresne,  Ambassades  (Paris,  1635);  SoM- 
mervcoel,  Bibl.  de  la  C.  de  J.;  Bibl.  Diet.  Eng.  Cath.,-  Diet.  Nat. 
Biog. 

J.  H.  Pollen. 
Perth  (Scotland).    See  Ddnkeld. 

Perth  (Perthensis),  Diocese  of,  in  Western  Aus- 
tralia, suft'ragan  to  Adelaide;  bounded  on  the  north 
by  parallel  31°  20'  S.  lat.  (the  Moore  River),  east  to 
120°  E.  long.,  and  thence  by  parallel  29°  S.  lat.  to  the 
border  of  South  Austraha,  its  eastern  boundary,  on 
the  south  and  west  by  the  ocean.  The  first  Catholics, 
Irish  emigrants,  settled  about  seventy-five  years  ago 
near  the  present  city  of  Perth.  As  they  had  no  priest. 
Archbishop  Folding  of  Sydney  appointed  Rev.  John 
Brady  his  vicar-general  for  the  western  portion  of 
Australia.  A  native  of  Cavan,  Father  Brady  had  la- 
boured for  twelve  years  in  Mauritius,  before  going  to 
Australia  in  February,  1838.  With  Fr.  John  Joostens, 
a  former  Dutch  chaplain  in  Napoleon's  forces,  and 
Patrick  O'Reilly,  a  catechist,  he  reached  Albany,  4 
November,  1843,  and  Perth,  13  December,  1843. 
Land  for  a  church,  presbytery,  and  school  was  donated 
by  Governor  Hutt,  and  the  foundation  stone  of  the 
church  laid,  27  December,  1843.  Shortly  afterwards 
Fr.  Brady  went  to  Europe  to  procure  aid,  and  was 
ordained  bishop  at  Rome,  18  May,  1845.  He  returned 
with  some  missionaries,  including  six  Sisters  of  Mercy 
from  Carlow,  Ireland,  under  Mother  Ursula  Frayne, 
reaching  Fremantle  in  January,  1846. 

The  early  days  of  the  mission  were  days  of  suffering 
and  poverty.  In  1848  the  scattered  Catholic  poi)ula- 
tion,  which  was  extremely  poor,  numbered  only  306 
out  of  4600  whites.  The  bishop  soon  sent  Fr.  Confa- 
lonieri  with  two  catechists,  James  Fagan  and  Nicholas 
Hogan,  to  Port  Essington  to  convert  the  native  north- 
ern blacks.  The  catechists  were  drowned  in  a  ship- 
wreck on  the  voyage,  but  Fr.  Confalonieri  was  simred 
to  labour  for  two  years,  till  his  death  by  fever  at  Vic- 
toria, Melville  Island,  when  he  had  converted  over  400 
blacks.  An  attempt  to  found  a  southern  native  mis- 
sion failed  for  want  of  resources.  A  central  mission 
was  confided  to  two  Spanish  Benedictines,  Dom  Serra 
and  Dom  Salvado.  In  March,  1S47,  they  established 
a  monastery,  now  New  Norcia  (q.  v.),  84  miles  from 
Perth.  The  first  diocesan  .synod  was  held  there,  13 
March,  1848,  attended  by  the  bishop  and  his  three 
priests.  The  mission  sinking  heavily  in  debt,  Dom 
Salvado  was  sent  to  Europe  for  funds.  He  returned 
January,  1849,  but  his  resources  were  applied  to  New 
Norcia  alone.  Dom  Serra,  who  had  also  gone  to  Eu- 
rope, had  while  there  been  made  Bishop  of  Port  Vic- 
toria. Worn  out  by  toil  and  anxiety.  Dr.  Brady  ap- 
plied for  a  coadjutor,  and  Dom  Serra  was  transferred 
from  Port  Victoria  to  the  titular  See  of  Daulia  and 
appointed  to  administer  the  temporalities  of  Perth. 
He  arrived  there  from  Europe  with  a  large  contingent 
of  Benedictines  in  1849.  Dissen.sion  broke  out  be- 
tween the  laity  and  the  Spanish  monks,  and  Dr.  Brady, 
unable  to  bear  the  strain,  returned  to  Ireland  in  1852; 
he  died  in  France,  2  December,  1871.  While  he  was  in 
Perth,  Dr.  R.  R.  Madden,  the  historian,  was  appointed 
colonial  secretary,  the  first  Catholic  to  hold  that  oflice 
in  the  colonies.  On  Corpus  Christi,  10  June.  1854,  the 
first  two  black  children  recei\-eri  Holy  Communion  at 
Perth.  In  18.59  Fr.  Martin  Griver  was  made  adminis- 
trator of  the  diocese.  In  1862  Dom  Serra  returned  to 
Spain,  where  he  died  in  1886. 

On  10  October,  1869,  Fr.  Griver  was  named  Bishop 
of  Tloa  and  Administrator  Apostolic  of  Perth.  In 
July,  1873,  he  became  Bishop  of  Perth.  In  1863 
churches  were  erected  .at  Fremantle,  Guildford,  and 
York.  The  cathedral  of  Perth,  begun  in  that  year,  was 
dedicated  on  29  January,  1865.  In  1867  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy  established  an  orphanage  at  Perth.  In  1882 
the  diocese  contained  8500  Catholics,  with  1300  chil- 
dren in  the  parochial  schools.  Bishop  Griver  died  on 
1  November,  1886.    Bom  at  Granollers  in  Spain,  It 


PERTINAX 


732 


PERU 


November,  1810,  he  studied  medicine,  but  later  joined 
the  priesthood  and  went  out  with  Dom  Serra  in  1849. 
He  laboureil  strenuously  in  buikling  U])  the  diocese, 
and  was  a  man  of  wondt-ilul  asceticism;  after  his 
death  a  wooden  cross  twelve  inches  long  was  found 
attached  to  his  shoulders,  fastene<l  pennancntly  into 
his  flesh  by  five  iron  spikes.  Dr.  Mattluwt  libney,  who 
had  been  ai)poLnted  Bishop  of  Scythopulis  and  Coad- 
jutor of  Perth  cum  Jure  successionis,  was  consecrated 
a(  Perth,  2;i  January,  1887.  Under  his  guidance  the 
diocese  made  rapid  progress,  as  in  his  earlier  days,  so 
during  liis  episcopate,  he  was  an  ardent  apostle  of  re- 
Ugious  education  for  children.  He  introduced  all  the 
religious  congregations  mentioned  below,  except  the 
Sistersof  Mercy  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  In  1889, 
with  two  Vincentians,  he  gave  a  mission  throughout 
the  whole  of  his  diocese.  In  1890  he  set  out  for 
Beagle  Bay,  where  he  established  a  successful  native 
mission,  under  the  care  of  the  Trappists,  who  were 
later  replaced  by  the  Fallot ine  Fathers  and  the  Sisters 
of  St.  John  of  God  from  Subiaco,  Perth.  Owing  to 
advanced  years,  Dr.  Gibney  resigned  his  see  and  has 
been  succeeded  by  Most  Reverend  P.  J.  Clune,  C.SS.R. 
(1911).  Dr.  Clune,  born  in  Clare,  Ireland,  1863,  was 
ordained  for  the  Diocese  of  Goulbourn  (q.  v.)  24  June, 
1886.  In  1892  he  returned  to  Ireland,  and  became  a 
Redemptorist.  After  being  stationed  at  Dundalk  and 
Limerick,  he  was  sent  to  Wellington,  New  Zealand,  as 
rector  of  the  Redemptorist  monastery;  after  which  he 
was  superior  at  North  Perth  till  his  election  as  bishop. 
From  the  original  Diocese  of  Perth,  three  additional 
ecclesiastical  districts  have  been  formed:  New  Norcia 
(1847);  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Kmberley  (1887); 
and  the  Diocese  of  Geraldton  (1898). 

Statistics  of  religious  congregations. — Men:  Oblates 
of  Mary  Immaculate  (1894),  2  houses,  11  members; 
Redeniptorists  (1894),  1  monastery,  8  members;  Irish 
Christian  Brothers  (1894),  4  houses,  18  members. 
■Women:  Sisters  of  Mercy  (1846),  12  houses,  15.3  nuns; 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Apparition  (18.5.5),  6  houses, 
46  nuns;  Sisters  of  St.  John  of  God  (1885),  4  houses, 
43  nuns;  Sisters  of  Notre-Dame  des  Missions  (1887), 
4  houses,  22  nuns;  Presentation  Sisters  (1900),  3 
houses,  12  nuns;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  (1890),  5  hou.ses,  16  nuns;  Institute  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  or  Loreto  Nuns  (1897),  2  houses, 
26  professed  sisters.  There  are  22  high  schools  (3 
boys',  19  girls'),  with  1238  pupils;  43  primary  schools 
with  .5230  pupils;  teachers  engaged,  408;  1  boys' 
oqjhanage;  1  girls'  orphanage;  1  boys'  industrial 
school;  1  girls' reformatory;  1  Magdalene  Asylum;  2 
hospitals  (these  charitable  institutes  contain  413 
inmates);  26  ecclesiastical  districts;  51  churches;  44 
secular  and  13  regular  priests ;  27  brothers ;  366  nuns; 
54  lay  teachers  and  a  Catholic  population  of  45,000. 

MoKAN.  Hist,  of  the  Catholic.  Church  in  Australasia  (Sydney, 
8.  d.).  553-91;  969-79;  Australasian  Catholic  Directory  (Sydney, 

1910).  A.  A.  MacErlean. 

Pertinas,  PtrsLins  Helvius,  Roman  Emperor  (31 
Dec,  192),  b.  at  Alba  Pompeia,  in  Liguria,  1  Au- 
gust, 126;  d.  at  Rome  28  March,  193.  A  freedraan's 
son,  he  taught  grammar  at  Rome  before  entering  the 
army.  Because  of  his  military  ability  and  his  com- 
petence in  civil  positions,  he  was  made  prajtor  and 
consul.  His  services  in  the  campaign  against  Avidius 
Cassius  led  Marcus  ,\urelius  to  give  Pertinax  the  chief 
command  of  the  army  alf)ng  the  Danube,  a  position 
he  filled  with  such  distinction  that  Marcus  Aurelius 
made  him  successively  governor  of  Moesia,  Dacia,  and 
Svria. 

"  Commodus  first  made  him  commander-in-chief  of 
the  troops  in  Britain,  then  appointed  him  governor  in 
Africa,  and  finally  made  him  prefect  of  the  city  of 
Rome.  On  accoimt  of  a  conspiracy  against  Com- 
modus manv  innocent  persons,  including  Pertinax, 
were  banished.    After  the  strangling  of  Commodus, 


Pertinax  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  soldiers  at 
the  suggestion  of  La>tus,  prefect  of  the  pra'torian 
guard.  Pertinax  had  himself  elected  as  head  of  the 
State  once  more  by  the  senators  and  revived  the  title 
"Princeps  Senatus";  on  the  first  day  of  his  reign  he 
;issumed  the  title  "Pater  Patria;".  Pertinax  strove  to 
restore  order  in  the  administration  of  the  State.  By 
selling  at  auction  the  costly  furniture  and  plate  of 
Commodus  and  by  a  frugal  administration,  before 
three  months  he  was  able  to  make  gifts  of  money 
to  the  people  and  give  to  the  pra'torian  guard  the 
promised  largess.  He  also  was  able  to  resume  public 
works.  He  separated  pubhc  lands  from  those  belong- 
ing to  the  emperor,  endeavoured  to  bring  about  the 
resettling  of  deserted  estates,  to  recall  those  arbitrarily 
banished,  and  to  bring  informers  to  trial.  He  refused 
the  title  of  Augusta  for  his  wife,  or  that  of  Ca>sar  for 
his  son  until  he  had  earned  the  honour.  When  the 
praetorians  saw  that  the  emperor  meant  to  restore  the 
ancient  discipline  and  when  the  prefect  La^tus  noticed 
that  he  strove  to  limit  his  own  influence,  he  aroused 
the  soldiers  of  the  guard  against  the  emperor.  After 
suppressing  the  revolt  of  the  consul,  Sossius  Falco, 
Pertinax  declined  to  put  him  to  death,  though  the 
Senate  had  decreed  his  execution.  Several  praetorians 
were  suspected  of  being  members  of  the  conspiracy; 
La;tus  had  these  put  to  death  without  any  trial  and 
made  the  soldiers  believe  that  it  was  done  by  imperial 
command.  The  praetorians  now  resolved  to  depose 
Pertinax.  One  evening  a  mob  of  about  two  hundred 
soldiers  went  to  the  palace  to  murder  the  emperor. 
The  latter  came  out  to  them  without  arms  in  the  hope 
of  quieting  them  by  his  personal  influence.  His  words 
impressed  the  mutineers  and  they  put  their  swords 
back  in  the  scabbards,  when  suddenly  a  Tongrian 
cavalryman  fell  upon  Pertinax  and  stabbed  him  in  the 
breast.  This  incited  the  others  who  fell  upon  Per- 
tinax; the  emperor's  head  was  put  on  a  lance  and 
carried  through  the  streets  of  the  city  to  the  camp. 
Severus,  the  second  successor  of  Pertinax,  deified  him. 

Schiller.  Gesch.  der  rom.  Kaiseneit,  I,  pt.  11  (Gotha,  1883); 
VON  DoMASZEWSKi,  Cicsck.  dcT  roTTi.  Kaiser  (Leipzig,  1909). 

Karl  Hoeber. 

Peru,  a  republic  on  the  west  coast  of  South  Amer- 
ica, founded  in  1821  after  the  war  of  independence, 
having  been  a  Spanish  colony.  It  is  difficult  to  ascer- 
tain the  true  origin  of  the  word  "Peru",  as  the  opin- 
ions advanced  thereon  are  vague,  numerous,  and  con- 
flicting. Almost  all,  however,  derive  it  from  the  terms 
"Bern",  "Pelu",  and  "Biru",  which  were,  respec- 
tively, the  names  of  an  Indian  tribe,  a  river,  and  a 
region.  Prescott  asserts  that  "Peru"  was  unknown 
to  the  Indians,  and  that  the  name  was  given  by  the 
Spaniards.  Peru's  territory  lies  between  1°  29'  N. 
and  19°  12'  30"  S.  lat.,  and  61°  54'  45"  and  81°  18'  39" 
W.  long.  Bounded  by  Ecuador  on  the  north,  Brazil 
and  Bolivia  on  the  east,  Chile  on  the  south,  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west,  its  area  extends  over  679,000 
sq.  miles.  The  Andean  range  runs  through  Peru  from 
S.  E.  to  N.  W.,  describing  a  curve  parallel  to  the  coast. 

History. — However  true  the  fact  may  be  that  gold 
was  the  object  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  the  Spanish 
conquerors  of  the  New  World,  it  is  a  matter  of  historj' 
that  in  that  conquest,  from  the  northernmost  confines 
of  Mexico  to  the  extreme  south  of  Chile,  religion 
always  played  a  most  important  part,  and  the  trium- 
phant march  of  Castile's  banner  was  also  the  glorious 
advance  of  the  sign  of  the  Saviour.  That  religion  was 
the  key-note  of  the  American  Crusades  is  evident  from 
the  history  of  their  origin;  the  sanction  given  them 
by  the  Supreme  Pontiff;  the  throng  of  self-devoted 
missionaries  who  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  con- 
qiKTors  to  save  thi'  souls  of  the  conquered  ones;  th(' 
reiterated  instructions  of  the  Crown,  the  great  pur- 
pose of  which  was  the  conversion  of  the  natives;  and 
from  the  acts  of  the  soldiers  themselves  (Prescott, 


PERU 


r33 


PERU 


"Conquest  of  Peru",  II,  iii).  The  first  news  of  the 
existence  of  the  great  Empire  of  the  Incas  reached  the 
Spaniards  in  the  year  1511,  when  Vasco  Nuiiez  de 
Balboa,  the  discoverer  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was  en- 
gaged in  an  e>q)edition  against  some  Indian  tribes  in 
the  interior  of  Darien.  Perhaps  the  glory  of  conquer- 
ing Peru  would  have  fallen  upon  Balboa  had  not  the 
jealousy  of  his  chief,  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila,  Governor 
of  Panama,  cut  short  his  brilliant  career.  The  second 
attempt  to  reach  the  coveted  domain  of  the  Incas 
was  made  in  1522,  when  Pascual  de  Andagoya  started 
south  from  Panama,  but  he  was  compelled  by  ill 
health  to  return.  Francisco  Pizarro,  after  two  unsuc- 
cessful expeditions  (1524—25  and  1526-27)  and  a  trip  to 
Spain  for  the  purpose  of  interesting  Charles  V  in  the 
undertaking,  finally  started  the  actual  work  of  in- 
vading Peru,  sailing  from  Panama  in  January,  1531. 
(See  Pizarro,  Francisco.) 

When  the  persistent  commander  finally  reached  the 
country  in  1532,  the  vast  Inca  empire  is  said  to  have 
extended  over  more  than  one-half  of  the  entire  South 
American  continent.  He  found  a  people  highly  civi- 
lized, with  excellent  social  and  political  institutions, 
who  had  developed  agriculture  to  a  remarkable  degree 
through  a  splendid  system  of  irrigation.  They  wor- 
shipped the  sun  as  embodying  their  idea  of  a  supreme 
being  who  ruled  the  universe.  This  worship  was  at- 
tended by  an  elaborate  system  of  priestcraft,  ritual, 
animal  sacrifices,  and  other  solemnities.  After  the 
conquest  had  been  consummated  (1534),  Father  Vi- 
cente Valverde,  one  of  the  five  Dominicans  who  had 
accompanied  the  conqueror  from  Spain,  was  nomi- 
nated Bishop  of  Cuzco  and  soon  afterwards  confirmed 
by  Paul  III,  his  jurisdiction  extending  over  the  whole 
territory  of  the  newly-conquered  domain.  He  was 
assassinated  by  the  Indians  of  Puna,  off  Guayaquil, 
in  1541  when  returning  to  Spain.  Upon  taking  Cuzco, 
the  capital  of  the  empire,  Pizarro  pro\'ided  a  municipal 
government  for  the  city,  and  encouraged  its  settle- 
ent  by  liberal  grants  of  lands  and  houses.  On  5 
Sept.,  1538,  Bishop  Valverde  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  cathedral,  and  later  a  Dominican  monasterj'  was 
erected  on  the  site  of  the  Incaic  temple  of  the  sun,  a 
nunnery  was  established,  and  several  churches  and 
monasteries  built.  The  Dominicans,  the  Brothers  of 
Mercy,  and  other  missionaries  actively  engaged  in 
propagating  the  Faith  among  the  natives.  Besides 
the  priests  that  Pizarro  was  required  to  take  in  his 
own  vessels,  the  succeeding  ships  brought  additional 
numbers  of  missionaries,  who  devoted  themselves 
earnestly  and  disinterestedly  to  the  task  of  spreading 
the  religion  of  Christ  among  the  Indians.  Their  con- 
duct towards  them  was  in  marked  contrast  to  that 
of  the  conquerors,  whose  thirst  for  gold  was  never 
satiated,  and  who,  having  ransacked  the  villages  and 
stripped  the  temples  of  their  gold  and  silver  orna- 
ments, had  enslaved  the  Indians,  forcing  them  to 
work  in  the  mines  for  their  benefit. 

At  the  outset  and  for  several  years  thereafter  the 
missionaries  had  to  labour  under  almost  unsurmount- 
able  obstacles,  such  as  the  uprising  of  the  Inca  Manco 
(a  brother  of  Atahualpa,  whom  Pizarro  had  placed  on 
the  vacant  throne)  and  the  first  civil  wars  among 
the  conquerors  themselves.  These  culminated  in  the 
execution  of  Diego  de  Almagro  (1538)  by  order  of 
Pizarro,  and  the  assassination  of  the  latter  by  the 
former's  son,  and  were  followed  by  other  no  less 
bloody  conflicts  between  Cristobal  Vaca  de  Castro  (the 
newly-appointed  governor)  and  Almagro's  son  (1.543), 
and  Gonzalo  Pizarro  and  Blasco  Nunez  de  Vela,  the 
first  viceroy  (1544-45).  The  news  of  this,  the  most 
formidable  rebellion  that  had  so  far  been  recorded  in 
the  history  of  Spain,  caused  a  great  sensation  at  the 
Court.  Father  Pedro  de  la  Gasca  was  selected  for  the 
delicate  task  of  pacifying  the  colony.  Provided  with 
unbounded  powers,  Gasca  reached  Peru  in  July,  1546, 
and  scarcely  three  years  had  elapsed  when  he  accom- 


plished the  great  object  of  his  mission.  Having 
restored  peace,  his  next  step  was  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  of  oppressed  natives,  in  doing  which  he 
went  farther  than  was  agreeable  to  the  wishes  of  the 
colonists.  Other  reforms  were  introduced  by  the 
far-seeing  priest,  thus  placing  the  administration  upon 
a  sound  basis  and  facilitating  a  more  stable  and  or- 
derly government  by  his  successors.  Upon  his  return 
to  Spain  he  was  raised  to  the  Bishopric  of  Palencia, 
which  diocese  he  administered  until  1561,  when  he 
was  promoted  to  the  vacant  See  of  Siguenza.  He  died 
in  1567  at  the  age  of  seventy-one.  Unfortunately,  the 
disturbances  of  the  country  were  renewed  on  the  de- 
parture of  Gasca.    The  most  serious  uprising  was  that 


Church  mt  1,\  (  MMr\\T\,  xhfqdipa,  Peru 
of  Francisco  Fernandez  Girijn  (1550-54)  during  the 
regime  of  the  second  viceroy,  Antonio  de  Mcndoza. 
Gir6n's  execution  (Dec,  1554)  put  an  end  to  the  last 
of  the  civil  wars  among  the  conquerors;  and  through 
the  conciliatory  and  energetic  measures  of  Andr6s 
Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  the  third  viceroy,  the  country 
was  at  last  pacified,  and  the  authority  of  Spain  firmly 
estabhshed. 

The  Dominicans  were  the  first  ministers  of  the  Gos- 
pel to  come  to  Peru,  and  did  splendid  and  efficient 
work  in  Christianizing  the  natives.  They  built  many 
churches,  monasteries,  convents,  and  colleges,  and 
acquired  considerable  prominence  in  ecclesiastical 
matters  during  the  seventeenth  century.  Saint  Rose 
of  Lima  (1586-1617),  the  patron  of  the  Peruvian 
capital,  was  educated  in  one  of  their  nunneries,  and 
lived  there  until  her  death.  The  Franciscan  fathers 
were  also  among  the  pioneer  ini.s.sionaries  of  Peru, 
and  were  prominent  for  their  unceasing  labours  in  the 
remotest  wilds  of  South  America.  One  of  them.  Saint 
Francis  Solanus,  made  a  journey  from  Peru  to  the 
Paraguayan  Chaco,  preaching  in  the  tribes  in  their 
own  dialects  (1588-89).  The  Franciscan  churches 
and  buildings  are  among  the  handsomest  in  the  coun- 
try. Likewise,  the  good  work  of  the  Order  of  Saint 
Augustine  stands  high  in  the  aimals  of  Peruvian 
church  history.    Of  the-eeveral  temples  and  convents 


PERU 


734 


PERU 


erected  by  the  order  during  the  viceroyalty,  the  church 
of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy  is  one  of  the  most  attractive- in 
Lima.  In  1507,  at  the  earnest  request  of  PhiUp  II, 
Saint  Francis  Borgia,  then  General  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  sent  the  first  Jesuits  to  Peru  under  Father 
Geronimo  Ruiz  Portillo,  who  with  his  .six  eompanion.s 
arrived  at  CaUao  on  28  Marcli,  1.5t)S,  and  entered 
Lima  on  1  .April.  .-Vs  in  Paraguay  and  other  parts  of 
South  America,  the  work  of  the  Jesuits  in  Peru  was 
most  effective  in  propagating  the  Faith  among  the 
Indians  as  well  as  in  educating  them.  After  estab- 
lishing a  convent,  a  seminary,  and  a  church  in  Lima, 
they  built  temples  and  school.^  in  almost  all  the  towns. 
At  Juli.  on  the  shores  of  Titicaca  Lake,  they  founded 
a  training  school  for  missionaries  (1577),  where  the 
novices  were  taught  the  native  dialects.  At  that  time 
the  first  printing  press  in  South  America  was  intro- 
duced by  the  order.  Among  their  number  were  sev- 
eral of  the  most  famous  educators,  historians,  scien- 
tists, geographers,  naturalists,  and  literary  men  of  the 
period.  Their  educational  institutions  soon  became 
renowned,  not  only  in  the  American  colonies,  but  also 
in  Spain  and  Europe.  The  great  and  redeeming  work 
of  the  Jesuits  was  flourishing  when  the  decree  of 
Charles  III  of  1769,  ordering  their  expulsion  from  the 
Spanish  domains,  reached  Peru  and  was  executed  by 
the  Viceroy  Manuel  de  .\mat. 

The  Dominican  Geronimo  de  Loayza,  first  Bishop 
of  Lima  (154t>-1575),  was  succeeded  by  Saint  Toribio 
de  Mogrovejo  (15.38-1606).  Nominated  to  the  See 
of  Lima  in  1578,  he  entered  that  capital  on  24  May, 
1581.  He  learned  the  Quichua  language  thoroughly 
in  order  to  find  out  for  himself  the  real  condition  and 
actual  wants  of  the  Indians,  whose  interests  he  pro- 
tected and  promoted  with  the  greatest  zeal  and  care. 
Such  was  his  activity  that  within  comparatively  few 
years  he  held  fourteen  synods  and  three  councils, 
through  which  many  beneficial  reforms  were  insti- 
tuted; and  personally  visited  twice  the  whole  terri- 
tory under  his  jurisdiction,  comprising  at  that  time 
the  greater  portion  of  the  South  American  continent. 
These  tours  of  inspection  he  made  on  foot  and  ac- 
companied only  by  two  of  his  secretaries.  He  had 
scarcely  started  on  his  third  journey  when  death  sur- 
prised him  on  23  March,  1606.  Among  other  works 
which  stand  as  a  lasting  monument  to  his  memory 
are  the  Seminary  of  Saint  Toribio  and  the  Convent 
of  Santa  Clara  in  Lima.  The  Holy  Office  was  estab- 
lished in  Peru  in  1570,  during  the  regime  of  the  vice- 
roy Francisco  de  Toledo,  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion sitting  at  Lima  and  extending  its  jurisdiction 
over  the  Captaincy-General  of  Chile,  the  Presidency 
of  Quito,  the  \'iceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres,  and  part 
of  the  Viceroyalty  of  New  Granada.  It  was  abolished 
on  23  Sept.,  1813,  when  the  Viceroy  Abascal  enforced 
the  order  to  that  effect,  enacted  by  the  Cortes  of 
Cadiz  on  22  Feb.  of  the  same  year.  But  shortly  after 
Ferdinand  VII  was  restored  to  the  throne  of  Spain, 
the  inquisition  was  re-established  in  Peru  (16  Jan., 
1815)  and  operated  until  its  definite  abolition  in  1820, 
when  the  struggle  for  freedom  had  a.ssumed  full  sway. 
By  an  exT^ress  provision,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy 
Office  never  comprised  the  Indians,  who  continued 
under  the  authority  of  the  bishops  and  the  ordinary 
courts. 

For  nearly  three  centuries,  Peru  was  ruled  by  thirty- 
eight  viceroys,  or,  in  their  stead,  the  government  was 
temporarily  exercised  by  the  .\udiencia  Real  of  Lima, 
founded  in  1544.  As  the  representative  of  the  King  of 
Spain  the  viceroy  was  vested  with  almost  absolute 
powers,  and  besides  his  executive  functions  he  dis- 
charged those  of  \'iee-Patron  of  the  Church,  Presi- 
dent of  the  Audiencia,  captain-general  of  the  army, 
and  Superintendent  of  the  Royal  Exchequer.  The 
movement  for  emancipation  in  Peru  began  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  but  the  first  attempts  were 
repressed  with  considerable  severity,  and  it  was  not 


until  28  July,  1821,  that  independence  was  declared. 
The  defeat  of  the  royalists  at  the  battle  of  Ayacucho 
(9  Dec,  1824)  put  an  end  to  the  Spanish  rule.  Under 
the  independent  govertuiient,  the  executive  a,ssumed 
the  same  rights  of  patronage  vested  in  the  viceroy, 
and  the  five  difTerent  constitutions  adopted  since  the 
establishment  of  the  republic  recognized  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  as  the  official  church  of  the  country 
with  e-xclusion  of  any  other. 

Population. — The  last  census  of  Peru  was  taken 
in  1876,  hence  the  present  population  of  the  repub- 
lic is  known  only  approximately.  According  to  the 
enumeration  of  that  year,  the  number  of  inhabitants 
was  2,676,000.  Recent  estimates  have,  however, 
been  made  (1906)  that  show  the  population  to  have 
increased  to  3,547,829.  Of  this  total  fifty  per  cent, 
is  formed  by  Indians;  fifteen  per  cent,  by  whites, 
mostly  the  descendants  of  Spaniards;  three  per  cent, 
by  negroes;  one  per  cent,  by  Chinese  and  Japanese; 
and  the  remaining  thirty-one  per  cent,  by  the  off- 
spring of  intermarriage  between  the  different  races. 
According  to  the  ".\nnuario  Ecclesiastico"  of  Rome 
(1909),  the  Catholic  population  of  Peru  is  3,133,830, 
distributed  as  follows  among  the  various  dioceses: 
Lima,  606,900;  Arequipa,  270,460;  Ayacucho,  200,610; 
Chachapoyas,  or  Maynas,  95,370  ;  Cuzco,  480,680; 
Huiinuco,  288,100;  Huaraz,  350,000;  Puno,  260,810; 
Trujillo,  580,900. 

Ecclesiastical  Divisions.  —  The  ecclesiastical 
Province  of  Peru  comprises:  one  archdiocese,  Lima, 
erected  in  1543  and  raised  to  metropolitan  rank  in 
1546;  nine  suffragan  dioceses,  enumerated  in  order 
of  seniority:  Cuzco,  1536;  Arequipa,  1609;  Ayacucho, 
formerly  Huamanga,  1615;  Trujillo,  1616;  Chacha- 
poyas, or  Maynas,  1843;  Hudnuco,  1865;  Puno,  1865; 
Huaraz,  1900;  and  three  prefectures  Apostolic:  San 
Leon  de  Amazonas,  1900;  San  Francisco  del  LTcayali, 
1900;  and  Santo  Domingo  del  Urubamba,  1900.  The 
cathedral  and  episcopal  residences  are  situated  in  the 
capital  city  of  Lima.  There  are  66  parish  churches  in 
the  Archdiocese  of  Lima,  85  in  Cuzco,  71  in  Arequipa, 
102  in  Trujillo,  87  in  Ayacucho,  44  in  Chachapoyas,  58 
in  Huanuco,  52  in  Puno,  and  48  in  Huaraz.  The  num- 
ber of  additional  churches  and  public  chapels  is  per- 
haps about  three  times  this  number,  as  each  parish 
has  three  or  four  churches  besides  the  parish  church. 
The  number  of  secular  priests  corresponds  to  the 
number  of  parishes,  approximately  one-fourth  of  the 
entire  number,  when  the  number  of  assistant  parish 
priests,  chaplains,  and  priests  without  regular  ap- 
pointments are  taken  into  consideration.  The  reli- 
gious orders,  both  male  and  female,  are  well  repre- 
sented. In  the  Archdiocese  of  Lima  the  Franciscans 
have  three  convents,  and  the  Lazarists,  Redemptor- 
ists.  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary, 
Jesuits,  Mercedarians,  Augustinians,  and  Fathers  of  St. 
Camillus  one  each.  Among  the  women,  the  Tertiaries 
of  St.  Francis  have  five  convents;  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  of  Cluny  four;  the  Dominicans,  Carmelites, 
Conceptionists,  Salesians,  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  and  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary 
two  each;  the  Poor  Clares,  Bernardines,  Capuchin- 
esses,  and  Augustinians  one  each. 

In  the  various  dioceses  many  religious  houses  are 
to  be  found.  Cuzco:  Franciscans  two,  Dominicans, 
Mercedarians,  Poor  Clares,  Carmelites,  Dominican 
nuns.  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary, 
one  each;  Arequipa:  Franciscans  two,  Jesuits,  Laz- 
arists, Salesians,  Dominicans,  Mercedarians,  Domin- 
ican nuns,  Carmelites,  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of 
Jesus  and  Mary  one  each ;  Trujillo :  Franciscans 
two,  Lazarists,  Conceptionists,  Carmelites,  Poor 
Clares,  Tertiaries  of  St.  Dominic  one  each;  Ayacucho: 
Redemptorists,  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  Poor  Clares 
one  each;  Hudnuco:  Franciscans,  Tertiaries  of  St. 
Francis  (women),  Conceptionists  one  each;  Huaraz: 
Franciscans,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Lourdes,  Tertiai^ 


PERU 


735 


PERU 


ies  of  St.  Francis  (women)  each  one.  The  Dioceses  of 
Chachapoyas  and  Piino  liave  no  religious  houses.  Tlie 
three  prefectures  Apostohc,  in  the  north,  centre,  and 
Bouth  of  the  republic,  are  under  the  care  of  the  Augus- 
tinians,  Franciscans,  and  Dominicans,  who  work 
principally  for  the  conversion  of  the  infidel  native 
tribes.  The  Government  allows  a  small  subsidy  for 
the  maintenance  of  these  missions,  but  their  greatest 
source  of  income  is  derived  from  the  "Propagaci6n 
de  la  Fe  en  el  Oriente  del  Peru".  This  pious  associa- 
tion has  spread  over  the  whole  republic  and  collects 
the  contributions  of  the  faithful,  which  are,  relatively 
speaking,  very  abundant.  Each  diocese  has  its  own 
diocesan  seminary  for  the  education  of  its  priests. 
The  Franciscans  are  in  charge  of  the  seminaries  of  the 
dioceses  of  Cuzco  and  Ayacucho,  the  Lazarists  of 
those  of  Trujillo  and  Arequipa,  the  Fathers  of  the 
Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary  of  that  of  Huaraz, 
and  the  rest  are  under  the  care  of  the  seculars.  The 
Government  does  not  claim  supervision  over  the 
seminaries,  which  are  under  the  control  of  the  respec- 
tive bishops. 

Ch.\rities. — There  are  some  thirty  hospitals  in 
Peru  administered  by  various  charitable  societies,  one 
old  people's  home,  one  orphan  asylum,  and  several 
congregations  especially  dedicated  to  charitable  works, 
besides  a  great  number  of  private  associations  devoted 
to  the  work  of  gratuitous  teaching,  visiting  the  sick 
poor  in  their  homes,  legalizing  iUicit  unions,  etc. 

Laws. — Religion. — The  constitution,  promulgated 
on  10  Dec,  1860,  expressly  provides  that  the  nation 
profess  the  Roman  Catholic  rehgion;  that  the  State 
protect  it  and  does  not  permit  the  public  exercise  of 
any  other  (Art.  4).  There  is,  however,  no  interference 
in  personal  religious  beliefs,  and  there  are  Protestant 
churches  in  the  republic.  Under  the  Organic  Law  of 
17  Sept.,  1857  (Arts.  49-54),  the  prefects  of  depart- 
ments are  given  certain  supervisory  powers  over  eccle- 
siastical affairs  connected  with  the  national  patron- 
age. Article  94  of  the  Constitution,  on  the  duties  of 
the  president  of  the  republic,  estabhshes  that  the 
chief  magistrate  shall:  exercise  the  ecclesiastical  pat- 
ronage according  to  law;  nominate  for  archbishops 
and  bishops,  with  the  approval  of  Congress,  those  who 
have  been  chosen  according  to  law;  nominate  church 
dignitaries,  canons,  curates,  and  incumbents  of  ec- 
clesiastical benefices;  conclude  concordats  with  the 
Apostolic  See,  according  to  instructions  given  by 
Congress;  grant  or  refuse,  with  the  assent  of  Congress, 
passage  to  decrees  of  councils,  or  jiontifical  Bulls, 
Briefs,  and  Rescripts;  but  in  case  that  these  affect 
matters  in  litigation,  the  supreme  court  of  justice  of 
the  republic  must  be  previously  heard. 

.Article  1358  of  the  Civil  Code  in  force,  under  which 
the  Church  and  religious  orders  were  prohibited  from 
disposing  of  their  property  without  the  consent  of 
the  Government,  was  repealed,  30  Sept.,  1901.  Hence 
the  Church  in  Peru,  as  a  juridical  entity,  can  acquire 
and  possess  property  of  all  kinds,  as  well  as  contract 
obligations  and  e.xercise  civil  or  criminal  action,  ac- 
cording to  the  statutes  of  the  country,  the  concordat, 
and  the  ecclesiastic  canons  and  discipline.  Temples 
and  all  places  of  worship  are  exempt  from  taxation, 
but  other  church  property  yielding  a  revenue  of  $100 
or  more  is  subject  to  the  ecclesiastical  tax  according 
to  the  Regulation  of  20  Dec,  1886.  Arts.  83  to  94 
of  the  Civil  Code  refer  to  clergymen  and  religious, 
containing  a  definition  of  who  are  such;  the  qualifica- 
tions necessary  for  the  profession;  their  exemption 
from  public  ser\'ices;  the  recovery  of  civil  rights  by 
religious  upon  their  secularization,  etc.  The  religious 
orders  are  governed  by  the  Regulations  for  Regulars 
{Reglamenlo  de  RegiilaTea),  approved  by  Resolution  of 
12  Jan.,  1872.  Although  the  modern  law  obliges  all 
citizens  to  military  duty,  there  has  never  been  a  case 
where  it  has  been  applied  to  priests  or  seminarists. 
No  special  exemption  is  granted  to  clerics  in  regard 


to  trials;  they  are  tried  in  the  public  courts,  civil  or 
criminal,  as  the  case  may  be.  There  is  no  law  enforc- 
ing the  observance  of  holy  days,  although  in  the  cap- 
ital a  particular  ordinance  exists  which  requires  that 
stores  be  closed  on  Sundays  and  Holy  Days.  Pro- 
cessions and  other  public  acts  of  worship  may  be  held 
without  interference  from  the  Government.  The  ad- 
ministration of  the  different  branches  of  the  Church  in 
Peru,  in  so  far  as  the  national  patronage  is  concerned, 
is  entrusted  to  the  Minister  of  Justice,  Worship,  and 
Public  Instruction.  The  fiscal  budget  assigns  the 
sum  of  $100,000  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Church, 
including  the  salaries  of  prelates,  rectors,  etc. 

WiLL.s  AND  Testaments. — The  procedure  that  ob- 
tains in  Peru  is  similar  to  that  in  force  in  Spain,  being 
based  upon  the  Roman  law.  According  to  the  Civil 
Code,  wills  may  be  either  open  or  closed.  An  open 
will  (leslameiilo  abierto)  may  be  executed  in  a  public 
instrument,  i.  e.,  before  a  notary  public,  in  a  private 
document,  or  verbally  (Arts.  651-656).  There  are, 
besides,  special  forms  of  wills,  such  as  the  mihtary, 
the  maritime,  and  others,  in  which,  on  account  of  the 
unusual  circumstances  attending  upon  each  particular 
case,  the  ordinary  formalities  of  law  are  dispensed 
with,  and  others  of  a  less  restrictive  nature  prescribed 
instead  (Arts.  674-681).  A  closed  will  (leslamenlo 
cerrado)  must  be  duly  sealed  by  the  testator  himself. 
A  foreigner  owning  property  in  Peru  must  testate 
according  to  the  provisions  of  the  Civil  Code  (Art. 
692) ;  and  if  he  have  an  estate  abroad  he  may  dispose 
of  it  by  wil'  executed  in  accordance  with  the  laws 
of  the  country  wherein  such  estate  may  be  located,  or 
with  those  of  his  native  land  (Art.  693),  provided  he 
have  no  rightful  heir  or  heirs  in  Peru  (Art.  695).  The 
substantive  law  governing  wills  and  testaments,  suc- 
cession, etc.  is  contained  in  Arts.  651  to  954  of  the 
Civil  Code. 

Cemeteries  are  under  the  authority  of  charitable 
associations  and  the  parish  priests.  Under  the  Reso- 
lutions of  20  Nov.,  1868  and  19  Jan.,  1869,  the  Mu- 
nicipal Councils  of  the  republic  are  instructed  to  estab- 
lish and  maintain  laic  cemeteries  for  the  burial  of 
persons  not  belonging  to  the  Catholic  Church. 

Marriage  and  Divorce. — The  Peruvian  Civil  Code 
expressly  prescribes  that  marriages  in  the  republic 
must  be  performed  with  the  formalities  established 
by  the  Council  of  Trent;  but  in  order  to  enable  non- 
Catholics  to  marry  in  the  country  a  law  was  enacted 
on  23  Dec,  1897,  empowering  the  Alcaldes  (mayors) 
of  the  Provincial  Councils  to  solemnize  marriages. 
Divorce  in  Peru,  as  established  by  Arts.  191  seq.  of  the 
Civil  Code,  is  not  absolute,  i.  e.,  does  not  terminate 
the  bond  of  union.  Marriage  can  only  be  nullified 
through  the  regular  ecclesiastical  procedure,  if  by 
reason  of  canonical  disabilities,  or  through  the  ordi- 
nary courts  of  justice,  if  on  account  of  civil  impedi- 
ments. Sec  III  of  the  Civil  Code  (Arts.  120-217) 
is  devoted  to  the  subject  of  matrimony,  including 
divorce. 

Schools. — Education  in  Peru  is  a  national  institu- 
tion under  the  Department  of  Justice,  Public  In- 
struction, and  Worship,  but  is  also  given  by  private 
establishments,  of  which  there  are  several  maintained 
by  religious  orders.  It  is  divided  into  primary,  sec- 
ondary, and  academic.  Primary  instruction  was, 
until  1905,  when  the  new  public  education  law  went 
into  effect,  in  the  hands  of  the  municipalities,  but  in 
view  of  their  limited  resources  the  national  Govern- 
ment found  it  necessary  to  take  charge  of  it.  It  is 
free  and  compulsory  and  is  given  in  about  2500  public 
schools,  with  3105  teachers,  and  an  attendance  of 
162,298  pupils  (1909).  Secondary  education  is  fur- 
nished by  thirty  government  colleges  and  several  pri- 
vate institutions.  Academic  in.struction  is  afforded 
by  the  universities  of  the  republic  Foremost  among 
them  is  the  University  of  Saint  Mark,  founded  at 
Lima  in  1574,  which  has  faculties  of  theology,  law. 


PERUGIA 


736 


PERUGIA 


modicine,  letters,  sciences,  and  political  economy. 
There  are  also  the  Universities  of  Saint  Thomas  of 
Cuzco,  Saint  Tlionia-s  of  Trujiilo,  ami  Saint  Aufjus- 
tine  of  Ar<'(mii)a.  Xorinal,  agricultural,  and  manual 
training  scliools  arc  hirgclv  attended. 

LoRKXTE,  «is(ori<i  lift  I'cni  (Lima,  1803-76);  1'hescott,  Ilis- 
lory  of  the  Conquest  oj  fcru  (Boston,  IS.')9);  Raimondi,  Bl  Feru 
(Lima,  1890-1902);  Bebmldez.  Atiates  de  la  CateJral  ile  Lima 
(Lima,  1903);  Enock,  The  Andes  and  the  Amazon  (London, 
190S);  Idem,  Peru  (New  Yorli,  1908) ;  WRtatlT,  The  Old  and  New 
Peru  (Philadelphia.  190S);  Gablanu.  Peru  in  I'JOe  (Lima,  1907); 
Seebee,  Notes  on  Peru  (London,  1901) ;  Bulletin  of  the  Pan- 
American  Union  (August,  1910). 

J.  Moren-Lacalle. 

Perugia,  .\rchdiocese  of  (Perusina),  in  Umbria, 
Central  Italy.  The  city  is  situated  on  a  hill  on  the 
right  of  the  Tiber.  The  Gothic  cathedral  is  of  the 
fourteenth  centurj',  its  facade  being  yet  unfinished; 
it  contains  paintings  by  Baroccio,  Manni,  and  Signo- 
relli;  there  is  a  marble  sarcophagus  in  which  are  the 
remains  of  Urban  IV  and  Martin  IV;  in  the  chapel 
del  Santo  Anello  is  preserved  an  onyx  ring,  which  is 
saitl  to  have  been  the  marriage  ring  of  Our  Lady,  and 
which  was  venerated  first  at  Chiusi,  where  it  was 
stolen,  and  then  taken  to  Perugia  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
turj'; in  tiie  chapter  library  is  preserved  a  codex  of 
the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  of  the  sixth  century.  Other 
churches  are:  San  Pietro  dei  Cassinesi,  the  church  of 
a  monastery  founded  by  St.  Peter  Vincioli  about  1000; 
San  Ercolano,  the  high  altar  of  which  is  made  of  an 
ancient  sarcophagus;  Sant'  Angelo,  a  round  building, 
dating  from  the  sixth  century  ;  the  Madonna  della 
Luce,  a  graceful  little  temple  by  Galeazzo  Alessio; 
San  Francesco  del  Prato,  now  the  seat  of  the  "Acca- 
demia"  of  fine  arts.  The  university,  founded  in  1320, 
has  three  faculties,  and  contains  a  museum  of  Etrus- 
can, Roman,  and  Christian  antiquities,  with  many 
sculptures  and  inscriptions,  among  the  latter,  the 
"Tabulae  Perusinse",  discovered  in  1822.  The  most 
notable  ancient  monuments  of  the  town  are  the  Porta 
Augusta;  the  tomb  of  the  Volumnii,  which  was  dis- 
covered in  1840  by  VermighoU;  and  the  Etruscan 
walls. 

Perugia  was  among  the  most  important  cities  of 
the  Etruscans,  with  whom  it  took  part  in  the  wars 
against  Rome  in  310  and  295  b.  c,  as  also  in  the  Sam- 
nite  \Aar.  The  Perugian  War  (41  b.  c.)  is  famous;  the 
troops  of  Anthony  were  shut  up  here,  where  they  were 
compelled  to  surrender.  During  the  Gothic  War,  Pe- 
rugia suffered  various  sieges,  by  the  Byzantines  in 
537  and  in  552,  and  by  the  Goths  in  546  and  548. 
The  Lombards  at  the  time  of  their  first  incursion  had 
taken  possession  of  the  city,  but  in  592  it  came  again 
under  the  Byzantine  power  and  was  made  the  seat 
of  a  dux.  In  749  it  was  besieged  by  the  Lombard 
King  Rachis,  who,  however,  was  persuaded  by  Pope 
Zacharias  to  raise  the  siege.  Pepin  gave  the  city  to 
the  Holy  See.  From  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh 
century,  Perugia  was  established  as  a  free  commune 
and  was  in  struggles  with  the  neighbouring  cities  of 
Umbria  and  of  Tuscany  (Chiusi,  1012;  Cortona, 
1049;  Assisi,  10.54;  Todi,  10.56;  Foligno,  1080  and 
1090);  it  was  governed  by  consuls  (from  5  to  16),  for 
whom  were  substituted  in  1303  the  priori  delle  arti; 
after  1174  there  was  a  podesta,  and  later  a  capilano 
del  popolo. 

Perugia,friendly  toFlorence  and  faithful  to  theHoly 
See,  was  essentially  a  Guelph  city,  and  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  the  popes  established  their  residence 
here  for  a  long  time;  four  of  them  were  elected  here 
(Honorius  III,  ITonorius  IV,  Celestine  V,  and  Clement 
V).  On  the  otlier  hand,  continuing  its  wars  with 
neighbouring  cities  (Spoleto,  from  1:524,  was  besieged 
for  two  years),  Perugia  extended  its  sovereignty  over 
the  greater  portion  of  Umbria,  and  over  a  part,  of 
Tuscany.  In  1375  it  was  among  the  first  cities  that 
revolted  against  Gregory  IX  at  the  instance  of  the 
Florentines.    Meanwhile,  there  had  been  formed  two 


parties:  the  Raspanti  (the  popular  party)  and  the 
Beccarini  (the  party  of  the  nobles),  and  between  them 
they  had  made  it  possible  for  Biondo  Mi<-h<'lotti  to 
become  lord  of  the  city  in  i;590;  he,  however,  was 
killed  in  1:393,  and  th(>n  Gian  Galeazzo  \'isconti  took 
possession  of  the  town  ;  but  in  141)3  it  became  sub- 
ject to  Boniface  IX.  Afterwards  it  fell  into  the  power 
of  Ladislao  di  Napoli  ;  in  141G  the  city  was  taken  by 
Braccio  da  Montone,  who  was  recognized  as  lord  of 
Perugia  by  Martin  V.  At  his  death  in  1424  the 
nobles  came  into  power,  but  contention  soon  devel- 
oped among  them,  and  eventually  the  Baglioni  made 
away  with  the  Oddi  family.  Finally,  Gian  Paolo 
Baglione  became  a  tyrant  of  the  city,  making  himself 
detested  by  his  cruelty  and  dissolute  habits.  He  was 
reduced  to  order  in  1506  by  Julius  II;  but  fresh 
cruelties  against  his  own  relations  led  to  his  decapita- 
tion by  order  of  Leo  X  in  1520;  Perugia  then  came 
once  more  into  immediate  dependency  upon  the  Holy 
See. 

In  1534  Rodolfo  Baglione  set  fire  to  the  Apos- 
tolic palace,  and  the  vicelegate  was  slain;  and  no 
sooner  had  order  been  established  after  these  events, 
than  a  rebellion  broke  out  on  account  of  the  tax  on 
salt,  which  Paul  III  had  increased  in  1540;  Perugia 
declared  itself  a  "city  of  Christ",  and  confided  its 
keys  to  the  care  of  a  crucifix.  On  5  July,  however,  it 
was  compelled  to  surrender  to  the  troops  of  Pierluigi 
Farnese  and  lost  its  freedom.  Paul  III  built  a  fortress 
to  prevent  further  revolts  of  the  Perugians,  while 
Julius  III  restored  to  them  the  greater  part  of  their 
privileges.  In  the  rebellion  of  1848,  the  first  act  of 
the  Perugians  was  to  demolish  the  tower  of  Paul  III. 
In  1859  there  was  a  provisional  Government  estab- 
lished, but  the  Pontifical  troops  soon  took  possession 
of  the  city,  though  they  did  not  commit  the  acts  of 
cruelty  of  which  they  have  been  accused.  Finally  in 
1860  General  de  Sonnaz  took  possession  of  the  town 
in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Sardinia. 

Blessed  John  of  Perugia,  one  of  the  first  companions 
of  St.  Francis,  died  in  1230.  In  the  martyrologies  are 
found  the  names  of  the  martyrs  Constantius  (Con- 
stantinus,  whom  some  believe  to  have  been  a  bishop), 
Florentius,  and  Felicissimus,  who  died  at  Perugia. 
LTnder  Decius  one  Decentius  was  bishop,  according  to 
the  tradition ;  but  the  first  bishop  of  whom  there  is  any 
certain  knowledge  was  St.  Herculanus,  killed  by  King 
Totila  in  546;  manj'  admit  there  were  two  bishops  and 
saints  of  this  name,  of  whom  the  first  is  said  to  have 
died  either  in  one  of  the  great  persecutions  or  under 
Julian  the  Apostate  (Cappelletti). 

St.  Herculanus  was  succeeded  by  Joannes,  who 
consecrated  Pope  Pelagius  I  (566);  Aventius  (591); 
Laurentius  (649);  Benenatus  (679) ;  St.  Asclepiodorus 
(about  700),  whose  relics  were  later  taken  to  Metz; 
Conon  (998)  and  Andreas  (1033),  who  had  various 
controversies  with  the  abbots  of  San  Pietro;  Joannes 
(1105),  who  consecrated  the  monastery  of  Monte 
Corona;  Vivianus,  who  was  present  at  the  council  of 
1179;  Giovanni  (1206),  who  gave  a  convent  to  St. 
Francis;  Salvio  de'  Salvi  (1231),  a  pious  and  learned 
prelate,  who  restored  San  Stefano,  the  ancient  cathe- 
dral; Francesco  Poggi,  O.  Min.  (1312),  who  built  S. 
Domenico  nuovo;  Andrea  Bontempi  (1339),  a  car- 
dinal, and  legate  general  of  Umbria;  Andrea  Giovanni 
Baglione  (1434),  who  filled  several  convents  with 
reformed  religious;  Dionisio  Vannucci  (1482),  who 
erected  the  altar  of  the  chapel  del  Sacro  Anello; 
Giovanni  Lopez  (1492),  a  cardinal  who  enjoyed  in- 
fluence under  Alexander  VI;  Trilo  Baglione  (1.501), 
deposed  by  Alexander  VI  for  having  taken  up  arms 
against  Cssar  Borgia  and  restored  to  his  see  by 
Julius  II;  Antonio  Ferreri  (1506),  who  suspected 
by  Julius  II  died  in  the  Castle  of  S.  Angelo  in  1508; 
Cardinal  .Ygostino  Spinola  (1510),  under  whom  the 
canons  of  the  cathedral,  who  since  the  twelfth  century 
had  lived  according  to  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  were 


PERUGINO 


737 


PERUGINO 


relieved  of  that  rule;  .laiDpSoinionetti  (153.5),  a  cardi- 
nal; Fulvio  Corneo  (1550),  reformer  of  the  diocese  and 
founder  of  the  seminary;  Ippolito  Corneo  (1553),  who 
estabhshed  a  house  of  reform,  and  a  monastery  for 
poor  young  men;  Giulio  Oradini  (1562),  who  founded 
a  college  for  clerks;  Napoleone  Comitoli  (1591),  the 
founder  of  other  charitable  institutions;  M.  Ant. 
Ausidei  (1726),  who  embellished  the  cathedral;  Ales- 
sandro  M.  Odoardi  (1776),  a  zealous  prelate,  who 
discovered  the  body  of  St.  Costanzo;  Camillo  Cani- 
panelli  (1804),  who  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
Napoleon;  Carlo  Filesio  Cittadini  (1818),  who  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  firmness  and  prudence 
against  the  Provisional  Government  of  1831,  and 
by  his  generosity  saved  the  city  from  pillage  at 
that  time;  Gioacchino  Pecci  (1846),  who  became  Leo 
XIII,  and  who  made  Perugia 
an  archdiocese  without  suffra- 
gans. 

The  archdiocese  has  199 
parishes,  with  100,900  inhabi- 
tants, 9  religious  houses  of  men, 
21  of  women,  and  1  Catholic 
weekly  publication. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chiese  d^  Italia, 
V;  Vermiglioli.  Bihliografia  storico- 
perugina  (Perugia,  1S23);  Bari.oti, 
Storia  di  Perugia  (Perugia,  1.S4-3): 
FABRETTl.Cronoc/jeiii  PtTwf/ia (Turin. 
1892);  BONAZZI,  Storia  di  Perugia 
(1875);  Bulhtlino  della  Sac.  di  Storia 
Patria  per  V  Umbria  (Perugia,   188G). 

U.  Benigni. 

University  of  Perugia. — 
One  of  the  "free"  universities 
of  Italy,  was  erected  into  a 
sludium  generate  on  8  Sept., 
1308,  by  the  Bull  "Super 
specula"  of  Clement  V.  \ 
school  of  arts  existed  about 
1200,  in  which  medicine  and 
law  were  soon  taught.  Before 
1300  there  were  several  univer- 
sitates  scholiarum.  Jacobus  de 
Belviso,  a  famous  civil  jurist, 
taught  here  from  1316  to  1321. 
By  Bull  of  1  Aug.,  1318,  John 
XXII  granted  the  privilege  of  conferring  degrees  in 
civil  and  canon  law,  and  on  18  Feb.,  1321,  in  medicine 
and  arts. 

On  19  May,  1355,  the  Emperor  Charles  IV  issued  a 
Bull  confirming  the  papal  erection  and  raising  it  to 
the  rank  of  an  imperial  university.  This  imusuai 
mark  of  favour  was  given  to  assist  Perugia  after  the 
terrible  plague  years  1348-49.  In  1362  the  Collegium 
Gregorianum  (later  called  the  Sapkiiza  pecchiu)  was 
founded  by  Cardinal  Nicolo  Capocci  for  the  main- 
tenance of  forty  youths.  Gregory  XI  by  Brief  of 
11  Oct.,  1371  gave  the  privileges  of  a  studium  generale 
to  this  new  faculty  of  theology.  This  faculty  was 
suppressed  and  its  property  merged  in  the  imivcr- 
sit}'  in  1811.  To  this  foundation  the  Sa/neiiza 
nuova  was  transferred  in  1829.  The  latter  was 
founded  by  Benedetto  Guidalotti,  Bishop  of  Recanti 
in  1426,  with  Martin  V's  approval,  as  the  Collegio 
di  S.  Girolamo.  It  was  a  free  hostel  for  impe- 
cunious strangers  who  wished  to  study  law  and 
medicine.  Sujiiiressed  by  the  French  in  1798,  it  was 
reopened  in  1,S()7  by  Pius  VII  as  the  Collegio  Pio. 
In  the  Constitution  of  27  Aug.,  1824,  Leo  XII  made 
this  the  chief  college  of  the  university.  Since  the 
time  of  Napoleon  I  the  university  has  occupied  the 
old  Olivetan  convent  of  Monte  Morcino.  There  was 
a  faculty  of  mathematics  down  to  1884.  The  statutes 
are  modelled  upon  those  of  Bologna.  The  number  of 
Btudentsatdiffcrent  dates  were:  1339,142;  1881,79; 
1911,  350.  Among  its  eminent  teachers  were:  the 
canonist  Johannes  Andreas ;  Cino  da  Pistoia  (1270- 
1336),  poet  and  jurist;  his  pupil  Bartolus  (1314-27), 
XI.— 47 


famous  civil  jurist;  his  pupil  Baldus ;  Albericus 
Gentilis,  founder  of  the  science  of  international  law; 
and  Francesco  della  Rovere  (Si.xtus  IV).  Among  its 
students  were:  Nicholas  IV,  Gregory  XI,  Innocent 
VII,  Martin  V,  Pius  III,  Julius  II,  Julius  III,  Urban 
VII,  Gregory  XIV,  Clement  VIII,  and  Paul  V. 

Stalistics  (1911):— Expenditure,  295,470  hre;  re- 
ceipts, 285,748  lire;  examination  fees,  5948  lire;  fac- 
ulty of  jurisprudence,  11  professors;  faculty  of  medi- 
cine, 13;  school  of  pharmacy  5;  school  of  veterinary 
medicine,  3.  A  large  number  of  institutions  are  con- 
nected with  the  university,  e.  g.,  an  obstetric  training 
college,  laboratories  for  general  chemistry  and  for 
pharmacy,  etc.,  also  the  meteorological  observatory 
(founded  1800).  The  library  has  over  54.000  vol- 
umes. The  museum  contains  vases,  bronzes,  and 
sculptures,  and  many  valuable 
Etruscan  and  Roman  antiq- 
uities. 

I;i.i  '/.  r  ■  'irirhr  .Iflla  Penigina 
'  .-/,  il'rruKia,  1816); 
r  ■.  I'l  .  1  I  I  I  I  >  ■':,h  ilnil.'  alia  storia 
,i'  '  :  •'  .:'■!,  l:,u,,vii:iisi-coliHelS 
I'  'l"!-ii  1,  IS?:!):  Rossi,  Doc.  per  ;o 
.'•■rni    ,1,11'    universiid   di   Perugia  in 

*. '!•  ilierudizioneartistica,  IV-VI 

<!'.  iiima.  1875-77),  2nd  series.  II 
ll'eruHia,  1883);  Rashdall,  The 
I  'n  irersities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Aijes,  II,  I  (Oxford,  18951.  40-43. 

C.  F.  Wemyss  BROwisr. 

Perugino  (Pietro  Van- 
xrcci),  Italian  painter,  founder 
(if  the  Umbrian  school,  b.  at 
Cittri  della  Picve  in  1446;  d.  at 
Fontignano  near  Perugia  in 
February,  1524.  He  was  called 
Perugino,  although  he  often 
signed  his  name  Petrus  de 
Castro  Plebis.  He  studied  art 
at  Perugia,  where  he  found 
au  earlier  school,  that  of  Nicolo 
-\lunno  and  Boecati  da  Came- 
rino,  already  remarkable  for  the 
pure  expression  of  the  senti- 
ment and  animation  of  the  in- 
iT  HiMSELP  terior  life.     Perugino  adopted 

this  tradition,  adding  to  it  the  decorative  taste  of 
his  master,  Fiorenzo  di  Lorenzo,  and  influenced  by 
the  powerful  style  of  Piero  della  Francesca.  In  1472 
he  went  to  Florence,  where  he  was  the  comrade  of 
Leonardo  in  Verrocchio's  studio,  the  most  active  centre 
and  laboratory  of  the  methods  of  the  Renaissance. 
Here  Perugino  acquired  knowledge  whereby  he  ex- 
pressed his  ideas  in  an  imperishable  manner.  He 
.learned  construction,  became  a  m;ister  of  jierspective, 
and  in  style  followed  a  fixed  formula,  which  was  much 
admired.  Unfortunatelyhisearly  works  are  lost.  His 
frescoes  in  the  Palazzo  Pubblico  in  Perugia  (1475) 
and  those  in  Cerqueto  have  been  destroyed  or  ruined. 
His  earliest  extant  picture  is  the  "  Delivery  of  the 
Keys  to  St.  Peter"  (1482),  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  at 
Rome,  where  three  other  frescoes  were  later  destroyed 
to  make  room  for  the  "Last  Judgment"  of  Michelan- 
gelo. Perugino  then  held  a  foremost  place  in  the 
Italian  school,  and  to-day  his  one  remaining  fresco 
shines  as  a  masterpiece  among  the  more  brilliant  in- 
ventions of  the  Florentine  school.  It  engendered  nu- 
merous works  of  art,  ;ind  Riipli:iel,  Perugino's  great 
pupil,  was  mindful  of  it  in  the  "Sposalizio",  the  most 
exquisite  work  of  his  youth. 

Within  the  next  fifteen  years  (1484-99)  Perugino 
attained  his  greatest  success.  His  work  was  most  in 
demand  for  religious  |)ictures,  and  he  went  from  citv 
to  city  painting  altar-jiieces  or  ecclesiastical  frescoes. 
In  1491-2,  having  gone  to  Koine  to  p;iint  the  decora- 
tion (no  longer  ext;mt  i .if  the  pidarc  ( ,( I h<'  Car(iin:d de' 
Medicis,  he  executeil  t  he  delighl  I'ul  ]iicl  lu'c  in  I  lie  Villa 
Albani,  the  "Adoration  of  the  Holy  Child"  (1491). 


PERUZZI 


738 


PESARO 


Except  for  some  journeys  to  Perugia,  Venice,,  and 
Tano,  Floren(;c  was  liis  centre  of  operations  for  that 
period.  To  it  belong  the  "Crucifixion"  and  Mie 
"Cietliseinane"  of  tlie  Florence  Accadeniia;  the  fa- 
mous "Pietil"  of  the  same  museum;  the  "Talcing 
down  from  the  C^ross"  of  the  Pitti  (1495);  the  "Vision 
of  St.  Hernard"  in  the  Museum  of  Municli;  but  the 
most  wonderful  of  these  works  is  the  great  fresco  of 
the  "Crui'ifi.xion"  in  Sta  Maddalena  de  Pazzi  (1496). 
The  beauty  of  the  faces,  the  stirring  gravity  of  the 
scene,  the  finish  of  the  colouring,  and  the  perfection  of 
the  landscape  rank  tliis  picture  first  among  Perugino's 
works  in  Italy.  The  triptych  of  the  "Nativity"  (1500) 
at  London  isa  miniature  of  this  fresco  almost  equal  to 
it  in  beauty.  Perugino  shows  himself  an  incomparable 
landscape  artist  in  the  pictures  of  his  best  period;  he 
was  an  eminent  master  of  the  painting  of  the  atmos- 
phere. He  derives  his  expression  from  the  rarest 
artistic  qualities,  from  a  finished  composition,  spacing 
of  figures,  use  of  oils,  and  deep,  harmonious  colouring, 
thereby  achieving  an  effect  of  depth  and  fullness.  In 
his  masterpieces,  though  he  transforms  the  reality  to 
a  great  extent,  he  is  nevertheless  very  true  to  nature. 
He  copies  the  nude  quite  as  accurately  as  the  most 
able  of  the  Florentines,  as  is  seen  in  the  wonderful  "St. 
Sebastian"  of  the  Louvre,  and  he  is  capable  of  the 
most  exact  and  close  veracity,  for  example,  the  two 
admirable  heads  of  Carthusians  at  the  Florence  Acca- 
deniia, which  suffice  to  place  him  in  the  front  rank 
of  jiortrait  painters.  Perugino  is  one  of  the  greatest 
and  most  popular  artists  of  Italy  and  his  work  is  dis- 
tinctive for  the  creation  of  the  "pious  picture". 

The  decoration  of  the  Cambio,  or  Bourse  of 
Perugia  (1499),  marks  the  beginning  of  a  period  of 
decline.  The  effect  of  this  hall  decorated  with  fres- 
coes on  the  four  walls  and  with  arabesques  on  the 
ceiling  is  very  charming,  but  the  conception  is  ex- 
tremely arbitrary,  and  the  composition  worthless  and 
insignificant.  Ancient  heroes,  prophets,  and  sibyls 
all  have  the  same  disdainful  expression;  the  whole 
is  neutral,  abstract,  vague.  The  artist  replaces  all 
semblance  of  thought,  conscience,  and  effort  with 
an  appearance  of  sentiment  which  is  merely  senti- 
mentality. Thenceforth  Perugino  is  a  deplorable  ex- 
ample of  a  great  artist  who  destroys  himself  by 
subordination  to  mere  handicraft.  Unquestionably 
he  had  a  sublime  period  in  his  life,  when  he  first 
endowed  incomparable  plastic  bodies  with  an  un- 
looked-for expression  of  the  infinite  and  the  divine, 
but  he  soon  abused  this  oft-repeated  formula,  the 
arrangement  became  purely  schematic,  the  figures 
stereotyped,  the  colouring  sharp  and  acidulous,  and  all 
emotion  evaiiorated.  The  only  part  of  his  genius  that 
persisted  to  the  end  was  an  eye  enamoured  of  the  skies 
and  light.  This  decline  was  clearly  evident  in  1504, 
when  Isabella  d'Este  ordered  the  artist  to  paint  the 
"Combat  of  Love  and  Chastity",  now  in  the  Louvre. 
At  this  time  art  was  achieving  its  most  glorious  con- 
quests, as  testified  by  the  two  famous  cartoons  of 
Leonardo  and  Michelangelo  (1.506)  at  Florence.  The 
works  of  his  last  twenty  years,  frescoes  and  altar- 
pieces,  are  scattered  through  Umbria,  at  Perugia, 
Spello,  Siena  etc.  They  add  nothing  to  his  glory. 
The  ceiling  which  he  painted  for  Julius  II  in  1508  in 
the  Camera  dell'  Incendio  at  the  Vatican  has  at  least 
a  higli  decorative  value.  In  1521  the  old  artist  worked 
once  more  in  collaboration  with  Raphael.  The  latter 
had  left  an  unfinished  fresco  at  S.  Spirito  at  Perugia 
and  after  his  death  Perugino  was  commissioned  to 
finish  it .  Nothing  shows  more  clearly  the  moral  differ- 
ence between  these  two  geniuses,  the  wonderful  pro- 
gress and  self-development  of  Raphael,  the  immobility 
and  intellect  iial  apathy  of  his  master.  The  latter  died 
of  the  pest  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight. 

Vasabi.  Lf  Vilf.e<\.  Milanebi  (Florence.  1878);  Mabcresi, 
Jl  Cambio di  Pernpin  (Pratro,  18.53):  Passavant,  Raphael  d"  Urbin 
el  am  pire  (Paris,  1860) ;  Bssai  aur  tee  peintree  de  VOmbrie  (1860); 


MOBELI.1,  Italian  painters  (London,  1892-3);  Brhnamonti, 
Pietro  Perugino  in  Rivinta  Contemporanea  (1889);  HKAfJUlROLi.i. 
Notizie e dorumentiinediti intorno a  PietrnVanurri  (PcruRJa,  IS74)" 
BcniKHABDT,  Art  Guide  to  Painting  in  Ilnlii  (I...riilrin,  lS7tl): 
Bboussolle,  Pileri/taoes  ombriens  (Paris.  IS'Mil  /a  Jnin<-<.i- 
lie  Prrugin  (Paris,  1901);  BekensoN,  Central  Ilnlian  immlrra 
(London.   1S97);  Williamson,  Peruuino  (London,  I<in:i). 

Louis    GiLLET. 

Peruzzi,  B.\ldassare,  architect  and  painter,  b.  at 
Siena,  7  March,  14S1;  d.  at  Rome,  G  Jan.,  1.5;j7.  He 
derived  Miurli  benefit  from  the  years  of  apprenticeship 
under  Biamante,  Raphael,  and  Sangallo  during  the 
erection  of  St.  Peter's.  An  evidence  of  his  genius 
for  independent  work  is  the  Palazzo  Massimi  alle 
Colonne,  which  he  began  in  1535.  Almost  all  art 
critics  ascribe  also  to  him  the  Villa  Farnasina.  In 
this,  two  wings  branching  off  from  a  central  hall, 
a  simple  arrangement  of  pilasters,  and  a  beautiful 
frieze  on  the  exterior  of  the  building,  airy  halls,  and  a 
few  splendid  rooms  are  combined  in  excellent  taste. 
The  paintings  which  adorn  the  interior  are  for  the 
most  part  by  Peruzzi.  The  decoration  of  the  facade, 
the  work  of  Peruzzi,  has  almost  entirely  perished. 
To  decorate  this  villa  on  the  Tiber  a  number  of 
second-rate  artists  were  employed,  and  just  as  the 
style  of  the  villa  in  no  wise  recalls  the  old  castellated 
type  of  country-house,  so  the  paintings  in  harmony 
with  the  pleasure-loving  spirits  of  the  time  were  thor- 
oughly antique  and  uninspired  by  Christian  ideas. 
It  seems  that  Raphael  designed  the  composition  of  the 
story  of  Amor  and  Psyche  as  a  continuation  of  the 
Galatea.  On  a  plate-glass  vault  Peruzzi  painted  the 
firmament,  with  the  zodiacal  signs,  the  planets,  and 
other  heavenly  bodies,  his  perspective  being  so  skilful 
as  to  deceive  even  the  eye  of  Titian.  The  close  prox- 
imity of  Raphael's  work  has  overshadowed  Peruzzi  in 
the  ceiling  decoration  of  the  Stanza  d'Eliodoro  in  the 
Vatican.  While  Raphael  designed  the  mural  paint- 
ings and,  it  may  be,  the  entire  plan  for  the  decoration 
of  the  hall,  it  is  certain  that  the  tapestry-like  frescoes 
on  the  ceiUng  are  to  be  ascribed  to  Peruzzi.  Four 
scenes  represent  God's  saving  omnipotence  as  shown 
in  the  case  of  Noe,  Abraham,  Jacob,  and  Moses.  The 
manifestation  of  the  Lord  in  the  burning  bush  and  the 
figure  of  Jehovah  commanding  Noe  to  enter  the  ark 
were  formerly  considered  works  of  Raphael.  But 
some  time  before,  Peruzzi  had  produced  for  the  church 
of  S.  Croce  in  Gierusalemme  a  mosaic  ceiling,  the  beau- 
tiful keystone  of  which  represented  the  Saviour  of  the 
world.  Other  paintings  ascribed  to  him  are  to  be 
found  in  S.  Onofrio  and  S.  Pietro  in  Mostorio.  That 
Peruzzi  improved  as  time  went  on  is  evident  in  his 
later  works,  e.  g.,  the  "Madonna  with  Saints"  in  S. 
Maria  della  Pace  at  Rome,  and  the  fresco  of  Augustus 
and  the  Triburtine  Sibyl  in  Fontegiusta  at  Siena.  As 
our  master  interested  himself  in  the  decorative  art 
also,  he  exercised  a  strong  influence  in  this  direction, 
not  only  by  his  own  decorative  paintings  but  also  by 
furnishing  designs  for  craftsmen  of  various  kinds. 

Redtenbacher,  Peruzzi  und  seine  Werke  (Karlsruhe.  1875); 
Weese,  BaUlaseare  Peruzzi's  Anteil  an  dem  malerischen  Schumcke 
der  Villa  Farnesina  (Leipzig,  1894):  Richteb,  Siena  (Leipzig): 
Steinmann,  Rom  in  der  Renaissance  (Leipzig):  Grcner, 
Fresco  Decorations  and  Stuccoes  of  Churches  and  Palaces  in  Italy 
(London,  1854). 

G.    GlETMANN. 

Peaaro,  Diocese  of  (Pesaurensis),  in  central 
Italy.  The  city  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Foglia,  on  the  Adriatic  Sea.  The  industries  of  the 
town  include  fisheries,  agriculture,  the  manufacture 
of  majolicas,  the  working  of  sulphur  and  lignite  coal 
mines,  bituminous  schist,  and  marble.  The  cathedral 
(San  Francesco)  has  a  beautiful  Gothic  portal  and  a 
"Coronation  of  the  Madonna",  by  Bellini;  the  church 
of  San  Domenico  is  a  work  of  Fra  Paolo  Belli;  in  the 
latter  is  the  mausoleum  of  the  poet  Giulio  Perticari. 
The  Palazzo  Ducale  was  begun  by  Laurana  before 
1465,  and  was  finished  by  the  Gengas,  father  and  son. 


PERUGINO 


VISION  OF   ST.    BERNARD 
PINAKOTHEK,    MUNICH 


PESCENNIUS 


739 


PESCH 


In  the  Almerici  palace  is  a  muspum  of  ancient  inscrip- 
tions, coins,  and  ivory  carvings,  a  collection  of  majol- 
ica, a  small  picture  gallery,  and  the  Olivieri  library. 
Beside  the  episcopal  residence  is  the  ancient  duomo, 
now  closed,  and  the  remains  of  a  Christian  nym- 
phaeum .  Outside  the  city  is  the  Villa  Imperiale,  built  by 
Alessandro  Sforza  (1469).  Among  the  scientific  insti- 
tutions mention  should  be  made  of  the  Liceo  Musicale, 
dedicated  to  Rossini,  a  native  of  Pesaro.  Of  the  char- 
itable institutions,  the  infant  asylum  dates  from  1257, 
and  the  retreat  for  penitent  women  from  1619. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  b.  c,  Pesaro 
was  occupied  by  the  Senones,  who  were  driven  from 
there  in  28.3.  The  town  became  a  colony  in  184. 
During  the  Gothic  War,  it  underwent  frequent  sieges. 
In  the  eighth  century  Pesaro  fell  four  times  into  the 
handsof  the  Lombards,  and  finally  was  annexed  to  the 
Pontifical  States.  Giovanni  Malatesta,  the  Lame,  be- 
came podes/d  of  Pesaro  in  128.5.  Galeazzo  Malatesta, 
having  no  children,  gave  Pesaro  as  a  dower  to  his  niece, 
Costanza  Varano,  wife  of  Alessandro  Sforza,  and  the 
latter  was  confirmed  in  the  possession  of  the  city  by 
the  Holy  See  in  1447.  Costanzo  Sforza  (1473)  fought 
against  the  pope  in  the  service  of  Florence,  and  left  the 
duchy  to  his  natural  son  Giovanni  (1481);  the  latter 
married  Lucrezia  Borgia,  from  whom  he  was  eventu- 
ally separated.  Costanzo  II  inherited  the  duchy  in 
1510,  under  the  tutelage  of  his  uncle  Galeazzo,  but  in 
1512  Julius  II  gave  Pesaro  to  Francesco  M.  della 
Rovere,  Duke  of  Urbino,  and  the  city  remained  united 
to  this  duchy,  of  which  it  became  the  capital.  In  1860 
the  town  was  valiantly  defended  by  800  men  of  the 
Pontifical  troops  against  the  army  of  Cialdini,  but  it 
was  compelled  to  surrender. 

The  Blessed  Francis  of  Pesaro  (1350)  and  the 
Blessed  Michelina  Metelli  (1356)  were  of  this  city;  the 
first  is  buried  in  the  cathedral,  and  the  second  in  the 
church  of  the  Conventuals;  other  natives  of  Pesaro 
'  were  the  Blessed  Santo,  O.  Min.,  who  died  in  1393; 
Blessed  Pietro  Giacomo  (1496),  an  Augustinian,  and 
Blessed  Serafina  Sforza  (1478),  wife  of  the  Duke  Ales- 
sandro Sforza;  at  the  cathedral  is  the  body  of  the 
Blessed  Felice  Meda  (d.  1444).  The  people  of  Pesaro 
have  great  veneration  for  St.  Terentius,  a  martyr  of 
uncertain  date.  The  first  bishop,  St.  Florentius,  is 
said  to  have  governed  this  see  in  the  middle  of  the 
second  century,  while  the  bishop,  St.  Decentius,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  suffered  martyrdom  under  Dio- 
cletian; Bishop  Heraclianus  was  at  the  Council  of 
Sardica  in  343.  Other  bishops  were  Germanus,  who 
went  with  Cresconius  di  Todi  to  Constantinople  in  497 
as  legate  of  Anastasius  II;  Felix,  whom  St.  Gregory 
the  Great  brought  to  trial;  Maximus  (649);  Bene- 
natus,  a  legate  to  the  Sixth  General  Council  (680); 
Stabilinus  (769);  Adelberto  (998),  founder  of  the 
monastery  of  S.  Tommaso  in  Folgia,  where  Clement 
II  died  in  1047;  Pietro  (1070),  who  was  deposed,  being 
a  partisan  of  the  schism  of  Barbarossa;  Bartolomeo 
(1218);  Omodio  (1346);  Biagio  Geminelli  (1354); 
Leale  Malatesta  (1370),  who  was  the  first  to  convoke 
a  diocesan  synod;  Cardinal  Antonio  Casini  (1406); 
Giulio  Simonetti  (1.560),  was  at  the  Council  of  Trent, 
and  founded  the  seminary;  Gian  Lucido  Palombara 
(1658),  consecrated  the  new  cathedral;  Umberto 
Radicati  (1742),  held  an  important  diocesan  synod; 
Cardinal  Gennaro  .Aint.  de'  Simoni  (1775) ;  and  Andrea 
Mastai-Ferretti  (1806). 

The  diocese  is  a  suffragan  of  Urbino;  it  has  39 
parishes,  47,000  inhabitants,  9  religious  hou.ses  of  men, 
7  of  women,  2  educational  establishments  for  male 
students,  and  4  for  girls. 

Cappelletti,  Le  Chieae  d'ltalia.  Ill;  Marcolini,  Notizie 
sloriche  delln  provincia  di  Pesaro  e  Urbino  (2nd  cd.,  Pesaro,  1883). 

U.  Benigni. 

Pescennius  Niger,  Emperor  of  Rome  (193-194). 
He  was  a  native  of  central  Italy,  and  during  the  reigns 


of  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus  had  kept  the 
Germans  from  invading  Roman  territory.  In  192  he 
suppressed  an  outbreak  of  the  Jews  and  Saracens. 
After  the  death  of  Pertinax  the  prtetorian  guards 
proclaimed  Didius  Julianus  emperor;  the  troops  in 
Britain  elected  Clodius  Albinus;  those  on  the  Danube 
chose  Lucius  Septimius  Severus;  and  the  soldiers  in 
Syria  elected  the  governor  of  that  province,  Caius 
Pescennius  Niger  Justus.  Septimius  Severus  advanced 
to  Rome  with  the  Pannonian  legions.  Julianus  was 
killed,  and  the  senate  acknowledged  Severus.  Severus 
now  made  Albinus  practically  a  co-emperor.  Forth- 
with he  addressed  himself  against  Pescennius  Niger. 
The  latter  had  many  adherents  at  Rome.  Moreover, 
Antioch,  where  the  proclamation  of  the  rival  emperor 
had  been  issued,  aspired  to  the  same  position  as  Rome. 
Pescennius  gained  the  support  of  the  petty  Oriental 
rulers.  In  preparation  for  the  advance  of  Severus  he 
appointed  the  able  proconsul  of  the  Province  of  Asia, 
Asellius  vEmilianus,  as  his  chief  of  staff.  The  ports  of 
Asia  were  closed;  the  passes  over  the  Taurus  moun- 
tains were  fortified;   and  Byzantium  was  garrisoned. 

Severus  also  had  made  far-reaching  preparations. 
Troops  were  sent  to  Africa  and  the  seasoned  army  of 
the  Danube  was  brought  together.  The  advance 
guards  of  the  opposing  armies  met  at  Perinthus,  the 
capital  of  Thrace.  The  soldiers  of  Severus  were  re- 
pulsed. Severus,  however,  proceeded  with  his  main 
army  across  the  Bosporus  and  by  way  of  Candeto  near 
Cyzicus.  Here  in  194  a  battle  took  place  in  which 
jlimilianus  was  slain.  Niger  himself  now  hastened  to 
the  scene  but  was  defeated  near  Nica-a,  with  the  result 
that  most  of  the  cities  of  the  Province  of  Asia  came 
into  the  hands  of  Severus.  Niger  fled  to  reach  Anti- 
och. The  possession  of  this  city  was  decided  by  a 
battle  fought  south  of  Issus  in  which  Pescennius  Niger 
was  defeated.  While  making  his  escape  to  the  Par- 
thians  he  was  overtaken  and  killed  towards  the  end 
of  194.  His  severed  head  was  exhibited  by  order  of 
Severus  before  the  besieged  city  of  Byzantium.  Se- 
verus mercilessly  punished  Niger's  adherents,  whether 
private  individuals  or  cities.  Byzantium  did  not 
sui-render  until  196.  Severus  was  also  successful 
against  the  vassal  states  of  the  Parthians,  Adiabene 
and  Osrhoene.  For  the  time  being  the  Roman  Prov- 
ince of  Osrhoene  was  established. 

For  bibliography  see  Pertinax. 

Karl  Hoeber. 

Pesch,  TiLMANN,  a  Jesuit  philosopher,  b.  at  Co- 
logne, 1  Feb.,  1836;  d.  at  Valkenburg,  Holland, 
18  Oct.,  1899.  He  became  a  Jesuit  on  15  October, 
18.52,  and  made  his  novitiate  at  Friedrichsburg  near 
Miinstcr;  he  studied  classics  two  years  at  Paderborn, 
philosophy  two  years  at  Bonn;  taught  four  years  at 
Feldkirch,  Switzerland;  stucUed  theology  one  year  at 
Paderborn  and  three  years  at  Maria-Laach,  after 
which  he  made  his  third  year  of  novitiate  at  Pader- 
born. He  then  tauglit  i)liilosophy  at  Maria-Laach 
(1867-69).  From  ISTOtill  1S76  he  worked  in  the  min- 
istry, and  again  taught  philosophy  eight  years  (1876- 
84),  at  Blyenbeck.  The  literary  activity  of  Pesch 
began  in  1876.  He  contributed  to  "Philosophia  La- 
censis";  "Institutiones philosophise naturalis"  (1880); 
"Institutiones  logicales"  (18SS);  " In.stitutiones  psy- 
chologica'"  (1S96-98).  The  last  fifteen  years  of  his  life 
were  devoted  entirely  to  writing  and  to  the  ministry. 
By  publishing  treatises  in  German,  Pesch  helped 
much  to  spread  Catholic  truth.  Such  treatises  were 
"Wcltphiinonienon"  (1881),  "Weltratscl"  (1884), 
"Scclc  mid  Lcib"  (1893),  and  "Christliche  Lebensphi- 
losophic"  (1S05).  The  last  work  n-arlii'd  its  fourth 
edition  williiii  three  years.  Besides  tbesc  more  schol- 
arly writ  inns,  he  published  poinilar  iiliiloso)iliic  and 
apoldfii'tic  ;ulicl('s  .■iiid  paiuphlcls.  TIip  most  irnpor- 
tanl  (pf  tlicsc  were  the  articles  pulilished  in  the  "Ger- 
inania"  above  the  pseudonym  "(iottlieb";  they  were 


PESCHITTO 


740 


PESSIMISM 


later  arranged  in  two  volumes,  "  Briefe  aus  Hamburg" 
(1S83),  and  "Dor  Kraeh  von  Wittenberg"  (1889),  re- 
futing the  usual  calumnies  against  the  Church.  His 
most  popular  book  was  "Das  Religiose  Leben",  of 
which  tliirteen  largo  editions  have  appeared.  During 
all  this  period  of  literary  activity,  Pesch  wa.s  tireless  as 
a  missioner  in  Germany.  He  was  often  arrested  under 
charge  of  being  a  Jesuit.  Pesch  tauglit  tlie  best  in 
Schola.-iticisiii,  hut  ajipreciated  what  was  good  in  other 
systems  of  ]ihiliis()pliy.  His  Latin  writings  contain 
the  latest  results  of  natural  science  applied  to  the  illus- 
tration of  truth  by  scholastic  methods. 

Milteilungeii  aus  tier  detUschen  Proniiz  (Roermond),  n.  8.  721; 
Thoelen,  Meriologium  oder  Lebensbitder  aus  der  Geschichte  der 
deidschen  Ordensprovinz  der  Gesellschaft  Jesu  (Roermond,  1901), 
602. 

Walter  Drum. 

Peschitto.  See  Manuscripts  of  the  Bible;  Ver- 
sions OF  THE  Bible. 

Pescia,  Diocese  of  (Pisciensis),  in  Tuscany, 
Italy,  on  the  Rivers  Pescia  Maggiore  and  Pescia  Min- 
ore,  situated  in  a  fertile  plain;   its  textile  industry  is 


Cathedhal,  Pescia 
Rebuilt  in  1693,  the  campanile  in  1306 

considerable.  The  cathedral  is  very  ancient,  but  was 
restored  by  Ferri  in  16(i3;  it  contains  beautiful  paint- 
ings by  Gabbaini  and  the  mausoleum  of  Baldassare 
Turini.  Other  churches  are  S.  Michele  and  S.  Stefano, 
anterior  to  the  twelfth  century,  and  S.  Francesco, 
which  dates  from  1211.  The  earliest  mention  of 
Pescia  is  of  the  eighth  century;  later  it  belonged  to  the 
Republic  of  l.ucra  until  the  fourteenth  centurj',  %vhen 
it  was  conquered  by  (he  Florentines,  who  defended  it 
effectively  in  1430  against  Francesco  Sforza.  In  1.5.54 
Pietro  Strozzi,  an  (!xile  from  Florence,  became  master 
of  Pescia,  but  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  to  Duke 
Cosimo  de'  Medici.  Pescia  is  the  home  of  the  Am- 
mannati  family,  and  of  the  painter  Mariano  da  Pescia. 
In  1.519  Leo  X  withdrew  it  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
Lucca,  rai.sing  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  prelacy  Tinlliiix; 
and  in  1726  it  was  made  a  diocese,  suffragan  of  Pisa. 
Its  first  bishop  was  Bartolonmieo  Pucci  (1728) ;  among 


his  successors  should  be  mentioned  Francesco  Vicenti 
(1773-1801),  who  in  1784  founded  the  seminary.  The 
diocese  has  36  parishes,  with  70,.504  inhabitants;  5 
religicms  licmses  of  men,  and  10  of  women;  2  educa- 
tional institutions  for  male  students,  and  S  for  girls; 
and  1  Catholic  weekly  publication. 


U.  Benigni. 

Pessimism. — I.  A  Temper  of  Mind. — In  popular 
language  tlic  term  pessimist  is  applied  to  persons  who 
habitually  take  a  niclanclioly  view  of  life,  to  whom 
painful  experiences  appeal  with  gnat  intensity,  and 
who  have  little  corres])(indiiig  aiiiireciatiim  of  pleasur- 
able ones.  Such  a  temper  is  partly  (lu<'  to  natural  dis- 
position, and  partly  to  individual  cireiniistances.  Ac- 
cording to  Caro  (after  von  Hartmann),  it  is  especially 
prevalent  in  periods  of  transition,  in  which  old  ways  of 
thought  have  lost  their  hold,  while  the  new  order  has 
not  yet  made  itself  fully  known,  or  has  not  secured 
general  acceptance  for  its  principles.  In  such  a  state 
of  things  men's  minds  are  driven  in  upon  themselves; 
the  outward  order  appears  to  lack  stability  and  per- 
manence, and  life  in  general  tends  consequently  to  be 
estimated  as  hollow  and  unsatisfactory.  Metchnikoff 
altriliutes  the  pessimistic  temper  to  a  somewhat  simi- 
lar jicriiid  in  the  life  history  of  the  individual,  viz.: — 
tliat  of  the  transition  froin  tlie  enthusiasm  of  youth  to 
the  c:iliiM  r  and  more  .settled  outlixik  of  niaturitv.  It 
in:i>  lie  :idiMittc(l  that  IkiIIi  causes  eontril>ute  to  the 
low  estiii  :ite  (if  life  whieli  is  iniplieil  in  the  common  no- 
tion of  tlie  iiessiiiiistie  teMi]ieranient.  But  this  tem- 
jieranient  seems  to  be  far  from  lare  at  any  time,  and  to 
<lel>en(l  uiion  causes  too  complex  and  obscure  for  ex- 
haustive analysis.  The  poetic  minil  has  very  gener- 
alh  enipliasiziil  the  paiiii'iil  aspect  of  life,  though  it  is 
seldom  wholly  imresponsi\-e  to  it sjileasurable  and  desir- 
able side.  With  Lucretius,  however,  life  is  a  failure 
and  wholly  undesirable;  with  Sophocles,  and  still  more 
\\ith  /Fschylus,  the  tragic  element  in  human  affairs 
nearly  fibscures  their  more  cheerful  aspect  :  "  It  is  best 
of  all  never  to  have  been  born";  the  frank  and  unre- 
flective  joy  in  living  and  in  the  contemplation  of  na- 
ture, which  riuis  through  the  Homeric  poems,  and  is 
apparent  in  the  work  of  Hesiod  and  that  of  the  Greek 
lyrists,  is  but  seldom  found  among  those  who  look  be- 
low the  surface  of  things.  In  proportion  as  human 
affairs  outgrew  the  naive  simplicity  of  the  early  pe- 
riods of  history,  the  tendency  to  brood  over  the  per- 
])lexities  of  emerging  sjMiitual  and  social  questions 
n.aturally  increased.  Hyroii,  Slu'lley,  Baudelaire  and 
l.<-eonte  de  Lisle,  Heine  and  Leopardi  are  the  jioets  of 
satiety,  disillusion,  and  despair,  as  the  genius  of  Goethe 
and  Browning  represents  the  spirit  of  cheerfulness  and 
hope. 

.\t  the  present  moment  it  would  seem  that  the 
variety  of  interests  which  science  and  education  have 
brought  within  the  reach  of  most  persons,  and  the 
wide  possibilities  opened  up  for  the  future,  have  done 
much  to  discourage  pessimistic  feelings  and  to  bring 
about  the  prevalence  of  a  view  of  life  which  is  on  the 
whole  of  an  opposite  character.  We  must  not,  in- 
deed, expect  that  the  darker  aspect  of  the  world  will 
ever  be  wholly  abolished,  or  that  it  will  ever  cease  to 
impress  itself  with  varying  degrees  of  intensity  upon 
different  temperaments.  But  the  tendency  of  the 
present  day  is  undoubtedly  in  the  direction  of  that 
cheerful  though  not  optimistic  view  of  life  which 
George  Eliot  called  Meliorism,  or  the  belief  that 
though  a  perfect  state  may  be  unattainable,  yet  an 
indefinitely  extended  improvement  in  the  conditions 
of  existence  may  be  looked  for,  and  that  sufficient 
satisfaction  for  human  energy  and  desire  may  be 
found  in  the  endeavour  to  contribute  to  it. 

II.  A  School  of  Philosophy. — As  a  philosophical 
system,  Pessimism  may  be  characterized  as  one  of  the 


PESSIMISM 


741 


PESSIMISM 


many  attempts  to  account  for  the  presence  of  evil  in 
the  world  (see  Evil).  Leibniz  held  that  "metaphys- 
ical" evil  is  necessarily  involved  in  the  creation  of 
finite  existences,  and  that  the  possibility  of  sin  and 
consequent  suffering  is  inalienable  from  the  existence 
of  free  and  rational  creatures.  The  principle  from 
which  evil  arises  is  thus  made  to  be  an  integral  part 
of  the  actual  constitution  of  nature,  though  its  de- 
velopment is  regarded  as  contingent.  With  Scho- 
penhauer, the  originator  of  Pessimism  as  a  system, 
as  with  those  who  have  accepted  his  qualitative  esti- 
mate of  the  value  of  existence,  evil  in  the  full  sense 
is  not  merely,  as  with  Leibniz,  a  possible  develop- 
ment of  certain  fundamental  principles  of  nature,  but 
is  itself  the  fundamental  jirincijile  of  the  life  of  man. 
The  world  is  essentially  bad  and  "ought  not  to  be". 

Schopenhauer  holds  that  all  existence  is  constituted 
by  the  objectivization  of  will,  which  is  the  sole  and 
universal  reality.  Will  is  blind  and  unconscious  until 
it  is  objectivized  in  human  beings,  in  whom  it  first 
attains  to  consciousness,  or  the  power  of  representa- 
tion (Idea:  Vorslelhmg).  Hence  arises  the  constant 
suffering  which  is  the  normal  condition  of  human  life. 
The  essential  nature  of  will  is  to  desire  and  strive; 
and  the  consciousness  of  this  perpetual  unfulfilled  de- 
sire is  pain.  Pleasure  is  merely  an  exception  in  hu- 
man experience,  the  rare  and  brief  cessation  of  the 
striving  of  the  will,  the  temporary  absence  of  pain. 
This  theory  recalls  that  of  Plato  ("Phajdo")  who  re- 
garded pleasure  as  the  mere  absence  of  pain;  and  the 
conception  of  conscious  life  as  essentially  painful  and 
undesirable  is  nearly  identical  with  the  Buddhist 
notion  (quoted  with  approval  by  Schopenhauer)  that 
conscious  existence  is  fundamentally  and  necessarily 
evil.  Hence,  further,  comes  the  ethical  theory  of 
Schopenhauer,  which  may  be  summed  up  as  the  ne- 
cessity for  "denying  the  Will  to  live".  Peace  can  be 
attained  only  in  proportion  as  man  ceases  to  desire; 
thus  the  pain  of  Ufe  can  be  minimized  only  by  an 
ascetic  renunciation  of  the  search  after  happiness,  and 
can  be  abolished  only  by  ceasing  to  live.  On  the 
same  principle,  the  poet  Leopardi  extolled  suicide; 
and  Mainlander  took  his  own  life. 

Schopenhauer's  philosophical  system  of  Monism  has 
generally  been  regarded  as  in  a  great  degree  ])urely 
fanciful  and  self -contradictory.  The  teleological 
function  attributed  to  the  unconscious  will,  which 
produces  phenomenal  existence  through  the  inter- 
vention of  quasi-Platonic  ideas,  is  obviously  out  of 
place;  and  the  notion  that  we  can  through  conscious- 
ness perceive  will  as  apart  from  consciousness  in  our 
automatic  bodily  functions  and  thence  also  in  the 
external  world,  creates  a  confusion  between  the  ra- 
tional will  which  we  know  in  ourselves  as  the  cause 
of  action,  and  mere  tendency  or  instinct,  for  which 
the  characteristics  of  will  are  arbitrarily  assumed. 

Von  Hartmann  endeavoured  to  improve  upon 
Schopenhauer  by  taking  the  unconscious  {Unbewusst) 
as  the  foundation  of  reality.  Will  and  idea  are  with 
him  twin  functions  of  the  unconscious,  which  en- 
ergizes both  in  them  and  apart  from  them.  The  idea 
becomes  conscious  through  its  opposition  to  will,  and 
from  this  opposition  arises  the  incurable,  because  es- 
sential, evil  of  life.  In  order  to  induce  men  to  con- 
tinue to  exist,  the  unconscious  leads  them  on  to  the 
jiursuit  of  an  unattainable  happiness.  The  delusion 
presents  itself  in  three  successive  forms,  or  stages, 
corresponding  to  the  childhood,  youth,  and  manhood 
of  the  race.  In  the  first  stage  happiness  is  considered 
as  attainable  in  the  present  life;  in  the  second  it  is 
relegated  to  a  transcendental  future  beyond  the  grave, 
and  in  the  third  (the  present  day)  it  is  looked  forward 
to  as  the  future  result  of  human  progress.  All  are 
equally  delusive ;  and  there  occurs,  as  a  necessary  con- 
sequence, at  the  end  of  each  stage,  and  before  the 
discovery  of  the  next,  the  "voluntary  surrender  of 
individual  existence"  by  suicide;  and  when,  in  its  old 


age,  the  race  has  discovered  the  futility  of  its  hopes 
it  will  desire  nothing  but  unconsciousness  and  so  will 
cease  to  will,  and  therefore  to  be. 

Meanwhile,  the  moral  duty  of  man  is  to  co-operate 
in  the  cosmic  process  which  leads  to  this  end.  He  is 
"to  make  the  ends  of  the  Unconscious  his  own  ends", 
to  renounce  the  hope  of  individual  happiness,  and 
so  by  the  suppression  of  egoism  to  be  reconciled  with 
life  as  it  is.  Here  von  Hartmann  claims  to  have 
harmonized  Optimism  and  Pessimism,  by  finding 
in  his  own  Pessimism  the  strongest  conceivable  im- 
pulse to  effective  action.  With  von  Hartmann,  Ufe 
is  not,  as  with  Schopenhauer,  essentially  painful;  but 
pain  predominates  greatly  over  pleasure:  and  the 
world  is  the  outcome  of  a  systematic  evolution,  by 
which  the  end  of  the  unconscious  will  eventually  be 
attained  in  the  return  of  humanity  into  the  peace  of 
unconsciousness.  The  world  is  not,  as  Schopenhauer 
considered  it,  the  worst  possible,  but  the  best,  as  is 
shown  by  the  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  in  the 
evolutionary  process.  Nevertheless  it  is  altogether 
bad,  and  had  better  not  have  been. 

The  unconscious  of  von  Hartmann  is  involved  in 
the  same  self-contradiction  as  the  will  of  Schopen- 
hauer. It  is  difficult  to  attach  any  real  significance 
to  the  conception  of  consciousness  as  a  function  of 
the  unconscious,  or  to  that  of  purposive  action  by  the 
unconscious.  Considered  simply  as  a  reasoned  basis 
for  a  doctrine  of  Pessimism,  von  Hartmann's  system 
appears  much  like  a  Gnostic  mythology,  or  such 
quasi-mystical  imagery  as  that  of  Jacob  Boehme, 
representing  the  pessimistic  aspect  of  the  actual 
world.  From  this  point  of  view  it  may  be  said  that 
both  Schopenhauer  and  Hartmann  rendered  some 
service  by  emphasizing  the  perpetual  contrast  between 
desire  and  achievement  in  human  affairs,  and  by  call- 
ing attention  to  the  essential  function  of  suffering  in 
human  life.  Schopenhauer  and  von  Hartmann  stand 
alone  as  the  originators  of  metaphysical  systems  of 
an  essentially  pessimistic  character.  The  subject  has 
also,  however,  been  treated  from  a  philosophical 
standpoint  by  Bahnsen,  Mainlander,  Duprel,  and 
Preuss,  and  has  been  discussed  from  a  more  or  less 
optimistic  point  of  view  by  Diihring,  Caro,  Sully, 
W.  James,  and  many  others.  The  extravagant  spec- 
ulations of  Nietzsche  are  to  a  great  extent  founded 
on  his  early  sympathy  with  the  point  of  view  of 
Schopenhauer. 

The  view  to  be  taken  of  the  contention  of  Pessi- 
mism depends  mainly  on  whether  the  question  can  be 
settled  by  an  estimate — supposing  that  one  can  be 
formed — of  the  relative  amount  of  pleasure  and  pain 
in  average  human  hfe.  It  may  well  be  thought  that 
such  a  calculus  is  impossible,  since  it  must  obviously 
depend  in  a  gi-eat  degree  on  purely  subjective  and 
therefore  variable  considerations.  Pleasure  and  pain 
vary  indefinitely  both  in  kind  and  intensity  with  per- 
sons of  differing  idiosyncrasies.  Life,  it  is  contended, 
may  still  be  happy,  even  though  its  pains  may  exceed 
its  pleasures;  or  it  may  be  worthless  even  if  the  re- 
verse is  the  case.  The  point  of  view  involves  a  judg- 
ment of  values,  rather  than  a  quantitative  estimate  of 
pleasure  and  pain.  The  true  pessimistic  estimate  of 
life  would  be  that  it  is  rather  unhappy,  because  it  is 
worthless,  than  worthless  because  it  is  imhappy.  But 
again,  values  can  be  estimated  or  judged  only  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  personal  satisfaction  they  imply; 
and  we  are  brought  back  to  a  merely  svibjective  view 
of  the  value  of  life,  unless  we  can  discover  some  ab- 
solute standard,  some  estimate  of  the  comparative 
importance  of  its  pleasures  and  pains  which  is  invari- 
able and  the  same  for  all.  Such  a  standard  of  value 
is  to  be  found  in  reUgious  belief,  and  exists  in  its  most 
complete  form  in  the  faith  of  Cathohcs.  Religion 
fixes  the  scale  of  values  by  reference  not  to  varying 
individual  sensibilities,  but-to  an  eternal  law  which  is 
always  ideally  and  may  be  actually  the  reason  of  the 


PESSINUS 


742 


PESTALOZZI 


indix-idual  judgment.  Moreover,  the  rccognitioi\  of 
such  an  absoUite  standard  itself  provides  an  aljsohite 
satisfaction,  arising  from  action  in  accordance  with 
it,  which  cannot  exist  in  the  absence  of  such  recogni- 
tion, and  which  is  only  travestied  by  Schopenhauer's 
pseudo-mystical  delight  in  contemplating  the  "kernel 
of  things",  or  by  von  Hartmann's  personal  adoption 
of  the  assumed  "ends"  of  the  unconscious. 

Thus  the  Christian  law  of  duty  gives  to  action,  in 
itself  possil)ly  quite  the  reverse  of  pleasurable,  a  value 
far  outweighing  that  of  the  satisfaction  arising  from 
any  .'specific  jjlcasure,  whether  sensuous  or  intellectual. 
The  inevitable  Christian  tendency  to  depreciate  sat- 
isfacliun  arising  from  pleasure  as  against  the  per- 
formance of  duty  has  caused  Christianity  to  be  clas- 
sified as  a  system  of  Pessimism.  This  is,  for  example, 
the  ^•iew  taken  of  it  by  Schopenhauer,  who  declares 
that  "Optimism  is  irreconcilable  with  Christianity", 
and  that  true  Christianity  has  throughout  that  ascetic 
fundamental  character  which  his  philosophy  explains 
;is  the  denial  of  the  will  to  live. 

^'on  Ilartmann,  in  like  manner,  rejecting  as  myth- 
ical the  foundation  of  the  Christian  Faith  and  its  hope 
of  the  hereafter,  takes  its  historical  and  only  important 
content  to  be  the  doctrine  that  "this  earthly  vale  of 
tears  has  in  itself  no  value  whatever,  but  that,  on  the 
contrary,  the  earthly  life  is  composed  of  tribulation 
and  daily  torment."  It  can  hardly  be  disputed  that 
the  Christian  view  of  life  in  itself  is  scarcely  less  pessi- 
mistic than  that  of  Schopenhauer  or  Hartmann ;  and 
its  pains  are  regarded  as  essentially  characteristic  of 
its  present  condition,  due  to  the  initial  misdirection 
of  human  free-will.  No  estimate  of  the  essential 
painfulness  of  human  life  could  well  exceed  that  of  the 
Imitatio  Christi"  (see,  e.  g.,  Ill,  xx).  But  the  out- 
look is  profoundly  modified  by  the  introduction  of  the 
"eternal  values"  which  are  the  special  province  of 
Christianity.  The  unhappiness  of  the  world  is  coun- 
terbalanced by  the  satisfaction  which  arises  from  a 
peaceful  conscience,  and  a  sense  of  harmony  between 
individual  action  and  eternal  law;  faith  and  love  con- 
tribute an  element  of  joy  to  life  which  cannot  be  de- 
stroyed, and  may  even  be  enhanced,  by  temporal 
sufTering;  and  in  some  cases  at  least  the  delights 
of  supernatural  mystical  contemplation  reduce  merely 
natural  pain  and  pleasure  to  comparative  insignifi- 
cance. 

ScHOPENHAiTER,  The  World  a.s  Will  and  Idea,  tr.  Haldane  and 
Kemp  (London,  1.S86):  von  Hartmann.  The  Philosophy  of  the 
Unconscious,  tr.  Coupland  (London.  1893) ;  Beneke,  Neue 
(rrundlegung  zut  Meiaphysik  (Berlin,  1S22) ;  Duhring,  Dct  Werth 
des  Lebens  (Leipzig,  1881);  Mainlander,  Phitosophie  der  Erla- 
eunff  (Berlin,  1886);  Challemei^Lacour,  Etudes  et  reflexions 
d^un  pessimiste  (Paris,  1901) ;  Card,  Le  pessimisme  au  XIX' 
sitcle  (Paris,  1878) ;  Pierens-Gevaert,  La  tristesse  contemporaine 
(Paris,  1899);  James,  The  Will  to  Believe  (Philadelphia,  1896); 
Idem,  Pragmatism:  lecture  VIII  (London,  1897);  Sully,  Pessi- 
mism (London,  1901) ;  Schiller,  The  Relation  of  Pessimism  to 
Ultimate  Philoaophi,  in  Inlrmnlinnal  Journal  of  Ethics,  VIII 
(1897);  Renocvuh,  \  ■,  ,..  '^lixme  in  La  eril.  philos.  (,IST2); 
Wenlet,  Aspects         /  l.iindon,  1894);    Mallock,  7s 

Life  Worth  lAvinn  '    '  i    Tm;   Munsterberg,  T/fC  .E/ernai 

Values  (Boston,  I'm*'  ,  Mi  i.  ii  mkoff,  The  Prolongation  of  Life 
(tr.  London,  1907J. 

A.  B.  Sharpe. 

Pesslnus  (TTitratrnvs),  titular  see  of  Galatia  Se- 
cund.-i.  I 'cs.'^indnle,  on  t  lie  southern  slope  of  Mt.Dindy- 
mus  and  I  lie  left  bank  of  the  Sangarius,  was  an  ancient 
city,  having  commercial  but  chiefly  religious  im- 
portance, owing  to  the  cult  of  Cybele  under  the  title  of 
Agdistis,  whose  statue,  or  rather  a  stone  suppo.sed  to 
represent  her,  wa.s  considered  to  have  fallen  from 
heaven.  The  Galli,  priests  of  the  temple,  flourished 
under  the  As.syrians,  I^ydiaiLs,  and  Persians.  The  city 
pa.ssed  to  the  kings  of  Pergamus,  one  of  whom  rebuilt 
the  temple;  about  27S  n.  c.  it  became  the  capital  of 
the  Toli.stoboii,  one  of  the  three  Gallic  tribes  which 
founded  the  Kingdom  of  Galatia.  As  early  as  204  n.  c. 
the  Pomans  .sent  an  embas.sy  to  procure  the  statue 
which  they  placed  in  the  temple  of  Victory  on  the 


Palatine,  but  the  cult  of  the  goddess  continued.  In 
189  B.  c.  the  Galli  sent  an  embassy  to  the  consul  Man- 
lius,  encamped  on  the  banks  of  the  Sangarius,  and 
later  Julian  the  Apostate  made  a  i)ilgrimage  lo  Pes- 
.sinus.  Under  the  Romans  the  city  declined.  After 
Constaiiline  it  was  the  metropolis  of  Galatia  Sccunda 
or  Saliilaris.  Ten  bishops  are  known:  Demetrius,  the 
fri<iiil  :uiii  defender  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  who  died 
in  exile;  l'i\is,  present  at  the  Council  of  Rphesus  (431); 
Theiictistus,  at  Chalcedon  (451);  Acaeius,  at  Con- 
stantinople (.536);  George,  about  (iOO;  John,  at  Con- 
stantinople (692);  Gregory,  at  Nicasa  (787);  Eustra- 
tius,  at  Constantinople  (879) ;  Nicholas,  present  at  the 
Council  of  Con.stantinople  (10.54),  at  which  Michael 
C:i'rulariu8  proclaimed  the  rupture  with  Home.  The 
"Xdtil  i:e  i'|iiscopatuum"  mention  the  .see  uiit  il  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  ruins  of  a  theatre, 
the  temples  of  Cybele  and  of  ^Esculapius  are  at  Bala 
Hissar,  nine  or  ten  miles  from  Sivri  Hissar,  chief  town 
of  the  caza  of  the  vilayet  of  Angora.  Some  Christian 
inscriptions  have  been  discovered. 

Le  Quien,  Oriens  Christ.,  I,  489;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Roman  geog.,  a.  v.;  Bibl.  des  auteurs  anciens;  Hamilton,  /?e- 
searchcs,  I  438,  seq.;  Leake,  Asia  Minor,  82  seq.;  Texier,  Asit 
mineure,  473-9;  Pebrot,  Galatie  et  Bithynie,  207  seq. 

S.    P^TRIDfes. 

Pestalozzi  and  Pestalozzianism. — Johann  Hein- 

riih  I'cst:di)zzi,  one  iif  (lie  grratcst  pioneers  of  modern 
educatinn,  b.  at  Zurii'h,  Switzerland,  12  January, 
1746;  d.  at  Brugg,  17  February,  1827.  Descended 
from  a  Calvinist  family  and  destined  to  become  a 
preacher,  Pestalozzi  abandoned  this  project  for  the 
study  of  law.  He  was  greatly  influenced  by  Rous- 
seau's "Social  Contract"  and  "Eraile",  and  tried 
to  carry  into  practice  some  of  that  author's  ideas. 
He  first  took  up  farming  at  Neuhof  (New  Farm),  but 
failed  through  lack  of  practical  talent.  He  then 
gathered  at  Neuhof  (1774)  waifs  and  castaways,  who 
were  to  work  in  his  spinning-mill  and  to  receive  in 
turn  some  industrial  and  moral  training.  Unbusiness- 
like methods  led  to  financial  difficulties  and  the  closing 
of  the  establishment  in  1780.  Evil  days  then  followed 
for  Pestalozzi  and  his  heroic  wife  who  had  sacrificed 
all  her  property  for  his  schemes ;  sometimes  they  lacked 
bread  and  fuel,  and  illness  added  to  their  sufTering. 
Sympathizing  with  the  poor  peasantry,  Pcst:iliizzi 
developed  a  plan  for  elevating  their  condition  through 
education.  In  1781  appeared  his  "Lienhard  und 
Gertrud",  a  simple  story  which  shows  how  a  village 
was  regenerated  through  the  efforts  of  a  good  pas- 
tor, an  able  magistrate,  a  zealous  teacher,  and  chiefly 
through  the  influence  of  Gertrude,  a  perfect  wife  and 
mother,  who  becomes  the  Good  Samaritan  of  the 
village.  This  book,  eagerly  read  wherever  German 
was  understood,  made  its  author  famous.  In  1798 
Pestalozzi  determined  to  become  a  schoolmaster  him- 
self. The  village  of  Stanz  had  been  burnt  by  the 
French  soldiers,  and  many  children  wandered  about 
destitute,  ex-posed  to  physical  and  moral  ruin.  Pesta- 
lozzi was  made  the  head  of  an  institution  at  Stanz 
in  which  the  orphans  were  to  be  trained.  When,  in 
the  following  year,  the  French  army  needed  the  build- 
ing for  a  hospital,  the  orphans'  school  came  to  a  sud- 
den end. 

Pestalozzi  then  opened  a  school  in  the  Castle  of 
Burgdorf,  and  there  laboured  zealously  from  1799  to 
1804,  though  hampered  by  jealousies  and  misunder- 
standings. With  this  institution  he  connected  a 
normal  school,  the  first  in  the  Protestant  cantons  of 
Switzerland;  the  Catholics  already  possessed  one,  in 
the  monastery  of  St.  Urban,  Canton  of  Lucerne.  -At 
Burgdorf  Pe.stolazzi  wrote  "Wie  Gertrud  ihre  Kinder 
lehrt"  (How  Ciertrude  Teaches  her  Chihlrcn),  which, 
bel  tcr  (han  any  other  of  his  books,  explains  his  educa- 
tional aims  and  methods.  When  sent  to  Paris  .xs  one 
of  the  Swi.ss  delegates,  he  tried  to  interest  the  First 
Consul  in  his  educational  work,  but  Napoleon  dc- 


PETAU 


743 


PETAU 


clared  that  he  would  not  be  bothered  about  questions 
of  A  B  C.  In  1804  Pestalozzi,  driven  out  of  tlio  Cas- 
tle of  Burgdorf,  transferred  his  school  to  Miiiic-liciilii  ifh- 
see,  and  thenee  to  Yverdun.  Eager  students  of  jicda- 
gogy  florked  to  Yvcnlun  from  Prussia,  Russia,  France, 
Italy,  Spain,  lOnglaiid,  and  other  countries,  among  the 
rest  Frobcl,  llcrbarl,  von  Raunier,  and  Ritter.  But 
Pestalozzi's  lack  of  organizing  talent  and  dissensions 
among  his  teaching  stafT  led  to  the  decline  and  finally 
to  the  closing  of  the  establishment  (1825). 

Pestalozzi's  career  is  almost  a  puzzle.  AH  his  under- 
takings proved  failures,  and  yet  he  is  the  most  influ- 
ential of  modern  educators.  There  was  nothing  at- 
tractive in  his  external  appearance.  He  had  read  very 
few  books,  possessed  neither  philosophical  penetra- 
tion nor  mastery  of  method,  and  entirely  lacked  talent 
for  organization.  A  keen  observer  at  Yverdun  de- 
clared that  he  would  not  have  been  able  to  conduct 
successfully  a  small  village  school.  That,  in  spite  of 
all  these  drawbacks,  he  exerted  a  profound  influence 
on  modern  education  was  due  chiefly  to  his  self-sacri- 
ficing love  for  children,  and  his  enthusiasm  for  educa- 
tional work.  This  enthusiasm  became  an  inspiration, 
almost  an  infection  for  all  those  who  came  in  con- 
tact with  "Father  Pestalozzi",  as  they  affectionately 
called  him.  He  created  a  new  educational  spirit,  in- 
terest in  education,  and  a  new  school  atmosphere, 
namely,  love  for  the  children.  He  himself  said  that  he 
intended  to  "psychologize  instruction",  and  he  may 
be  called  the  originator  of  the  modern  psychological 
tendency  in  education.  The  foundation  of  instruction 
he  finds  in  Anschauung,  which  has  been  inadequately 
rendered  in  English  by  "sense-impression"  or  "ob- 
servation ' ' ,  and  is  perhaps  better  expressed  by  "  intui- 
tion". The  object  lesson  is  the  core  of  the  whole 
system,  and  exercises  are  based  more  on  the  study  of 
objects  than  of  words.  Pestalozzi's  system  has  been 
severely  criticized  by  some  and  extravagantly  praised 
by  others;  his  work  is  overestimated  by  those  who 
call  him  the  "father  of  the  elementary  school",  al- 
though it  must  be  admitted  that  he  did  much  to  im- 
prove it.  Some  of  his  principles  involved  contradic- 
tions, not  a  few  of  his  methods  were  one-sided  and 
even  unsound;  but  his  ideas,  stripped  of  their  eccentri- 
cities by  his  disciples,  became  ijrominent  features  in 
modern  education.  Herbart  and  Frobel  supplemented 
his  work — the  former  by  developing  the  psychology  of 
education,  the  latter  by  originating  the  kindergarten 
system.  The  school  systems  of  Prussia  and  other 
European  states  embodied  many  of  Pestalozzi's  ideas; 
in  England  a  moflified  Pestalozzianism  was  carried 
into  practice  by  Dr.  Mayo.  Pestalozzian  ideas  were 
transplanted  to  America  by  one  of  Pestalozzi's  assist- 
ants, the  Alsatian  Joseph  Neef  (wrongly  called  a 
priest,  e.g.  in  Schmid's  "Gesch.  der  Erz.",  V,  ii,  580), 
who  opened  a  school  in  Philadelphia  in  1808,  and  later 
taught  at  New  Harmony,  Indiana.  Horace  Mann  was 
influenced  by  Pestalozzian  principles;  so  was  the  "Os- 
wego Movement",  which  emphasized  the  use  of  ob- 
jects as  the  foundation  of  instruction  and  greatly 
determined  the  character  of  American  normal-school 
training.  "For  the  most  part.,  so  far  as  principle  is  con- 
cerned, American  schools  are  yet  upon  the  Pestaloz- 
zian basis,  though  the  special  methods  of  applying 
these  principles  have  been  much  improved"  (Monroe, 
"Hist.of  Ed.",  669). 

One  of  the  weakest  points  in  Pestalozzi's  system 
was  his  attitude  towards  religion.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  the  writings  of  Rousseau  he  had  lost  the  strict 
religious  views  of  his  Calvinist  family,  and,  while  he 
still  believed  in  a  personal  God  and  Divine  Providence, 
his  was  a  rationalistic  and  merely  natural  religion. 
Although  he  always  spoke  most  reverently  of  the 
Bible  and  of  Christ,  he  never  attained  to  a  clear  recog- 
nition of  the  Divinity  of  Christ,  but  remained  outside 
dogmatic  Christianity.  His  disciples  are  divided  into 
two  schools — one  rationalistic,  led  by  Diesterweg,  the 


other  Christian,  which  follows  Pestalozzian  methods 
of  instruction  without  adopting  his  religious  views. 
Tci  tlic  hitter  scIkki]  belong  some  prominent  Catholic 
educators,  as  Bishop  Saili-r  of  Ratisbon  and  Bernard 
Overberg,  the  reformer  of  education  in  Westphalia.  In 
dealing  with  Catholics,  and  in  speaking  of  things 
Catholic,  Pestalozzi  invariably  showed  tact  and  con- 
sideration; he  never  forgot  that  he  had  received  kind 
treatment  from  Catholics  at  Stanz  at  a  time  when  he 
was  distrusted  by  some  and  ridiculed  as  a  visionary  by 
others.  "You  will  hardly  believe",  he  wrote  to  a 
friend,  "that  it  was  the  Capuchin  Friars  and  the  nuns 
of  the  Convent  that  showed  the  greatest  sympathy 
with  my  work." 

Tlie  vast  bibliography  on  Pestalozzi  is  collected  by  Israel  in 
MoiiumentaG€vmani(E  P(Edagogica,  XXV,  XXIX,  XXXI;  Pesta- 
lozzi, SdmlUche  Werke,  ed.  Seyffarth  (12  volumes,  1899 — ). 
Many  separate  editions  of  Z-ieTiardw.  Oertrud,  and  Wie  Gertrud  ihre 
Kinder  lehrt — English  translation  (Boston,  1885:  Syracuse,  1898) ; 
ed.  BtJRGEL  AND  Beck,  with  German  notes  for  Catholic  teachers 
and  normal-school  pupils  (Paderborn.  1887.  1892).  Translation 
of  other  works  and  articles  of  Pestalozzi,  in  Barnard^  s  Journal, 
II-VII,  XIII,  XXX,  XXXI.  Biographies,  etc.  in  English  by  De 
GuiMPS  (Syracuse,  1889);  Kruesi  (New  York,  1875);  Pinloche 
(New  York,  1901);  Holman  (London  and  New  York,  1908). 
Consult  also  Quick,  Educational  Reformers  (New  York,  1890); 
Monroe,  Hisl.  of  Education  (New  York,  1906).  Of  the  numerous 
biographies  in  German,  the  latest,  and  probably  the  best,  is  that 
by  Heubacm  (Berlin,  1910). 

Robert  Schwickerath. 

Petau,  Denis  (Dionysius  Petavius),  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  theologians  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, b.  at  Orleans,  1.583;  d.  at  Paris,  11  December, 
1652.  He  studied  first  at  Orleans,  then  at  Paris,  where 
he  successfully  defended  his  theses  for  the  degree  of 
Master  of  Arts,  not  in  Latin,  but  in  Greek.  After  this 
he  followed  the  theological  lectures  at  the  Sorbonne, 
and,  on  the  advice  of  Ysambert,  successfully  applied 
for  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Bourges.  At  Paris  he 
became  very  intimate  ■ndth  Isaac  Casaubon  (see 
Letters  MXXIV,  MXXVIII,  MXXXVIH,  MXLIV), 
librarian  at  the  BibUotheque  Royale,  where  he  spent 
all  his  spare  time  studying  the  ancient  Greek 
manuscripts.  At  Orleans  he  was  ordained  deacon 
and  presented  with  a  canonry.  After  spending  two 
years  at  Bourges  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  en- 
tered into  relations  with  Fronton  du  Due,  the  edi- 
tor of  St.  John  Chrysostom.  In  1605  he  became  a 
Jesuit,  taught  rhetoric  at  Reims  (1609),  La  Fleche 
(1613),  and  at  the  College  of  Paris  (1618).  During 
this  last  period  he  began  a  correspondence  with  the 
Bishop  of  Orleans,  Gabriel  de  Laubepine  (Albaspi- 
najus),  on  the  first  year  of  the  primitive  Church.  From 
1622  he  taught  positive  theology  for  twenty-two 
years.  During  this  time  he  was  about  to  leave 
France  on  two  occasions — first,  to  teach  ecclesiastical 
history  at  Madrid  at  the  invitation  of  Philip  IV  (1629), 
secondly  to  become  a  cardinal  at  Rome  where  Urban 
VIII  wanted  him  (1639).  At  sixty  years  of  age  he 
stopped  teaching,  but  retained  his  office  of  librarian, 
in  which  he  had  succeeded  Fronton  du  Due  (1623), 
and  consecrated  the  rest  of  his  life  to  his  great  work, 
the  "Dogmata  theologica".  The  virtues  of  P^tau 
were  not  inferior  to  his  talent;  he  was  a  model  of  hu- 
mility and  regularity,  and,  in  spite  of  his  feeble  health, 
practised  continual  and  severe  mortifications.  His 
ardent  zeal  for  the  Church  inspired  a  rare  talent  to 
which  his  numerous  works  bear  evidence;  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  literature  (Greek  and  Latin 
poets)  and  to  other  more  erudite  forms  of  learning. 

The  complete  list  of  his  works  fills  twenty-five  col- 
umns in  Sommervogel:  he  treats  of  chronology,  his- 
tory, philosophy,  polemics,  patristics,  and  history  of 
dogma.  The  first  edition  of  the  works  of  Synesius  ap- 
peared in  1612,  undertaken  ten  years  earlier  at  the 
advice  of  Casaubon  ("Synesii  episcopi  Cyrenensis 
opera",  new  ed.,  1633);  in  1613  and  1614  the  di.s- 
cour.ses  of  Thcini-iiii-  ;in.l  .Iiili:in  (n.'W  imI.,  1630);  in 
1616  the  "Bn\i:iniiiii  In  id  iciiui  Ni.cphori";  then, 
after  some  poetical  and  uraturical  works,  an  edition  of 


PETER 


744 


PETER 


St.  Epiphaniiis  in  two  volumes  (1622;  new  ed.,  1G32), 
which  liafi  boon  unilortakon  at  tlie  advice  of  Jacqiies 
Gretser,  8.  J.,  and  was  oiiginally  inton(l(Ml  iHil.y  as  a  re- 
vise<l  translation  of  Janus  Cornaiius.  In  lt)22  and 
1023  appeare<l  the  "  Mastigophorcs",  tluco  pum- 
phlets,  and  the  notes  dealing  with  Sauiuaisc's  "  Tcrtul- 
lian",  a  bitter  polemical  work.  Among  his  previous 
writings,  Pelau  had  inserted  some  masterly  disserta- 
tions on  chronology;  in  1()27  he  brought  out  his  "  I)e 
doctrina  teniporum",  and  later  the  "Tabula'  chrono- 
logize" (1(528,  Ui29,  W.i:i.  1657),  It  surpassed  Scali- 
ger's  "Do  Emendatione  temporum"  (Paris,  1583), 
and  prepare<l  the  groimd  for  the  works  of  the  Benedic- 
tines. A  summary  of  it  appeared  in  1633  (1635,  1641, 
etc.)  under  the  title  of  "Hationarium  temporum",  of 
which  numerous  reprints  and  translations  into  French, 
English,  and  Italian  have  been  made.  About  the 
same  time  (1636-44)  ajipeared  poetical  works  in  (ireek 
and  in  Latin  and  ilissertations  (often  of  a  polemical 
nature)  against  Grotius,  Saumaise,  Arnauld,  etc.  His 
paraphrase  of  the  Psalms  in  Greek  verse  was  dedicated 
to  Urban  VIII  (in  1637).  Finally  there  appeared  in 
1643  the  first  three  volumes  of  the  "  Dogmata  theolo- 
gica"  (dated  1644);  the  fourth  and  fifth  volumes  were 
published  in  1650.  The  work  was  incomplete  at  the 
death  of  the  author,  and,  despite  several  attempts, 
was  never  continued.  Numerous  editions  of  the 
"Dogmata  theologica"  have  been  published,  includ- 
ing that  by  the  Calvinist  Jean  le  Clerc  (Clericus,  alias 
Theophile  Alethinus),  published  in  Antwerp  (Amster- 
dam) in  1700;  the  last  edition  was  brought  out  in 
eight  volumes  by  J.  B.  Fournials  (Paris,  1866-8).  In 
1757  F.  A.  Zaccaria,  S.  J.,  republished  the  work  in 
Venice  with  notes,  dissertations,  etc.;  in  1857  Passa- 
gha  and  Schrader  undertook  a  similar  work,  but  they 
produced  only  the  first  volume.  His  letters,  "Episto- 
larum  libri  tres",  were  pubhshed  after  his  death; 
though  far  from  being  complete,  they  give  an  idea  of 
his  close  acquaintance  with  the  most  famous  men  in 
France,  Holland,  Italy,  etc.;  they  also  furnish  valuable 
information  on  the  composition  of  his  works  and  his 
method. 

The  reputation  P6tau  enjoyed  during  his  lifetime 
was  especially  due  to  his  work  on  chronology;  numer- 
ous eulogies  were  pronounced  on  him  by  his  contem- 
poraries, such  as  Huet,  Valois,  Grotius,  Isaac  Voss,  F. 
Clericus,  Noris,  etc.  His  chronological  work  has  long 
since  been  surpassed,  and  a  list  of  errors — inevitable 
at  the  period — could  be  drawn  up  even  in  the  case  of 
this  man  who  boasted  that  he  counted  no  less  than  eight 
thousand  mistakes  in  the  "  Annals  "  of  Baronius.  But 
the  great  glory,  which  in  the  eyes  of  posterity  surround 
the  name  of  Petau,  is  due  to  his  patristic  works  and  his 
importance  in  the  history  of  dogma.  With  good  rea- 
son he  may  be  styled  the  "  Father  of  the  History  of 
Dogma".  The  success  of  his  work  in  this  sphere  was 
slow  to  make  itself  felt — it  brought  on  the  author  ac- 
cusations even  from  within  his  order — but  it  was 
highly  esteemed  by  his  pupils  and  far-seeing  friends 
(e.  g.,  H.  Valois,  Huet,  etc.). 

To  form  an  opinion  of  Petau's  work  it  is  necessary 
to  go  back  to  the  period  in  which  he  wrote.  It  is  far 
from  being  perfect  and  his  criticism  is  more  than  once 
at  fault.  But  his  merit  increases  in  spite  of  his  short- 
comings, when  it  is  remembered  that  he  had  at  hand 
only  very  imperfect  editions  of  the  Fathers,  all  inferior 
to  the  great  masterpieces  of  the  Benedictines;  that 
many  of  the  known  texts  only  existed  in  translations, 
or  in  late  and  poorly  studied  manuscripts;  that  his  pred- 
eces.sors  in  this  line  were  few  and  practically  every- 
thing hati  to  be  created.  What  he  wanted  had  already 
been  outlined  by  Melchior  Cano  in  his  work  "  De  locis 
theologicis".  Here  we  pass  from  theory  to  practice 
and  we  find  a  master  at  once.  The  originality  of  Pa- 
tau's work  has  been  questioned;  it  may  have  been  in- 
spired, it  is  said,  by  a  similar  treatise  of  Oregius  (d. 
1635),  as  Zockler  maintains,  or  by  the  "Confessio 


catholica"  of  John  Gerhard  (d.  1027),  ns  conjectured 
by  Eckstein.  But  the  "Confessio  cathohca"  has  a 
quite  different  aim,  as  is  stated  on  the  very  first  page; 
whole  treatises,  as  for  instance  that  on  Christ,  have 
but  scanty  quotations  from  three  or  four  Fathers  of 
the  {.'hin'ch,  and  present  nothing  similar  to  the  long 
historical  developments  of  the  sixteen  books  "  l)c  In- 
carnatione  Verbi"  of  Petau.  The  relationship  with 
Cardinal  Aug.  Oregius,  which  rests  solely  on  a  conver- 
.sation  of  a  religious  of  the  Minims  of  Dijon  related  in 
the  "Voyage  litteraire  de  deux  IV'Uedictins"  (Pari.s, 
1717,  p.  147),  has  been  examined  in  detail  and  com- 
pletely disposed  of  by  F.  Oudin,  S.  J.,  in  the  "M6- 
moires  de  Tr^voux"  (July,  1718,  pp.  109-33). 

The  state  of  religious  strife  dtiring  the  days  suc- 
ceeding the  Council  of  Trent  tlrew  all  minds  towards 
the  primitive  ages  of  the  Church  concerning  which  cer- 
tain ancient  documents  were  being  discovered,  while 
the  excessive  subtlety  of  many  Scholastics  of  the  de- 
cadence instigated  a  return  towards  positive  sources. 
Petau  was  no  doubt  inspired  by  the  same  ideas,  but 
the  execution  of  the  work  is  completely  his  own.  His 
aim  and  purpose  are  set  forth  by  his  dedicatory  letter 
to  the  General  of  the  Jesuits  (Epist.,  Ill,  liv),  and  in 
several  parts  of  his  "Prolegomena"  (ef.  I,  i).  His 
method  reveals  all  the  resources  which  the  sciences  of 
history  and  philosophy  have  furnished  to  the  theo- 
logians. He  declares  his  opinion  with  full  liberty  as, 
e.  g.,  concerning  the  opinion  of  St.  Augustine  on  the 
problem  of  predestination,  or  the  ideas  on  the  Trinity 
of  the  ante-Nieene  writers.  Even  for  those  who  do 
not  follow  his  historical  plan  the  work  has  furnished  a 
copious  supply  of  documents;  for  theologians  it  has 
been  a  store  of  patristic  arguments.  We  may  here  add 
that  Petau,  like  Cano,  took  the  gieatest  pains  with  his 
literary  style.  He  exaggerates  the  faults  of  Scholas- 
ticism^ but  on  the  other  hand  he  drfciicls  it  against  the 
accusations  of  Erasmus.  We  still  find  the  controver- 
sialist in  the  author  of  the  "Dogmata" ;  after  giving  the 
history  of  each  dogma,  he  adds  the  refutation  of  new 
errors.  In  his  polemical  writings  his  style  was  bitter; 
here  and  there  he  is  more  gentle,  as  when  engaged  in 
discussions  with  Grotius,  who  was  drawing  near  the 
Catholic  Faith.  The  memory  of  Petau  was  celebrated 
the  clay  after  his  death  by  Henri  Valois,  one  of  his  best 
pupils,  and  by  L.  AUatius  in  a  Greek  poem  composed 
at  the  request  of  Cardinal  Barberini. 

OuDiN,  Denis  Petau  in  Niceron.  M&moires  pour  servir  A  I'kist. 
des  hommes  illustres,  XXXVII  (1737),  81,  and  in  Memtnres  de 
Trecoux  (July,  1718);Godet  and  Tohmel,  Revue  du  clergi  fran- 
cais,  XXIX  (1902).  161.  372.  449;  Chatellain,  Le  Pire  Denis 
Petau  d'  Orleans  (1884);  Stanonik.  Dionysius  Petavius  (Graz, 
1876);  SoMMERVOQEL,  Bibl.  des  icrii:  S.  J.,  VI  (1896);  KuHN, 
Ehrenrettung  des  D.  Petavius  u.  der  kathol.  Auffassung  der  Dog- 
mengesch.  in  Tubinger  Iheolog.  Quartalschrifl.,  XXXII  (1850)  249, 
J.    DE    GhELLINCK. 

Peter,  Saint,  Prince  of  the  Apostles. — The  life  of 
St.  Peter  may  be  conveniently  considered  under  the 
following  heads:  I.  Until  the  Ascension  of  Christ; 
II.  St.  Peter  in  Jerusalem  and  Palestine  after  the 
Ascension;  III.  Missionary  Journeys  in  the  East; 
The  Council  of  the  Apostles;  IV.  Activity  and  Death 
in  Rome;  Burial-place;  V.  Feasts  of  St.  Peter;  VI. 
Representations  of  St.  Peter. 

I.  Until  the  Ascension  op  Christ. — St.  Peter's 
true  and  original  name  was  Simon  (Si/iwc),  sometimes 
occurring  in  the  form  SuMfti*  (Acts,  xv,  14;  II  Pet., 
i,  1).  He  was  the  son  of  Jona  (Johannes)  and  was 
born  in  Bethsaida  (John,  i,  42,  44),  a  town  on  Lake 
Genesareth,  the  position  of  which  cannot  be  estab- 
lished with  certaintv,  although  it  is  usually  sought  at 
the  northern  end  of  the  lake.  The  Apostle  Andrew- 
was  his  brother,  and  the  Apostle  Philip  came  from  the 
same  town.  Simon  settled  in  Capharnaum,  where  he 
was  living  with  his  mother-in-law  in  his  own  house 
(Matt.,  viii,  14;  Luke,  iv,  38)  at  the  beginning  of 
Christ's  public  ministry  (about  a.  d.  26-28).  Simon 
was  thus   married,   and,   according   to   Clement  of 


PETER 


745 


PETER 


Alexandria  (Stromata,  III,  vi,  ed.  Dindorf,  II,  276), 
liad  children.  The  same  writer  relates  the  tradition 
that  Peter's  wife  sufTered  martyrdom  (ibid.,  VII,  xi, 
I'd.  cit..  Ill,  306).  Concerning  these  facts,  adopted 
by  Eusebius  (Hist.  Eccl.,  Ill,  xxxi)  from  Clement,  the 
ancient  Christian  literature  which  has  come  down  to 
us  is  silent.  Siinon  pursued  in  Capharnaum  the 
profitable  occupation  of  fisherman  in  Lake  Genesareth, 
possessing  his  own  boat  (Luke,  v,  3).  Like  so  many 
of  his  Jewish  contemporaries,  he  was  attracted  by  the 
Baptist's  preaching  of  penance  and  was,  with  his 
brother  Andrew,  among  John's  associates  in  Bethania 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Jordan.  When,  after  the 
High  Council  had  sent  envoys  for  the  seconrl  time  to 
the  Baptist,  the  latter  pointed  to  Jesus  who  was  pa.ss- 
ing,  saying,  "Behold  the  Lamb  of  Cod",  .Andrew  and 
another  disciple  followed  the  Saviour  to  his  residence 
and  remained  with  Him  one  day. 

Later,  meeting  his  brother  Simon,  Andrew  said 
"We  have  found  the  Messias",  and  brought  him  to 
Jesus,  who,  looking  upon  him,  said:  "Thou  art  Simon 
the  son  of  Jona:  thou  shalt  be  called  Cejihas,  whicli 
is  interpreted  Peter".  Already,  at  this  first  meet- 
ing, the  Saviour  foretold  the  change  of  Simon's  name 
to  Cephas  (K7)0aj;  Aramaic  Kipha,  rock),  which  is 
translated  nirpos  (Lat.,  Petrus)  a  proof  that  Christ 
had  akeady  spe-ial  views  with  regard  to  Simon. 
Later,  probably  at  the  time  of  his  definitive  call  to  the 
Apostolate  with  the  eleven  other  .Xpnstlcs,  .Insus 
actually  gave  Simon  the  name  of  ('iiili;:>  /'.;,//,!. 
after  whi  'h  he  was  usually  called  Petci'.  (  •■|>ici:ill\  l,\ 
Christ  on  the  solemn  occasion  after  Pi'trr's  ihoIc-muu 
of  faith  (Matt.,  xvi,  18;  cf.  below).  'I'he  ICvanndi-ts 
often  combine  the  two  names,  while  St.  P:iul  use-  the 
name  Cephas.  After  the  first  meeting  Peter  wuh  I  he 
other  early  disciples  remained  with  Jesus  for  some 
time,  accompanying  Him  to  Galilee  (Man-iage  :H 
Cana),  Judjea,  and  Jerusalem,  and  through  Saiiiaiia 
back  to  Galilee  (John,  ii-iv).  Here  Peter  re,s\iiiic'l  liis 
occupation  of  fisherman  for  a  short  time,  l)iii  somi 
received  the  definitive  call  of  the  Saviour  to  liccmnc 
one  of  His  permanent  disciples.  Peter  and  .Vndnw 
were  engaged  at  their  calling  when  Jesus  met  and  :iil- 
dressed  them:  "Come  ye  after  me,  and  I  will  m:il^r 
you  to  be  fi.shers  of  men".  On  the  same  occasion  i  lii 
sons  of  Zebedee  were  called  (Matt.,  iv,  lS-22:  M;ul, 
i,  16-20;  Luke,  v,  1-11;  it  is  here  assumed  that  Liik'' 
refers  to  the  same  occasion  as  the  other  Evangelist- 
Thenceforth  Peter  remained  always  in  the  immcdirii'' 
neighbourhood  of  Our  Lord.  After  preaching  llir 
Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  curing  the  son  of  the  cen- 
turion in  Capharnaum,  Jesus  came  to  Peter's  house 
and  cured  his  wife's  mother,  wlio  was  sick  of  a  fever 
(Matt.,  viii,  14-15;  Mark,  i,  29-31).  A  little  later 
Christ  chose  His  "Twelve  Apostles  as  His  constant 
associates  in  preaching  the  Kingdom  of  God. 

Among  the  Twelve  Peter  soon  became  conspicuous. 
Though  of  in-esolute  character,  he  clings  with  the 
greatest  fidelity,  fii-mness  of  faith,  and  inward  love  to 
the  Saviour;  rash  alike  in  word  and  act,  he  is  full  of 
zeal  and  enthusiasm,  though  momentarily  easily  ac- 
cessible to  external  influences  and  intimidated  by 
difficulties.  The  more  prominent  the  Apostles  become 
in  the  EvangeUcal  narrative,  the  more  conspicuous 
does  Peter  appear  as  the  first  among  them.  In  the 
list  of  the  Twelve  on  the  occasion  of  their  solemn  call 
to  the  .\postolate,  not  only  docs  Peter  stand  always 
at  their  head,  but  the  svirname  Petrvs  given  him  by 
Christ  is  especially  emphasized  (Matt.,  x,  2):  "Duo- 
decim  autem  Apostolorum  nomina  ha;c:  Primus 
Simon  qui  dicitur  Petrus  .  .  .";  Mark,  iii,  14-16: 
"Et  fecit  ut  essent  duodecim  cum  illo,  et  ut  mitteret 
eos praidicare  .  .  .  et  imposuit  Simoni  nomen  Petrus"; 
Luke,  vi,  13-14:  "Et  cum  dies  factus  esset,  vocavit 
discipulos  suos,  et  elegit  duodecim  ex  ipsis  (quos  et 
Apostolos  nominavit ) :  Simonem,  quem  cognominavit 
Petrum  ..."     On  various  occasions  Vetcr  .speaks  in 


the  name  of  the  other  Apostles  (Matt.,  x-v,  15;  xix, 
27;  Luke,  xii,  41,  etc.).  When  Christ's  words  are 
addressed  to  all  the  Apostles,  Peter  answers  in  their 
name  (e.  g..  Matt.,  xvi,  16).  Frequently  the  Saviour 
turns  specially  to  Peter  (Matt.,  xxvi,  40;  Luke,  xxii, 
31,  etc.). 

Vei-y  characteristic  is  the  expression  of  tinae  fidelity 
to  Jesus,  which  Peter  addressed  to  Him  in  the  name 
of  the  other  Apostles.  Christ,  after  He  liad  sjjoken  of 
the  mystery  of  the  reception  of  His  Body  and  Blood 
(John,  vi,  22  sqq.)  and  many  of  His  disciples  had  left 
Him,  asked  the  'Twelve  if  they  too  should  leave  Him; 
Peter's  answer  comes  immediately:  "Lord,  to  whom 
shall  we  go?  thou  hast  the  words  of  eternal  life.  And 
we  have  believed  and  have  known,  that  thou  art  the 
Holy  One  of  God"  (Vulg.  "thou  art  the  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God  ").     Christ  Himself  launistakably  accords 


in  r:\-T7iRovKD  (ni  Cv. 

UrypL  ol  .St.  I'otcr'a,  Home 

Peter  a  special  precedence  and  the  first  place  among 
the  Apostles,  and  designates  him  for  such  on  various 
occasions.  Peter  was  one  of  the  1 1 1  n  ■!  •  .  \  pi  ist  les  (with 
James  and  John)  who  were  wiili  (  hnsi  on  certain 
special  occasions — the  raising  of  the  ihiunhlerof  Jairus 
from  the  dead  (Mark,  v,  37 ;  Luke,  viii,  51) ;  tlie  Tran.s- 
figuration  of  Christ  (Matt.,  xvii,  1;  Mark,  ix,  1; 
Luke,  ix,  28);  the  Agony  in  the  Garden  of  Gelliscniani 
(Matt.,  x.xvi,  37;  Mark,  xiv,  33).  On  srvcml  occa- 
sions also  Christ  favoured  him  above  .ill  llie  ■.ihcrs; 
He  enters  Peter's  boat  on  Lake  Genes;ireili  to  preach 
to  the  multitude  on  the  shore  (Luke,  v,  3);  when  He 
was  miraculously  walking  upon  the  waters.  He  called 
Peter  to  come  to  Him  across  the  lake  (Matt.,  xiv,  28 
sqq.);  He  sent  him  to  the  lake  to  catch  the  fish  in 
whose  mouth  Peter  found  the  stater  to  pay  as  tribute 
(Matt.,  xvii,  24  sqq.). 

In  especially  solemn  fashion  Christ  accentuated 
Peter's  precedence  among  the  Apostles,  when,  after 
Peter  had  recognized  Him  as  the  Messias,  He  prom- 
ised that  he  would  be  head  of  His  flock.  Jesus  was 
then  dweUing  with  His  Apostles  in  the  vicinity 
of  (;a!sarea  Philip])!,  engagerl  on  His  work  of  salva- 
tion.    As  Christ's! uiiKiiiin-od  so  little  in  power  and 

glory  with  the  rxpei.ii  i,,Tis  uf  the  .Messias,  many 
different  views  conrenung  lliui  were  current.     While 


PETER 


746 


PETER 


journeying  along  with  His  Apostles,  Jesus  asks  them: 
"Whom  do  men  say  that  the  Son  of  man  is?"  The 
Apostles  answered:  "Some  John  the  Baptist,  and 
other  some  Elias,  and  others  Jeremi;is,  or  one  of  the 
prophets".  Jesus  said  to  them :  " But  whom  do  you 
say  that  I  am?"  Simon  said:  "Thou  art  Christ,  the 
Son  of  the  living  God".  And  Jesus  answering  said  to 
him:  "Bles.sed  art  thou,  Simon  Bar-Jona:  because 
flesh  and  blood  hath  not  revealed  it  to  thee,  but  my 
Father  who  is  in  heaven.  And  I  say  to  thee:  That 
thou  art  Peter  [Kiphfi,  a  roek];  and  upon  this  rock 
[Kiphaj  I  will  build  my  church  (^KicXijcriai'l,  and  the 
gates  of  hell  shall  not  pre\-ail  against  it.  And  I  will 
give  to  thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  And 
whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  upon  earth,  it  shall  be 
bound  also  in  heaven :  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt  loose 
on  earth,  it  shall  be  loosed  also  in  heaven".  Then  he 
commanded  his  disciples,  that  they  should  tell  no  one 
that  he  was  Jesus  the  Christ  (Matt.,  xvi,  13-20; 
Mark,  viii,  27-30;  Luke,  ix,  18-21). 

By  the  word  "  rock  "  the  Sa\'iour  cannot  have  meant 
Himself,  but  only  Peter,  a-s  is  so  much  more  apparent 
in  .\ramaic  in  which  the  same  word  (Kipha)  is  used  for 
"Peter"  and  "rock".  His  statement  then  admits  of 
but  one  explanation,  namely,  that  He  wishes  to  make 
Peter  the  head  of  the  whole  community  of  those  who 
believed  in  Him  as  the  true  Messias;  that  through 
this  foundation  (Peter)  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  would 
be  unconquerable;  that  the  spiritual  guidance  of  the 
faithful  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Peter,  as  the  special 
representative  of  Christ.  This  meaning  becomes  so 
much  the  clearer  when  we  remember  that  the  words 
"bind"  and  "loose"  are  not  metaphorical,  but  Jewish 
juridical  terms.  It  is  also  clear  that  the  position  of 
Peter  among  the  other  Apostles  and  in  the  Christian 
community  was  the  basis  for  the  Kingdom  of  God  on 
earth,  that  is,  the  Church  of  Christ.  Peter  was  per- 
sonally installed  as  Head  of  the  Ajjostles  by  Christ 
Himself.  This  foundation  created  for  the  Church  by 
its  Founder  could  not  disappear  with  the  person  of 
Peter,  but  was  intended  to  continue  and  did  continue 
(as  actual  history  shows)  in  the  primacy  of  the  Roman 
Church  and  its  bishops.  Entirely  inconsistent  and  in 
itself  untenable  is  the  position  of  Protestants  who  (like 
Schnitzer  in  recent  times)  assert  that  the  primacy  of 
t  he  Roman  bishops  cannot  be  deduced  from  the  prece- 
dence which  Peter  held  among  the  Apostles.  Just  as 
the  essential  activity  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  in  build- 
ing up  and  extending  the  Church  did  not  entirely  dis- 
ai)pear  with  their  deaths,  so  surely  did  the  Apostolic 
Primacy  of  Peter  not  completely  vanish.  As  intended 
by  Christ,  it  must  have  continued  its  existence  and 
development  in  a  form  appropriate  to  the  ecclesiastical 
organism,  just  as  the  office  of  the  Apostles  contin- 
ued in  an  appropriate  form.  Objections  have  been 
raised  against  the  genuineness  of  the  wording  of  the 
passage,  but  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  manu- 
scripts, the  parallel  passages  in  the  other  Gospels,  and 
the  fixed  belief  of  pre-Constantine  literature  furnish 
the  surest  proofs  of  the  genuineness  and  untampered 
state  of  the  text  of  Matthew  (cf .  "  Stimmen  aus  Maria- 
Laach",  I,  1896,  129  sqq.;  "Theologie  und  Glaube", 
II,  1910,  842  sqq.). 

In  spite  of  his  firm  faith  in  Jesus,  Peter  had  so  far 
no  clear  knowledge  of  the  mission  and  work  of  the 
Saviour.  The  sufferings  of  Christ  especially,  as  con- 
tradictory to  his  worldly  conception  of  the  Messias, 
were  inconceivable  to  him,  and  his  erroneous  concep- 
tion occasionally  elicited  a  sharp  reproof  from  Jesus 
(Matt.,  xvi,  21-23;  Mark,  viii,  31-.33).  Peter's  irreso- 
lute character,  which  continued  notwithstanding  his 
enthusiastic  fidelity  to  his  Master,  was  clearly  re- 
vealed in  conn(!xion  with  the  Passion  of  Christ.  The 
Saviour  had  already  told  him  that  Satan  had  desired 
him  that  he  might  sift  him  as  wheat.  But  Christ  had 
prayed  for  him  that  his  faith  fail  not,  and,  being  once 
converted,  heconfirms  his  brethren  (Luke,  xxii,  31-32). 


Peter's  assurance  that  he  was  ready  to  accompany  his 
Master  to  prison  and  to  death,  ('licited  Christ's  predic- 
tion tlial  Peter  siiould  lienv  Him  (Matt.,  xxvi,  30-35; 
Mark,  xiv,  2i;-:n ;  Luke,  xxii,  31-34;  John,  xiii,  ;?3- 
3S).  Wlien  Christ  proceeded  to  wash  the  feet  of  His 
iliscijiles  before  the  La,st  Supper,  and  came  first  to 
Peter,  the  latter  at  first  protested,  but,  on  Christ's 
declaring  that  otherwise  he  should  have  no  pai-t  with 
Him,  iiniiK'diately  said:  "Lord,  not  only  my  feet,  but 
also  my  hands  and  my  head"  (John,  xiii,  1-10).  In 
till'  Garden  of  Gethsemani  Peter  had  to  submit  to  the 
Saviour's  reproach  that  he  had  slept  like  the  others, 
while  his  Master  suffered  deadly  anguish  (Mark,  xiv, 
37).  At  the  seizing  of  Jesus,  Peter  in  an  outburst  of 
anger  wished  to  defend  his  Ma.ster  by  force,  but  was 
forbidden  to  do  so.  He  at  lirst  took  to  flight  with  the 
other  .\postles  (John,  xviii,  10-11;  Matt.,  x.\vi,  5(5); 
then  turning  he  followed  his  captured  Lord  to  the 
courtyard  of  the  High  Priest,  and  tliere  denied  Christ, 
a.s.serliiig  explicitly  and  .swearing  that  he  knew  Him 
not  (Matt.,  xxvi,'  58-75;  Mark,  xiv,  54-72;  Luke, 
xxii,  54-02;  John,  xviii,  15-27).  This  denial  was  of 
course  due,  not  to  a  lapse  of  interior  faith  in  Christ, 
but  to  exterior  fear  and  cowardice.  His  sorrow  was 
thus  so  much  the  greater,  when,  after  his  Master  had 
turned  His  gaze  towards  him,  he  clearly  recognized 
what  he  had  done.  In  spite  of  this  weakness,  his  posi- 
tion as  head  of  the  Apostles  was  later  confirmed  by 
Jesus,  and  his  precedence  was  not  less  conspicuous 
after  the  Resurrection  than  before. 

The  women,  who  were  the  first  t  o  find  Christ's  tomb 
empty,  received  from  the  angel  a  special  message  for 
Peter  (Mark,  xvi,  7).  To  him  alone  of  the  Apostles 
did  Christ  appear  on  the  first  day  after  the  Resurrec- 
tion (Luke,  xxiv,  34;  I  Cor.,  xv,  5).  But,  most  im- 
portant of  all,  when  He  appeared  at  the  Lake  of 
Genesareth,  Christ  renewed  to  Peter  His  special  com- 
mission to  feed  and  defend  His  flock,  after  Peter  had 
thrice  affirmed  his  special  love  for  his  IMaster  (John, 
xxi,  1.5-17).  In  conclu.sion  Christ  foretold  the  violent 
death  Peter  would  have  to  suffer,  and  thus  invited  him 
to  follow  Him  in  a  special  manner  (ibid.,  20-23).  Thvis 
was  Peter  called  and  trained  for  the  Apostleship  and 
clothed  with  the  primacy  of  the  Apostles,  which  he 
exercised  in  a  most  unequivocal  manner  after  Christ's 
Ascension  into  Heaven. 

II.  St.  Peter  in  Jerusalem  and  Palestine  after 
THE  Ascension. — Our  information  concerning  the  ear- 
liest Apostolic  activity  of  St.  Peter  in  Jerusalem, 
Judaea,  and  the  districts  stretching  northwards  as  far 
as  Syria  is  derived  mainly  from  the  first  portion  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  is  confirmed  by  parallel 
statements  incidentally  in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul. 
Among  the  crowd  of  Apostles  and  disciples  who,  after 
Christ's  Ascension  into  Heaven  from  Mount  Olivet, 
returned  to  Jerusalem  to  await  the  fulfilment  of  His 
promise  to  send  the  Holy  Ghost,  Peter  is  immediately 
conspicuous  as  the  leader  of  all,  and  is  henceforth  con- 
stantly recognized  as  the  head  of  the  original  Chris- 
tian community  in  Jerusalem.  He  takes  the  initiative 
in  the  appointment  to  the  Apostolic  College  of  another 
witness  of  the  life,  death,  and  resurrection  of  Christ  to 
replace  Ju<las  (.Acts,  i,  15-26).  After  the  descent  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  feast  of  Pentecost.  Peter  stand- 
ing at  the  head  of  the  Apostles  delivers  the  first  public 
sermon  to  proclaim  the  life,  death,  and  resurrection  of 
Jesus,  and  wins  a  large  number  of  Jews  as  converts  to 
the  Christian  community  (ibid.,  ii,  14-41).  First  of 
the  Apostles  he  worked  a  public  miracle,  when  with 
John  he  went  up  into  the  temple  and  cured  the  lame 
man  at  the  Beautiful  Gate.  To  the  people  cTowding 
in  amazement  about  the  two  Apostles,,  he  preaches  a 
long  sermon  in  the  Porch  of  Solomon,  and  brings  new 
increa.se  to  the  flock  of  believers  (ibid.,  iii,  1-iv,  4). 

In  the  subsequent  examinations  of  the  two  Apostles 
before  the  Jewish  High  Council,  Peter  defends  in  un- 
dismayed and  impressive  fashion  the  cause  of  Jesus 


PETER 


747 


PETER 


and  the  obbgation  and  libertyof  the  Apostles  to  preach 
the  Gospel  (ibid.,  iv,  5-21).  When  Ananias  and  Sap- 
pliira  attempt  to  deceive  the  Apostles  and  the  people, 
Peter  appears  as  judge  of  their  action,  and  God  exe- 
cutes the  sentence  of  punishment  passed  by  the  Apos- 
tle by  causing  the  sudden  death  of  the  two  guilty 
parties  (ibid.,  v,  1-11).  By  numerous  miracles  God 
confirms  the  Apostolic  activity  of  Christ's  confessors, 
and  here  also  tliereis  special  mention  of  Peter,  since  it 
is  recorded  that  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  and 
neighbouring  towns  carried  their  sick  in  their  beds 
into  the  streets  so  that  the  shadow  of  Peter  might  fall 
on  them  and  they  might  be  thereby  healed  (ibid.,  v, 
12-16).  The  ever-increasing  number  of  the  faithful 
caused  the  Jewish  supreme  council  to  adopt  new  meas- 
ures against  the  Apostles,  but  "Peter  and  the  Apos- 
tles" answer  that  they ' '  ought  to  obey  God  rather  than 
men"  (ibid.,  v,  29  sqq.).  Not  only  in  Jerusalem  itself 
did  Peter  labour  in  fulfilling 
the  mission  entrusted  to 
him  by  his  Master.  He 
also  retained  connexion  with 
the  other  Christian  com- 
munities in  Palestine,  and 
preached  the  Gospel  both 
there  and  in  the  lands  sit- 
uated farther  north.  When 
Philip  the  Deacon  had  won 
a  large  number  of  believers 
in  Samaria,  Peter  and  John 
were  deputed  to  proceed 
thither  from  Jerusalem  to  or- 
ganize the  community  and  to 
invoke  the  Holy  Ghost  to 
descend  upon  the  faithful. 
Peter  appears  a  second  time 
as  judge,  in  the  case  of  the 
magician  Simon,  who  had 
wished  to  purchase  from  the 
Apostles  the  power  that  he 
also  could  invoke  the  Holv 
Ghost  (ibid.,  viii,  14-2.5). 
On  their  way  back  to  Je- 
rusalem, the  two  Apostles 
preached  the  joyous  tidings 
of  the  Kingdom  of  God. 
Subsequently,  after  Paul's 
departure  from  Jerusalem 
and  conversion  before  Da- 
mascus, the  Christian  com- 
munities in  Palestine  were 
left  at  peace  by  the  Jewish  St.^tue  of 

council.  St.  Pete 

Peter  now  undertook  an  extensive  missionary  tour, 
which  brought  him  to  tlie  maritime  cities,  Lydda, 
Joppe,  and  Ca'sarea.  In  Lydda  he  cured  the  palsied 
Kneas;  in  Joppe  he  raised  Tabitha  (Dorcas)  from  the 
dead;  and  at  C^sarca,  instructed  by  a  vi.sion  which  he 
had  in  Joppe,  he  baptized  and  received  into  the 
Church  the  first  non-Jewish  Christians,  the  centurion 
Cornelius  and  his  kin.smen  (ibid.,  ix,  31-x,  48).  On 
Peter's  return  to  Jerusalem  a  little  later,  the  strict 
Jewish  Christians,  who  regarded  the  complete  observ- 
ance of  the  Jewish  law  as  binding  on  all,  asked  him 
wliy  he  had  entered  and  eaten  in  the  house  of  the 
iincircumcised.  Peter  tells  of  his  \-ision  and  defends 
his  action,  which  was  ratified  by  the  Apostles  and  the 
faithful  in  Jerusalem  (ibid.,  xi,  1-18). 

A  confirmation  of  the  position  accorded  to  Peter  by 
Luke,  in  the  Acts,  is  afforded  by  the  testimony  of  St. 
Paul  (Gal.,  i,  18-20).  After  his  conversion  and  three 
years'  residence  in  Arabia,  Paul  came  to  Jerusalem 
"to  see  Peter".  Here  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles 
clearly  designates  Peter  as  the  authorized  head  of  the 
Apostles  and  of  the  early  Christian  Church.  Peter's 
long  residence  in  Jerusalem  and  Palestine  soon  came 
to  an  end.    Herod  .\grippa  I  began  (a.  d.  42-44)  a  new 


persecution  of  the  Church  in  Jerusalem;  after  the 
execution  of  James,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  this  ruler  had 
Peter  cast  into  prison,  intending  to  have  him  also  ex- 
ecuted after  the  Jewish  Pasch  was  over.  Peter,  how- 
ever, was  freed  in  a  miraculous  manner,  and,  proceed- 
ing to  the  house  of  the  motluT  of  John  Mark,  where 
many  of  the  faithful  were  assenililed  for  prayer,  in- 
formed them  of  his  liberation  from  the  hands  of 
Herod,  commissioned  them  to  communicate  the  fact 
to  James  and  the  bretliren,  and  then  left  Jerusalem  to 
go  to  "another  place"  (Acts,  xii,  1-18).  Concerning 
St.  Peter's  subsequent  activity  we  receive  no  further 
connected  information  from  the  extant  sources,  al- 
though we  possess  short  notices  of  certain  individual 
episodes  of  his  later  life. 

HI.  Missionary  Journeys  in  the  East;  Council 
OP  THE  Apostles. — St.  Luke  does  not  tell  us  whither 
Peter  went  after  his  liberation  from  the  prison  in  Jeru- 
salem. From  incidental 
statements  we  know  that 
1m'  subsequently  made  ex- 
irii..iive  missionary  tours  in 
'III'  East,  although  we  are 
L;n-en  no  clue  to  the  ehronol- 
I'L'v  of  his  journeys.  It  is 
riTtain  that  he  remained 
fur  a  time  at  Antioch;  he 
may  even  have  returned 
thither  several  times.  The 
Christian  community  of  An- 
tioch was  founded  by 
Christianized  Jews  who  had 
been  driven  from  Jerusalem 
by  the  persecution  (ibid.,  xi, 
19  sqq.).  Peter's  residence 
:i  rnong  them  is  proved  by  the 
I'jiisode  concerning  the  ob- 
.-icrvance  of  the  Jewish  cere- 
monial law  even  by  Chris- 
tianized pagans,  related  by 
St.  Paul  (Gal.,  ii,  11-21). 
The  chief  Apostles  in  Jeru- 
salem— the  "pillars", Peter, 
James,  and  John — had  un- 
reservedly approved  St. 
Paul's  ApostoJate  to  the 
Gentiles,  while  they  them- 
selves intended  to  labour 
principally  among  the  Jews. 
While  Paul  was  dwelling  in 
Antioch  (the  date  cannot  be 
St.  Peter  accurately  determined),  St. 

's,  Rome  Peter    came     thither     and 

mingled  freely  with  the  non-Jewish  Christians  of  the 
community,  frequenting  their  houses  and  sharing 
their  meals.  But  when  the  Christianized  Jews  arrived 
in  Jerusalem,  Peter,  fearing  lest  these  rigid  observers 
of  the  Jewish  ceremonial  law  should  be  scandalized 
thereat,  and  his  influence  with  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians be  imperilled,  avoided  thenceforth  eating  with 
the  uncircumcised. 

His  conduct  made  a  great  impression  on  the  other 
Jewish  Christians  at  Antioch,  so  that  even  Barnabas, 
St.  Paul's  companion,  now  avoided  eating  with  the 
Christianized  pagans.  As  this  action  was  entirely  op- 
posed to  the  principles  and  practice  of  Paul,  and  might 
lead  to  confusion  among  the  converted  pagans,  this 
Apostle  addressed  a  public  reproach  to  St.  Peter,  be- 
cause his  conduct  seemed  to  indicate  a  wish  to  compel 
the  pagan  converts  to  become  Jews  and  accept  circum- 
cision and  the  Jewish  law.  The  whole  incident 
is  another  proof  of  the  authoritative  position  of  St. 
Peter  in  the  early  Church,  since  his  example  and  con- 
duct was  regarded  as  decisive.  But  Paid,  who  rightly 
saw  the  inconsisti'iir\-  in  tin-  romliirt  of  I'l'tc-r  and  the 
Jewish  Christians,  dul  mil  lirsilad-  In  .Irlmil  the  im- 
munity of  cunvntcil  jiagaiis   fnnii   the  Jeui.sli   Law. 


PETER 


748 


PETER 


Concerning  Peter's  subseqiionl  at t Kudo  on  this  ques- 
tion St.  Paul  gives  us  no  explicit  information.  But  it 
is  highly  lirohable  that  Peter  ratilicd  the  contention  of 
the  .Anosllcs  of  the  (ieutiles,  ami  thenceforth  con- 
(lucte<l  himself  towards  the  Christianized  pagans  as  at 
first.  As  the  princijjal  opponents  of  his  views  in  this 
connexion,  Paul  names  and  combats  in  all  his  writings 
only  the  extreme  .liuisji  Christians  coming  "from 
James"  (i.  e.,  from  Jerusalem).  While  the  date  of  this 
occurrence,  whether  before  or  after  the  Council 
of  the  Apostles,  cannot  be  determined,  it  probably 
took  place  after  the  council  (see  below).  The  later 
tradition,  which  existed  as  early  as  the  enil  of  the  sec- 
ond century  (Origen,  "Horn,  vi  in  Luiam";  Kusebius, 
"Hist.  Eccl.",  Ill,  xxxvi),  that  Peter  founded  the 
CluM'ch  of  Antioch,  indicates  the  fact  that  he  la- 
boured a  long  period  there,  and  also  perhaps  that  he 
dwelt  there  towards  the  end  of  his  life  and  then  ap- 
pointed Evodius,  the  first  of  the  line  of  Antiochian 
bi.'ihops,  head  of  the  community.  This  latter  view 
would  best  explain  the  tradition  referring  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Church  of  Antioch  to  St.  Peter. 

It  is  also  probable  that  Peter  pursued  his  Apostolic 
labours  in  various  districts  of  Asia  Minor,  for  it  can 
scarcely  be  supposed  that  the  entire  period  between  his 
liberation  from  prison  and  the  Coimcil  of  the  Apostles 
was  spent  uninterruptedly  in  one  city,whether  Antioch, 
Rome,  or  el^sewhere.  And,  since  he  subsequently  ad- 
dressed the  first  of  his  K))istles  to  the  faithful  in  the 
Provinces  of  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  and  Asia, 
one  may  reasonably  assume  that  he  had  laboured  per- 
sonally at  least  in  certain  cities  of  these  provinces, 
devoting  himself  chiefly  to  the  Diaspora.  The  Epistle, 
however,  is  of  a  general  character,  and  gives  little  indi- 
cation of  personal  relations  with  the  jiersons  to  whom 
it  is  addressed.  The  tradition  related  by  Bishop 
Dionysius  of  Corinth  (in  Eusebius,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  II, 
xxviii)  in  his  letter  to  the  Roman  Church  under  Pope 
Soter  (165-74),  that  Peter  had  (like  Paul)  dwelt  in 
Corinth  and  planted  the  Church  there,  cannot  be 
entirely  rejected.  Even  though  the  tradition  should 
receive  no  sujiport  from  the  existence  of  the  "party  of 
Cephas",  which  Paul  mentions  among  the  other  divi- 
sions of  the  Church  of  Corinth  (I  Cor.,  i,  12;  iii,  22), 
still  Peter's  sojourn  in  Corinth  (even  in  connexion  with 
the  planting  and  government  of  the  Church  by  Paul) 
is  not  impossible.  That  8t.  Peter  undertook  various 
Apostolic  journeys  (doubtless  about  this  time,  espe- 
cially when  he  was  no  longer  permanently  residing  in 
Jerusalem)  is  clearly  established  by  the  general  re- 
mark of  St.  Paul  in  I  Cor.,  ix,  5,  concerning  the  "rest 
of  the  apostles,  and  the  brethren  [cousins]  of  the  Lord, 
and  Cephas",  who  were  travelling  around  in  the  exer- 
cise of  their  Apostleship. 

Peter  returned  occasionally  to  the  original  Christian 
Church  of  Jerusalem,  the  guidance  of  which  was  en- 
trusted to  St.  James,  the  relative  of  Jesus,  after  the 
departure  of  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  (a.  d.  42—44). 
The  last  mention  of  St.  Peter  in  the  Acts  (xv,  1-29;  cf. 
Clal.,  ii,  1-Ui)  occurs  in  the  report  of  the  Council  of  the 
Apostles  on  the  occasion  of  such  a  passing  visit.  In 
consequence  of  the  trouble  caused  by  extreme  Jewish 
Christians  to  Paul  and  Barnabas  at  Antioch,  the 
('hurch  of  this  city  sent  these  two  Apostles  with  other 
envoys  to  Jerusalem  to  secure  a  definitive  decision  con- 
•■erning  the  obligations  of  the  converted  pagans  (see 
JuDAiZERs).  In  addition  to  James,  Peter  and  John 
were  then  (about  a.  d.  .50-51)  in  Jerusalem.  In  the 
discussion  and  decision  of  this  important  question, 
Peter  naturally  exercised  a  decisive  influence.  When 
a  great  divergence  of  views  had  manifested  itself  in  the 
assembly,  Peter  spoke  the  deciding  word.  Long  be- 
fore, in  accordance  with  (iod's  testimony,  he  had 
announced  the  Gospels  to  the  heathen  (conversion  of 
Cornelius  and  his  household) ;  why,  therefore,  attempt 
to  place  the  Jewish  yoke  on  the  necks  of  converted 
pagans?    After  Paul  and  Barnabas  had  related  how 


C.od  had  wrought  among  the  Gentiles  by  them,  James, 
the  chief  representative  of  the  Jewish  Christians, 
adopted  Peter's  view  and  in  agreement  therewith 
made  jjroposals  which  were  expressed  in  an  encyclical 
to  the  converted  pagans. 

The  occiuTcnces  in  Cirsarea  and  Antioch  and  the 
debate  at  thcCoimi'ilof  Jcru.salem  show  clearly  Peter's 
attitude  towards  tlie  converts  from  ])aganism.  Like 
the  other  eleven  original  Apostles,  he  regarded  himself 
as  called  to  preach  the  Faith  in  Jesvis  lirst  among  the 
Jews  (Acts,  x,  42),  so  that  the  chosen  people  of  God 
might  share  in  the  salvation  in  Christ,  promised  to 
them  primarily  and  issuing  from  their  midst.  The 
vision  at  Joppe  and  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
over  the  converted  pagan  Cornelius  and  his  kinsmen 
determined  Peter  to  a<lmit  these  forthwith  into  the 
community  of  the  faithful,  without  imjKising  on  them 
the  Jewish  Law.  Dining  his  Apostolic  journeys  out- 
side Palestine,  he  recognized  in  practice  the  equality 
of  Gentile  and  Jewish  converts,  as  his  original  conduct 
at  Antioch  proves.  His  aloofness  from  the  Gentile 
converts,  out  of  consideration  for  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians from  Jerusalem,  was  by  no  means  an  official 
recognition  of  the  views  of  the  extreme  Judaizers,  who 
were  so  oiiposed  to  St.  Paul.  This  is  established  clearly 
and  incont  est  ably  by  his  attitude  at  the  Council  of 
Jerusalem.  Between  Peter  and  Paul  there  was  no 
dogmatii-  ilitTcrcnce  in  their  conception  of  salvation 
for  Jewish  and  (ientile  Christians.  The  recognition  of 
Paul  as  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles  (Gal.,  ii,  1-9)  was 
entirely  sincere,  and  excludes  all  question  of  a  funda- 
mental divergence  of  views.  St.  Peter  and  the  other 
Apostles  recognized  the  converts  from  paganism  as 
Clu'istian  brothers  on  an  equal  footing;  Jewish  and 
(ientile  Christians  formed  a  single  Kingdom  of  Christ. 
If  therefore  Peter  devoted  the  preiionderating  portion 
of  his  Apostolic  activity  to  the  Jews,  this  arose  chiefly 
from  practical  considerations,  and  from  tlic  position  of 
Israel  as  the  Chosen  People.  Baur's  hypothesis  of 
opposing  currents  of  "Petrinism"  and  "Paulinism" 
in  the  early  Church  is  absolutely  untenable,  and  is  to- 
day entirely  rejected  by  Protestants. 

iV.  Activity  and  De,\th  in  Rome;  Burial  Place. 
— It  is  an  indisputably  established  historical  fact  that 
St.  Peter  laboured  in  Rome  during  the  last  portion  of 
his  life,  and  there  ended  his  earthly  course  by  martjT- 
dom.  As  to  the  duration  of  his  Apostolic  activity  in 
the  Roman  capital,  the  continuity  or  otherwise  of  his 
residence  there,  the  details  and  success  of  his  labours, 
and  the  chronology  of  his  arrival  and  death,  all  these 
questions  are  uncertain,  and  can  be  solved  only  on 
hypotheses  more  or  less  well-founded.  The  essential 
fact  is  that  Peter  died  at  Rome:  this  constitutes  the 
historical  foundation  of  the  claim  of  the  Bishops  of 
Rome  to  the  Apostolic  Primacy  of  Peter. 

St.  Peter's  residence  and  death  in  Rome  are  estab- 
lished beyond  contention  as  historical  facts  by  a  series 
of  distinct  testimonies  extending  from  the  end  of  the 
first  to  the  en<l  of  the  second  centuries,  and  issuing 
from  several  lands.  That  the  manner,  and  therefore 
the  place  of  his  death,  must  have  been  known  in  widely 
extended  Christian  circles  at  the  end  of  the  first  cen- 
tury is  clear  from  the  remark  introduced  into  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John  concerning  Christ's  proiihecy  that 
Peter  was  bound  to  Him  and  would  be  led  whither  he 
would  not:  "And  this  he  said,  signifying  by  what 
death  he  should  glorify  God"  (John,  xxi,  18-19,  see 
above).  Such  a  remark  presupposes  in  the  readers  of 
the  Fourth  Gospel  a  knowledge  of  the  death  of  Peter. 
St.  Peter's  F'irst  Epistle  was  written  almost  undoubt- 
edly from  Rome,  since  the  salutation  at  the  end  reads: 
"The  church  that  is  in  Babylon,  elected  together  with 
you,  saluteth  you:  and  so  doth  my  son  Mark"  (v,  13). 
Babylon  must  here  be  identified  with  the  Roman  capi- 
tal; since  Babylon  on  the  Euphrates,  which  lay  in 
ruins,  or  New  Babylon  (Seleucia)  on  the  Tigris,  or  the 
Egyptian  Babylon  near  Memphis,  or  Jerusalem  can- 


PETER 


749 


PETER 


not  be  meant,  the  reference  must  be  to  Rome,  the  only 
city  wliich  is  called  Babylon  elsewhere  in  ancient 
Christian  literature  (Apoc,  xvii,  5;  xviii,  10;  "Ora- 
cula  Sibyl.",  V,  verses  143  and  159,  ed.  Geffcken, 
Leipzig,  1902,  HI). 

From  Bishop  Papias  of  Hierapolis  and  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  who  both  appeal  to  the  testimony  of  the 
old  presbyters  (i.  e.,  the  disciples  of  the  Apostles),  we 
learn  that  Mark  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Rome  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  Roman  Christians,  who  desired  a  written 
memorial  of  the  doctrine  preached  to  them  by  St. 
Peter  and  his  disciples  (Eusebius,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  II, 
xv;  III,  xl;  VI,  xiv);  this  is  confirmed  by  Irenoeus 
(Adv.  hoer..  Ill,  i).  In  connexion  with  this  informa- 
tion concerning  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark,  Eusebius, 
relying  perhaps  on  an  earlier  source,  saj-s  that  Peter 
described  Rome  figuratively  as  Babylon  in  his  First 


that  the  two  Apostles  laboured  personally  in  Rome, 
and  with  Apostolic  authority  preached  the  Gospel 
there.  Bishop  Dionysius  of  Corinth,  in  his  letter  to 
the  Roman  Church  in  the  time  of  Pope  Soter  (165-74), 
says:  "You  have  therefore  by  your  urgent  exhorta- 
tion bound  close  together  the  sowing  of  Peter  and 
Paul  at  Rome  and  Corinth.  For  both  planted  the 
seed  of  the  Gospel  also  in  Corinth,  and  together  in- 
structed us,  just  as  they  likewise  taught  in  the  same 
place  in  Italy  and  at  the  same  time  suffered  martyr- 
dom" (In  Eusebius,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  II,  x.xviii).  Ire- 
naeus  of  Lyons,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor  and  a  disciple 
of  Poly  carp  of  Smyrna  (a  disciple  of  St.  John),  passed 
a  considerable  time  in  Rome  shortly  after  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  and  then  proceeded  to  Lyons, 
where  he  became  bishop  in  177;  he  described  the 
Roman  Church  as  the  most  prominent  and  chief  pre- 


Epistle.  Another  testimony  concerning  the  martyr- 
dom of  Peter  and  Paul  is  supplied  by  Clement  of  Rome 
in  his  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (written  about  a.  d. 
95-97), wherein  he  says  (v):  "Through  zeal  and  cun- 
ning the  greatest  and  most  righteous  supports  [of  the 
Church]  have  suffered  persecution  and  been  warred  to 
death.  Let  us  place  before  our  eyes  the  gootl  Apos- 
tles— St.  Peter,  who  in  consequence  of  unjust  zeal, 
suffered  not  one  or  two,  but  numerous  miseries,  and, 
having  thus  given  testimony  (fiapTvpricxas),  has  en- 
tered the  merited  place  of  glory".  He  then  mentions 
Paul  and  a  number  of  elect,  who  were  assembled  with 
the  others  and  suffered  martyrdom  "among  us"  {if 
V/Mv,  i.  e.,  among  the  Romans,  the  meaning  that  the 
expression  also  bears  in  chap.  Iv).  He  is  speaking  un- 
doubtedly, as  the  whole  passage  proves,  of  the  Nero- 
nian  persecution,  and  thus  refers  the  martyrdom  of 
Peter  and  Paul  to  that  epoch. 

In  his  letter  written  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century  (before  117),  while  being  brought  to  Rome 
for  piartyrdom,  the  venerable  Bishop  Ignatius  of 
Antioch  endeavours  by  every  means  to  restrain  the 
Roman  Christians  from  stri\-ing  for  his  pardon,  re- 
marking: "I  issue  you  no  commands,  like  Peter  and 
Paul;  they  were  Apostles,  while  I  am  but  a  captive" 
(Ad.  Rom.,  iv).    The  meaning  of  this  remark  must  be 


server  of  Apostolic  tradition,  as  "the  greatest  and 
most  ancient  church,  known  by  all,  founded  and  or- 
ganized at  Rome  by  the  two  most  glorious  Apostles, 
Peter  and  Paul"  (Adv.  hfer..  Ill,  iii;  cf.  Ill,  i).  He 
thus  makes  use  of  the  universally  known  and  recog- 
nized fact  of  the  Apostohc  activity  of  Peter  and  Paul 
in  Rome,  to  find  therein  a  proof  from  tradition  against 
the  heretics. 

In  his  " Hypotyposes"  (Eusebius,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  IV, 
xiv),  Clement  of  Alexandria,  teacher  in  the  catechet- 
ical school  of  that  city  from  about  190,  says  on  the 
strength  of  the  tnulilioii  of  tlic  jircsbyters:  "After 
Peter  had  announced  thi'  WOnl  of  (!cm1  in  Rome  and 
preached  the  Gospel  in  the  si)irit  <jf  ( lod,  the  multitude 
of  hearers  requested  Mark,  who  had  long  accompanied 
Peter  on  all  his  journeys,  to  write  down  what  the 
Apostles  had  preached  to  them"  (see  above).  Like 
Irenaeus,  TertuUian  appeals,  in  his  writings  against 
heretics,  to  the  proof  afforded  by  the  Apostolic  labours 
of  Peter  and  Paul  in  Rome  of  the  truth  of  ecclesiastical 
tradition.  In  "De  Pra>scriptione",  xx,xv,  he  says:  "If 
thou  art  near  Italy,  thou  hast  Rome  where  authority 
is  ever  within  reach.  How  fortunate  is  this  Church 
for  which  the  ."Vpostles  have  poured  out  their  whole 
teaching  with  their  blood,  where  Peter  has  emulated 
the  Passion  of  the  Lord,  wiero  Paul  was  crowned  with 


PETER 


750 


PETER 


thedoathof  John" (sci7.  (lie  Baptist).  In  "Scorpiaee", 
XV,  ho  also  speaks  of  I'llcr's  (■rucifixion.  "The  bud- 
ding faith  Noro  first  iiiadc  Ijloody  in  Rome.  There 
Pctor  was  girded  by  aiiciiher,  since  he  was  bound  to 
the  cross".  As  an  ilhistralioii  tliat  it  was  immaterial 
with  what  water  baptism  is  administered,  he  states 
in  his  book  ("On  Baptism",  ch.  v)  that  there  is  "no 
difference  between  that  with  which  John  baptized  in 
the  Jordan  and  that  with  which  Peter  baptized  in  the 
Tiber";  and  against  Marcion  he  appeals  to  the  testi- 
mony of  the  Roman  Christians,  "to  whom  Peter  and 
Paul  have  bequeathed  the  Gospel  sealed  with  their 
blood"  (Adv.  Marc.,  IV,  v). 

The  Roman,  Caius,  who  lived  in  Rome,  in  the  time 
of  Pope  Zephyrinus  (198-217),  wrote  in  his  "Dialogue 
with  Proclus"  (in  Eusebius,  "Hist.Eccl.",  II,  xxviii), 
directed  again.st  the  Montanists:  "But  I  can  show 
the  trnijhies  of  the  Apostles.  If  you  care  to  go  to  the 
Vatican  or  to  the  road  to  Ostia,  thou  shalt  find  the 
trophies  of  those  who  have  founded  this  Church". 
By  the  trophies  {rpi-n-aia)  Eusebius  understands  the 
graves  of  the  Apostles,  but  his  view  is  opposed  by 
modern  investigators,  who  believe  that  the  place  of 
execution  is  meant.  For  our  purpose  it  is  immaterial 
which  opinion  is  correct,  as  the  testimony  retains  its 
full  value  in  either  case.  At  any  rate  the  place  of 
execution  and  burial  of  both  were  close  together;  St. 
Peter,  who  was  executed  on  the  Vatican,  received  also 
his  burial  there.  Eusebius  also  refers  to  "the  inscrip- 
tion of  the  names  of  Peter  and  Paul,  which  have  been 
preserved  to  the  present  day  on  the  burial-places 
there"  (i.  e.  at  Rome).  There  thus  existed  in  Rome 
an  ancient  epigraphic  memorial  commemorating  the 
death  of  the  Apostles.  The  obscure  notice  in  the 
Muratorian  Fragment  ("Lucas  optime  theofile  con- 
prindit  quia  sub  prtesentia  eius  singula  gerebantur 
sicuti  et  semote  passionem  petri  evidenter  declarat", 
ed.  Preuschen,  Tubingen,  1910,  p.  29)  also  presupposes 
an  ancient  definite  tradition  concerning  Peter's  death 
in  Rome.  The  apocryphal  Acts  of  St.  Peter  and  the 
Actsof  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  likewise  belong  to  the  series 
of  testimonies  of  the  death  of  the  two  Apostles  in 
Rome  (Lipsius,  "Acta  Apostolorum  apocrypha",  I, 
Leipzig,  1891,  pp.  1  sqq.,  78  sqq.,  118  sqq.,  cf.  Idem, 
"Die  apokryphen  Apostelgeschichten  und  Apostelle- 
genden",  II,  i,  Brunswick,  1887,  pp.  84  sqq.). 

In  opposition  to  this  distinct  and  unanimous  testi- 
mony of  early  Christendom,  some  few  Protestant  his- 
torians have  attempted  in  recent  times  to  set  aside  the 
residence  and  death  of  Peter  at  Rome  as  legendary. 
These  attempts  have  resulted  in  complete  failure.  It 
was  asserted  that  the  tradition  concerning  Peter's 
residence  in  Rome  first  originated  in  Ebionite  circles, 
and  formed  part  of  the  Legend  of  Simon  the  Magician, 
in  which  Paul  is  opposed  by  Peter  as  a  false  Apostle 
under  Simon;  just  as  this  fight  was  transplanted  to 
Rome,  so  also  sprang  up  at  an  early  date  the  legend 
of  Peter's  activity  in  that  capital  (thus  in  Baur, 
"Paulus",  2nd  ed.,  245  sqq.,  followed  by  Hase  and 
especially  Lipsius,  "  Die  quellen  der  romischen  Petrus- 
sage",  Kiel,  1872).  But  this  hypothesis  is  proved 
fundamentally  untenable  by  the  whole  character  and 
purely  local  importance  of  Ebionitism,  and  is  directly 
refuted  by  the  above  genuine  and  entirely  independent 
testimonies,  which  are  at  least  as  ancient.  It  has 
moreover  been  now  entirely  abandoned  by  serious 
Protestant  historians  (cf.,  e.  g.,  Hamack's  remarks  in 
"Gcsch.  der  altchristl.  Literatur",  II,  i,  244,  n.  2). 
A  more  recent  attempt  was  made  by  Erbes  (Zeitschr. 
fiir  Kirchengesch.,  1901,  pp.  1  sqq.,  161  sqq.)  to 
demonstrate  t  hat  St.  Peter  was  martyred  at  Jerusalem. 
He  appeals  to  the  apocryphal  Acts  of  St.  Peter,  in 
which  two  Romans,  Albinus  and  Agrippa,  are  men- 
tioned as  persecutors  of  the  Apostles.  These  he  iden- 
tifies with  the  Albinus,  Procurator  of  Judaa,  and  suc- 
cessor of  Festus,  and  Agrippa  II,  Prince  of  Galilee, 
and  thence  concludes  that  Peter  was  condemned  to 


di'ath  and  sacrificed  by  tliis  procurator  at  Jerusalem. 
Tlic  uiili-iiahjcncss  of  this  hypothesis  be('oines  im- 
mi'diali'ly  ajjparciit  from  the  mere  fact  tliat  our  earli- 
est definite  testimony  concerning  Peter's  death  in 
Rome  far  antedates  the  apocryphal  Acts;  besides, 
never  throughout  the  whole  range  of  Christian  anti- 
quity has  any  city  other  than  Home  been  designated 
the  place  of  martyrdom  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul. 

Although  tlie  fact  of  St.  Pdcr's  activity  and  death 
in  Rome  is  so  clearly  established,  we  possess  no  i)recise 
information  regarding  the  details  of  his  Roman  so- 
journ. The  narratives  contained  in  the  apocryphal 
literature  of  the  second  century  concerning  the  sup- 
posed strife  between  Peter  and  Simon  Magus  belong 
to  the  domain  of  legend.  From  the  already  mentioned 
statements  regarding  the  origin  of  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Mark,  we  may  conclude  that  Peter  laboured  for  a  long 
period  in  Rome.  This  conclusion  is  confirmed  by  the 
unanimous  voice  of  tradition  which,  as  early  as  the 
second  half  of  the  second  century,  designates  the 
Prince  of  the  Apostles  the  founder  of  the  Roman 
Church.  It  is  widely  held  that  Peter  paid  a  first  visit 
to  Rome  after  he  had  been  miraculously  liberated 
from  the  prison  in  Jerusalem;  that,  by  "another 
place",  Luke  meant  Rome,  but  omitted  the  name  for 
special  reasons.  It  is  not  impossible  that  Peter  made 
a  missionary  journey  to  Rome  about  this  time  (after 
42  A.  D.),  but  such  a  journey  cannot  be  established 
with  certainty.  At  any  rate,  we  cannot  appeal  in 
support  of  this  theory  to  the  chronological  notices  in 
Eusebius  and  Jerome,  since,  although  these  notices 
extend  back  to  the  chronicles  of  the  third  century, 
they  are  not  old  traditions,  but  the  result  of  calcula- 
tions on  the  basis  of  episcopal  lists.  Into  the  Roman 
list  of  bishops  dating  from  the  second  century,  there 
was  introduced  in  the  third  century  (as  we  learn  from 
Eusebius  and  the  "Chronograph  of  354")  the  notice 
of  a  twenty-five  years'  pontificate  for  St.  Peter,  but 
we  are  unable  to  trace  its  origin.  This  entry  conse- 
quently affords  no  groimd  for  the  hypothesis  of  a  first 
visit  by  St.  Peter  to  Rome  after  his  liberation  from 
prison  (about  42).  We  can  therefore  admit  only  the 
possibility  of  such  an  early  visit  to  the  capital. 

The  task  of  determining  the  year  of  St.  Peter's 
death  is  attended  with  similar  difficulties.  In  the 
fourth  century,  and  even  in  the  chronicles  of  the  third, 
we  find  two  different  entries.  In  the  "Chronicle"  of 
Eusebius  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  year  of  Nero  is 
given  as  that  of  the  death  of  Peter  and  Paul  (67-68); 
this  date,  accepted  by  Jerome,  is  that  generally  held. 
The  year  67  is  also  supported  by  the  statement,  also 
accepted  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  that  Peter  came 
to  Rome  under  the  Emperor  Claudius  (according  to 
Jerome,  in  42),  and  by  the  above-mentioned  tradition 
of  the  twenty-five  years'  episcopate  of  Peter  (cf. 
Bartohni,  "Sopra  I'anno  67  se  fosse  quello  del  martirio 
dei  gloriosi  Apo.stoli ",  Rome,  1868) .  A  difTerent  state- 
ment is  furnished  by  the  "Chronograph  of  354"  (ed. 
Duchesne,  "Liber  Pontificalis",  I,  1  sqq.).  This 
refers  St.  Peter's  arrival  in  Rome  to  the  year  30,  and 
his  death  and  that  of  St.  Paul  to  55. 

Duchesne  has  shown  that  the  dates  in  the  "Chrono- 
graph" were  inserted  in  a  list  of  the  popes  which  con- 
tains only  their  names  and  the  duration  of  their 
pontificates,  and  then,  on  the  chronological  supposition 
that  the  year  of  Christ's  death  was  29,  the  year  30 
was  inserted  as  the  beginning  of  Peter's  pontificate, 
and  his  death  referred  to  55,  on  the  basis  of  the 
twenty-five  years'  pontificate  (op.  cit.,  introd.,  vi 
sqq.).  This  date  has  however  been  recently  defended 
by  Kellner  ("Jesus  von  Nazareth  u.  seine  Apostel  im 
Rahmen  der  Zeitgeschichte",  Ratisbon,  1908;  'ITra- 
dition  geschichtl.  Bearbeitung  u.  Legende  in  der 
Chronologic  des  apostol.  Zeitalters",  Bonn,  1909). 
Other  historians  have  accepted  the  year  65  (e.  g., 
Bianchini,  in  his  edition  of  the  "Liber  Pontificalis" 
in  P.  L.,  CXXVII,  435  sqq.)  or  66  (e.  g.  Foggini, 


ST.  PETER 

BIBERA    (SPAGNOLETTO),  THE    PRADO,    MADRID 


PETER 


751 


PETER 


"De  romani  b.  Petri  itinere  et  episcopatu",  Florence, 
17H;  also  Tillcmont).  Harnack  endeavoured  to 
est  ablish  the  year  64  (i.  e.  thebeginning  of  the  Neronian 
persecution)  as  that  of  Peter's  death  ("Gesch.  der 
altchristl.  Lit.  bis  Eusebius",  pt.  II,  "Die  Chro- 
nologie",  I,  240  sqq.).  This  date,  which  had  been 
ilioady  supported  by  Cave,  du  Pin,  and  Wieseler, 
h:is  been  accepted  by  Duchesne  (Hist,  ancienne  de 
ITslise,  I,  64).  Erbes  refers  St.  Peter's  death  to  22 
IVh.,  63,  St.  Paul's  to  64  ("Texte  u.  Untersuch- 
unsen",  new  series,  IV,  i,  Leipzig,  1900,  "Die  Tode- 
.•;|  :iRe  der  Apostel  Petrus  u.  Paulus  u.  ihre  rom.  Denk- 
iiialer").  The  date  of  Peter's  death  is  thus  not  yet 
decided;  the  period  between  July,  64  (outbreak  of 
the  Neronian  persecution),  and  the  beginning  of  68 
(<m  9  July  Nero  fled  from  Rome  and  committed  sui- 
cide)  must  be  left  open  for  the  date  of  his  death.  The 
(Imv  of  his  martyrdom  is  also  unknown;  29  June,  the 
aerepted  day  of  his  feast  since  the  fourth  century, 
cannot  be  proved  to  be  the  day  of  his  death  (see 

l.el.)w). 

Concerning  the  manner  of  Peter's  death,  we  possess 
a  tradition — attested  to  by  Tertullian  at  the  end  of 
the  second  century  (see  above)  and  by  Origen  (in 
laisebius,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  II,  i) — that  he  suffered  eruci- 
fixiiin.  Origen  says:  "Peter  was  crucified  at  Rome 
Willi  his  head  downwards,  as  he  himself  had  desired 
t  o  suffer  " .  As  the  place  of  execution  may  be  accepted 
with  great  probability  the  Neronian  Gardens  on  the 
\atican,  since  there,  according  to  Tacitus,  were 
enacted  in  general  the  gruesome  scenes  of  the  Nero- 
lu.m  persecution;  and  in  this  district,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Via  Cornelia  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Vatican 
Hills,  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  found  his  burial- 
place.  Of  this  grave  (since  the  word  rphnaiov  was,  as 
already  remarked,  riglitly  understood  of  the  tomb) 
Caius  already  speaks  in  the  t  hird  century.  For  a  time 
t  he  remains  of  Peter  lay  with  those  of  Paul  in  a  vault 
on  the  Appian  Way,  at  the  place  ad  Calacumbns, 
where  the  Church  of  St.  Sebastian  (which  on  its  erec- 
tion in  the  fourth  century  was  dedicated  to  the  two 
Apostles)  now  stands.  The  remains  had  probably 
lieen  brought  thither  at  the  beginning  of  the  Valerian 
]ieisecution  in  258,  to  protect  them  from  the  threat- 
ened desecration  when  the  Christian  burial-places 
\\,TC  confiscated.  They  were  later  restored  to  their 
former  resting-place,  and  Constantine  the  Great  had 
a  magnificent  basilica  erected  over  the  grave  of  St. 
Peter  at  the  foot  of  the  Vatican  Hill.  This  ba.silioa 
was  replaced  by  the  present  St.  Peter's  in  the  six- 
( eenth  century.  The  vault  with  the  altar  built  above 
It  ironfessio)  has  been  since  the  fourth  century  the 
tiiost  highly  venerated  martyr's  shrine  in  the  West. 
In  the  substructure  of  the  altar,  over  the  vault  which 
contained  the  sarcophagus  with  the  remains  of  St. 
I'eter,  a  cavity  was  made.  This  was  closed  by  a  small 
door  in  front  of  the  altar.  By  opening  this  door  the 
ptiKrim  could  enjoy  the  great  privilege  of  kneeling 
dnectlyover  the  sarcophagus  of  the  Apostle.  Keys 
of  this  door  were  given  as  precious  souvenirs  (cf. 
<iregory  of  Tours,  "De  gloria  martyrum",  I,  xxviii). 
The  memory  of  St.  Peter  is  also  closely  associated 
with  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Priscilla  on  the  Via  Sa-laria. 
According  to  a  tradition,  current  in  later  Christian 
antiquity,  St.  Peter  here  instructed  the  faithful  and 
alrainistered  baptism.  This  tradition  seems  to  have 
been  based  on  still  earlier  monumental  testimonies. 
The  catacomb  is  situated  under  the  garden  of  a  villa 
of  the  ancient  Christian  and  senatorial  family,  the 
Acilii  Glabriones,  and  its  foundation  extends  back  to 
I  he  end  of  the  first  century;  and  since  Acilius  Glabrio 
!i|.  v.),  consul  in  91,  was  condemned  to  death  under 
I  )omitian  as  a  Christian,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the 
Christian  faith  of  the  family  extended  back  to  Apos- 
tolic times,  and  that  the  Prince  of  the  Apostles  had 
1m 'en  given  hospitable  reception  in  their  house  during 
lus  residence  at  Rome.    The  relations  between  Peter 


and  Pudens,  whose  house  stood  on  the  site  of  the 
present  titular  church  of  Pudens  (now  Santa  Puden- 
tiana)  seem  to  rest  rather  on  a  legend. 

Concerning  the  Epistles  of  St.  Peter,  see  Peter, 
Epistles  of  Saint;  concerning  the  various  apocrypha 
bearing  the  name  of  Peter,  especially  the  Apocalypse 
and  the  Gospel  of  St.  Peter,  see  Apocrypha.  The 
apocryphal  sermon  of  Peter  {K-ripvytia),  dating  from 
the  second  half  of  the  second  century,  was  probably  a 
collection  of  supposed  sermons  by  the  Apostle;  sev- 
eral fragments  are  preserved  by  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria (cf.  Dobschijtz,  "Das  Kerygma  Petri  kritisch 
untersucht"  in  "Texte  u.  Untersuchungen",  XI,  i, 
Leipzig,  1893). 

V.  Feasts  op  St.  Peter. — ^As  early  as  the  fourth 
century  a  feast  was  celebrated  in  memory  of  Sts.  Peter 
and  Paul  on  the  same  day,  although  the  day  was  not 
the  same  in  the  East  as  in  Rome.  The  Syrian  Martyr- 
ology  of  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  which  is  an 
excerpt  from  a  Greek  catalogue  of  saints  from  Asia 
Minor,  gives  the  following  feasts  in  connexion  with 
Christmas  (25  Dec):  26  Dec,  St.  Stephen;  27  Dec, 
Sts.  James  and  John;  28  Dec,  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul. 
In  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa's  panegyric  on  St.  Basil  we 
are  also  informed  that  these  feasts  of  the  Apostles 
and  St.  Stephen  follow  immediately  after  Christmas. 
The  Armenians  celebrated  the  feast  also  on  27  Dec; 
the  Nestorians  on  the  second  Friday  after  the  Epiph- 
any. It  is  evident  that  28  (27)  Dec.  was  (like  26  Dec. 
for  St.  Stephen)  arbitrarily  selected,  no  tradition 
concerning  the  date  of  the  saints'  death  being  forth- 
coming. The  cnief  feast  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  was 
kept  in  Rome  on  29  June  as  early  as  the  third  or 
fourth  century.  The  list  of  feasts  of  the  martyrs  in 
the  Chronograph  of  Philocalus  appends  this  notice 
to  the  date:  "III.  Kal.  Jul.  Petri  in  Catacumbas  et 
Pauli  Ostiense  Tusco  et  Basso  Coss."  (=the  year 
258).  The  "Martyrologium  Hieronyminanum"  has, 
in  the  Berne  MS.,  the  following  notice  for  29  June: 
"Romae  via  Aurelia  natale  sanctorum  Apostolorum 
Petri  et  Pauli,  Petri  in  Vaticano,  Pauli  in  via  Ostiensi, 
utrumque  in  catacumbas,  passi  sub  Nerone,  Basso  et 
Tusco  consulibus"  (ed.  de  Rossi— Duchesne,  84). 

The  date  258  in  the  notices  shows  that  from  this 
year  the  memory  of  the  two  Apostles  was  celebrated 
on  29  June  in  the  Via  Appia  ad  Catacumbas^  (near 
San  Sebastiano  fuori  le  mura),  because  on  this  date 
the  remains  of  the  Apostles  were  translated  thither 
(see  above).  Later,  perhaps  on  the  building  of  the 
church  over  the  graves  on  the  Vatican  and  in  the  Via 
Ostiensis,  the  remains  were  restored  to  their  former 
resting-place:  Peter's  to  the  Vatican  Basilica  and 
Paul's  to  the  church  on  the  Via  Ostiensis.  In  the 
place  Ad  Catacumbas  a  church  was  also  built  as  early 
as  the  fourth  century  in  honour  of  the  two  Apostles. 
From  258  their  principal  feast  was  kept  on  29  June, 
on  which  date  solemn  Divine  Service  was  held  in  the 
above-mentioned  three  churches  from  ancient  times 
(Duchesne,  "Origines  du  culte  chretien",  5th  ed., 
Paris,  1909,  271  sqq.,  283  sqq.;  Urbain,  "Ein  Martyr- 
ologium der  christl.  Gemeinde  zu  Rom  an  Anfang 
des  5.  Jahrh.",  Leipzig,  1901,  169  sqq.;  Kellner, 
"Heortologie",  3rd  ed.,  Freiburg,  1911,210  sqq.). 
Legend  sought  to  explain  the  temporary  occupation 
by  the  Apostles  of  the  grave  Ad  Catacumbas  by  sup- 
posing that,  shortly  after  their  death,  the  Oriental 
Christians  wished  to  steal  their  bodies  and  bring 
them  to  the  East.  This  whole  story  is  evidently  a 
product  of  popular  legend.  (Concerning  the  Feast  of 
the  Chair  of  Peter,  see  Chair  of  Peter.) 

A  third  Roman  feast  of  the  Apostles  takes  place  on 
I  August:  the  feast  of  St.  Peter's  Chains.  This  feast 
was  originally  1he  dedication  feast  of  the  church  of 
the  Apostle,  erected  on  the  Esquiline  Hill  in  the  fourth 
century.  A  titular  priest  of  the  church,  Philippus, 
was  papal  legate  at  the  Council  of  Kphesus  in  431. 
The  church  was  rebuilt  by  Sixtus  III  (432-40)  at  the 


PETER 


752 


PETER 


expense  of  the  Byzantine  imperial  family.  Either 
the  solemn  eonseoration  took  place  on  1  AuRust,  or 
this  was  the  clay  of  iledication  of  the  earlier  church. 
Perhaps  this  day  was  sclccled  to  replace  the  heathen 
festivities  which  took  place  on  1  August.  In  this 
church,  which  is  still  staudin;!;  (S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli), 
were  prohalily  prc-^erved  from  the  fourth  century  St. 
Peters  chains,  which  were  greatly  venerated,  small 
fihngs  from  the  chains  being  regarded  as  precious 
relies.  The  church  tlius  early  received  the  name 
in  Vinruli.t,  and  the  feast  of  1  August  became  the 
the  feast  of  St.  Peter's  Chains  (Duchesne,  op.  cit.,  286 
sqq.;  Kellner,  loc.  cit.,  216  sqq.).  The  memory  of 
both  Peter  and  Paul  was  later  associated  also  with 
two  places  of  ancient  Rome:  the  Via  Sacra,  outside 
the  Forum,  where  the  magician  Simon  was  said  to 
have  been  hurled  down  at  tlie  prayer  of  Peter,  and  the 
prison  TuUianum,  or  Career  Mamerlinus,  where  the 
Apostles  were  supposed  to  have  been  kept  until  their 
execution.  At  both  these  places,  also,  shrines  of  the 
Apostles  were  erected,  and  that  of  the  Mamertine 
Prison  still  remains  in  almost  its  original  form  from 
the  early  Roman  time.  These  local  commemorations 
of  the  Apostles  are  based  on  legends,  and  no  special 
celebrations  are  held  in  the  two  churches.  It  is,  how- 
ever, not  impossible  that  Peter  and  Paul  were  actually 
confined  in  the  chief  prison  in  Rome  at  the  fort  of  the 
Capitol,  of  which  the  present  Career  Mamertinus  is  a 
remnant. 

VI.  Representations  op  St.  Peter. — The  oldest 
extant  is  the  bronze  medallion  with  the  heads  of  the 
Apostles;  this  dates  from  the  end  of  the  second  or  the 
beginning  of  the  third  century,  and  is  preserved  in  the 
Christian  M  useum  of  the  Vatican  Library.  Peter  has  a 
strong,  roundish  head,  prominent  jaw-bones,  a  receding 
forehead,  thick,  curly  hair  and  beard.  (See  illustr.'i- 
tion  in  C.\t.\coiibs.)  The  features  are  so  individual 
that  it  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  portrait.  This  type  is 
also  found  in  two  representations  of  St.  Peter  in  a  cham- 
ber of  the  Catacomb  of  Peter  and  Marcellinus,  dating 
from  the  second  half  of  the  third  century  (Wilpert, 
"Die  Malerein  der  Katakomben  Rom",  plates  94  and 
96).  In  the  paintings  of  the  catacombs  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul  frequently  appear  as  interceders  and  advocates 
for  the  dead  in  the  representations  of  the  Last  Judg- 
ment (Wilpert,  390  sqq.),  and  as  introducing  an 
Orante  (a  praying  figure  representing  the  dead)  into 
Paradise. 

In  the  numerous  representations  of  Christ  in  the 
midst  of  His  Apostles,  which  occur  in  the  paintings 
of  the  catacombs  and  carved  on  sarcophagi,  Peter  and 
Paul  always  occupy  the  places  of  honour  on  the  right 
and  left  of  the  Saviour.  In  the  mosaics  of  the  Roman 
basilicas,  dating  from  the  fourth  to  the  nmth  cen- 
turies, Christ  appears  as  the  central  figure,  with  Sts. 
Peter  and  Paul  on  His  right  and  left,  and  besides 
these  the  saints  especially  venerated  in  the  particular 
church.  On  sarcophagi  and  other  memorials  appear 
scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  Peter:  his  walking  on  Lake 
Genesareth,  when  Christ  summoned  him  from  the 
boat;  the  prophecy  of  his  denial;  the  washing  of  his 
feet ;  the  raising  of  Tabitha  from  the  dead ;  the  capture 
of  Peter  and  the  conducting  of  him  to  the  place  of 
execution.  On  two  gilt  glasses  he  is  represented  as 
Moses  drawing  water  from  the  rock  with  his  staff; 
the  name  Peter  under  the  scene  shows  that  he  is 
regarded  as  the  guide  of  the  people  of  God  in  the  New 
Testament. 

Particularly  frequent  in  the  period  between  the 
fourth  and  sixth  centuries  is  the  scene  of  the  delivery 
of  the  Law  to  Peter,  which  occurs  on  various  kinds  of 
monuments.  Christ  hands  St.  Peter  a  folded  or  open 
scroll,  on  which  is  often  the  inscription  Lex  Domini 
(Law  of  the  Lord)  or  Dnminin!  legem  dal  (The  Lord 
gives  the  law).  In  the  mau.soleum  of  Constantina  at 
Rome  (S.  Costanza,  in  the  \'ia  Nomentana)  this  scene 
is  given  as  a  pendant  to  the  deUvery  of  the  Law  to 


Moses.  In  representations  on  fifth-century  sarco- 
phagi the  Lord  presents  to  Peter  (instead  of  the 
scroll)  the  keys.  In  carvings  of  the  fourth  century 
PetCT  often  hears  a  staff  in  his  hand  (after  the  liftli 
century,  a  cross  with  a  long  shaft,  carried  liy  the 
Apostle  on  his  shoulder),  as  a  kind  of  sceptre  indicative 
of  Peter's  otlice.  Prom  the  end  of  the  sixth  century 
this  is  replaced  by  the  keys  (usually  two,  but  some- 
times three),  which  henceforth  became  the  attribute 
of  Peter.  Even  the  renowned  and  greatly  \-enerate(l 
bronze  statue  in  St.  Peter's  poss<'s,ses  them;  this,  the 
best  known  representation  of  the  .\|)ostle,  dates  from 
the  last  period  of  Christian  antiquity  (Grisar,  "Ana- 
lecta  romana",  I,  Rome,  1899,  627  sqq.). 

BlRKS.  Slurlies  of  Ike  Life  and  Character  of  St.  Peter  (London, 
1S87):  Taylor.  Peter  the  Apostle,  newed.  by  Burnet  and  Isbister 
(London,  1900);  Barnes.  St.  Peter  in  Rome  and  his  Tomb  an  the 
Vatican  Hill  (London,  1900);  Lightfoot,  Apostolic  Fathers, 
2nd  ed.,  pt.  I.vol.  II  (London,  1890).  481  sq..  St.  Peter  in  Rome: 
FoUARD,  Les  origines  de  VEgtise:  St.  Pierre  et  les  premihes  amUes 
du  christianisme  (."Jrd  ed..  Paris,  189,'i) ;  Fillion.  Saint  Pierre 
(2nd  cd.,  Paris.  1906);  collection  Les  Sainli::  RAMBArn.  Histoire 
de  St.  Pierre  apdtre  (Bordeaux.  1900);  Oi-mMin  l.i:  rmne  de  St 
Pierre  d  Rome  inQuestions  dliist.  et  d'arrh,  ,1  ,i.,,/    i  I '■>!  i^,  1906); 

Focoim,  Deromano  D.Petri  itinere  et  epi  II'    t ,1741); 

RiNlERi,  iS.  Pietro  in  Roma  ed  i  primi  f'';  ,■■>'    letusti 

cataloghi  della  chiesa  Romana  (Turin,  I'JU'.i  .  l'j.u.\y  i,  J'  cnstiane- 
simo  in  Roma  prima  dei  gloriosi  apostoli  Pietro  e  Pa  oh,  e  s  ulle  diverse 
venule  de'  principi  degli  apostoli  in  Roma  (Rome,  1906) ;  Polidori, 
.Aposlolato  di  S.  Pietro  in  Roma  in  Cirilla  CattoHca.  series  18, 
IX  (Rome,  1903).  141  sq.;  Marucchi,  Le  memorie  degli  apostoli 
Pietro  e  Paolo  in  Roma  (2na  ed.,  Rome,  1903) ;  Lecler,  De  Romano 
S.  Petri  episcopatu  (Louvain,  1888);  Schmid,  Petrus  in  Rom  oder 
Novir  Vindiciie  Petrina:  (Lucerne.  1892);  Esser.  Des  hi.  Petrus 
AufenthaU,  Episkopat  und  Tiut  in  Rom  (Hreslau.  1889);  Kneller. 
St.  Petrus,  Bischof  von  I/.u,,  ,,,  /,  ■i.nfl  f.  kath.  Theol.,  XXVI 
(1902).  33  sq.,   225  sq.;    M  Sunon   Petrus  als   Mittel 

und  Ausgangspunkt  der  .  /  irche  (Kempten,  1906); 

Grisar,  Le  tombe  apos!i>l!  '  -  /  1  '  'in,,  ed  alia  via  Ostiense  in 
Arialeda  Romana,  I  (Rome,  1.S91I),  2r>i>  sq. 

J.    P.    KlRSCH. 

Peter,  Epistles  op  Saint. — These  two  Epistles 
will  be  treated  under  the  following  heads:  I.  Authen- 
ticity; II.  Recipients,  occasion,  and  object;  III. 
Date  and  place  of  composition;  IV.  Analysis. 

I.  First  Epistle. — A.  Authenlicity. — The  authen- 
ticity, universally  admitted  by  the  primitive  Church, 
has  been  denied  within  the  past  century  by  Protes- 
tant or  Rationalist  critics  (Baur  and  the  Tiibingen 
School,  Von  Soden,  Harnack,  Jtilicher,  Hilgenfeld, 
and  others),  but  it  cannot  seriously  be  questioned.  It 
is  well  established:  (1)  by  extrinsic  arguments:  (a) 
Quotations  from  or  allusions  to  it  are  very  numerous 
in  writings  of  the  first  and  second  centuries,  e.  g.,  Jus- 
tin's letter  to  the  Churches  of  Lyons  and  Vienne, 
Irena;us,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Papias,  Polycarp, 
Clement  of  Rome,  the  "Did.ache",  the  "Pastor"  of 
Hernias,  and  others.  The  Second  Epistle  of  St.  Peter, 
admitted  to  be  very  ancient  even  by  those  who  question 
its  authenticity,  alludes  to  an  earlier  Epistle  written 
by  the  Apostle  (iii,  1).  The  letter  therefore  existed 
very  early  and  was  considered  very  authoritative,  (b) 
Tradition  is  also  unanimous  for  St.  Peter's  author- 
ship. In  the  second  and  third  centuries  we  have  much 
explicit  testimony  to  this  effect.  Clement  and  Origen 
at  Alexandria,  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  in  Africa,  the 
Peshitto  in  .Syria,  Irena;us  in  Gaul,  the  ancient  Itala 
and  Ilippolytus  at  Rome  all  agree  in  attributing  it 
to  Peter,  as  do  also  the  heretics,  Basilides  and  Theo- 
dore of  Byzantium,  (c)  All  the  collections  or  lists 
of  the  New  Testament  mention  it  as  St.  Peter's;  the 
Muratorian  Canon,  which  .alone  is  at  variance  with 
this  common  tradition,  is  obscure  and  bears  evident 
marks  of  textual  corruption,  and  the  subsequent 
restoration  suggested  by  Zahn,  which  seems  much 
more  probable,  is  clearly  favourable  to  the  authen- 
ticity. Moreover  Eusebius  of  Ca-sarea  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  place  it  among  the  undisputed  Scriptures. 

(2)  By  intrinsic  arguiiu-iits. — i;x;imin;ition  of  the 
Epistle  in  itself  is  wholly  f:ivounible  to  its  authen- 
ticity; the  author  calls  himself  Peter,  the  Apostle  of 
Jesus  Christ  (i,  1);  Mark,  who,  accoriling  to  the  Acts 


PETER 


753 


PETER 


of  the  Apostles,  had  such  close  relations  with  Peter, 
is  called  by  the  author  "my  son"  (v,  13);  the  author 
is  represented  as  the  immediate  disciple  of  Jesus 
Christ  (i,  1;  v,  9,  11-14);  he  exercises  from  Rome  a 
universal  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  Church  (v,  1). 
The  numerous  places  in  which  he  would  appear  to  be 
the  immediate  witness  of  the  life  of  Christ  (i,  8;  ii, 
21-24;  V,  1),  as  well  as  the  similarity  between  his 
ideas  and  the  teaching  of  the  Gospels,  are  eloquently 
in  favour  of  the  Apostolic  author  (cf.  Jacquier,  251). 
Finally,  some  authors  consider  that  the  Epistle  and 
the  sermons  of  St.  Peter  related  in  the  Acts  show  an 
analogy  in  basis  and  form  which  proves  a  common 
origin.  However,  it  is  probable  if  not  certain  that  the 
Apostle  made  use  of  an  interpreter,  especially  of  Sylva- 
nus;  St.  Jerome  says:  "The  two  Epistles  attributed  to 
St.  Peter  differ  in  style,  character,  and  the  construction 
of  the  words,  which  proves  that  according  to  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  moment  St.  Peter  made  use  of  differ- 
ent interpreters"  (Ep.  cxx  ad  Hedib.).  Peter  himself 
seems  to  insinuate  this:  Aia 'SiXovavoO  vnTv  .  .  .  eypa^a 
(v,  12),  and  the  final  verses  (12-14)  seem  to  have  been 
added  by  the  Apostle  himself.  Without  denying  that 
Peter  was  able  to  use  and  speak  Greek,  some  authors 
consider  that  he  could  not  write  it  in  the  almost 
classic  manner  of  this  Epistle.  Nevertheless  it  is  im- 
possible to  determine  exactly  the  share  of  Sylvanus; 
it  is  not  improbable  that  he  wrote  it  according  to  the 
directions  of  the  Apostle,  inserting  the  ideas  and 
exhortations  suggested  by  him. 

Objections:  (a)  The  relation  between  the  First 
Epistle  of  Peter  and  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  especially 
Romans  and  Ephesians,  does  not  prove,  as  has  been 
claimed  (Jiihcher),  that  the  Epistle  was  written  by  a 
disciple  of  Paul.  This  relation,  which  has  been  much 
exaggerated  by  some  critics,  does  not  prove  a  literary 
dependence  nor  prevent  this  Epistle  from  possessing 
a  characteristic  originality  in  ideas  and  form.  The 
resemblance  is  readily  explained  if  we  admit  that 
Peter  employed  Sylvanus  as  interpreter,  for  the  latter 
had  been  a  companion  of  Paul,  and  would  conse- 
quently have  felt  the  influence  of  his  doctrine  and 
manner  of  speaking.  Moreover,  Peter  and  Sylvanus 
were  at  Rome,  where  the  letter  wa,s  written,  and  they 
would  naturally  have  become  acquainted  with  the 
Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the  Ephesians,  written 
some  months  before  and  intended,  at  least  in  part,  for 
the  same  readers,  (b)  It  has  been  claimed  that  the 
Epistle  presupposes  an  official  and  general  persecution 
in  the  Roman  Empire  and  betokens  a  state  of  things 
corresponding  to  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  or  even  that 
of  Domitian  or  Trajan,  but  the  data  it  gives  are  too 
indefinite  to  conclude  that  it  refers  to  one  of  these  per- 
secutions rather  than  to  that  of  Nero;  besides,  some 
authors  consider  that  the  Epistle  docs  not  at  all  sup- 
pose an  official  persecution,  the  allusions  being  readily 
explained  by  the  countless  difficulties  and  annoyances 
to  which  Jews  and  pagans  subjected  the  Christians. 

B.  Recipients  of  the  Epistle;  Occasion  and  Object. — ■ 
It  was  written  to  the  faithful  of  "Pontus,  Galatia, 
Cappadocia,  Asia,  and  Bithynia"  (i,  1).  Were  these 
Christians  converted  Jews,  dispersed  among  the  Gen- 
tiles (i,  1),  as  was  held  by  Origen,  Didymus  of  Alex- 
andria, etc.,  and  is  still  maintained  by  Weiss  and  Kuhl, 
or  were  they  in  great  part  of  pagan  origin?  The  latter 
is  by  far  the  more  common  and  the  better  opinion 
(i,  14;  ii,  9-10;  iii,  6;  iv,  3).  The  argument  based  on 
i,  7,  proves  nothing,  while  the  words  "to  the  strangers 
dispersed  through  Pontus"  should  not  be  taken  in  the 
literal  sense  of  Jews  in  exile,  but  in  the  metaphorical 
sense  of  the  people  of  God,  Christians,  living  in  exile 
on  earth,  far  from  their  truc^  country.  The  opinions 
of  authors  admitting  the  authenticity  are  divided  with 
regard  to  the  historical  circumstances  which  occa- 
sioned the  Epistle,  some  believing  tluit  it  w!is  written 
immediately  after  Nero's  decree  iiroscribing  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  in  which  case  the  difficulties  to  which 
XI.— 48 


Peter  alludes  do  not  consist  merely  of  the  calumnies 
and  vexations  of  the  people,  but  also  include  the 
judicial  pursuit  and  condemnation  of  Christians  (iv, 
14-16;  V,  12;  ii,  23;  iii,  IS),  while  iv,  12,  may  be  an 
allusion  to  the  burning  of  Rome  which  was  the  occa- 
sion of  Nero's  decree.  This  is  the  opinion  of  Hug, 
Gloire,  Batiffol,  Neander,  Grimm,  Ewald,  Allard, 
Weiss,  Callewaert,  etc.,  while  others  date  the  Epistle 
from  the  eve  of  that  decree  (Jacquier,  Brassac,  Fillion, 
etc.).  The  Epistle,  they  say,  having  been  written 
from  Rome,  where  the  persecution  must  have  raged 
in  all  its  horror,  we  naturally  look  for  clear  and  indis- 
putable indications  of  it,  but  the  general  theme  of  the 
Epistle  is  that  the  Christians  should  give  no  occasion 
to  the  charges  of  the  infidels,  but  that  by  their  exem- 
plary life  they  should  induce  them  to  glorify  God  (ii, 
12,  15;  iii,  9,  16;  iv,  4);  besides,  the  way  of  speaking 
is  generally  hypothetical  (i,  6;  iii,  13-14;  iv,  14), 
there  being  no  question  of  judges,  tribunals,  prison, 
tortures,  or  confiscation.  The  Christians  have  to 
suffer,  not  from  authority,  but  from  the  people  among 
whom  they  lived. 

The  Apostle  Peter  wrote  to  the  Christians  of  Asia 
to  confirm  them  in  the  Faith,  to  console  them  amid 
their  tribulations,  and  to  indicate  to  them  the  line 
of  conduct  to  follow  in  suffering  (v,  2).  Except  for 
the  more  dogmatic  introduction  (i,  3-12)  and  a  few 
short  instructions  strewn  throughout  the  letter  and 
intended  to  support  moral  exliortations,  the  Epistle 
is  hortatory  and  practical.  Only  an  absurd  a  priori 
argument  could  permit  the  Tiibingen  critics  to  assert 
that  it  had  a  dogmatic  object  and  was  WTitten  by  a 
second-century  forger  with  the  intention  of  attribut- 
ing to  Peter  the  doctrines  of  Paul. 

C.  Place  and  Date  of  Composition. — The  critics  who 
have  denied  Peter's  sojourn  at  Rome  must  necessarily 
deny  that  the  letter  was  written  from  there,  but  the 
great  majority  of  critics,  with  all  Christian  antiquity, 
agree  that  it  was  written  at  Rome  itself,  designated 
by  the  metaphorical  name  Babylon  (v,  13).  This  in- 
terpretation has  been  accepted  from  the  most  remote 
times,  and  indeed  no  other  metaphor  could  so  well 
describe  the  city  of  Rome,  rich  and  luxurious  as  it  was, 
and  given  over  to  the  worship  of  false  gods  and  every 
species  of  immorality.  Both  cities  had  caused  trouble 
to  the  people  of  God,  Babylon  to  the  Jews,  anil  Rome 
to  the  Christians.  Moreover  this  metaphor  was  in  use 
among  the  early  Christians  (cf.  Apoc,  xiv,  8;  xvi,  19; 
xvii,  .5;  xviii,  2,  10,  21).  Finally,  tradition  has  not 
brought  us  the  faintest  memory  of  any  sojourn  of  Peter 
at  Babylon.  The  opinions  of  critics  who  deny  the 
authenticity  of  the  Epistle  range  from  A.  D.  80  to 
A.  D.  160  as  the  date,  but  as  there  is  not  the  slightest 
doubt  of  its  authenticity  they  have  no  basis  for  their 
argument.  Equally  diverse  opinions  are  found  among 
the  authors  who  admit  the  authenticity,  ranging  from 
the  year  A.  D.  45  to  that  accepted  as  that  of  the  death 
of  Peter.  The  most  probable  opinion  is  that  which 
places  it  about  the  end  of  the  year  63  or  the  beginning 
of  64;  and  St.  Peter  having  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Rome  in  64  (67?)  the  Epistle  could  not  be  subsequent 
to  that  date;  besides,  it  assumes  that  the  persecution 
of  Nero,  which  began  about  the  end  of  64,  had  not  yet 
broken  out  (see  above) .  On  the  other  hand  the  author 
frequently  alludes  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians, 
making  use  of  its  very  words  and  expressions;  con- 
sequently the  Epistle  could  not  be  prior  to  63,  since  the 
Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  was  written  at  the  end  of 
Paul's  first  captivity  at  Rome  (61-63). 

D.  Analysis. — The  Epistle  as  a  whole  being  but 
a  succession  of  general  ideas  without  close  connexion, 
there  can  be  no  strict  plan  of  analysis.  It  is  divided 
as  follows:  the  introduction  contains,  besides  the  ad- 
dress (.superscription  and  salutation, i,  7),  thanksgiving 
to  God  for  the  excellence  of  the  salvation  and  regen- 
eration to  which  He  has  deigned  to  call  the  Christians 
(3-12).    This  part  is  dogmatic  and  serves  as  a  basis 


PETER 


754 


PETER 


for  all  the  moral  exhortations  in  the  body  of  the 
Kpistle.  The  body  of  the  Epistle  may  be  divided  into- 
three  sections:  (a)  exhortation  to  a  tmly  Cliristiuu 
life  (i,  13-ii,  10),  wlien-in  Peter  successively  exhorts 
his  readers  to  holiness  in  general  (13-21),  to  fraternal 
charity  in  particular  (i,  22-ii,  1),  to  love  and  desire 
of  the  true  doctrine;  thus  they  shall  be  living  stones 
in  the  spiritual  house  of  which  Christ  is  the  corner- 
stone, they  shall  be  the  royal  priesthood  and  the 
chosen  people  of  the  Lord  (2-10).  (b)  Rules  of  con- 
duct for  Christians  living  among  pagans,  especially 
in  time  of  persecution  (ii,  11-v,  19).  Let  their  conduct 
be  such  that  the  infidels  themselves  shall  he  edified 
and  cease  to  speak  evil  of  the  Christians  (11-12). 
This  general  principle  is  applied  in  detail  in  the  ex- 
hortations relating  to  obedience  to  civil  rulers  (13-17), 
the  duties  of  slaves  to  their  masters  (18-25),  the 
mutual  duties  of  husband  and  wife  (iii,  1-7).  With 
regard  to  those  who,  not  having  the  same  faith,  calum- 
niate and  persecute  the  Christians,  the  latter  should 
return  good  for  evil,  according  to  the  example  of 
Christ,  who  though  innocent  suffered  for  us,  and  who 
preached  the  Gospel  not  only  to  the  living,  but  also  to 
the  spirits  that  were  in  prison  (8-22).  The  Apostle 
concludes  by  repeating  his  exliortation  to  sanctity  in 
general  (iv,  1-6),  to  charity  (7-11),  to  patience  and 
joy  in  suffering  for  Christ  (12-19).  (c)  Some  special 
recommendations  follow  (v,  1-11):  let  the  ancients 
be  careful  to  feed  the  flock  entrusted  to  their  keeping 
(1-4);  let  the  faithful  be  subject  to  their  pastor  (5a); 
let  all  observe  humility  among  themselves  (5b) ;  let 
them  be  sober  and  watchful,  trusting  the  Lord  (6-11). 

In  the  epilogue  the  Apostle  himself  declares  that  he 
has  employed  Sylvanus  to  write  the  letter  and  affirms 
that  the  Divine  grace  possessed  by  his  readers  is  the 
true  grace  (12) ;  he  addresses  to  them  the  salutations 
of  the  Church  in  Rome  and  those  of  Mark  (13),  and 
gives  them  his  Apostohc  blessing. 

Second  Epistle. — A.  Authenticiiy . — In  the  present 
state  of  the  controversy  over  the  authenticity  it  may 
be  affirmed  that  it  is  solidly  probable,  though  it  is 
difficult  to  prove  with  certainty.  (1)  Extrinsic  argu- 
ments.— (a)  In  the  first  two  centuries  there  is  not  in 
the  Apostolic  Fathers  and  other  ecclesiastical  writers, 
if  we  except  Theophilus  of  Antioch  (180),  a  single  quo- 
tation properly  so  called  from  this  Epistle;  at  most 
there  are  some  more  or  less  probable  allusions  in  their 
writings,  e.  g.,the  First  Epistle  of  St.  Clement  of  Rome 
to  the  Corinthians,  the  "Didache",  St.  Ignatius,  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas,  the  "Pastor"  of  Hermas,  the 
Epistle  of  Polycarp  to  the  Philippians,  the  Dialogue 
of  St.  Justin  with  Trypho,  St.  Irenaeus,  the  Clementine 
"Recognitions", the  Actsof Peter", etc.  TheEpistle 
formed  part  of  the  ancient  Itala,  but  is  not  in  the 
Syriac.  This  proves  that  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter 
existed  and  even  had  a  certain  amount  of  authority. 
But  it  is  impossible  to  bring  forward  with  certainty 
a  single  explicit  testimony  in  favour  of  this  authen- 
ticity. The  Muratorian  Canon  presents  a  mutilated 
text  of  I  Peter,  and  Zahin's  suggested  restoration, 
which  seems  very  probable,  leaves  only  a  doubt  with 
regard  to  the  authenticity  of  the  Second  Epistle. 

(b)  In  the  Western  Church  there  is  no  explicit  tes- 
timony in  favour  of  the  canonicity  and  Apostolicity 
of  this  EpLstle  until  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. 
TertuUian  and  Cjiirian  do  not  mention  it,  and  Momm- 
sen's  Canon  (360)  still  bears  traces  of  the  uncertainty 
among  the  Churches  of  the  West  in  this  respect.  The 
Eastern  Church  gave  earlier  testimony  in  its  behalf. 
According  to  Eusebius  and  Photius,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria (d.  215)  commented  on  it,  but  he  seems  not  to 
have  ranked  it  with  the  first.  It  is  found  in  the  two 
great  Egyptian  versions  (Sahidic  and  Bohairic).  It  is 
probable  that  Firmilian  of  Cresarea  used  it  and  as- 
cribed it  to  St.  Peter,  as  Metnodius  of  Olympus  did 
explicitly.  Eusebius  of  Ca^sarea  (340),  while  person- 
ally accepting  II  Peter  as  authentic  and  canonical, 


nevertheleijs  classes  it  among  the  disputed  works 
{dp  LXcyiixem) ,  at  the  same  time  affirming  that  it  was 
known  by  most  Christ  ians  and  studied  by  a  large  niun- 
ber  with  the  other  Scriptures.  In  the  Church  of 
Antioch  and  Syria  at  that  period  it  was  regarded  as 
of  doubtful  authenticity.  St.  John  Chrysostom  does 
not  speak  of  it,  and  it  is  omitted  by  the  Peshitt  o.  That 
the  Epistle  formerly  accepted  in  that  Church  (Theoph- 
ilus of  Antioch)  was  not  yet  included  in  the  canon 
was  probably  due  to  dogmatic  reasons. 

(c)  In  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  century  these 
doubts  rapidly  disappeared  in  the  Chtirchrs  of  the 
East  owing  to  the  authority  of  ICuseldiis  of  C-isarea 
and  the  fifty  copies  of  the  Script uros  (li.slril.ulcd  by 
command  of  Constantine  the  tSreat.  Didymus  of 
Alexandria,  St.  Athanasius,  St.  Epiphanius,  St.  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem,  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  the  Canon  of 
Laodicea,  all  regard  the  letter  as  authentic.  The  addi- 
tion to  the  text  of  Didymus,  according  to  which  it  was 
the  work  of  a  forger,  seems  to  be  the  error  of  a  copyist. 
So  in  the  West  relations  with  the  East  and  the  author- 
ity of  St.  Jerome  finally  brought  about  the  admission 
of  its  authenticity.  It  was  admit  led  to  the  Vulgate, 
and  the  synod  convoked  by  Pope  Damasus  in  382 
expressly  attributes  it  to  St.  Peter. 

(2)  Intrinsic  arguments. — If  tradition  does  not  ap- 
pear to  furnish  an  apodictic  argument  in  favour  of  the 
authenticity,  an  examination  of  the  Epistle  itself  does. 
The  author  calls  himself  Simon  Peter,  servant  and 
Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ  (i,  1),  witness  of  the  glorious 
transfiguration  of  Christ  (i,  16-18);  he  recalls  the 
prediction  of  His  death  which  Christ  made  to  him 
(i,  14);  he  calls  the  Apostle  Paul  his  brother,  i.  e., 
his  colleague  in  the  Apostolate  (iii,  15);  and  he  iden- 
tifies himself  with  the  author  of  the  First  Epistle. 
Therefore  the  author  must  necessarily  be  St.  Peter 
himself  or  some  one  who  wrote  under  his  name,  but 
nothing  in  the  Epistle  forces  us  to  believe  the  latter. 
On  the  other  hand  there  are  several  indications  of  its 
authenticity:  the  author  shows  himself  to  be  a  Jew, 
of  ardent  character,  such  as  the  New  Testament  por- 
trays St.  Peter,  while  a  comparison  with  the  ideas, 
words,  and  expressions  of  the  First  Epistle  affords 
a  further  argument  in  favour  of  the  identity  of  the 
author.  Such,  at  least,  is  the  opinion  of  several 
critics. 

In  examining  the  difficulties  raised  against  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  Epistle,  the  following  facts  should  be 
remembered:  (a)  This  Epistle  has  been  wrongly  ac- 
cused of  being  imbued  with  Hellenism,  from  which  it 
is  even  farther  removed  than  the  writings  of  Luke  and 
the  Epistles  of  Paul,  (b)  Likewise  the  false  doctrines 
which  it  opposes  are  not  the  full-l)l(i\vn  ( Inoisticism  of 
the  second  century,  but  the  budiling  Gnosticism  as 
opposed  by  St.  Paul,  (c)  The  difference  which  some 
authors  claim  to  find  between  the  doctrine  of  the  two 
Epistles  proves  nothing  against  the  authenticity;  some 
others  have  even  maintained  that  comparison  of  the 
doctrines  furnishes  a  new  argument  in  favour  of  the 
author's  identity.  Doubtless  there  exist  undeniable 
differences,  but  is  an  author  obliged  to  confine  himself 
within  the  same  circle  of  ideas?  (d)  The  difference 
of  style  which  critics  have  discovered  between  the  two 
Epistles  is  an  argument  requiring  too  delicate  handling 
to  supply  a  certain  conclusion,  and  here  again  some 
others  have  drawn  from  a  similarity  of  style  an  argu- 
ment in  favour  of  a  unity  of  authorship.  Adniitting 
that  the  manner  of  speaking  is  not  the  same  in  both 
Epistles,  there  is,  nevertheless,  not  the  slightest  diffi- 
culty, if  it  be  true  as  St.  Jerome  has  .said  (see  above 
under  First  Epistle),  that  in  the  composition  of  the 
Epistles  St.  Peter  made  use  of  different  interpreters. 
(e)  It  is  also  incorrect  to  say  that  this  Epistle  sup- 
poses the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  have  been  already 
collected  (iii,  15-16),  for  the  author  does  not  sav  that 
he  knew  all  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.  That  he  should 
have   regarded   Paul's  letters   as   inspired   forms  a 


PETER 


755 


PETER 


difficulty  only  to  those  who  do  not  admit  the  possibil- 
ity of  a  revelation  made  to  Peter  on  this  point.  Some 
authors  liave  also  wrongly  contested  the  unity  of  the 
Epistle,  some  ehiiming  that  it  consists  of  two  distinct 
epistles,  the  second  beginning  with  ch.  iii,  others  main- 
taining that  the  ii,  1-iii,  2,  has  been  interpolated.  Re- 
cently M.  Ladeuze  (Revue  Biblique,  190.5)  has  ad- 
vanced an  hypothesis  which  seems  to  end  numerous 
difficulties:  by  an  involuntary  error  of  a  copyist  or 
by  accidental  transposition  of  the  leaves  of  the  codex 
on  which  the  Epistle  was  written,  one  of  the  parts  of 
the  Epistle  was  transposed,  and  according  to  the  order 
of  sections  the  letter  should  be  restored  as  follows: 
i-ii,  3a;  iii,  1-16;  ii,  3b-22;  iii,  17-18.  The  hypoth- 
esis seems  very  probable. 

Relations  of  II  Peter  with  the  Epistle  of  Jude. — 
This  Epistle  has  so  much  in  common  with  that  of  Jude 
that  the  author  of  one  must  have  had  the  other  before 
him.  There  is  no  agreement  on  the  question  of  prior- 
ity, but  the  most  credited  opinion  is  that  Peter  de- 
pends on  Jude  (q.  v.). 

B.  Recipients,  Occasion,  and  Object. — It  is  believed 
that  this  Epistle,  like  the  First,  was  sent  to  the  Chris- 
tians of  Asia  Minor,  the  majority  of  whom  were 
converted  Gentiles  (iii,  1-2;  ii,  11-12;  etc.).  False 
teachers  (ii,  1),  heretics  and  deceivers  (iii,  3),  of  cor- 
rupt morals  (ii,  1)  and  denying  the  Second  Advent  of 
Christ  and  the  end  of  the  world,  sought  to  corrupt  the 
faith  and  the  conduct  of  the  Christians  of  Asia  Minor. 
Peter  wrote  to  excite  them  to  the  practice  of  virtue 
and  chiefly  to  turn  them  away  from  the  errors  and  bad 
example  of  the  false  teachers. 

C.  Date  and  Place  of  Coinposiiion. — While  those 
who  reject  the  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  place  it 
about  150,  the  advocates  of  its  authenticity  maintain 
that  it  was  written  after  63-4,  the  date  of  the  First 
Epistle,  and  before  64-5,  the  date  believed  to  be  that 
of  the  death  of  St.  Peter  (i,  14).  Like  the  First,  it  was 
written  at  Rome. 

D.  Ajialysis. — In  the  exordium  the  Apostle,  after 
the  inscription  and  salutation  (i,  1-2),  recalls  the  mag- 
nificent gifts  bestowed  by  Jesus  Christ  on  the  faithful; 
he  exhorts  them  to  the  practice  of  virtue  and  all  the 
more  earnestly  that  he  is  convinced  that  his  death  is 
approaching  (3-15) .  In  the  body  of  the  Epistle  (i,  16- 
iii,  13)  the  author  brings  forward  the  dogma  of  the 
second  coming  of  Christ,  which  he  proves,  recalling 
His  glorious  transfiguration  and  the  prediction  of  the 
Prophets  (i,  16-21).  Then  he  inveighs  against  the 
false  teachers  and  condemns  their  life  and  doctrines: 
(a)  They  shall  undergo  Divine  chastisement,  in  proof 
of  which  the  Apostle  recalls  the  punishment  inflicted 
on  the  rebel  angels,  on  the  contemporaries  of  Noe,  on 
the  people  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrha  (ii,  1-1 1 ) .  (b)  He 
describes  the  immoral  life  of  the  false  teachers,  their 
impurity  and  sensuality,  their  avarice  and  duplicity 
(12-22).  (c)  He  refutes  their  doctrine,  showing  that 
they  are  wrong  in  rejecting  the  second  coming  of 
Christ  and  the  end  of  the  world  (iii,  1-4),  for  the  Judge 
shall  certainly  come  and  that  unexpectedly ;  even  as 
the  ancient  world  perished  by  the  waters  of  the  flood 
so  the  present  world  shall  perish  by  fire  and  be  re- 
placed by  a  new  world  (.5-7).  Then  follows  the  moral 
conclusion:  let  us  live  holily,  if  we  desire  to  be  ready 
for  the  coming  of  the  Judge  (8-13) ;  let  us  employ  the 
time  given  us  to  work  out  our  salvation,  even  as  Paul 
taught  in  his  Epistles  which  the  false  teachers  abuse 
(14-17).  Verse  18  consists  of  the  epilogue  and 
doxology. 

Dbach-Batle,  Epltres  catholiques  (Paris,  1873);  Hund- 
HAU8EN.  Die  beiden  Pontificalhereiben  des  Apostelfiirsten  Petrus 
(Mainz,  1878) ;  Cohnely,  Hist,  el  crit.  inlroduclio  in  U.  T.  libros 
sacros.  Ill,  Inlroduclio  specialis  (Paris.  1886);  Beelen,  Het 
niewe  Testament  (Bruges.  1891) :  Julicher,  Einleitung  in  das 
neue  Testament  (1894);  KesL.  Briefe  Petri  und  Juda  (Gottingen, 
1897);  HoRT,  The  First  Epistle  of  St.  Peter  (London.  1898); 
VON  SODEN,  Briefe  des  Petrus  (Freiburg.  1899) ;  Hahnack.  Oe.^th. 
der  attchrist.  Literatur.  die  Chronologie  (Leipzig,  1900) ;  Monnier, 
La  premiere  epitre  de  Pierre  (Macon,  1900);  Zah.v.  Grundriss  der 
Geach.  dea  neutestamntlichen  Kanons  (Leipzig,  1901);    Tbankle, 


Einleilunii  in  das  neue  Test.  (Freiburg,  1901);  BiGG,  A  Critical 
nil, I  Emiiliinl  t'limmenlary  on  the  Ep.  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Jude 
'l'li'|'"i:  ^ii  THij);  Cedlemans,  Commeri/.  tn  epist.  caiholicas  et 
III"  '"      Mrchlin,    1904);     Henkel.    Der   zuteite   Brief  des 

-I,  f.lrus  gepraft  auf  seine  Echlheil  (Freiburg.  1904); 

Hi  i    '  I     I  'ling  indas  neue  Test.  (Freiburg,  1905);   Calmes, 

Eliiif  ,.,/,/  J;raca(!/psc  (Paris,  1905);  Wmaa,  Der  erste  Pelrus 
liryi  1,1,. I  .1,.  ii.iiere  Kritik  (Lichterfelde,  1906);  Dillenseoer. 
I.', tilth,  nil,  ,t,  ,ti  la  II  Petri  in  Melanges  de  La  faculte  orientate 
(H'lrnt.  I'liiTi;  Callewaert  in  Revue  d'hist.  eccles.  (Lou- 
vain,  1902,  1907);  Jacquier,  Hist,  des  livres  du  N.  Test.  (Paris. 
1908);  Brassac.  Manuel  bibl.  (Paris,  1909);  Vansteenkibte- 
Camerltnck.  Comment,  in  epist.  cathol.  (Bruges,  1909). 

A.  Van  deb  Hebren. 

Peter,  Gospel  of  Saint.  See  Apocrypha,  sub- 
title III. 

Peter,  Sarah,  philanthropist,  b.  at  Chillicothe, 
Ohio,  U.  S.  A.,  10  May,  1800;  d.  at  Cincmnati,  6  Feb., 
1877.  Her  father,  Thomas  Worthington,  was  Gov- 
ernor of  Ohio,  1814-18,  and  also  served  in  the  United 
States  Senate.  On  15  May,  1816,  she  married  Edward 
King,  son  of  Rufus  King  of  New  York,  who  died  6 
Feb.,  1836;  and  in  October,  1844,  she  married  WUUam 
Peter,  British  consul  at  Philadelphia,  who  died  6 
Feb.,  1853.  During  her  residence  at  Philadelphia 
she  founded,  2  Dec,  1850,  the  School  of  Design  for 
Women.  Returning  to  Cincinnati  she  spent  most  of 
her  reinaining  years  as  a  patron  of  art,  and  in  works 
of  charity  and  philanthropy.  She  became  a  convert 
at  Rome  in  March,  1855,  being  instructed  there  by 
Mgr  Mermillod.  The  foundations  of  the  Sisters  of 
the  Good  Shepherd,  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  the  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor  in  Cincinnati,  and  other  institu- 
tions owed  much  to  her  generosity.  In  1862  she  volun- 
teered as  a  nurse,  and  went  with  the  sisters  who  fol- 
lowed Grant's  army  in  the  south-west  after  the  battle 
of  Pittsburg  Landing. 

King,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Mrs.  Sarah  Peter  (Cincinnati, 
1889);  Catholic  Telegraph  (Cincinnati),  files;  Freeman's  Journal 
(New  York),  files. 

Thomas  F.  Meehan. 
Peter,  To.mb  of  Saint.     See  St.  P^ter,  Tomb  of. 

Peter  Arbues,  Saint.  See  Peter  op  Arbdes, 
Saint. 

Peter  Baptist  and  Twenty-five  Companions, 

Saints,  d.  at  Nagasaki,  5  Feb.,  1597.  In  1593  while 
negotiations  were  pending  between  the  Emperor  of 
Japan  and  the  Governor  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  the 
latter  sent  Peter  Baptist  and  several  other  Francis- 
cans as  his  ambassadors  to  Japan.  They  were  well 
received  by  the  emperor,  and  were  able  to  establish  con- 
vents, schools,  and  hospitals,  and  effect  many  conver- 
sions. When  on  20  Oct.,  1596,  a  Spanish  vessel  of  war, 
the  "San  FeHpe",  was  stranded  on  the  isle  of  Tosa,  it 
became,  according  to  Japanese  custom,  the  property  of 
the  emperor.  The  captain  was  foolish  enough  to  extol 
the  power  of  his  king,  and  said  that  the  missionaries 
had  been  sent  to  prepare  for  the  conquest  of  the  coun- 
try. The  emperor  became  furious,  and  on  9  Dec, 
1596,  ordered  the  missionaries  to  be  imprisoned.  On  5 
Feb.,  1597,  six  friars  belonging  to  the  First  Order  of 
St.  Francis  (Peter  Baptist,  Martin  of  the  Ascension, 
Francis  Blanco,  priests;  Philip  of  Jesus,  cleric;  Gon- 
salvo  Garzia,  Francis  of  St.  Michael,  laybrothers), 
three  Japanese  Jesuits  (Paul  Miki,  John  Goto,  James 
Kisai)  and  seventeen  native  Franciscan  Tertiaries 
were  crucified.  They  were  beatified  14  Sept.,  1627, 
by  Urban  VIII,  and  canonized  8  June,  18(i2,  by 
Pius  IX. 

Leon,  Lives  of  the  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St. 
Francis,  I  (Taunton.  1885),  169-223;  Wadding.  Ann.  Min.,  98- 
104,  261-81;  .4cta  .S.*;.,  Feb.,  I.  729-770:  Iv^s,  Crfmica  dc  la  pro- 
vincia  de  San  Gregori,,   If,,.,.,.,  ,/,■ //,7,..,„..„.  n.-vvrZ-o- -'..  V  >■  P.  .San 

Francisco  en  las  isln    /    '•         ,     ,/    ,   ,     / ,      [.M,.,!,    Is92); 

MartInez,  Comjii  I,  '  f,  ,S'on 

Gregorio  de  Filipiiiii       M  ,,:ii  !.  i i',,,i  ...  ,',   ',,,  ',  mar- 

turs  du  Japan  cruciju..  n  .\i,.„.i ,..i  ,i'.i:i...  I,,.,:,..,  li,.s.',;  De- 
place,  Le  Catholic'sme  au  Japan;  II,  L' Ere  lUs  Martijres  1.5US~1660 
(Brussels,  1909). 

Perdinand  Heckmann. 


PETER60R0UGB 


r)G 


PETER 


Peterborough  Abbey,  Hcnodictine  monastery  in 
Northainiitiiiisliii'i',  I'^nglund,  known  at  first  as  Mv- 
deshiiiiistocle,  was  founilod  about  054  by  Peada,  King 
of  tlic  .MtTi-ians.  who  appointed  as  first  alilnit,  Saxulf. 
Poada's  rliurcli  and  monastery  were  conipU'lcly  de- 
stroyed l)y  the  r^anes  in  870.  The  circumstantial  ac- 
count of  this  event,  given  in  Abbot  John's  chronicle,  is 
fictitious,  but  the  fact  of  the  abbey's  destruction  is 
certain.  In  970,  in  tlie  monastic  revival  associated 
with  the  name  of  St.  Dunstan,  the  numastery  was  re- 
built through  the  efforts  of  Ethelwold,  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester, with  the  aid  iif  King  Edgar.  Part  of  the  foun- 
dations were  laid  bare  in  ls,s7,  when  the  central  tower 
of  the  |)resent  catliedral  was  rebuilt,  and  its  dimen- 
sions seem  to  ha\e  been  about  half  those  of  the  present 
building.  The  abbey  suffered  both  from  fire  and  pil- 
lage in  the  unsettled  period  preceding  the  Norman 
conquest,  and  in  1116  during  the  abbacy  of  Dom  John 
of  Sais  a  great  conflagration  destroyed  the  monastic 
buildings  with  the  little  town  that  had  grown  up 
around  them.  The  work  of  rebuilding,  begun  by  Ab- 
bot John,  ceased  at  his  death,  in  1125.  Martin  de 
Bee,  successor  of  Abbot  Henry  of  Anjou,  pushed  the 
work  forward,  and  the  presbytery  of  the  new  church 
was  finished  and  entered  upon  by  the  monks  about 
1140.  The  work  of  building  went  on  steadily  until 
1237,  when  the  completed  church  was  consecrated  by 
Robert  Grostete,  Bishop  of  Lincoln.  When  the  mon- 
astery was  surrendered  to  King  Henry  VIH  in  1541 
tlie  church  was  spared  from  destruction,  because  it 
contained  the  remains  of  his  first  wife.  It  then  be- 
came the  cathedral  of  the  new  Diocese  of  Peterbor- 
ough, and  the  last  abbot,  John  Chambers,  was  re- 
warded for  his  compliance  to  the  royal  demands  by 
being  made  the  first  bishop.  Though  the  great  church 
was  begun  during  the  Norman  period,  a  considerable 
portion  belongs  to  the  thirteenth  century.  This  is 
true  in  particular  of  the  glorious  west  front,  which 
Fergusson  and  Freeman  agree  in  calling  the  grandest 
and  most  original  in  Europe.  It  consists  of  three  huge 
arches,  supported  on  triangular  columns  and  enriched 
with  a  number  of  delicate  shafts,  which  open  into  a 
long  narthex  or  portico,  extending  the  whole  width  of 
the  building.  The  interior  has  a  nave  of  eleven  bays 
(228  ft.),  with  transepts  and  presbytery  terminating  in 
a  circular  apse.  The  original  ambulatory,  round  the 
east  end,  was  replaced  in  the  late  fifteenth  century  by 
a  square-ended  chapel,  of  great  delicacy,  in  the  Per- 
pendicular style.  The  total  interior  length  is  426  ft., 
interior  height  78  ft.,  length  of  transepts  185  ft.  Much 
controversy  has  been  aroused  over  the  rebuilding  of 
the  central  tower  and  the  restoration  of  the  west  front, 
but  both  these  works  were  inevitable  and  have  been 
carried  out  with  the  greatest  regard  for  the  designs  of 
the  original  architects. 

DuGDALE,  Monaslicon  Anglicanum,  I  (London,  1817),  344-404; 
Gc.NTON,  History  of  the  Church  of  Peterborough  (London,  1G86); 
Tanner,  Notitia  Monastica  (London,  1744),  371-373;  Historia; 
aenobii  Burgeiisis  scriptores  varii,  ed.  Sparke  in  Hist.  Angl. 
Scriptares,  iii  (London,  1723),  1-256;  Elias  of  Tkikinoham, 
AniuUes,  cd.  Pegge  (London,  1789);  Chronicon  Angliae  Petribur- 
gense,  6oi-lSes,  ed.  Giles  (London,  1845)  ;  Chronicon  breve 
Ecclesia  Pelriburgensis,  1074-1181,  ed.  Stapleton  (London, 
1849);  Browne-Willis,  Survey  of  English  Cathedrals,  III  (Lon- 
don. 1730),  475;  Bkitton,  History  and  Antiquities  of  Peter- 
borough Cathedral  (London,  1836)  ;  Sweeting,  The  Cathedral 
Church  of  Peterborough  (London,  1898). 

G.  Roger  Hudleston. 

Peterborough,  Diocese  of  (Peterboroughen- 
sis),  in  the  Province  of  Ontario,  Canada,  comprises 
the  Counties  of  Peterborough,  Northumberland,  Dur- 
ham, and  Victoria,  with  the  Districts  of  Muskoka  and 
Parrj'  Sound.  It  was  erected  by  Leo  XIII,  11  July, 
1882,  by  detaching  the  four  former  counties  from  the 
Diocese  of  Kingston  and  uniting  them  with  the  Vicari- 
ate of  Northern  Canada,  which  then  included  the  Dis- 
tricts of  Mu.skoka,  Parrj'  Sound,  Nipissing,  Algoma, 
and  Thunder  Bay.  Rt.  Rev.  John  Francis  Jamot,  at 
that  time  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Northern  Canada,  was 


;ipi)()inted  first  bishop.  The  new  diocese  then  ex- 
tended about  1110  miles  from  south-east  to  north- 
west, and  its  scHithcrn  limit  reached  to  L;ikcs  Superior 
and  Huron,  I  lie  ( Icorgian  Bay,  :uid  ;i  part  of  l,:ike  On- 
tario. Bishop  Janiot  w:is  born  in  France  in  1.S2S,  juul 
came  to  the  Diocese  of  Toronto  in  1853.  After  serv- 
ing in  the  parish  of  Barrie  for  several  years  he  was 
transferred  to  St.  Micliacl's  Cathedral,  Toronto,  and 
appointed  chancellor  and  vicar-general  of  the  diocese. 
In  1874  he  was  appointed  Bi.shop  of  Sarepta  and  \'icar 
Apostolic  of  Northern  Canada,  where  he  displayed 
zeal  ;ind  energy  in  seeking  out  the  Catliolics  of  his  ex- 
tensive vicariate.  When  in  ISSL'  the  Diocese  of  Peter- 
bonmgli  w:is  formed  the  total  CathoHi-  iio]iulafion  was 
about  30,001),  of  whom  5000  were  Indians,  with  47 
churches  and  25  priests,  of  whom  11  were  .lesuits  at- 
tending t  lie  western  part  of  the  diocese  and  t  he  Indian 
Missions.  After  the  erection  of  the  Diocese  of  Peter- 
borough in  1882  Bishop  Jamot  moved  his  see  from 
Bracebridge  to  the  city  of  Pet  erborough ,  whore  he  died  4 
May,  1886.  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Joseph  Dowling,  then 
Vicar  General  of  the  Diocese  of  Hamilton,  succeeded 
him  and  was  consecrated  1  May,  1887.  He  continued 
the  many  good  works  of  his  predecessor  and  ;iftertwo 
years  was  transferred  to  the  Diocese  of  Hamilton.  The 
third  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Richard  Ali)honsus  O'Coimor, 
was  consecrated  1  May,  1889.  He  was  born  at,  Lis- 
towel,  Co.  Kerry,  Ireland,  15  April,  1838,  came  to 
Canada  in  1841  with  his  parents,  and  settled  at  To- 
ronto. Hewasoneof  the  first  students  in  St.  Michael's 
College,  Toronto,  and  made  his  theological  course  in 
the  Grand  Seminary,  Montreal.  On  2  August,  1861, 
he  was  ordained  priest  in  St.  Micliacl's  C;ithedral, 
Toronto,  and,  after  serving  in  various  p;irislies  as  ]ias- 
tor,  and  for  eighteen  years  as  Dean  of  Barrie,  he  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Peterborough  by  Leo  XIII,  11 
Jan.,  1889. 

During  the  administration  of  Bishop  O'Connor  (he 
western  part  of  the  diocese  increased  rapidly  in  popu- 
lation, :ind,  that  religion  might  keep  pace  with  the 
material  i)i-ogress  of  the  country,  many  churches  and 
schools  were  built.  On  account  of  the  large  influx  of 
settlers  into  New  Ontario,  which  embraced  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  Diocese  of  Peterborough,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  that  district  in  agriculture,  commerce, 
mining,  and  manufacturing  industries,  a  brief  dated 
14  Nov.,  1904,  of  Pius  X  constituted  the  new  Diocese 
of  Sault  Ste  Marie  by  detaching  from  the  Diocese  of 
Peterborough  the  western  part  of  the  District  of  Nipis- 
sing, with  the  Districts  of  Algoma  and  Thunder  Bay. 
There  was  then  a  population  of  27,000  Catholics,  with 
35  priests  and  64  churches,  in  the  new  Diocese  of  Sault 
Ste  Marie;  and  24,000  Catholics,  with  29  priests  and 
45  churches,  in  the  portion  left  to  Peterborough.  The 
city  of  Peterborough  has  a  population  of  about  18,000, 
about  one-fourth  of  whom  are  Catholics,  with  two 
churches,  one  hospital,  one  House  of  Providence,  an 
orphanage,  and  the  largest  total  abstinence  society 
in  Canada,  numbering  over  1000  men.  In  the  dio- 
cese are  many  Catholic  schools,  conducted  chiefly 
by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  who  have  a  mother- 
house  and  novitiate  in  the  cathedral  city,  and  have 
charge  of  the  hospitals,  House  of  Pro-\adence,  and  or- 
phanage. They  also  conduct  a  select  academy  at 
Lindsay,  besides  directing  the  day  school  for  girls.  In 
Peterborough  there  are  three  large  schools,  with  19 
teachers,  17  of  whom  are  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  At 
present  the  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  about 
26,000,  with  29  secular  priests,  3  Jesuit  Fathers,  50 
churches,  2  hospitals,  one  House  of  Providence,  and 
one  orphanage. 

R.  A.  O  Connor. 

Peter  CanisiuB  (Kannees,  Kanys,  probably  also 
De  Hondt),  Blessed,  b.  at  Nimwegen  in  the 
Netheriands,  8  May,  1521;  d.  in  Fribourg,  21 
November,  1597.    His  father  was  the  wealthy  burgo- 


PETER 


757 


PETER 


'D:^/-i,F.: 


master,  Jacob  Canisius;  his  mother,  ^Egidia  van 
Houweningen,  died  shortly  after  Peter's  birth.  In 
1536  Peter  was  sent  to  Cologne,  where  he  studied 
arts,  civil  law,  and  theology  at  the  university;  he 
spent  a  part  of  1539  at  the  University  of  Louvain,  and 
in  1540  received  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts  at 
Cologne.  Nicolaus  van  Esche  was  his  spiritual  ad- 
viser, and  he  was  on  terms  of  friendship  with  such 
staunch  Catholics  as  Georg  of  Skodborg  (the  expelled 
Archbishop  of  Lund),  Johann  Cropper  (canon  of  the 
cathedral),  Eberhard  Billick  (the  Carmelite  monk), 
Justus  Lanspergius,  and  other  Carthusian  monks. 
Although  his  father  desired  him  to  marry  a  wealthy 
young  woman,  on  25  February,  1540  he  i)Iedged  him- 
self to  celibacy.  In  1543  he  visited  Peter  Faber 
and,  having  made  the  "Spiritual  Exercises"  under 
his  direction,  was  admitted  into  the  Society  of  Jesus 
at  Mainz,  on  8  May.  With  the  help  of  Leonhard 
Kt'ssel  and  others,  Canisius,  labouring  under  great 
difficulties,  founded  at  Co- 
logne the  first  German  house  of 
the  order;  at  the  same  time 
he  preached  in  the  city  and 
vicinity,  and  debated  and 
taught  in  the  university.  In 
1546  he  was  admitted  to  the 
priesthood,  and  soon  after- 
wards was  sent  by  the  clerg>' 
and  university  to  obtain  assist- 
ance from  Emperor  Charles 
V,  the  nuncio,  and  the  c!erg,\ 
of  Liege  against  the  apostate 
Archbishop,  Hermann  von 
Wied,  who  had  attempted  to 
pervert  the  diocese.  In  1547, 
as  the  theologian  of  Cunlinal 
(Jtto  Truchsess  von  Waldliurn, 
Bishop  of  Augsburg,  he  iKii- 
ticipated  in  the  general  ecclesi- 
astical council  (which  sat  first 
at  Trent  and  then  at  Bologna ) . 
and  spoke  twice  in  the  con- 
gregation of  the  theologians. 
After  this  he  spent  several 
riKjnths  under  the  direction  of 
Ignatius  in  Rome.  In  1548 
he  taught  rhetoric  at  Messina, 
Sicily,  preaching  in  Italian  and 
Latin.  At  this  time  Duke 
William  IV  of  Bavaria  re 
quested  Paul  III  to  send  him 
some  professors  from  the  So-  ' 
ciety  of  Jesus  for  the  University  of  Ingolstadt; 
Can'sius  was  among  those  selected. 

On  7  September,  1549,  he  made  his  solemn  pro- 
fession as  Jesuit  at  Rome,  in  the  presence  of  the 
founder  of  the  order.  On  his  journey  northward  he 
received,  at  Bologna,  the  degree  of  tloctor  of  theology. 
On  13  November,  accompanied  by  Fathers  Jaius  and 
Salmeron,  he  reached  Ingolstadt,  where  he  taught 
theology,  catechized,  and  preached.  In  1550  he  was 
elected  rector  of  the  imi\-ersity,  and  in  1552  was  sent 
by  Ignatius  to  the  new  college  in  Vienna ;  there  he  also 
taught  theology  in  the  university,  preached  at  the 
Cathedral  of  St.  Stephen,  and  at  "the  court  of  Ferdi- 
nand I,  and  was  confessor  at  the  ho.spital  and  prison. 
During  Lent,  1553  he  visited  manyabamloned  jiarislios 
in  Lower  Austria,  preaching  and  administering  the 
sacraments.  The  king's  eldest  son  (later  Maximilian 
II)  had  appointed  to  the  office  of  court  preacher, 
Phauser,  a  married  priest,  who  preached  the  Lutheran 
doctrine.  Canisius  warned  Ferdinand  I,  verbally  and 
in  writing,  and  opposed  Phauser  in  public  disputations. 
Ma.ximilian  was  obliged  to  dismiss  Phauser  and,  on 
this  account,  the  rest  of  his  life  he  harboured  a  grudge 
against  Canisius.  Ferdinand  three  times  offered  him 
the  Bishopric  of  Vienna,  but  he  refused.     In  1557 


^lAStl  Cl3  12XCV] 


FErRVSCAM.-l\JShO\l\u',.scO\.  IhSVTHEOLOCA'S 
Ohsniro  quiT  fairui  ryo ,  ijiur  Jlimm  fu^crjtcs 

CcriLi     r'diurr^nJit   MuUhyrr  Juir  .' 
iA&yf  rumum   ntL)  jfbaJim^  Cimsns  ^4lhTm 
lam  y  var  Christo  Juyunit  uitjr  mia! 
SufmuUt   t^amrrus,  cui   Sulms  .ulrtur  lESyS, 
Ipa  fit!rs,  riuims:Syc~,iul'dr;utias,Amm: 


Juhus  111  ajipointed  him  administrator  of  the  bishop- 
ric for  one  year,  but  CanLsius  succeeded  in  ridding 
himself  of  this  burden  (cf.  X.  Pauliis  in  "Zeitschrift 
fur  katholische  Theologie",  XXII,  742-S).  In  1555 he 
was  present  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  with  Ferchnand, 
and  in  1555-56  he  preached  in  the  cathedral  of  Prague. 
After  long  negotiations  and  preparations  he  was  able 
to  open  Jesuit  colleges  at  Ingolstadt  and  Prague.  In 
the  same  year  Ignatius  appointed  him  first  provincial 
superior  of  Upper  Germany  (Swabia,  Bavaria,  Bo- 
hemia, Hungary,  Lower  and  Upper  Austria).  During 
the  winter  of  1556-57  he  acted  as  adviser  to  the  King 
of  the  Romans  at  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  and  delivered 
many  sermons  in  the  cathedral.  By  the  appointment 
of  the  Catholic  princes  and  the  order  of  the  pope  he 
took  part  in  the  religious  discussions  at  Worms.  As 
champion  of  the  Catholics  he  repeatedly  spoke  in 
opposition  to  Melanchthon.  The  fact  that  the  Prot- 
estants disagreed  among  themselves  and  were  obliged 
to  leave  the  field  was  due  in 
a  great  measure  to  Canisius. 
He  also  preached  in  the  cathe- 
dral of  Worms. 

During  Advent  and  Christ- 
mas he  visited  the  BLshop  of 
Strasburg  at  Zabern,  started 
negotiations  for  the  building 
of  a  Jesuit  college  there, 
preached,  explained  the  cate- 
chism to  the  children,  and 
heard  their  confessions.  He 
also  preached  in  the  cathedral 
of  Strasburg  and  strengthened 
the  Catholics  of  Alsace  and 
Freiburg  in  their  faith.  Ferdi- 
nand, on  his  way  to  Frankfort 
to  be  proclaimed  emperor,  met 
him  at  Nuremburg  and  con- 
fided his  troubles  to  him. 
Then  Duke  Albert  V  of  Bavaria 
secured  his  services;  at  Strau- 
bing  the  pastors  and  preachers 
had  fled,  after  having  persuaded 
the  people  to  turn  from  the 
Catholic  faith.  Canisius  re- 
mained in  the  town  for  six 
weeks,  preaching  three  or  four 
times  a  day,  and  by  his  gen- 
tleness he  undid  much  harm. 
From  Straubing  he  was  called 
to  Rome  to  be  present  at  the 
First  General  Congregation  of 
his  order,  but  before  its  close  Paul  IV  sent  him  with 
the  nuncio  Mentuati  to  Poland  to  the  imperial  Diet 
of  Pieterko w ;  at  Cracow  he  addressed  the  clergy  and 
members  of  the  university.  In  the  year  1559  he  was 
summoned  by  the  emperor  to  be  present  at  the  Diet 
of  Augsburg.  There,  at  the  urgent  request  of  the 
chapter,  he  became  preacher  at  the  cathedral,  and 
held  this  position  until  1566.  His  manuscripts  show 
the  care  with  which  he  wrote  his  sermons.  In  a 
series  of  sermons  he  treats  of  the  end  of  man,  of  the 
Decalogue,  the  Mass,  the  prophecies  of  Jonas;  at  the 
same  time  he  rarely  omitted  to  expound  the  Gospel 
of  the  day;  he  spoke  in  keeping  with  the  spirit  of  the 
:iii:e,  e\pl:iiiied  the  justification  of  man,  Christian 
liln  li  \  .  I  Ih  ]iniper  way  of  interpreting  the  Scriptures, 
ilef(  ii.lid  I  he  wor.ship  of  saints,  the  ceremonies  of 
the  Church,  religious  vows,  indulgences,  urged  obe- 
dience to  the  Church  authorities,  confession,  com- 
munion, fasting,  and  almsgiving;  he  censured  the 
faults  of  the  clergy,  at  times  perhaps  too  sharply, 
as  he  felt  tli;it  they  were  public  and  that  he  must 
avoid  demanding  reformation  from  the  laity  only. 
Against  the  influence  of  evil  .spirits  he  recommended  the 
means  of  defence  which  had  been  in  use  in  the  Church 
during  the  first  centuries=-lively  faith,  prayer,  eccle- 


PETER 


758 


PETER 


siastical  benedictions,  and  acts  of  penance.  From 
1561-52  he  preached  about  two  hundred  and  ten  ser- 
mons, besides  giving  rt'treats  and  teaching  catechism. 
In  the  catliedral  iiis  confessional  and  the  altar  at 
which  he  said  M!i.ss  were  surrounded  by  crowds, 
and  alms  were  placed  on  the  altar.  The  envy  of  some 
of  the  cathedral  clergy  w:is  aroused,  and  Canisius  and 
his  companions  were  accused  of  usurping  the  paro- 
chial rights.  The  pope  and  bishop  fa\oured  the  Jesu- 
its, but  the  majority  of  the  chapter  opposed  them. 
Canisius  wiis  obliged  to  sign  an  agreement  according 
to  which  he  retained  the  pulpit  but  gave  up  the  right 
of  adniiiiislcring  the  sacraments  in  the  cathedral. 

In  lo.jlt  he  ojjened  a  college  in  Munich;  in  1562  he 
appeared  at  Trent  as  papal  theologian.  The  council 
was  discussing  the  question  whether  communion 
should  be  administered  under  both  forms  to  those  of 
the  laity  who  asked  for  it.  Lainez,  the  general  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  opposed  it  unconditionally. 
Canisius  held  that  the  cup  might  be  administered  to 
the  Bohemians  and  to  some  Catholics  whose  faith 
was  not  very  firm.  After  one  month  he  departed 
from  Trent,  but  he  continued  to  support  the  work  of 
the  Fathers  by  urging  the  bishops  to  appear  at  the 
council,  by  giving  expert  opinion  regarding  the  Index 
and  other  matters,  by  reports  on  the  state  of  public 
opinion,  and  on  newly-published  books.  In  the  spring 
of  156.3  he  rendered  a  specially  important  service  to 
the  Church;  the  emperor  had  come  to  Innsbruck 
(near  Trent),  and  had  summoned  thither  several 
scholars,  including  Canisius,  as  advisers.  Some  of 
these  men  fomented  the  displeasure  of  the  emperor 
with  the  pope  and  the  cardinals  who  presided  over 
the  council.  For  months  Canisius  strove  to  reconcile 
him  with  the  Curia.  He  has  been  blamed  unjustly 
for  communicating  to  his  general  and  to  the  pope's 
representatives  some  of  Ferdinand's  plans,  which 
otherwise  might  have  ended  contrary  to  the  inten- 
tion of  all  concerned  in  the  dissolution  of  the  coun- 
cil and  in  a  new  national  apostasy.  The  emperor 
finally  granted  all  the  pope's  demands  and  the  coun- 
cil was  able  to  proceed  and  to  end  peacefully.  All 
Rome  praised  Canisius,  but  soon  after  he  lost  favour 
with  Ferdinand  and  was  denounced  as  disloyal;  at 
this  time  he  also  changed  his  views  regarding  the 
giving  of  the  cup  to  the  laity  (in  which  the  emperor 
saw  a  means  of  relieving  all  his  difficulties),  saying 
that  such  a  concession  would  only  tend  to  confuse 
faithful  CathoUcs  and  to  encourage  the  disobedience 
of  the  recalcitrant. 

In  1562  the  College  of  Innsbruck  was  opened  by 
Canisius,  and  at  that  time  he  acted  as  confessor 
to  the  "Queen"  Magdalena  (declared  Venerable 
in  1906  by  Pius  X ;  daughter  of  Ferdinand  I, 
who  lived  with  her  four  sisters  at  Innsbruck),  and 
as  spiritual  adviser  to  her  sisters.  At  their  request 
he  sent  them  a  confessor  from  the  society,  and, 
when  Magdalena  presided  over  the  convent,  which 
she  had  founded  at  Hall,  he  sent  her  complete 
directions  for  attaining  Christian  perfection.  In 
1563  he  preached  at  many  monasteries  in  Swa- 
bia ;  in  1564  he  sent  the  first  missionaries  to 
Lower  Bavaria,  and  recommended  the  provincial 
synod  of  Salzburg  not  to  allow  the  cup  to  the  laity, 
as  it  had  authority  to  do;  his  advnce,  however,  was 
not  accepted.  In  this  year  Canisius  opened  a  college 
at  Dillingen  and  assumed,  in  the  name  of  the  order, 
the  administration  of  the  university  which  had  been 
founded  there  by  Cardinal  Truchsess.  In  1565  he  took 
part  in  the  Second  General  Congregation  of  the  order 
in  Rome.  While  in  Home  he  visited  Philip,  son  of  the 
Protestant  philologist  Joachim  Camerarius,  at  that 
time  a  prisoner  of  the  Inquisition,  and  instructed  and 
consoled  him.  Pius  IV  sent  him  as  his  secret  nuncio 
to  deliver  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  to 
Germany;  the  pope  also  commissioned  him  to  urge 
their  euiorcement,  to  ask  the  Catholic  princes   to 


defend  the  Church  at  the  coming  diet,  and  to  nego- 
tiate for  the  founding  of  colleges  and  seminaries. 
Canisius  negotiated  more  or  less  successfully  with 
the  Electors  of  Mainz  and  Trier,  with  the  Bishops 
of  Augsburg,  Wiirzburg,  Osnabriick,  Minister,  and 
Paderborn,  with  the  Duke  of  Jiilich-C^leves-Berg,  and 
with  the  City  and  University  of  Cologne;  he  also 
visited  Nimwegen,  preaching  there  and  at  i)ther])laces; 
his  mission,  however,  was  interrupted  by  the  death  of 
the  pope.  Pius  V  desired  its  continual  icm,  l)ut  Canisius 
requested  to  be  relieved;  he  said  that  it  aroused  sus- 
picions of  espionage,  of  arrogance,  and  of  interference 
in  politics  (for  a  detailed  account  of  his  mi.ssion  see 
"Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach",  LXXl,  .'is,  1()4,  301). 

At  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  (1566),  Canisius  and  other 
theologians,  by  order  of  the  pope,  gave  their  services 
to  the  cardinal  legate  Commendone;  with  the  help 
of  his  friends  he  succeeded,  although  with  great  diffi- 
culty, in  persuading  the  legate  not  to  issue  his  protest 
against  the  religious  peace,  and  thus  prevented  a  new 
fratricidal  war.  The  Catholic  memlK^rs  of  the  diet 
acce])ted  the  decrees  of  the  council,  the  designs  of  the 
Protestants  were  frustrated,  and  from  that  time  a  new 
and  vigorous  life  began  for  the  Catholics  in  fiermany. 
In  the  same  year  Canisius  went  to  \\'ic\sensteig,  where 
he  visited  and  brought  back  to  the  Church  the 
Lutheran  Count  of  Helfenstein  and  his  entire  count- 
sliiij,  and  where  he  prepared  for  death  two  witches  who 
had  been  abandoned  by  the  Lutheran  preachers.  In 
1567  he  preached  the  Lenten  sermons  in  the  cathedral 
of  Wiirzburg,  gave  instruction  in  the  Franciscan 
church  twice  a  week  to  the  children  and  domestics 
of  the  town,  and  discussed  the  founding  of  a  Jesuit 
college  at  Wiirzburg  with  the  bishop.  Then  followed 
the  diocesan  synod  of  Dilhngen  (at  which  Canisius 
was  principal  adviser  of  the  Bishop  of  Augsburg), 
journcj's  to  Wiirzburg,  Mainz,  Speyer,  and  a  visit  to 
the  Bishop  of  Strasburg,  whom  he  advised,  though 
unsuccessfully,  to  take  a  coadjutor.  At  Dillingen  he 
received  the  application  of  Stanislaus  Kostka  to  enter 
the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  sent  him  with  hearty  recom- 
mendations to  the  general  of  the  order  at  Rome.  At 
this  time  he  successfully  settled  a  dispute  in  the 
]3hilosophical  faculty  of  the  L^niversity  of  Ingolstadt. 
In  1567  and  1568  he  went  several  times  to  Inns- 
bruck, where  in  the  name  of  the  general  he  consulted 
with  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  II  and  his  sisters  about 
the  confessors  of  the  archduchesses  and  about  the 
estabUshment  of  a  Jesuit  house  at  Hall.  In  1569  the 
general  decided  to  accept  the  college  at  Hall. 

During  Lent  of  1568  Canisius  preached  at  Ell- 
wangen,  in  Wtirtemberg;  from  there  he  went  with 
Cardinal  Truchsess  to  Rome.  The  Upper  German 
province  of  the  order  had  elected  the  provincial  as  its 
representative  at  the  meeting  of  the  procurators;  this 
election  was  illegal,  but  Canisius  was  admitted.  For 
months  he  collected  in  the  libraries  of  Rome  material 
for  a  great  work  which  he  was  preparing.  In  1569 
he  returned  to  Augsburg  and  preached  Lenten  sermons 
in  the  Church  of  St.  Mauritius.  Having  been  a  pro- 
vincial for  thirteen  years  (an  unusually  long  time)  he 
was  relieved  of  the  office  at  his  own  request,  and  went 
to  Dillingen,  where  he  wrote,  catechized,  and  heard 
confessions,  his  respite,  however,  was  short;  in  1570 
he  was  obliged  again  to  go  to  Augsburg.  A  year  later 
he  was  compelled  to  move  to  Innsbruck  and  to  accept 
the  office  of  court  preacher  to  Archduke  Ferdinand  II. 
In  1575  Gregory  XIII  sent  him  with  papal  messages 
to  the  archduke  and  to  the  Duke  of  Bavaria.  When 
he  arrived  in  Rome  to  make  his  report,  the  Third 
General  Congregation  of  the  order  was  assembled  and, 
by  special  favour,  Canisius  was  invited  to  be  present. 
From  this  time  he  was  preacher  in  the  parish  church 
of  Innsbruck  until  the  Diet  of  Ratisbon  (1576),  which 
he  attended  as  theologian  of  the  cardinal  legate 
Morone.  In  the  following  year  he  super\'ised  at 
Ingolstadt  the  printing  of  an  important  work,  and 


BLESSED   PETER  CANISIUS   BEFORE   THE   EMPEROR   FERDINAND   I 
AND  CARDINAL  OTTONE 

CESARE   FRACASSINI,    VATICAN    GALLLERY   OF  MODERN    ARJU 


PETER 


759 


PETER 


induced  the  students  of  the  university  to  found  a 
sodaUty  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  During  Lent,  1578,  he 
preached  at  tlie  court  of  Dulce  Wilham  of  Bavaria  at 
Landshut.  The  nuncio  Bonhomiui  desired  to  liave  a 
college  of  the  society  at  Fribourg;  the  order  at  first 
refused  on  account  of  the  lack  of  men,  but  the  pope 
intervened  and,  at  the  end  of  1580,  Canisius  laid  the 
foundation  stone.  In  1581  he  founded  a  sodality  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  among  the  citizens  and,  soon  after- 
wards, sodalities  for  women  and  students;  in  1582 
schools  were  opened,  and  he  preached  in  the  parish 
church  and  in  other  places  until  1589. 

The  canton  had  not  been  left  uninfluenced  by  the 
Protestant  movement.  Canisius  worked  indefati- 
gably  with  the  provost  Peter  Schnewly,  the  Francis- 
can Johannes  Michel,  and  others,  for  the  revival  of 
religious  sentiments  amongst  the  people;  since  then 
Fribourg  has  remained  a  stronghold  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  In  1584,  while  on  his  way  to  take  part  in 
another  meeting  of  the  order  at  Augsburg,  he  preached 
at  Lucerne  and  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  miraculous 
image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  at  Einsiedeln.  According 
to  his  own  account,  it  was  then  that  St.  Nicholas,  the 
patron  saint  of  Fribourg,  made  known  to  him  his  desire 
that  Canisius  should  not  leave  Fribourg  again.  Many 
times  the  superiors  of  the  order  planned  to  transfer 
him  to  another  house,  but  the  nuncio,  the  city  council, 
and  the  citizens  themselves  opposed  the  measure;  they 
would  not  consent  to  lose  this  celebrated  and  saintly 
man.  The  last  years  of  his  life  he  devoted  to  the  in- 
struction of  converts,  to  making  spiritual  addresses 
to  the  brothers  of  the  order,  to  WTiting  and  re-editing 
books.  The  city  authorities  ordered  his  body  to  be 
buried  before  the  high  altar  of  the  principal  church, 
the  Church  of  St.  Nicolaus,  from  which  they  were 
translated  in  1625  to  that  of  St.  Michael,  the  church 
of  the  Jesuit  College. 

Canisius  held  that  to  defend  the  Catholic  truths 
with  the  pen  was  just  as  important  as  to  convert  the 
Hindus.  At  Rome  and  Trent  he  strongly  urged  the 
appointment  at  the  council,  at  the  papal  court,  and  in 
other  parts  of  Italy,  of  able  theologians  to  write  in 
defence  of  the  Catholic  faith.  He  begged  Pius  V  to 
send  yearly  subsidies  to  the  Catholic  printers  of  Ger- 
many, and  to  permit  German  scholars  to  edit  Roman 
manuscripts;  he  induced  the  city  council  of  Fribourg 
to  erect  a  printing  establishment,  and  he  secured 
special  privileges  for  printers.  He  also  kept  in  touch 
with  the  chief  Catholic  jirinters  of  his  time — Plantin 
of  Antwerp,  Cholin  of  Cologne,  and  Mayer  of  Dilling- 
en — and  had  foreign  works  of  importance  reprinted 
in  Germany,  for  example,  the  works  of  Andrada, 
Fontidonio,  and  Villalpando  in  defence  of  the  Council 
of  Trent. 

Canisius  advised  the  generals  of  the  order  to  create 
a  college  of  authors;  urged  scholars  like  Bartholomaeus 
Latomus,  Friedrich  Staphylus,  and  Hieronymus  Tor- 
rensis  to  publish  their  works;  assisted  Onofrio  Pan- 
vinio  and  the  polemic  Stanislaus  Hosius,  reading  their 
manuscripts  and  correcting  proofs;  and  contributed 
to  the  work  of  his  friend  Surius  on  the  councils.  At 
his  solicitation  the  "Briefe  aus  Indien",  the  first 
relations  of  Catholic  missioners,  were  published  (Dill- 
ingen,  1563-71);  "Canisius",  wrote  the  Protestant 
preacher,  Witz,  "by  this  activity  gave  an  impulse 
which  deserves  our  undivided  recognition,  indeed 
which  arouses  our  admiration"  ("Petrus  Canisius", 
Vienna,  1897,  p.  12). 

The  latest  bibliography  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  de- 
votes thirty-eight  quarto  pages  to  a  list  of  the  works 
published  by  Canisius  and  their  different  editions,  and 
it  must  be  added  that  this  list  is  incomplete.  The 
most  important  of  his  works  are  described  below;  the 
asterisk  signifies  that  the  work  bears  the  name  of 
Canisius  neither  on  the  title  page  nor  in  the  preface. 
His  chief  work  is  his  triple  "Catechism".  In  1.551  King 
Ferdinand  I  asked  the  Universit>  of  Vienna  to  write 


a  compendium  of  Christian  doctrine,  and  Canisius 
wrote  (Vienna,  1555),  at  first  for  advanced  students, 
his  "Summa  doctrina;  christianae  .  .  .  in  usum  Chris- 
tianae  pueritise",  two  hundred  and  eleven  questions 
in  five  chapters  (the  first  edition  appeared  without  the 
name  of  the  author,  but  later  all  three  catechisms  bore 
his  name);  then  a  short  extract  for  school  children, 
"Summa  ...  ad  captum  rudiorum  accommodata" 
(Ingolstadt,  1556),  was  published  as  an  appendix  to 
the  "Principia  Grammatices";  his  catechism  for 
students  of  the  lower  and  middle  grades,  "Parvus 
Catechismus  Catholicorum  "  (later  known  as  "  Institu- 
tiones  christians  pietatis"  or  "Catechismus  cathol- 
icus"),  is  an  extract  from  the  larger  catechism,  written 
in  the  winter  of  1557-58.  Of  the  first  Latin  edition 
(Cologne,  1558),  no  copy  is  known  to  exist;  the  Ger- 
man edition  appeared  at  Dillingen,  1560.  The 
"Summa"  only  received  its  definite  form  in  the 
Cologne  edition  of  1556;  it  contains  two  hundred  and 
twenty-two  questions,  and  two  thousand  quotations 
from  the  Scriptures,  and  about  twelve  hundred  quota- 
tions from  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  are  inscribed  on 
the  margins;  later  all  these  quotations  were  compiled 
in  the  original  by  Peter  Busajus,  S.J.,  and  appeared  in 
four  quarto  volumes  under  the  title  "  Authoritates 
Sacrae  Scriptura;  et  Sanctorum  patrum"  etc.  (Cologne, 
1569-70);  in  1557  Johannes  Hasius,  S.J.,  published 
the  same  work  in  one  large  folio  volume,  entitled 
"Opus  catecliisticum",  for  which  Canisius  wrote  an 
introduction.  The  catechism  of  Canisius  is  remark- 
able for  its  ecc'esiastically  correct  teachings,  its  clear, 
positive  sentences,  its  mild  and  dignified  form.  It  is 
to-day  recognized  as  a  masterpiece  even  by  non- 
Catholics,  e.  g.,  the  historians  Ranke,  Menzel,  Philipp- 
son,  and  the  theologians  Kawcrau,  Rouffet,  Zersch- 
witz. 

Pius  V  entrusted  Canisius  with  the  confutation  of 
the  Centuriators  of  Magdeburg  (q.  v.).  Canisius 
undertook  to  prove  the  dishonesty  of  the  centuriators 
by  exposing  their  treatment  of  the  principal  persons 
in  the  Gosjjel  — John  the  Baptist,  the  Mother  of  God, 
the  Apostle  St.  Peter — and  published  (Dillingen, 
1571)  his  next  most  important  work,  "Commentario- 
rum  de  Verbi  Dei  corruptelis  liber  primus:  in  quo  de 
Sanctissimi  Pra;cursoris  Domini  Joannis  Baptistse 
Historia  Evangelica  .  .  .  pertractatur".  Here  the 
confutation  of  the  principal  errors  of  Protestantism  is 
exegetical  and  historical  rather  than  scholastical ;  in 
1577  "De  Maria  Virgine  incomparabili,  et  Dei  Geni- 
trice  sacrosancta,  libri  quinque"  was  published  at 
Ingolstadt.  Later  he  united  these  two  works  into 
one  book  of  two  volumes,  "  Commentariorum  de 
Verbi  corruptelis"  (Ingolstadt,  1583,  and  later  Paris 
and  Lyons) ;  the  treatise  on  St.  Peter  and  his  iirimacy 
was  only  begun;  the  work  on  the  Virgin  Mary  ccjn- 
tains  some  quotations  from  the  Fathers  of  the  Church 
that  had  not  been  printed  previously,  and  treats  of 
the  worship  of  Mary  by  the  Church.  A  celebrated 
theologian  of  the  present  day  called  this  work  a  classic 
defence  of  the  whole  Catholic  doctrine  about  the 
Ble.ssed  Virgin  (Scheeben,  "Dogmatik",  III,  478);  in 
1543  he  published  (under  the  name  of  Petrus  Nouio- 
magus)  *"Des  erleuchten  D.  Johannis  Tauleri,  von 
eym  waren  Euangelischen  leben,  Gottliche  Predig. 
Leren"  etc.,  in  which  several  writings  of  the  Domin- 
ican mystic  appear  in  print  for  the  first  time.  This 
was  the  first  book  published  by  a  Jesuit.  "Divi 
Cyrilliarchiepiscopi  Aloxandrini Opera"  (Latin  trans- 
lation, 2  fol.  vols.,  Cologne,  1546);  "D.  Leonis  Papae 
huius  nominis  primi  .  .  .  Opera"  (Cologne,  1546, 
later  reprinted  at  Venice,  Louvain,  and  Cologne), 
Leo  is  brought  forward  as  a  witness  for  tlie  Catholic 
teachings  and  the  discipline  of  the  Church  .against  the 
innovators;  "De  con.solandisa'grotis"  (Vienna,  1554), 
exhortations  (Latin,  German,  and  Italian)  and  pray- 
ers, with  a  preface  by  Canisius;  *"Lectiones  et  Pre- 
cationes  Ecclesiasticae  "  (Ingolstadt,  1556),  a  prayer- 


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book  for  students,  reprinted  more  than  thirty  times 
under  the  titles  of  "Epistolie  et  Evangeha"  etc.; 
*"Principia  grammatices"  (Ingolstadt,  1556);  Hanni- 
bal Codrett's  Latin  Grammar,  adaptt-d  for  German 
students  by  Canisius,  reprinted  in  1501,  1564  and 
1568;  *"(jrdnung  der  Letaney  von  vnser  lichen 
Frawen"  [Dillingcn  (1558)],  the  first  known  printing 
of  the  Litany  of  Loreto,  the  second  (Macerata,  1576) 
was  most  probably  arranged  by  Canisius;  *"Vom 
abschiedt  des  Coloquij  zu  Wormbs"  (s.  1.  a.,  15- 
68?). 

*"Ain  Christlicher  Bcricht,  was  die  hailige  Christ- 
liche Kirch  .  .  .  gey"  (Dillingcn,  1559),  translation  and 
preface  by  Canisius  (cf.  N.  Paulus  in  "Historisch- 
polit.  Blatter",  CXXI,  765) ;  "Epistohe  B.  Hieronymi 
. . .  selcctie"  (Dillingen,  1562),  a  school  edition  arranged 
and  ijrefaced  by  Canisius  and  later  reprinted  about 
forty  times;  *"Hortulus  Animse"  (q.  v.),  a  German 
prayer-book  arranged  b}-  Canisius  (Dillingen,  1563), 
reprinted  later,  probably  published  also  in  Latin  by 
him.  The  "Hortuli"  were  placed  later  on  the  Index 
nisi  corrigantur;  *"Von  der  Gesellschaft  Jesu  Durch. 
Joannem  Albertum  Wimpinensem"  (Ingolstadt, 1563), 
a  defence  of  the  order  against  Chemnitz  and  Zanger, 
the  greater  part  of  which  was  written  by  Canisius; 
"Institutiones,  et  Exercitamentas  Christiana;  Pie- 
t  at  is"  (Antwerp,  1 566) ,  many  times  reprinted,  in  which 
Canisius  combined  the  catechism  for  the  middle 
grades  and  the  "Lectiones  et  Precationes  ecclesi- 
astic*" (revised  in  Rome);  "Beicht-und  Commun- 
ionbuchlein"  [Dillingen,  1567  (?),  1575,  1579,  1582, 
1603;  Ingolstadt,  1594,  etc.);  "Christenliche  .  .  . 
Predig  von  den  vier  Sontagen  im  Aducnt,  auch  vonn 
dem  heiligen  Christag"  (Dillingen,  1570). 

At  the  request  of  Ferdinand  II  of  Tyrol,  Canisius 
supervised  the  publishing  of  *"Von  dem  hoch  vnd 
weitberhiimpten  \\'underzcichen,  so  sich  .  .  .  auff  dem 
Seefeld  .  .  .  zugetragen"  (Dillingen,  1580),  and  wrote 
a  long  preface  for  it ;  then  appeared  ' '  Z wey  vnd  neunt- 
zig  Betrachtung  vnd  Gebett,  dess  .  .  .  Bruders 
Clausen  von  Vnterwalden"  (Fribourg,  1586);  "Man- 
uale  Catholicorum.  In  usum  pie  precandi"  (Fri- 
bourg, 1587);  "Zwo  .  .  .  Historien  .  .  .  Die  erste 
von  .  .  .  S.  Beato,  ersten  Prediger  in  Schweitzer- 
land.  Die  andere  von  .  .  .  S.  Fridolino,  ersten  Pre- 
diger zu  Claris  vnd  Seckingen"  (Fribourg,  1590):  in 
this,  the  first  of  the  popular  biographies  of  the 
saints  especially  worshipped  in  Switzerland,  Canisius 
does  not  give  a  scholarly  essay,  but  endeavours  to 
strengthen  the  Catholic  Swiss  in  their  faith  and  arouse 
their  piety;  "Not*  in  Evangelicas  lectiones,  qua;  per 
totum  annum  Dominicis  diebus  .  .  .  recitantur" 
(Fribourg,  1591),  a  large  quarto  volume  valuable  for 
sermons  and  meditations  for  the  clergy;  "Miserere, 
das  ist:  Der  50.  Psalm  Davids  .  .  .  Gebettsweiss  .  .  . 
aussgelegt"  (Munich,  1594,  Ingolstadt,  1594); 
"Warhafte  Histori  .  .  .  Von  Sanct  Moritzen  .  .  . 
vnd  seiner  Thebaischen  Legion  .  .  .  Auch  insonder- 
heit  von  Sanct  Vrso"  (Fribourg,  1594);  *"Catholische 
Kirchengesiing  zum  theil  vor  vnd  nach  dem  Cate- 
chismo  zum  teil  sonst  durchs  Jahr  .  .  .  zusingen" 
(Fribourg,  1.596);  "Enchiridion  Pietatis  quo  ad  pre- 
candum  Deum  ins'ruitur  Princeps"  (s.  1.,  1751), 
dedicated  by  Canisius  in  1592  to  the  future  emperor, 
Ferdinand  II  (Zeitschrift  fiir  katholische  Theologie, 
XIV,  741);  "  Beat i  Petri  Canisii  Exhortationes  domes- 
ticse  ,  mostly  short  sketches,  collected  and  edited  by 
G.  Schlosser,  S.J.  (Roermond,  1876);  "Beati  Petri 
Canisii  Epistula;  ct  Acta":  1541-65,  edited  by  O. 
Braunsberger,  S.J.  (4  vols.,  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1896- 
1905).  There  still  remain  unpublished  four  or  five 
volumes  containing  eleven  hundred  and  ninety-five 
letters  and  regesta  written  to  or  by  Canisius,  and  six 
hundred  and  twenty-five  dot^uments  dealing  with  his 
labours. 

"Peter  Canisius",  says  the  Protestant  professor  of 
theology,  Kruger,  "was  a  noble  Jesuit;  no  blemish 


stains  his  character"  ("Petrus  Canisius"  in  "Ge- 
schichte  u.  Legende",  Giessen,  1898,  10).  The  prin- 
cipal trait  of  his  character  was  love  for  Christ  and 
for  his  work;  he  devoted  his  life  to  defend,  proiiagalc, 
and  strengthen  the  Chiu'ch.  Hence  his  devotion  to 
the  pope.  He  did  not  deny  the  abuses  which  existed 
in  Rome;  he  deinandod  spc<:dy  remedies;  but  the  su- 
preme and  full  power  of  the  pope  over  the  whole 
C'hurcli,  and  the  iiil'alliliility  of  his  teaching  as  Head 
(if  llu■t'hur(■h,C"ani^ius(■llampionedasvigo^ousl}'asthe 
Italian  and  Spaiii.sh  lircitlicrs  of  the  order.  He  cannot 
be  called  an  "l'',i>isr(ipaliau"  or  "Senii-Gallican";  his 
motto  was  "whoever  adheres  to  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter 
is  my  man.  With  Ambrose  I  desire  to  follow  the 
Church  of  Rome  in  every  respect".  Pius  V  wLshed 
to  make  him  cardinal.  The  bishops,  Brendel  of 
Mainz,  Brus  of  Prague,  Pflug  of  Naumburg,  Blarer 
of  Basle,  Cromer  of  Ermland,  and  Spaur  of  Brixen, 
held  him  in  great  esteem.  St.  Francis  of  Sales  sought 
his  advice  by  letter.  He  enjoyed  the  friendship  of 
the  most  distinguished  members  of  the  College  of 
Cardinals — Borromeo,  Hof'ius,  Truchsess,  Commen- 
done,  Morone,  Sirlet ;  of  the  nuncios  Delfino,  Portia, 
Bonhomini  and  others;  of  many  leading  exponents 
of  ecclesiastical  learning;  and  of  such  prominent 
men  as  the  Chancellor  of  the  LTniversity  of  Lou- 
vain,  Ruard  Tapper,  the  provcst  Martin  Eisengrein, 
Friedrich  Staphylus,  PYanz  Sonnius,  Martin  liitho- 
vius,  Wilhelm  Lindanus,  the  imperial  vice-chan- 
cellors Jacob  Jonas  and  Georg  Sigismund  Seld,  the 
Bavarian  chancellor  Simon  Thadda!us  Eck,  and  the 
Fuggers  and  WeLsers  of  Aug.sburg.  "  Canisius's  whole 
life",  writes  the  Swiss  Protestant  theologian  Gautier, 
"is  animated  by  the  desire  to  form  a  generation  of 
devout  cleriescapableof  servingthe  Church  worthily" 
("Etude  sur  la  correspondance  de  Pierre  Canisius", 
Geneva,  1905,  p.  46).  At  Ingolstadt  he  held  disputa- 
tions and  homiletic  exercises  among  the  young  clerics, 
and  endeavoured  to  raise  the  religious  and  scientific 
standard  of  the  Georgianum.  He  collected  for  and  sent 
pupils  to  theGerman  College  at  Rome  and  provided  for 
pupils  who  had  returned  home.  He  also  urged  Gregory 
XIII  to  make  donations  and  to  found  similar  institu- 
tions in  Germany;  soon  papal  seminaries  were  built 
at  Prague,  Fulda,  Braunsberg,  and  Dillingen.  At 
Ingolstadt,  Innsbruck,  Munich,  and  Vienna  schools 
were  built  under  the  guidance  of  Canisius  for  the 
nobility  and  the  poor,  the  former  to  educate  the 
clergy  of  the  cathedrals,  the  latter  for  the  clergy  of 
the  iower  grades.  The  reformed  ordinances  pub- 
lished at  that  time  for  the  LTniversities  of  Cologne, 
Ingolstadt,  and  Vienna  must  be  credited  in  the  main 
to  his  suggestions. 

With  apostolic  zeal  he  loved  the  Society  of  Jesus; 
the  day  of  his  admission  to  the  order  he  called  his 
second  birthday.  Obedience  to  his  superiors  was  his 
first  rule.  As  a  superior  he  cared  with  parental  love 
for  the  necessities  of  his  subordinates.  Shortly  before 
his  death  he  declared  that  he  had  never  regretted 
becoming  a  Jesuit,  and  recalled  the  abuses  which  the 
opponents  of  the  Church  had  heaped  upon  his  order 
and  his  person.  Johann  Wigand  wrote  a  vile  pamphlet 
against  his  "Catechism";  Hacius  Illyricus,  Johann 
Gnypheus,  and  Paul  Scheidlich  wrote  books  against 
it;  Melanchthon  declared  that  he  defended  errors 
wilfully;  Chemnitz  called  him  a  cynic;  the  satirist 
Fischart  scoffed  at  him;  Andrese,  Dathen,  Gallus, 
Hesshusen,  Osiander,  Platzius,  Roding,  Vergerio,  and 
others  wrote  vigorous  attacks  against  him;  at  Prague 
the  Hussites  threw  stones  into  the  church  where  he 
was  saying  Mass;  at  Berne  he  was  derided  by  a  Prot- 
estant mob.  At  Easter,  1568,  he  was  obliged  to 
preach  in  the  Cathedral  of  Wiirzburg  in  order  to  dis- 
prove the  rumour  that  he  had  become  a  Protestant. 
Unembittered  by  all  this,  he  said,  "the  more  our 
opponents  calumniate  us,  the  more  we  must  love 
them".    He  requested  Cathohc  authors  to  advocate 


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the  truth  with  modesty  and  dignity  without  scoffing 
or  ridicule.  The  names  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon 
were  never  mentioned  in  his  "Catechism".  His  love 
for  the  German  people  is  characteristic;  he  urged  the 
brothers  of  the  order  to  practise  German  diligently, 
and  he  hked  to  hear  the  German  national  hymns  sung. 
At  his  desire  St.  Ignatius  decreed  that  all  tlio  members 
of  the  order  .should  offer  monthly  !Ma.sses  and  prayers 
for  the  welfare  of  Germany  and  the  North.  Ever  the 
faithful  advocate  of  the  Germans  at  the  Holy  See,  he 
obtained  clemency  for  them  in  que.stions  of  ecclesias- 
tical censures,  and  permission  to  give  extraordinary 
absolutions  and  to  dispense  from  the  law  of  fasting. 
He  also  wished  the  Index  to  be  modified  that  German 
confessors  might  be  authorized  to  permit  the  reading 
of  some  books,  but  in  his  sermons  he  warned  the 
faithful  to  abstain  from  reading  such  books  without 
permission.  While  he  was  rector  of  the  University  of 
Ingolstadt,  a  resolution  was  passed  forbidding  the  use 
of  Protestant  textbooks  and,  at  his  request,  the  Duke 
of  Bavaria  forbade  the  importation  of  books  opposed 
to  religion  and  morals.  At  Cologne  he  requested  the 
town  council  to  forbid  the  printing  or  sale  of  books  hos- 
tile to  the  Faith  or  immoral,  and  in  the  Tyrol  had 
Archduke  Fenlinand  II  suppress  such  books.  He  also 
advised  Bishop  Urban  of  Gurk,  the  court  preacher  of 
Ferdinand  I,  not  to  read  so  many  Protestant  books, 
but  to  study  instead  the  Scriptures  and  the  writings 
of  the  Fathers.  At  Nimwegen  he  searched  the  libraries 
of  his  friends,  and  burned  all  heretical  books.  In  the 
midst  of  all  these  cares  Canisius  remained  essentially 
a  man  of  prayer;  he  was  an  ardent  advocate  of  the 
Rosary  and  its  sodalities.  He  was  also  one  of  the  pre- 
cursors of  the  modern  devotion  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
During  his  lifetime  his  "Catechism"  appeared  in 
more  than  200  editions  in  at  least  twelve  languages. 
It  was  one  of  the  works  which  influenced  St.  Aloy- 
sius  Gonzaga  to  enter  the  Society  of  Jesus ;  it  converted, 
among  others.  Count  Palatine  Wolfgang  Wilhelm  of 
Neuburg;  and  as  late  as  the  eighteenth  century  in 
many  places  the  words  "Canisi"  and  catechism  were 
sjmonymous.  It  remained  the  foundation  and  pattern 
for  the  catechisms  printed  later.  His  preaching  also  had 
great  influence;  in  1560  the  clergy  of  the  cathedral 
of  Augsburg  testified  that  by  his  sermons  nine  hun- 
dred persons  had  been  brought  back  to  the  Church, 
and  in  May,  1562,  it  was  reported  the  Easter  com- 
municants numbered  one  thousand  more  than  in 
former  years.  Canisius  induced  some  of  the  promi- 
nent Fuggers  to  return  to  the  Church,  and  converted 
the  leader  of  the  Aug.sburg  Anabaptists.  In  1.537  the 
Catholic  clergy  had  been  banished  from  Augsburg  by 
the  city  council;  but  after  the  preaching  of  Canisius 
public  processions  were  held,  monasteries  gained 
novices,  people  crowded  to  the  jubilee  indulgence, 
pilgrimages  were  revived,  and  frequent  Communion 
again  became  the  rule.  After  the  election.s  of  1562 
there  were  eighteen  Protestants  and  twenty-seven 
Catholics  on  the  city  council.  He  received  the  appro- 
bation of  Pius  IV  by  a  special  Brief  in  1561.  Great 
services  were  rendered  by  Canisius  to  the  Church 
through  the  extension  of  the  Society  of  Jesus;  the 
difficulties  were  great:  lack  of  novices,  insufficient 
education  of  some  of  the  younger  members,  poverty, 
plague,  animosity  of  the  Protestants,  jealousy  on  the 
part  of  fellow-Catholics,  the  interference  of  princes  and 
city  councils.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  Canisius  intro- 
duced the  order  into  Bavaria,  Bohemia,  Swabia,  the 
Tyrol,  and  Hungary,  and  prepared  the  way  in  Alsace, 
the  Palatinate,  Hesse,  and  Poland.  Even  opponents 
admit  that  to  the  Jesuits  principally  is  due  the  credit 
of  saving  a  large  part  of  Germany  from  religious  in- 
novation. In  this  work  Canisius  was  the  leader.  In 
many  respects  Canisius  was  the  product  of  an  age 
which  believed  in  strange  miracles,  put  witches  to 
death,  and  had  recourse  to  force  against  the  ad- 
herents of  another  faith;  but  notwithstanding  all  this, 


Johannes  Janssen  does  not  hesitate  to  declare  that 
Canisius  was  the  most  prominent  and  most  influential 
Catholic  reformer  of  the  sixteenth  century  (Ge- 
schichte  des  deutschen  Volkes,  15th  and  16th  editions, 
IV,  p.  406).  "Canisius  more  than  any  other  man", 
writes  A.  Chroust,  "saved  for  the  Church  of  Rome  the 
Catholic  Germany  of  to-day"  (Deutsche  Zeitschrift 
filr  Geschichtswissenschaft,  new  series,  II,  106).  It 
has  often  been  declared  that  Canisius  in  many  ways 
resembles  St.  Boniface,  and  he  is  therefore  called 
the  second  Apostle  of  Germany.  The  Protestant  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  Paul  Drews,  says:  "It  must  be 
admitted  that,  from  the  standpoint  of  Rome,  he 
deserves  the  title  of  Apostle  of  Germany"  ("Petrus 
Canisius".  Ilallc,  1S02,  p.  103). 

Sddu  after  his  death  reports  spread  of  the  mirac- 
ulous help  ublained  by  invoking  his  name.  His  tomb 
was  visited  by  pilgrims.  The  Society  of  Jesus  decided 
to  urge  his  beatification.  The  ecclesiastical  investiga- 
tions of  his  virtues  and  mirat'les  were  at  first  con- 
ducted by  the  Bishops  of  Fribourg,  Dillingen,  and 
Freising  (162.5-90);  the  apostolic  proceedings  began 
in  1734,  but  were  interrupted  by  political  and  relig- 
ious disorders.  Gregory  XVI  resumed  them  about 
1833;  Pius  IX  on  17  April,  1864,  approved  of  four  of 
the  miracles  submitted,  and  on  20  November,  1869, 
the  solemn  beatification  took  place  in  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome.  In  connexion  with  this,  there  appeared  be- 
tween 1864-66  more  than  thirty  different  biographies. 
On  the  occasion  of  the  tercentenary  of  his  death,  Leo 
XIII  issued  to  the  bishops  of  Austria,  Germany,  and 
Switzerland  his  much-discussed  "Epistola  Encyclica 
de  raemoria  sa;culari  B.  Petri  Canisii" ;  the  bishops  of 
Switzerland  issued  a  collective  pastoral;  in  numerous 
places  of  Europe  and  in  some  places  in  the  United 
States  this  tercentenarj'  was  celebrated  and  about 
fifty  pamphlets  were  puijlished .  In  order  to  encourage 
the  veneration  of  Canisius  there  is  published  at  Fri- 
bourg, Switzerland,  monthly  since  1896,  the  "Cani- 
sius-Stimmen "  (in  German  and  French).  The  infir- 
mary of  the  College  of  St.  Michael,  in  which  Canisius 
died,  is  now  a  chapel.  Vestments  and  other  objects 
which  he  used  are  kept  in  different  houses  of  the  order. 
The  Canisius  College  at  Buffalo  possesses  precious 
relics.  In  the  house  of  Canisius  in  the  Broersstraat  at 
Nimwegen  the  room  is  still  shown  where  he  was  bom. 
Other  memorials  are:  the  Canisius  statue  in  one  of  the 
public  squares  of  Fribourg,  the  statue  in  the  cathedral 
of  Augsburg,  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Saviour  and  the 
Mother  of  Sorrows,  recently  built  in  his  memory  in 
Vienna,  and  the  new  Canisius  College  at  Nimwegen. 
At  the  twenty-sixth  general  meeting  of  German 
Cathohcs  held  at  Aachen,  1879,  a  Canisius  society 
for  the  religious  education  of  the  young  was  founded. 
The  general  prayer,  said  every  Sunday  in  the  churches 
originated  by  Canisius,  is  still  in  use  in  the  greater 
part  of  Germany,  and  also  in  many  places  in  Austria 
and  Switzerland.  Various  portraits  of  Canisius  exist: 
in  the  Churches  of  St.  Nicolaus  and  St.  Michael  at 
Fribourg;  in  the  vestry  of  the  Augsburg  Cathedral; 
in  the  Church  of  St.  Michael  at  Munich;  in  the  town 
hall  at  Nimwegen;  in  the  town  hall  at  lng<j|stadt; 
in  the  Cistercian  monastery  at  Stams.  The  woodcut 
in  Pantaleo,  "Prosopographia",  III  (Basle,  1566),  is 
worthless.  Copper-plates  were  produced  by  Wierx 
(1619),  Custos  (1612),  Sadeler  (1628),  Hainzelmann 
(1693),  etc.  In  the  nineteenth  century  are  :  Fracas- 
sini's  painting  in  the  Vatican;  Jeckel's .steel  engraving; 
Leo  Samberger's  painting;  Steinle's  engraving  (1886). 
In  most  of  these  pictures  Canisius  is  represented  wit  h 
his  catechism  and  other  books,  or  surrounded  by  chil- 
dren whom  he  is  instructing.  (See  Doctrine,  Chris- 
Ti.\x;  Codnter-Reformation;  Society  of  Jesus.) 

B.  P.  Canisii  Episl.  rl  Arln.  prl.  BRArNsnEnnEn  fh  vola.,  Frei- 
burgimBr.,  IS'lfi    I'ln-.i,  -,  v   r„,.f,     ,„■■,■  an>l  7'.Mmfn/vm;  the 

Beatification    \.  '  •        •■        i.ir-.    !    ■     i ;'ii.(     in  onK'  a  few 

copies,  theolfi.  I  .  uh]  !■  nil  ■•  1       '..'         //  ./•    !l:  (').rnnicon 

Poland,    Ejn.l^.l.i     1/1,1/. I    ,n,.    I...    ;n..'i'./     .11-,     - .    i.n     ^Uiuut    thirty 


PETER 


7G2 


PETER 


volumes  (Mndrid,  1894 — ).  Of  the  complete  bioKraphies.  the  fol- 
lowitiKure  the  most  important:  Haderus,  De  Vita  Caniaii  (Munich, 
Kil  1);  SACC.iiNis,  i)c  Vila  <•(  Tchus  gcstii  P.  Petri  Canisii  (TnKol- 
stadt,  llilli) ;  UoEuo,  Vita  <lel  Beato  Pittro  Canisio  (Home,  INM) ; 
UiEss.  Der  siligc  Pelrus  Canisius  (Freiburg,  lS(5.i) ;  Le  Bachei.et 
in  Did.  de  ThM.  Cath.  (Paris,  1905),  s.  v.  Canisius.  BioKrapliiea, 
iu  German:  by  Pratiss  (Vienna,  IS65),  Mabcour  (Freiburg, 
1881),  PftlLP  (Einsiedein,  1897),  Mehi-er  (Ratisbon,  1897);  in 
Latin  by  Python  (Munieh,  1710);  in  French  bv  Dorkint 
iParis,  1707),  S^ouiN  (Paris,  18G4),  Bovet  (Frihourg,  ISCo, 
188l\  DE  Hehtiont  (Fribourg,  1865),  Michel  (Lille,  1S97); 
in    liiit.li    bv    HE    Smidt    (Antwerp,      1652).    S^guin-Allard 

(Ni'i  u l^'Ti:  in  Italian  by  FuLiOATTi  (Rome,  16-19),  Oddi 

(N  ■;  I  .  ■  i        111    Spanish  by  Nierembehg  (Madrid,  1033), 

C:\i.  I  ^  '^i  I  !  I  i,  1S'>.">).  Cf.  alaoK^oss^Der  selige  Petrus  Canisius 
»it  L'l-.'  ;.  < ,         \  I.  nnrt,  1  ^08),  from  manuscript  sources;  Rei.seh, 

B.  Pdrus  (  ■:'  /M'.rfcrt  (Mainz,  1882);  Allard,  (^anisi- 
ana,  from  iIm  I  i  ■,  i,  s  ,  ;,,  „  (Utrecht.  1898-99) ;Braunsberoer, 
Entalehunu  u.  •  /-  ..l.iitng  d.  Katechismen  d.  seligen  Petrus 
Canisius    (IniLuig.    ls;ij);     Sommervooel,    Bibliolhiriue   de   la 

C.  de  J.  (new  ud.,  Brussels  and  Paris,  1890-1900).  II,  617-88; 
VIII,  1974-83;  DcBR,  Gesch.  d.  Jesuiten  in  den  Ldnden  deiUscher 
Zunge,  I  (Freiburg,  1907);  various  A'u;i/ia(ure  i?t?por/s  of  Germany 
and  Switzerland  published  by  Steinherz.  Schellhass,  Hansen, 
Stekkens-Reinhabdt,  etc.  OtTO    BraCNSBERGER. 

Peter  Cantor,  theologian,  b.  probably  at  Gisbcroi, 
near  Beauvais,  France;  d.  at  Long  Pont  Abbey,  22 
Sept.,  1197.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Hosdenc  family; 
when  still  young  he  went  to  Reims,  which  may  possi- 
bly ha\-e  been  his  birthplace,  and  was  educated  at  the 
cathedral  school.  He  was  a  professor  for  many  years, 
canon  of  the  cathedral,  and  would  seem  to  have  had 
also  the  office  of  cantor  ot  succentor. 

Towards  1170,  we  find  Peter  as  canon  and  professor 
of  theology  of  the  cathedral  school  at  Paris,  where  in 
1  ISO  lie  is  again  invested  ^\-ith  the  office  of  cantor,  for 
his  predecessor  appears  on  the  documents  for  the  last 
time  in  1180,  whilst  mention  is  first  made  of  him  in 
11S4.  This  is  what  caused  him  to  be  designated 
Petrus  Cantor,  Cantor  Parisiensis,  or  simply  Cantor; 
and  his  name  is  found  on  many  charters.  At  the  same 
time,  his  capabilities  led  him  to  be  frequently  chosen 
by  the  popes  as  a  judge,  e.  g.,  at  Troyes  in  11 88,  and 
also  during  1196  and  1197  at  Compiegne  for  the  royal 
divorce  case  with  Ingeberge.  In  1191  the  people  and 
clergy  of  Tournai  chose  him  for  their  bishop,  but 
his  election  was  annulled  by  Bishop  Guillaume  de 
Champagne  of  Reims.  At  the  death  of  Maurice  de 
Sully  in  1 196,  it  is  said  that  he  was  elected  Bishop  of 
Paris,  but  refused  the  dignity. 

In  1196  Peter  was  elected  dean  of  the  cathedral 
chapter  of  Reims.  Whilst  on  his  journey  from  Paris 
to  l{eims,  Peter  visited  the  Cistercians  at  Long  Pont 
Abbey,  wa,s  taken  ill  there,  died,  and  was  buried, 
probably  wearing  the  habit  of  the  order.  In  the 
Cistercian  menology  he  is  honoured  as  one  of  them- 
selves (19  May). 

He  left  commentaries  or  glosses  on  all  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Books,  except  Judith,  Esther,  Tobias,  and  Le- 
viticus; the  best  are  those  on  the  Psalms.  In  like 
manner  he  also  wrote  glosses  on  the  whole  of  the  New 
Testament,  following  the  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gos- 
pels which,  under  the  name  of  Ammonius,  or  Tatian, 
was  much  in  use  during  the  Middle  Ages.  His  com- 
mentaries on  the  Gospels  and  on  the  Apocalypse  are 
perhaps  the  most  worthy  of  praise;  that  on  St.  Paul 
may  be  described  as  an  interlinear  gloss;  in  it  scholas- 
tic discussions  are  often  introduced  k  propos  of  certain 
subjects  a-s  they  are  suggested  by  the  text.  This  style 
of  writing  commentaries  was  by  no  means  new  to  the 
age  in  which  he  live<l,  and  it  is  more  and  more  de- 
veloped at  this  period.  None  of  these  works  were 
printed,  not  even  an  introduction  or  treatise  which  he 
wrote  on  the  Bible  in  twenty  folio  pages  variously 
entitled:  "De  tropis  theologicis",  "De  contrarietate 
Bcnptura;",  or  "De  tropis  loquendi";  in  it  he  lays 
down  rules  for  the  solution  of  contradictions  that  may 
seem  to  exist  between  different  passages  of  the  Bible. 
Traces  of  it  may  be  foimd  in  Peter's  commentaries 
and  annotations  on  the  Bible;  the  rules  of  Ticonius 
are  sometimes  found  following  on  the  "De  tropis"  of 
Peter. 


rhere  are  two  other  unpublished  works,  namely 
the  "Summa  de  sacramentis  et  animae  consiliis"' 
which  though  lengthy  is  nevertheless  precious  for  its 
vaiinl  information  on  the  institutions  and  icligioua 
cusldriis  of  the  time;  ho  develops  at  grc:it  length  the 
mural  side  of  the  question,  especially  when  writing 
on  the  Sacrament  of  Penance.  He  purposely  leaves 
aside  matters  already  discussed  by  Peter  Lombard 
for  as  he  himself  says  it  is  his  int<"ntion  to  complete 
them.  The  "  Distiiirlioncs"  or  ".Simnia  qua>  dicitur 
Abel"  is  a  theological  dirlionarv  arranged  in  alphabet- 
ical order,  "Abel"  being  the  fust  word,  in  which  is 
found  a  short  resume  of  the  ideas,  doctrines,  and  theo- 
ries of  the  time;  with  this  as  title,  he  wrote  a  valuable 
document  which  is  still  to  be  found  in  many  nianu- 
scripls  (Paris,  Rome,  Bruges,  etc.).  Pitra  has  pub- 
lished portions  of  it  ("Spicilegium  Solesmense",  HI 
I,  30.S;  "Aniilecta  Sacra,"  II,  6-154,  585-628). 

The  "Verbuin  Abbreviatum",  his  only  work  that 
was  entirely  printed,  with  the  "Contra  Monachos 
proprietarios"  which  in  Migne  forms  the  matter  of 
chapter  cliii  and  written  before  1187,  is  not  a  course  of 
ethics  or  asceticism,  but  a  book  addressed  chiefly  to 
the  clergy  and  more  in  particular  to  monks,  wherein 
he  exhorts  to  the  practice  of  virtue;  his  sources  are  the 
Bible,  t  lie  writings  of  the  Fathers,  and  profane  authors. 
Wliat  he  sa\-s  about  manners,  customs,  etc.,  is  very 
iustrueti\-e  fur  the  time  in  which  he  wrote.  As  in  the 
"  SiiiiiUKi  ( le  Sacramentis  ",  so  here  are  found  scholastic 
theories  side  by  side  with  practical  remarks  on  daily 
life  from  a  religious  point  of  view  (1st  ed.,  Mons.  1639; 
Migne,  P.  L.,  CCV,  23).  Some  sermons  are  also  as- 
cribed to  Peter,  but  only  those  which  are  in  the  form 
of  detached  chapters  of  the  "Verbum  abbreviatum" 
are  known. 

Hist,  littir.  de  hi  France.  X\';  HACRiiU,  Notices  et  extraits  de 
quelquesmanuscr,/,  I,  ,i..  _j|,  ,-tc.;  II,  14,  etc.;  V,  4-7,  etc.; 
Schmid-Gutjahh.   ;■       ,     I  itiraz,  1899);   Denifle-Chate- 

LKlti,  Chartulariu,,,  I  l'iri.iiensis, I.IS.W;  Bibliothique 

deVEcole  des  Churl'       l^lii  ,  ,;  is. 

J.  DE  GhELLINCK. 

Peter  Celestine,  Saint.  See  Celestine  V,  Saint, 
Pope. 

Peter  Cellensis  (de  La  Celle),  Bishop  of  Char- 
tres,  b.  of  noble  jjarentage  in  Champagne;  d.  at  Char- 
tres,  20  February,  1 183.  He  was  educated  in  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Martin-des-Champs  at  Paris,  became  a 
Benedictine,  and  in  1150  was  made  Abbot  of  La  Celle 
near  Troyes,  whence  his  surname,  Cellensis.  In  1162 
he  was  appointed  Abbot  of  St.  R^my  at  Reims,  and  in 
1181  he  succeeded  John  of  Salisbury  as  Bishop  of 
Chartres.  He  was  highly  esteemed  by  men  like  John 
of  Salisbury,  Thomas  k  Becket,  Archbishop  Eskil, 
Eugene  III,  and  especially  Alexander  III.  His  liter- 
ary productions  were  edited  by  Janvier  (Paris,  1671) 
and  reprinted  in  P.  L.,  CCII,  405-1146.  They  con- 
sist of  177  epistles,  95  sermons,  and  4  treatises  en- 
titled: (1)  "De  panibus  ad  Joannem  Sarisberiensem " ; 
(2)  "Mosaici  tabernaculi  mysticae  et  moralis  exposi- 
tionis  libri  duo";  (3)  "De  conscientia";  (4)  "De 
disciplina  claustrali  ad  Henricum  I,  Campanise  Comi- 
tem".  His  epistles,  whichare  valuable  from  an  histori- 
cal standpoint,  were  edited  separately  by  Sirmond 
(Paris,  1613).  His  sermons  and  treatises  are  ex- 
t.emely  bombastic  and  allegorical. 

GiLLET,  De  Petro  Cellensi,  abbate  Sancti  Remigii  Remenais  et 
Camotensi  episcopo  dissertatio  (Paris,  1881);  GEORGEa,  Pierre  de 
Cclles,  sa  vie  et  ses  auvres  (Troves,  1857);  Hist.  litt.  de  la  France, 
XIV,  236-67;  Zieoelbacer,  Hts«.  ret  Meran'oi  O.  S.  B.,  Ill,  162- 
65;  Ceillier,  Hist.  g(n.  des  auteurs  maris,  XIV  (Paris,  1863), 
680-13. 

Michael  Ott. 

Peter  Chrysologus,  Saint,  b.  at  Imola,  406;  d. 
there,  4.'j0.  His  biography,  first  written  by  Agnellus 
(Liber  pontificalis  ecclesia;  Ravennatis)  in  the  ninth 
century,  gives  but  scanty  information  about  him. 
He  was  baptized,  educated,  and  ordained  deacon 
by  Cornehus,  Bishop  of  Imola,  and  was  elevated  to 


PETER 


763 


PETER 


the  Bishopric  of  Ravenna  in  433.  There  are  indica- 
tions that  Ravenna  held  the  rank  of  metropoUtan 
before  his  time.  His  piety  and  zeal  won  for  him  univer- 
sal admiration,  and  his  oratory  merited  for  him  the 
name  Chrysologus.  He  shared  the  confidence  of  Leo 
the  Great  and  enjoyed  the  patronage  of  the  Empress 
Galla  Placidia.  After  his  condemnation  by  the  Synod 
of  Constantinople  (448),  the  Monophysite  Eutyches 
endeavoured  to  win  the  support  of  Peter,  but  without 
success. 

A  collection  of  his  homilies,  numbering  176,  was 
made  by  Felix,  Bishop  of  Ravenna  (707-17).  Some 
are  interpolations,  and  several  other  homilies  known 
to  be  written  by  the  saint  are  included  in  other  collec- 
tions under  different  names.  They  are  in  a  great 
measure  explanatory  of  Biblical  texts  and  are  brief 
and  concise.  He  has  explained  beautifully  the  mys- 
tery of  the  Incarnation,  the  heresies  of  Arius  and 
Eutyches,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  he  dedicated  a 
series  of  homilies  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  St.  John 
the  Baptist.  His  works  were  first  edited  by  Agapitus 
Vicentinus  (Bologna,  1.534),  and  later  by  D.  Mita 
(Bologna,  1634),  and  S.  Pauli  (Venice,  1775)— the  lat- 
ter collection  having  been  reprinted  in  P.  L.,  LII.  Fr. 
Liverani  ("Spicilegium  Liberianum",  Florence,  1863, 
125  seq.)  edited  nine  new  homilies  and  published  from 
manuscripts  in  Italian  libraries  different  readings  of 
several  other  sermons.  Several  homilies  were  trans- 
lated into  German  by  M.  Held  (Kemptta,  1874). 

B\RDENHEWER,  Patrolofjy,  tr.  Sh.\han,  526  sqq.;  Dapper,  Der 
hi.  Pelrus  Chrysologus  (Cologne,  1S67) ;  Stablewski,  Der  hfilifje 
KiTchenvater  Petrus  von  Ravenna  Chrysologus  (Posen,  1871); 
LoosHORN,  Der  hi.  Petrus  Chrysologus  und  seine  Schriften  in  Zeit- 
schriftf.  kathol.  Theol.,  Ill  (1879),  238  seq.;  Wayman,  Zm  Pelrus 
Chrysologus  in  Philologus,  LV  (1896),  464  seq. 

Ignatius  Smith. 

Peter  Claver,  Saint,  the  son  of  a  Catalonian 
farmer,  was  b.  at  Verdu,  in  1.581;  d.  8  September, 
1654.  He  obtained  his  first  degrees  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Barcelona.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  en- 
tered the  Jesuit  novitiate  at  Tarragona.  While  he 
was  studying  philosophy  at  Majorca  in  1605,  Alphon- 
sus  Rodriguez,  the  saintly  door-keeper  of  the  college, 
learned  from  God  the  future  mission  of  his  young  asso- 
ciate, and  thenceforth  never  ceased  exhorting  him  to 
set  out  to  evangelize  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Amer- 
ica. Peter  obeyed,  and  in  1610  landed  at  Cartagena, 
where  for  forty-four  years  he  was  the  Apostle  of  the 
negro  slaves.  Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  the 
masters  of  Central  and  South  America  afforded  the 
spectacle  of  one  of  those  social  crimes  which  are  en- 
tered upon  so  lightly.  They  needed  labourers  to 
cultivate  the  soil  which  they  had  conquered  and 
to  exploit  the  gold  mines.  The  natives  being  physi- 
cally incapable  of  enduring  the  labours  of  the  mines, 
it  was  determined  to  replace  them  with  negroes 
brought  from  Africa.  The  coasts  of  Guinea,  the 
Congo,  and  Angola  became  the  market  for  slave 
dealers,  to  whom  native  petty  kings  sold  their  sub- 
jects and  their  prisoners.  By  its  position  in  the  Ca- 
ribbean Sea,  Cartagena  became  the  chief  slave-mart  of 
the  New  World.  .A  thousand  slaves  landed  there  each 
month.  They  were  bought  for  two,  and  sold  for  200 
icus.  Though  half  the  cargo  might  die,  the  trade  re- 
mained profitable.  Neither  the  repeated  censures  of 
the  pope,  nor  those  of  Catholic  moralists  could  prevail 
against  this  cupidity.  The  missionaries  could  not 
suppress  slavery,  but  only  alleviate  it,  and  no  one 
worked  more  heroically  than  Peter  Claver. 

Trained  in  the  school  of  Pere  .■Alfonso  de  Sandoval, 
a  wonderful  missionary.  Peter  declared  himself  "the 
slave  of  the  negroes  forever",  and  thenceforth  his  life 
was  one  that  confounds  egotism  by  its  superhuman 
charity.  Although  timid  and  lacking  in  self-confi- 
dence, he  became  a  daring  and  ingenious  organizer. 
Every  month  when  the  arrival  of  the  negroes  was 
signalled,  Claver  went  out  to  meet  them  on  the  pilot's 


boat,  carrying  food  and  delicacies.  The  negroes, 
cooped  up  in  the  hold,  arrived  crazed  and  brutalized 
by  suffering  and  fear.  Claver  went  to-each,  cared  for 
him,  and  showed  him  kindness,  and  made  him  under- 
stand that  henceforth  he  was  his  defender  and  father. 
He  thus  won  their  good  will.  To  instruct  so  many 
speaking  different  dialects,  Claver  assembled  at  Cartas 
gena  a  group  of  interpreters  of  various  nationalities,  of 
whom  he  made  catechists.  While  the  slaves  were 
penned  up  at  Cartagena  waiting  to  be  purchased  and 
dispersed,  Claver  instructed  and  baptized  them  in  the 
Faith.  On  Sundays  during  Lent  he  assembled  them, 
inquired  concerning  their  needs,  and  defended  them 
against  their  oppressors.  This  work  caused  Claver 
severe  trials,  and  the  slave  merchants  were  not  his  only 
enemies.  The  Apostle  was  accused  of  indiscreet  zeal, 
and  of  having  profaned  the  Sacraments  by  giving 
them  to  creatures  who  scarcely  possessed  a  soul. 
Fashionable  women  of  Cartagena  refused  to  enter  the 
churches  where  Father  Claver  assembled  his  negroes. 
The  saint's  superiors  were  often  influenced  by  the 
many  criticisms  which  reached  them.  Nevertheless, 
Claver  continued  his  heroic  career,  accepting  all 
humiliations  and  adding  rigorous  penances  to  his 
works  of  charity.  Lacking  the  support  of  men,  the 
strength  of  God  was  given  him.  He  became  the 
prophet  and  miracle  worker  of  New  Granada,  the 
oracle  of  Cartagena,  and  all  were  convinced  that  often 
God  would  not  have  spared  the  city  save  for  him. 
During  his  life  he  baptized  and  instructed  in  the  Faith 
more  than  300,000  negroes.  He  was  beatified  16  July, 
1850,  by  Pius  IX,  and  canonized  15  Jan.,  1888,  by 
Leo  XIII.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on  the  ninth  of 
September.  On  7  July,  1896,  he  was  proclaimed  the 
special  patron  of  all  the  Catholic  missions  among  the 
negroes.  Alphonsus  Rodriguez  was  canonized  on  the 
same  day  as  Peter  Claver. 

Lives  of  the  saints  by  de  .\ndrada  (Madrid,  1657),  Domin- 
GUEZ,  DE  Lara,  Su.4rez.  Fernandez,  Fleurian;  Sommervogel, 
Bibl.  de  la  Comp.  de  Jesus  (Brussels,  1890 — );  Waser  (Paderborn, 
IS52);  SoiA  (Barcelona,  1888);  Hover  (Dulmen,  1888);  an  excel- 
lent article  by  Lehmkuhl  in  Slimmen  aus  Maria-Laach,  XXIV, 
380  sqq. 

Pierre  Suau. 

Peter  Comestor,  theological  writer,  b.  at  Troyes, 
date  unknown;  d.  at  Paris  about  1178.  He  was  first 
attached  to  the  Church  of  Notre-Dame  at  Troyes  and 
habitually  signed  himself  as  "Presbyter  Trecensis". 
Before  1148  he  became  dean  of  the  chapter  and  re- 
ceived a  benefice  in  1148.  About  1160  he  formed  one 
of  the  Chapter  of  Notre-Dame  at  Paris,  and  about  the 
same  year  he  replaced  Eudes  (Odon)  as  chancellor. 
At  the  same  time  he  had  charge  of  the  theological 
school.  It  was  at  Paris  that  Peter  Comestor  com- 
posed and  certainly  finished  his  "Historia  Scholas- 
tica" ;  he  dedicated  it  to  the  Bishop  of  Sens,  Guillaume 
aux  Blanches  Mains  (1169-76).  Alexander  III  or- 
dered Cardinal  Peter  of  St.  Chrysogonus  to  allow  the 
chancellor  Peter  to  exact  a  small  fee  on  conferring  the 
licence  to  teach,  but  this  authorization  was  altogether 
personal.  A  short  time  afterwards  the  same  cardinal 
mentioned  the  name  of  Peter  to  Alexander  III,  as 
among  the  three  most  cultured  men  of  P>ance.  'I'he 
surname  of  "  Come-stor  ",  given  to  Peter  during  his  life, 
also  proves  the  esteem  in  which  his  learning  was  held: 
he  was  a  great  bookworm;  he  often  refers  to  his  sur- 
name in  his  sermons  and  in  the  epitaph  said  to  be  com- 
posed by  him :"  Petrus  eram  .  .  .  dictusque  comestor. 
nunc  comedor."  He  afterwards  withdrew  to  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Victor  and  made  profession  of  canonical 
life.  He  was  buried  at  St.  Victor;  and  the  necrology 
of  the  canons  mentions  him  as  one  of  themselves 
(21  October).  His  works  include  commentaries  on 
the  Gospels,  allegories  on  Holy  Scripture,  and  a  moral 
commentary  on  St.  Paul,  all  of  which  are  as  yet 
unpublished. 

His   "Historia  Scholastiea"  is  a  kind  of  sacred 


PETER 


764 


PETER 


history,  composed  for  students,  and  at  their  own 
request.  The  author  begins  the  sacred  narrative  at 
the  Creation,  and  continues  it  to  the  end  of  the  in- 
cidents related  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles;  all  the 
books  of  the  Bible  are  contained  therein,  except  those 
whose  nature  is  purely  didactic,  the  Book  of  Wisdom, 
the  Psalms,  the  l'roi)hets,  the  Epistles,  etc.  The  dis- 
courses are  abbreviated.  He  borrows  fre(|uently  from 
profane  authors,  especially  from  Fla\ius  .losephus  for 
the  beginning  of  the  Gospels,  and  very  often  tlic  text 
is  as  though  paraphra.sed  in  a  commentary  where  all 
data,  cosmological  and  iihysical,  philo.so[)hical,  theo- 
logical, allegorical,  historical,  geogi'a|iliical,  etc.,  are 
found.  It  is  easj-  to  understand,  of  course,  that  there 
are  numerous  inaccuracies  and  fables.  The  work 
consists  of  twenty  books  and  often  small  "additions" 
supply  geographical  or  etymological  appendixes  at  the 
end  of  the  chapters.  This  Biblical  history  met  with 
great  success,  as  witness  the  large  number  of  manu- 
scripts, the  mention  of  his  name  in  all  the  libraries  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  the  lists  of  classical  books  for  the 
universities  and  schools,  the  quotations  and  the 
eulogies  w-ith  which  the  name  of  its  author  is  every- 
where accompanied  (cf.  the  canonist  Huguccio,  about 
1 190)  and  its  numerous  translations.  In  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  work  was  still  in  great  demand,  as  can  be 
seen  by  the  editions  made  before  1500  of  the  Latin 
tex-t,  or  of  the  French  translation  (Strasburg,  1469, 
1483,  1485,  1847;  Reutlingen,  1473;  Lyons,  1478; 
Basle,  1486;  Paris,  1487,  etc.).  Mighe  (P.  L., 
CXCVIII,  1053-1844)  reproduces  the  Madrid  edition 
of  1699. 

The  sermons  of  Peter  Comestor  have  been  left  to 
us  in  numerous  manuscripts,  often  under  other  names, 
but  the  complete  and  continued  series  has  not  yet 
been  pubUshed.  We  ought  to  mention  here  a  series 
of  fifty-one  sermons  placed  wrongly  under  the  name 
of  Peter  of  Blois  and  printed  among  his  works  (Migne, 
CCVII,  and  CCVIII,  1721,  etc.);  some  figure  also  in 
the  works  of  Hildebcrt  de  Mans  (Migne,  CLXXI, 
sermon  7,  15,  17,  21,  22,  23,  etc.).  The  sermon  in 
which  the  word  "  transubstantiation "  occurs,  the 
93rd  (not  the  73rd),  is  not  Hildebert's  but  Peter 
Comcstor's;  let  us  remark,  however,  that  the  word 
is  already  found  in  Roland  Bandinelli  (Alexander  II) 
before  1150.  Other  collections,  like  that  of  the  114 
sermons  copied  at  St.  Victor  before  1186,  are  still  un- 
published, more  than  twelve  manuscripts  are  in  the 
libraries  of  Paris,  and  all  has  not  yet  been  unravelled 
in  this  assortment.  As  a  preacher,  Peter  was  subtle 
and  pedantic  in  his  style,  in  keeping  with  the  taste  of 
his  time  and  of  his  audience  of  scholars  and  professors 
assembled  around  the  pulpit  of  the  chancellor.  The 
sprmons  attributed  to  him  during  his  stay  at  St. 
Victor  are  simple  in  style,  instructive,  and  natural  in 
tone.  Also  some  verses  are  attributed  to  Peter 
Comestor  and  a  collection  of  maxims  entitled  "Pan- 
crisis",  perhaps  that  which  still  exists  in  a  manuscript 
of  Troyes. 

Hisl.  liU.  de  la  France,  XIV, )  2-17;  Denifle-Chatelain,  Charlul. 
Univ.,  I  (Paris),  8;  Foohier-Bonnard.,  Hisl.  de  I'abb.  de  Sauit- 
Vtctox  (Paris,  1907),  123,etc.;  F^ret,  La  Facullede  Theol.de Paris. 
I  (Pari.i,  1894),  42-48;  Bouroain,  La  Chaire  Fran^aise  au  XII' 
sticfc  (Paris.  1879),  12.3;  Havr6\tj,  Notices  el  Exlraits  de  OMlgues 
vianuacriu  I,  28,  37,  etc.;  II,  18,  80,  etc.;  IV,  2,  3,  etc. 

J.    DE    GhBLLINCK. 

Peter  Damian  (or  Daml^ni)  Saint,  Doctor  of  the 
("hurch,  Cardiii.d-Bishop  of  Ostia,  b.  at  Ravenna  " five 
3-ears  after  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Otto  III,"  1007; 
d.  at  Faenza,  21  Feb.,  1072.  He  was  the  youngest  of 
a  large  family;  his  parents  were  noble,  but  poor.  At 
his  birth  an  elder  brother  protested  against  this  new 
charge  on  the  resources  of  the  family  with  such 
effect  that  his  mother  refused  to  suckle  "him  and  the 
babe  nearly  died.  A  family  retainer,  however,  fed  the 
8tar\lng  child  and  by  her  example  and  reproaches 
recalled  his  mother  to  her  duty.     Left  an  orphan  in 


early  years,  he  was  at  first  adopted  by  an  elder  brother 
who  ill-treated  and  under-fed  him  while  ein])loyinR 
him  as  a  swineherd.  The  child  showed  signs  of  gn  at 
piety  and  of  remarkable  intellectual  gifts,  and  after 
some  years  of  this  servitude  another  brother,  who  wa.s 
archpricst  at  Raveiuia.  huil  jiity  on  him  and  took  him 
away  to  be  educated.  This  bnil'her  was  called  Damian 
and  it  is  generally  accept. 'd  that  St.  Titer  ad.led  this 
name  to  his  own  in  grateful  recognition  of  his  brother's 
kindness.  He  made  rapid  i)i-ogiiss  in  his  studii s,  first 
at  Ravenna,  then  at  Faenza,  fin;illv  at  the  I'nivc  rsity 
of  Parma,  and  when  about  twenty-five  years  old  was 
already  a  famous  teachi  i-  at  P;irnia  and  Ravenna. 
But.  though  even  then  much  given  to  fasting  and  to  1 1 
other  mortifications,  he  could  not  endure  the  scandals  I 
and  distr;ictions  of  uni\-ersity  life  and  decided  (about  r 
1035)  to  retire  from  the  world.  While  meditating  on 
his  resolution  he  encountered  two  hermits  of  Fonte- 
Avellana,  was  charmed  with  their  spiritu.ality  aijd 
detachment,  and  desired  to  join  them.  Encouraged 
by  them  Peter,  after  a  forty  days'  retreat  in  a  small 
cell,  left  his  friends  secretly  and  made  his  way  to  the 
herrnitage  of  Fonte-Avellana  (q.  v.).  Here  he  was 
received,  and,  to  his  surprise,  clothed  at  once  with  the 
monastic  habit. 

Both  as  novice  and  as  professed  religious  his  fervour 
was  remarkable  and  led  him  to  such  extremes  of 
penance  that,  for  a  time,  his  health  was  aiTected. 
He  occupied  his  convalescence  with  a  thorough  study 
of  Holy  Scripture  and,  on  his  recovery,  was  appointed 
to  lecture  to  his  fellow-monks.  At  the  request  of 
Guy  of  Pomposa  and  other  heads  of  neighbouring 
monasteries,  for  two  or  three  years  he  lectured  to 
their  subjects  also,  and  (about  1042)  wrote  the  life  of 
St.  Romuald  for  the  monks  of  Pietrapertosa.  Soon 
after  his  return  to  Fonte-Avellana  he  was  appointed 
economus  of  the  house  by  the  prior,  who  also  pointed 
him  out  as  his  successor.  This,  in  fact,  he  became 
in  1043,  and  he  remained  prior  of  Fonte-A\ellana 
till  his  death.  His  priorate  was  characterized  by  a 
wise  moderation  of  the  rule,  as  well  as  by  the  founda-  ;  ■ 
tion  of  subject-hermitages  at  San  Severino,  Gamugno,  11 
Acerata,  Murciana,  San  Salvatore,  Sitria,  and  Ocri.  fl 
It  was  remarkable,  too,  for  the  introduction  of  the  ' ' 
regular  use  of  the  discipline,  a  penitential  exercLse 
which  he  induced  the  great  abbey  of  Monte  Cassino 
to  imitate.  There  was  much  opposition  outside  his 
own  circle  to  this  practice,  but  Peter's  persistent  ad- 
vocacy ensured  its  acceptance  to  such  an  extent  that 
he  was  obliged  later  to  moderate  the  imprudent  zeal 
of  some  of  his  own  hermits.  Another  innovation  was 
that  of  the  daily  siesta,  to  make  up  for  the  fatigue 
of  the  night  office.  During  his  tenure  of  the  priorate 
a  cloister  was  built,  silver  chalices  and  a  silver  pro- 
cessional cross  were  purchased,  and  many  books 
added  to  the  library.     (See  Fonte-Avellana.) 

Although  living  in  the  seclusion  of  the  cloister, 
Peter  Damian  watched  closely  the  fortunes  of  the 
Church,  and  like  his  friend  Hildebrand,  the  future 
Gregory  VII  (q.  v.),  he  strove  for  her  purification  in 
those  deplorable  times.  In  1045  when  Benedict  IX 
resigned  the  supreme  pontificate  into  the  hands  of 
the  archpriest  John  Gratian  (Gregory  VI),  Peter 
hailed  the  change  with  joy  and  wrote  to  the  pope,  urg- 
ing him  to  deal  with  the  scandals  of  the  Church  in 
Italy,  especially  with  the  evil  bishops  of  Pesaro,  of 
Citta  di  Castello,  and  of  P^ano.  (See  Benedict  IX; 
Gregory  VI.)  He  was  present  in  Rome  when  Clem- 
ent II  crowned  Henry  III  and  his  wife  Agnes,  and 
he  also  attended  a  synod  held  at  the  Lateran  in  the 
first  days  of  1047,  in  which  decrees  were  passed  against 
simony.  After  this  he  returned  to  his  hermitage 
(.see  Clement  II;  Damasu.s  II).  Pope  St.  Leo  IX 
(q.  v.)  was  solemnly  enthroned  at  Rome,  12  Feb., 
1049,  to  succeed  Damasus  II,  and  about  two  years 
later  Peter  Damian  published  his  terrible  treatise 
on  the  vices  of  the  clergy,  the  "  Liber  Gomorrhianus  ", 


PETER 


765 


PETER 


dedicating  it  to  the  pope.  It  caused  a  great  stir 
and  aroused  not  a  little  enmity  against  its  author. 
Even  the  pope,  who  had  at  first  praised  the  work, 
was  persuaded  that  it  was  exaggerated  and  his  cold- 
ness drew  from  Damian  a  vigorous  letter  of  protest. 
Meanwhile  the  question  arose  as  to  the  validity  of  the 
ordinations  of  simoniacal  clerics.  The  prior  of  Fonte- 
Avellana  was  appealed  to  and  wrote  (about  10.53)  a 
treatise,  the  "Liber  Gratissimus",  in  favour  of  their 
validity,  a  work  which,  though  much  combatted  at 
the  time,  was  potent  in  deciding  the  question  in  their 
favour  before  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  In  June, 
1055,  during  the  pontificate  of  Victor  II  (q.  v.), 
Damian  attended  a  synod  held  at  Florence,  where 
simony  and  clerical  incontinence  were  once  more  con- 
demned. About  two  years  later  he  fell  ill  at  Fonte- 
Avellana  and  nearly  died,  but  suddenly,  after  seven 
weeks  of  pain,  recovered,  as  he  believed,  through  a 
miracle. 

During  his  illness  the  pope  died,  and  Frederic,  abbot 
of  Monte  Cassino,  was  elected  as  Stephen  X.  In  the 
autumn  of  1057,  Stephen  X  determined  to  create 
Damian  a  cardinal.  For  a  long  time  he  resisted  the 
offer,  but  was  finally  forced,  under  threat  of  excom- 
munication, to  accept,  and  was  consecrated  Cardinal- 
Bishop  of  Ostia  on  30  Nov.,  1057.  In  addition  he  was 
appointed  administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  Gubbio. 
The  new  cardinal  was  impressed  with  the  great  re- 
sponsibilities of  his  office  and  wrote  a  stirring  letter 
to  his  brother-cardinals,  exhorting  them  to  shine  by 
their  example  before  all.  Four  months  later  Pope 
Stephen  died  at  Florence  and  the  Church  was  once 
more  distracted  by  schism.  The  Cardinal  of  Ostia 
was  vigorous  in  his  opposition  to  the  antipope  Bene- 
dict X,  but  force  was  on  the  side  of  the  intruder 
and  Damian  retired  to  Fonte-Avellana.  (See  NiCHO- 
L.\s  II;  Gregory  VII.) 

About  the  end  of  the  year  1059  Peter  was  sent 
as  legate  to  Milan  by  Nicholas  II.  The  Church  at 
Milan  had  been,  for  some  time,  the  prey  of  simony  and 
incontinence.  So  bad  was  the  state  of  things,  that 
benefices  were  openly  bought  and  sold  and  the  clergy 
publicly  "married"  the  women  they  lived  with.  But 
the  faithful  of  Milan,  led  by  St.  Ariald  the  Deacon  and 
St.  Anselm,  Bishop  of  Lucca,  strove  hard  to  remedy 
these  evils.  At  length  the  contest  between  the  two 
parties  became  so  bitter  that  an  appeal  was  made  to 
the  Holy  See  to  decide  the  matter.  Nicholas  II  sent 
Damian  and  the  Bishop  of  Lucca  as  his  legates. 
But  now  the  party  of  the  irregular  clerics  took  alarm 
and  raised  the  cry  that  Rome  had  no  authority  over 
Milan.  At  once  Peter  took  action.  Boldly  con- 
fronting the  rioters  in  the  cathedral,  he  proved  to 
them  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See  with  such  effect 
that  all  parties  submitted  to  his  decision.  He  exacted 
first  a  solemn  oath  from  the  archbishop  and  all  his 
clergy  that  for  the  future  no  preferment  should  be 
paid  for;  then,  imposing  a  penance  on  all  who  had  been 
guilty,  he  re-instated  in  their  benefices  all  who  under- 
took to  live  continently.  This  prudent  decision  was 
attacked  by  some  of  the  rigourists  at  Rome,  but  was 
not  reversed.  Unfortunately,  on  the  death  of  Nicho- 
las II,  the  same  disputes  broke  out;  nor  were  they 
finally  settled  till  after  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Ariald 
in  1066.  Meanwhile  Peter  was  in  vain  pleading  to  be 
rcleasefl  from  the  cares  of  his  office.  Neither  Nicholas 
II  nor  Hildebrand  would  consent  to  spare  him. 

In  July,  1061,  the  pope  died  and  once  more  a  schism 
ensued.  Damian  used  all  his  powers  to  persuade  the 
antipope  Cadalous  (q.  v.)  to  withdraw,  but  to  no  pur- 
pose. Finally  Hanno,  the  Regent  of  Germany,  sum- 
moned a  council  at  Augsburg  at  which  along  argument 
by  St.  Peter  Damian  was  read  and  greatly  contributed 
to  the  decision  in  favour  of  Alexander  II  (q.  v.).  In 
1063  the  pope  held  a  synod  at  Rome,  at  which  Damian 
was  appointed  as  legate  to  settle  the  dispute  between 
the  Abbey  of  Cluny  and  the  Bishop  of  Macon.    He 


proceeded  to  France,  summoned  a  council  at  Chalon- 
sur-Saone,  proved  the  justice  of  the  contentions  of 
Cluny,  settled  other  questions  at  issue  in  the  Church 
of  France,  and  returned  in  the  autumn  to  Fonte-Avel- 
lana. While  he  was  in  France  the  antipope  Cadalous 
had  again  become  active  in  his  attempts  to  gain 
Rome,  and  Damian  brought  upon  himself  a  sharp  re- 
proof from  Alexander  and  Hildebrand  for  twice  im- 
prudently appealing  to  the  royal  power  to  judge  the 
case  anew.  In  1067  the  cardinal  was  sent  to  Florence 
to  settle  the  dispute  between  the  bishop  and  the  monks 
of  Vallombrosa,  who  accused  the  former  of  simony. 
His  efforts,  however,  were  not  successful,  largely  be- 
cause he  misjudged  the  case  and  threw  the  weight  of 
his  authority  on  the  side  of  the  bishop.  The  matter 
was  not  settled  till  the  following  year  by  the  pope  in 
person.  In  1069  Damian  went  as  the  pope's  legate  to 
Germany  to  prevent  King  Henry  from  repudiating  his 
wife  Bertha.  This  task  he  accomplished  at  a  council 
at  Frankfort  and  returned  to  Fonte-Avellana,  where 
he  was  left  in  peace  for  two  years. 

Early  in  1072  he  was  sent  to  Ravenna  to  reconcile 
its  inhabitants  to  the  Holy  See,  they  having  been  ex- 
communicated for  supporting  their  archbishop  in  his 
adhesion  to  the  schism  of  Cadalous.  On  his  return 
thence  he  was  seized  with  fever  near  Faenza.  He  lay 
ill  for  a  week  at  the  monastery  of  Santa  Maria  degl' 
Angeli,  now  Santa  Maria  Vecchia.  On  the  night  pre- 
ceding the  feast  of  the  Chair  of  St.  Peter  at  Antioch, 
he  ordered  the  office  of  that  feast  to  be  recited  and  at 
the  end  of  Lauds  he  died.  He  was  at  once  buried  in 
the  monastery  church,  lest  others  should  claim  his 
relics.  Six  times  has  his  body  been  translated,  each 
time  to  a  more  splendid  resting-place.  It  now  lies  in  a 
chapel  dedicated  to  the  saint  in  the  cathedral  of  Fa- 
enza in  1898.  No  formal  ruimnization  ever  took  place, 
but  his  cultus  has  existed  .since  his  death  at  Faenza,  at 
Fonte-Avellana,  at  Monte  Ca.ssino,  and  at  Cluny.  In 
1823  Leo  XII  extended  his  feast  (23  Feb.)  to  the  whole 
Church  and  pronounced  him  a  Doctor  of  the  Church. 
The  saint  is  represented  in  art  as  a  cardinal  bearing  a 
discipline  in  his  hand;  also  sometimes  he  is  depicted 
as  a  pilgrim  holding  a  papal  Bull,  to  signify  his  many 
legations. 

Ada  SS.  Boll.,  Ill,  Feb.  (Venice,  1736),  406-27;  Biron,  St. 
Pierre  Damien,  1007-72  (Paris,  1908) ;  Capecelatro,  Storia 
di  San  Pier  Damiano  (Rome,  1887);  Kleinermanns,  Der 
heilige  Pelrus  Damiani  (Steyl.  1882);  Ladekchi.  Vita  S.  Petri 
Damiani  (3  vols.,  Rome,  1702);  Mabillon.  Acta  SS.  O.S.B., 
SsBC.  VI,  P.  ii  (Venice,  1733),  253-273;  Martin,  Saint  Leon  IX, 
1002-ei  (Paris,  1904);  Migne,  Diclionnaire  de  PMrnloriie.  V 
(Paris,  1864),  959-1000;  P.  L.,  CXUV.  CXI  V  'P-iri.  isr,7); 
MiTTARELLi  ET  CosTADONi,  Annates  Cam'rl''  !l     \''-uice, 

1756),  40-359;  Neukirch,  Dan  Leben  dcx  I'.  /'  ;   .  .  . 

hi-tzuT  .  .   .  1059  (Gottingen,  1875);  Pfolk,  /'    .;  .7  mit 

Hildebrand  in  Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach,  Xl.l  ,l.^',ll,.  .'^1  307, 
400-416.  608-525;  Roth,  Der  heilioe  Pelrus  Damiani,  O.S.B.,  in 
Studien  0.  S.  B..  VII  (1886).  i,  110-134;  ii,  357-374;  iii,  43-66;  iv, 
321-336;  VIII  (1887),  i,  56-64;  ii,  210-216. 

Leslie  A.  St.  L.  Toke. 

Peter  de  Blois,  statesman  and  theologian,  b.  at 
Blois  about  1 130;  d.  about  1203.  He  appears  to  have 
first  studied  at  Tours,  and  was,  iierhajis,  the  disciple 
of  Jean  de  Salisbury,  who  taught  in  I':ais  fmm  1 140  to 
11.50;  he  studied  law  in  Bologna,  and  theology  in  Paris, 
where  he  taught  the  liberal  arts.  In  1167  Count  Ste- 
phen du  Perche  brought  him  to  Sicily  (1167).  Here 
he  became  preceptor  of  the  king,  guardian  of  the  royal 
seal,  and  one  of  the  queen's  principal  counsellors. 
But  the  favouritism  shown  the  foreigner  excited  the 
jealousy  of  the  nobles  and  he  was  obliged  to  leave 
Sicily  (1169).  After  several  years  in  France,  he  went 
to  England,  where  he  became  one  of  Henry  IPs  dip- 
lomatic agents  and  was  charged  with  negotiations 
with  the  pope  and  the  King  of  France.  In  1176  he 
became  chancellor  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
and  Archdeacon  of  Bath.  He  l)ccame  entangled  in 
the  disputes  between  the  archbishop  and  the  monks 
of  his  diocese  and,  in  this  connexion,  was  sent  to 
Rome  in  1177,  and  to  Verona  in  1187,  on  diplomatic 


PETER 


760 


PETER 


missions  to  the  popes.  After  the  death  of  Henry  II 
(USD),  he  fell  into  disgrace,  and  he  speaks  in"  liis 
leltei-s  of  Richard  the  Lion  Hearted  as  the  "new 
Pharaoh".  He  entered  the  service  of  Queen  Eleanor 
of  .\(iuitaine,  to  whom  he  was  secretary  (1190-95), 
and  was  made  .\rchdeaeon  of  London.  But  his  rev- 
enue from  this  benefice  scarcely  sufliccd  for  his  living 
and  he  wrote  to  Innocent  III  to  this  effect  in  one  of 
the  liist  letters  (119S)  he  has  left  us.  His  material 
status  was  hardly  in  keeping  with  the  great  authority 
he  exercised  in  England  towards  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Henry  II,  in  affairs  of  the  State,  or  of  the  Church. 
Not  only  was  he  the  king's  chief  counsellor,  but  many 
bishops  consulted  him  and  obtained  his  advice  on  im- 
portant matters  regarding  their  dioceses. 

He  wrote  numerous  letters,  models  of  his  epoch,  but 
full  of  the  bad  taste  of  the  twelfth  century.  He  wrote 
also  numerous  treatises.  He  continued  the  "History 
of  the  Monastery  of  Croyland  of  Ingulf"  (901  to 
1135).  Unfortunately,  the  "History  of  Henry  II" 
has  been  lost  (De  rebus  gestis  Henrici  II).  His  other 
writings  are  sermons,  commentaries  on  the  Scripture, 
moral  and  ascetic  treatises,  in  which  he  attacks  with 
blunt  frankness  the  morals  of  the  English  and  Aqui- 
tainian  bishops  (treatise  entitled,  "Quales  sunt"). 
In  1189,  after  the  taking  of  .lerusalem  by  Saladin,  he 
composed  his  "De  hierosolymitana  peregrinatione 
acceleranda"  (P.  L.  CCVII,  1057),  wherein  he  cen- 
sures the  indifferent  faith  of  the  princes  who  deferred 
the  undertaking  of  the  crusade,  and  threatens  them 
with  seeing  the  mission  which  they  have  deserted  ac- 
complished by  the  people.  He  also  composed  an 
"Instruction  on  the  Faith"  which  Alexander  III  sent 
to  the  Sultan  of  Iconium.  In  several  of  his  letters  he 
returns  to  the  question  of  the  crusade.  His  works 
were  edited  bv  Giles  in  "Patres  Ecclesiae  Anglicana;", 
4  vols.  (Cxford,  1846-47),  and  in  P.  L.,  CCVII  (4  vols., 
Paris) . 

Ceillier.  Hist,  des  Aideiirs  eccUs.,  XXIII  (Paris,  1763),  206- 
24;  Hist.  Lilt,  de  la  France,  XV  (Paris,  1820),  341-^13:  Michaud, 
Biblialheque  des  Croisades.  Ill  (Paris,  1829),  250;  Norgate,  Eng- 
land under  the  Angerin  Kino-i,  II  (London,  1887);  Chalandon, 
Hist,  de  la  domination  normande  en  Italie  et  en  Sicile,  II  (Paris, 
1907);  MOLIMEH,  Les  Sources  de  I'hist.  de  France,  pt.  II  (Paris, 
1902),  203,  dealing  with  Peter's  Ars  diclaminis. 

Louis  Br^hier. 

Peter  de  Honestis,  b.  at  Ravenna  about  1049;  d., 
29  March,  1119.  .\mong  his  ancestors  was  the  great 
St .  Homuald,  founder  of  the  Caraaldolese  monks.  All 
his  life  Peter  fasted  every  Saturday  in  honour  of  Our 
Lady,  and  strongly  recommended  this  practice  to  his 
religious.  He  styled  himself  Peirus  peccator.  He  lived 
for  some  years  in  the  Holy  Land.  When  returning  a 
great  storm  arose  in  the  Adriatic  and  the  ship  was  in 
imminent  danger.  Peter  made  a  vow  to  build  a 
church  in  honour  of  Our  Lady  should  he  safely  reach 
the  harbour.  In  fulfilment  of  his  promise  he  built  a 
church  and  mon;istery  on  the  family  property.  Near 
by  there  wiis  a  small  community  of  clerics,  and  Peter 
having  joined  them,  was  soon  after  made  their  supe- 
rior, and  with  them  removed  to  the  church  and  monas- 
tery he  had  built,  in  1099.  His  name  is  associated 
with  the  sodality  called  "The  Children  of  Mary",  es- 
tablished in  honour  of  a  miraculous  picture  of  Our 
Lady,  now  called  "Madonna  Greca",  which  tradition 
says  came  from  Constantinople.  The  number  of  his 
religious  increiising,  Peter  gave  them  some  statutes 
grounded  on  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine.  These  were 
approved  by  Paschal  II,  and  having  afterwards  been 
adopted  by  many  other  communities  of  Canons  Regu- 
lar, the  Portuensis  Congregation  wjis  formed.  By 
common  consent  Peter  has  always  been  called  Blessed. 
In  former  times  his  office  and  feast  used  to  be  cele- 
brated at  Ravenna;  the  process  of  his  beatification  is 
now  before  the  Holy  See. 

Pennotto.  Genernlis  Sarri  Ordinis  Canonicorum-Clerieorum 
Hinloria  Tripartita  (Uome,  1642);  Bullarium  Laleranense  (Rome, 
1727);  .Storia  della  Madonna  Creca,  da  D.  P.  .S'.  (Ravenna,  1887); 
Vita  dd  Beato  Pittro  degli  Onesli  (Ravenna,  1893) ;  Pia  aseocia- 


zione  mondiale,  fondata  net  1100  dal  B.  Pietro  degh  Onesii:  Brere 
storia  della  Madonna  Greca  (Ravenna,  1891). 

A.  Allaria. 

Peter  de  Regalado  (Regalatus),  Saint,  Friar 
Minor  and  reformer,  b.  at  Valladolid,  1390;  d.  at 
Aguilera,  30  March,  1456.  His  parents  were  of  noble 
birth  and  conspicuous  for  their  wealth  and  virtue. 
Having  lost  his  father  in  his  early  youth,  he  was 
piously  educated  by  his  mother.  .\t  the  age  of  ten 
years  Peter  begged  to  be  admitted  into  the  Seraphic 
Order,  which  favour  was  granled  him  three  years 
afterwards  in  the  convent  of  his  native  town.  In 
1404  he  became  one  of  the  first  ilisciples  of  Peter  de 
Villacreces,  who  in  1397  had  introduced  into  Spain 
the  reform  of  the  Observance  of  which  he  became  one 
of  the  most  zealous  prop.agators.  In  the  newly- 
founded  convent  at  Aguilera  Peter  found  the  life  of 
solitude,  prayer,  and  eminent  poverty,  which  had 
always  been  the  greatest  object  of  his  desire.  In  1415 
he  became  superior  of  the  convent  at  Aguilera  and, 
on  the  death  of  Peter  de  Villacreces  (1422),  also  of 
that  at  Tribulos  or  del  .■\broyo.  He  observed  nine 
Lents,  fasting  on  bread  and  water,  and  was  endowed 
with  the  gift  of  miracles  and  prophecy  and  of  every 
virtue.  When  his  body  was  exhumed  thirty-six 
years  after  his  death,  at  the  instance  of  Isabella  the 
Catholic,  it  was  found  incorrupt  and  placed  in  a  more 
precious  tomb.  He  was  beatified  by  Innocent  XI, 
11  March,  1684,  and  canonized  by  Benedict  XIV, 
29  June,  1746.  His  feast  is  celebrated  13  May,  the 
day  of  the  translation  of  his  body.  In  art  he  is  repre- 
sented with  flames  bursting  from  his  heart. 

Clary.  Lives  of  the  Saints  and  Blessed  o/  the  Three  Orders  of  St. 
Francis,  II  (Taunton,  1886),  150-9;  Daza,  Excelencias  de  la  ciudad 
de  Valladolid,  con  la  vida  y  milagros  de  s.  fray  Pedro  Regalado  etc. 
(Valladolid,  1627),  Lat.  tr.  in  4d.  .SS.,  Ill,  March,  850-64;  Relatio 
pro  canonizatione,  ibid.,  864-70;  Wadding,  Ann.  Min.,  XII,  2-9, 
445-74;  Bebguin,  St.  Pierre  Rigalat,  pritre  de  I'ordre  des  Freres 
Mineurs  de  VObservance,  restaurateur  de  la  discipline  reguli^re  en 
Bspagne  (P^rigueux,  1898).  FERDINAND    HeCKMANN. 

Peter  de  Vinea  (de  Vineis,  della  Vigna),  b.  at 
Capua  about  1190;  d.  1249.  Peter's  legal  learning 
and  the  elegance  of  his  Latin  style  in  course  of  time 
made  him  the  most  prominent  statesman  of  public 
affairs  at  the  court  of  Frederick  II.  Frederick's  po- 
litical views,  which  aimed  at  absolutism  in  Church 
and  State,  he  succeeded  in  strengthening  in  every 
direction.  In  his  capacity  as  chief  judge  of  the 
court  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  administration 
of  justice  and  legislation  in  Sicily.  Perhaps  he  was 
also  associated  with  Archbishop  James  of  Capua  in 
dr:iwing  up  the  new  code  of  laws  for  the  Kingdom  of 
Sicily,  <'ulle(l  the  "  Constitutions  of  Melfi"  andissuedin 
1231  b\'  order  of  Frederick.  Probably  Peter  was  the 
emperor's  ambassador  at  the  Council  of  Lyons  in 
1 245.  Certain  it  is  that  in  the  same  year,  as  the  envoy  of 
the  emperor,  he  sought  the  mediation  of  St.  Louis  in  the 
conflict  that  wasdeveloping  between  Church  and  State. 

About  this  date  he  was  already,  along  with  Thad- 
deus  of  Suessa,  the  real  director  of  the  imperial  chan- 
cellery. In  1247  he  was  made  imperial  prothonotary 
and  logothete  of  the  Kingdom  of  Sicily  and  thus  the 
sole  head  of  the  imperial  chancellery.  This  important 
position  in  the  State  was  his  ruin.  He  sought  to  enrich 
himself  and  his  family.  His  embezzlements  went  so 
far  that,  as  the  emperor  himself  said,  they  led  to  a 
financial  disaster  which  might  have  become  dangerous 
to  the  empire.  Just  at  the  time  that  Frederick  made 
this  discovery  at  Cremona  in  February,  1249,  a  physi- 
cian attempted  to  give  the  emperor  a  poisoned  drink. 
Peter  was  suspected  of  being  privy  to  the  plot.  This 
report,  based  on  a  statement  of  Matthew  of  Paris, has 
been  even  recently  credited  by  Gerdes,  while  Hampe 
rejects  it.  Dante,  however,  goes  too  far  when,  in  the 
"Inferno"  (xiii,  .55  sqq.),  he  allows  Peter  to  say  that 
he  has  never  broken  faith  with  the  emperor.  Fred- 
erick, on  his  return  to  Sicily,  ordered  his  one-time  con- 


PETER 


rG7 


PETER 


fidant  to  be  put  in  chains.  Peter  was  forced  to  retire 
to  Ktrurin  whore  Frederiek  had  him  imprisoned  at  San 

Miiii.ilii  iiii'l  li:id  his  ex  c's  put  out.  He  is  said  to  have 
idiiiiuLttc'il  .siiiri.l.-  hill-,  liis  letters,  a  part  of  which 
were  printed  iii  (lie  .sixtccntli  century,  are  of  gre.at 
interest.  He  was  also  esteemed  as  a  poet.  His  poems 
contain  many  violent  satires  on  the  clergy. 

Hdill.^rd-Br^holles,  Vie  el  erjrrespondaiice  de  Pierre  de  la 
Vigne  (Paris,  1865);  Capasso  a.nd  Tanelli,  Pielro  delta  Vigna 
(Caserta,  1882);  Hanauer,  Material  zur  Beurleitung  der  Petrua 
de  Vinea-Briefe  in  Mitteilungen  des  Oestrr.  Instititts,  XXI;  as  to 
the  manuscripts  of  tlie  letters  of.  Archiv  fiir  deulsche  Gesch.,  VII 
(1839),  890  sqq.;  Petrus  de  Vinea,  Epistolarum  libri  VI.  ed. 
IsELIua  (2  vols.,  Basle,  1740) ;  Gerdbs,  Gesch.  der  H ohenstaufern 
und  ihrer  Zeit  (Leipzig,  1908);  Hauvts,  Deutsclie  Kaisergesch.  in 
der  Zeit  der  Salter  und  Staufer  (Leipzig,  1909);  Wattenbach, 
Deutschlands  geschichtsquetlen  im  Mittelatter  (Stuttgart,  1894) ; 
WiNKELMANN,  JahrbUcher  der  deutschengescti.  unter  Friedrich  IT 
[2  vols,  up  to  1233  (Leipzig.  1889  and  1897)]. 

F.  Kampers. 

Peter  Faber  (F.wre  or  Lb  FiivRE),  Blessed,  b. 
13  April,  150(3,  at  Villaret,  Savoy;  d.  1  Aug.,  1546,  in 
Rome.  As  a  child  lie  tended  his  father's  sheep  during 
the  week,  and  on  Sunday  he  taught  catechism  to  other 
children.  The  instinctive  knowledge  of  his  vocation 
as  an  apostle  inspired  him  with  a  desire  to  study. 
.\t  first  he  was  entrusted  to  the  care  of  a  priest  at 
Thones,  and  then  to  a  neighbouring  school.  Although 
without  any  definite  plans  for  the  future,  he  resolved 
to  go  to  Paris.  His  parents  consented  to  the  separation, 
and  in  1525  Peter  arrived  in  Paris.  Here  he  acquired 
the  learning  he  desired,  and  found  quite  unexpectedly 
his  real  vocation.  He  was  admitted  gratuitously  to 
the  college  of  Sainte-Barbe,  and  shared  the  lodging 
of  a  student  from  Navarre,  Francis  Xavier,  the  future 
saint,  in  a  tower  which  still  existed  in  1850.  They 
became  intimately  attached  to  each  other,  receiving 
on  the  same  day  in  1530  the  degree  of  master  of  arts. 
At  the  university  he  also  met  St.  Ignatius  Loyola 
(q.  V.)  and  became  one  of  his  associates.  He  was  or- 
dained in  1834,  and  received  at  Montmartre,  on  15 
.August  of  the  same  year,  the  vows  of  Ignatius  and  his 
five  companions.  To  these  first  six  volunteers,  three 
others  were  to  attach  themselves.  Ignatius  appointed 
them  all  to  meet  at  Venice,  and  charged  Faber  to 
conduct  them  there.  Leaving  Paris  15  Nov.,  153(3, 
Faber  and  liis  companions  rejoined  Ignatius  at  Venice 
in  Jan.,  1537.  Ignatius  then  thought  of  going  to 
evangelize  the  Holy  Land,  but  God  had  destined  him 
for  a  vaster  field  of  action. 

After  Ignatius,  Faber  was  the  one  whom  Xavier 
and  his  companions  esteemed  the  most  eminent.  He 
merited  this  esteem  by  his  profound  knowledge,  his 
gentle  sanctity,  and  his  influence  over  souls.  Faber 
now  repaired  to  Rome,  and  after  some  months  of 
preaching  and  teaching,  the  pope  sent  him  to  Parma 
and  Piacenza,  where  he  brought  about  a  revival  of 
Christian  piety.  Recalled  to  Rome,  Faber  was  sent  to 
Germany  to  uphold  Catholicism  at  the  Diet  of  Worms. 
In  reality  the  diets  which  the  Protestants  were  en- 
abled to  hold  through  the  weakness  of  Charles  accom- 
plished no  good.  From  the  Diet  of  Worms,  convoked 
in  1540,  he  was  called  to  that  of  Ratisbon  in  1541. 
Faber  was  startled  by  the  ruin  which  Protestantism 
had  caused  in  Germany,  and  by  the  state  of  decadence 
presented  by  Catholicism;  and  he  saw  that  the  rem- 
edy did  not  lie  in  discussions  with  the  heretics,  but  in 
the  reform  of  the  faithful — above  all,  of  the  clergj'. 
For  ten  months,  at  Speyer,  at  Ratisbon,  and  at  Mainz, 
he  conducted  himself  with  gentleness  and  success.  It 
was  above  all  by  the  Spiritual  Exercises  that  he  accom- 
plished most  of  his  conversions.  Princes,  prelates, 
and  priests  revealed  their  consciences  to  Mm,  and 
people  were  astounded  by  the  efficacy  of  an  apostolate 
accomplished  so  rapidly.  Recalled  to  Spain  by  St. 
Ignatius,  Faber  tore  himself  away  from  the  field  where 
he  had  already  gathered  such  a  harvest,  and  won 
Savoy,  which  has  never  ceased  to  venerate  him  as  a 
saint;   but  he  had  hardly  been  in  Spain  six  months 


when  by  order  of  the  pope  he  was  again  sent  to  Ger- 
many. This  time  for  nineteen  months  Faber  was  to 
work  for  the  reform  of  Speyer,  Mainz,  and  Cologne — 
a  thankless  task.  However,  he  gained  the  ecclesias- 
tics little  by  httle,  changed  their  hearts,  and  discov- 
ered in  the  young  many  vocations.  That  he  decidetl 
the  vocation  of  Bl.  Peter  Canisius  is  in  itself  sufficient 
to  justify  his  being  called  the  Apostle  of  Germany.  The 
Archbishop  of  Cologne,  Herman  of  Wied,  was  already 
won  over  by  the  heresy  which  he  was  later  publicly 
to  embrace.  It  was  also  at  Cologne  that  Faber  espe- 
cially exercised  his  zeal.  After  spending  some  months 
at  Louvain,  in  1543,  where  he  implanted  the  seeds  of 
numerous  vocations  among  the  young,  he  returned  to 
Cologne,  and  there  it  may  be  said  that  he  extirpated 
all  heresy.  But  he  was  forced  by  obedience  to  leave 
Germany  in  August,  1544,  going  at  first  to  Portugal, 
later  to  Spain.  At  the  court  of  Lisbon  and  that  of 
Valladolid,  Faber  was  an  angel  of  God.  He  was  called 
to  the  principal  cities  of  Spain,  and  everywhere  incul- 
cated fervour  and  fostered  vocations.  Let  it  suffice 
to  mention  that  of  Francis  Borgia,  which  he,  more 
than  anyone  else,  was  the  means  of  strengthening. 
Faber,  at  forty,  was  wasted  by  his  incessant  labours 
and  his  unceasing  journeys  always  made  on  foot.  The 
po])e,  however,  thought  of  sending  him  to  the  Council 
of  Trent  as  theologian  of  the  Holy  See;  John  III 
wanted  him  to  be  made  Patriarch  of  ^thopia.  Called 
to  Rome,  Faber,  weakened  by  fever,  arrived  there  17 
July,  1546,  to  die  in  the  arms  of  St.  Ignatius,  the  first 
of  the  following  August.  Those  who  had  known  him 
already  invoked  him  as  a  saint.  Saint  Francis  de 
Sales,  whose  character  recalled  that  of  Faber's,  never 
spoke  of  him  except  as  a  saint.  He  was  beatified, 
5  September,  1872;  his  feast  is  kept  on  8  August. 

Memoriale  B.  Petri  Fabri.  ed.  Bouix   (Paris,  1873);   Cartas  y 
otros  escritos  del  B.  Pedro  Fabro  (Bilbao). 

Pierre  Sttau. 

Peter  Fourier,  Saint,  known  as  le  bon  Pere  de 
Mattaincourt,  b.  at  Mirecourt,  Lorraine,  30  Nov., 
1565;  d.  at  Gray,  Haute-Saone,  9  Dec,  1640.  At  fif- 
teen he  was  sent  to 
the  University  of 
Pont  -  a  -  Mousson. 
His  piety  and 
learning  led  many 
noble  families  to 
ask  him  to  educate 
their  sons.  He  be- 
came a  Canon  Reg- 
ular in  the  Abbey 
of  Chaumousey 
and  was  ordained 
in  1589.  By  order 
of  his  abbot  he  re- 
turned to  the  uni- 
versity and  becaiiii' 
proficient  in  pa- 
tristic theology;  he 
knew  the  "Sum- 
ma"  of  St.  Thoiiii- 
by  heart.  In  },')'.> i 
he  was  made  pari.sli 
priest  of  Mattain- 
court, a  corrupt 
district  threatened  with  the  new  here.sj-.  B\  his 
prayers,  instructions,  and  good  example,  religion 
was  soon  restored.  Fourier  did  not  neglect  the  tem- 
poral interests  of  his  parishioners;  to  help  those  wlio 
through  ill-fortune  had  fallen  into  poverty,  he  estab- 
lished a  kind  of  mutual  help  bank.  He  instituted 
three  sodalities,  of  St.  Sebastian  for  men,  of  the  Holy 
Rosary  for  women,  and  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion for  girls,  or  "Children  of  Mary".  He  composed 
some  dialogues  which  treated  of  the  virtues  opposed 
to  the  vices  most  coniiTion  among  his  people.  These 
dialogues  the  children  deUvered  every  Sunday  in  pub- 


PETER 


7G8 


PETER 


lie.  Topcrpotualo  his  work,  IVtrr  foiiiuicd  in  I'lOS  an 
orderofwonipu,  the  Congregation  of  Noire- l):uni',  wlio 
teaeh  poor  girls  gratnitously.  'I'lie  institute  spread  and 
with  some  nio(hlieations  was  intnxhiced  into  Anieriea 
liy  tlie  \  en.  .Marguerite  Bourgeoys  (d.  1700J. 

"in  UiJl,  by  order  of  the  IJi.sliop  of  Toiil,  Fourier 
undertook  the  reform  of  the  canons  regular  in  Lor- 
raine who  in  1029  formed  the  Congregation  of  Our 
Saviour.  t)f  this  congregation  he  was  made  superior 
general  in  1032.  He  wished  his  brother  canons  to  do 
for  boys  what  his  nuns  were  tloing  for  girls.  In  1625 
Peter  wsvs  entrusted  with  the  conversion  of  the  Prin- 
cipality of  Salm,  near  Xancy,  which  had  gone  over  to 
Calvinism.  In  six  months  all  the  Protestants,  whom 
lie  called  "poor  strangers",  had  returned  to  the 
Faith.  On  account  of  his  attachment  to  the  House  of 
Lorraine  lie  was  driven  into  exile  at  Gray,  where  he 
died.  In  1730  Benedict  XIII  pubhshed  the  Decree  of 
liis  Beatification,  and  Leo  XIII  canonized  him  in  1897. 

Bedel,  La  vie  du  Tr^s  RHh-end  Ph-e  Pierre  Fourier,  dit  vulgaire- 
ment.  Le  P^re  de  MettaincouTl  (1645);  Chapia,  Idea  boni  jmrochi 
et  perferti  retigiosi;  VuiLLIMlN,  La  Vie  de  St.  Pierre  Fourier  (Paris, 

1S97).  A.  All.\ri.\. 

Peter  Fullo,  intruding  Monophysite  Patriarch 
of  Antiocli;  d.  488.  He  received  the  Greek  surname 
Yva4>evs  (Latin,  Fullo)  from  his  trade  of  fuller  of  cloth, 
whicli  he  practised  when  a  monk  at  the  monastery  of 
the  .Aca^meti  in  the  Diocese  of  Chalcedon.  Ex-pelled 
from  his  monastery  on  account  of  his  dissolute  life 
and  his  heretical  doctrines,  he  went  to  Constantinople 
where  the  future  Emperor  Zeno  obtained  for  him  the 
position  of  presbyter  at  the  church  of  St.  Bassa  in 
Chalcedon.  Driven  thence  by  the  populace,  he  ac- 
coiiiiianied  Zeno  to  Antioch,  incited  the  people  against 
their  patriarch,  Martyrius,  and,  upon  the  latter's  res- 
ignation, usurped  the  see  in  470.  He  gained  the 
favour  of  the  Monophysites  by  adding  to  the  Trisagion 
the  words  6  crTavpoiBeh  dt  ijiias  (who  W'ast  crucified 
for  us)  in  the  monophysitic  sense  that  the  Father  and 
the  Holy  Ghost  were  crucified  with  the  Son.  In  471 
he  was  deposed  by  the  Emperor,  but  he  again  usurped 
the  see  in  476  to  be  depo.sed  a  second  time  and  ban- 
ished in  478.  The  usurping  Emperor  Basilicus  rein- 
stated him  in  485  and  he  held  the  see  until  his  death. 
(See  Monophysites  and  Monophysitism.) 

Valesius  (V.vlois),  De  Petro  Antiocheno  episcopo  qui  Fullo 
cognominatus  est  et  de  synodis  adversus  eum  collectis,  appendix  to 
his  ed.  of  Evagrius,  Hist.  eccl.  (Paris,  1673),  reprinted  in  P.  G., 
LXXXVI,  2885-95;  TillemOnt,  Hist,  des  empereurs.  VI,  404-7; 
Theodorus  Lector.  Hist,  eccl.,  I,  xx-xxii;  Theophanes,  Chro- 
nographia,  ad  ann.  456,  467,  469,482;  Liber.atcs.  Brcciarium, 
i\-iii;  xviu;  Le  Quien,  Oriens  Christ.,  II  (Paris,  1740),  724-5. 

Michael  Ott. 

Peter  Gonzalez,  S.«nt,  popularly  known  as  St. 
Elmo,  b.  in  1190  at  Astorga,  Spain;  d.  15  April,  1240, 
at  Tuy.  He  was  educated  by  his  uncle.  Bishop  of 
Astorga,  who  gave  him  when  verj'  yoimg  a  canonry. 
Later  he  entered  the  Dominican  Order  and  became 
a  renowned  preacher;  crowds  gathered  to  hear  him 
and  numberless  conversions  were  the  result  of  his 
efforts.  He  accompanied  Ferdinand  III  of  Leon  on 
his  expeditions  against  the  Moors,  but  his  ambition 
was  to  preach  to  the  poor.  He  devoted  the  remainder 
of  his  life  to  the  instruction  and  conversion  of  the 
ignorant  and  of  the  mariners  in  Gahcia  and  along  the 
coast  of  Spain.  He  lies  buried  in  the  cathedral  of 
Tuy  and  was  beatified  in  12.54  by  Innocent  IV.  St. 
Elmo's  fire  is  a  pale  electrical  discharge  sometimes 
seen  on  stormy  nights  on  the  tips  of  spires,  about  the 
decks  and  rigging  of  ships,  in  the  shape  of  a  ball  or 
brush,  singly  or  in  pairs,  particularly  at  the  mastheads 
and  yardarms.  The  mariners  believed  them  to  be  the 
souls  of  the  departed,  whence  they  are  also  called 
corposant  (corpo  sanlo).  The  ancients  called  them 
Helena  fire  when  seen  singly,  and  Castor  and  Pollux 
when  in  pairs. 

BcTLER.  Lives  of  the  Saints;  Harris.  The  Dioscuri  in  Christian 
Legends  (LoDdon,  1903) ;  Dressel,  Lehrbuch  der  Physik  (Freiburg, 

1895).  Francis  Mershman. 


Peter  Igneus  (I'iotick  .Vi.uohuandini),  Blessed, 
;ui  1 1  aliiiii  monk  of  I  he  Benedict  inr  congregation  of  the 
\allomhro.-ii:ins,  and  t'ardin:d-Bishop  of  ,\ll)ano;  d.  c. 
lOM',).  Tlic  struggle  wagi'd  :ig:unst  simony  in  the  elev- 
enth centm-y  led  to  violi'iit  scenes  in  several  ItaHan 
cities.  .\t  Florence  Bishop  I'ctcr  Mezzobarbo,  known 
also  as  Peter  of  l'avi;i,  w;is  i)ublicly  a(cu.sed  of  .simon- 
iai-;il  ;u'(iuisition  of  thi'episcop:il  dignity.  As  he  stren- 
uously denied  the  charge  and  had  numerous  and  jirom- 
inciil  supporters,  the  controversy  cause<l  int(Mise 
agit;ition  ;it  Florence.  The  \'allombrosian  monks  were 
his  chief  accusers,  and  upon  tlie  insistence  of  the  peo- 
ple for  proof,  the  judgment  of  ( lod.  or  t  rial  by  fire,  was 
resorted  to.  The  .Vbbot  St.  .lohn  (lualbert  designated 
for  the  test  Peter  Aldol)r;mdini,  who  successfully  un- 
derwent the  ordeal  (1()()8),  hence  called  "Igneus", 
or  Fire-tried.  This  triumph  of  the  monks  was  fol- 
lowed by  confession  on  the  part  of  the  bishop.  Peter 
Igneus  subsequently  became  abbot,  and  in  1074  Car- 
dinal-Bishop of  Albano.  During  the  pontificate  of 
Gregory  VII  he  was  entrusted  with  important  mis- 
sions. In  1079  he  proceeded  to  Germany  as  papal 
legate  with  the  Bishop  of  Padua  to  mediate  between 
the  rivals  Hemy  IV  and  Rudolf  of  Suabia.  L'pon  the 
renewal  of  the  excommunication  against  Henry  IV  at 
Salerno  in  1084,  Gregory  VII  designated  him  as  one 
of  the  two  envoys  sent  to  France  for  the  promulgation 
of  the  sentence. 

Acta  SS.,  July.  Ill  (Paris,  1867),  340-44;  Mann,  Lives  of  the 
Pope.?,  VI  (St.  Louis,  1910),  302.  N.    A.    WeBER. 

Peter  Lombard,  theologian,  b.  at  Novara  (or  per- 
ha])S  Lumello),  Italy,  about  1100;  d.  about  1160-64. 
He  studied  first  at  Bologna,  later  on  at  Reims  and 
Paris.  St.  Bernard,  who  had  provided  for  his  wants 
at  Reim.s,  gave  him  a  letter  of  ri'i'ommendation  to 
the  Abbot  of  St.  Victor,  Gilduin  (11 14-55).  To  judge 
from  this  letter,  his  stay  at  Paris  was  to  be  short: 
"per  breve  tempus  usque  ad  Nativitatem  Virginis". 
There  is  no  evidence  of  his  having  gone  back  to  Italy. 
We  learn  from  John  of  Cornwall,  his  pupil,  that  he 
assiduously  studied  the  works  of  Abelard,  whose 
lectures  he  had  probably  followed  about  11,36.  His 
own  writings  .show  the  influence  of  his  master.  In 
1148,  he  was  at  Reims  in  company  with  Robert  of 
Melun,  both  being  called  "magistri  scholares"  by 
Otto  of  Freisingen;  and  he  joined  .\dani  du  Petit-Pont, 
Hughes  of  Amicus,  and  others,  in  theological  discus- 
sions with  Gilbert  de  la  Porrif'e.  About  the  same 
time  (114.5-51)  he  wrote  his  "Book  of  Sentences". 
He  was  then  professor  at  the  school  of  Notre  Dame. 

He  was  acquainted  before  this  date  with  the  works 
of  Gratian  the  canonist,  for  he  utilizes  the  "Decre- 
tum"  in  his  "Sentences".  About  the  same  time  he 
had  in  his  hands  the  newly-finished  tran.slation  of  St. 
John  Dama.scene  by  Burgundio  of  Pisa;  all  these  de- 
tails show  the  care  he  had  to  enlarge  the  circle  of  his 
knowledge.  In  1152  Eugene  III  had  a  prebendary- 
ship  conferred  on  him  by  the  Archbishop  of  Beauvais 
(JafTe-Wattcnb.ach,  9,534).  In  1158  or  11.59  he  was 
appointed  Archbishop  of  Paris;  but  held  the  oflice  for 
a  short  time  only,  being  succeeded  by  Maurice  de 
Sully,  the  builder  of  the  present  Cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame,  in  1160  or  1161.  He  died  some  time  after, 
but  the  exact  date  is  unknown;  it  could  not  have  been 
later  than  1164;  in  the  years  that  follow  we  sometimes 
meet  his  name  in  ths  cartulary  of  Notre  Dame  of 
Paris:  the  house  he  lived  in  is  put  up  for  sale;  his 
original  copy  of  the  "Sentences"  is  bequeathed  by 
Stephen  Langton,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  the 
library  of  Notre  Dame.  The  old  legend  that  makes 
him  the  brother  of  Gratian  of  Bologna  and  of  Peter 
Comestor  has  no  foundation  whatever. 

The  works  of  Peter  Lombard  include:  (l)"Com- 
mentaries  on  the  Psalms  and  St.  Paul "  which  have 
come  down  to  us  in  quite  a  number  of  manuscripts. 
They  are  chiefly  a  compilation  of  patristic  and  medie- 
val exegesis,  after  the  manner  of  the  professors  of 


PETER 


769 


PETER 


the  age  and  of  the  old  "Catenae";  (2)  "Sermons", 

;  which  are  also  found  in  quite  a  number  of  manuscripts; 

'   they  are  rather  dry,  often  allegorical,  and  always  very 

!   methodical  in  their  divisions;  several  of  them  are 

■   printed  among  the  works  of  Hildebert  du  Mans  and 

others;  extracts  of  others  have  been  published  by 

'   Protois  (cf.  infra);   (3)  The  "Sentences"  ("Quatuor 

I   libri  Sententiarium").     It  is  this  theological  work 

above  all  that  made  the  name  of  Peter  Lombard 

famous,  and  gives  him  a  special  place  in  the  history 

of  theology  in  the  Middle  Ages.     Henceforth  he  is 

called  the  "Magister  Sententiarum",  or  simply  the 

"Magister".     The  work  is  divided  into  four  books. 

In  a  long  series  of  questions  it  covers  the  whole  body 

of  theological  doctrine  and  unites  it  in  a  systematized 

whole.     Towards  the  thirteenth  century,  the  various 

bnuks  were  divided  into  distinctiones  (an  old  Latin 

weird  that  first  meant  a  pause  in  reading,  then  a  divi- 

Finn  into  chapters),  though  the  author  had  done  noth- 

iiif;   more   than   to   have   the   questions   follow   one 

another;  in  the  manuscripts,  these  questions  do  not 

ahvuys  bear  the  same  title. 

The  first  book  treats  of  God  and  the  Blessed  Trinity, 
of  (iod's  attributes,  of  Providence,  of  predestination, 
ami  of  evil;  the  second,  of  the  creation,  the  work  of 
thr  .six  days,  the  angels,  the  demons,  the  fall,  grace,  and 
sin;  the  third,  of  the  Incarnation,  the  Redemption,  the 
virtues,  and  the  Ten  Commandments;  the  fourth,  of 
tlie  sacraments  in  general,  the  seven  sacraments  in 
particular,  and  the  four  last  things,  death,  judgment, 
hrll,  and  heaven.  The  "Book  of  Sentences"  was 
written  about  1150.  In  any  case  it  was  subsequent 
til  the  composition  of  the  "Decretum"  of  Gratian  of 
I'li'logna,  which  dates  from  about  1140  and  con- 
tains pages  that  bear  a  striking  likeness  to  the 
■  -Sentences".  A  careful  examination  of  the  texts 
c  itid  in  each  author,  in  the  same  order,  with  the 
same  inaccuracies  or  the  same  changes,  Peter  Lom- 
liard's  citation  of  some  "Dicta  Gratiani",  and  his 
opposition  to  some  of  Gratian's  opinions  (e.  g.  on 
tliM  question  of  the  essence  of  marriage) — all  these 
fa'ts  prove  the  priority  of  the  "Decretum"  to  the 
"Sentences";  the  old  view  of  the  canonist  Schulte 
has  been  abandoned  for  that  of  P.  Fournier,  who 
has  demonstrated  Peter's  dependence  on  Gratian.  A 
manuscript  of  the  "Sentences"  written  in  1158  stiU 
exists,  but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
wiirk  was  finished  some  eight  years  earlier. 

( )n  the  other  hand,  Gandulph  of  Bologna,  who  has 
111  I'll  credited  with  having  inspired  Peter,  is  later  than 
tlie  Lombard;  he  utilized,  transcribed,  or  sjTiopsized 
jiaits  of  the  work  of  the  "Magister  Sententiarum". 
'ihr  method  and  purpose  of  the  book  found  their  ex- 
]il  ination  in  the  intellectual  movement  of  the  times: 
ai'_!:iiraents  from  authority  laying  down  the  doc- 
tiine,  and  dialectics  which  reasons  about  dogma 
orronciliatesthe  "  Auctoritates "  (as  Abelard advised), 
ail'  the  most  striking  features  in  its  composition. 
^riiis  work  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  result  of  the  two 
tinilencies  of  the  period:  the  one  indulging,  sometimes 
till  I  much,  in  speculation,  the  other  recurring  to  au- 
thority. It  must  be  confessed  that  Peter  Lombard 
t  rii'il  to  steer  a  middle  course  between  these  opposing 
tiu.lencies.  From  Abelard,  whose  work  had  hardly 
lo-t  its. fascination  in  spite  of  the  condemnations  of 
Siiissons  and  Sens,  he  borrows  freely;  but  he  is  on 
K'lard  against  Abelard's  errors.  He  has  no  desire  to 
'  make  Christian  doctrine  a  matter  for  controversy 
after  the  manner  of  the  "garruli  ratiocinatores" 
atiainst  whom  he  has  to  defend  himself.  But  he  has  no 
III  -itation  in  exposing  in  a  reasoned  way  the  dif- 
fi  lent  points  of  doctrine:  it  is  but  the  method 
fiillowed  with  still  greater  success  and  depth  by 
St.  Thomas.  He  makes  full  use  of  the  Bible  and 
.  the  Fathers,  but  he  never  goes  to  the  point  of  refusing 
reason  its  due  role.  It  is  here  that  the  works  of  the 
Srhool  of  St.  Victor  are  especially  serviceable  to  him: 
XI.— 49 


he  borrows  considerably  from  Hugo's  "De  Sacra- 
mentis",  as  well  as  from  the  "Summa  Sententiarum", 
which,  though  not  written  by  Hugo,  is  very  much  in- 
debted to  him.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  men- 
tion must  be  made  of  Abelard,  Gratian,  Ivo  of  Char- 
tres,  and  Alger  of  Liege  as  the  chief  sources  of  the 
"Liber  Sententiarum". 

Among  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  Augustine  is 
quoted  about  ten  or  fifteen  times  as  often  as  Ambrose, 
Jerome,  or  Hilary ;  the  Greek  Fathers,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  John  Damascene,  who  is  quoted  about  twenty- 
five  times,  are  scarcely  represented;  the  ante-Nicene 
writers,  except  Origen,  are  mentioned  on  no  more  than 
five  or  six  occasions;  nevertheless,  one  may  say  that 
the  "Sentences",  with  Gratian's  work,  are  the  chief 
sources  whence  many  theologians  of  the  Middle  Agea 
drew  their  knowledge  of  the  Fathers.  Peter's  work 
is  mainly  a  compilation.  Whole  "distinctions"  have 
been  traced  in  detail  to  their  sources;  scarcely  more 
than  ten  lines  have  been  found  to  be  original.  He 
makes  no  secret  of  this;  his  plan  was  to  write  a  kind 
of  Corpus  which  would  save  the  trouble  of  looking  up 
many  different  volumes.  But  this  fact  cannot  blind 
us  to  the  merits  of  his  work;  he  opposed  the  excesses 
of  the  dialecticians  and  at  the  same  time  found  a 
via  media  to  calm  the  fears  of  those  who  advocated  a 
complete  separation  of  reason  and  dogma.  He  ar- 
ranged traditional  doctrines  and  theories  in  a  system 
and  summarized  the  controversies  of  the  time  and 
the  opinions  involved  in  the  different  questions. 
Besides,  his  attempted  solutions  of  many  questions 
roused  the  students'  curiosity  and  led  the  professors 
to  comment  on  him.  On  the  whole  and  in  spite  of  his 
connexion  with  Abelard,  he  is  orthodox;  a  proposition 
of  his  on  " Christological  nihilism"  was  condemned 
by  Alexander  III;  other  theses  were  abandoned  in 
the  century  that  followed  ;  St.  Bonaventure  mentions 
eight  of  them  and  the  University  of  Paris  later  added 
others.  But  the  success  of  the  book  was  incontestable; 
down  to  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  the  textbook 
in  the  university  courses,  upon  which  each  future 
doctor  had  to  lecture  during  two  years. 

The  want  of  originahty  and  the  refusal  of  the  "Ma- 
gister" to  decide  upon  many  points  between  two  solu- 
tions were  very  favourable  to  the  work  of  the  masters 
who  commented  upon  him.  But  the  success  of  Peter 
Lombard  was  not  immediate.  Attacked  sometimes 
during  his  lifetime,  as  Maurice  of  Sully  among  others 
relates,  after  his  death  he  was  bitterlj-  inveighed 
against,  especially  by  Gautier  of  St.  Victor  and  by 
Joachim  of  Flora.  This  opposition  even  went  so  far  as 
to  try  to  get  his  writings  condemned.  In  1215  at  the 
Lateran  Council  these  attempts  were  baffled,  and  the 
second  canon  began  a  profession  of  faith  in  these  words: 
"Credimus  cum  Petro  [Lombardo]".  The  exegetical 
work  and  the  "Sentences"  of  Peter  Lombard  have 
oftenbeen  printed:  the  commentaries  upon  theEpistles 
of  St.  Paul  in  1474,  etc.;  the  " Sentences "  were  printed 
in  1472  and  for  the  last  time  in  1892  (Paris).  Migne 
contains  these  three  works  (P.  L.,  CXCI,  CXCII). 
The  best  edition  of  the  "Sentences"  is  that  which  is 
found  in  the  commentary  of  St.  Bonaventure  (Opera 
S.  Bonaventure,  Quaracchi,  1885,  I-IV). 

Hist.  litt.  de  la  France,  XII;  Protoi-s,  Pierre  Lombard  (Paris, 
1S80):  B.\LTZER,  Die  Sentenzen  des  Petrus  Lomhardus  (Leipzig, 
1902) ;  EspENBEBoER,  Die  Philosophie  des  Peirus  Lombardua 
(Munstcr.  1901);  de  Ghellinck,  The  Book  of  Sentences  in  Dublin 
Review  (1910) ;  Media:val  Theology  in  American  Catholic  Quarterly 
Review  (190S) ;  Revue  des  Questions  historigues  (July.  1910) :  Revue 
Nlo-acolastique  (1909).  J.  de  GheLLINCK. 

Peter-Louis-Marie  Chanel,  Blessed,  b.  at  Cuet, 
Diocese  of  Belley,  France,  1802;  d.  at  Futuna,  28 
April,  1841.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1827,  and  en- 
gaged in  the  parochial  ministry  for  a  few  years;  but 
the  reading  of  letters  of  missionaries  in  far-away  lands 
inflamed  his  heart  with  zeal,  and  he  resolved  to  devote 
his  life  to  the  Apostolate.  In  1831  he  joined  the  Soci- 
ety of  Mary,  and  in  1836  he  embarked  for  Oceania. 


PETER 


770 


PETER 


He  was  assigned  by  his  bishop  to  the  Island  of  FutviiiM, 
and  landed  in  Nov.,  1837.  No  Chri.stiiin  niisKionaiv 
had  ever  .set  foot  there,  and  the  didicult ics  I'cter  en- 
countered amidst  tlio.se  savage  tribes  were  almost  in- 
credible. Nevertheless,  he  was  licjiinniiif;  to  see  the 
results  of  his  efforts,  when  Niuhiki,  kinn  and  also  pon- 
tiff of  the  island,  already  jealous  of  tin-  profjress  of  the 
new  rel)t;ion,  was  exasperated  by  the  eoiiversion  of  his 
son  and  daushter.  At  his  instigation,  one  of  the  min- 
isters gathered  .some  of  the  enemies  of  Christianity 
and  Peter  w;is  cruelly  assassinated  without  uttering  a 
word  of  complaint.  Through  his  death,  the  venerable 
martyr  obtained  what  he  had  so  ardently  desired  and 
earnestly  worked  for,  the  conversion  of  Futvuia.  In 
1842,  two  Marist  missionaries  resumed  his  work,  and 
nowhere  has  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  produced 
more  wonderful  results.  Peter  was  declared  Venerable 
by  Pius  IX  in  1857,  and  beatified  by  Leo  XIII  on  17 
November,  18S9. 

BouRDlN.  Vie  du  Vt-n.  Serviteur  de  Dieu  Pierre- Marie-Louis 
Chanel  (Lyons,  1867) ;  Nicolet,  Life  of  Blessed  P.  M.  L.  Chanel 
(Dublin,  1890):  Quelques  guerisons  et  grdces  signaUes  obtenues  par 
I'intercession  du  Bienheureux  P.  M.  L.  Chanel  (Lyons,  1891); 
Hervier,  Les  Missions  Maristes  en  Oceanie  (Paris."  1902);  Life 
of  the  Yen.  Fr.  Colin,  Founder  and  First  Superior  General  of  the 
Society  of  Mary  (St.  Louis,  1909).  JoSEPH   FrerI. 

Peter Mong^s  (aio776s,  "stammerer",  or  "hoar.se"), 
intruded  Monojihysite  patriarch  of  Alexandria  (d.  490). 
I'lidcr  Tiniotliy  Ailuros,  who  was  made  patriarch  by 
the  Egyptian  Monophysites  after  Chalcedon  (454- 
460),  Peter  Mongus  was  an  ardent  adherent  of  that 
party.  As  Timothy's  deacon  he  took  part  in  the  per- 
secution of  the  i\ielcliites.  Timothy  Ailuros  was 
expelled  from  the  put  riarchal  throne  in  460  and  the  or- 
thodox Timothy  Saldphakiulos  was  set  up  by  the  gov- 
ernment instead  (•lt)U-75).  In475  another  revolution 
recalled  Ailuros,  who  held  his  place  till  death  (477). 
His  party  thereupon  elected  Peter  Mongus  to  succeed 
him.  TheEmjieror  Zeno  (474-91)  sentenced  Mongus 
to  death;  he  escaped  by  flight,  M  ean  while  Salophakio- 
los  returned  and  reigned  till  his  death  (4S1).  TheMel- 
chites  chose  John  Talaia  to  succeed  (481-82:  .see  John 
T.\LAi.\).  Peter  Mongus,  alwaj-s  claiming  to  be  patri- 
arch, now  comes  forward  again.  John  had  quarrelled 
with  Acacius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  refused 
tosign  Zenii's  llenoticon  (482;  see  Hexoth'iin);  so  he 
was  expelled,  the  emperor  changed  his  attitude,  and 
supported  Mongus  (482).  Talaia  fled  to  Rome,  Mongus 
took  possession  of  the  see,  and  sent  notice  of  his  suc- 
cession to  Rome,  Antioch,  and  Constantinople.  He 
had  signed  the  Henoticon  and  was  therefore  inserted 
in  Acacius's  diptychs  as  Patriarch  of  Alexandria.  But 
the  pope  (Felix  II  or  III,  483-92)  defended  Talaia's 
rights  in  two  letters  to  Acacius. 

From  this  time  Mongus  became  the  chief  champion 
of  all  Monophysites.  He  held  a  synod  to  condemn 
Chalcedon,  and  desecrated  the  tombs  of  Proterios 
and  Salophakiolos,  his  Melchite  predecessors.  He  was 
excommunicated  repeatedly  by  the  pope.  It  was 
communion  with  Mongus  and  the  acceptance  of  the 
Henotikon  that  caused  the  Acacian  schism  of  Con- 
stantinople (484-519).  When  Acacius  died  and  was 
succeeded  by  Flavitas  (or  Fravitas,  489-90)  Mongus 
wrote  to  the  new  patriarch  again  condemning  Chalce- 
don and  encouraging  him  in  his  schism  with  Rome. 
He  died  in  490  and  was  succeeded  by  another  Mono- 
phy.site,  Athana.sius  II  (490-96).  For  a  long  time 
after  his  death  the  name  of  Peter  Mongus  was  still  a 
party  word.  To  read  it  in  the  diptychs  (of  the  dead) 
was  a  kind  of  profession  of  Monophysitism;  the  first 
condition  of  reunion  with  Rome  and  the  Catholic 
world  generally  was  to  erase  it,  with  that  of  Dioscurus 
and  the  other  great  champions  of  the  heresy.  In  the 
line  of  .'Mexandrine  patriarchs  Mongus  is  counted  as 
Peter  III.  He  is  said  to  have  written  many  books,  of 
which  however  nothing  remains.  A  pretended  cor- 
respomlence  between  him  and  Acacius  (in  Coptic)  is 
proved  to  be  spurious  by  Amelineau  in  the  "M6- 


moires  publics  par  les  membres  de  la  mi.ssion  anWo. 

logi(]ue  fran(,'aise  au Cairo",  1\'  iP:iii>,  Isss),  190-228, 

MiiimuH  titkcs  an  important   |>I  i  >    in    ml.    In  ii.r\    uf    Mtmo- 

pliv.sitism,    !is    EvAonms,    Chnu,,.         /■       '  m    /'.   (,„   XCII- 

I.UIKUATIS.      .Sfl_.  also  GUT8CHMir>,    I   .  .     .  ,     ';      ,  /-  ,    I  ■,ll  runcllfn  VOll 

Altwandricn  in  Kleine  Schriften,  II  ll.iiiv.ii;,  l.s(UI).  :iil.';~,''>25; 
Hefkle-Leclercq,  Histoire  des  Conciles,  II  U'ariM.  l!)es),  91(5-26; 
Neale,  History  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church,  II  (l,,>nili)n,  1847), 

21-24.  Adrian  Foutescue. 

Peter  Nolasco,  Saint,  b.  at  Mas-des-Saintes- 
Puelles,  near  Castelnaudary,  France,  in  1189  (or 
1182);  d.  at  Barcelona,  on  Christmas  Day,  1256  (or 
1259).  He  was  of  a  noble  family  and  from  his  youUi 
was  noted  for  his  piety,  almsgiving,  and  charity. 
Having  given  all  his  possessions  to  the  jioor,  he  took  a 
vow  of  virginity  and,  to  avoid  communication  with 
the  Albigenses,  went  to  Barcelona. 

At  that  time  the  Moors  were  masters  of  a  great  part 
of  the  Iberian  peninsula,  and  many  Christians  were 
detained  there  and  cruelly  jjersecuted  on  account  of 
the  Faith.  Peter  ransomed  many  of  these  and  in 
doing  so  consumed  all  his  patrimony.  After  mature 
deliberation,  moved  also  by  a   heavenly  vision,   he 


J^ 

J  ^^^^^^^H 

1  M  ^^^^'"'''''  '^M  m 

1 

St,  Pf.ter  Kolasco  and  St.  Raymond  of  rFN\For(r 
Francisco  Zurbaran,  Louvre 
resolved  to  found  a  religious  order  (1218),  similar  to 
that  established  a  few  years  before  by  St.  John  de 
Matha  and  St.  Felix  de  Valois,  whose  chief  object 
would  be  the  redemption  of  Christian  slaves.  In  this 
he  was  encouraged  by  St.  Raymond  Penafort  and 
James  I,  King  of  Aragon,  who,  it  seems,  had  Ix'cn 
favoured  with  the  same  inspiration.  The  institute 
was  called  Mercedarians  (q.  v.)  and  was  solemnly  ap- 
proved by  Gregory  IX,  in  1230.  Its  members  were 
bound  by  a  special  vow  to  employ  all  their  substance 
for  the  redemption  of  captive  Christians,  and  if  nec- 
essary, to  remain  in  captivity  in  their  stead.  At 
first  most  of  these  religious  were  laymen  as  was  Peter 
himself.  But  Clement  V  decreed  that  the  master 
gener.al  of  the  order  should  always  be  a  priest.  His 
feast  is  celebrated  on  the  thirty-first  of  January. 

Acta  SS.:  de  Vargas,  Chronica  sancti  et  militnris  nrdinis  B, 
M.  de  Mercede  (Palermo,  1619);  Gari  y  Siumei.i,.  Hihliolheca 
Mrrcedaria  (Barcelona,  1875);  Mabin,  Ilistoire  de  Vfglise  (Paris, 
1!I09).  A.  AlXARIA. 

Peter    of   Alc3,ntara,    Saint,  b.    at    Alc;lntara, 
Spain,  1499;  d.  18  Oct.,  1562.    His  father,  Peter  Gara- 
vita,  was  the  governor  of  the  place,  and  his  mother  ^ 
w;is  of  the  noble  family  of  Sanabia.    After  a  course  of  ' 
grammar  and  philosophy  in  his  native  town,  he  was 


PETER 


771 


PETER 


sent,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  to  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca. Returning  home,  he  became  a  Franciscan  in 
the  convent  of  the  Stricter  Observance  at  Manxar- 
fetes  in  1515.  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was  sent  to 
found  a  new  community  of  the  Stricter  Observance  at 
Badajoz.  He  was  ordained  priest  in  1524,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  made  guardian  of  the  convent  of  St.  Mary 
of  the  Angels  at  Robredillo.  A  few  years  later  he  be- 
gan preaching  with  much  success.  He  preferred  to 
preach  to  the  poor;  and  his  sermons,  taken  largely 
from  the  Prophets  and  Sapiential  Books,  breathe  the 
tenderest  human  sympathy.  The  reform  of  the  "Dis- 
calced  Friars"  had,  at  the  time  when  Peter  entered  the 
order,  besides  the  convents  in  Spain,  the  Custody  of 
Sta.  Maria  Pietatis  in  Portugal,  subject  to  the  General 
of  the  Observants. 

Having  been  elected  minister  of  St.  Gabriel's  prov- 
ince in  153S,  Peter  set  to  work  at  once.     At  the  chap- 


.St.  Peter  of  Alcantaiia 
Claudio  Coello,  Piuakothek,  Munich 

ter  of  Plasencia  in  1540  he  drew  up  the  Constif  ution.s 
of  the  Stri(^l('r  Oliservants,  but  his  severe  ideas  met 
with  such  ()])p()sition  that  he  renounced  the  office  of 
provincial  and  retired  with  Father  John  of  Avila  into 
the  mountains  of  Arabida,  Portugal,  where  he  joined 
Father  Martin  a  Santa  Maria  in  his  life  of  eremitical 
solitude.  Soon,  however,  other  friars  came  to  join 
him,  and  several  little  communities  were  established, 
Peter  being  chosen  guardian  and  master  of  novices  at 
the  convent  of  Pallais.  In  1560  these  communities 
were  erected  into  the  Province  of  Arabida.  Returning 
to  Spam  in  1553  he  spent  two  more  years  in  solitude, 
and  then  journeyed  barefoot  to  Rome,  and  obtained 
permission  of  Julius  HI  to  found  some  poor  convents 
in  Spain  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  general  of  the 
Conventuals.  Convents  were  established  at  Pedrosa, 
Plasencia,  and  elsewhere;  in  1556  they  were  made  a 
commissariat,  with  Peter  as  superior,  and  in  1561,  a 
province  under  the  title  of  St.  Joseph.  Not  discour- 
aged by  the  opposition  and  ill-success  his  efforts  at 
reform  had  met  with  in  St.  Gabriel's  province,  Peter 
drew  up  the  constitutions  of  the  new  province  with 
even  greater  severity.  The  reform  spread  rapidly  into 
other  provinces  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

In  1562  the  province  of  St.  Joseph  was  put  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  general  of  the  Observants,  and 
two  new  custodies  were  formed:  St.  John  Baptist's  in 
Valencia,  and  St.  Simon's  in  Galicia  (.see  Friars 
Minor).     Besides   the   above-named    associates   of 


Peter  may  be  mentioned  St.  Francis  Borgia,  Blessed 
John  of  Avila,  and  St.  Louis  of  Granada.  In  St.  Ter- 
esa, Peter  perceived  a  soul  chosen  of  God  for  a  great 
work,  and  her  success  in  the  reform  of  Carmel  was  in 
great  measure  due  to  his  counsel,  encouragement,  and 
defence.  (See  Carmelites.)  It  was  a  letter  from  St. 
Peter  (14  April,  1562)  that  encouraged  her  to  found 
her  first  monastery  at  Avila,  24  Aug.  of  that  year.  St. 
Teresa's  autobiography  is  the  source  of  much  of  our 
information  regarding  Peter's  life,  work,  and  gifts  of 
miracles  and  prophecy. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  Peter's  graces  were 
his  gift  of  contemplation  and  the  virtue  of  penance. 
Hardly  less  remarkable  was  his  love  of  God,  which  was 
at  times  so  ardent  as  to  cause  him,  as  it  did  St.  Philip 
Neri,  sensible  pain,  and  frequently  rapt  him  into  ec- 
tasy.  The  poverty  he  practised  and  enforced  was  as 
cheerful  as  it  was  real,  and  often  let  the  want  of  even 
the  necessaries  of  life  be  felt.  In  confirmation  of  his 
virtues  and  mission  of  reformation  God  worked  nu- 
merous miracles  through  his  intercession  and  by  his 
very  presence.  He  was  beatified  by  Gregory  XV  in 
1622,  and  canonized  by  Clement  IX  in  1669.  Besides 
the  Constitutions  of  the  Stricter  Observants  and 
many  letters  on  spiritual  subjects,  especially  to  St. 
Teresa,  he  composed  a  short  treatise  on  prayer,  which 
has  been  translated  into  all  the  languages  of  Europe. 
His  feast  is  19  Oct.  (See  Pascal  Baylon,  Saint; 
Peter  Baptist,  Saint;  Jap.\nese  Martyrs.) 

Lives  bv  John  of  Santa  Maria,  Min.  Obs.  Ale.  Chron.  Prov.  S. 
Jns.,  1,  I;"  and  Marchesio  (Rome,  1667);  Paulo,  Vila  S.  Pelri 
Ale.  (Rome,  1669);  Waddino,  Annates,  an.  1882:  Leo,  Lives  oj 
I  he  Saints  and  Blessed  of  the  Three  Orders  of  St.  Francis,  IV  (Taun- 
ton, 1888) ;  Acta  SS.,  Oct.,  VIII,  636  aq. 

Nicholas  Reagan. 

Peter  of  Alexandria,  Saint,  became  Bishop  of 
■Uexandria  in  300;  martyred  Nov.,  311.  According  to 
Pliilip  of  Sidetes  he  was  at  one  time  head  of  the  fa- 
mous catechetical  school  at  Alexandria.  His  theo- 
logical importance  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  marked, 
\eiy  proliably  initiated,  the  reaction  at  Alexandria 
niiiiinst  cxlrcinc  ()rigriii.sm. 

When  duriuf:  the  Diocletian  persecution  Peter  left 
.\lexandria  for  concealment,  the  Meletian  schism 
broke  out.  There  are  three  different  accounts  of  this 
schism:  (1)  According  to  three  Latin  documents 
(translations  from  lost  Greek  originals)  published  by 
Maffei,  Meletius  (or  Melitius),  Bishop  of  Lycopolis, 
took  advantage  of  St.  Peter's  absence  to  usurp  his 
patriarchal  functions,  and  contravened  the  canons  by 
consecrating  bishops  to  sees  not  vacant,  their  occu- 
pants being  in  prison  for  the  Faith.  Four  of  them  re- 
monstrated, but  Meletius  took  no  heed  of  them  and 
actually  went  to  Alexandria,  where,  at  the  instigation 
of  one  Isidore,  and  Arius  the  future  heresiarch,  he  set 
aside  those  left  in  charge  by  Peter  and  appointed 
others.  Upon  this  Peter  excommunicated  him.  (2) 
St.  Athanasius  accuses  Meletius  not  only  of  turbulent 
and  schismatical  conduct,  but  of  sacrificing,  and  de- 
nouncing Peter  to  the  emjieror.  There  is  no  incom- 
patibility between  the  Latin  documents  and  St.  Atha- 
nasius, but  the  statement  that  Melelius  sacrificed 
must  be  received  with  caution;  it  was  iimbafily  \kis('.iI 
upon  rumour  arising  out  of  the  immunity  wliicli  he  ap- 
peared to  enjoy.  At  all  events  nothing  was  heard 
about  the  charge  at  the  Council  of  Nica;a.  (3)  Ac- 
cording to  St.  Epiphanius  (Haer.,  68),  Meletius  and  St. 
Peter  quarrelled  over  the  reconciliation  of  the  lapsi 
(q.  v.),  the  former  inclining  to  sterner  views.  Epit)ha- 
nius  probably  derived  his  infonnulion  from  a  l^Iele- 
tian  source,  and  his  story  is  full  of  historical  blunders. 
Thus,  to  take  one  example,  Peter  is  made  a  fellow- 
prisonerof  Meletius  and  is  martyred  in  prison.  Accord- 
ing to  Eusebius  his  martyrdom  was  unexpected,  and 
therefore  not  preceded  by  a  term  of  imprisonment. 

There  are  extant  a  collection  of  fourteen  canons 
issued  by  Peter  in  the  third  year  of  the  persecution 


PETER 


772 


PETER 


dealing  chiefly  with  the  lapsi,  excerpted  probably 
from  an  ICastcr  Festal  Epistle.  The  faot  that  they 
were  ratified  by  the  Council  of  Trullo,  and  lluis  be- 
came part  of  the  canon  law  of  the  Ka.slcrn  C'luircli, 
probably  accounts  for  their  preservation.  Many  M8.S. 
contain  a  fifteenth  canon  taken  from  writing  on 
the  P;i.s.sover.  The  cases  of  diflferent  kinds  of  lapsi 
were  decided  upon  in  these  canons. 

The  Acts  of  the  martjTdom  of  St.  Peter  are  too  late 
to  have  any  historical  value.  In  them  is  the  story  of 
Christ  appearing  to  St.  Peter  with  His  garment 
rent,  foretelling  the  Arian  schism.  Three  passages 
from  "On  the  Godhead",  apparently  written  against 
Origen's  subordinationist  views,  were  quoted  by  St. 
Cyril  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus.  Two  further  pas- 
sages (in  Syriac)  claiming  to  be  from  the  same  book, 
were  printed  by  Pitra  in  "Analecta  Sacra",  IV,  188; 
their  genuineness  is  doubtful.  Leontius  of  Byzantium 
quotes  a  passage  affirming  the  two  Natures  of  Christ 
from  a  work  on  "The  Coming  of  Christ",  and  two 
passages  from  the  first  book  of  a  treatise  against  the 
view  that  the  soul  had  existed  and  sinned  before  it 
was  united  to  the  body.  This  treatise  must  have  been 
written  against  Origen.  Very  important  are  seven 
fragments  preserved  in  Syriac  (Pitra,  op.  cit.,  IV,  189- 
93)  from  another  work  on  the  Resurrection,  in  which 
the  identity  of  the  risen  with  the  earthly  body  is  main- 
tained against  Origen. 

Five  Armenian  fragments  were  also  published  by 
Pitra  (op.  cit.,  IV,  430  sq.).  Two  of  these  correspond 
with  one  of  the  doubtful  Syriac  fragments.  The  re- 
maining three  are  probably  Monophysite  forgeries 
(Harnack,  "Altchrist.  Lit.",  447).  A  fragment  quoted 
by  the  Emperor  Justinian  in  his  Letter  to  the  Patri- 
arch Mennas,  purporting  to  be  taken  from  a  Mysta- 
gogia  of  St.  Peter's,  is  probably  spurious  (see  Routh, 
"Reliq.  Sac.",  Ill,  372;  Harnack,  op.  cit.,  448).  The 
"Chronicon  Paschale"  gives  a  long  extract  from  a 
supposed  writing  of  Peter  on  the  Passover.  This  is 
condemned  as  spurious  by  a  reference  to  St.  Athana- 
sius  (which  editors  often  suppress)  unless,  indeed, 
the  reference  is  an  interpolation.  A  fragment  first 
printed  by  Routh  from  a  Treatise  "On  Blasphemy" 
is  generally  regarded  as  spurious.  A  Coptic  fragment 
on  the  keeping  of  Sunday,  published  by  Schmidt 
(Texte  und  Untersuchung.,  IV)  has  been  ruled  spuri- 
ous by  Delehaye,  in  whose  verdict  critics  seem  to 
acquiesce.  Other  Coptic  fragments  have  been  edited 
with  a  translation  by  Crum  in  the  "Journal  of  Theo- 
logical Studies"  (IV,  287  sqq.).  Most  of  the.se  come 
from  tJie  same  manuscript  as  the  fragment  edited  by 
Schmidt.  Their  editor  says:  "It  would  be  difficult 
to  maintain  the  genuineness  of  these  texts  after  De- 
Ichaye's  criticisms  (.Anal.  BoUand.,  XX,  101),  though 
certain  of  the  passages  which  I  have  published 
may  indicate  interpolated,  rather  than  wholly  apoc- 
ryphal compositions." 

KouTH,  Reliq.  Sac,  HI,  319-72,  gives  most  of  the  passages 
attributed  to  St.  Peter.  A  translation  of  many  of  these,  as  well  aa 
of  the  martyrdom,  will  be  found  in  Clarke,  Ante- Nicene  Christ. 
Library,  in  vol.  containing  works  of  METHODnjs.  For  the  Mele- 
tian  8cl]ism:  HEFELf;,  Hist,  of  Councils,  tr.  1. 341  sq.  The  best  edi- 
tions of  the  Canons  is  Lagarde.  Reliq.  Juris  Eceles.,  63-73.  The 
latest  edition  of  the  martyrdom  is  Viteatj,  Passions  des  saints 
Ecaterine  et  Pierre  dWlexandrie,  Barbara  et  Anyaia  (Paris,  1897). 
See  Harnack,  Altchrist.  Lit.,  443-49;  and  Chronologic,  71-75. 
Barde.nhewer.  Ge.':rh.  d.  altkirch.  Lit.,  II.  203  sq.  Radford, 
Three  Teachers  of  .\lexandria:  Theognostus,  Pierius  and  Peter 
(Cambridge,  1908).  F.    J.    BaCCHCS. 

Peter  of  Aquila  (Scotellus),  Friar  Minor,  the- 
ologian and  bishop,  b.  at  Aquila  in  the  Abruzzi, 
Italy,  towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century;  d.  at 
Trivento,  1361.  In  1334  he  figures  as  master  of 
theology  and  provincial  of  his  order  in  Tuscany. 
In  1334  he  was  appointed  confessor  of  Queen  Joan 
I  of  Naples  and  shortly  afterwards  inquisitor  of 
Florence.  His  servants  having  been  punished  by 
public  authority,  the  inqui-sitor  excommunicated 
the  priors  and  placed    the  town    under  interdict. 


On  12  February,  1347,  Peter  was  named  Bishop  of  S. 
Angelo  de  Lombardi  in  Calabria,  and  on  30  May, 
134S,  was  transferred  to  Trivento.  He  was  an  able 
interpreter  of  Scotus,  and  was  called  "Doctor  sufli- 
ciens".  His  chief  works  are  commentaries  on  the  four 
books  of  Sentences,  whicli  being  a  conipi'iidium  of  the 
doctrine  of  Scotus  were  called  '■SimjIcMumi",  whence 
the  author's  surname  "Scotellus".  The  commenta- 
ries have  passed  through  various  editions,  the  first 
by  Peter  Drach,  at  Speier,  1480,  and  recently  by 
Paolini   (Genoa,   1907-09). 

EiJBEL,  Bullarium  Franciscanum,  VI  (Rome,  1902),  192.  214; 
Annlecta  Franciscana,  IV  (Quaracchi,  1900),  339,  530;  Wadding, 
Annates  Minorum,  ad  a.  1343,  n.  35;  ad  a.  1346,  nn,  4,  5;  Idem, 
Scriptores  Ord.  Min.  (Rome,  1806),  187;  Sbaralea,  Supplem.  ad 
Script.  Ord.  Min.  (Rome,  1806),  583;  MAZzrciiEi.i.i,  67i  scriHori 
d'llalia,  II  (Brescia,  1753),  902-3;  Cappelletti,  Le  chim 
d'ltalia.  X.X  (Venice,  1866).  551.  LiVARIUS   OUGER. 

Peter  of  Arbues  (correctly,  Peter  Arbues),  S.mnt, 
b.  in  1441  (or  1442);  d.  17  Sept.,  1485.  His  father, 
a  nobleman,  was  Antonio  Arbues,  and  his  mother's 
name  was  Sancia  Ruiz.  He  studied  philosophy,  prob- 
ably at  Huesca,  but  later  went  to  Bologna,  where 
in  the  Spanish  college  of  St.  Clement  he  was  regarded 
as  a  model  of  learning  and  piety,  and  was  graduated  in 
theology  and  law.  Returning  to  Spain  he  became  a 
canon  regular  at  Saragossa,  where  he  made  his  re- 
ligious profession  in  1474.  About  that  time  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  had  obtained  from  Sixtus  IV  a  Bull  to 
establish  in  their  kingdom  a  tribunal  for  searching  out 
heretics,  and  especially  Jews  who  after  having  received 
baptism  had  relapsed  openly  or  secretly  into  Judaism; 
these  were  known  as  Marranos.  The  famous  Thomas 
Torquemada,  in  1483,  was  appointed  grand  inquisi- 
tor over  Castile  and,  being  acquainted  with  the  learn- 
ing and  virtue  of  Peter  Arbues,  named  him  inquisi- 
tor provincial  in  the  Kingdom  of  Aragon  (1484). 
Peter  performed  the  duties  with  zeal  and  justice. 
Although  the  enemies  of  the  Inquisition  accuse  him 
of  cruelty,  it  is  certain  that  not  a  single  sentence  of 
death  can  be  traced  to  him  (see  Inquisition).  The 
Marranos,  however,  whom  he  had  punished  hated  and 
resolved  to  do  away  with  him.  One  night  while 
kneeling  in  prayer  before  the  altar  of  Our  Lady  in  the 
metropolitan  church,  where  he  used  to  recite  the  office 
with  his  brother  canons,  they  attacked  him,  and  hired 
assassins  inflicted  several  wounds  from  which  he  died 
two  days  after.   He  was  canonized  by  Pius  IX,  in  1867. 

BoLLANDlsTS,  Proprium  Festorum  Hispanorum;  Luzzi,  Vita  di 
S.  Pietro  de  Arbues  Caninico  Regolare  (Rome,  1867). 

A.  Allaria. 

Peter  of  Auvergne,  philosopher  and  theologian; 
d.  after  1310.  He  was  a  canon  of  Paris;  some  biog- 
raphers have  thought  that  he  was  Bishop  of  Clermont 
(Gallia  Christ.,  II,  283),  because  a  Bull  of  Boniface 
VIII  of  the  year  1296  names  as  canon  of  Paris,  Peter 
of  Croc  (Cros),  already  canon  of  Clermont  (Thomas,  in 
"Miilangesd'arch.  et  d'hist.",  Paris,  1882,  II,  117-20); 
but  it  is  more  likely  that  they  are  distinct.  Peter  of 
Auvergne  was  in  Paris  in  1301  (Script.  Prsedicat.,  I, 
489),  and,  according  to  several  accounts,  was  a  pupil  of 
St.  Thomas.  In  1279,  while  the  various  nations  of  the 
University  of  Paris  were  quarrelling  about  the  rector- 
ship, Simon  of  Brion,  papal  legate,  appointed  Peter  of 
Auvergne  to  that  office;  in  1296  he  was  elected  to  it. 

His  published  works  are:  "Supplementum  Com- 
mentarii  S.  Thoma;  in  tertium  et  quartum  librum  de 
csclo  et  mundo"  (in  "Opera  S.  Thoma;",  II,  adfinem); 
commentaries  on  Aristotle's  "Meteororum";  "De 
Juventute  et  senectute";  "De  longitudine  et  brev- 
itate  vita;";  "De  motu  animalium".  He  has  been 
credited  with  a  supplement  to  the  "Summa"  of  St. 
■Thomas,  but  there  is  no  scientific  warrant  for  this. 
Peter  also  left  numerous  treatises  which  arc  either  at 
the  Biblioth.  Nationale,  or  at  1' Arsenal  of  Paris:  "Sex 
quodlibeta",  long  discussions  after  the  manner  of  St. 
Thomas;  " Sophisma  Determinatum "  ;  "Quxstiones 
super  totam  logicam  veterem  Arist.";  "Quajstiones 


PETER 


773 


PETER 


Buper  Perphyrium";  "In  Arist.  Metaphysicam"; 
"In  libros  Politicorum " ;  "Desomnoet  vigilia";  "De 
veget.  et  plantis";  "Deanima". 

WiDDINO,  Script.  Minor.  (1690),  279;  Du  BotJLAV,  Hist.  Univ. 
de  Paris,  III  (Paria,  1666),  709;  Hist.  ant.  eccl.  XIV  (Paris, 
1701),  214;  Qu^TiF-EcHABD,  Script.  Freed.,  1  (Paris,  1719),  489; 
OuDlN.  Cumm.  de  script,  eccl.,  HI  (Paris,  1722),  927;  Fabricius, 
Bibl  mt-rf.irt.,  V  (Paris,  1736),  711 ;  Lajard  in //is(.  ii«.  de  France, 
XXV  (Paris,  1869),  93,  114-  Denifle,  Carl.  Unio.  Paris,  I  (Paris, 
1889),  930;  II,  69,  90;  F^ret,  La  Faculte  de  theologie  de  Paris, 
III  (Paris,  1896),  221-7.  JOSEPH   DedIEU. 

Peter  of  Bergamo  (Almadura),  theologian,  date 
of  birth  unknown;  d.  at  Plaeentia,  in  1482.  He  en- 
tered the  Dominican  Order  m  his  native  town,  and 
completed  his  studies  at  the  University  of  Bologna, 
where  he  received  his  degree.  In  the  Dominican 
House  of  Studies  he  filled  the  offices  of  Master  of  Stu- 
dents and  Bachelor  of  the  Studium.  The  people  of 
Piacenza  venerated  him  as  a  saint,  and  Fr.  Leander 
Alberti  states  that  miracles  were  wrought  through  his 
intercession.  His  remains  were  deposited  in  a  crypt 
under  the  high  altar  of  the  chapel  of  St.  Thomas.  All 
of  his  writings  that  have  come  down  to  us  deal  with 
th?  works  of  St.  Thomas:  "Index  universalis  in  omnia 
opera  D.  Th.  de  Aquino"  (Bologna,  1475)  and  "Con- 
cordantiae  locorum  doct.  Angel,  qua;  sibi  invicem  ad- 
versari  videntur"  (Basle,  1478),  combined  under  the 
title,  "Tabula  in  libros  .  .  .  cum  additionibus  con- 
clusionum,  concordantiis  locorum  et  S.  Script,  auctori- 
tatibus"  (Venice,  1497;  Rome,  1535).  In  'he  edition 
of  St.  Thomas's  works  published  by  order  of  St.  Pius 
V  all  Almadura's  indices,  etc,  appear  under  the  name : 
"Tabula  aurea  exim.  doct.  Fr.  Petri  de  Bergamo  .  .  . 
in  omnes  libros,  opuscula  et  commentaria  D.  Th. 
Aquin.  .  .  ."  (Rome,  1.570).  This  "Tabula  aurea" 
was  republished  as  vol.  XXV  of  the  Parma  edition  of 
St.  Thomas's  works  (Parma,  1873). 

QuiTiF  and  Echard.  .Scri;>(.  Ord.  Praed.,  1  (Paris.  1719), 
863:  TouRON,  Hist,  des  homines  illustres  de  I'Ordre  de  S.  Dum., 
Ill  (P'aris,  1746),  529;  Alberti,  De  viris  illus.  Ord.  Prad.  (Bo- 
logna, 1517) ;  Descrittione  di  tutta  Italia  (Bologna,  1550). 

D.  J.  Kenedy 

Peter  of  Bruys.     See  Petrobrtjsians. 

Peter  of  Ghent.     See  Mexico. 

Peter  of  Pisa,  Blessed.    See  Hierontmites. 

Peter  of  Poitiers,  French  scholastic  theologian, 
b.  at  Poitiers  or  in  its  neighbourhood  about  1130;  d. 
in  Paris  in  1215.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Paris,  where  he  became  professor  of  theology  and  lec- 
tured for  thirty-eight  years.  In  1169  he  succeeded 
Peter  Comestor  in  the  chair  of  scholastic  theology. 
His  lectures  were  so  briUiant  as  to  inspire  the  enmity 
of  Gauthier  de  St-Victor,  one  of  the  bitterest  oppo- 
nents of  Scholasticism,  who  ranked  him  with  Gilbert 
de  la  Porree,  Abelard,  and  Peter  Lombard  in  the 
pamphlet  wherein  he  tries  to  throw  ridicule  on  the 
four  doctors,  under  the  name  of  the  "Four  Labyrinths 
of  France".  In  1179  he  published  five  books  of  sen- 
tences which  are  a  synopsis  of  his  lectures.  His  doc- 
trine is  orthodox,  iDut,  though  containing  no  con- 
demned proposition,  it  exhibits  more  vain  subtilty 
than  real  theology  based  on  Holy  Scripture.  Those 
who  accuse  Scholasticism  of  being  a  mere  logomachy 
can  find  arguments  in  the  writings  of  Peter  of  Poitiers. 
He  wrote  commentaries,  still  unedited,  on  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  the  Psalms.  A  chronological 
and  genealogical  abridgment  of  the  Bible  is  attrib- 
uted to  him,  but  the  authorship  is  uncertain.  As 
Chancellor  of  the  Church  of  Paris  he  displayed  great 
zeal  on  behalf  of  poor  students,  and  to  supply  their 
want  of  text-books,  which  were  very  expensive,  he  had 
a  kind  of  synopsis  engraved  on  the  walls  of  the  class- 
rooms for  their  assistance.  In  1191  he  was  appointed 
by  Celestine  III  to  settle  a  dispute  between  the 
Abbeys  of  St-Eloi  and  St-Victor.  He  was  a  constant 
correspondent  of  Celestine  III  and  Innocent  III. 
Certain  writers  erroneously  believe  that  he  died 
Bishop  of  Embrun;    the  "Gallia  Christiana  Nova" 


shows  that  he  was  only  Chancellor  of  Paris.  His 
works  were  pubhshed  by  Dom  Mathoud  with  those  of 
Robert  PuUus  (Paris,  1855). 

Du  BouLAY,  Hist,  del'unioersitede  Paris.  II;  Gallia  Christiana, 
VII;  Bihliolhiijiie  latine  du  moyen  Age  (Paris,  1759). 

J.  Lataste. 

Peter  of  Sebaste,  Saint,  bishop,  b.  about  340;  d. 
391.  He  belonged  to  the  richly  blest  family  of  Basil 
and  Emmelia  of  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia,  from  which 
also  sprang  St.  Macrina  the  Younger  (q.  v.)  and  the 
two  great  Cappadocian  doctors,  Basil  of  Cssarea  and 
Gregory  of  Nyssa.  He  was  the  youngest  of  a  large 
family,  and  Macrina,  his  eldest  sister,  exercised  a  great 
influence  over  his  religious  training,  acting  as  his  in- 
structress in  the  way  of  Christian  perfection,  and 
directing  him  towards  the  spiritual  and  ascetic  life. 
Renouncing  the  study  of  the  profane  sciences,  he  de- 
voted himself  to  meditation  on  Holy  Writ  and  the 
cultivation  of  the  religious  life.  Shortly  after  his 
brother's  elevation  to  the  episcopal  See  of  Caesarea, 
Peter  received  from  hira  priestly  ordination,  but  sub- 
sequently, withdrawing  from  active  affairs,  resumed 
the  life  of  a  solitary  ascetic.  He  assisted  his  sister 
towards  the  attainment  of  her  life's  object,  and  aided 
her  and  her  mother  in  their  monastic  establishment 
after  his  father's  death  (Gregory  of  Nyssa,  "Vita  s. 
Macrina;").  About  380-81  he  was  elevated  to  the  See 
of  Sebaste  in  Armenia  and,  without  displaying  any 
literary  activity,  took  his  stand  beside  his  brothers 
Basil  and  Gregory  in  their  fight  against  the  Arian  her- 
esy (Theodoret,  "H.  E.",  IV,  xxvii).  In  his  life  and 
episcopal  administration  he  displayed  the  same  splen- 
did characteristics  as  Basil.  Linked  together  in  the 
closest  manner  with  his  brothers,  he  followed  their 
writings  with  the  greatest  interest.  At  his  advice 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  wrote  his  great  work  "Against 
Eunomius",  in  defence  of  Basil's  similarly  named  book 
answering  the  polemical  work  of  Eunomius.  It  was 
also  at  his  desire  that  Gregory  wrote  the  "Treatise  on 
the  Work  of  the  Six  Days",  to  defend  Basil's  similar 
treatise  against  false  interpretations  and  to  complete 
it.  Another  work  of  Gregory's,  "On  the  Endowment 
of  Man",  was  also  written  at  Peter's  suggestion,  and 
sent  to  the  latter  with  an  appropriate  preface  as  an 
Easter  gift  in  397.  We  have  no  detailed  information 
concerning  his  activity  as  a  bishop,  except  that  he  was 
present  at  the  (Ecumenical  Council  of  Constantinople 
in  381.  After  his  death  in  391  he  was  venerated  as  a 
saint.     His  feast  falls  on  8-9  January. 

Acta  SS.,  I  Jan.,  588-590;  Butleh,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  I,  9  Jan. ; 
see  bibliography  under  Basil  the  Gre.^t  and  Gregory  of 
Nyssa.  J.   p.   KiRSCH. 

Peter  of  Verona,  Saint,  b.  at  Verona,  1206;  d. 
near  Milan,  (i  April,  12.')2.  His  parents  were  adherents 
of  the  .M;inicliaan  heresy,  which  still  survived  in 
northern  Italy  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Sent  to 
a  Catholic  school,  and  later  to  the  University  of 
Bologna,  he  there  met  St.  Dominic,  and  entered 
the  Order  of  the  Friars  Preachers.  Such  were 
his  virtues,  severity  of  life  and  doctrine,  talent  for 
preaching,  and  zeal  for  the  Faith,  that  Gregory 
IX  made  him  general  inquisitor,  and  his  superiors 
destined  hira  to  combat  the  Manichiean  errors. 
In  that  capacity  he  evangelized  nearly  the  whole 
of  Italy,  preaching  in  Rome,  Florence,  Bologna, 
Genoa,  and  Como.  Crowds  came  to  meet  him  and  fol- 
lowed him  wherever  he  went;  and  conversions  were 
numerous.  He  never  failed  to  denounce  the  vices  and 
errors  of  Catholics  who  cdnfcssc-d  the  Faith  by  words, 
but  in  deeds  denied  it.  The  Manidueans  did  all  they 
could  to  compel  the  inquisitor  to  '■ease  from  preaching 
against  their  ?rrors  and  propaganda.  Persecutions, 
calumnies,  threats,  nothing  was  left  untried. 

When  returning  from  Como  to  Milan,  he  met  a 
certain  Carino  who  with  some  other  Manicha-ans  had 
plotted  to  murder  him.  The  assassin  struck  him  with 
an  axe  on  the  head  with  such  violence,  that  the  holy 


PETER'S   CHAINS 


774 


PETERSPENCE 


man  fell  half  dead.  Rising  to  his  knees  he  recited  the 
first  artii'lc  of  the  Symbol  of  the  Apostles,  and  oflfer- 
iii^liis  blood  :ui  a  sacrifice  to  God,  he  tlipjjcd  his  fingers 
in  It  and  wrote  on  the  ground  the  words:  "Credo  in 
Deiini".  The  murderer  then  pierced  his  heart.  The 
body  was  carried  to  Milan  and  laid  in  the  church  of 
St.  Eustorgio,  where  a  magnificent  m,ausoleuni,  the 
work  of  Balduccio  Pisano,  was -erected  to  his  memory. 
He  wrought  many  miracles  when  living,  butthey  were 
even  more  numerous  after  his  martyrdom,  so  that  In- 
nocent IV  canonized  him  on  25  March,  1253. 

Marciiese,  Vita'di  S.  Pieiro  Martire  (Fieaole,  1894);  Hinds,  A 
Garner  of  Saints  iljondon,  1900);  Perrens,  5i  Pierre  martyr  el 
Vhcrisie  des  Patarins  a  Florence  in  Rev.  Histor.,  II  (1876),  337-66; 
Adu  SS.  (1078),  .\pril.  III,  678-86. 

A.  Allaria. 

Peter's  Chains,  Feast  of.    See  Peter,  Saint. 

Peterspence,  otherwise  known  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  as  "Romfeoh"  or  "Romescot",  is  the  name 
trachtionally  given  to  an  annual  contribution  or  trib- 
ute (originally  of  a  penny  from  each  householder 
holding  land  of  a  certain  value)  paid  to  the  exchequer 
of  the  Holy  See  by  various  peoples  of  Christendom. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  this  form  of  contribution  seems 
.almost  to  have  been  confined  to  England  and  some 
few  other  northern  nations,  and  it  was  unquestionably 
in  England  that  it  took  its  rise.  Neglecting  some  vague 
and  unreliable  traditions  which  ascribed  the  origin  of 
"Romescot"  to  Ini,  King  of  Wcssex,  in  727,  we  are 
possibly  on  firmer  ground  if  we  identify  the  begin- 
nings of  this  contribution  with  a  sum  of  .365  mancuses 
yearly,  promised  by  Offa  of  Mercia,  and  confirmed 
to  the  pope's  legates  at  the  Synod  of  Chelsea  in  787. 
The  promise  is  mentioned  in  an  extant  letter  from 
Pope  Leo  III  to  Kenulf,  Otto's  successor  (Haddan 
and  Stubbs,  "Councils",  III,  445,  525;  cf.  ibid.,  538). 
It  is  stated  that  the  money  was  to  be  applied  to  the 
rehef  of  the  poor  and  to  providing  lights  for  the 
churches  of  Rome,  and,  rather  strangely,  notliiiig  is 
said  of  the  support  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Seliool 
("Schola  Saxonum")  in  the  Borgo,  which  Pcpc  Alex- 
ander II  and  later  chroniclers  closely  associated  with 
the  beginnings  of  Peterspence.  Again  it  seems  cer- 
tain that  Ethelwulf  after  his  visit  to  Rome  with 
his  son  Alfred  (c.  855)  ordered  that  three  hundred 
mancu.ses  were  to  be  sent  to  the  Holy  See  each  year 
(.\sser,  ed.  Stevenson,  15,  211).  Whether  this  was  a 
new  grant,  or  a  confirmation  of  the  tribute  of  Offa, 
is  not  clear  (cf.  Liebermann,  "Ueber  die  Leges  Ead- 
wardi",  55);  neither  is  it  certain  whether  this  sum  of 
300  mancuses  was  to  be  provided  out  of  the  royal 
exchequer  or  collected  in  pennies  from  the  people. 
We  only  know  that  not  long  afterwards,  during  the 
reign  of  Alfred,  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  speaks  of 
the  conveyance  to  Rome  of  "the  donation  of  the 
Wessex  folk  and  their  king "  (cf.  Chron  /Ethelwardi, 
a.  d.  888),  and  that  in  the  code  known  as  the  "Dooms 
of  Edward  and  Guthrum",  which  no  doubt  represents 
the  legislation  of  Alfred's  reign,  we  find  for  the  first 
time  explicit  mention  of  "Romfeoh"  as  a  contribu- 
tion paid  by  the  people.  Under  Edmund  (941-4(5), 
at  a  great  council  of  the  clergy  and  laity  held  in  Lon- 
don at  Easter  time,  "Romfeoh"  was  declared  to  be 
one  of  the  dues  which  must  be  paid  by  every  man  un- 
der pain  of  excommunication,  and  a  later  ordinance 
under  Edgar  speaks  of  it  as  the  "hearth-penny"  and 
enjoins  with  threats  of  hea\'y  penalties  that  it  must 
be  paid  by  St.  Peter's  Massday,  i.  e.  "Lammas",  the 
feiust  of  St.  Peter's  Chains  (1  August).  That  the  tax 
was  in  fact  collected  and  sent  to  Rome  in  coins  of 
small  value,  archa>ological  evidence  has  provefl.  In 
1883  a  hoard  of  835  coins  was  discovered  in  Rome, 
apparently  near  the  site  of  one  of  the  old  papal 
palaces.  Almost  all  these  pieces  without  exception 
were  Anglo-S.axon  silviT  pi-nnirs,  217  of  them  be.'iring 
the  imprint  of  King  ICdward  the  Elder,  and  393  that  of 
Athclstan,  none  of  them  being  later  than  the  year  947. 


There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  find  represents  an  in- 
stalment of  Peterspence  sent  to  Rome  just  as  it  had 
iK'cn  collected;  and  the  conchision  is  ciiiilirmed  by 
some  other  arcli:rologic,-d  iliscoveri<'s  of  earlier  date. 

A  remarkable  letter  of  King  Ciiiit,  wiitten  from 
Rome  in  1027  to  his  people  in  England,  (•xpriv.ses  in 
solemn  terms  his  devotion  to  the  iloly  Sec  :iiid  en- 
joins that  Peterspence  and  some  oIIut  <'ccle.viMsticnl 
ta.xes  should  be  paid  before  his  return  to  England. 
"Cnut",  says  Dr.  Jensen,  "undoubtedly  renewed  and 
confirmed  the  donation  from  England  to  the  pajial 
court  on  the  occasion  of  this  pilgrim.age  to  Rome." 
The  manner  of  levying  the  tax  is,  however,  imperfectly 
understood,  for,  as  Liebermann  h.as  .shown  (Eng.  ilist. 
Rev.,  1896,  p.  746),  M.  Fabrc  is  niishiken  in  siippcjsinR 
that  he  has  found  the  text  of  C'luit's  agreement  in  the 
"  Liber Censuum".  In  spite  of  Cnut's  good  will,  con- 
siderable negligence  about  the  payment  of  Peters- 
pence continued  under  the  later  Anglo-Saxon  kings. 
After  the  Norman  Conquest,  St.  Gregory  VII  ad- 
dressed a  formal  demand  to  King  William  in  1074. 
"Concerning  the  Peterspence  to  be  collected  in  Enfj- 
land",  he  wrote,  "we  charge  you  to  watch  over  it 
as  if  it  were  your  own  revenue. "  After  some  delays 
the  Conqueror  wrote  a  conciliatory  reply  and,  while 
refusing  feudal  homage  to  the  p.ap.Tcy  ,as  not  justified 
by  any  precedent,  he  formally  recognized  the  claim 
to  Peterspence  and  promised  that  tlie  arrears  .should 
be  made  up.  But  though  the  contribution  on  the 
whole  was  paid,  and  though  various  efforts  and  ac- 
commodations were  made  by  the  popes  and  their 
representatives  in  England,  it  seems  clear  that  the 
collection  of  Peterspence  was  at  hardly  any  time 
carried  out  in  a  way  that  was  satisfactory  to  the  Holy 
See.  Innocent  III  on  28  Jan.,  1214,  wrote  indignantly 
to  the  English  bishops  that  "certain  prelates  having 
colh'cted  these  pence  [denarios]  in  our  name,  have 
not  been  ashamed  to  retain  the  greater  jiart  for 
theni.selves.  They  paid  us  only  300  marks,  usurping 
for  their  own  use  1000  marks  or  more"  (Potthast, 
"Regesta",  no.  2635).  This  language,  as  Dr.  Jensen 
forcibly  urges,  seems  inconsistent  w  ith  the  idea  of  any 
formal  composition  assented  to  by  the  Holy  See,  in 
virtue  of  which  the  popes  agreed  to  farm  the  whole 
proceeds  of  Petersjx'iiee  for  a  payment  of  300  marks. 
It  seems,  however,  that  this  annual  payment  of  a  sum 
of  300  (or  more  strictly  299  marks)  was  the  solution 
practically  arrived  at,  and  we  even  know  the  pro- 
portions in  which  this  amount  was  levied  upon  the 
different  dioceses  of  England. 

.\nother  point  to  be  noted  is  that  both  before  and 
after  the  surrender  of  the  kingdom  by  King  John,  who 
made  England  the  fief  of  the  Holy  See  (see  England), 
a  certain  confusion  seems  sometimes  to  have  existed 
between  Peterspence  and  the  feudal  tribute,  called 
in  Latin  rrnsits,  which  was  paid  as  the  price  of  the 
papal  protection.  The  two,  however,  were  really 
(|uitc  distinct.  In  1317  Edward  II  acknowledged  that 
the  aiuuial  feudal  tribute  of  1000  marks  had  not  been 
paid  for  twenty-four  years,  and  his  agents  undertook 
solemn  engagements  to  pay  off  the  arrears  by  instal- 
ments. This  promise  was  never  fulfilled.  Edward  HI 
paid  this  tribute  for  a  time,  but  would  not  accept  any 
responsibility  for  any  outstanding  debts.  After  1343 
no  further  payments  were  made,  antlin  1.366  the  tribute 
was  fonnallv  repudiated,  and  abolished  by  Parliament. 
On  the  other  hand  the  .sum  of  300  marks,  which  was 
annually  due  to  the  pope  as  Petenspenee,  can  be  shown 
to  have  been  collected  and  sent  at  least  intermittently 
down  to  Henry  VIII's  breach  with  Rome.  It  was 
abolished  in  1534,  and  though  temporarily  revived 
imder  Mary,  it  was  not  found  possible  at  that  time  to 
levy  it  throughout  England. 

In  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Iceland,  cotmtries  whose 
religious  traditions  can  be  shown  in  a  number  of 
fiifferent  ways  to  have  been  borrowed  fi-oin  Eng- 
land,   it    seems    clear    that    a    contribution    of    a 


PETERSSEN 


775 


PETER 


penny  from  every  household  was  made  not  un- 
willingly. Adrian  IV,  who  before  he  was  made 
pope  had  visited  Scandinavia  and  regulated  the 
payment  of  this  tax,  desired  also,  if  we  may  accept 
the  authenticity  of  the  Bull,  "Laudabiliter",  to  ex- 
tend it  to  Ireland.  In  any  case  there  had  no  doubt 
existed  in  Rome,  from  the  time  of  Gregory  VII  and 
probably  earlier,  some  vague  tradition  that  this  pay- 
ment of  a  denarius  per  household  had  been  sanctioned 
by  Charlemagne.  But  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
as,  for  example,  Portugal,  the  Two  Sicilies,  Poland,  etc., 
it  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  the  Peterspence 
proper  from  the  feudal  tribute  above  referred  to, 
which  was  the  price  of  papal  protection. 

The  payment  of  anything  resembling  Peterspence 
seems  nowhere  to  have  sur\'ived  the  Reformation. 
But  at  the  time  when  Pius  IX,  driven  from  Rome 
by  the  Revolutionaries,  took  refuge  at  Gaeta,  the 
Comte  de  Montalerabert  is  said  to  have  taken  the 
lead  in  organizing  a  Catholic  Committee  in  France, 
which,  working  in  harmony  with  the  bishops,  was  even- 
tually successful  in  collecting  a  very  substantial  sub- 
sidy for  the  pope  under  the  name  of  the  "denier  de 
Saint  Pierre"  (Daux,  p.  46).  Others  assign  the  begin- 
nings of  the  work  to  a  voluntaiy  contribution  organ- 
ized at  Vienna  in  1860  by  the  "Confraternity  of  St. 
Michael"  wliich  spread  first  to  Ireland  and  then  to 
the  rest  of  the  world.  Certain  it  is  that  already  in  the 
sixties  large  amounts  were  being  sent  to  Rome  as 
Peterspence  from  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  Ire- 
land, and  many  other  countries.  Since  the  occupation 
of  Rome  by  the  Italian  Government  and  the  rejection 
by  Pius  IX  of  the  Law  of  Guarantees,  the  sums  paid 
as  Peterspence  have  become  one  of  the  principal  sources 
of  income  of  the  Holy  See.  Accurate  statistics  are 
wanting,  but  it  was  stated  in  1866  that  the  total 
receipts  under  this  one  head  amounted  to  about 
£360,000  ($1,800,000)  annually.  At  one  time  after 
'  the  occupation  of  Rome  something  near  £800,000 
(.$4,000,000)  is  said  to  have  been  sent  to  Rome  as 
Peterspence  in  one  year;  but  these  figures  have  very 
much  fallen  off  of  late  owing  to  the  persecution  of 
the  Church  in  France  and  the  severe  strain  now  made 
upon  the  resources  of  Catholics  in  that  country.  For 
the  most  part  the  contributions  made  under  this  head 
are  sent  to  Rome  through  the  bishops,  but  in  the 
collection  of  funds  the  most  important  part  of  the 
work  is  done  by  various  "Peterspence  Associations", 
that  of  St.  Michael  and  that  of  "Le  Denier  de  Saint 
Pierre"  being  the  best  known.  The  members  of  these 
organizations  pledge  themselves  to  make  some  very 
small  minimum  contribution;  they  solicit  the  sub- 
scription of  others;  and  they  unite  in  certain  exercises 
of  piety,  which  are  richly  indulgenced. 

Jensen  in  the  Tranmclion.'!  of  the  Royal  Historical  Society, 
New  Series.  XV  (1901).  171-247;  XIX  (1905),  209-277;  Jen.sen. 
Der  englische  Peterspfennig  und  die  Lehnsteuer  aus  England  and 
Irland  (Heidelberg.  1903) ;  Fabre,  Le  "  Liber  Censuum"  de  I'Eglise 
romaine  (Paris,  1892) ,  Fabre  in  Melanges  G.  B.  de  Rossi  (Paris, 
1892),  159  sq.;  Fabre,  Der  Peterspfennig  als  Einnahmeguelle  der 
eng.  Krone  in  Zeitschrift  f.  Socialgesch.  (1896),  459  sq.;  Lieber- 
MANN  in  English  Historical  Review  (1896);  Daux,  Le  Denier  de 
Saint  Pierre  (Paris,  1907);  Hergenrotber  in  Kirchenlex.,  I,  77; 
LlNGARD,  History  of  England;  Idem,  Ayitiguities  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Church.  Herbert  Thurston. 

Peterssen,  Gerlac  (Gerlacus  Petri),  b.  at  De- 
venter,  1377  or  1378;  d.  IS  Nov.,  1411.  He  entered 
the  Institution  of  the  Brethren  of  Common  Life,  and 
devoted  his  time  to  calligraphy,  transcription  of 
manuscripts,  education,  and  prayer.  He  became  con- 
nected with  many  illustrious  contemplative  men,  e.  g. 
John  Ruysbroeck;  Florent  Radewyn;  Henry  Kalkar; 
Gerard  of  Zutphen;  Thomas  and  John  a  Kempis,  and 
John  Vos  of  Huyden.  When  Radewyn  founded  a 
monastery  of  regular  canons  at  Windejheim,  in  1386, 
Gerlac  followed  him,  and  remained  there  till  1403  as  a 
simple  clerk;  he  had  no  other  employment  than  that 
of  a  sexton.  He  has  been  called  another  Kempis,  and 
several  critics  have  ascribed  to  Kempis  words  or  theo- 


ries which  belong  to  Gerlac.  Gerlac  left  his  brethren  to 
come  back  to  his  cell,  where,  as  he  said,  "somebody 
was  waiting  for  him".  It  has  been  maintained  that 
the  "Imitation"  reproduced  several  ideas  and  the  gen- 
eral spirit  of  Gerlac's  ascetic  works.  In  fact,  Thomas 
a  Kempis  inserted  into  the  work,  a  copy  of  which  he 
wrote  in  1441,  the  passage  of  the  "Soliloquies"  where 
Gerlac  says  that  he  would  feel  no  pain,  if  necessary 
for  the  greater  glory  of  God,  to  be  in  hell  for  ever. 
This  passage  is  an  interpolation,  which  was  soon  de- 
leted from  the  "Imitation".  The  difference  between 
the  ascetic  theories  of  Gerlac  and  those  of  the  author 
of  the  "Imitation"  are  numerous  and  deep  enough  to 
make  any  similarities  apparent. 

Works:  " Breviloquium  de  accidentiis  exterioribus" 
(before  1403);  "De  libertate  spiritus";  "Sohloquium 
cum  Deo  ignitum"  (Cologne,  1616;  Flemish  tr.,  1623; 
Fr.,  1667;  It.,  1674;  Sp.,  1686). 

Fabhicius,  Bibl.  m.  ir.,  V  (1736).  770;  Foppen.s,  BtW.  Brisica,  I 
(1739).  364;  Graesse,  Trlsor  (1862),  III,  58;  Paquot,  Hist.  litt. 
Pam-Bas,  XVIII  (1770),  35-36.  JoSEPH    DedIEU. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  b.  at  Amiens  about  10.50;  d. 
at  the  monastery  of  Neufmoutier  (Liege),  in  lll.'i. 
His  life  has  been  embellished  by  legend,  and  he  has 
been  wrongly  credited  with  initiating  the  movement 
which  resulted  in  the  First  Crusade.  While  the  con- 
temporary historians  mentioned  him  only  as  one  of 
the  numerous  preachers  of  the  crusade,  the  later 
chroniclers,  Albert  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  above  all 
William  of  Tyre,  gave  him  an  all-important  role.  Ac- 
cording to  Albert  of  Aix  Peter  having  led  during  some 
years  the  rigorous  hfe  of  a  hermit  undertook  a  pil- 
grimage to  Jerusalem  and  suffered  much  at  the  hands 
of  the  Turks.  One  day  when  he  was  asleep  in  the 
Basilica  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  Our  Lord  appeared  to 
him  and  ordered  him  to  ask  for  credentials  from  the 
Patriarch  of  Jerusalem  and  to  go  to  Europe  pro- 
claiming the  miseries  which  had  befallen  the  Chris- 
tians of  the  Orient.  Peter  obtained  the  patriarchal 
letters  and  sought  Urban  II,  who,  moved  by  his  re- 
cital, came  to  preach  the  crusade  at  Clermont  ("His- 
tor.  Hierosol.",  I,  2).  According  to  William  of  Tyre 
(I,  II),  it  wasof  his  own  accord  that  Peter  went  to  find 
the  pope.  The  pilgrimage  of  Peter  is  mentioned  by 
Anna  Comnena  (Alexiad,  X,  8),  who,  born  in  1083, 
could  know  nothing  of  this  history  except  through 
tradition;  she  relates,  however,  that  he  could  not  get 
as  far  as  Jerusalem,  and  that,  resolved  to  undertake 
a  second  pilgrimage,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  preach- 
ing a  crusade  in  order  to  be  able  to  go  to  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  attended  by  a  goodly  company.  It  is  evi- 
dently absurd  to  ascribe  the  Crusades  to  such  an  in- 
significant cause.  Because  of  the  silence  of  contem- 
poraries and  the  later  contradictory  accounts,  even 
the  fact  of  the  pilgrimage  of  Peter  is  doubtful,  while 
it  is  impossible  to  assign  to  him  the  role  of  promoter  of 
the  crusade.  The  merit  of  this  belongs  solely  to  Pope 
Urban  II  (see  Crusades).  Writers  like  Albert,  of  Aix 
wished  to  deprive  the  pope  of  this  honour  in  order  to 
attribute  it  to  the  ascetics  so  popular  at  that  time  in 
Europe.  It  is  absolutely  certain  that  it  was  only  after 
the  Council  of  Clermont  that  Peter  commenced  to 
preach  the  crusade. 

In  March,  1096,  he  led  one  of  the  numerous  bands 
going  to  the  East;  his  enthusiastic  eloquence  is  de- 
scribed by  the  chroniclers.  He  arrived  with  his  army 
at  Constantinople  1  August,  1096.  After  a  toilsome 
march  as  far  as  Nicomedia  Peter  pitched  his  camp  at 
Civitot  and  seeing  his  army  without  resources  re- 
turned to  Constantinople  to  solicit  help  from  the 
Emperor  Alexius.  During  his  absence,  the  crusaders, 
commanded  bv  Walter  the  Penniless,  were  massacred 
by  the  Turks'  near  Nicaea  (Oct.,  1096).  Peter  as- 
sembled the  remnants  of  his  band  and  in  May,  1097, 
joined  the  array  of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  near  Nicome- 
dia. After  this  he  had  but  an  unimportant  part.  In 
Jan.,  1098,  at  the  siege  of  Antioch,  he  even  attempted 


PETER 


776 


PETIT-DIDIER 


to  desert  the  army,  but  was  prevented  by  Tanrrod. 
In  spite  of  this  cowardice  he  was  one  of  "the  envoys 
sent  to  Kcrl)i1t;:i.  On  his  return  to  Europe  he  founded 
tlie  inonusterv  of  Neufmoutier.     See  CnrsADF.s. 

D'Ol-l.TliKMAN.  La  vie  du  Vfnlrabh  Pierre  VErmite  (Mons, 
1612).  reprinted  (Clermont,  1895),  givea  the  traditional  point  of 
view;  Haoenmeyer,  Peter  tier  Eremite  (Leipzig,  1879),  Fr.  tr., 
ic  rraV  et  le  faux  stir  Pierre  VErmite  (Paris,  1879);  Kurth,  Pierre 
VErmite  (I.ii^Ke,  1892);  Donnet,  Pierre  Vllermite  et  la  Jamille 
Lhermile  ,r A, uers  (Antvcrp,  ISm).  LODIS   Br£hIER. 

Peter  the  Venerable,  Abbot  op  Cluny.  See 
MoNTBoissiER,  Peter  of,  Blessed. 

Peter  Urseolus  (Orseolo),  Saint,  b.  at  Rivo 
idto,  Province  of  Udina,  928;  d.  at  Cuxa,  10  January, 
9S7  (997  is  less  probalile).  Sprung  from  the  wealthy 
and  noble  Venetian  family,  the  Orseoli,  Peter  led  from 
his  youth  an  earnest  Christian  life.  In  the  service  of 
the  republic,  he  distinguished  himself  in  naval  b.attles 
against  the  pirates.  In  946  he  married  a  noble  Vene- 
tian lady,  Felicitas;  a  son  of  this  marriage,  who  bore 
the  same  name  as  his  father,  also  became  Doge  of 
Venice  (991-1009).  On  11  Aug.,  976,  the  Doge  Pietro 
Candiano  fell  a  \-ietim  to  a  conspiracy,  whose  mem- 
bers, in  their  anxiety  to  obtain  possession  of  him,  set 
fire  to  his  palace,  thereby  destroying  not  only  this 
building,  but  also  the  churches  of  San  Marco,  San 
Teodoro,  and  Santa  Maria  di  Zobenigo,  as  well  as 
about  three  hundred  houses.  On  the  following  day 
Pietro  Orseolo  was  chosen  doge  in  San  Pietro  di  Cas- 
tcllo,  but  it  was  only  out  of  regard  for  his  obligations 
towards  his  native  land  that  he  allowed  himself  to  be 
prevailed  upon  to  accept  the  office.  The  tradition 
recorded  bv  Peter  Damian  (Vita  s.  Romualdi,  V,  in 
P.  L.,  CXLIV,  960),  that  Peter  had  taken  p.art  in 
the  conspiracy  and  that  his  later  retirement  from  the 
world  was  due  to  his  desire  to  expiate  therefor,  is  with- 
out foundation.  As  one  might  expect  from  his  per- 
sonal piety,  the  new  doge  showed  himself  a  zealous 
patron  of  churches  and  monasteries  as  well  as  an  able 
ruler.  He  had  the  doge's  palace  and  the  church  of 
San  Marco  rebuilt  at  his  own  expense,  procuring  in 
Constantinople  for  the  latter  the  first  golden  altar- 
covering  {Pala  d'oro),  and  bequeathed  one  thousand 
pounds  to  persons  injured  by  the  fire  and  a  similar 
sum  to  the  poor.  He  renewed  the  treaty  with  Capo- 
distria,  and  succeeded  in  averting  from  the  republic 
the  vengeance  of  Candiano's  family,  especially  of  his 
wife  Waldrada,  niece  of  Empress  Adelaide,  and  his  son 
Vitalis,  Patriarch  of  Grado.  About  this  time,  through 
the  influence  of  Abbot  Guarinus  of  Cuxa  (a  Benedic- 
tine monastery  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Roussillon),  he  decided  to  enter  a  monastery, 
leaving  Venice  secretly  with  the  abbot  and  two  com- 
panions in  the  night  of  1-2  September,  987.  As  a 
monk  in  the  abbey  of  Cuxa,  he  presented  to  his  spir- 
itual brothers  a  model  of  humility,  zeal  for  prayer,  and 
charity.  For  a  period  he  was  under  the  spiritual 
guidance  of  St.  Romuald  (q.  v.).  As  early  as  the 
eleventh  century  the  veneration  of  Peter  Urseolus  as 
a  saint  was  approved  by  the  Bishop  of  Elne.  In  1731 
Clement  XII  ratified  this  cult,  and  appointed  14  Jan- 
uaiy  as  his  feast. 

AlABlLLON,  Acta  SS.  ordinis  8.  Benedicti,  V,  878  sqq.;  Biblio- 
theca  hagiographica  latina,  II.  986;  Tolra,  St  Pierre  Ors(oto 
(Paris.  1897):  Schmid,  D.  hi.  Petrun  Orseolo,  Doge  von  Venedig  u. 
Benediclirter,  in  Sludien  und  Milteilungen  aus  dem  Bened.  u.  Cts- 
tcrzienscTorden  (1901),  71  sq.,  2.51  sq.;  Kretschmat,  Gesch.  von 
Venedig,  I  (Gotha,  190.5),  115  sq.,  438  sq.       J.    p.    KiRSCH. 

Petinessus  (Pitnistts),  titular  see  in  Galatia  Se- 
cunda  (Salutaris).  This  city  is  mentioned  by  Strabo, 
XII,  .567;  Ptolemy,  V,  4,  iO;  Hierocles,  "Synecde- 
mus",  697,  7,  and  Stephanus  Byzantius,  s.  v.  Ac- 
cording to  the  first  of  these  authors  it  was  situated  in 
the  salt  desert,  to  the  west  of  Lake  Tatta  (at  the  pres- 
ent time  Touz  Gueul),  between  Lycaonia  and  Hai- 
mama.  The  "Notitia;  episcop.atuum"  mention  it 
among  the  suffragan  sees  of  Pessinus,  created  by 
Theodosius  between  386  and  395,  and  existing  as  late  as 


the  thirteenth  century.  There  is  a  record  of  but  one 
bishop,  Pm.s,  present  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  4,';i 
(Le  Quien,  "Orient  rl.Hsliaiuis",  I,  .t!!.))  'I'he  exact 
name  and  position  „f  the  eitv,  wliieh  differs  greatly 
aceordmg  to  various  documents,  is  not  known.  Rani- 
say  (Asia  Minor,  227),  mentions  the  place  as  near 
the  site  of  Pin  Begli  or  a  httle  to  the  east  of  it. 

S.  P£trid{;s. 
Petit,  Jehan  (Le  Petit).  See  John  Parvus. 
Petit-Didier,  MArrniEr,  Benedictine  theologian 
and  ecelesi;,stic;a  historian,  b.  at  Saint-Nicolas-du- 
Port  in  Lorraine,  IS  December,  16.59;  d.  at  Senoncs, 
15  July  (June.^),  172S.  After  studving  at  the  Jesuit 
college  at  Nancy  he  joined  the  Benedictine  Congre- 
gation of  St-Vannes,  in  1675,  at  the  monastery  of 
bt-Mihiel.  In  1682  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
philosophy  and  theology.  In  1699  he  was  canonically 
elected  Abbot  of  Bouzonville,  but  could  not  take 
possession  because  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  had  given 
the  abbey  in  commendam  to  his  own  brother.  He  was 
elected  Abbot  of  Senones  in  1715,  but  got  possession 
only  after  a  lengthy  dispute  with  another  claimant. 
He  became  president  of  his  congregation  in  1723 
and  two  years  later  Benedict  XIII  appointed  him 
Bishop  of  Acra  in  parlibus  infidelium  in  reward  for 
his  opportune  "Traits  sur  I'autoritd  et  I'infaillibilitfi 
du  pape"  (Luxemburg,  1724).  The  work  was  for- 
bidden in  France  and  Lorraine  by  the  Parliaments  of 
Pans  and  Metz;  it  was  translated  into  Italian  (Rome, 
1746);  and  into  Latin  by  Gallus  Cartier,  O.S.B. 
(Augsburg,  1727,  it  is  printed  also  in  Migne,  "Cursus 
theol.",  IV,  1141-1416).  The  work  was  especially 
pleasing  to  the  pope,  because  Petit-Didier,  misled 
by  the  "Declaration  of  the  French  Clergy"  in  16S2, 
had  formerly  been  an  appellant  from  the  Con- 
stitution "Unigenitus".  The  remaining  works  of 
Petit-Didier  are:  "Remarques  sur  la  Biblioth^que  I'l 
ecclesiastiquede  M.  Dupin  "  (Paris,  1691-93),  in  which  ■ 
he  points  out  many  errors;  "Dissertation  historique  P 
et  thdologique  dans  laquelle  on  examine  quel  a  ^'te  le  ' 
sentiment  du  Concile  de  Constance  et  des  principaux 
Theologiens  qui  y  ont  assists,  sur  I'autorite  du  pape  et 
sur  son  infaillibilitd"  (Luxemburg,  1724),  in  which  the 
author  defends  the  opinion  that  the  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Constance  concerning  the  superiority  of  a 
general  council  over  the  pope  was  intended  only  for  the 
time  of  a  schism;  "Dissertationes  historico-eritico- 
chronologicsE  in  Vetus  Testamentum  "  (Toul,  1699); 
"Justification  de  la  morale  et  de  la  discipline  de  Rome 
et  de  toute  ITtalie"  (1727),  a  reply  to  an  anonymous 
treatise  entitled:  "La  morale  des  J^suites  et  la  con- 
stitution Unigenitus  comparSe  k  la  morale  des 
pay  ens". 

His  brother,  Jean-Joseph,  a  Jesuit  theologian  and 
canonist,  was  bom  at  Saint-Nicolas-du-Port  in 
Lorraine,  on  23  October,  1664;  and  died  at  Pont-^- 
Mousson,  on  10  August,  1756.  Entering  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  16  May,  1683,  he  was  professed  2  February, 
1698,  and  taught  belles-lettres,  philosophy,  and  canon 
law  at  Strasburg  from  1694  to  1701,  and  theology  at 
Pont-i-Mousson  from  1704  to  1708.  About  1730  he 
became  the  spiritual  director  of  Duchess  Elizabeth- 
Charlotte  of  Lorraine.  A  few  years  later  he  returned 
to  the  Jesuit  house  at  Saint-Nicolas  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  chief  works  are:  "De 
justitia,  jure  et  legibus"  (Pont-a-Mousson  1704); 
"Remarques  sur  la  thdologie  du  R.  P.  Gaspard 
Juenin"_(1708),  a  refutation  of  the  Jansenistic  errors 
of  Juenin;  "Leg  Saints  enlevez  et  restituez  aux 
Jesuites"  (Luxemburg,  1738),  concerning  Saints 
Francis  Xavier  and  John  Francis  Regis;  "Trait^'  de  la 
cloture  des  maisons  religieuses  de  I'un  et  de  I'autre 
sexe"  (N.ancy,  1742);  "Recueil  de  Lettres  critiques 
sur  les  Vies  des  Saints  du  Sieur  Baillet"  (Cologne, 
1720);  "Les  prets  par  obligation  stipulative  d'interest 
usitds  en  Lorraine  et  Barrois"  (Nancy,  1745),  a  ca- 


PETITE 


777 


PETRA 


nonir;iI  treatise;  "Saneti  Patris  Ignatii  de  Loyola  ex- 
(Tcitia  spiritualia  tertio  probationis  anno  per  mensem 
.1  Patribus  Societatis  Jesu  obeunda"  (Prague,  1755; 

I'aris,  1889). 

ZiEGELBAi^ER,  Historia  rei  literarite  0.  S  B.  (Augsburg,  1754), 
III,  4S5-7,  II,  154-.5;  Calmet,  Bibl.  Lorraine  (Nancy,  1751),  724- 
:i,"i:  Hdrter,  Nomenclator  literarius  (Innsbruck,  1910),  llOS-10; 
SoMMERVOGEL,  Bibt.  dc  ta  Compagnie  de  Jesus,  IV  (Brussels, 

1S95),  r.24-7.  Michael  Ott. 

Petite  Eglise,  La.     See  Namur,  Diocese  of. 

Petitions  to  the  Holy  See. — I.  Mode  of  Peti- 
tioning.— Faculties,  indults,  dispensations,  and  other 
favours,  the  granting  of  wliieh  is  reserved  to  the  Holy 
See,  must  be  asked  by  means  of  a  petition  in  writing 
presented  to  the  sovereign  pontiff,  regularly  through 
the  medium  of  one  of  the  Sacred  Congregations  of  the 
Roman  Curia.  Under  the  new  constitution  of  the  Ro- 
man Curia  by  Pius  X,  any  private  person  may  person- 
ally approach  and  petition  the  Holy  See.  But  it  is 
always  well,  and  often  necessary,  to  present  commend- 
atory letters  of  the  petitioner's  ordinary,  as  in  the  case 
of  faculties,  dispensations,  and  such  like.  It  is  also 
frequently  advisable  to  make  use  of  an  agent  in  Rome, 
who  can  attend  to  the  matter  personally.  For  this 
purpose  any  trustworthy  man  may  be  chosen,  pro- 
vided he  be  acceptable  to  the  Sacred  Congregation 
with  which  he  has  to  treat.  (Cf.  Const.,  "Sapienti 
Consiho",  Norms  communes,  c.  ix.) 

II.  Form  and  Contents  of  the  Petition. — The 
petition  should  be  written  on  a  double  sheet  of  white 
paper  of  the  foolscap  or  large  quarto  size;  and  the 
text  should  pass,  if  its  length  renders  this  neces- 
sary, from  the  first  to  the  second  page,  and  so  on, 
aa  in  a  printed  book,  no  intermediate  page  being 
left  blank.  The  official  languages  of  the  Curia  are 
still  Latin,  Italian,  and  French;  but  documents  in 
English,  German,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  are  now 
authorized  (cf.  Const.  "Sapienti  Consilio",  Norma? 
peculiares,  c.  vi.,  n.  5.).  It  is  fitting,  however, 
that  petitions  sent  by  episcopal  curia;  and  by  eccle- 
siastics in  general,  and  those  that  have  reference  to 
the  sacraments,  should  be  written  in  the  Church's 
official  language,  Latin.  The  petition  should  be  ad- 
dressed to  the  pope  himself,  and  should  therefore  be- 
gin with  the  words  "Beatissime  Pater"  (Most  Holy 
Father).  The  petitioner  should  then  give  his  full 
name,  place  of  residence,  and  diocese.  (These  are 
omitted  in  petitions  to  the  Sacred  Penitentiary.)  Next 
should  follow  a  clear  and  concise  statement  of  the  fa- 
vour desired,  the  reasons  for  the  petition,  and  all  the 
information  necessary  to  enable  the  Holy  See  to  arrive 
at  its  decision.  The  omission  of  material  facts  or  the 
commission  of  substantial  errors  in  the  petition  may 
invalidate  the  dispensation  or  indult  granted.  Thus, 
petitions  for  matrimonial  dispensations  must  express: 
(1)  the  Christian  names  and  surnames  of  the  petition- 
ers; (2)  the  diocese  of  origin  or  actual  domicile;  (3)  the 
exact  nature  of  the  impediment;  (4)  the  degree  of  con- 
sanguinity, aflinity,  etc.;  (5)  the  number  of  the  im- 
pediments; (6)  various  circumstances  (Instruction  of 
S.  Congr.  Of  Propaganda,  9  May,  1877).  The  petition 
should  not  be  concluded  in  the  form  of  a  letter,  but 
with  the  abbreviated  formula  "Et  Deus,  etc."  or 
"Quare,  etc."  At  the  foot  of  the  petition  the  address  of 
the  person  to  whom  the  reply  is  to  be  sent  (if  it  is  not  to 
be  transmitted  through  an  agent)  should  be  written. 

III.  Destination  op  Various  Petitions. — All 
petitions  in  matrimonial  cases  are  dealt  with  by  the 
Congr.  de  disciplina  Sacramentorum,  except  those 
that  have  to  do  with  the  internal  forum  (i.  e.,  confes- 
sional and  occult  cases),  which  go  to  the  Sacred  Peni- 
tentiary, and  those  into  which  the  impediment  mixtw 
relioionix  or  disparitati-s  cullns  enters,  which  fall  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  Office.  The  Congr.  de 
disciplina  Sacr.amentorum  has  charge,  too,  of  all  else 
connected  with  the  sacraments  and  the  Mass,  with 
the  exception   of    their  rites    and    ceremonies,   the 


regulation  of  which  belongs  to  the  Congregation  of 
Rites.  Hence  petitions  for  the  solution  of  liturgical 
difficulties  should  be  sent  to  the  latter  Congregation; 
petitions,  e.  g.,  for  a  private  oratory,  reservation  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  non-fasting  communion,  etc.,  to 
the  former.  The  Congregation  of  the  Council  deals 
with  petitions  relating  to  the  commandments  of  the 
Church,  ecclesiastical  discipline,  confraternities,  and 
the  administration  of  church  property.  All  matters 
concerning  religious,  whether  individuals  or  communi- 
ties, with  one  or  two  exceptions,  are  in  the  hands  of  the 
Congr.  de  Religiosis.  Finally,  all  the  business  of 
those  countries  which  still  remain  subject  to  the 
Congr.  of  Propaganda,  is  transacted  through  that 
Congregation,  with  the  exception  of  the  affairs  of  re- 
ligious as  such. 

ConstHuHo  Sapienti  Consilio:  Normce  communes  et  peculiares 
in  Acta  Apostolicw  Sedis,  I,  7;  Cappello,  De  Curia  Romana  juxta 
reformationem  a  Pio  X  sapientissime  inductam,  I  (Rome,  1911),  ii, 
3;  KoNTNGS-PuTZER,  C ommentarium  in  facuUates  apostolicas 
(New  York,  1898),  63-8;  Gasparri,  De  matrimonio,  I  (Paris, 
i904),  iii,  4,  §  2,  3**:  De  Becker,  De  sp07isalibus  et  matrimonio 
(Louvain,  1903), 'sect,  v,  c.  iii,  §§  1,2  ;  Zitelli,  De  dispensationibxts 
matrimonialibus  (Rome,  1887),  iv.  ChARLES   CrONIN. 

Petra,  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Palaestina  Tertia. 
Under  the  name  of  Sela  (the  rock)  this  region  is  de- 
scribed in  Abdias  (i,  3  sqq.)  as  an  eagle's  nest  on  the 
mountain  top.  It  is  also  referred  to  in  Isaias  (xlii, 
11),  IV  Kings  (xiv,  7),  and  II  Par.  (xx-v,  11).  In  the 
two  last-mentioned  passages  it  is  related  that  towards 
the  end  of  the  ninth  century  B.  c.  Amasias,  King  of 
Jerusalem,  vanquished  the  Edomites,  captured  Sela, 
and  cast  from  "the  steep  of  a  rock"  10,000  captives, 
who  were  dashed  to  pieces.  He  then  called  Sela 
loqteel  (Jectehel),  of  wliich  there  is  no  trace  in  history. 
If  these  Biblical  texts  really  relate  to  Petra,  others  in 
which  there  is  mention  of  Sela  refer  to  other  localities. 
Petra  was  not  then  the  capital  city  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Edom.  This  rank  was  held  by  Bosra,  and  Petra 
seems  to  have  been  a  city  of  refuge  whither  in  times 
of  danger  the  chieftains  fled  with  their  treasures  and 
dwelt  in  the  caverns  as  in  houses. 

When  the  Rock  was  spoken  of  in  312  B.  c.  by  Diodorus 
Siculus  (XIX,  94-100),  it  was  no  longer  inhabited  by 
Edomites,  who  had  been  crowded  into  Southern  Pales- 
tine, but  by  Arabian  merchants,  the  Nabataeans  or  the 
Nabajoth  of  the  Bible  (Gen.,  xxv,  13;  xxviii,9;  x.\xvi,3; 
Is.,  Ix,  7).  It  is  difficult  to  determine  when  they  be- 
gan to  occupy  the  region.  When  conquered  by  Asur- 
banipal  (64()  B.C.),  the  Nabaitu  were  a  powerful  North- 
Arabian  tribe  which  had  fought  its  way  as  far  as  the 
countries  of  Edom,  Moab,  and  Ammon.  In  the  fourth 
century  B.  c.  the  Nabataeans  were  masters  of  the 
country  and  served  as  commercial  intermediaries  be- 
tween Arabia  and  Egypt,  and  between  Arabia  and 
Syria.  The  wealth  secured  in  Petra  attracted  the 
covetousness  of  Athenes,  general  of  Antigonus  (312 
B.  c).  He  took  it  by  surprise  in  the  absence  of  the 
men,  who  on  their  return  surprised  the  Greeks,  massa- 
cred them,  and  sent  presents  to  Antigonus  that  they 
might  be  free  to  continue  their  commerce.  A  sec- 
ond attempt,  made  by  Demetrius,  son  of  Antigonus, 
was  equally  unsuccessful  (Diod.  Sic,  XIX,  94-100). 
There  was  then  formed  a  Nabata;an  kingdom  of  which 
Petra  was  the  capital  and  which  extended  from  Arabia 
FeUx  to  Hauran.  The  first  known  king  was  Aretas 
I  (II  Mach.,  V,  8).  The  following,  according  to  M. 
Dussandin  the  "Journal  Asiatique"  (Paris,  1904,  pp. 
1S9-33S),  is  the  fist  of  known  sovereigns:  Aretas  I 
(169  B.  c);  Aretas  II  (110-96);  Obodas  I  (about  90); 
Rabel  I  (about  87);  Aretas  III  (87-62);  Obodas  II 
(about  62-47);  MaUchus  I  (about  47-.30);  Oboda.s  III 
(30-9);  Aretas  IV  (9  b.  c.-a.  d.40);  Malichus  II  (40- 
75);  Rabel  II  (75-101);  Malichus  III  (101-106). 
Aretas  III  gave  Petra  its  Gra>co-Roman  character. 
From  his  reign  and  that  of  ,\retas  IV  date  most  of  the 
beautiful  buildings  still  jircserved.  Petra  was  defi- 
nitely annexed  to  the  Roman  Empire  in  A.  D.  106  by 


PETRARCH 


778 


PETRARCH 


Cornelius  Palma,  lieutpnant  of  Trajan.  From  it  \v:is 
formed  the  Province  of  Arabia,  "redaeta  in  fdiriuuii 
provinci;e  Arabia",  as  Trajan's  .sinn-posts  road,  ex- 
tendinfi  from  Hostra  in  Ilanran  to  the  Red  Sea.  In 
295  tlie  provinee  was  divided  into  Arabia  Augusta 
Libanensis  on  tlie  north,  with  Bostra  as  metropoHs, 
and  Aral)ia  on  the  south,  with  Petra  as  metropoHs. 
Twehe  years  later  Southern  Arabia  wa.s  united  with 
the  Province  of  Palestine  to  be  afiain  detached  in  the 
second  half  of  th<'  fourth  <i'ntury  (bclwccn  35S  and 
390),  and  to  constitute  thenceforth  PaUvstina  Tertia 
or  Paliestina  Salutaris,  with  Petra  as  metropolis. 
The  custom  arose  of  callinp;  it  Arabia  Petra>a,  because 
of  the  city  of  Petra,  and  not  with  the  implication  that 
the  rcfjion  was  rocky,  for  it.  is  rather  fertile.  After 
a  visit  from  the  Emperor  Hadrian  Petra  took  the  sur- 
name of  Hadriana,  found  on  the  coins  and  on  some 
inscriptions. 

Christianity  was  introduced  into  Petra  doubtless  at 
an  early  date,  for  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  who  has  de- 
scribed the  country 
(XIV,  iv,  21  sq.), 
Greek  and  Latin 
merchants  flocked 
thither.  Anions  its 
bishops  Le  (^uicn 
(Oriens Christ..  Ill, 
721-8)  mentions 
St.  Asterius,  who.se 
feast  is  celebrated 
on  20  June,  one  of 
the  defenders  of 
the  Council  of  Ni- 
caea  and  St.  Athan- 
asius;  his  contem- 
porary Germanus, 
probably  an  Arian ; 
John  (457);  Theo- 
dore (536),  biog- 
rapher of  St. 
Theodosius  the 
Cenobite;  Atheno- 
genes.  a  relatixc  of 
the  Emperor  Mau- 
rice (end  of  the  Pei 
sixth  century).   An 

inscription  indicates  likewise  a  bishop  by  the  name 
of  Jason  (probably  fifth  century)-  The  Diocese  of 
Petra  in  Palestine,  mentioned  by  Le  Quicn  (ibid.,  Ill, 
663-70),  who  relied  on  a  faulty  text  of  St.  Athanasius, 
never  existed.  In  the  time  of  John  ISIoschus  (seventh 
century)  Petra  was  a  flourishing  monastic  centre,  but 
the  decline  of  the  city  was  even  then  far  advanced,  be- 
cause the  direction  of  commerce  had  changed  and 
the  prosperity  of  Palmyra  had  injured  that  of  Petra. 
Wlien  the  Franks  took  possession  of  the  country  in 
the  twelfth  century  and  founded  their  Trans-Jordanic 
principality  they  established  somewhat  prior  to  1 1 16  a 
stronghold  called  "Li  Vaux  Moyse",  a  translation  of 
the  Arabic  name  Ouadi-Moussa,  the  ruins  of  which 
have  been  discovered  near  the  village  of  El-Dji.  It  was 
captured  by  the  Arabs,  first  in  1144  and  definitively 
in  1 188.  The  Latin  archdiocese,  called  Petra  Deserti, 
which  was  establislied  by  the  crusaders  in  1 168,  must 
not  be  confused  with  our  Petra;  the  former  is  Charac- 
Moba,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Moabites,  now  EI- 
Kerac  (Le  Quien,  ibid..  Ill,  1305;  Du  Cange,  Les 
families  d'Outrc-mer,  Paris,  18.59,  p.  755;  Eubel, 
Hicrarchia  catholica  medii  xvi,  I,  418). 

Petra,  now  Ouaili-Moussa,  is  completely  ruined. 
Of  the  ( ;  ra'Co-Roman  city  there  remain,  besides  the 
theatre  hewn  from  the  rock,  only  shapeless  ruins;  but 
the  tombs  dug  in  tbesidesof  tlie  mountain  surrounding 
the  city  are  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  v\'orld.  There  are 
more  than  3000,  of  different  periods.  Archa-ology,  it  is 
true,  regards  some  of  them  as  temples.  As  the  red 
sandstone  from  which  the  tombs  are  hewn  is  veined 


,  '■'-■4  '^ 

k  il 

^^  . 

^- ' 

HIvII^BvbI 

^S^' 

^!l|"v  3^  ^.'  _  '^ 

.-'"•~.'^»».--0i^--.  ■• 

'■.-'  ^.     ■'■■'■'''■ 

■.■^P^,'-:ff^^.^,,p.^^ 

with  a  variety  of  colours,  and  as  the  light  is  dazzling, 
this  city  of  the  dead  presents  the  ai)|)carance  of  a  veri- 
tabli>  fairy-land,  the  like  of  wlii<-h  is  not  to  be  seen 
elsewhere  in  the  world.  Recently  the  high  place  and 
the  site  of  the  altar  of  sacrifice  have  been  discovered. 

Whin  the  late  Archbishop  of  New  York,  Michael 
.'\ugu.stinc  Corrigaii,  w:is  coadjutor  to  Cardinal  Mc- 
Closkey,  his  titular  see  was  that  of  Petra. 

Laborde,  Voyage  dans  I' Arable  PHHe  (Paria,  1830-34);  Wil- 
son, The  Lands  of  the  Bible,  I  (Edinburgh),  291-330:  Stanlet, 
Sinai  and  Palestine  (London,  1860),  87-98;  Palmer,  The  Desert  ojf 
Exodus,  II  (London,  1871);  Libbet,  The  Jordan  Valleu  and  Petra 
(New  York,  190.5);  Luynes,  Voyage  d' exploration  d  In  Mir  Moric 
etc.  (Paris,  lii7\),  274;  Bvhl,  Gesch.  der  Edomiter  (LcipziK.  1893); 
Brunnow  and  D0MA8ZEW8KI,  Die  Provincia  Arabia,  I  (.straaburg, 
1904);  Muaii.,  .4ra6i:a  Petra-a.  II  (Vienne,  1907);  Dai.man,  Petra 
und  seine  FelsheiligstUmer  (Leipzig,  1908) ;  Sargenton-Galichon, 
Sinai,  Ma&n.  PHra  (Paris,  1904);  Remie  Biblique  (1897;  1898; 
1902;  1903);  KebqoblaT,  Sties  dtlaiasia  d'Orient  (Paris,  1911), 
91-154.  S.  VaILh6. 

Petrarch,  Fr.\ncesco,  Italian  poet  and  humanist, 
b.  at  Arezzo,  20  July,  1304  ;  d.  at  Arquii,  19  July, 
1374.  His  father, 
Petracco  or  Pe- 
traccolo  (a  name 
which  the  son 
adopted  as  his  cog- 
nomen, changing  it 
to  Petrarca)  came 
of  a  family  belong- 
ing originally  to  the 
region  of  the  Val- 
darno,  but  already 
settled  for  some 
time  at  Florence. 
There  Ser  Petracco 
acted  as  clerk  of 
one  of  the  courts 
of  justice,  but 
with  other  White 
Guelphs  he  was 
banished  in  1302, 
and  went  to  Arezzo. 
Francesco's  earli- 
est years  were 
spent  chiefly  at  In- 
cisa  in  the  ances- 
tral district  of  the 
Valdarno.  In  1310  his  father  transferred  their 
abode  to  Pisa,  whence  the  family  went  to  Avignon 
in  France,  which  had  been  for  about  six  years  the 
papal  residence.  Between  1315  and  1319  the  lad 
was  trained  at  Carpentras  under  the  tutelage  of 
the  Italian  Convenevole  da  Prato.  His  father  in- 
tended him  for  the  legal  profession,  and  .sent  him  for 
the  necessary  studies  to  Montpellier  (1319-23)  and 
to  Bologna  "(1323-5).  France.sio  disliked  the  career 
chosen  for  him,  and  devoted  himself  as  much  as  pos- 
sible to  belles-lettres,  thereby  so  incensing  his  father 
that,  upon  one  occasion,  the  latter  burned  a  number 
of  his  favourite  ancient  authors.  When  Ser  Petracco 
died  in  1323,  Francesco  returned  to  Avignon  and  took 
minor  orders,  which  permitted  him  to  enjoy  church 
benefices  and  only  bound  him  to  the  daily  reading  of 
his  Office.  He  entered  rather  freely  into  the  gay  and 
fashionable  life  at  Avignon,  and  there  on  Good  Friday 
(1327)  he  saw  for  the  first  time  Laura,  the  lady  who 
was  to  be  the  inspiration  of  his  most  famous  work.  In 
spite  of  what  he  himself  says  as  to  his  first  encounter 
with  Laura,  many  persons  have  doubted  her  real 
existence.  The  majority  of  critics,  however,  believe 
that  she  was  truly  a  lady  in  the  flesh,  and  some  iden- 
tify her  with  a  certain  Laura,  the  wife  of  Hugues  de 
Sade  (d.  1348).  There  would  seem  to  be  little  chance 
for  romance  in  such  an  attachment,  yet  the  weight  of 
authority  is  in  favour  of  regarding  it  as  a  genuine  one 
productive  of  true  and  poignant  emotion  in  Petrarch, 
how('ver  Platonic  it  may  have  remained. 

About  1330  the  poet  began  a  period  of  restless 


PETRARCH 


779 


PETRARCH 


wandering,  and  in  1333  he  made  a  journey  through 
northern  Frame  and  through  Germany,  record- 
ing his  observations  and  experiences  in  his  letters. 
Back  at  Avignon  for  a  while,  and  now  invested 
with  a  canonical  benefice,  he  set  forth  for  Italy, 
in  1336,  in  the  company  of  some  members  of  the 
Colonna  family,  with  which  he  hafl  been  closely 
allied  for  some  time  past,  and 
in  January,  1337,  he  entered 
Rome  for  the  first  time.  By 
the  end  of  the  year  he  a])]iears 
to  have  settled  in  Vaucluse, 
and  there  he  found  the  poiicv 
and  the  inspiration  that  pro- 
duced so  man>- 1  if  his  1  icst  lyrics. 
Accepting  an  invitation  to  go 
to  Rome  on  Easter  Sunday, 
1341,  he  waspubHcly  crowned 
as  poet  and  historian  in  the 
Capitol.  For  a  number  of 
years  he  wandered  about  from 
one  Italian  city  to  another, 
seeking  the  codires  that  pre- 
served tile  pricrlcss  litcra,i-y 
worksof  until  luily  tin  ■certainly 
discovered  worUsot  ( 'ircni  and 
parts  of  the  "  Inr-titulioms" 
of  Quintilian),  ami  (iccasiuu- 
ally  occupying  cleiical  posts. 
He  formed  a  friendship  with 
Cola  di  Rienzi,  and  in  1347 
saluted  him  in  verse  as  the 
restorer  of  the  order  of  the  an- 
cient Roman  Republic.  A 
friendship  of  greater  impor- 
tance was  that  wliieh  he  now  contracted  with  Boc- 
caccio, who,  like  himself,  desired  to  promote  human- 
istic studies  and  researches.  Refusing  an  offer  to  as- 
sume the  rectorshij)  of  the  Florentine  .Studio  (or  Uni- 
versity) just  established,  he  resumed  his  peregrina- 
tions, spending  a  good  part  of  the  timi  it  A'piiifi  in( 
accompanied  there 
for  a  while  by  Boc- 
caccio and  by  Leo 
Pilatus,  from  whom 
both  he  and  Boc- 
caccio had  hoped  to 
gain  some  direct 
knowledge  of  Greek 
and  its  literature. 
The  transfer  of  the 
pontifical  Court  back 
t o  Rome  in  1367 
filled  him  with  un- 
bounded joy. 

As  a  scholar,  Pe- 
trarch  possessed 
encyclopedic  knowl- 
edge, and  much  of 
this  he  has  set  down 
in  his  Latin  works, 
which  constitute  the 
larger  part  of  his  pro- 
duction in  both  prose 
and  verse.  They  in- 
clude the   "Africa"' 


Fr.\ncesco    Petrarch 

Painting  by  Andrea  del  Castagno 

Convent  of  Sant'  .-\poIlonia,  Florence 


"De  vita  solitaria";  the  ''De  ocio  religio.soruni ", 
praising  monastic  life,  etc.;  some  "Psalmi  pu>niten- 
tiales"  and  some  prayers;  a  number  of  historical  and 
geographical  works,  among  which  figure  the  "Rerum 
memorandarum  libri  qiiattuor"  and  the  "De  viris 
illustribus",  treating  of  illustrious  men  from  Romulu.s 
down  to  Titus;  some  invectives  (especially  the  "  In- 
vectiva  in  Galium",  assailing 
the  French);  a  few  orations; 
and  finally  his  very  many  let- 
ters, which  cover  the  whole 
course  of  his  life  from  132.5  to 
the  end,  and  one  of  the  most 
interesting  of  which  is  the 
"Epistola  ad  posteros",  writ- 
ten after  1370,  and  furnishing 
an  autobiography  of  consider- 
able importance.  A  Latin 
comedy,  "Philologia",  has  not 
yet  been  discovered. 

In  spite  of  the  magnitude  of 
Petraroh'scompositionin  Latin 
and  the  stress  which  he  put 
upon  it  himself,  his  abiding 
fame  is  based  upon  his  Italian 
verse,  and  this  fiirnis  two  nota- 
ble coni]>il:iti(iiis,  the  "Trionfi" 
and  the  "("anzonicre  ".  The 
"Trionii  ".written  in /erzarnna, 
and  making  large  use  of  the 
vision  aheady  put  to  so  good 
stead  by  Dante,  is  allegorical 
and  moral  in  its  nature.  In  the 
"  Trionfi  "  we  have  a  triumphal 
procession  in  which  there  take 
part  six  leading  allegorical  figures:  Love,  Chastity, 
Death,  Fame,  Time,  and  Divinity,  Chastity  triumphs 
over  its  predecessor,  and  finally  Divinity  triumphs 
over  them  all  and  remains  supreme,  as  the  symbol 
of  peace,  eternal  life,  and  the  everlasting  union  of 
thepiift  with  his  belo\ed  Laura.  The  "Canzoniere", 
the  poet's  master- 
])iece,  and  one  of  the 
imperishable  monu- 
ments of  the  world's 
literature,  was  first 
jiut  into  shape  by  the 
aiithor  and  made 
known  by  him  under 
tlie  title  of  "Rerum 
vulgarium  frag- 
uienta".  It  consists 
of  sonnets  (and  these 
arc  the  more  niuner- 
ous)  of  C(iii:nni,  of 
!<(.ttiiiL',oiba!lute,  and 
of  madrigals.  The 
love  motive  prevails 
ill  the  majority  of 
llicse,  but  poUtical 
:iii(l  patriotic  feeling 
regulates  some  of 
the  most  famous  of 
t  hem,  and  still  others 
are  infused  with 
moral     and      other 


in  hexameters,  dealing  with  the  Second  Punic  war  arid  sentiments.     Some  lyrics  bearing  apparent  relations 

especially  with  the  adventures  of  Soipio  Africanus,  in  to  the  "Canzoniere",  but  excluded  by  the  port  from 

pseudo-epic  fashion  and  in  a  way  which  hardly  elicits  its   final   make-up,   have  been  j)ublishccl  under  the 

our  admiration,  although  the  author  deemed  it  his  title  of   "Extravaganti".     In  the  strictly  amorous 


greatest  work;  the  "Carmen  bucoHcum"  made  up  of  part  of  the  "Canzoniere",  Petrarch  sings  of  his  lady 
twelve  eclogues;  the  "Epistola;  metricae"  in  three  living  and  dead,  and,  reviving  in  his  psychological 
books  of  hexameters,  interesting  for  the  autobiograph-  manner  the  methods  of  the  earlier  dnlce  slil  nuovo 
ical  matter  which  they  contain;  several  moral  trea-  School,  particularly  reflects  the  spirit  of  Cino  da 
tises,  such  as  the  "De  contemptu  mundi",  which  con-  Pistoia.  But  all  is  not  imitation  on  the  part  of  his 
sists  of  three  dialogues  between  the  author  and  St.  Muse;  his  inner  man  is  expressed  in  even  greater  de- 
Augustine,  both  of  them  in  the  presence  of  Truth;  the  gree  than  the  literary  formahsm  which  he  owed  to  his 


PETRE 


780 


PETRE 


predecessors  of  the  thirteenth  and  the  early  fourteenth 
century.  Still  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  vory  re- 
finement of  his  verst'-form  and  the  constant  npctition 
of  emotions,  that  vary  but  slightly  one  from  t  lie  ot  licr, 
tend  inevitably  to  ijall  upon  us.  The"Caiiz()niin'"and 
the  "  Trionfi  "  begot  for  Petrarch  legions  of  followers  in 
Italy,  and  I'etrarchism,  as  the  imitation  of  liis  manner 
was  termed,  continued  down  into  the  Renaissance, 
growing  less  according  as  the  numberless  disciples  took 
to  imitating  one  another  rather  than  the  master 
directly,  until  Bembo  started  a  propaganda  in  favour 
of  copying  only  the  original  model. 

Marsand,  Bi6(io(fca  fefrarr/ifsra  (Milan.  1S26);  Hortis,  Caln- 
Inao  ilfllf  op.rr  di  I'ctrarm  (Trioste.  1874):  Ferrazzi,  Bibliografia 
Pdmr.  >:.  ,  M  I!  I-  :in..,  Iss7i;  FisKE,  Handlist  of  Petrarch  Editions 
inlhfl  /■  :        INS  (Florence,  1886);  D'Ancona  AND 

Baiii,    '.'  '  I, ra  italiana,  I  (Florence,  IS95).     Of 

the  l,iii[i  \\  "  k  -  t\u  \-r/,;t  has  been  published  critically  by 
CoRKAiuM  (I';nliu\.  1S74):  the  Poemata  minora  by  RoasETTi 
(Milan,  lS2((-34);  and  many  of  the  Epislolm  by  Fracassetti 
(Florence.  1859-63;  It.  tr.  Florence,  1863-67).  There  have  been 
many  editions  of  the  Italian  lyrics;  a  notable  one  is  that  of  Car- 
Duccl  and  Ferrari  (Florence.  1899).  .^11  the  leading  accounts 
of  Italian  literary  history  deal  fully  with  Petrarch — see  amon^ 
others:  Gaspary,  Sloria  delta  let.  ital.  I  (Turin,  1887);  De 
Sanctis.  Saggio  critico  sul  Petrarca  (Xaple.'i.  ISfiO);  Idkm.  Sludi 
criU'ci  (Naples,  1890);  BARTCLi.Storta  (A  /  i /.  ■  '  ;/  .  \  II  I  l-i.  n,,., 
1884) :  VoiGT,  Die  Tri<>rfer6<-(e6una  des  ,/  1  J,„l 

ed..  Berlin,  18,80).  and  NOLH.AC.  Parnr.;,.        ;  '  l',,,s. 

1892),  treat  of  his  humanistic  endeavour^.  SiiiurOi'  i:  .\!v/ii  ri:s, 
Pitrarque   (Paris,   1S67) ;  Koertixg,  Pelnircas  Leben  und  U'crA-e 

(Leipjig,  1S7S).  J.  D.  M.  Ford. 

Petre,  Family  of. — The  Petres  are  one  of  those 
staunch  and  constant  families,  which  have  played  a 
great  part  in  the  preservation  of  the  Catholic  Faith 
in  England.  There  is  no  volume  of  the  "Catholic 
Record  Society"  (London)  which  does  not  contain 
references  to  their  name,  sometimes  by  scores;  Gillow 
gives  biographies  of  fifteen,  Kirk  of  ten;  the  Jesuits 
count  twelve  in  their  order,  and  there  are  eighteen  in 
the  current  "Catholic  Who's  Who"  (London). 

The  fortunes  of  the  Petres  were,  oddly  enough,  built 
up  on  the  ruins  of  the  monasteries.  Sir  Wilham 
Petre,  with  the  pliability  of  his  age,  held  the  confiden- 
tial post  of  secretary  of  State  through  the  revolu- 
tionan,"  changes  of  Henry  VIII,  Edward  VI,  Mary, 
and  Elizabeth.  His  later  years  were  probably  more 
orthodox;  his  widow,  the  patroness  of  the  martyr. 
Blessed  John  Payne  (q.  v.),  was  certainly  a  loyal 
Catholic.  His  son,  John,  was  created  a  baron  by  James 
I,  and  with  his  grandson  Wilham  (d.  1637)  Cathol- 
icism, which  had  not  hitherto  been  professed  by  the 
heads  of  the  house,  was  publicly  acknowledged. 
William,  fourth  Lord,  who  had  distinguished  himself 
in  the  civil  wars,  cUed  a  martyr's  death  in  the  tower  of 
London,  .5  Jan.,  1684,  accused  of  complicity  in  Oates's 
Plot.  Robert  Edward,  the  ninth  Baron  (1742-1801), 
played  a  leading  part  in  the  struggles  for  Catholic 
Emancipation.  He  was,  however,  though  a  practical, 
and  on  the  whole  a  good,  Catholic,  tainted  by  some  of 
the  Liberalistic  ideas  then  prevalent,  and  failed  as 
chairman  of  the  Catholic  Committee  in  the  loyalty 
due  to  the  bishops.  He  was  also  reputed  to  have  been 
Grand  Master  of  the  Freemasons.  But  Masonry  had 
not  then  been  censured  with  the  clearness  with  which 
it  has  been  condemned  since.  William  Joseph  (b. 
1847;  d.  1893),  a  domestic  prelate,  and  thirteenth 
Baron,  devoted  many  years  to  Catholic  liberal  edu- 
cation, founding  and  maintaining  a  school  at  Woburn 
Park  (1877-84)  and  defended  his  theories  of  educa- 
tion in  several  pamphlets.  The  family  has  also  pro- 
duced two  bishops,  Francis  (b.  1692 ;  d.  1775)  and 
Benjamin  (b.  1672;  d.  17.58),  who  were  respectively 
coadjutors  of  Bishop  Dicconson  in  the  Northern  Dis- 
trict and  of  Dr.  Challoner  in  the  Southern. 

Sir  Edward  Petre,  Baronet,  S.J.,  and  privy 
councillor  (1631-99),  fills  more  space  in  history  than 
any  of  his  f.amily,  owing  to  the  multiplicity  of  attacks 
made  upon  him  as  a  chaplain  and  adviser  of  James  II. 
Petre's  unpopularity  as  a  Jesuit  was  so  great  that  it 
harmed  the  king's  cause;  but  if  we  regard  his  conduct 


by  itself,  no  serious  fault  has  yet  been  proved  against 
him.  If  we  cannot  yet  confidently  :u-(iuit  him  of  all 
blame,  that  is  chiefly  bec:uise  linsl-lmnd  I'videnee  is 
very  deficient;  but  the  ne:u-er  we  gel  to  lir.sl-luind  evi- 
dence, the  better  does  Petre's  coiKhicI  ;ip]]e;ir.  Before 
James's  accession  (6  Feb.,  16.S."j)  he  li:iil  shown  good, 
but  not  extraordinary,  virtue  ;uid  ;ibilit  v,  :iml  was  then 
vice-provincial  of  his  order,  James  .soon  made  him 
clerk  of  the  closet,  but  without  any  |iolilic:d  power. 
On  9  Oct.  the  king  wrote  to  ask  tliepojie  to  iiKike  hijn 
a  bishop  in  partibus,  and  the  pope  refu.seil  (24  Nov., 
1685).  The  first  application  nuide  little  or  no  stir;  it 
did  not  even  reach  the  ear  of  the  genenil  ol  the  Jesuits 
till  the  pope  told  him  of  it,  22  May,  168().  At  that 
time  Lord  Castlemaine,  having  arrived  in  Rome  as 
James's  ambassador,  had  renewed  the  application, 
while  James  urged  it  forcibly  on  Mgr.  d'Adda,  the 
papal  nuncio  in  London  (28  June).  But  if  the  pope 
was  rightly  immovable,  the  king  was  characteristically 
obstinate. 

Next  year  (1687)  Castlemaine  renewed  the  petition 
with  a  doggedness  that  "excited  the  bile"  of  the  pon- 
tiff (March).  James  backed  up  the  application  by 
letters  of  16  June  and  24  ,'Jept.,  and  now  requested 
that  Petre  be  made  a  cardinal;  but  the  pope  (16  Aug., 
22  Nov.)  steadily  refused.  Such  urgency  was  certain 
to  be  attributed  to  Petre's  ambition,  and  the  general 
of  the  order  wrote  pressingly  (22  Nov.,  20  Dec,  and  10 
Jan.,  1688)  for  explanations.  James  himself  now 
sent  letters  in  Petre's  defence  to  pope  and  general 
(22  Dec),  while  the  provincial  and  Petre  also  wr:te, 
setting  forth  all  they  had  done  to  persuade  James  to 
desist.  All  these  letters  are  unfortunately  lost,  ex- 
cept those  from  the  king.  We  know,  however,  that 
they  completely  vindicated  Petre's  character  in  the 
eyes  of  the  pope  and  of  the  general.  A  further  cause 
of  irritation,  however,  had  been  given  by  the  admission 
of  Petre  to  the  rank  of  privy  councillor  (11  Nov., 
1687) ,  and  the  oath  of  allegiance  taken  on  that  occasion, 
though  not  objected  to  in  the  case  of  the  other  Catho- 
lic lords,  was  much  commented  upon,  and  laid  before 
the  pope.  But  a  better  understanding  now  prevailed 
at  Rome,  and  the  incident  dropped. 

In  England,  on  the  other  hand,  after  his  nomination 
as  privy  councillor,  the  popular  charges  against  him 
became  more  insulting  than  ever,  and  re:u-hed  their 
height  in  the  insinuations  made  about  the  birth  of  the 
prince  (James  Francis  Stuart).  Though  the  worst 
of  these  charges  stand  self-refuted,  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  want  of  documents  prevents  our  defending  the 
father  against  others,  though  the  presumptions  are 
generally  in  his  favour.  If,  as  it  is  said,  he  persuaded 
James  to  dismiss  the  Countess  of  Dorchester  (Mrs. 
Sedley),  he  may  be  said  to  have  deserved  his  place  at 
Court.  If  James  had  taken  his  advice  and  stayed  on  at 
Westminster,  the  fortunes  of  his  house  would  proba- 
bly have  ended  differently.  Like  everyone  in  James's 
entourage,  Petre  at  first  believed  in  Sunderland,  but 
he  was  also  among  the  first  to  detect  that  minister's 
duplicity,  and  to  break  with  him.  Setting  aside 
prejudiced  witnesses  (and  it  will  be  remembered  that 
there  was  a  party  against  him,  even  among  Catholics), 
and  studying  those  in  sympathy  with  the  Jesuit,  we 
seem  to  perceive  in  him  a  steadf.ast,  kind-hearted 
English  priest,  devoting  himself  with  energy  to  the 
opportunities  for  spiritual  good  that  opened  out  before 
him.  With  little  gift  for  politics,  nor  paying  much 
heed  to  them,  he  was  nevertheless  severely  blamed 
when  things  went  wrong.  He  was  also  regardless, 
almost  callous,  as  to  what  was  said  about  him  by 
friend  or  foe. 

Howard  and  Burke,  Genealogical  Collections  illustrating  the 
history  of  Ronuni  Catholic  families  of  England,  I  (London,  1887) : 
G.  E,'  CIokayne],  Peerage  of  England,  VI  (London,  189.5),  247; 
Idem,  Baronetage.  II.  247;  Foley,  Records  of  the  English  Province 
S.  J.  (London,  1879),  V  and  VII;  DOhh.  Jesuitenfabeln  (Freiburg 
im  Br.,  1891),  170  (the  article  Petre  is  omitted  in  later  editions); 
Longridge,  Guilt  or  Innocence  of  Father  Petre  in  The  Month  (Sep., 
1886  to  March,   1887).     Transcripts  of  the  dispatches  of  the 


PETROBRUSIANS 


781 


PETRONILLA 


nuncio  d'Adda  are  at  the  British  Museum  (Add.  MSS.,  15395 
etc.)  and  at  the  Record  Office.  The  so-called  Letter  to  Phe  La 
Chaise  is  clearly  fictitious.  J_  JJ^  PoLLEN 

Petrobrusians,  heretics  of  the  twelfth  century  so 
I  named  from  their  founder  Peter  of  Bruys.  Our  infor- 
mation concerning  him  is  derived  from  the  treatise  of 
Peter  the  Veneratjie  against  the  Petrobrusians  and 
from  a  passage  in  Abelard.  Peter  was  born  perhaps  at 
Bruis  in  south-eastern  France.  The  history  of  his 
early  life  is  unknowii,  but  it  is  certain  that  he  was  a 
priest  who  had  been  deprived  of  his  charge.  He  began 
his  propaganda  in  the  Dioceses  of  Embrun,  Die,  and 
Gap,  probably  between  1117  and  1120.  Twenty  years 
later  the  populace  of  St.  Gilles  near  Ntmes,  exasper- 
ated by  his  burning  of  crosses,  cast  him  into  the 
flames.  The  bishops  of  the  above-mentioned  dioceses 
suppressed  the  heresy  within  their  jurisdiction,  but  it 
gained  adherents  at  Narbonne,  Toulouse,  and  in  Gas- 
cony.  Henry  of  Lausanne,  a  former  Cluniac  monk, 
adopted  the  Petrobrusians'  teaching  about  1135  and 
spread  it  in  a  modified  form  after  its  author's  death. 
Peter  of  Bruys  admitted  the  doctrinal  authority  of  the 
Gospels  in  their  literal  interpretation;  the  other  New- 
Testament  writings  he  probably  considered  value- 
less, as  of  doubtful  Apostolic  origin.  To  the  New- 
Testament  Epistles  he  assigned  only  a  subordinate 
place  as  not  coming  from  Jesus  Christ  Himself.  He  re- 
jected the  Old  Testament  as  well  as  the  authority  of 
the  Fathers  and  of  the  Church.  His  contempt  for  the 
Church  extended  to  the  clergy,  and  physical  violence 
was  preached  and  exercised  against  priests  and  monks. 
In  his  system  baptism  is  indeed  a  necessary  condition 
for  salvation,  but  it  is  baptism  preceded  by  personal 
faith,  so  that  its  administration  to  infants  is  worthless. 
The  Mass  and  the  Eucharist  are  rejected  because  Jesus 
Christ  gave  His  flesh  and  blood  but  once  to  His  disci- 
ples, and  repetition  is  impossible.  All  e.xternal  forms 
of  worship,  ceremonies  and  chant,  are  condemned.  As 
the  Church  consists  not  in  walls,  but  in  the  community 
of  the  faithful,  church  buildings  should  be  destroyed,  for 
we  may  pray  to  God  in  a  barn  as  well  as  in  a  church,  and 
be  heard,  if  worthy,  in  a  stable  as  well  as  before  an  altar. 
No  good  works  of  the  living  can  profit  the  dead .  Crosses, 
as  the  instrument  of  the  death  of  Christ,  cannot  de- 
serve veneration ;  hence  they  were  for  the  Petrobrusians 
objects  of  desecration  and  were  destroyed  in  bonfires. 
Peter  the  Venerable,  Epistota  sivc  iractatus  adversus  petro- 
brusianos  harreiieos  in  P.  L.,  CLXXXIX,  719-850;  .\bel.ard, 
Introductio  ad  theologiam,  II.  iv,  in  P.  L.,  CLXXVIII,  1056; 
Vernet  in  Diet,  theol.  cath.,  11,  1151-56;  Funk,  Manual  of 
Church  History,  tr.  Cappadelta,  I  (St.  Louia,  1910),  354-5. 

N.  A.  Webek. 

Petronilla,  Saint,  virgin,  probably  mart}Ted  at 
Rome  at  the  end  of  the  first  century.  Almost  all  the 
sixth-  and  seventh-century  lists  of  the  tombs  of  the 
most  highly  venerated  Roman  martyrs  mention  St. 
Petronilla's  grave  as  situated  in  the  Via  Ardeatina 
near  Sts.  Nereus  and  Achilleus  (De  Rossi,  "Roma  sot- 
terranea",  I,  180-1).  These  notices  have  been  com- 
pletely confirmed  by  the  excavations  in  the  Catacomb 
of  Domitilla.  One  topography  of  the  graves  of  the 
Roman  martyrs,  "Epitome  libri  de  locis  sanctorum 
martyrum",  locates  on  the  Via  Ardeatina  a  church  of 
St.  Petronilla,  in  which  Sts.  Nereus  and  Achilleus,  as 
well  as  Petronilla,  were  buried  (De  Rossi,  loc.  cit., 
180).  This  church,  built  into  the  above-mentioned 
catacomb,  has  been  discovered,  and  the  memorials 
found  in  it  removed  all  doubt  that  the  tombs  of  the 
three  saints  were  once  venerated  there  (De  Rossi  in 
"BuUettino  di  archeol.  crist.",  1874  sq.,  5  sqq.).  A 
painting,  in  which  Petronilla  is  represented  as  receiv- 
ing a  deceased  person  (named  Veneranda)  into  heaven, 
was  discovered  on  the  closing  stone  of  a  tomb  in  an 
underground  crypt  behind  the  apse  of  the  basilica 
(Wilpert,  "Die  Malercien  der  Katakomben  Roms", 
Freiburg,  1903,  plate  213;  De  Rossi,  ibid.,  1875,  5 
sqq.).    Beside  the  saint's  picture  is  her  name:  Petro- 


nilla Mart.  (yr).  That  the  painting  was  done  shortly 
after  356,  is  proved  by  an  inscription  found  in  the 
tomb.  It  is  thus  cleariy  established  that  Petronilla 
was  venerated  at  Rome  as  a  martyr  in  the  fourth 
century,  and  the  testimony  must  be  accepted  as  cer- 
tainly historical,  notwithstanding  the  later  legend 
which  recognizes  her  only  as  a  virgin  (see  below). 
Another  known,  but  unfortunately  no  longer  extant, 
memorial  was  the  marble  sarcophagus  which  con- 
tained her  remains,  under  Paul  I  (q.  v. ;  757-65)  trans- 
lated to  St.  Peter's.  In  the  account  of  this  in  the 
"Liber  Pontificalis"  (ed.  Duchesne,  I,  466)  the  inscrip- 
tion carved  on  the  sarcophagus  is  given  thus:  Arirece 
Petronillce  Filice  Dulcissima:  (of  the  golden  Petronilla, 
the  sweetest  daughter).  We  learn,  however,  from 
extant  sixteenth-century  notices  concerning  this  sar- 
cophagus that  the  first  word  was  Aiir.  {Aiirelioe),  so 
that  the  martyr's  name  was  Aurelia  Petronilla.  The 
second  name  comes  from  Petro  or  Petronius,  and,  as 
the  name  of  the  great-grandfather  of  the  Christian  con- 
sul, Flavins  Clemens,  was  Titus  Flavins  Petronius,  it 
is  very  possible  that  Petronilla  was  a  relative  of  the 
Christian  Flavii,  who  were  descended  from  the  sena- 
torial family  of  the  Aurelii.  This  theory  would  also 
explain  why  Petronilla  was  buried  in  the  catacomb  of 
the  Flavian  Domitilla.  Like  the  latter,  Petronilla  may 
have  suffered  during  the  persecution  of  Domitian,  per- 
haps not  till  later. 

In  the  fourth-century  Roman  catalogue  of  martyrs' 
feasts,  which  is  used  in  the  "  Martyrologium  Hiero- 
nymianum",  her  name  seems  not  to  have  been  in- 
serted. It  occurs  in  the  latter  martyrology  (De  Rossi- 
Duchesne,  "Martyrol.  Hieronym.",  69),  but  only  as 
a  later  addition.  Her  name  is  given  under  31  May 
and  the  Martyrologies  of  Bede  and  his  imitators  adopt 
the  same  date  (Quentin,  "Les  martyrologes  histor- 
iques",  Paris,  1908,  51,  363  etc.).  The  absence  of  her 
name  from  the  fourth-century  Roman  calendar  of 
feasts  suggests  that  Petronilla  died  at  the  end  of  the 
first  or  during  the  second  century,  since  no  special 
feasts  for  martyrs  were  celebrated  during  this  period. 
After  the  erection  of  the  basilica  over  her  remains  and 
those  of  Sts.  Nereus  and  Acliilleus  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, her  cult  extended  widely  and  her  name  was 
therefore  admitted  later  into  the  martyrology.  A 
legend,  the  existence  of  which  in  the  sixth  century  is 
proved  by  its  presence  in  the  list  of  the  tombs  of  the 
Roman  martyrs  prepared  by  .-^bbot  John  at  the  end  of 
this  century  (De  Rossi,  "Roma  sotterranoa",  I,  180), 
regards  Petronilla  as  a  real  daughter  of  St.  Peter.  In 
the  Gno.stio  apocryphal  Acts  of  St.  Peter,  dating  from 
the  second  century,  a  daughter  of  St.  Peter  is  men- 
tioned, although  her  name  is  not  given  (Schmid,  "Ein 
vorirenaische  gnostisches  Originalwerk  in  koptischer 
Sprache"  in  "Sitzungsber.  der  Berliner  Akademie", 
1896,  839  sqq.;  Lipsius,  "Die  apokryphen  Apostelge- 
schichtenu.  Aposfcllcgcnden",  II,  i, "Brunswick,  1887, 
203  sqq.).  The  legend  iieing  widely  propagated  by 
these  apocryplKil  .Vets,  Petronilla  was  identified  at 
Rome  with  this  supposed  daughter  of  St.  Peter,  prob- 
ably because  of  her  name  and  the  great  antiquity  of 
her  tomb.  As  such,  but  now  as  a  virgin,  not  as  a 
martyr,  she  appears  in  the  legendary  Acts  of  the 
martyrs  Sts.  Nereus  and  Achilleus  and  in  the  "Lilier 
Pontificahs"  (loc.  cit.).  From  this  legend  of  St. 
Nereus  and  Achilleus  a  similar  notice  was  admitted 
into  the  historical  martyrologies  of  the  Middle  Ages 
and  thence  into  the  modern  Roman  Martyrology.  In 
757  the  cofFm  containing  the  mortal  remains  of  the 
saint  was  transferred  to  an  old  circular  building  (an 
imperial  mausoleum  dating  from  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century)  near  St.  Peter's.  This  building  was  altered 
and  became  the  Chapel  of  St.  Petronilla  (De  Rassi, 
"Inscriptioneschri.stiana;urbisRoma;",  11,225).  The 
saint  subsequently  appears  as  the  special  patroness  of 
the  treaties  concluded  between  the  popes  and  the 
Frankiah  emperors.    At  the  rebuilding  of  St.  Peter's  ia 


PETRONIUS 


782 


PETRUCCI 


the  sixteenth  century,  St.  Potronillu's  roniaiiw  were 
translated  to  an  altar  (still  dedicated  to  Iier)  in  the 
upper  end  of  the  right  side-uisle  (near  the  cupola). 
Her  fciist  falls  on  31  May. 

De  Rossi,  Si/mlcro  di  S.  Pflronilla  nrlln  basilica  in  via  Ar- 
deatina  e  sua  traslazione  at  Valicajio  in  Bullt-ttiuo  di  arch,  crist. 
USVS),  125  sq.  (1879),  5  sq.;  Ddmaz,  La  France  el  aainle  Pi- 
tronille  in  Annales  de  St.  Louis  des  Frautais  (1890),  .517  sq.; 
Urbain,  Bin  Marlyrologium  der  chrisll.  Gemeiiide  zit  Horn  (Leip- 
lig,  1901),  l.')2;  DnFODRCQ,  Les  Oesla  Marlurum  romain.i,  I 
(Paris,  1900),  251  sq. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 


resumed  and  the  glorious  Italian -Gothic  church 
completed  as  if  stands  to-day.  The  feast  of  St.  Petro- 
nius  is  cilchralcd  on  4  October. 

Ada  .S.s,.  II.  (Ul..  I.'il  .sqq.;  Melloni.  Alii  o  memorir  di  S. 
Pclronio  (H()l..k:n!i,  17sl);  Bolland,  Bibl.  hag.  lal.,  II  (1901), 
96.5-6;  MoniN,  Deux  petits  discours  d'un  ivique  Pelronius  du  V* 
aiicle  in  Kevue  binidicline  (1897).  1  sqq.;  Czapla,  Ceniiadiua 
als  Literarhistoriker  (MUnster,  1898),  94  sqq.;  Lanzoni.  San 
Pelronio,  vescovo  di  Bologna  nella  sloria  e  nclla  lenenda  (Rome. 
1907) 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 


Petropolis,    Diocese    of    (Petropolitanensis), 
Petronius,   S.\int,   Bishop  of   Bologna,   date   of     in  the  Province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  erected  11 
birth  unknown;  d.  before  4.50.    The  only  certain  his-     Feb.,  1895.     The  sec  founded  by  Leo  XIII   21  May 


torical  information  we  possess 
concerning  him  is  derived  from 
a  letter  written  by  Bishop  Ku- 
cherius  of  Lyons  (d.  450-5)  to 
Valeriiinus  (in  P.  L.,  L,  711 
sqq.)  and  from  Gennadius'  "  De 
viris  illustribus",  XLI  (ed. 
Czapla,  Mlinster,  1898,  p.  94). 
Eucherius  writes  that  the  holy 
Bishop  Petronius  was  then  re- 
nowned in  Italy  for  his  virtues. 
From  Gennadius  we  receive 
more  detailed  information: 
Petronius  belonged  to  a  noble 
family-  whose  members  occupietl 
high  iKisitions  at  the  imperial 
Court  at  Milan  and  in  thejiro- 
vincial  lulministrations  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  ana  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifth  centuries. 
His  father  (also  named  Petro- 
nius) was  probably  pmfcciux 
prcetorio,  since  a  Petronius  filled 
this  office  in  Gaul  in  402-S. 
Eucherius  seems  to  suggest  (P. 
L.,  L,  719)  that  the  future 
bishop  also  held  an  important 
secular  position.  Even  in  his 
youth  Petronius  devoted  him- 
self to  the  practices  of  asceti- 
cism, and  seems  to  have  visiteil 
the  Holy  Places  in  Jerusalem, 
perhaps  on  a  pilgrimage.  About 
432  he  was  elected  and  conse- 
crated Bishop  of  Bologna,  where 
he  erected  a  church  to  St. 
Stephen,  the  building  scheme 
of  which  was  in  imitation  of  the 
shrines  on  Golgotha  and  over  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusaliin. 
The  buildings  belong  approxi- 
mately to  the  perioil  wlicn  Leo 
I  had  basilicas  erected  in  Home 
and  Galla  Placidia  in  Ravenna 


St.   Petronhth 

Church  of  S.  Domenico.  Bologn: 

School  of  Michelangelo 


1893,  at  Nictheroy,  and  trans- 
ferred to  Petropolis  11  Feb., 
1S95,  was  retransferred  to 
Nictheroy  in  1908.  The  city 
of  Pctnipolis  was  founded  by 
tlicKniiHiorof  Brazil  in  1845, 
as  a  colony  for  German  immi- 
grants and  named  in  honour  of 
Dom  Pedro;  it  is  a  delightful 
summer  resort.  In  1894  it  was 
made  the  capital  of  the  State 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Nictlieioy 
is  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  In  1834,  when  the 
city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  was 
formed  into  a  "municipio  neu- 
tro"  and  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  state,  Nictheroy  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince  and   remained   so    until 

1894.  The  first  bishop,  Fran- 
cois de  Rogo  Maia,  b.  at  Per- 
nambueo,  29  Sept.,  1849,  was 
elected  in  Sept.,  1893.  The 
second  bishop,  Jean  -  Frangois 
Braga,  b.  at  Pelotas,  Diocese  of 
St.  Pierre  de  Rio  Grande,  24 
Aug.,  1867,  cons.  24  Aug., 
1902;  transferred  to  the  See  of 
Curityba,  1907.  The  present 
bishop,  Augustin-Frangois  Ben- 
nassi,  b.  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  17 
Nov.,  1868,  was  elected  13 
March,  1908,  and  cons.  10  May 
following.  Statistics:  area,  15,- 
548  square  miles ;  Cat  holic  popu- 
lation, 1,000,300  (Protestants, 
about  9000);  123  parishes,  100 
filial  churches  or  chapels,  89  sec- 
ular and  35  regular  priests,  3  col- 
leges, and  one  technical  school. 

United  States  of  Brazil,  A  Geograph- 
ical Sketch  (1901) ;  Annuaire  pontifical 
cntholique  (Paris,  1910). 

J.  Zevely. 


Petronius  is  believed  to  have 

written  a  work  on  the  life  of  the  Egyptian  monks  Petrucci,  Ottavio  dei,  inventor  of  movable  metal 

(Vitae   patrum   Mgypti   monachorum);     the  author  type  for  printing  mensural  and  polyphonic  music, 

of  this  work,  however,  is  Rufinus  of  Aquileia.     The  b.  at  Fossombrone  near  Urbino,  Italy,  18  June,  1466; 

treatise   "De  ordinatione    episcopi",    bearing    the  d.  there,  7  May,  1539.     In  1498  he  secured  from  the 

name  of  Petronius  as  author,  is  by  the  elder  Petronius,  City  Council  of  Venice  a  twenty  years'  patent  for 

who  was  a  man  of  eloquence  and  wide  acquaintance  the  exploitation  of  his  invention.     Beginning  in  1501, 

with  the  secular  sciences.     Morin  has  published  a  he  continued  his  publications  for  ten  years  at  Venice, 

eermon  entitled  "In  die  ordinationis  vel  Natale  epis-  after   which    he   turned    his  establishment   over  to 

copi"  (Revue  bi-n&lictine,  1897,  3  sq.),  which  Genua-  Amadeo   Scotti  and   Niccol6  da  Rafael.     He  after- 

dius  ascribes  to  Bishop  Petronius  of  Verona,  whom  wards   secured  from   the  papal  authorities  a  fifteen 

Czalpa  holds  is  Petronius  of  Bologna,  but  this  assign-  years'  privilege  or  license  for  the  Papal  States.     From 

ment  is  not  certain.    According  to  Gennadius,  Petro-  1513  to  l.'>23  he  operated  a  music-printing  establish- 

nius  died  during  the  reign  of  Emperor  Theodosius  and  ment  in  his  native   city,  Fossombrone. 

Valentinian,  i.  e.,  before  450.    In  the  twelfth  century  Until  1901  Petrucci  was  considered  as  the  pioneer 

appeared  a  legendary  life  of  the  saint,  whose  relics  in  the  use  of  the  movable  metal  type  for  the  printing 

were  discovered  in  1141.    Shortly  after^vards  a  church  of  liturgical  books,  but  Dom  Rafael   Molitor,  in  his 

was  erected  in  his  honour  at   Bologna;    a  second,  " Nachtridentinische  Choralreform "    (Leipzig,    1901, 

planned  on  a  large  scale,  was  begun  in  1390,  and  built  I,  94),  demonstrates  that  it  was  lllric  Han,  or  Hahn, 

as  far  as  the  cross-aisle.    In  1659  the  building  was  a  native  of  Ingolstadt,  residing  at  Rome,  who  printed 


PETRUS 


783 


PETRUS 


(he  first  Missal  in  metal  type  notes  in  1476.  Petrucci's 
great  advance  consisted  in  the  triple  process  (i.  e., 
first  the  text  and  initials,  then  the  lines,  and  lastly  the 
notes)  and  the  wonderful  neatness  and  perfection  with 
which  the  printing  was  done,  so  tliat  his  publications 
have  not  only  survived  but  have  been  unequalled  by 
any  of  his  successors.  They  were  surpassed  in  dis- 
tinctness only  by  a  perfected  engraving  process  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  His  work  was  of  the  greatest 
importance  for  the  dissemination  and  preservation  of 
the  polyphonic  compositions  of  his  time,  especially 
those  of  the  Netherlands  masters.  In  the  libraries  of 
Bologna,  Treviso,  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  Venice, 
Vienna,  Berlin,  Munich,  collections  are  preserved  con- 
taining frottole,  chansons,  motets,  and  masses  by  con- 
temporary masters,  such  as  Josquin  Depres,  Hayne, 
de  Orto,  Obrecht,  La  Rue,  Busnois,  Compere,  Ghis- 
clin,  Agricola,  Isaac,  Okeghem,  Tinctoris,  and  a  host 
of  others,  many  of  whom  would  probably  have  been 
altogether  forgotten  but  for  these  remarkable  prints, 
now  four  hundred  years  old. 

RiEMANN,  Geschichte  der  Musik.  II  (Leipzig,  1907),  i;  Idem, 
Musikhxikon  (lue'ipzig.  1905):  MoLlTOB,  Nacbiridentinische  Cho- 
Talreform,  I  (Leipzig,  190l) :  Mendel,  Musiklexikon,  VIII  (Leip- 
zig, 1877). 

Joseph  Otten. 

Petrus  a  Tarentasia.  See  Innocent  V,  Blessed, 
Pope. 

Petrus  Alfonsus,  converted  Jew  and  controver- 
sialist, b.  at  Huesca,  in  the  former  Kingdom  of  Aragon, 
1062;  d.  1110.  Previous  to  his  conversion  he  was 
known  as  Moses  Sephardi  (the  Spaniard).  King  Al- 
fonso I  of  Aragon,  whose  physician-in-ordinary  he 
became,  stood  sponsor  at  his  baptism,  which  he  re- 
ceived in  his  native  town  on  St.  Peter's  day  (29  June, 
1106).  In  honour  of  this  saint  and  of  his  sponsor  he 
chose  the  name  Petrus  Alfonsus.  As  his  conversion 
was  attributed  by  his  former  co-religionists  to  ignorance 
or  dishonourable  motives,  he  published  a  justifica- 
tion in  a  Latin  work  consisting  of  twelve  dialogues  be- 
tween a  Jew  and  a  Christian.  These  dialogues  were 
first  printed  at  Cologne  in  1536,  and  have  since  fre- 
quently been  re-edited.  A  second  work  of  Petrus 
Alfonsus,  based  on  Arabic  sources,  is  entitled  "Eccle- 
siastical Discipline"  (DiscipUna  Clericalis).  It  has 
been  tran.slated  into  several  languages  and  is  pre- 
served in  numerous  manuscripts.  Labouderie,  Vicar- 
General  of  Avignon,  published  it  at  Paris  in  1824  with 
a  French  translation  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Another 
edition  by  F.  W.  V.  Schmidt  appeared  at  Berlin  in 
1S27.  The  text  of  both  works  of  Petrus  Alfonsus, 
preceded  by  biographical  notices,  may  be  found  in 
Migne,  CLVII,  527-706. 

Ceilliee.  AuteuTs  ealesiast..  XIV  (Paris,  1863),  i,  170-73; 
KoHUT  in  Jewish  Enc.ycl.,  I,  377;  DoucE  in  Boh.n's  Anliq.  Libr., 
X  (London,  181S),  39^4. 

N.  A.  Weber. 
Petrus  Aureoli.     See  Adreoli. 

Petrus  Bernardinus,  Florentine  heretic,  b.  at 
Florence  about  1475;  d.  1.502.  His  parents  were  com- 
mon folk,  and  he  himself  lacked  all  higher  education. 
But  he  attached  himself  with  fanatical  zeal  to  Savona- 
rola, and,  by  diligent  attendance  at  his  sermons  and 
zealous  study  of  his  writings,  acquired  a  wide  but 
superficial  theological  knowledge.  Peter  preached  to 
the  people  in  the  public  squares  of  Florence  and,  during 
the  lifetime  of  Savonarola  and  after  his  death,  he 
propagated  secretly  eccentric  and  revolutionary  doc- 
trines. According  to  him,  the  Church  must  be  re- 
newed with  the  sword;  until  this  was  accomplished, 
there  was  no  need  to  confess,  since  all  priests,  secular 
and  regular,  were  unworthy.  According  to  the  Floren- 
tine chronicler,  Cerretani,  about  twenty  adherents  of 
Savonarola  formed  a  secret  society  and  elected  Peter 
pope.  The  latter,  who  was  then  twenty-five  years  old, 
assumed  special  ecclesiastical  functions  and  anointed 
his  followers  with  oU  (the  alleged  anointment  of  the 


Holy  Ghost).  The  members  attended  no  Divine  Ser- 
vice, but  during  their  meetings  prayed  in  spirit  under 
the  leadership  of  Peter,  whom  they  regarded  iis  a 
prophet.  The  association  was  discovered  by  the  arch- 
bishop and  at  his  request  the  Council  of  Plorenee 
proscribed  its  meetings.  In  1502  the  members  left  the 
town  secretly  and  proceeded  to  Mirandola  where 
Count  Gian  Francesco,  a  zealous  supporter  of  Savona- 
rola, gave  them  a  friendly  reception.  When,  a  little 
later,  the  count  was  besieged  by  two  of  his  brothers, 
who  claimed  Mirandola,  Peter  declared  it  God's  will 
that  Gian  Francesco  should  overcome  his  enemies. 
However,  Mirandola  was  taken  and  the  count  lost  his 
territory  in  August,  1502.  The  sectaries  falUng  into 
the  hands  of  the  victors,  Peter  and  some  of  his  com- 
panions were  burned  as  heretics;  the  remainder  were 
expelled  or  dispatched  to  Florence.  The  attempts  of 
Protestant  historians  to  stamp  Peter  as  a  forerunner 
of  the  Reformation  cannot  be  historically  justified. 

Pastor,  History  of  the  Popes,  tr.  Antrobus,  V  (St.  Louis, 
1902),  214-16. 

J.    P.    KiRSCH. 

Petrus  Diaconus,  the  name  of  several  men  of  note 

in  ecclc^ia-i  II  ,il  history  and  literature. 

(1)  ( )iic  (if  tlic  Scythian  monks  who  appeared  in  519 
before  Pope  Hormisdas  in  connexion  with  the  Theo- 
paschite  controversy.  He  -wrote  concerning  this 
question  his  treatise  "De  incarnatione  et  gratia",  at 
the  same  time  directed  against  the  teaching  of  Faustus 
of  Riez  respecting  grace  and  addressed  to  St.  Ful- 
gentius  of  Ruspe;  in  P.  L.,  LXII,  83-92;  Barden- 
hewer,  tr.  Shahan,  "Patrology",  548,  1908.  (St. 
Louis). 

(2)  A  disciple  and  friend  of  Gregory  the  Great;  d. 
at  Rome  12  March,  605  or  606.  His  questioning  oc- 
casioned the  composition  of  Gregory's  "Dialogues". 
He  is  also  authority  for  the  statement  that  the  Holy 
Spirit  sometimes  hovered  in  the  form  of  a  dove  over 
the  great  pope's  head. 

Acta  ,SS..  March,  II,  20S-9  ;  Mann,  Lives  of  the  Popes,  I  (St. 
Louia,  1902),  i,  243-44. 

(3)  A  monk  of  Monte  Cassino  known  also  as  Petrus 
Subdiaconus;  d.  c.  960.  He  was  subdeacon  of  the 
church  of  St.  Januarius  at  Naples,  and  he  continued 
the  history  of  this  diocese  (Gesta  episc.  Neap.),  an 
anonymous  work  which  had  already  been  added  to  by 
John  the  Deacon.  He  wTote  the  lives  of  several 
saints,  including,  according  to  some  critics,  that  of 
Athanasius,  Bishop  of  Naples  ("Vita  et  translatio 
Athanasii  ep.  Neap."). 

(4)  Another  monk  of  Monte  Cassino,  also  called 
"the  Librarian"  (Bibliothecarius),  b.  c.  1107  at  Rome; 
d.  probably  c.  1140.  A  descendant  of  the  Counts  of 
Tusculum,  he  was  offered  in  1115  to  the  monastery 
of  Monte  Cassino.  About  1127  he  was  forced  to  leave 
the  abbey  and  retired  to  the  neighbouring  Atina, 
seemingly  because  he  was  an  adherent  of  the  Ab- 
bot Oderisius.  In  1137  he  was  allowed  to  return  to 
Monte  Cassino.  That  same  year  he  appeared  before 
Em]jeror  Lothair  II,  then  in  Italy,  on  behalf  of  his 
monastery.  The  sovereign  was  so  pleased  with  him 
that  he  appointed  him  his  chaplain  and  secretary,  and 
would  probably  have  attached  him  permanently  to 
his  person  had  not  Abbot  Wibald  considered  Peter's 
return  necessary  to  the  abbey.  At  Monte  Cassino 
Peter  became  librarian  and  keeper  of  the  archives,  of 
which  he  compiled  a  register.  Besides  continuing  the 
chronicle  of  Monte  Cassino  by  Leo  Marsicanus  (or 
Ostiensis)  from  1075  to  1138,  he  wrote  several  histori- 
cal works:  "De  viris  illustribus  Casinensibus";  "De 
ortu  et  obitu  ju.storum  Casinensium";  "De  Locis 
Sanctis";  "Disciplina  Casinensis";  "Rhythmus  de 
novissimis  diebus".  Peter  forged,  under  the  name  of 
Gordian,  the  Passion  of  St.  Placidus.  He  is  vain  and 
occasionally  untruthful,  but  an  entertaining  writer. 
His  works  are  in  P.  L.,  CLXXIII,  763-1144. 


PETRUS 


784 


PEUTINGER 


P.  £.,  CLXXIII,  462-80;  Baijani,  Early  Chroniclers  of  Europe, 
Italy  (London.  1883),  174-80;  Mann,  Lives  oflhe  Popes,  VII  (St. 
I^uu,  1910),  218. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Petrus  de  Natalibus,  bishop,  author  of  a  collec- 
tion of  lives  of  the  saints;  date  of  l)irth  unknown;  d. 
between  1400  and  UOti.  No  details  of  the  early  life 
of  this  hagiographer  have  been  handed  down  to  us. 
A  Venetian,  he  consecrated  himself  to  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal state,  becoming  a  canon  in  Equilio  (Jesolo).  On 
5  July,  1370,  he  was  elevated  to  the  episcopal  see  of 
that  city.  Details  are  also  lacking  regarding  his  pas- 
toral activity.  The  last  mention  of  him  refers  to  the 
year  1400,  and  in  140t),  another  appears  as  Bishop  of 
Equilio;  the  date  of  his  decease,  therefore,  must  be 
set  between  these  two  years  (Eubel,  "Hierarchia 
catholica  medii  a;vi",  I,  250).  He  is  chiefly  known  as 
the  author  of  ' '  Legends  of  t  he  Saints ' '  in  twelve  books, 
a  very  valuable  work  with  a  wide  circulation.  In  his 
arrangement  of  the  various  lives  he  follows  the  calen- 
dar of  the  Church.  The  collection,  first  printed  in 
Vicenza,  1493,  went  through  many  editions,  the  last 
of  which  (the  eighth)  appeared  in  Venice,  1616. 

Fabricics,  Bihtiotheca  mediw  et  inJimtB  atatia,  ed.  Mansi,  V,  93; 
Potthast.  Bibliotheca  historica  medii  cevi,  2nd  ed.,  II,  918. 

J.  P.  KiRSCH. 

Petrus  de  Palude.    See  Paltjdanus. 

Petrus  Juliani.    See  John  XXI,  Pope. 

Petun  Nation,  one  of  the  three  great  divisions  of 
the  Huron  Indians,  the  other  two  being  the  Hurons 
proper  and  the  Xeutrals.  What  was  common  to  the 
three  in  name,  country,  population,  government,  re- 
ligion, history,  etc.,  previous  to  their  dispersion  by  the 
Iroquois,  is  to  be  found  under  the  heading  of  Huron 
Indi.\ns.  In  that  article  the  fate  of  the  Neutrals  after 
the  disastrous  event  and  the  migration  of  the  Hurons 
proper  were  treated  in  full.  Seeing  that  the  Petun  or 
Tobacco  Nation,  as  soon  as  their  scattered  remnants 
had  gradually  drifted  together,  became  known  to  the 
English  colonists  as  the  Dionondadies  or  Wyandots, 
which  latter  name  they  bear  exclusively  at  the 
present  day,  what  concerns  their  migrations  in  the 
West  has  been  collected  under  the  article  Wtandot 
Indians. 

Arthur  Edward  Jones. 

Peuerbach  (also  Pecrbach,  Ptjbbach,  Purbach- 
ins),  George  von,  Austrian  astronomer,  b.  at  Peuer- 
bach near  Linz,  30  May,  1423;  d.  in  Vienna,  8  April, 
1461.  His  real  family  name,  as  well  as  his  early 
schooling,  is  unknown.  About  the  year  1440  he  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  master  of  philosophy  and  the  free 
arts,  cum  insigni  laude,  at  the  University  of  Vienna. 
His  teacher  in  mathematics  was  probably  Johann  von 
Gmiinden.  In  1448  he  went  on  a  trip  to  Italy  for  the 
sake  of  study.  There  Bianchini  of  Ferrara  and  Cardi- 
nal Nicholas  of  Cusa,  then  in  Rome,  became  interested 
in  the  young  man  and  induced  him  to  lecture  on  as- 
tronomy at  the  University  of  Ferrara.  He  refused 
offers  of  professorships  at  Bologna  and  Padua,  and  also 
the  appointment  as  court  astronomer  to  King  Ladislaus 
of  Hungary,  but  went  back  to  Vienna  in  1450  to  teach. 
He  lectured  on  philology  and  classical  literature.  His 
scientific  teaching  was  done  chiefly  in  private,  his  most 
famous  pupil  being  Johann  Mtiller  of  Konigsberg, 
later  known  as  Regiomontanus.  Peuerbach  has  been 
called  the  father  of  observational  and  mathematical 
astronomy  in  the  West.  He  began  to  work  up  Ptolemy's 
"Almagest",  replacing  chords  by  sines,  and  calculat- 
ing tables  of  sines  for  every  minute  of  arc  for  a  radius 
of  600,000  units.  This  was  the  first  transition  from 
the  duodecimal  to  the  decimal  system.  His  observa- 
tions were  made  with  very  simple  instruments,  an  ordi- 
nary plumb-line  being  used  for  measuring  the  angles 
of  elevation  of  the  stars.  Cardinal  Bes.sarion  invited 
him  to  Rome  to  study  Ptolemy  in  the  original  Greek 


and  not  from  a  faulty  Latin  translation.  He  ac- 
cepted on  condition  that  Mtiller  go  with  him.  On  ac- 
count of  the  master's  death  the  pupil  went  alone  to 
complete  the  work. 

Peuerbach  is  also  noted  for  his  great  attempt  to 
reconcile  the  opjjosing  theories  of  the  universe,  the 
so-called  homocentric  spheres  of  Eudoxus  and  Aris- 
totle, with  Ptolemy's  epicyelic  trains.  This  work, 
"Theories;,  etc.",  had  an  enormous  success  and  re- 
mained the  basis  of  academic  instruction  in  astronomy 
until  years  after  Copernicus  had  swept  away  all  these 
hypotheses.  Twenty  works  arc  known.  Among  these 
the  following  are  the  most  important:  "Theoricae 
nova>  planetarum,  id  est  septem  errantium  siderum 
nee  non  octavi  seu  firmament! "  (1st  ed.,  Nuremberg, 
1460,  followed  by  many  others  in  Milan  and  Ingol- 
stadt);  "Sex  primi  libri  epitomatis  Alniagesti",  com- 
pleted by  Regiomontanus  (Venice,  1496;  Ba.sle,  1534; 
Nuremberg,  1550);  "Tabulae  eclypsium  super  meri- 
dianoViennensi"  (2nd ed.,  Vienna,  1514);"Quadratum 
geometricum  meridiano"  (Nuremberg,  1516);  "Nova 
tabula  sinus  de  decem  minutis  in  decem  per  multaa, 
etc.",  completed  by  Regiomontanus  (Nuremberg, 
1541). 

Fiedler.  Peuerbach  und  Regiomontanus  in  Jahresbericht  des  K, 
Kathol.  Gymn.  zu  Leobschutz,  L  (1870);  Wolf,  Gesch.  d.  Astr. 
(Munich.  1877) ;  Gunther,  Allg.  Deutsche  Biogr.,  XXV  (Leipzig, 

1887),  559.  William  Fox. 

Peutinger,  Conrad,  antiquarian  and  humanist, 
b.  at  Augsburg,  14  Oct.,  1465;  d.  28  Dec,  1547.  As  a 
young  man  he  studied  law  and  belles-lettres  at  Padua, 
Bologna,  and  Florence.  At  Rome  his  enthusiasm  for 
antiquity  was  awakened.  Returning  to  Germany  he 
entered  the  service  of  his  native  city  in  1490,  receiving 
the  definite  appointment  of  syndic  in  1497.  To  the 
end  of  his  life  he  served  the  city  in  various  capacities 
and  always  with  distinction.  He  enjoyed  the  friend- 
ship and  special  confidence  of  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian, who  frequently  employed  him  on  missions  of 
a  diplomatic  or  literary  nature.  Through  this  friend- 
ship Peutinger  obtained  for  Augsburg  valuable  priv- 
ileges, notably  in  1506  while  he  stayed  with  Maxi- 
milian in  Vienna  and  Hungary,  where  he  took  a  lead- 
ing part  in  the  negotiations  between  the  emperor  and 
his  rebellious  Hungarian  subjects.  In  1512  he  acted 
as  intermediary  between  the  emperor  and  the  Repub- 
Uc  of  Venice.  Moreover,  through  his  connexions  with 
influential  men  in  Germany,  as  well  as  in  Italy  and 
France,  Peutinger  was  able  to  procure  for  his  imperial 
friend  much  valuable  information  concerning  current 
events.  He  was  frequently  occupied  with  furthering 
the  literary  and  artistic  plans  of  his  patron;  thus  he 
had  much  to  do  with  arranging  for  the  designs  and 
wood-cuts  used  in  the  sumptuous  editions  of  Maxi- 
milian's poems  "Weisskunig"and"Teurdank".  After 
the  death  of  Maximihan  (1519)  Peutinger  continued 
to  serve  under  Charles  V.  He  represented  his  native 
city  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  (1521).  Towards  Luther 
his  attitude  was  at  first  entirely  sympathetic,  but  he 
refused  to  break  with  the  Church,  and  maintained  a 
conservative  attitude  which  made  him  an  object  of 
distrust  to  the  adherents  of  the  Reformation.  At  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg  (1,530)  he  presented  the  protest  in 
the  name  of  the  city  against  the  imperial  decree,  but 
when,  in  1534,  it  was  proposed  to  carry  out  the  religious 
innovations  without  regard  to  the  desires  of  the  Cath- 
olic clergy,  Peutinger  advised  against  it,  putting  his 
trust  in  a  plenary  council  to  restore  the  lost  Church 
unity.  His  advice  was  not  heeded,  and  so  he  retired 
with  a  pension  and  henceforth  devoted  himself  almost 
exclusively  to  his  studies.  In  1538  he  was  made  a 
patrician,  and  a  few  days  before  his  death  he  was 
ennobled. 

Of  his  literary  work  only  a  part  has  been  published. 
In  Augsburg  he  had  collected  a  rich  store  of  ancient 
Roman  inscriptions,  the  historical  value  of  which  he 
had  learned  to  reaUze  while  a  student  in  Italy.    At  the 


PEYTO 


785 


PFANNER 


suggestion  of  Maximilian  these  were  published  in  1505 

under  the  title  "Romanas  vetustatis  fragmenta  in 
Augusta  VindeUcorum  et  ejus  dioecesi"  (2nded.,  1520, 
Mainz).  In  the  "Sermones  convivales  de  finibus 
Germania;  contra  Gallos",  which  goes  under  Peu- 
tinger's  name,  the  ancient  boundaries  of  Gaul  and 
Germany  are  discussed.  Peutinger  also  published 
many  important  sources  for  German  history,  among 
them  the  history  of  the  Goths  by  Jordanes,  that  of  the 
Langobards  by  Paulus  Diaconus,  and  the  "Chronicon 
Urspergense"  (see  Ko.vrad  von  Lichtenau),  all  of 
which  appeared  in  1515.  The  famous  "Tabula  Peu- 
tingeriana",  a  thirteenth-century  copy  of  an  old 
Roman  map  of  the  military  roads  of  the  empire,  is 
not  properly  called  after  Peutinger,  to  whom  it  was 
bequeathed  by  its  discoverer,  Conrad  Celtes.  Peu- 
tinger intended  to  publish  it,  but  died  before  he  could 
carry  out  his  plan.  Peutinger's  magnificent  collection 
of  MSS.,  coins,  and  inscriptions  remained  in  his  family 
until  1714,  when  the  last  descendant,  Ignace  Peutinger, 
bequeathed  it  to  the  Jesuits  of  Augsburg.  After  the 
suppression  of  the  order,  part  of  it  went  to  the  town 
library,  and  part  to  Vienna. 

LoTTER.  Historia  vitas  atque  meritOTum  Conradi  Peutingeri 
(1729).  revised  edition  by  Veith  (Augsburg,  1783) ;  Herbebgeh, 
C.  P.  in  seinem  Verhaltnisse  zum  Kaiser  Maximilian  1  (Augsburg, 
1851) :  Geiger,  Renaissance  und  Humanismus  in  Oncken, 
Allgemeine  Weltgeschichte.  II,  8  (Berlin,  1882),  370-372;  Lier  in 
AUgemeine  Deutsche  Biographic,  XXV  (Leipzig,  1887),  561-8. 

Arthur  F.  J.  Remy. 

Peyto  (Peto,  Petow),  William,  cardinal;  d.  1558 
or  1559.  Though  his  parentage  was  long  unknown, 
it  is  now  established  that  he  was  the  son  of  Edward 
Peyto  of  Chesterton,  Warwickshire,  and  Goditha, 
daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Throckmorton  of  Coughton. 
He  was  educated  by  the  Grey  Friars  and  took  his  de- 
gree of  B.  A.  at  Oxford;  but  he  was  incorporated  in 
Cambridge  university,  1.502-3,  and  became  M.  A.  there 
in  1505.  He  was  elected  fellow  of  Queen's  College  in 
1506,  and  on  14  June,  1510,  was  incorporated  M.  A.  at 
O.xford.  Entering  the  Franciscan  Order,  he  became 
known  for  his  holiness  of  life,  and  was  appointed  con- 
fessor to  Princess  Mary.  Later  on  he  was  elected 
Provincial  of  England  and  held  that  office  when  in 
1532  he  denounced  the  divorce  of  Henry  VIII  in  the 
king's  presence.  He  was  imprisoned  till  the  end  of 
that  year,  when  he  went  abroad  and  spent  many  years 
at  Antwerp  and  elsewhere  in  the  Low  Countries,  being 
active  on  behalf  of  all  Catholic  interests.  In  1539  he 
was  included  in  the  Act  of  Attainder  passed  against 
Cardinal  Pole  and  his  friends  (31  Hen.  VIII,  c.  5),  but 
he  was  in  Italy  at  the  time  and  remained  there  out  of 
the  king's  reach.  On  30  March,  1543,  Paul  III  nom- 
inated him  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  He  could  not  obtain 
possession  of  his  diocese,  nor  did  he  attempt  to  do  so, 
on  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary  in  1553,  but  resigned 
the  see  and  retired  to  his  old  convent  at  Greenwich. 
There  he  remained  till  Paul  IV,  who  had  known  him 
in  Rome  and  highly  esteemed  him,  decided  to  create 
him  cardinal  and  legate  in  place  of  Pole.  But  as 
Peyto  was  very  old  and  his  powers  were  failing,  he  de- 
clined both  dignities.  He  was,  however,  created 
cardinal  in  June,  1557,  though  Queen  Mary  would 
not  allow  him  to  receive  the  hat,  and  the  appointment 
was  received  with  public  derision.  It  was  a  tradition 
among  the  Franciscans  that  he  was  pelted  with  stones 
by  a  London  mob,  and  so  injured  that  he  shortly  after- 
wards died  (Parkinson,  op.  cit.  below,  p.  254).  Other 
accounts  represent  him  as  dying  in  France.  The  date 
frequently  assigned  for  his  death  (April,  1558)  is 
incorrect,  as  on  31  October,  1558,  Queen  Mary  wrote 
to  the  pope  that  she  had  offered  to  reinstate  him  in 
the  Bishopric  of  iSalisburv  on  the  derth  of  Bish.op 
Capon,  but  that  he  had  declined  because  of  age  and 
infirmity. 

Cooper,  Athena  Cantabrigienses,  I  (Cambridge.  1858),  giving 
new  particulars  as  to  his  family  and  his  university  career:  Wood. 
AthencE  Oxonienses,  ed.  Buss  (London,  1813-20);    Parkinson, 
XL— 50 


Collectanea  Anglo- Minoritica  (London,  1726);  Dodd,  Church  His- 
tory (Brussels  vere  Wolverhampton,  1737-42) ;  Bbadt,  Episcopal 
Succession,  I,  H  (Rome,  1877) ;  Gasquet,  Henry  VIII  and  the 
Eriglish  Monasteries  (London,  1888);  Gairdner  in  Did.  Nat. 
Biog.,  citing  state  papers,  but  otherwise  an  imperfect  and  defec. 
tive  account;  Gillow  in  Bibl.  Did.  Eng.  Cath.,  a.  v.;  Stone, 
Mary  the  First  (London,  1901) ;  Hajle,  Life  of  Cardinal  Pole  (Lon- 
don, 1910). 

Edwin  Burton. 

Pez  (1)  Bbrnhard,  historian,  b.  22  February,  1683, 
at  Ybbs  near  Melk;  d.  27  March,  1735,  at  Melk,  south- 
ern Austria.  Bernhard  studied  at  Vienna  and  Krems, 
and  in  1699  entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  at 
Melk.  Having  devoted  himself  to  the  classic  lan- 
guages, he  was  made  professor  in  the  monastery  school 
in  1704,  and  in  the  same  year  went  to  the  University 
of  Vienna,  where  he  studied  theology,  and  in  1708, 
was  ordained  priest.  He  now  zealously  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  history,  and  in  1713,  became  li- 
brarian at  Melk.  As  a  model  for  his  historical  works 
he  followed  the  French  Benedictines  of  St.  Maur.  He 
studied  the  archives  of  the  order  at  Melk  and  Vienna, 
and  in  1715-17  he,  with  his  brother  whose  interest  in 
historical  subjects  he  had  excited,  searched  for  manu- 
scripts in  the  Austrian,  Bavarian,  and  Swabian  mon- 
asteries. In  1716  he  published  a  plan  for  a  universal 
Benedictine  library,  in  which  all  the  authors  of  the 
order,  and  their  works,  should  be  catalogued  and  re- 
viewed. He  obtained  from  the  monasteries  of  his 
order  no  less  than  seven  hundred  and  nine  titles. 
He  also  had  friendly  literary  relations  with  Johann 
V.  Eckhart,  Schannat,  Uffenbach,  Schmincke,  AIos- 
heim,  Lunig  etc.  In  1728  he  accompanied  Count  Sin- 
zendorf  to  France,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Montfaucon,  Martene,  Durand,  Le  Texier,  Calmet 
etc.,  and  enriched  his  collection  from  the  libraries  of 
the  order.  His  chief  works  are:  "Thesaurus  anec- 
dotorum  novissimus"  (6  fol.  vol.,  Augsburg,  1721-9), 
a  collection  of  exegetic,  theological,  philosophical,  as- 
cetic, and  historical  literary  sources;  "Bibliotheca 
ascetica"  (12  vols.,  1723-40),  containing  the  sources 
of  ascetic  literature;  "Bibliotheca  Benedictino-Mar- 
uiana"  (1716).  In  a  controversy  with  the  Jesuits  he 
defended  his  order  with  the  "Epistolse  apologeticse 
proOrdineS.  Benedicti",  1716.  In  1725  he  published 
"Homilien  des  Abtes  Gottfried  von  Admont  (1165)", 
in  two  vols.,  and  the  minor  philosophical  works  of 
Abbot  Engelbert  von  Admont.  His  proposed  monu- 
mental work,  "Bibliotheca  Benedictina  Generalis", 
was  never  completed.  His  manuscript  material  is 
partly  made  use  of  in  the  "Historia  rei  Uterarise 
O.S.B."  by  Ziegelbauer-Legipont  (1754).  His  manu- 
scripts are  preserved  at  Melk. 

(2)  HiERONYMUs,  b.  24  February,  1685,  at  Ybbs;  d. 
14  October,  1762,  at  Melk.  In  1703  he  entered  the 
novitiate  at  Melk  and  was  ordained  in  1711.  He  be- 
came a  valuable  assistant  to  his  brother,  after  whose 
death  he  became  librarian.  His  principal  works  are: 
"Scriptores  rerum  Austriacarum",  1721-45,  in  three 
volumes,  a  collection  of  over  one  hundred  sources, 
even  to-day  valuable  for  Austrian  history;  "Acta 
S.  Colomanni"  (1713);  "History  of  St.  Leopold" 
(1746). 

Ziegelbauer-Legipont,  Hist,  rei  lit.  0.  .S.  B.  (Augsburg,  1754), 
I,  446-50,  III,  466-76;  Wubzbach,  Biog.  Lex.  des  Kaiserthums 
Ocsterreich,  XXII  (Vienna,  1870).  145-60;  Krones  in  Allgcm. 
deut.  Biog.  a.  v.;  K.atschthaler,  Ueber  Bernhard  Pez  und  dessen 
Briefwechsel  (Melk.  1889);  Hurter.  Women,  lit.  theologix  catho- 
lica,  3rd  ed..  Ill  (Innsbruck,  1910),  1141-5,  1553. 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Pfanner,  Franz,  abbot,  b.  at  Langen,  Vorarlberg, 
Austria,  1825;  d.  at  Emmaus,  South  Africa,  24  May, 
1909.  In  1850  he  was  ordained  priest  and  was  given 
a  curacy  in  his  nntive  dince.se.  Nine  3'ears  later  he 
was  appointed  an  .Austrian  army  cliajjlain  in  the 
Italian  campaign  against  Napoleon  III,  but  the  war 
was  over  before  he  could  take  up  his  appointment. 
After  serving  as  chaplain  to  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  at 
Agram  for  several  years,  he  went  to  Rome,  and  there 


PFEFFERKORN 


786 


FFISTER 


p:i\v  the  Trappists  for  Ihc  first  time.  Whilst,  waiting 
for  his  bishop  s  permission  to  join  this  order,  he  went 
on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land.  In  November, 
lSt)4,  he  wius  professed  at  the  Trappist  monastery  of 
Marienwald  in  Austria,  and  was  made  sub-prior  a  few 
weeks  later.  He  again  went  to  Rome  in  1866,  where 
he  reorganized  the  well-known  monastery  at  Tre 
Fonlane.  Then  he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  foundation 
in  Turkey.  The  difficulties  seemed  insiiperable,  but 
in  1869  he  was  able  to  open  the  monastery  of  Marias- 
tern  in  Bosnia,  which  was  raised  to  the  status  of  an 
abbey  in  1879.  In  that  year  Bishop  Richards  of  tiie 
Eastern  Vicariate  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  in 
Europe,  seeking  Trappists  to  evangelize  the  Kafirs 
and  to  teach  them  to  work.  When  all  others  had 
declined  the  invitation,  Abbot  PVanz  rcsf)lved  to  re- 
linquish his  settled  abbey  and  face  fresh  difficulties  in 
South  Africa.  At  the  end  of  July,  18S0,  he  arrived 
at  Dunbrody,  the  place  purchased  by  Hisliop  Richards 
for  the  work.  But  on  account  of  the  drought,  winds 
and  baboons,  he  declared  the  site  unsuitable  after  a 
trial  of  several  years.  A\'ith  the  permission  of  Bishop 
Jolivet,  O.M.I.,  of  the  Natal  Vicariate,  he  then  (De- 
cember, 1882)  bought  from  the  Land  Colonization 
Company  a  part  of  the  farm  Zoekoegat,  near  Pine- 
town.  The  fine  monastery  of  Mariannhill  was  built 
here,  and  it  soon  became  t  he  centre  of  a  great  work  of 
civilization.  Finding  the  need  of  a  sisterhood  to  teach 
the  Kafir  girls,  with  characteristic  energy  he  founded 
the  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  who  number  more 
than  .300.  In  1885  Mariannhill  was  created  an  abbey, 
and  Prior  Franz  Pfanner  elected  the  first  mitred  abbot. 
But  in  1893  he  resigned  his  prelacy  and  began  life 
again  in  the  mission  station  of  Emmaus,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death. 

The  missionary  methods  of  Abbot  Franz  and  his 
successors  have  won  the  approval  of  all  those  inter- 
ested in  the  natives  of  South  Africa.  Such  various 
authorities  as  Mark  Twain  and  the  last  Prime  Minis- 
ter of  the  Cape  have  spoken  enthusiastically  of  the 
work.  It  has  prospered  exceedingly.  At  the  date 
of  Abbot  Franz's  death  there  were  55  priests,  223  lay- 
brothers  and  326  nuns  working  in  42  mission  stations 
among  the  natives.  Only  a  few  months  before  Abbot 
Franz's  death  the  Holy  See,  at  the  petition  of  the 
Trappists  of  Mariannhill,  made  a  considerable  change 
in  their  status.  The  Cistercian  Rule  in  its  rigour,  for 
which  Abbot  Pfanner  was  most  zealous,  was  found 
to  be  an  ob.stacle  to  missionary  development  in  some 
particulars.  Hence  the  name  of  the  order  was  changed 
to  that  of  the  Missionary  Religious  of  Mariannhill, 
and  they  were  given  a  milder  rule  on  a  three  years' 
trial,  after  which  the  whole  subject  will  again  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  judgment  of  the  Holy  See. 
For  bibliography,  see  Mabiannhill. 

Sidney  R.  Welch. 

PfeSerkom,  Johannes,  a  baptized  Jew,  b.  prob- 
ably at  Nuremberg,  1469;  d.  at  Cologne,  between 
1521  and  1524.  In  1505,  after  many  years  of  wander- 
ing, he,  together  with  his  wife  and  children,  was  con- 
verted to  Christianity  at  Cologne.  He  soon  became 
known  through  his  efforts  for  the  conversion  of  the 
Jews  and  his  controversy  with  Reuchlin.  In  "Der 
Judenspiegel "  (Cologne,  1507),  he  demanded  that  the 
Jews  should  give  up  the  practice  of  usury,  work  for 
their  hving,  attend  Christian  sermons,  and  do  away 
with  the  Books  of  the  Talmud,  which  caused  such 
hatred  against  Christianity.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
condemned  the  persecution  of  the  Jews  as  an  obstacle 
to  their  conversion,  and  defended  them  against  the 
charge  of  murdering  Christian  children  for  ritual  pur- 
po.ses.  Bitterly  opposed  by  the  Jews  on  account  of  this 
work,  he  \arulently  attacked  them  in :  "  Wie  die  blinden 
Jiiden  ihr  Ostem  halten"  0.508);  "  Judenbeicht" 
(1508) ;  and  "  Judenfeind  "  (1.509).  Convinced  that  the 
principal  source  of  the  obduracy  of  the  Jews  lay  in  their 


books,  he  tried  to  have  them  seized  and  destroyed.  He 
obtained  from  several  Dominican  convents  recommen- 
dations to  Kunigunde,  I  lie  sister  of  the  Kmpcror  Maxi- 
milian, and  through  hrr  iiilluence  to  tlic  cniiicnir  him- 
self. On  19  August,  l.")()'.t,  Maximilian  ordered  the 
Jews  to  deliver  to  Pfetferkorn  all  books  opposing 
Christianity.  Pfefferkorn  began  the  work  of  confisca- 
tion at  Frankfort-on-t he-Main;  thence  he  went  to 
Worms,  Mainz,  Bmgen,  l.onh,  Lahnstein,  and  Deutz. 
But  a  new  imperial  maiulate  of  10  Nov.,  1509,  gave 
the  direction  of  tlie  whole  affair  to  the  Elector  and 
Archbishop  of  Mainz,  LTriel  von  Gemmingen,  with 
orders  to  secure  opinions  from  the  L^niversities  of 
Mainz,  Cologne,  Erfurt,  and  Heidelberg,  from  the  in- 
quisitor Jakob  Hochstraten  of  Cologne,  from  the 
priest  Victor  von  Carben,  and  from  Joliann  Reuchlin. 
Pfefferkorn,  in  order  to  vindicate  his  act  ion  and  to  gain 
still  further  the  good  will  of  the  cmixTor,  wrote  "In 
Lob  und  Eer  dem  allcrdurclilcuchligsten  gross- 
mechtigsten  Ftirsten  und  Herrn  Maximilian"  (Co- 
logne, 1510).  In  April  he  was  again  at  Frankfort,  and 
with  the  delegate  of  the  Elector  of  Mainz  and  Pro- 
fessor Hermann  Ortlieb,  he  undertook  a  new  confisca- 
tion. 

Hochstraten  and  the  Universities  of  Mainz  and 
Cologne  decided  (Oct.,  1510)  against  the  Jewish  books. 
Reuchlin  declared  that  only  those  books  obviously 
offensive  (as  the  "Nizachon"  and  "Toldoth  Jeschu") 
should  be  destroyed.  The  elector  sent  all  the  answers 
received  at  the  end  of  October  to  the  emperor  through 
Pfefferkorn.  Thus  informed  of  Reuchlin's  vote 
Pfefferkorn  was  greatlj-  excited,  and  answered  with 
" Hand.spiegel "  (Mainz,  1511),  in  which  he  attacked 
Reuchlin  unmercifully.  Reuchlin  complained  to  the 
Emperor  Maximilian,  and  he  answered  Pfefferkorn's 
attack  with  his  "Augenspiegel",  against  which 
Pfefferkorn  published  his  "Brand.spiegel".  In  June, 
1513,  both  parties  were  silenced  by  the  emperor. 
Pfefferkorn  however  published  in  1514  a  new  polemic, 
"Sturmglock",  against  both  the  Jews  and  Reuchlin. 
During  the  controversy  between  Reuchlin  and  the 
theologians  of  Cologne,  Pfefferkorn  was  assailed  in  the 
"Epistote  obscurorum  virorum"  by  the  young  Hu- 
manists who  espoused  Reuchlin's  cause.  He  re- 
plied with  "Beschirmung",  or  "Defensio  J.  Peperi- 
corni  contra  famosaset  criminales  obscurorum  virorum 
epistolas"  (Cologne,  1516),  "Streitbiichlein"  (1517). 
When  in  1520  Reuchlin's  case  was  decided  in  Rome 
by  the  condemnation  of  "Augenspiegel",  PfefTerkorn 
wrote  as  an  expression  of  his  triumph  "Ein  mitleid- 
liche  Klag"  (Cologne,  1521).  PfefTerkorn  was  a 
fanatic  and  his  pubUc  and  literary  life  had  little  of 
sympathy  or  grace,  but  he  was  certainly  an  honour- 
able character  and  the  caricature  which  his  opponents 
have  drawn  of  him  is  far  from  true. 

Geiger,  Pfefferkorn  in  Jiidische  Zeilschrifi  ftlr  Wissenscha/l 
und  Leben.  VH  (1869),  293-307;  Idem,  Joh.  Reuchlin  (Leipzig. 
1871),  209-454;  Idem,  Der  Kampf  gegen  die  Backer  der  Juden  am 
Anfange  des  16.  Jahrhunderts  in  seiner  Beziehung  auf  Frankfurt  in 
ArchivfUr  Frankfurts  Geschichte  und  Kunst,  new  series,  IV  (1869). 
208-17;  Roth.  Der  Kampf  um  die  JudenbUcher  und  Reuchlin  ror 
der  theologischen  FakuUdt  zu  Maim  1B09-I51S  in  Der  Katholik.  II 
(1909),  4th  series.  XL,  139-44;  Janssen,  Geschichte  des  deulschen 
Volkes.  II  (Freiburg,  1897),  43  eq. 

Feiedeich  Lauchert. 

Pfister,  Adolf,  educationist,  b.  at  Hechingen  in 
Hohenzollern,  26  Sept.,  1810;  d.  at  Ober-Dischingen 
in  Wtirtemberg,  29  April,  1878.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Latin  school  at  Hechingen,  at  the  Lj'ceum  of 
Rastatt,  and  later  at  Sasbach.  He  then  studied 
theology  at  the  Grand  Seminary  of  Strasburg,  and 
was  ordained  to  the  priesthood,  25  May,  1833,  at 
Freiburg.  After  serving  for  five  months  as  curate  at 
Sasbach,  and  for  a  year  as  assistant  at  the  cathedral 
of  Freiburg,  he  returned  to  Hohenzollern,  and,  from 
1835  to  1838,  was  curate  at  Steinhofen  near  Hechin- 
gen. In  1838  he  obtained  civic  rights  in  Wiirtem- 
berg,  and  as  a  priest  of  the  Diocese  of  Rottenburg, 


PFLUG 


787 


PFLUG 


he  was  pastor  first  in  Dottenihausen;  31  Jan.,  1839, 
at  Rosswangen;  11  May,  1841,  at  Risstissen;  from 
1851  also  school  inspector  in  Ehingen.  On  12  Aug., 
1867,  the  Catholic  theological  faculty  of  Tubingen 
granted  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology.  In 
May,  1877,  he  withdrew  to  Ober-Dischingen.  In 
1857  he  founded  the  "Rottenburger  Kirchenblatt", 
which  he  publiBhed  for  thrre  years.  From  1860  he 
edited  the  "  Katlicili.^rlics  Sdiulwciclienblatt"  Spaich- 
ingen),  which,  tot^i'tluT  with  llcnnann  Rolfus,  he  con- 
tinued as  "Suddeutschcs  kalhuUsches  Schulwochen- 
blatt"  (1861-67),  and  with  J.  Haugand  Fr.  J.  Knecht 
as  "Magazin  fiir  Padagogik"  (1868-72).  But  his 
most  valuable  work  was  the  editing  with  Rolfus  of 
the  "  Real-Encyclopadie  des  Erziehungs-  und  Unter- 
richtswesens  nach  katholischen  Principieu"  (4  vols., 
Mainz,  1863-66;  2nd  ed.,  1872  1S74;  a  5th  vol., 
"Erganzungsband",  was  published  by  Rolfus  alone 
in  1884  after  Pfister's  death).  Among  Pfister's  other 
writings  may  be  mentioned:  "TJnterricht  iiber  das 
Werk  der  Glaubensverbteitung"  (Freiburg,  1850);  a 
German  translation  of  Thomas  a  Kcmpis,  "  Vier 
Bucher  von  der  Nachfolge  Christi"  (Freiburg,  1860; 
4th ed.,  1873); and " Kinderlegende "  (Freiburg,  1863); 
he  also  compiled  several  prayer-books. 

RoLFOa  AND  PFlsTin,  i:,.,l-r'  ,  irlr.p.uUf  ,1,'s  Er:!,  hun.js-  und 
UnterriMswesens.  F.  Mini/.   Issn.  L'l,:,  7;   Ktn- 

REIN,  Biographiscli-h  !  <'  I  ■  it.m  ,l,r  l.,i!hnli  ,  h'-n  ilnU- 
schen  Dichter,  Volks- un.l  J ...,,  „.^  , :.,  ,ii,;-Urr  ,m  l:i,  J,ihrhun,i,-rt,n 
(Wurzburg,  1871),  U;  .\Kiitit,  t-',  i ^„ii,U-Kat,ih„i  ,l,r  (,,  ,.w/icA.  n  ,les 
Bisthums  RoUtnburu  (3ri.l  e.l.,  Scliwaljiacli  Guitiiul,  1S',I4),  54. 

Friederich  Lauchert. 

Pflug,  Julius  von,  last  Catholic  Bishop  of  Naum- 
burg-Zeitz,  b.  at  Eythra,  near  Leipzig,  1499;  d.  at 
Zeitz,  3  Sept.,  1564.  He  was  the  son  of  Cu'sar  von 
Pflug,  who  acted  as  commissary  for  the  Elector  of 
Saxony  in  the  religious  disputation  at  Leipzig  in  1519. 
Julius  entered  college  at  l^eipzig,  when  only  eleven 
-  years  of  age,  continued  his  studies  at  Padua,  and 
finished  them  in  1521  at  Bologna,  obtaining  the  de- 
gree of  Doctor  of  Laws.  At  Leipzig  he  was  the  pupil 
of  Peter  Mosellanus,  and  at  Padua  of  Lazaro  Buona- 
mico.  He  had  received  benefices  at  Mainz  and 
Merseburg,  and  on  his  return  was  made  dean  of  the 
cathedral  of  Meissen  and  provost  at  the  collegiate 
church  of  Zeitz.  The  times  in  which  he  lived  were 
full  of  troubles;  Luther  and  his  adherents  were  using 
every  energy  in  spreading  their  religious  views,  and 
were  supported  in  their  work  by  the  civil  power. 
Pflug  himself  had  received  an  education  in  accordance 
with  the  humanistic  ideals  then  prevalent,  while  his 
theological  knowledge,  mostly  self-acquired,  was  not 
very  profound.  He  was  gifted  with  rare  diplomatic 
talents,  and,  being  naturally  inclined  to  peace  and 
harmony,  he  was  willing  to  make  sacrifices  even  in 
matters  of  doctrine  ami  discipline.  Hence  his  presence 
was  requested  for  nearly  every  theological  conference 
held  for  the  purpose  of  finding  some  lines  of  conform- 
ity in  doctrine  between  the  Catholics  and  Evangelicals. 
Thus  we  find  him  engaged  at  Leipzig  in  1534,  together 
with  Behus  and  Tiirk  against  Melanchthon  and  Briick. 
In  1539  he  was  similarly  employed  by  the  Bishop  of 
Meissen  when  the  Elector  of  Saxony  was  introducing 
Protestantism  into  this  diocese.  It  seems  that,  by 
order  of  the  bishop,  Pflug  and  Wicel  composed  a  trea- 
tise giving  four  articles  of  belief,  "  which  every  Chris- 
tian is  bound  to  accept".  This  produced  no  j^acifying 
effect,  nor  did  the  personal  interview  between  the 
elector  and  Pflug,  but  rather  brought  al)out  Pflug's 
loss  of  favour  with  John  Frederick  of  Saxony. 

On  6  January,  1541,  Philip,  Bishop  of  Naumburg, 
died  at  Freising,  and  ten  tlays  later  the  chapter  re- 
ceived the  news.  Dreading  the  interference  of  the 
elector,  the  chapter  ordered  the  occupation  of  the 
palace  at  Zeitz  which  held  the  treasures  of  the  diocese, 
and  on  the  twentieth  of  the  same  month  proceeded  to 
the  election  of  a  successor,  at  which  Pflug  was  the 


unanimous  choice.  The  apprehensions  of  the  chapter 
were  entirely  justified,  for  John  Frederick  had  deter- 
mined to  fill  any  vacancy  and  give  no  chance  for  an 
election.  Pflug  was  at  the  time  with  Cardinal  Al- 
brecht  of  Mainz  whose  position  brought  him  into  close 
contact  with  the  emperor.  Pflug  was  informed  of  his 
election,  and  was  earnestly  requested  not  to  refuse 
acceptance.  At  the  imperial  court  he  was  considered 
the  proper  person  to  defend  the  independence  of  the 
diocese  even  against  the  elector.  John  Frederick  re- 
ceived notice  of  the  death  of  Philip  on  23  January,  and 
on  the  next  day  news  of  the  election.  He  would  not 
permit  Pflug  to  take  possession,  and  immediately 
issued  orders  to  the  city  council  that,  until  further 
orders,  no  allegiance  be  offered  the  new  bishop.  In 
the  following  year,  on  20  January,  he  ordered  Luther 
to  ordain  Nicholas  von  Amsdorf  as  Bishop  of  Naum- 
burg. In  the  meantime  Pflug  was  employed  to 
further  the  reformatory  projects  of  the  emperor,  and 
appeared  in  April,  1541,  at  the  religious  colloquy  at 
Ratisbon.  The  book  published  at  this  meeting  and 
the  imperial  edict  of  29  June,  1541,  called  the  Interim 
of  Ratisbon,  gave  little  satisfaction  to  either  party: 
Luther  and  the  elector  wanted  larger  concessions, 
while  the  Catholics  claimed  that  too  much  had  been 
granted.  Pflug  and  Cropper  tried  to  justify  them- 
selves in  a  iianiplilet.  After  the  victory  of  MVihldorf, 
24  April,  1547,  over  the  comliined  forces  of  the  Smal- 
kaldic  League,  Pflug  was  able  to  enter  his  diocese, 
which  had  become  almost  entirely  Protestant.  He 
did  his  best  tc  bring  back  the  people  to  the  Catholic 
faith,  but  in  vain.  He  was  permitted  to  hold  Catholic 
service  only  in  the  cathedral  of  Naumlnirg  and  in  the 
collegiate  church  at  Zeitz ;  the  monasteries  and  their 
property  remained  secularized.  He  removed  the 
Evangelical  preachers  from  some  of  the  churches,  but 
the  civil  authorities  restored  them  to  their  positions. 
In  1549  he  called  the  pastors  to  Zeitz  to  find  out 
their  qualifications.  He  found  a  sad  condition  of 
affairs:  all  the  priests  were  married  with  one  excep- 
tion, and  willing  rather  to  lose  their  pastorates  than 
to  give  up  their  wives.  He  applied  to  other  bishops  to 
obtain  unmarried  priests,  but  they  were  unable  to 
assist  him,  and  thus  he  reported  to  Pope  Julius  III. 
Under  this  pressure  he  had  a  petition  drawn  up  to  the 
Cardinals  Mendoza  and  Pole  asking  the  toleration  of 
married  priests,  though  personally  he  preferred  the 
unmarried  clergy.  Similarly  he  had  on  a  former 
occasion  expressed  his  opinion  that  many  wavering 
minds  might  be  kept  in  commimion  with  the  Church  if 
the  Holy  Eucharist  were  administered  to  the  laity 
under  both  species.  His  plan  to  establish  a  Catholic 
etiucational  institution  for  aspirants  to  the  clerical 
state  failed,  but  he  assisted  students  at  Catholic 
colleges  out  of  his  own  scanty  income.  He  no  longer 
expected  any  good  results  from  disputations  w-ith  the 
Protestants,  though  he  was  present  in  December, 
1547,  at  Jiiterbogk  and  in  August,  1548,  at  Pegau, 
and  assisted  in  framing  the  Interim  of  Augsburg. 
In  November,  1551,  he  made  his  appearance  at  the 
Council  of  Trent,  but  on  account  of  ill-health  remained 
only  a  short  time.  In  1553  the  elector  introduced  a 
Protestant  consistory  into  Zeitz,  and  gave  the  cathe- 
dral of  Naumburg  to  the  common  use  of  Catholics  and 
Protestants.  In  1559  Pflug  expressed  a  desire  for  a 
coadjutor  with  the  right  of  succession,  and  in  1561  he 
wished  to  resign  in  favour  of  Peter  von  Naumark, 
dean  of  the  cathedral,  but  received  no  answer.  For 
the  temporal  welfare  of  his  diocese  he  made  many  use- 
ful regulations,  lightened  the  burdens  of  the  people 
after  the  ravages  of  the  war,  ordered  the  highways  and 
forests  to  be  cleared  of  the  prowling  bands  of  rolibers, 
and  regulated  the  wages  and  time  of  labour.  Though 
Pflug  has  been  accused  of  crypto-Lutheranism,  no 
charges  have  ever  been  made  against  his  priestly 
character.  After  death  he  was  buried  in  his  church 
at  Zeitz.    He  wrote  many  treatises  in  Latin  and 


PFORTA 


788 


PHARAO 


German  on  theological  and  kindred  subjects.  Their 
titles  may  be  found  in  Ersch  und  Grubcr,  S  Scot . ,  XX I , 
251.  In  the  same  work  there  is  a  biography  from  a 
Catholic  standpoint,  and  another  from  a  Protestant 
view.  Some  115  letters  of  his  are  in  the  "  Epistolse 
Petri  Mosellani  ...  ad  Julium  Pflugium"  (ed. 
Mijller,  Leipzig,   1802). 

Weber  in  Kirchenlcs.:  Allgem.  Deutsche  Biogr.;  Pastor,  Die 
kirchl.  ReunionsbfstrebuTrgen  wahrend  dcr  Regicruno  Karla  V 
(Freiburg.  1879);  Janssen,  Gesch.  des  deutschen  Volkea,  III,  5, 
459  seq.;  IV,  25, 152;  Hoffmann,  Nauinburg  im  Zeitalter  der  Re- 
lormatian  (Leipzig,  1901):  Hdrter,  Nomenclator. 

Francis  Mershman. 

Pforta,  a  former  Cisterciiin  monastery  (1137- 
1540),  near  Naumburg  on  the  Saale  in  the  Prussian 
proviiKT  of  Saxony.  The  monastery  was  at  first 
situated  in  Schmolln  on  the  Sprotta,  near  Altenburg. 
Count  Bruno  of  Pleissengau  founded  there,  in  1127, 
a  Benedictine  monastery  and  endowed  it  with  110() 
"hides"  of  land.  This  foundation  not  being  success- 
ful, Bishop  Udo  I  of  Naumburg,  a  relative  of  Bruno, 
on  23  April,  1132,  replaced  the  Benedictines  by  Cis- 
tercian monks  from  the  monastery  of  Walkenried. 
The  situation  here  proved  undesirable,  and  in  1137 
Udo  transferred  the  monastery  to  Pforta,  and  con- 
ferred upon  it  50  hides  of  arable  land,  an  important 
tract  of  forest,  and  two  farms  belonging  to  the  diocese. 
For  this  fact  we  have  Udo's  own  statement  in  a 
proclamation  of  1140.  The  place  was  called  Pforta 
(Porta)  on  account  of  its  location  in  the  narrow  valley 
which  was  the  entrance  into  Thuringia.  The  patron- 
ess of  the  abbey  was  Our  Lady,  and  the  first  abbot, 
Adalbert,  1132-1152.  Under  the  third  abbot,  Ade- 
lold,  two  convents  were  founded  from  it,  in  the  Mark 
of  Meissen  and  in  Silesia,  and  in  1163,  Alt-Celle  and 
Leubus  (q.  v.)  were  also  established  in  the  latter 
pro\-ince.  At  this  period  the  monks  numbered  about 
eighty.  In  1205  Pforta  sent  a  colony  of  monks  to 
Livonia,  founding  there  the  monastery  of  Dtinamiinde. 
The  abbey  was  distinguished  for  its  excellent  system 
of  management,  and  after  the  first  140  years  of  its 
existence  its  possessions  had  increased  tenfold.  Little 
is  known  regarding  the  spiritual  hfe  of  the  abbey,  as 
the  monks  left  no  chronicles.  At  the  end  of  the  thir- 
teenth and  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
though  a  period  of  strife,  the  monastery  flourished 
with  redoubled  vigour.  The  last  quarter  of  the  four- 
teenth century  witnessed,  however,  the  gradual  de- 
cline of  its  prosperity,  and  also  the  relaxation  of 
monastic  discipline.  \\Tien  Abbot  Johannes  IV  was 
elected  in  1515,  there  were  forty-two  monks  and  seven 
lay  brothers  who  later  revolted  against  the  abbot; 
an  inspection  which  Duke  George  of  Saxony  caused 
to  be  made  revealed  the  fact  that  morality  had  ceased 
to  exist  in  the  monastery.  The  last  Abbot,  Peter 
Schederich,  was  elected  in  1533.  When  the  Catholic 
Duke  George  was  succeeded  by  his  Protestant  brother 
Henrj',  the  monastery  was  suppressed  (9  November, 
1540),  the  abbot,  eleven  monks,  and  four  lay  brothers 
being  pensioned.  In  1.543,  Duke  Moritz  opened  a 
national  school  in  the  abbey,  appropriating  for  its 
use  the  revenues  of  the  suppressed  monastery  of 
Memleben.  At  first  the  number  of  scholars  was  100, 
in  1563  fifty  more  were  able  to  be  accommodated. 
The  first  rector  was  Johann  Gigas,  renowned  as  a 
lyric  poet.  Under  .lustinus  Bertuch  (1601-1626)  the 
school  attained  the  zenith  of  its  prosperity.  It  suf- 
fered greatly  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  in  1643, 
there  being  only  eleven  scholars.  Among  its  pupils 
may  be  mentioned  the  poet,  Klopstock,  and  the 
philosopher,  Fichte.  Since  1815  Pforta  belongs  to 
Prussia,  and  even  at  the  present  day  the  school  is 
held  in  high  esteem.  The  church  was  built  in  the 
thirteenth  century;  it  is  a  cross- vaulted,  colonnaded 
basilica  with  an  extraordinarily  long  nave,  a  peculiar 
western  facade,  and  a  late  Romanesque  double-naved 
cloister.      What   remains   of   the   original   building 


(1137-40)   is  in  .the  Romanesque  ffiyle,   while  the 

restoration  (1251-126S)  brl.mir^  to  the  erirly  Gothic. 

Woi-FF,  CAroni*  des  A7«.'.       /'         .  I,  11     1      r/ic,  lK4:)-48); 

CoRSSEN,  AUertiimer  und  A v     -       '  "  !>  imrrklostert 

SI.  Maricnundder  Landess<li<n<  :,  /  '.  lliin,  l^^,,^):l^oEI^ME 
Pforle  in  seiner  kullurae^thuiiUu  li>  u  liiumiunu  n-nhrend  dea  ts\ 
und  13.  Jahrhunderts  (Halle,  ISbb);  Urkutidcnbuch  des  Klostera 
PfoHe  bearb.  von  Bochme,  1  (Halle,  lS9.i-1904). 

Klemens  Loffler. 

Phacusa,  titular  see  and  suffragan  of  Pelusium,  in 
Augustamnica  Prima.     Ptolemy  (IV,  v,  24)  makes  it 
the  suffragan  of  the  nomos  of  Aral)ia  in  Lower  Egypt;        i; 
Strabo  (XVII,  i,  26)  places  I'liaeusa  at  the  beginning        ■ 
of  the  canal  which  emjjties  iuto  the  Red  Sea;  it  is  de-        I 
scribed  also  by  Peutinger's  Taljle  under  the  name  of        I 
Phacussi,  and  by  the"  Anonymus"  of  Ravenna  (130),        I 
under  Phagusa.    In  the  list  of  the  partisan  bishops  of        P 
Meletius  present  at  the  Council  of  Nica^a  in  325  may  be 
found  Moses  of  Phacusa  (Athanasius,  "Apologia  con- 
tra Arian.",  71);  he  is  the  only  titular  we  know  of. 
Ordinarily,  Phacusa  is  identified  with  the  modern  Tell-        vi 
Fakus;  Brugsch  and  Navilla,  in  "Go.shen  and  the 
Shrine  of  Saft  el-Henneh''  (London,  1885),  place  it  at 
Saft  about  twelve  miles  from  there. 

Roug£,  Geographie  ancienne  de  la  Basse  Egypte  (Paris,  1891), 
137-39.  S.   VAILHfi. 

Pbalansterianism.    See  Communion;  Socialism. 

Pharao  (""*;,  Par'o,  or,  after  a  vowel,  Phar'o; 
Gr.  'tapaui;  Lat.  Pharao),  the  title  given  in  Sacred 
Scripture  to  the  ancient  kings  of  Egypt.  The  term 
is  derived  from  the  Egyptian  Per'o,  "great  house", 
which  originally  designated  the  royal  palace,  but  was 
gradually  applied  to  the  Government  and  then  to  the 
ruler  himself,  like  the  Vatican  and  the  Quirinal,  for 
instance,  in  modern  times.  At  the  period  of  the 
eighteenth  dynasty  (sixteenth  to  fourteenth  cent. 
B.  c.)  it  is  found  in  common  use  as  a  reverential  desig- 
nation of  the  king.  About  the  beginning  of  the  twenty- 
second  dynasty  (tenth  to  eighth  cent.  B.  c),  instead 
of  being  used  alone  as  heretofore,  it  began  to  be  added 
to  the  other  titles  before  the  king's  name,  and  from 
the  twenty-fifth  dynasty  (eighth  to  seventh  cent. 
B.  c.)  it  was,  at  least  in  ordinary  usage,  the  only  title 
prefixed  to  the  royal  appellative.  Meanwhile  the  old 
custom  of  referring  to  the  sovereign  simply  as  Per'o 
still  obtained  in  narratives.  The  Biblical  use  of  the 
term  reflects  Egyptian  usage  with  fair  accuracy.  The 
early  kings  are  always  mentioned  under  the  gen- 
eral title  Pharao,  or  Pharao  the  King  of  Egypt;  but 
personal  names  begin  to  appear  with  the  twenty- 
second  dynasty,  though  the  older  designation  is  still 
used,  especially  when  contemporary  rulers  are  spoken 
of.  The  absence  of  proper  names  in  the  first  books 
of  the  Bible  is  no  indication  of  the  late  date  of  their 
composition  and  of  writer's  vague  knowledge  of 
Egyptian  history,  rather  the  contrary.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  use  of  the  title  Pharao  for  kings  eariier 
than  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  which  is  quite  in  keeping 
with  Egj-ptian  usage  at  the  time  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty. 

The  first  king  mentioned  by  name  is  Sesac  (She- 
shonk  I),  the  founder  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty 
and  contemporary  of  Roboam  and  Jeroboam  (III 
Kings,  xi,  40;  II  Par.,  xii,  2  sqq.).  Pharao  is  not 
prefixed  to  his  name  probably  because  the  Hebrews 
had  not  yet  become  familiarized  with  the  new  style. 
The  next.  Sua,  or  So,  ally  of  Osee,  King  of  Israel  (IV 
Kings,  xvii,  4),  is  commonly  identified  with  Shabaka, 
the  founder  of  the  twenty-fifth  dynasty,  but  he  was 
probably  an  otherwise  unknown  local  dynast  prior  to 
Shabaka's  reign.  Winckler's  opinion  that  he  was  a 
ruler  of  Musri  in  North  Arabia,  though  accepted  by 
many,  is  without  sufficient  foundation.  Tharaca,  who 
was  the  opponent  of  Sennacherib,  is  called  King  of 
Ethiopia  (IV  Kings,  xix,  9;  Is.,  xxxvii,  9),  and  hence 
is  not  given  the  title  Pharao  which  he  bears  in  Egyp-  *~ 
tian  documents.     Nechao,  who  defeated  Josias  (IV 


PHABBJETUS 


789 


PHARISEES 


Kings,  xxiii,  29  sqq.;  II  Par.,  xxxv,  20  sqq.),  and 
Ephree,  or  Hophra,  the  contemporary  of  Sedecias 
(Jer.,  xliv,  30),  are  styled  Pharao  Nechao  and  Pharao 
Ephree,  according  to  tlie  then  Egyptian  usage. 

Unnamed  Fharaos  of  the  Bible.  (1)  The  Pharao  of 
Abraham. — Tlie  uncertainties  attaching  to  ancient 
chronology  make  it  impossible  to  determine  the  iden- 
tity of  the  Pharao  who  ruled  over  Egypt  when  Abra- 
ham arrived  in  the  country.  The  Massoretic  text  gives 
1125  years  between  Abraham's  migration  to  Chanaan 
and  the  building  of  the  temple,  whereas  the  Septua- 
gint  allows  870  (see  Chronology)  .  As  the  building  is 
placed  about  1010  b.  c.  by  some  scholars,  and  about 
969  B.  c.  by  others,  the  date  of  Abraham's  migration 
would  be  21.35  or  2094  b.  c.  for  the  iSIassoretic  text, 
and  1880  or  1839  b.  c.  for  the  Septuagint.  Ancient 
Egyptian  chronology  is  as  uncertain  as  that  of  the 
Bible.  If  Meyer's  dates,  adopted  in  the  article  Egypt, 
are  correct,  Abraham's  journey  to  Egypt  would  have 
to  be  referred  to  the  reign  of  one  of  the  Mentuhoteps 
of  the  eleventh  dynasty,  or  to  that  of  either  Usertesen 
(Sesostris)  III,  or  Amenemhet  III  of  the  twelfth.  (2) 
The  Pharao  of  Joseph. — It  is  generally  admitted  that 
Joseph  held  office  under  one  of  the  shepherd,  or 
Hyksos,  kings,  who  ruled  in  Egypt  between  the 
twelfth  and  eighteenth  dj'nasties,  and  were  finally 
expelled  by  Ahmose  I  shortly  after  1580.  The  length 
of  their  rule  is  unknown,  but  probably  it  did  not  last 
much  over  a  hundred  years.  Joseph's  tenure  of  office 
would  accordingly  be  placed  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury B.  c.  If  the  Exodus  took  place  at  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Merneptah,  i.  e.,  about  1225,  as  most 
scholars  now  maintain,  and  the  sojourn  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  Egypt  lasted  430  years,  as  stated  in  the  Masso- 
retic text  (Ex.,  xii,  40),  the  time  would  be  about  1665. 
The  names  of  four  Hyksos  kings  are  known  to  us  from 
Egyptian  monuments,  a  Khian  and  three  Apophises. 
George  Syncellus  states  that  in  his  time  (eighth 
cent.  A.  D.)  there  was  a  general  consensus  that  the 
Pharao  of  Joseph  was  Apophis,  probably  Apophis  II, 
the  most  important  of  the  three.  This  opinion  is 
possibly  true,  but  the  history  of  the  period  is  too 
obscure  to  allow  a  definite  statement. 

(3)  The  Pharao  of  the  Oppression  and  of  the  Exo- 
dus.    (See  Israelites.) 

(4)  The  other  Pharaos. — The  Pharao  with  whom 
Adad  sought  refuge  in  the  time  of  David  (III  Kings, 
xi,  17)  was  a  king  of  the  twenty-first  dynasty,  ei- 
ther Paynozem  or  Amenemopet.  Solomon's  father- 
in-law  (III  Kings,  iii,  1)  may  have  been  Amenemopet, 
Siamon,  or  Pesibkhenno  II.  The  Pharao  mentioned 
in  IV  Kings,  xviii,  21  and  Is.,  xxxvi,  6  is  by  many 
thought  to  be  Tharaca;  but  if  the  exTJedition  of  Sen- 
nacherib occurred  in  701,  as  is  generally  held,  there 
is  little  doubt  that  Shabaka,  or  possibly  Shabataka, 
is  the  Pharao  referred  to.  Tharaca  came  to  the  throne 
some  years  later,  and  the  title  King  of  Ethiopia  (IV 
Kings,  xix,  9;  Is.,  xxxvii,  9)  is  given  to  him  by  antici- 
pation. The  unnamed  Pharao  of  Jer.,xxv,  19, is  prob- 
ably Nechao,  who  is  certainly  meant  in  xlvi,  17,  and 
xlvii,  1 ;  elsewhere  Ephree  is  intended.  The  latter  is 
also  the  Pharao  of  Ezechiel. 

Ses  the  literature  mentioned  under  the  articles  to  which  refer- 
ence has  been  made.  F.  BecHTBL. 

Pharbaetus,  titular  see  and  suffragan  of  Leontop- 
olis,  in  Augustamnica  Secunda.  This  name  is  merely 
the  transcription,  with  the  Coptic  article  P,  of  the 
native  name  Harbail  or  Harbet,  a  name  which  is 
moreover  reproduced  under  the  form  Kip^evdos  in 
George  of  Cvprus  ("Descriptio  orbis  romani",  ed. 
Gelzer,  706)."  It  is  the  capital  of  the  nome  of  this 
name  in  Lower  Egypt  described  by  Herodotus  (II, 
166);  Strabo,  XVII,  i,  20;  Pliny,  V,  9,  11.  There  is  a 
record  of  Bishop  Arbetion  at  Nicica  in  325  (Gelzer, 
"Patrum  nicaenorum  nomina",  LX),  and  Bishop 
Theodorus  in   1086    (llenaudot,   "Historia  patriar- 


charum  alexandrinorum",  458),  but  it  is  possible  that 
the  latter  was  bishop  of  another  Pharbsetus  situated 
further  to  the  west,  and  which  according  to  Vansleb 
was  equally  a  Coptic  see.  John  of  Nikiu  (Chron- 
icle, CV)  relates  that  under  the  Emperor  Phocas 
(602-10)  the  clerics  of  the  province  killed  the  Greek 
governor  Theophilus.  Pharbietus  is  now  called  Hor- 
beit,  north  of  Zagazig  in  the  Province  of  Sharqyeh; 
it  has  about  520  inhabitants. 

Gelzer,  Georgii  Cyprii  Descriptio  orbis  romani,  114-16;  Roug£, 
Geographie  ancienne  de  la  Basse  Egypte  (Paria.  1891),  66-74; 
Am^lineau,  La  Giographie  de  VEgypte  A  I'ipoque  copte  (Paris, 
1S93),  330.  S.  VaILH^. 

Pharisees,  a  politico-religious  sect  or  faction  among 
the  adherents  of  later  Judaism,  that  came  into  exist- 
ence as  a  class  about  the  third  century  B.  c.  After 
the  exile,  Israel's  monarchial  form  of  government  had 
become  a  thing  of  the  past;  in  its  place  the  Jews 
created  a  community  which  was  half  State,  half 
Church.  A  growing  sense  of  superiority  to  the  heathen 
and  idolatrous  nations  among  whom  their  lot  was 
cast  came  to  be  one  of  their  main  characteristics. 
They  were  taught  insistently  to  separate  themselves 
from  their  heathen  neighbours.  "And  now  make  con- 
fession to  the  Lord  the  God  of  your  fathers,  and  do 
his  pleasure,  and  separate  yourselves  from  the  people 
of  the  land,  and  from  your  strange  wives"  (I  Esd.,  x, 
11).  Intermarriage  with  the  heathen  was  strictly 
forbidden  and  many  such  marriages  previously  con- 
tracted, even  of  priests,  were  dissolved  in  consequence 
of  the  legislation  promulgated  by  Esdras.  Such  was 
the  state  of  things  in  the  third  century  when  the  newly 
introduced  Hellenism  threatened  Judaism  with  de- 
struction. The  more  zealous  among  the  Jews  drew 
apart  calling  themselves  Chasidim  or  "pious  ones", 
i.  e.,  they  dedicated  themselves  to  the  realization  of 
the  ideas  inculcated  by  Esdras,  the  holy  priest  and 
doctor  of  the  law.  In  the  violent  conditions  inci- 
dental to  the  Machabean  wars  these  "  pious  men  ", 
sometimes  called  the  Jewish  Puritans,  became  a  dis- 
tinct clacs.  They  were  called  Pharisees,  meaning 
those  who  separated  themselves  from  the  heathen, 
and  from  the  heathenizing  forces  and  tendencies  which 
constantly  invaded  the  precincts  of  Judaism  (I  Mach., 
i,  11;  II  "Mach.,  iv,  14  sq.;  of.  Josephus  Antiq.,  XII, 
V,  1). 

During  these  persecutions  of  Antiochus  the  Phar- 
isees became  the  most  rigid  defenders  of  the  Jewish 
religion  and  traditions.  In  this  cause  many  suffered 
martyrdom  (I  Mach.,  i,  41  sq.),  and  so  devoted  were 
they  to  the  prescriptions  of  the  Law  that  on  one 
occasion  when  attacked  by  the  Syrians  on  the  Sabbath 
they  refused  to  defend  themselves  (I  ]Mach.,_ii,  42; 
ibid.,  V,  3  sq.).  They  considered  it  an  abomination 
to  even  eat  at  the  same  board  with  the  heathens  or 
have  any  social  relations  with  them  whatsoever. 
Owing  to  their  heroic  dcvotedness  their  influence  over 
the  people  became  great  and  far-reaching,  and  in  the 
course  of  time  they,  instead  of  the  priests,  became  the 
sources  of  authority.  In  the  time  of  Our  Lord  such 
was  their  power  and  prestige  that  they  sat  and  taught 
in  "  Moses'  seat ".  This  prestige  naturally  engendered 
arrogance  and  conceit,  and  led  to  a  perversion  in 
many  respects  of  the  conservative  ideals  of  which  they 
had  been  such  staunch  supporters.  In  many  passages 
of  the  Gospels,  Christ  is  quoted  as  warning  the  mul- 
titude against  them  in  scathing  terms.  "The  scribes 
and  the  Pharisees  have  sitten  in  the  chair  of  Moses. 
All  things  therefore  whatsoever  they  shall  say  to  you, 
observe  and  do:  but  according  to  their  works  do  ye 
not;  for  they  say  and  do  not.  For  they  bind  heavy 
and  insupportable  burdens,  and  lay  them  on  men's 
shoulders;  but  with  a  finger  of  their  own  they  will 
not  move  them.  And  all  their  works  they  do  for  to 
be  seen  of  men.  For  they  make  their  phylacteries 
broad,  and  enlarge  their  fringes.  And  they  love  the 
first  places  at  feasts,  and  the  first  chairs  in  the  syna- 


PHARSALUS 


790 


FHASELIS 


pogiios.  Ami  salut.ilions  in  the  iiuirkct  placo,  and  Co 
l>f  i-alli-il  l>y  iiu'ii,  Rabbi"  (Malt.,  xxiii,  1-S).  'J'lu'ii 
follows  the  terrible  arraignment  of  the  scribes  and 
Pharisees  for  tlieir  hypocrisy,  their  rapacity,  and  tlxeir 
blindness  (ibid.,  13-3G). 

After  the  conflicts  with  Rome  (a.  u.  60-135)  Phar- 
isjiisni  became  ]>raetically  synonymous  with  Judaism. 
The  great  Maccabean  wars  had  defined  I'harisaism: 
another  even  more  terrible  conflict  gave  it  a  final 
ascendancy.  Tlie  result  of  both  wars  was  to  create 
from  the  second  century  onward,  in  the  bosom  of  a 
tenacious  race,  thetype  of  Judaism  known  to  the  west- 
ern world.  A  study  of  the  early  history  of  Pharisa- 
ism re\o:ils  a  certain  moral  dignity  and  greatness,  a 
marked  tenacity  of  purpose  at  tlie  service  of  high, 
patriotic,  and  religious  ideals.  As  contrasted  with  the 
Sadducees  (q.  v.),  the  Pharisees  represented  the  demo- 
cratic tendency;  contrasted  with  the  priesthood,  they 
stood  for  both  the  democratic  and  the  spiritualizing 
tendency.  By  virtue  of  the  Law  itself  the  jjriesthood 
was  an  exclusive  class.  No  man  was  allowed  to  exer- 
cise a  function  in  the  Temple  unless  he  was  able  to 
trace  his  descent  from  a  priestly  family.  The  Phar- 
isees consequently  founil  their  main  function  in  teach- 
ing and  preaching.  Their  work  was  chiefly  connectiMl 
with  the  synagogues,  and  embraced  the  schooling  of 
children  and  missionary  efforts  among  the  heathen 
tribes.  Thus,  in  a  sense,  Pharisaism  helped  to  clear 
the  ground  and  prepare  the  way  for  Christianity.  It 
was  the  Pharisees  who  made  idealized  nationalism, 
baseil  upon  the  monotheism  of  the  i)r(i])hets,  the  very 
essence  of  Judaism.  To  them  we  are  indebted  for  the 
great  apocalypses,  Daniel  and  Enoch,  and  it  was  they 
who  made  common  the  belief  in  the  resurrection  and 
future  reward.  In  a  word,  their  pedagogical  influence 
was  an  important  factor  in  training  the  national 
will  and  purpose  for  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 
This  great  work,  however,  was  marred  by  many  de- 
fects and  limitations.  Though  standing  for  the  spirit- 
ualizing tendency,  Pharisaism  developed  a  proud  and 
arrogant  orthodoxy  and  an  exaggerated  formalism, 
which  insisted  on  ceremonial  tletails  at  the  expense 
of  the  more  important  precejits  of  the  Law  (JSIatt., 
xxiii,  23-28).  The  importance  attached  to  descent 
from  Abraham  (Matt.,  iii,  9)  obscured  the  deeper 
spiritual  issues  and  created  a  narrow,  exclusive  na- 
tionalism incapable  of  understanding  a  imiversal 
Church  destined  to  include  Gentile  as  well  as  Jew. 
It  was  oidy  through  the  revelation  received  on  the 
road  to  Dainaseus,  that  Saul  the  Pharisee  was  enabled 
to  comprehend  a  church  where  all  are  equally  the 
"seed  of  Abraham",  all  "one  in  Christ  Jesus"  (Gal., 
iii,  28-9).  This  exclusi\-ism,  together  with  their 
over  valuation  of  external  leviticnl  observances, 
caused  the  Pharisees  to  be  ranged  in  opposition  to 
what  is  known  as  prophetism,  which  in  both  the  Okl 
and  New  Testament  places  the  main  emphasis  on 
character  and  the  religious  spirit,  and  thus  they  in- 
curred not  only  the  vehement  reproaches  of  the  Pre- 
cursor (Matt.,  iii,  7  .seq.),  but  also  of  the  Saviour 
Himself  (Matt.,  xxiii,  2.5  seq.). 

The  Pharisees  are  seen  at  their  best  when  con- 
trasted with  the  Zealots  on  one  hand,  and  with  the 
Herodians  on  the  other.  L^nlike  the  Zealots,  it  was 
their  policy  to  abstain  from  the  appeal  to  armed  force. 
It  was  their  belief  that  the  God  of  the  nation  con- 
trolled all  historic  destinies,  and  that  in  His  own  good 
time  He  would  satisfy  the  long  frustrated  desires  of 
His  chosen  people.  Meanwhile  the  duty  of  all  true 
Israelites  consisted  in  whole-hearted  devotion  ic  the 
Law,  and  to  the  manifoUl  observances  whici,  their 
numerous  traditions  had  engrafted  upon  it,  joined  to 
a  patient  waiting  for  the  exiiected  manifestation  of 
the  Divine  Will.  The  Zealots  on  the  contrary  bitterly 
resented  the  Roman  domination  and  would  have 
hastened  with  the  sword  the  fulfilment  of  the  Messi- 
anic hope.     It  is  well  known  that  during  the  great 


rebellion  and  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  which  ended  in  its 
destruction  (a.  d.  70),  the  fanatic^ism  of  the  Zealots 
made  them  terrible  opponents  not  only  (o  t  lie  Komaiis, 
but  also  to  the  other  factions  among  their  own  coun- 
trymen. On  the  other  hand,  the  extreme  faction  of 
the  Sadducees,  known  as  the  Herodians,  w.'is  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  foreign  rulers  and  pagan  cullure,  and 
even  looked  forward  to  a  restoration  of  the  national 
kingdom  umler  one  olllie  dcsrendaiils  of  King  Herod. 
Vet  we  find  (he  Pharisees  making  conunon  cause  with 
the  Herodians  in  their  opposition  to  the  Sa\iour 
(Mark,  iii,  6;   xii,  13,  etc.). 

GlGOT,  Outlines  of  Neiv  Testament  History  (New  York.  1902), 
74  sqq.;  Le  Camus,  L'CEume  des  Apdires,  I  (Paris,  la05).  133; 
Farrar.  The  Life  and  Work  of  St.  Paul  (New  York,  1880),  26-39; 
Eaton  in  Hastings,  Did.  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.;  Edersheim,  The  Life 
and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah,  passim. 

J.\MES  F.  Driscoll. 

Pharsalus,  titular  see  and  suffragan  of  L;irissa  in 
Thessaly.  The  city  is  mentioned  for  the  first-  time 
after  tlie  Persian  war.  In  44.')  ii.  c.  it  was  unsuccess- 
fully besieged  bv  the  Athenian  Mvronides  (Thucyd., 
1,  III),  in  :jlt5"it  was  seized  by'Midias,  tyrant  of 
Laris.sa  (Diodorus  Siculus,  Xl\',  s'Ji,  and  it  was  finally 
forced  to  submit  to  .lason  of  Pliera'  (Xcnojih.,  "Ilel- 
len.",  VI,  1,  2);  in  191  the  consul  .\cilius  Glabrio  made 
it  over  to  Antiochus,  King  of  Syria.  It  is  specially 
famous  for  the  victory  of  9  August,  48  B.  r.,  won  by 
Ca?sar  from  Pompey,  after  the  latter  had  killed  1.5,000 
men.  At  the  time  of  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  IV,  1.5)  it 
was  a  free  city.  In  the  sixth  century  A.  D.  it  was 
made  a  port  of  Thessaly  ("HieroclisSynecdemus",  ed. 
Burckhardt,  642,  13);  in  the  time  of  Constantine  Por- 
phyrogenetus,  it  belonged  to  the  theme  of  Macedonia 
(op.  cit.,  .50,  6).  In  1881  it  was  ceded  by  Turkey 
with  Thessaly  to  Greece.  Of  the  three  Greek  bishops 
mentioneil  by  Le  Quien  (Oriens  christianus,  II,  116), 
it  is  doubtful  if  the  first  belonged  to  this  see,  but  this 
list  could  easily  be  completed.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  tenth  century  Pharsalus  still  remained  sufTra- 
gan  of  Larissa  (Gelzer,  "LTngedruckte  .  .  .  Texte  der 
NotitisEpiscopatuum ",  5.57) ;  about  970  (op.  cit.,  572) 
it  became  an  autocephalous  archbishopric;  in  1300 
it  was  elevated  by  Andronicus  II  to  metropolitan 
dignity;  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  was 
again  suffragan  of  Larissa.  Later  it  was  united  to 
the  Diocese  of  Phanarion,  and  was  suppressed  only  to 
be  replaced  (1900)  by  the  Sees  of  Phanarus  and  Thes- 
saliotides.  Pharsala  numbers  2500  inhabitants,  of 
whom  nearly  half  are  Turks.  The  Greeks  were  de- 
feated there'in  1897. 

Leake,  Northern  Greece,  IV,  484;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Creek ^nn,l 
Roman  Geography,  s.  V.  S.  VaILHIO. 

Phaselis,  titular  see  in  Lycia,  suffragan  of  Myra. 
The  city  was  a  Doric  colony  on  the  Pamphylian  Gulf. 
Situated  on  an  isthmus  separating  two  harbours,  it 
owed  to  this  fortunate  location  the  fact  that  it  became 
an  important  centre  of  commerce  between  (ireece, 
Asia,  Egyjit,  ;md  Pluenicia.  although  it  did  not  belong 
to  the  confederation  of  l.yrian  cities.  The  jiirates  of 
Cilicia  were  allied  with  it,  first  through  business  inter- 
course, then  by  treaty.  After  the  capture  of  Olympus 
P.  Servilius  laid  siege  to  it.  It  was  defended  by  Zeni- 
cetus,  who,  being  unable  to  hold  it,  set  fire  to  the  city 
and  plunged  into  the  flames  together  with  his  compan- 
ions. Phaselis  recovered  from  this  disa,ster.  How-- 
ever,  as  early  as  the  Roman  period  the  little  harbour 
had  become  a  swamp  exhaling  pestilential  vapours, 
and  the  situation  grew  worse  until  the  city  was  in  com- 
plete decay.  There  was  a  temple  of  Athene  at  Phase- 
lis, where  the  lance  of  Achilles  was  exhibited.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  the  poet  and  orator  Theodectes.  It 
was  also  renowned  for  its  roses,  from  which  the  essence 
was  extracted.  There  was  invented  the  bark  called 
(paarfKoi  which  figures  on  all  the  coins  of  the  city. 
Therewiisa  Roman  colony  at  Phaselis  about  139  B.C., 
for  the  Romans  wrote  to  the  inhabitants  to  send  help 


PHASGA 


791 


PHENOMENALISM 


to  Simon  Macliabeus  and  the  Jews  (I  Maeh.,  xv,  23). 
Only  two  of  its  bishops  are  known:  Fronto  at  Chalce- 
don  (451);  and  Aristodemus,  who  in  458  signed  the 
letter  from  the  bishops  of  Lycia  to  the  Emperor  Leo. 
At  the  Council  of  Nicaea  (787),  the  absent  bishop  was 
represented  by  the  deacon  John.  The  see  is  mentioned 
in  the  "Notitia;  episcopatuum "  until  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  ruins  of  Phaselis  are  at  Tekir  Ova  in  the 
vilayet  of  Koniah;  they  belong  to  the  Roman  period, 
the  most  important  being  a  theatre.  There  are  also 
numerous  sarcophagi. 

Lb  Quien,  Orienit  christianus,  I,  985;  Beaufort,  Karamania, 
53-63;  Fellows,  Asia  Minor,  211  aqq.;  Leake,  Asia  Minor,  190; 
Texier,  Asie  mineure,  697-99;  Hill,  Catalogue  of  Greek  Coins  in 
the  British  Museum:  Lycia,  p.  Uvii. 

S.  PetridJ:s. 

Phasga  (A.  V.  Pisgah). — Whether  the  word  in 
Hebrew  is  a  proper  or  a  common  noun  is  not  clear; 
certain  it  is  at  any  rate  that  it  designates  a  mountain 
of  the  Abarim  range  (Deut.,  xx.xii,  49),  east  of  the 
Jordan  (Deut.,  iv,  49),  in  the  laud  of  Moab  (Num., 
xxi,  20),  "over  against  Jericho"  (Deut.,  xx.\iv,  1), 
above  Yeshimon  [Num.,  xxi,  20;  D.  V.  "which  look- 
eth  towards  the  desert"  ('Ain  Suweimeh)],  east  of  the 
north  end  of  the  Dead  Sea  (Deut.,  iv,  49;  Jos.,  xii,  3), 
in  connexion  with  Mount  Nebo,  and  commanding  an 
extensive  view  of  the  Holy  Land  (Deut.,  xxxii,  49; 
xxxiv,  1-4),  on  the  south-east  border  of  which  it  stood 
(Deut.,  iv,  49).  From  all  these  indications  it  appears 
that  Phasga  is  no  other  than  Mount  Nebo  itself  (Jebel 
Neba,  south-west  of  Hesban  or  Hesebon),  or,  better 
still,  the  western  peak  of  the  mountain,  Ras  gi&gha. 
On  its  slopes  the  Israelites  pitched  their  camp  (Num., 
xxi,  20);  in  the  "field  of  Sophim"  (D.  V.  "a  high 
place")  on  the  mountain  Bal;\am  uttered  his  second 
oracle  about  lsr:irl  (Num.,  xxiii,  11-241;  lastly  from 
the  top  of  Phasga,  Mu.ses  surveyed  the  Promised  Land. 

Birch,  The  Prosiicct  from  Pisnah  in  Pal.  Eiplor.  Fund  Quart. 
Stat.  (London,  1S98);  Co.vder,  Heth  and  Moab  (London,  18S9); 
Smith,  Historical  Oeography  of  the  Holij  Land  (Lon  Ion.  1894); 
Tristram,  The  Land  of  Moab  (London,  1874) ;  Lagrange, 
Itintraire  des  Israelites:  De  la  Frontitre  de  Moab  auz  Riaes  du 
Jourd.tin  in  Revue  Biblique  (1900),  443-149. 

Charles  L.  Sodvay. 

Phenomenalism  (0aii'6aei'oi')  literally  means  any 
systi'Mi  (if  thiiunht  th:it  has  to  do  with  appearances. 
The  term  is,  however,  usually  restricted  to  the  desig- 
nation of  certain  theories  by  which  it  is  asserted:  (1) 
that  there  is  no  knowledge  other  than  that  of  phenom- 
ena— denial  of  the  knowledge  of  substance  in  the 
metaphysical  sense;  or  (2)  that  all  knowledge  is 
phenomenal — denial  of  the  thing-in-itself  and  asser- 
tion that  all  reality  is  reality  directly  or  reflectively 
present  to  consciousness. 

(1)  The  first  form  of  Phenomenalism  reaches  its 
full  statement  in  Hume,  though  its  logical  develop- 
ment can  be  traced  back  through  Berkeley  and  Locke 
to  Descartes.  It  consists  in  the  theory  that  substance 
is  merely  a  relation  between  ideas;  that  its  existence, 
as  a  reality,  is  incapable  of  intuitive  or  demonstrative 
certainty.  The  origin  of  the  idea  of  substance  can  be 
explained  on  the  basis  of  the  imagination  (Hume). 
The  transient  mental,  or  world,  phenomena  are  re- 
lated in  the  imagination  to  a  supposed  substrate — a 
fictitious  ground,  permanent  and  inert.  —  which  ac- 
counts for  their  appearance.  The  theory  destroys 
metaphysics  and  replaces  it  with  epistemology.  This 
is  quite  in  keejiing  with  Hume's  Associationisra  in 
psychology.  The  "Treatise  on  Human  Nature"  ad- 
mits ideas" and  impressions,  together  with  the  associa- 
tion of  these  elements  according  to  the  well-known 
laws  (see  Association;  Psychology);  and  nothing 
more  than  this  is  given  or  is  necessary  to  explain  what- 
ever is  found  in  consciousness.  For  substance  (as 
well  as  causality,  etc.)  can  be  explained  adequately 
as  the  result  (>('  ideas  that  have  been  frequently 
present  in  cDiijuiHticin.  Hume  restricted  these  views 
to  exact  experiuK-ntal  science,  and  safeguarded  the 


ordinary  experience  of  life  by  asserting  that  the  con- 
cepts of  substance,  etc.,  are  accompanied  by  a  natural 
belief,  or  conviction,  of  their  reality  arising  from  feel- 
ing. His  doctrine  was  widely  accepted  in  France,  and 
in  Germany  became  the  ideological  forerunner  of 
Kant's  "Kritik".  Though  at  once  labelled  Scepti- 
cism in  England,  on  account  of  its  consequences  in 
natural  theology,  it  is  a  frankly  consistent  Em- 
piricism (q.  V.)  quite  in  place  in  the  evolution 
of  the  school  of  English  thought.  Where  Locke, 
criticizing  the  ideogeny  of  Descartes,  and  admit- 
ting the  part  of  empirical  experience  in  the  for- 
mation of  ideas,  left  the  metaphysical  material 
substance  and  the  metaphysical  soul,  as  realities,  un- 
criticized,  Berkeley,  developing  his  position  further, 
taught  that  the  supposed  existence  of  the  material 
world  was  not  only  indemonstrable,  but  false.  Only 
spirits,  with  their  ideas  and  volitions,  exist.  Esse 
of  the  material  is  percipi:  and  the  regularity  of  nature 
is  no  more  than  the  order  of  ideas  as  produced  in  us 
by  anotlier  spirit,  namely,  God.  Hume's  position  is 
but  a  step  further  than  this.  Soul,  or  mind,  as  sub- 
stance, is  no  more  real  than  body.  Here  the  Phenom- 
enalism of  Berkeley  becomes  logically  complete. 

Quite  consistent  with  this  conception  is  the  state- 
ment of  Huxley  that  mind  is  only  the  collection  of 
perceptions  united  by  certain  relations  between  them 
(see  Huxley,  "Hume,  a  Biography",  II,  ii,  p.  64),  or 
that  of  Taine,  the  Positivist,  that  the  Ego  is  no  more 
than  a  luminous  sheaf,  having  no  other  reality  than 
the  lights  that  compose  it  (see  Taine,  "Dc  I'inlelU- 
gence",  I,  pref.,  p.  11).  As  we  shall  show,  the  opposi- 
tion of  Hume  to  the  concept  of  substance  seems  to  rest 
upon  a  misunderstanding:  for  he  admits  (Treatise 
I,  part  4,  sect.  1)  "something"  that  is  accountable 
for  impressions  and  "something"  that  is  impressed 
(body,  mind).  Huxley  seems  but  to  popularize  by  his 
simile  the  conception  of  the  Scotch  philosopher,  that 
there  is  no  mind  or  soul  (as  substance)  apart  from  its 
acts.  Huxley  compares  the  soul  to  a  republic  in  which 
the  members  are  united  by  their  manifold  ties  and 
mutual  relationships  as  citizens.  This  leaves  the  im- 
oressions  and  ideas  substantial  and  makes  of  the  mind 
what  Scholastics  would  call  an  "accidental"  unity, 
and  of  the  substance  (soul)  a  "permanent  possibility 
of  sensations",  as  Mill  expresses  it.  Max  Miiller  has 
dealt  with  this  notion  in  his  "Science  of  Thought" 
(248)  where  he  observes  that  such  terms  as  possibility 
express  a  common  quality  that  is  always  of  some- 
thing, from  which  we  have  abstracted  them.  To  call 
mind  a  "possibility"  is  at  the  same  time  to  deny 
that  it  is  a  substance  and  to  assert  of  it  a  quality 
tjelonging  to  substance,  which  would  seem  to  be  con- 
tradictory. 

The  idealistic  standpoint  of  Hume,  together  with 
the  doctrine  of  Positivism  (q.  v.),  has  had  so  great 
an  influence  upon  modern  thought  that  it  will  be  well 
to  show  in  what  the  misunderstanding,  aln^ady  re- 
ferred to,  consists.  As  Cardinal  Merrier  points  out 
("Ontologie",  1902.  p.  263),  it  is  incredible  that  such 
thinkers  as  Hume  and  Kant,  Mill,  Spencer,  Wundt, 
Paulsen,  Comte,  Renouvier,  Bergson,  and  others, 
should  have  so  totally  misunderstood  the  substan- 
tiality of  things  and  of  the  Ego  as  to  profess  a  Phe- 
nomenalism contradictory  to  thedoctrineof  tht  School. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  no  less  incredible  that  phi- 
losophers like  Aristotle,  St. Thomas,  and  the  School- 
MK-n,  should  have  "been  at  fault  in  their  interpretation 
of  an  elementary  truth  of  common  sense".  On  the 
face  of  it,  a  misunderstanding  seems  probable.  To 
what  was  this  due?  First,  to  the  doubt  cast  by 
Descartes  upon  the  truth  and  validity  of  our  notions 
of  substance;  second,  to  the  observation  of  Ijocke, 
that  we  are  incapable  of  directly  attaining  to  sub- 
stance. If  thought  could  immediately  conceive  the 
substance  of  a  thing,  we  ought  to  be  able  to  deduce 
all  its  properties  from  that-conception      Third,  to  the 


PHENOMENALISM 


792 


PHENOMENALISM 


explanation  advanced  bv  Hume,  of  the  origin  of  tlio 
idea  of  siibstanep  by  ha})it.  'I'hesp  three  stejjs  form 
a  SMiui'iici'  ill  till'  dt'Vt'lopiiu'iit  of  McaUsm.  Fourth, 
to  the  I'ositivism,  for  wliioli  this  i)aved  the  way,  as 
expressed  by  Comte  and  Mill.  The  \arious  schools  of 
thought  that  maj- be  grouped  under  Phenomenalism: 
plain  Kmpiricism,  jis  taught  by  Hume;  Agnosticism, 
as  advanced  by  Spencer  and  Huxley;  Positivism, 
represented  by  Comte,  l.ittrv,  Taine,  and  Mill;  all 
share  in  the  misim<lerstanding  initiated  by  Descartes 
with  regard  to  the  nature  of  substance  as  put  forward 
by  the  School.  The  Criticism  of  Kant  may  well  be 
included  with  them,  as  hmiting  the  object  of  human 
knowleilge  to  experience,  or  phenomenal  appearance 
— although  some  knowledge  as  to  the  noumenon  is 
reached  by  way  of  the  postulates  of  the  practical 
reason — the  three  ideas,  soul,  world,  God.  So  also 
may  be  included  the  neo-critical  movement  of  Renou- 
vier. 

It  is  important  that  this  misunderstanding  should 
be  cleared  up.  Scholasticism  indeed  maintains  that 
we  have  a  direct  but  confused  and  implicit  intuition 
of  substance.  We  grasp  the  reality  of  "something 
that  can  exist  by  itself".  "Every  perception  is  a 
substance,  and  even,'  part  of  a  perception  is  a  cUstinct 
suKstance"  (Hume,  "Treatise",  I,  part  4,  sect.  5). 
Thus  far  the  Empiricist  agrees  with  the  Scholastic. 
But  upon  analysis  and  reflection,  the  latter  main- 
tains, the  distinction  between  substance  and  accident 
emerges.  What  at  first  appeared  to  exist  in  itself,  is 
seen  to  exist  in  something  else.  That  something  else 
is  then  perceived  to  be  substance;  and  what  before 
was  taken  for  it,  is  seen  to  be  accident  or  phenomenon. 
Further,  as  against  the  criticism  of  Locke,  it  is  to 
be  remarked  that  Scholastic  philosophy  does  not 
claim  for  the  intelligence  a  direct  experience  of  the 
specific  nature  of  substance.  On  the  contrary,  it 
relies  entirely  upon  induction  to  establish  such  nature. 
To  the  objection  that  induction  gives  us  no  knowledge 
other  than  of  the  phenomenal,  it  answers  that  we  know 
at  least  this  of  the  specific  substance — that  it  is  the 
subject  of  certain  observed  modifications  and  the 
cause  of  certain  observed  effects.  One  further  point 
that  is  interesting  in  this  connexion  is  the  unfortunate 
attribution  of  inertia  to  substance.  Paulsen  writes 
that  the  soul  is  not  inert  as  is  the  atom,  thereby 
sharing  the  opinion  of  Wundt.  This  idea  of  substance 
as  an  inert  substrate  is  also  traceable  to  the  Cartesian 
philosophy,  which  is  thus  upon  two  counts  the  parent 
of  Phenomenalism.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point 
out  that  .Scholasticism  does  not  regard  either  the 
soul  or  the  material  atom  as  inert,  except  by  a  mental 
abstraction  which  is  practised  upon  the  idea  of  nature 
(as  immanent  activity)  to  reach  the  simple  conception 
of  "that  which  is  capable  of  existing  in  itself"  (see 
Substance). 

(2)  The  second  form  of  Phenomenalism  may  be 
found  in  the  doctrine  of  Fichte  and  of  the  school 
that  develops  his  ideas;  as  well  as  in  certain  tenden- 
cies and  developments  of  the  system  of  thought 
known  as  Pragmatism  (q.  v.) .  With  Fichte,  the  thing- 
in-itself  of  Kant  disappears  as  the  ground  of  expe- 
rience, and  its  place  is  taken  by  consciousness  deter- 
mining itself.  That  things  are  and  are  known  implies 
a  double  series,  real  and  ideal,  for  which  Dogmatism 
is  incajiable  of  accounting.  There  is  nothing  else,  as 
a  ground,  than  a  "being  posited"  by  consciousness. 
But  consciousness  is  aware  of  itself,  knowing  its 
acti\nty,  and  the  nature  of  this  activity.  In  this 
conception  the  real — the  functions  of  consciousness 
—  is  paralleled  by  the  ideal  —  knowledge  of  these 
functions.  Tlie  thing-in-itself  is  no  longer  necessary 
to  explain  the  possibility  of  knowledge,  which  here 
becomes  the  explanation  of  the  original  relation  of 
consciousness  to  itself.  The  object  has  no  existence, 
save  for  the  subject.  Fichte's  philosophy  has  much 
influenced  later  thought  in  Germany  as  elsewhere. 


The  attempt  made  by  Schelling  to  avoid  the  contra- 
diction between  his  doctrine  and  that  of  Kant  resulted 
in  a  form  of  idealistic  Phenomenalism  (developed 
further  by  Novalis  and  von  Schlegel),  and  ultimately 
inaneo-Spinozaistic  Pantheism.  Hegel's  Idealism isa 
logical,  or  metaphysical,  one,  in  which  the  only  real- 
ity (spirit)  "becomes"  in  a  procc'^.'-fdrin  of  dialectic. 
In  the  thesis,  antithesis,  and  synthesis  of  Absolute 
mind,  the  return  to  consciousMiss  takes  the  form  of 
phenomena,  as  spirit  becoming  apparent  to  itself. 
With  Schopenhauer,  who  begins  his  "Die  Welt  als 
Wille  und  Vorstellung"  with  these  words:  "  'The 
world  is  my  iilea': — this  is  a  truth  which  holds  good 
for  everything  that  lives  and  knows  ..."  it  would 
seem  that  a  transition  from  ideali-stic  Phenomenalisiii 
to  modern  "scientific"  Realism  is  in  progress. 

Pragmatism  is  the  most  recent  form  of  Empiricism, 
and  as  such  belongs  to  the  first  form  of  Phenomenal- 
ism noticed  above;  but  its  psychologic  attitude,  and 
the  subjectivist  developments  it  displays,  make  it 
perhaps  more  fitting  to  mention  it  here.  For  the  sys- 
tem as  a  whole  the  truth  of  reality  rests  upon  the 
subjective  feeling  of  certainty  (see  Epistemology). 
The  answers  given  as  to  why  this  should  be  are 
because  of  (1)  an  a  priori  constitution  of  mind,  of 
transcendental  order  and  for  all  individuals;  (2) 
utility,  coherence,  or  vital  experience  (James,  Leroy, 
Schiller);  or  (3)  an  act  of  the  will  (Ribot).  The  first 
two  accounts  of  the  psychological  fact  of  certainty 
insensibly  give  place  to  the  third,  which  is  the  last 
word  of  psychological  Subjectivism,  except  one:  and 
that  one  is  the  theory  of  Solipsism.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  this  line  of  development  is  one  of  an 
elaboration  of  a  voluntaristic  form  of  PhenomenaUsm. 
Where  Schiller  (Studies  in  Humanism)  writes  that  the 
basis  of  fact  accepted  by  Pragmatism  depends  upon 
its  "acceptance" ;  "  that  it  (acceptance')  is  fatal  to  the 
chimera  of  a  'fact'  for  us  existing  quite  independently 
of  our  'will'  ",  and  James  (Pragmatism)  "Why  may 
they  (our  acts)  not  be  the  actual  .  .  .  growing-places 
...  of  the  world — why  not  be  the  workshop  of  being 
where  we  catch  fact  in  the  making,  so  that  nowhere 
may  the  world  grow  any  other  kind  of  waj'  than 
this?  "  Solipsism  goes  but  one  step  further  in  declaring 
that  there  is  no  absolute  Ego  nor  absolute  non- 
Ego.  There  is  no  more  than  the  individual  conscious- 
ness (cf.  von  Schubert  Soldern).  Admitting  the  prin- 
ciples, an  escape  from  such  a  conclusion  is  difficult. 
The  pure  ex-perience  of  Avenarius,  the  reine  Erfahrung 
for  you  and  for  me,  is  theoretic  and  inevident.  Indeed 
Humanism  itself,  as  advanced  by  Schiller,  seems  to 
be  but  a  kind  of  SoUpsism.  The  data  of  thought  are 
immanent,  and  we  only  organize  them;  but  Schiller 
gives  no  indication  of  their  origin;  indeed  he  says  it 
is  absurd  to  ask  wlience  the  given  of  thought  derives.  ■ 
The  whole  modern  school  of  Immanence  (q.  v.)  be- 
longs to  the  development  of  this  form  of  Phenome- 
nahsm. 

St.  Thom.^s,  Opera  (Parma.  1854).  especially  the  De  veritnlf. 
Avenarius,  Phitosophie  als  Denken,  etc.  Prolegomena  tut  eijier 
Krilik  der  reinen  Erfahrung  (Leipzig,  1878) ;  Behqbon,  Bssai  stir 
let  donnUs  immMiales  de  la  conscience  (Paris,  1889) ;  Berkeley, 
W'orks,  ed.  Phaser  (Oxford.  1901);  Bradley,  Appearance  and 
Reality  (London,  1893) :  Catch,  Subjectivism  and  Solipsism  in 
Dublin  Review  (July,  1903) ;  Comte.  Cours  de  philosophic  positive 
(Paris,  1830-42);  Descartes.  (Euvres,  published  by  CotJsm 
(Paris,  1824-6);  Fichte,  Sdmmtliche  Werke  (Berlin);  Hume, 
Philosophical  Works,  ed.  Gheen  and  Grose  (London,  1878); 
Huxley,  Hume,  A  Biography  (London,  1878);  James,  Prag- 
matism (London,  1907);  Kant,  Werke,  ed.  Rosenkranz  and 
.ScHDBERT  (Leipzig.  1838-40);  Locke,  An  Essay  Concerning 
Human  Understanding  (London.  1881);  McCosH,  Agnosticism 
of  Hume  and  Huxley  (London,  1884) ;  James  Mill,  Analysis  of 
the  Phenomena  of  the  Human  Mind,  with  notes  by  J.  S.  Mill 
(London,  18fi9);  J.  S.  Mill.  An  Examination  of  Sir  William 
Hamilton's  Philosophy  (London.  1889);  Renouyier,  Bssais  de 
critique  gSn^ale  (Paris.  18.54-64);  RiBOT,  Essai  sur  Vimagination 
creatrire  (Paris.  1900);  Schiller,  Studies  in  Humanism  (Lon- 
don, 1907):  VON  .Schubert  Soldern,  Ueber  Transcendenz  des 
Objects  und  Subjects  (Leipzig,  1882);  Idem,  Grumllagen  einer 
Erkenntnisstheologie  (Leipzig,  1884):  Windelband,  Hist,  oj 
Phil.,  IT.  Tufts  (New  York,  1907). 

Francis  Avelino. 


PHILADELPHIA 


793 


PHILADELPHIA 


Philadelphia,  titular  see  in  Lydia,  suflragan  of 
Sardes.  The  city  was  founded  by  Philadelphus,  King  of 
Pergamon  (159-38  b.  c),  in  the  vicinity  of  Callatebus 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cogamus  (Kouzou  Tchai) ;  its 
location  was  most  favourable  for  commercial  and  stra- 
tegical purposes.  In  133  B.  c.  it  became  a  Roman  pos- 
session. It  was  subject  to  earthquakes,  and  at  the  time 
of  Augustus  wasalmost  in  ruins;  but,  quickly  restored, 
was  of  commercial  importance  as  late  as  the  Byzan- 
tine period.  Its  wines  were  famous;  its  coins  bore  the 
image  of  Bacchus  or  a  bacchante.  On  the  coins  of  the 
first  century  the  city  is  called  Neocaisarea,  under  Ves- 
pasian it  received  the  cognomen  of  Flavia.  During 
the  eleventh  and  succeeding  centuries  it  was  repeat- 
edly captured  by  and  retaken  from  the  Turks  until  it 
was  definitively  conquered  by  Bajazet  in  1390.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  it  had  8000  inhabitants,  of 
whom  2000  were  Christians.  To-day  it  has  about 
15,000,  including  3500  Greeks.  The  Turks  called  it 
Ala  Sheir;  it  is  the  capital  of  the  caza  of  the  vilayet  of 
Smyrna,  is  still,  on  account  of  its  fertility,  an  impor- 
tant agricultural  and  commercial  centre;  and  is  a  rail- 
way station  between  iSmyrna  and  Dinair.  It  possesses 
numerous  ruins,  a  theatre,  stadium,  two  walls,  many 
Byzantine  churches,  etc.  and  has  mineral  springs. 
Christianity  was  introduced  into  Philadelphia  in 
Apostolic  times.  According  to  the  "Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions" (VII,  xlvi),  its  first  bishop  Demetrius  must 
have  been  appointed  by  St.  John.  The  apologist  St. 
Miltiades  mentions  a  prophetess  Amraia  who  must 
have  belonged  to  the  primitive  Church  of  Philadel- 
phia (Eusebius,  "Hist.  Eccl.",  V,  xvii).  One  of  the 
seven  letters  of  the  Apocalypse  is  addressed  to  the 
Bishop  of  Philadelphia  (Apoc,  i,  ii,  iii,  7-13).  This 
bishop  was  highly  commended,  and  while  the  writer 
recognizes  that  the  community  is  small,  he  tells  us 
that  the  Jews  who  tried  to  disturb  it  were  valiantly  re- 
sisted by  its  faithful  pastors.  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch 
later  sent  to  the  Christians  of  Philadelphia  an  inter- 
esting letter  warning  them  against  the  Jews  (Funk, 
"Die  apostolischen  Viiter",  Tubingen,  1901,  pp.  98- 
102).  The  ancient  "Notitiae"  place  Philadelphia 
among  the  most  important  suffragans  of  Sardes. 
Under  Andronicus  Palaologus  it  was  raised  to  met- 
ropolitan rank,  and  has  continued  such  among  the 
Greeks,  its  jurisdiction,  since  the  fourteenth  century, 
extending  over  many  neighbouring  sees,  later  obliter- 
ated by  the  Turkish  conquest.  Among  its  bishops  or 
metropolitans,  of  whom  Le  Quicn  (Oriens  christ.,  I, 
867  sq.)  gives  a  very  incomplete  list,  may  be  men- 
tioned: Hetimasius,  present  at  the  Council  of  Nica:^a 
(325) ;  Cyriacus,  at  the  Council  of  Philippopolis  (344); 
Theodosius,  deposed  at  the  Council  of  Seleucia  (359) ; 
Theophanes,  present  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431); 
Asianus  (458);  Eustathius  (518);  .John,  present  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople  (680) ;  Stephanus  at  Nicaja 
(7S7);  Michael  under  Leo  the  Armenian;  Theoleptus 
at  the  end  of  the  tliirteenth  and  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, hymn  writer,  orator,  and  master  of  the  famous 
Barlaam  (P.  G.,  CXLIII,  381  sq.);  Macarius  Chryso- 
cephalas  (1345)  wrote  homilies  (ibid.,  CL,  227  sq.); 
Gabriel  Severus  (1577)  wrote  works  against  the  Latins 
and  resided,  as  did  his  six  successors,  at  Venice;  Ger- 
asimus  Blachus  (1679),  author  of  numerous  works; 
Meletius  Typaldus  (1685),  deposed  for  becoming  a 
Catholic. 

Arondell,  Discoveries  in  Asia  Minor,  I,  34;  Chandler,  Trai>- 
eh,  310  sq.;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Geogr..  s.  v.;  Lb 
Camus,  Les  sept  Eglises  de  V Apocalypse  (Paris,  1896).  203-16; 
FiLLiON  in  ViaouRonx,  Diet,  de  la  Bible.  3.  v.;  Wachter,  Der 
Verfall  des  Griechenlums  im  XIV.  Jahrhundert  %n  Klexnasien 
(Leipzig,  1903),  44  sq.;  LampakE3,  The  Seven  Stars  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse (Athens.  1909),  365-414,  in  Greek;  Rambat,  The  Seven 
Churches  of  Asia  (London,  1908).  S.   P^TRIDES. 

Philadelphia,  Archdiocese  of  (Philadelphien- 
sis),  diocese  established  in  1808;  made  an  archdiocese, 
12  Feb.,  1875,  comprises  all  the  city  and  county  of 
Philadelphia,  and  the  coimties  of  Berks,  Bucks,  Car- 


bon, Chester,  Delaware,  Lehigh,  Montgomery,  North- 
ampton, and  Schuylkill,  an  area  of  5043  square  miles, 
in  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  population  of  this  area,  according  to  the 
United  States  Census,  in  1910,  was  2,712,708,  of  which 
number  1,549,008  belonged  to  the  City  of  Philadel- 
phia. This  city,  the  capital  of  the  archdiocese,  was, 
until  1800,  the  capital  of  the  United  States.  It  is  the 
third  city  in  the  United  States  in  population;  its 
wealth  invested  in  manufacturing  industries  exceeds 
$500,000,000,  and  it  is  the  leading  American  city  in 
shipbuilding,  the  manufacture  of  locomotive  engines, 
street-railway  cars,  carpets,  leather,  oilcloth,  and  sev- 
eral other  important  commodities.  In  1909  the  for- 
eign commerce  of  Philadelphia  amounted  to  $150,- 
504,095. 

History. — Penn's  colony,  founded  in  1682,  as  a 
"holy  experiment",  by  which  each  man  could  without 
molestation  worship  God  according  to  the  dictates  of 
his  own  conscience  (see  Pennsylvania),  soon  became 
a  welcome  haven  of  refuge  to  the  persecuted  Catho- 
hcs  of  the  neighbouring  colonics.  Since  the  mission- 
ary priests,  mainly  Jesuits,  watched  over  the  move- 
ments of  the  members  of  their  scattered  flocks,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  in  their  frequent  journeyings  be- 
tween New  York  and  Maryland  they  should  find  op- 
portunity to  gather  the  faithful  in  the  house  of  a 
Catholic  for  the  celebration  of  the  sacred  mysteries 
and  preaching  the  Word  of  God.  There  was  a  steady 
growth  in  the  number  of  Catholics  throughout  the  col- 
ony, including  some  distinguished  converts.  Repeated 
complaints  were  made  to  London,  that  the  "Popish 
Mass"  was  read  publicly  at  Philadelphia;  but  Penn's 
"Fundamental"  shielded  the  Catholics  in  his  province 
from  molestation.  The  first  resident  priest  in  Philadel- 
phia was  Father  Joseph  Greaton,  S.J.,  who  began  his 
labours  among  the  missions  of  Maryland  and  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1720.  His  first  concern  was  to  build  a  chapel 
and  rectory.  With  this  object  he  bought  the  ground 
where  the  first  public  chapel  was  erected  in  Philadel- 
phia, and  where  still  stands  old  St.  Joseph's  church, 
near  Fourth  and  Walnut  Streets.  In  1741  Father 
Greaton  received  an  assistant  in  the  person  of  Rev. 
Henry  Neale,  S.J.  Welcome  financial  aid  came  to  the 
Pennsylvania  missions  through  the  bounty  of  Sir  John 
James,  of  London,  who  made  a  bequest  in  their  fa- 
vour. The  German  immigrants  were  looked  after  by 
two  missionaries  from  the  Fatherland,  Rev.  Theodore 
Schneider  of  Heidelberg,  who  resided  in  Berks  Co.,  at 
Goshenhoppen,  and  Father  Wappeler  of  Westphalia, 
who  attended  the  Catholics  of  Conewago  and  Lancas- 
ter. Father  Neale  died  5  May,  1748;  and  the  aged 
Greaton  retired  to  Maryland,  where  he  ended  his 
saintly  career,  19  Aug.,  17.53. 

The  second  pastor  of  Philadelphia  was  Father  Rob- 
ert Harding,  born  in  Nottinghamshire,  England,  6 
Oct.,  1701,  who,  having  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
came  to  America  in  1732.  He  assumed  charge  of  Phil- 
adelphia in  1749  and  laboured  with  intelligence  and 
success  for  twenty-f  hree  years.  During  the  excitement 
of  the  French  and  Indian  War  charges  of  disloyalty 
were  brought  against  the  Cafliolics,  but  passed  away 
without  causing  suffering.  Father  Harding  estimated 
the  Catholics  of  Philadelphia  as  about  2000.  Another 
deserving  labourer  in  the  vineyard  was  the  German 
Jesuit,  Father  Steinmeyer,  known  in  the  colony  aa 
Ferdinand  Fanner.  He  laboured  first  at  Lancaster 
among  the  Germans,  afterwards  as  assistant  to  Father 
Harding.  He  is  described  as  a  philosopher  and  as- 
tronomer, and  in  1779  was  a  trustee  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania.  Father  Harding  purchased  land  for 
a  new  church  and  cemetery.  The  church  \v;is  opi'ued 
in  1763  as  St.  Mary's;  it  became  the  ).;irish  cliurcli.  St. 
Joseph's  remaining  a  chapel.  Father  Harding  died  1 
Sept.,  1772,  and  was  interred  .-it  St.  Mary's.  He  was 
succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Robert  .Molyneux,  who,  to- 
gether with  Father  Farmer,  skilfully  guided  the  infant 


PHILADELPHIA 


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Chiiroh  (luring  the  stormy  days  of  the  Revolutign. 
l,iko  llio  majority  of  their  flock,  they  remained  neu- 
tral, till  the  cominf;  of  the  French  allies  called  for 
repeated  services  on  occasions  of  joy  or  sorrow;  the 
addresses,  however,  were  mostly  delivered  by  the 
chaplain  to  the  French  amba,ssador. 

At  the  end  of  the  war  Father  Molyneux  opened  the 
first  Catholic  parish  school.  In  Oct.,  ITS.'j,  the  sacra- 
ment of  Confirmation  was  administered  for  the  first 
time  in  Philadelphia  by  the  Very  Rev.  John  Carroll, 
prefect  Apostolic.  On  17  .\uj;.  of  the  following  year 
Father  FarnuT  pas.s<'(l  to  his  r"ward.  Ilis  funeral  was 
attended  by  the  American  Philosojiliical  Society,  the 
professors  and  trustees  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  by  large  numbers  of  non-Catholics.  No 
one  had  done  so  much  to  make  the  Catholic  religion  re- 
spected by  the  residents  of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsyl- 
vania. Father  Molyneux  soon  after  retired  from  ac- 
tive service  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Francis 
Beeston,  who  built  the  presbytery  of  St.  Joseph's 
which  is  still  occupied  by  the  clergy.  In  1788  a  num- 
ber of  German  Catholics  agitated  for  a  new  distinc- 
tively German  church:  Dr.  Carroll  reluctantly  con- 
sented, warning  them  against  a  feeling  of  sejiaratism 
and  admonishing  them  that  they  could  not  be  per- 
mitted to  name  their  own  pa.stors.  In  1795  the  Ger- 
man church  was  ready  for  occupancy,  and  was  named 
Holy  Trinity,  being,  it  is  said,  the  last  building  for 
public  purpo.ses  erected  in  Philadelphia  of  alternate 
red  and  black  glazed  brick.  This  church  gave  great 
trouble  to  Bishop  Carroll,  on  account  of  the  preten- 
sions of  the  trustees,  and  had  to  be  placed  under  inter- 
dict. The  three  churches  now  built,  St.  Joseph's,  St. 
Marj''s,  and  Holy  Trinity,  were  all  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  city.  Provision  had  to  be  made  for  the 
Catholics  living  in  what  was  then  the  extreme  north- 
ern section.  Opportunely,  the  Augustinians  were 
seeking  to  found  a  house  in  the  United  States,  and  to 
them  the  new  congregation  was  entrusted.  In  1796 
the  Rev.  Matthew  Carr,  O.S.A.,  issued  an  appeal  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Philadelphia  and  received  a  gener- 
ous response.  President  Washington  figures  in  the  list 
of  .subscribers,  for  S.'JO,  Commodore  Barry,  for  SI 50, 
and  Stephen  Girard,  for  $40.  After  many  vicissitudes, 
"the  largest  church  in  Philadelphia"  was  dedicated 
under  the  invocation  of  St.  Augustine,  7  June,  1801. 
When  Father  Carr  removed  to  his  new  residence  near 
St.  Augustine's,  the  trustees  of  St.  Mary's  petitioned 
the  bishop  to  send  them  a  pastor  capable  of  sustaining 
the  dignity  of  "the  leading  church  in  the  United 
States".  The  bishop  found  them  the  priest  they  were 
looking  for  in  the  person  of  the  Rev.  ^lidiael  Egan,  a 
Franciscan  stationed  at  Lancaster.  He  had  come  to 
America  in  order  to  establish  in  this  country  a  house 
of  his  order,  but  found  the  time  premature  and  be- 
came a  missionary  priest  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
Bisliop  Carroll.  He  was  ably  assisted  at  St.  Mary's  by 
Father  Rossiter. 

The  time  having  arrived  when  Philadelphia  should 
be  erected  into  an  episcopal  see,  Pius  VII,  by  Bulls 
dated  8  April,  1808,  designated  the  diocese  as  includ- 
ing "the  entire  two  States  of  Pennsylvania  and  Dela- 
ware, and  the  western  and  southern  part  of  the  State 
of  New  Jersey".  An  accompanying  Brief  appointed 
Father  Michael  Egan  (q.  v.)  to  be  the  first  occupant 
of  the  see.  Owing  to  the  existing  political  conditions 
in  Europe,  the  Briefs  did  not  reach  Baltimore  until 
1810,  and  during  the  interval  Father  Egan  remained 
in  Philadelphia  as  vicar-general  to  Bishop  Carroll. 
On  10  Nov.,  ISOS,  there  arrived  in  Philadelphia  the 
Dominican  Father  William  Vincent  Harold,  who  came 
from  Ireland  recommended  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Dubliri  and  other  dignitaries.  Bishop  Egan  accepted 
him  with  eagerness,  and  the  eloquent  preacher  soon 
became  a  great  favourite.  Bishop  Egan  having  been 
con.secrated  at  Baltimore,  28  Oct.,  1810,  made  Father 
Harold  his  vicar-general  and  took  up  his  residence  at 


St.  Joseph's  with  him  and  an  uncle  of  his,  the  Rev. 
James  Harold,  who  had  arrived  from  Ireland  in  March, 
1811.  Relations  between  the  hislio]!  and  lln'  ll.-irolds 
became  strained  for  domestic  reasons  not  well  ex- 
plained. Trouble  arose  between  the  elerny  and  the 
trustees,  and  I  lie  Harolds  returned  to  Europe.  .After 
a  troubled  aduiinistration  of  three  years  and  nine 
montlis  Bishop  Egan  died  at  the  age  of  fil'ty-three. 
The  trust  ees  of  St.  Mary's  had  acquired  for  themselves 
such  a  rejiutation  for  insubordination,  that  it  was  no 
easy  matter  to  find  any  one  willing  to  take  up  the 
burden  of  the  episcopate.  Fathers  Mar6chal,  D(d{arth 
and  David  declined  to  accept. 

Finally,  after  an  interval  of  five  years,  the  Holy  See 
selected  the  vicar-general  of  Armagh,  Ireland,  the 
Very  Rev.  Henry  Conwell,  seventy-two  years  old. 
He  was  consecrated  in  London  by  Bishop  Poynter,  24 
Sept.,  1820,  and  arrived  in  Philadelphia  on  25  Nov.,  of 
that  year.  A  very  disagreeable  duty  was  awaiting  him 
in  the  case  of  the  Rev.  William  Hogan,  a  priest  of  Al- 
bany whom  the  administrator  had  imprudently  ad- 
mitted to  the  diocese  without  sufficient  inquiry  or 
credentials.  Bishop  England  states  that  he  was  "de- 
ficient in  the  most  common  branches  of  an  English  edu- 
cation". But  he  was  a  man  of  fine  personal  presence, 
afluent  talker,  a  born  demagogue,  and  able  to  preachtHi 
topics  which  tickled  tlie  ears  of  men  wliose  religion  was 
a  matter  of  fasliion.  ,\  clear  and  imiiartial  narrative  of 
the  Hogan  Schism  is  found  in  Father  Kirlin's  excellent 
work,  "Catholicity  in  Philadelphia".  (See  also  CoN- 
WELL,  Hbnrt.)  It  remains  a  question  whether  the 
Hogan  schism,  which  engrossed  the  interest  of  Cath- 
olics throughout  the  entire  nation,  did  not  do  more 
good  than  harm.  It  focussed  the  attention  of  Cath- 
olics and  non-Catholics  on  the  important  question  of 
episcopal  rights.  While  some  lukewarm  Catholics 
fell  away  from  the  Church,  the  body  of  the  faithful 
rallied  to  their  pastors  with  ardour  and  increased  in- 
telligence. The  question  of  lay  interference  in  the 
administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  Church  was  settled 
for  all  time  in  Philadelphia.  The  repudiation  by  the 
Holy  See  and  by  the  hierarchy  of  the  United  States 
of  the  compromise  of  9  Oct.,  1826,  in  which  Bishop 
Conwell  surrendered  to  the  already  beaten  trustees 
several  episcopal  rights,  ended  forever  in  these  States 
the  tyranny  of  trusteeism. 

On  7  July,  1830,  there  arrived  in  the  city  of  Phil- 
adelphia a  man  who  was  to  shed  lustre  on  the  diocese 
and  on  the  United  States,  Francis  Patrick  Kenrick 
(q.  v.).  Having  been  appointed  coadjutor  of  the 
diocese,  he  found  a  valuable  lieutenant  in  the  person 
of  the  Rev.  John  Hughes,  a  man  five  or  six  months  his 
junior,  who  remained  Bishop  Kenrick's  right  hand 
and  secretary  until  his  own  elevation  to  the  See  of 
New  York.  After  fruitless  admonitions  to  the  trus- 
tees of  St.  Mary's,  the  administrator,  on  16  April, 
1831,  closed  the  church  and  cemeteries  of  St.  Marj''s. 
On  18  May  the  trustees  surrendered,  and  on  28 
May  the  church  was  reopened.  In  1832  Bishop  Ken- 
rick opened  what  eventually  became  the  diocesan 
seminary  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  the  beneficent  re- 
sults of  which  were  soon  apparent.  During  the  first 
two  years  of  this  administration  the  number  of 
churches  was  doubled,  the  first  addition  being  the 
church  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist  built  by  Father 
John  Hughes  and  dedicated  8  April,  1832,  which  was 
soon  followed  by  that  of  St.  John  Baptist,  Manayunk, 
with  the  Rev.  Thomas  Gegan  as  first  pastor.  On  8 
April,  18.33,  was  laid  the  cornerstone  of  St.  Michael's 
church  at  Kensington,  organized  by  the  Rev.  Terence 
J.  Donoghue. 

When  the  avrful  cholera  scourge  visited  Philadelphia 
in  1832,  the  intrepidity  of  the  priests  and  sisters  pre- 
sented an  example  of  heroic  Christian  charity  which 
was  long  remembered.  On  14  May,  1837,  death  called 
away  one  of  the  most  vaUant  priests  of  the  city, 
Father  Michael  Hurley,  O.S.A.,  who  almost  from  the 


rl 


PHILADELPHIA 


795 


PHILADELPHIA 


beginning  of  the  century  had  given  great  edification 
liy  his  zeal  and  saintly  life.  Later  in  the  same  year 
the  Rev.  John  Hughes  was  elevated  to  the  episcopal 
See  of  Now  York.  About  the  same  time  St.  John's 
liecame  the  cathedral.  In  1839  the  parish  of  St. 
I'"rancis  Xavier  was  founded  for  the  Fairmount  dis- 
trict, and  St.  Patrick's  church  was  organized  for  the 
Si-liuylkill  suburb.  The  following  year  saw  the 
ioumliiig  of  St.  Philip's  in  the  extreme  south.  Its 
lirst  |):istor  was  the  Rev.  John  P.  Dunn.  In  1842  the 
( 'iiTiiians  of  Kensington  were  provided  for  by  the 
liiiililiiig  of  St.  Peter's  and  the  installation  of  the 
KiMciiiptorist  Fathers.  In  1843  the  church  of  St. 
I'aiil  was  opened  in  Moyamensing  by  the  Rev.  Patrick 
I '.  Sheridan.  To  the  north,  the  church  of  St.  Stephen 
was  l>uilt  near  the  spot  in  Nieetown  where  the  first 
M  assi's  were  celebrated  by  itinerant  missionaries.  On 
1.")  Nov.,  1846,  St.  Anne's  church  at  Port  Richmond 
was  dedicated  by  Father  Gartland  of  St.  John's, 
Bishop  Hughes  of  New  York  preaching  the  sermon. 
During  the  year  1845,  St.  Joachim's  was  founded  at 
I'rankford  by  the  Rev.  Dominic  Forrestal.  On  the 
Feast  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  29  June,  1846,  the  bishop 
issued  a  pastoral  letter  announcing  his  determination 
to  build  a  cathedral.  He  chose  for  the  site  a  plot  of 
ground  adjoining  the  seminary  at  Eighteenth  and  Race 
Streets.  The  architect  was  Napulcdu  T.cbrun.  It  was 
the  bishop's  intention  to  avoid  running  into  debt,  so 
the  cathedral  was  long  in  building.  In  1848hefounded 
the  churcli  of  the  Assumption,  with  the  convert,  Charles 
I.  H.  Carter,  for  pastor.  The  ancient  suburb  of  Ger- 
mantown  contained  very  few  Catholics,  but  the  Laza- 
rist  Fathers,  who  conducted  the  seminary,  were  willing 
to  assume  the  risk  of  building  a  church  in  that  section, 
and  the  church  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  was  opened  for 
worship  on  13  July,  1851,  the  first  pastor  being  the 
Rev.  M.  Domenec,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Pittsburg.  In 
1849  a  church  was  built  at  Holmesburg  and  named 
St.  Dominic,  the  Rev.  Charles  Dominic  Berrill, 
O.P.,  being  appointed  pastor.  In  18.50  the  parish 
of  St.  James,  in  West  Philadelphia,  was  founded  by 
the  Rev.  J.  V.  O'Keefe,  who  took  a  census  and  dis- 
covered forty  Catholic  adults  in  the  district.  The  last 
evidence  in  Philadc-lphia  of  Bishop  Kenrick's  activity 
was  the  church  of  St.  Malachy,  the  cornerstone  of 
which  he  blessed  2.5  May,  1851.  Before  its  comple- 
tion he  was  transferred  to  the  metropolitan  See  of 
Baltimore.  The  western  portion  of  Pennsylvania 
was  formed  into  the  Diocese  of  Pittsburg.SAug.,  1843, 
with  the  Rt.  Rev.  M.  O'Connor,  D.D.,  for  its  first 
bishop.  (For  the  burning  of  Catholic  churches  in  the 
Philadelphia  riots  of   1844,  see  Knownothinmsm.) 

The  fourth  Bishop  of  Philadelphia,  John  Nepomu- 
cene  Neumann,  was  consecrated  28  March,  1852.  (See 
Nbum-^nn,  John  Nbpomucene,  Vener.^ble.)  Ten 
churches  sprang  up  during  the  first  year  of  his  epis- 
copate. The  constant  topic  of  his  exhortations  was  the 
necessity  of  parish  schools.  Failing  to  bring  the  contu- 
macious trustees  of  Holy  Trinity  to  their  senses,  he  un- 
dermined theirinfluence  by  putting  up  the  church  of  St. 
Alphonsus.  On  19  Oct.,  18.54,  he  left  for  Rome  to  as- 
sist at  the  proclamation  of  the  dogma  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  and  he  returned  in  March,  1855.  On 
26  April,  1857,  the  Rt.  Rev.  James  Frederick  Wood 
was  consecrated  in  the  cathedral  of  Cincinnati  as  co- 
adjutor fo  the  Bishop  of  Philadelphia.  Bishop  Wood 
was  acknowledged  by  the  financial  world  as  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  every  phase  of  the  banking 
business,  which  had  been  the  occupation  of  his  earlier 
years,  .-^t  a  meeting  of  the  clergy,  Bishop  Neumann 
announced  that  the  work  of  completing  the  cathedral 
had  been  committed  to  his  coadjutor.  In  October, 
18.57,  he  held  his  last  synod:  there  were  114  priests 
present,  and  32  had  been  excused  from  attendance. 

James  Frederick  Wood,  1he  fifth  bishop  of  the  dio- 
cese, was  born  at  Philadelphia  27  April,  1813.  His 
father,  James  Wood,  was  an  English  merchant  and 


had  his  child  baptized  by  a  minister  of  the  Unitarian 
sect.  In  1827  James  Wood  and  liis  family  removed  to 
Cincinnati,  where  the  boy  obtained  a  position  as  clerk 
in  a  bank.  Eleven  years  later  (7  April,  1838),  in  his 
twenty-fifth  year,  the  future  bishop  was  received  into 
the  Catholic  Church  by  Bishop  Purcell,  and  nexi:!  year 
he  was  sent  to  Rome  to  prosecute  his  studies  at  the 
College  of  the  Propaganda,  where  he  was  ordained  to 
the  priesthood  by  Cardinal  Fransoni,  25  March,  1844. 
After  a  short  term  as  assistant  at  the  cathedral  of  Cin- 
cinnati, he  was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Patrick's 
church.  Though  the  main  object  of  his  appointment 
to  Philadelphia  was  to  relieve  Bishop  Neumann  of  the 
temporal  cares  of  the  diocese,  yet  he  by  no  means  con- 
fined his  efforts  to  that  sphere.  He  was  zealous  in 
preaching  the  Word  of  God  and  gave  confirmation  in 
all  the  churches.  On  the  death  of  Bishop  (Venerable 
John  Nepomucene)  Neumann,  which  took  place 
on  5  January,  1860,  the  Catholic  population  of  the 
diocese,  which  still  included  Delaware,  was  esti- 
mated at  200,000  souls.  There  were  157  churches 
(besides  9  in  course  of  erection)  and  7  chapels, 
attended  by  147  priests.  Tlie  preparatory  seminary 
at  Glen  Riddle,  under  the  Re\'.  J.  F.  Shanahan,  and 
the  theological  seminary  adjoining  the  cathedral, 
under  the  Rev.  Wm.  O'Hara,  D.D.,  were  in  a  flourish- 
ing condition.  There  were  36  parish  schools,  attended 
by  8710  pupils.  The  diocese  was  well  supplied  with 
colleges,  acaflemies,  :i,sylums,  hospitals,  and  religious 
orders  of  both  .sexes.  In  the  first  year  of  his  adminis- 
tration Hisliop  Wood  established,  at  the  two  extreme 
ends  of  tlie  city,  the  i)arishes  of  the  Annunciation  and 
All  Saints,  Hridesburg. 

The  bishop  had  the  erection  of  the  cathedral  well  in 
hand,  when  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  came  to  re- 
tard its  completion.  Nothing  daunted,  however,  he 
continm-d  his  efforts  and  on  20  Nov.,  1864,  had  the 
hap|iiiiess  til  sing  the  first  Ma.ss  in  the  immense  edi- 
tieiv  Srarcely  had  he  finished  the  cathedral,  when  he 
))uicliaseil  a  large  tract  of  land  just  outside  the  city 
liiiiils.  as  t  lie  site  of  a  new  seminary.  The  pastoral  let- 
ter in  which  he  announced  the  jiurehase  at  ( iverbrook 
is  dated  S  Dee.,  l.Sli.',;  (,n  Hi  Sept.,  1S71,  the  beautiful 
building  was  filled  with  12,S  students  from  the  two  old 
seminaries.  During  his  visit  to  Rome,  in  1867,  he  pe- 
titioned the  Holy  See  for  t  he  creation  of  the  Dioceses 
of  Scranton  and  Ilarrisburg,  anfl  his  wish  was  granted 
3March,1868.  Hewas  prominent  at  I  hi' Seioiid  Plen- 
ary Council  of  Baltimore,  and,  iiideid,  at  ever\  assem- 
bly of  the  hierarchy  his  counsels  were  re\-eiently  lis- 
tened to.  He  attended  the  Council  of  the  Vatican,  but 
being  in  |)oor  health  left  Rome  early  in  March.  He 
took  a  great  interest  in  the  newly  established  North 
American  College,  wi.sely  insist  <m1  that  the  funds  of  the 
college  should  be  kejit  in  America,  and  was  unani- 
mously ajjpoinfed  treasurer  of  the  board. 

On  15  Oct.,  1873,  with  all  possible  pomp,  Bishop 
Wood  consecrated  the  diocese  to  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
.Jesus.  In  1875  he  was  prostrated  by  rheumatism;  a 
journey  to  the  Sovith  gave  him  slight  relief;  and  when 
the  instruments  arrived  creating  him  archbishop  and 
making  Philadelphia  a  metro])olitan  see,  it  was  with 
evident  pain  he  went  through  tlie  long  ceremony  of  the 
conferring  of  the  pallium.  He  had  wonderful  recuper- 
ative powers,  however,  and  in  1S77  went  to  Rome  with 
15311, 1)1)0  Peter's  pence  to  assist  at  the  celebrat  ion  of  the 
golden  jubilee  of  Pius  l.X's  (>pi.scopate.  Recovering 
from  another  liad  attack  in  R<ime,  he  returned  home. 
On  23  May,  ISSO,  he  presided  over  the  First  Provin- 
cial Council  of  Phil.adi'lpliia.  .\fter  thishe  wtisfor  the 
most  p.art  confined  to  his  room,  where,  however,  he 
<-ontin\ied  to  traiisac't  business  with  his  usual  energy. 
His  end  came  on  20  June,  1883.  The  entire  City  of 
Philadelphia  turned  out  to  show  its  affection  for  one 
whom  it  regarded  as  its  most  distinguishecl  citizen. 
.\rchbishop  Wood  is  buried  with  the  other  bishops  of 
the  diocese  in  the  crypt  beneath  the  cathedral.    He  had 


PHILANTHROPINISM 


796 


PHILANTHROPINISM 


administered  the  Sacrament  of  Confirmation  to  105,- 
000  persons.  In  1808,  in  the  curtailed  diocese,  there 
were  76  churches  and  21  chapels;  at  his  death  there 
were  127  churches  and  5'.i  chapels.  He  found,  in 
1858,  33  parish  schools  in  this  section;  he  left  58. 

The  choice  of  a  successor  to  Archbishop  Wood  de- 
manded thought  on  the  part  of  the  Roman  authori- 
ties, and  they  took  a  year  to  come  to  a  decision.  At 
first  they  seemed  to  consider  favourably  the  venerable 
Bishop  O'Hara  of  Scranton,  who,  as  rector  of  the 
seminary  and  vicar-general  of  the  diocese,  had  done 
valuable  service  in  Philadelphia.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  he  would  have  been  selected,  had  it  not  been  for 
his  seventy  odd  years.  The  deUberations  of  Propa- 
ganda finally  concluded  with  the  choice  of  the  coad- 
jutor of  St.  Louis;  the  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  John  Ryan, 
who  was  in  his  fifty-second  year,  had  achninistered  an 
important  diocese  for  ten  years,  and  seemed  to  lack 
no  qualification  demanded  by  so  eminent  a  metro- 
politan see  as  Philadelphia.     (See  Ryan,  Patrick  J.) 

On  20  Aug.,  1884,  he  took  formal  possession  of  his 
archiepiscopal  see  and  received  the  homage  of  250 
priests  of  the  diocese.  In  November  of  that  year  he 
opened  the  proceedings  of  the  Third  Plenary  Council, 
and  on  4  January,  1885,  was  invested  with  the  pallium. 
After  24  PVb.,  1897,  he  was  ably  assisted  by  his  auxil- 
iary bishop,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Edmond  F.  Prendergast. 
Onthe  death  of  Archbishop  Ryan,  which  took  place  on 
11  February,  1911,  Bishop  Prendergast  assumed  the 
administration  of  the  diocese. 

Philadelphia  is  also  the  residence  of  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Soter  Stephen  Ortynski,  the  Ruthenian  Greek  Catho- 
lic bishop  for  the  United  States  (see  Greek  Catho- 
lics IN  THE  United  States). 

There  is  probably  no  diocese  in  the  world  better 
provided  with  institutions  of  religion,  education,  and 
charitythan  Philadelphia.  The  parish  school  system  is 
admirably  organized.  There  are  141  schools  teaching 
63,612  children.  There  are  149  ecclesiastical  students 
preparing  for  the  priesthood,  and  there  is  never  a  lack 
of  vocations.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese 
was  estimated  in  1910  at  525,000,  whose  spiritual 
needs  are  supplied  by  582  priests,  regular  and  secular. 
There  are  434  churches,  chapels,  and  stations.  The 
religious  institutes  established  in  the  diocese  are:  Re- 
demptorist  Fathers  (14),  Augustinian  Fathers  (Vil- 
lanova  and  six  other  establishinents,  33  fathers).  Con- 
gregation of  the  Holy  Ghost  (4  houses,  1  no\atiate,  1 
industrial  school,  15  fathers),  Vincentian  Fathers  (3 
houses,  1  seminary,  24  fathers).  Society  of  Jesus  (2 
hou.ses,  1  college,  22  fathers),  Christian  Brothers  (10 
houses,  89  brothers).  There  are  in  the  diocese  (1911) 
2565  religious  women,  novices,  and  postulants  and  11 
schools  for  girls  under  the  care  of  religious  women. 
The  religious  institutes  for  women  are:  Sisters  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of 
Christian  Charity,  Felician  Sisters,  Franciscan  Ter- 
tiaries,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Child  Jesus,  Sisters  of  the  Most  Holy  Family  of 
Nazareth,  Sisters-Servants  of  the  Immaculate  Heart, 
Discalced  Carmelites,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Sisters 
of  Mercy  (Philadelphia  foundation  and  Scranton 
foundation) ,  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame  (Namur).  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor, 
Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic, 
Bemardine,  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  (Polish),  Missionary 
Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Poor  Handmaids  of 
Jesus  Christ,  Filite  Maria. 

Shea,  Hist,  of  the  Cath.  Church  in  the  U.  S.  (New  York.  1886- 
92) ;  Mahoky,  Historical  Sketches  of  the  Cath.  Churches  and  Insti- 
tutions of  Philadelphia:  KiRLiN.  Catholicity  in  Philadelphia  (Phil- 
adelphia, 1909);  Catholic  Standard  and  Times,  files;  Am.  Cath. 
Hist.  Researches:    Official  Cath.  Directory  (1911). 

James  F.  LotiGHLiN. 
Philanthropinism,  the  .system  of  education  educed 
from  the  ideas  of  Rousseau  and  of  the  German  "En- 
lightenment", and  established  by  Basedow  on  the 


basis  of  "philanthropy".  Johann  Bernhard  Basedow 
(b.  at  Hamburg,  11  Sept.,  1723;  d.  at  Magdeburg,  25 
July,  1790)  was  a  pupil  at  the  school  of  Hamburg 
under  the  free-think(>r  llcrrnatiii  .Saniiicl  Kcimarus, 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  hecuiiie  (1719)  a  tutor  in 
a  noble  family  in  Holstein,  and  (1753)  professor  at 
the  academy  for  young  noblemen  at  Soroe  on  the 
Island  of  Zealand,  Denmark.  In  1761  he  was  removed 
from  this  position  on  account  of  his  Rationalistic 
opinions  and  appointed  professor  in  a  school  at 
Altona.  Here  he  pubhshed  his  "  Methodenbuch 
fiir  Vater  und  Mtitter  der  Familien  und  Volker" 
(Altona  and  Bremen,  1770;  3rd  ed.,  1773),  in  which 
he  presented  in  detail  his  ideas  for  the  improvement 
of  the  school-system.  This  work  and  his  "Agatho- 
krator  oder  von  der  Erziehung  kiinf tiger  Regenten" 
(Leipzig,  1771)  attracted  the  attention  of  Prince 
Leopold  Friedrich  Franz  of  Anhalt-Dessau.  In  1771 
the  prince  called  Basedow  to  Dessau,  where  he  wrote 
his  "  Elementarwerk  "  (4  vols,  with  100  copper-plates, 
Dessau,  1774;  2nd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1785)  which,  in  a  form 
suitable  to  modern  times,  sought  to  present  the  idea 
carried  out  in  the  "Orbis  pictus"  of  Comenius,  of 
uniting  the  pictures  of  the  things  with  the  notions 
of  them,  by  giving  with  pictures  all  the  material 
essential  for  training  children.  In  1774  he  opened  a 
model  school  at  Dessau,  the  "Philanthropinum". 

As  the  name  signifies,  it  was  to  be  a  school  of  phil- 
anthropy for  teachers  and  pupils.  In  contrast  to  the 
severe  discipline  of  earlier  days,  children  were  to  be 
trained  in  a  friendly  and  gentle  manner,  instruction 
was  to  be  made  attractive,  study  as  easy  and  pleasant 
as  possible.  The  standard  in  forming  the  course  of 
study  was  the  practical  and  useful.  Languages  were 
to  be  taught  more  by  practice  and  speaking  than  by 
the  learning  of  grammatical  rules,  Latin,  German,  and 
French  being  regarded  as  the  most  important.  Spe- 
cial attention  was  also  given  to  the  more  practical 
studies,  as  arithmetic,  geometry,  geography,  drawing, 
and  natural  science.  Basedow  and  his  successors 
deserve  credit  for  their  improvement  of  methods  and 
educational  appliances.  Special  stress  was  laid  on 
physical  development.  The  fact  that  children  be- 
longed to  a  particular  nation  or  religious  confession 
was  disregarded;  education  was  to  produce  cos- 
mopolites. Religious  instruction  was  to  be  replaced 
by  the  teaching  of  a  universal  natural  morality. 
Among  the  teachers  who  aided  Basedow  in  this  school 
was  Christian  Heinrich  Wolke,  who  had  been  his 
assistant  before  this  in  preparing  the  "Elementar- 
werk". Ba.sedow,  although  a  fine  pedagogist,  lacked 
the  personal  qualities  necessary  for  conducting  such 
an  institution,  and  retired  in  1776.  His  place  was 
taken  (1776-77)  by  Joachim  Heinrich  Campe  (1746- 
1818),  who  was  later  a  prolific  writer  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  Philanthropinism,  and  is  best  known  by 
his  German  version  of  Robinson  Crusoe  called  "Rob- 
inson der  Jiingere";  his  most  important  work  is 
"Allgemeine  Revision  des  gesammten  Schul-  und 
Erziehungswesens"  (16  vols.,  1785-91).  For  a  short 
time  after  Campe  had  retired,  Basedow,  assisted  by 
Wolke,  was  once  more  the  head  of  the  school.  Among 
the  others  who  taught  for  a  time  at  this  institution 
were  Ernst  Christian  Trapp  (174.5-1818),  who  sought 
to  systematize  the  philanthropinist  principles  and 
theories  in  his  "Versuch  einer  Padagogik"  (Berlin, 
1780);  Salzmann  (see  below),  and  Louis  Henry  Fer- 
dinand Olivier  (17.59-1815).  In  1793  this  first  "Phil- 
anthropinum" cea.sed  to  exist. 

Those  who  held  Basedow's  pedagogical  opinions 
were  called  Philanthropen,  or  Philanlhropislen.  In 
imitation  of  the  school  at  Dessau  institutions  called 
Philanthropin  were  establi.shed  at  various  places.  The 
only  Philanthropin  that  prospered  and  still  exists  was 
that  founded  by  .Salzmann  at  Schnepfenthal  in  the 
Duchy  of  Gotha.  Christian  Gotthilf  Salzmann  (b.  at 
Sommerda  near  Erfurt,  1  June,  1744;  d.  at  Schnep- 


PHILASTRinS 


797 


PHILEMON 


fenthal,  31  Oct.,  1811)  was  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished pedagogues  of  the  PhUanthropinist  school,  and 
l^robabl)'  the  most  interesting  personality  among  all 
its  representatives.  He  was  originally  a  Protestant 
liastor  at  Erfurt;  then,  after  writing  on  educational 
subjects  for  some  time,  he  became  the  teacher  of 
religion  at  the  Philanthropin  at  Dessau  (1781-84), 
and  in  1784  founded  his  own  school  at  Schnepfenthal, 
which  he  conducted  until  his  death.  Like  the  entire 
Philanthropinist  school,  his  religious  opinions  were 
rationalistic.  The  best  known  of  his  writings  are 
"  Krebsbiichlein  oder  Anweisung  zu  einer  unverniinft- 
isen  Erziehung  der  Kinder"  (Erfurt,  1780,  and  fre- 
iiuently  reprinted),  a  satirical  account  of  the  results 
uf  a  wrong  education;  " Ameisenbiichlein  oder  An- 
weisung zu  einer  vernilnftigen  Erziehung  der  Er- 
zieher"  (Schnepfenthal,  1806);  "Konrad  Kiefer  oder 
Anweisung  zu  einer  verniinftigen  Erziehung  der 
Kinder"  (Erfurt,  1796).  The  most  important  of 
.Salzmann's  assistants  was  Johann  Christoph  Fried- 
rich  Guts-Muths  (1759-1839),  who  was  the  teacher 
of  geography  at  Salzmann's  school;  one  of  his  pupils 
was  the  celebrated  geographer  Karl  Ritter,  the  first 
jjupil  of  the  school  at  Schnepfenthal.  Guts-Muths, 
however,  is  best  known  for  his  work  in  gymnastics. 
Friedrich  Eberhard  von  Rochow  (1734-1805)  advo- 
cated views  similar  to  those  of  the  PhilanthropinLsts, 
hut,  unlike  the  actual  members  of  this  school,  did 
much  for  the  improvement  of  primary  education; 
his  "  Kinderf reund  "  (1775,  and  many  later  editions) 
was  a  widely  used  school-book.  Finally  Christian 
Felix  Weisse  (1726-1804),  a  voluminous  writer  for 
children,  exerted  great  influence  through  his  "Kinder- 
freund"  (24  vols.,  1775-84),  a  weekly  pubhcation  for 
children. 

PiNLOCHE,  La  refarmr  dr  V ediiralion  rn  AUemagne  oa  18'  Slide, 
Basedow  et  le  phiiiir,llir,'/,inf:f'n-  iPari>,  1S89);  PiNLOCHi:  and 
RaCSCHENFBLS,  G'.sr/,.  ,/.  Fl,:lcrdl,r<,,nn,smus  (Leipzig,  1S96) ; 
Thalhofer,  Die  seriuUe  Pudao<'<jil{  bi'i  dm  Philanthropen  (Kemp- 
ten,  1907):  RoLFUS  AND  Pfister,  Real  -  Encyclop&die  des  Er~ 
ziehungs-  und  Uiilerrichtswesens,  IV  (2nd  ed.,  Mainz,  1S74),  1-15; 
Kellner,  Kurze  Gesch.  der  Erziehung  und  des  Unterrichts  (6th 
ed.,  Freiburg  im  Br.,  1881),  141-56;  PAnLSEN,  Gesch.  des  gelehrten 
Unterricktcs  auf  den  deutschen  Schulen  und  Vniversitdten,  II  (2nd 
ed.,  Leipzig,  1897),  46-63;  Badmgartner,  Gesch.  der  Padagogik 
(Freiburg  ira  Br.,  1902),  16(>-72;  Krieg,  Lehrhuch  der  Pddagogik 
(2nd  ed.,  Paderborn,  1900),  145-47;  Basedow,  Ausgewdhlte 
Schriften,  ed.  Goring  in  Bihliothek  pddagogischer  Ktassiker 
(Langensalza,  1880);  Salzmann,  Ausgewdhlte  Schriften,  ed, 
AcKERMANN  in  Bibliothek  pddagogischer  Klassiker  (2  vols.,  Lan- 
gensalza, 1889-91);  Salzmann,  Krehsbuchlein  und  Ameisen- 
biichlein, ed.  WiMMEBS  in  Sammlung  der  bedeutendsten  pddago- 
gisehen  Schriften,  VI  (Paderborn,  1890;  2nd  ed.,  1894;    9tL  ed., 

1891).  Friedrich  Lauchert. 

Philastrius,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Brescia,  d.  before 
397.  He  was  one  of  the  bishops  present  at  a  synod 
held  in  Aquileia  in  381.  St.  Augustine  met  him  at 
Milan  about  383, orperhaps  a  littlelater  (St.  Augustine, 
Ep.  ccx-xii).  He  composed  a  catalogue  of  heresies 
(Diversarum  Hereseon  Liber)  about  384.  Among  the 
writings  of  St.  Gaudentius  (q.  v.)  was  a  sernion  pur- 
porting to  be  preached  on  the  fourteenth  anniversary 
of  St.  Philastrius's  death.  According  to  this  sermon, 
PhUastrius's  life  began  with  a  great  act  of  renuncia- 
tion, for  which  he  might  fitly  be  compared  to  Abra- 
ham. Later  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  travelled 
over  nearly  the  whole  Roman  world  (circumambiens 
Universum  pene  ambitum  Romani  Orbis),  preaching 
against  pagans,  Jews,  and  heretics,  especially  the 
Arians.  Like  St.  Paul  he  carried  in  his  body  the  "stig- 
mata" of  Christ,  having  been  scourged  for  his  zeal 
against  the  last-named  heretics.  At  Milan  he  was  a 
great  stay  of  the  Catholic  party  in  the  time  of  St. 
Ambrose's  Arian  predecessor.  At  Rome  he  held  both 
private  and  public  disputations  with  heretics,  and 
converted  many.  His  wanderings  ceased  when  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Brescia. 

Doubts  were  first  raised  by  Dupin  as  to  the  gen- 
uineness of  this  sermon,  and  these  have  been  reiterated 
by  Marx,  the  latest  editor  of  Philastrius,  who  thinks 


the  sermon  a  forgery  of  the  eighth  or  ninth  century. 
The  chief  objection  to  its  genuineness,  rather  a  weak 
one,  seems  to  be  that  it  is  not  found  in  the  MSS.  con- 
taining the  undoubted  sermons  of  St.  Gaudentius. 
Marx  was  answered  by  Knappe,  "1st  die  21  Rede  des 
hi.  Gaudentius  (Oratio  B.  Gaudentii  de  Vita  et  Obitu 
B.  Filastrii  episcopi  pra;decessoris  sui)  echt?  Zugleich 
ein  Betrag  zur  Latinitat  des  Gaudentius"  (Osnabruck), 
who  endeavours  to  prove  the  genuineness  of  the  sermon 
in  question  by  linguistic  arguments.  His  BoUandist 
reviewer  thinks  he  has  made  a  strong  case  (Anal.  Boll., 
XXVIII,  224).  Philastrius's  "Catalogue"  of  heresies 
would  have  httle  value,  were  it  not  for  the  circum- 
stance discovered  by  Lipsius  that  for  the  Christian 
heresies  up  to  Noetus  the  compiler  drew  from  the 
same  source  as  Epiphanus,  i.  e.  the  lost  Syntagma  of 
Hippolytus.  By  the  aid,  therefore,  of  these  two  and 
the  Pseudo-Tertulhan  "Adv.  Hser. ",  it  has  been 
possible  in  great  measure  to  reconstruct  the  lost 
treatise  of  Hippolytus.  The  first  edition  of  the  ' '  Cata- 
logue" was  published  at  Basle  (1.528);  the  latest,  ed. 
Marx,  inthe  Vienna  "Corp.  Script.  Eccl.  Lat. "  (1898). 

TiLLEMONT,  H.  E.,  VIII,  541  sq.;  Ceillier,  Hist,  des  Auteurs 
Eccles.,  VI,  739  sq.;  Lipsius,  Zur  Quellenkritik  des  Epiphanus 
(Vienna,  1865) ;  Idem,  Quellen  der  dlt.  Ketzergesch.  (Leipzig, 
1875) ;  Hahnack,  Quellenkritik  der  Gesch.  des  Gnosticismus  (Leip- 
zig, 1874);  KuNZE,  De  hist.  Gnosticismi  fontibus  novw  quasi, 
critica:  (Leipzig,  1S94).  F.   J.    BacCHUS. 

Philemon  (Gr.  </iiXi5/iwi'),  a  citizen  of  Colossse  (q.  v.), 
to  whom  St.  Paul  addressed  a  private  letter,  unique 
in  the  New  Testament,  which  bears  his  name.  As 
appears  from  this  epistle,  Philemon  was  his  dear  and 
intimate  friend  (verses  1,  13,  17,  22),  and  had  been 
converted  most  probably  by  him  (verse  19)  during 
his  long  residence  at  Ephesus  (Acts,  xix,  26;  cf.  xviii, 
19),  as  St.  Paul  himself  had  not  visited  Colossse  (Col., 
ii,  1).  Rich  and  noble,  he  possessed  slaves;  his  house 
was  a  place  of  meeting  and  worship  for  the  Colossian 
converts  (verse  2) ;  he  was  kind,  helpful,  and  chari- 
table (verses  5,  7),  providing  hospitality  for  his  fellow- 
Christians  (verse  22).  St.  Paul  calls  him  his  fellow- 
labourer  (crvi'epydt,  verse  1),  so  that  he  must  have 
been  earnest  in  his  work  for  the  Gospel,  perhaps  first 
at  Ephesus  and  afterwards  at  Colossi.  It  is  not  plain 
whether  he  was  ordained  or  not.  Tradition  represents 
him  as  Bishop  of  Colossal  (Const.  Apost.,  VII,  46), 
and  the  Menaia  of  22  November  speak  of  him  as  a 
holy  apostle  who,  in  company  with  Appia,  Archippus, 
and  Onesimus  had  been  martyred  at  Colossa;  during 
the  first  general  persecution  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  In 
the  address  of  the  letter  two  other  Christian  converts, 
Appia  and  Archippus  (Col.,  iv,  17),  are  mentioned;  . 
it  is  generally  believed  that  Appia  was  Philemon's 
wife  and  Archippus  their  son.  St.  Paul,  dealing  ex- 
clusively in  his  letter  with  the  domestic  matter  of  a 
fugitive  slave,  Onesimus,  regarded  them  both  as 
deeply  interested.  Archippus,  according  to  Col.,  iv, 
17,  was  a  minister  in  the  Lord,  and  held  a  sacred  office 
in  the  Church  of  CoIossee  or  in  the  neighbouring 
Church  of  Laodica;a. 

Philemon,  Epistle  to. — A.  Ardhenticily . — Ex- 
ternal testimony  to  the  Pauline  authorship  is  consider- 
able and  evident,  although  the  brevity  and  private 
character  of  the  Epistle  did  not  favour  its  use  and 
public  recognition.  The  heretic  Marcion  accepted  it 
in  his"Apostolicon"  (TertuUian,  "Adv.  Marcion",  V, 
xx-i);  Origen  quotes  it  expressly  as  Pauline  ("Horn.", 
XIX;  "In  Jerem.",  II,  1;  "Comment,  in  Matt.", 
Tract.  33,  34);  and  it  is  named  in  the  Muratorian 
Fragment  as  well  as  container!  in  the  Syriac  and  old 
Latin  Versions.  Eusebius  includes  Philemon  among 
the  homologoumena,  or  books  universally  undisputed 
and  received  as  sacred.  St.  Chrysostom  and  St.  Jerome, 
in  the  prefaces  to  their  commentaries  on  the  Epistle, 
defend  it  again.st  some  objections  which  have  nei- 
ther historical  nor  critical  value.  The  vocabulary 
(ivlyvutnt,  rrapixXjio-is  rdx"),  the  phraseology,  and  the 


PHILEMON 


798 


PHILEMON 


style  are  unmistakably  and  thoroughly  Pauline,  and 
the  wholo  Epistlf  claims  to  have  been  written  bySt. 
Paul.  It  has  been  objected,  however,  that  it  contains 
some  words  nowhere  else  used  by  St.  Paul  (tira- 
T^/airfii',  aTToTipfi",  ixpi^cros,  iiriTiiraeiP,  JfWo,  dvlvaffSat, 
wpoaoipdXtii').  But  every  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  con- 
tains a  number  of  fiiraf  'Keyhfi.iva  employed  nowhere 
else,  and  the  vocabulary  of  all  authors  changes  more 
or  less  with  time,  place,  and  especially  subject-matter. 
Are  we  not  allowed  to  exiicct  the  same  from  St.  Paul, 
an  author  of  exceptional  spiritual  vitality  and  mental 
vigour?  Renan  voiced  the  common  opinion  of  the 
critics  when  he  wrote:  "St.  Paul  alone,  it  would  seem, 
could  have  written  this  little  masterpiece"  (St.  Paul, 
p.  xi). 

B.  Dale  and  -place  of  writing. — It  is  one  of  the  four 
Captivity  Epistles  composed  by  St.  Paul  during  his 
first  imprisonment  in  Rome  (see  Colossi ans;  Ephe- 
si.\Ns;  Philippi.vns,  Epistles  TO  the;  Philem.,9,  23). 
Colossians,  Ephesians,  and  Philippians  are  closely 
connected,  so  that  the  general  opinion  is  that  they 
were  written  and  despatched  at  the  same  time,  be- 
tween \.  D.  61-63.  Some  scholars  assign  the  com- 
position to  Cresarea  (Acts,  xxiii-xxvi,  a.  d.  59-60), 
but  both  tradition  and  internal  evidence  are  in  favour 
of  Rome. 

C.  Occasion  and  purpose. — Onesimus,  most  likely 
only  one  of  many  slaves  of  Philemon,  fled  away  and, 
apparently  before  his  flight,  defrauded  his  master,  and 
ran  away  to  Rome,  finding  his  way  to  the  hired  lodg- 
ing where  Paul  was  suffered  to  dwell  by  himself  and 
to  receive  all  that  came  to  him  (Acts,  xxviii,  16,  30). 
It  is  very  possible  he  may  have  seen  Paul,  when  he 
accompanied  his  master  to  Ephesus.  Onesinuis  be- 
came the  spiritual  son  of  St.  Paul  (verses  9,  10),  who 
would  have  retained  him  with  himself,  that  in  the 
new  and  higher  sphere  of  Christian  service  he  should 
render  the  service  which  his  master  could  not  per- 
sonally perform.  But  Philemon  had  a  prior  claim; 
Onesimus,  as  a  Christian,  was  obliged  to  make  restitu- 
tion. According  to  the  law,  the  master  of  a  runaway 
slave  might  treat  him  exactly  as  he  pleased.  When 
retaken,  the  slave  Wiis  usually  branded  on  the  fore- 
head, maimed,  or  forced  to  fight  with  wild  beasts. 
Paul  asks  [lardon  for  the  offender,  and  with  a  rare 
tact  and  \it  most  delicacy  requests  his  master  to  receive 
him  kindly  as  him.self.  He  does  not  ask  expressly  that 
Philemon  should  emaiu^ii)ate  his  slave-brother,  but 
"(he  word  emancipation  seems  to  be  trembling  on 
his  lips,  an<l  yet  lie  does  not  once  utter  it"  (Lightfoot, 
"Colo.ssiansand  Philemon",  London,  1.S92,  3S9).  We 
do  not  know  the  result  of  St.  Paul's  request,  but  that 
it  was  granted  seems  to  be  implied  in  subsequent 
ecclesiastical  tradition,  which  represents  Onesimus  as 
Bishop  of  Bersa  (Constit.  Apost.,  VII,  46). 

D.  Argument. — This  short  letter,  written  to  an 
individual  friend,  has  the  same  divisions  as  the  longer 
letters:  (a)  the  introduction  (verses  1-7);  (b)  the 
body  of  the  Epistle  or  the  request  (verses  8-22);  (c) 
the  epilogue  (verses  23-25).  (a)  The  introduction 
contains  (1)  the  salutation  or  address:  Paul,  "pris- 
oner of  Christ  Jesus,  and  Timothy"  greet  Philemon 
(verse  1),  Appia,  Archippus,  and  the  Church  in  their 
house  (verse  2),  wishing  them  grace  and  peace  from 
God  our  Father  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (verse  3); 
(2)  the  thanksgiving  for  Philemon's  faith  and  love 
(verses  4-6),  which  gives  great  joy  and  con.solation 
to  the  .\po.stle  (verse  7).  (b)  The  request  and  appeal 
on  behalf  of  the  slave  Onesimus.  Though  he  could 
enjoin  Philemon  to  do  with  Onesimus  that  which  is 
convenient  (verse  8),  for  Christian  love's  sake,  Paul 
"an  aged  man  and  now  also  a  prisoner  of  Jesus  Christ" 
(verse  0)  beseeches  him  for  his  son  Onesimus  whom  he 
had  begotten  in  his  bonds  (verse  10).  Once  he  was 
not  what  his  name  implies  (helpful);  now,  however, 
he  is  profitable  to  both  (verse  11).  Paul  sends  him 
again  and  asks  Philemon  to  receive  him  as  his  own 


heart  (verse  12).  He  was  desirous  of  retaining 
Onesimus  with  himself  that  he  might  minister  to  him 
in  his  im)irisoiuiient,  as  Philemon  himself  would 
gladly  have  tlone  (verse  13),  but  he  was  unwilling  to 
do  anything  without  Philenum's  decision,  desiring 
that  his  kindness  should  not  be  as  it  were  "of  necessity 
but  voluntary"  (verse  14).  Perhaps,  in  the  purpose 
of  Providence,  he  was  separated  from  thee  for  a  time 
that  thou  mightest  have  him  for  ever  (verse  15),  no 
longer  as  a  slave  but  more  than  a  slave,  as  a  better 
servant  and  a  beloved  Christian  brother  (verse  16). 
If,  therefore,  thou  regardcst  me  as  a  partner  in  faith, 
receive  him  as  myself  (verse  17).  If  he  has  wronged 
thee  in  any  way,  or  is  in  thy  debt,  place  that  to  my 
account  (verse  IS).  I  have  signed  this  promise  of 
repayment  with  my  own  hand,  not  to  say  to  thee  that 
besides  (thy  remitting  the  debt)  thou  owest  me  thine 
own  self  (verse  19).  Yea,  brother,  let  me  have  profit 
from  thee  (<rov  dfalpntv)  in  the  Lord,  refresh  my  heart 
in  the  Lord  (verse  20).  Having  confidence  in  thine 
obedience,  I  have  written  to  thee,  knowing  that  thou 
wilt  do  more  than  I  say  (verse  21).  But  at  the  same 
time,  receive  me  also  and  prepare  a  lodging  for  me: 
for  I  hope  that  through  your  prayers  I  shall  be  given 
to  you  (verse  22).  (c)  The  epilogue  contains  (1)  salu- 
tations from  all  persons  named  in  Col.,  iv,  10-14 
(verses  23-24),  and  (2)  a  final  benediction  (verse  25). 
'Phis  short,  tender,  graceful,  and  kindly  Epistle  has 
often  been  compared  to  a  beautiful  letter  of  the 
younger  Pliny  (Ep.  IX,  21)  asking  his  friend  Sabinian 
to  forgive  an  offending  freedman.  As  Lightfoot 
(Colo.s.sians  and  Philemon,  383  sq.)  says:  "If  purity 
of  diction  be  excepted,  there  will  hardly  be  any  differ- 
ence of  opinion  in  awarding  the  palm  to  the  Christian 
apostle". 

E.  Atlitiule  of  St.  Paul  towards  slavery. — Slavery 
was  universal  in  all  ancient  nations  and  the  very 
economic  basis  of  the  old  civilization.  Slaves  were 
employed  not  only  in  all  the  forms  of  manual  and 
industrial  labour,  but  also  in  manj'  functions  which 
required  artistic  skill,  intelligence,  and  culture;  such 
was  especially  the  case  in  both  the  Greek  and  the 
Roman  society.  Their  number  was  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  free  citizens.  In  the  Greek  civiliza- 
tion the  slave  was  in  belter  conditions  than  in  the 
Roman;  but  even  according  to  (Ireek  law  and  usage, 
the  slave  was  in  a  complete  subjection  to  the  will  of 
his  mast  er,  iiossessing  no  right  s,  even  that  of  marriage. 
(See  Widlon,  "  Hist,  ile  I'l'^sclavage  dans  I'Antiquit^", 
Paris,  1.S45,  1879;  Si-avery.)  St.  Paul,  as  a  Jew, 
had  little  of  pagan  conception  of  slavery;  the  Bible 
and  the  Jewish  civilization  led  him  already  into  a 
happier  and  more  humane  world.  The  Bible  miti- 
gated .slavery  and  enacted  a  humanitarian  legislation 
resijecting  the  manumission  of  slaves;  but  the  Chris- 
tian conscience  of  the  Apostle  alone  explains  his  atti- 
tude towards  Onesimus  and  slavery.  On  the  one  hand, 
St.  Paul  accepted  slavery  as  an  established  fact,  a 
deeply-rooted  social  institution  which  he  did  not 
attempt  to  abolish  all  at  once  and  suddenly;  more- 
over, if  the  Christian  religion  should  have  attempted 
violently  to  destroy  p.agan  slavery,  the  assault  would 
have  exposed  the  Roman  empire  to  a  servile  insurrec- 
tion, the  Church  to  the  host  ility  of  the  imperial  power, 
and  the  slaves  to  awful  reprisals.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  St.  Paul  does  not  denounce  the  abstract  and  in- 
herent wrong  of  com|)!ete  slavery  (if  that  question 
presented  itself  to  his  mind,  he  did  not  express  it),  he 
knew  and  appreciated  its  actual  abuses  and  evil  pos- 
sibilities and  he  .-uldressed  himself  to  the  regulations 
and  the  betterment  of  existing  conditions.  He  incul- 
cated forbearance  to  slaves  as  well  as  obedience  to 
masters  (Eph.,  vi,  5-9;  Col.,  iii,  22;  iv,  1;  Philem., 
8-12,  15,  17;  I  Tim.,  vi,  1;  Tit.,  ii,  9).  He  taught 
that  the  Christian  slave  is  the  Lord's  freedman  (I 
Cor.,  vii,  22),  and  vigorously  proclaimed  the  complete 
spiritual  equality  of  slave  and  freeman,  the  universal, 


PHILIBERT 


799 


PHILIP 


fatherly  love  of  God,  and  the  Christian  brotherhood  sketch  of  Philip  as  a  naive,  somewhat  shy,  sober- 

of  men:   "For  you  are  all  the  children  of  God  by  faith  minded  man.    No  additional  characteristics  are  given 

in  Christ  Jesus.    Forasmany  of  youashavebeen  bap-  in  the  Gospels  or  the  Acts,  although  he  is  mentioned 

tized  in  Christ,  have  put  on  Christ.    There  is  neither  in  the  latter  work  (i,  13)  as  belonging  to  the  Apostolic 

Jew  nor  Greek,  there  is  neither  bond  nor  free:  there  is  College. 


neither  male  nor  female.  For  vou  are  all  one  in  Christ 
Jesus"  (Gal.,  iii,  26-28;  cf.  Col.,  iii,  10-11).  These 
fundamental  Cliristian  principles  were  the  leaven 
which   slowly  and   steadily  spread   throughout   the 


The  second-century  tradition  concerning  him  is  un- 
certain, inasmuch  as  a  similar  tradition  is  recorded 
concerning  Philip  the  Deacon  and  Evangelist — a 
phenomenon  which  must  be  the  result  of  confusion 


whole  empire.    They  curtailed  the  abuses  of  slavery  caused  by  the  existence  of  the  two  Philips.     In  his 

;ind  finally  destroyed  it  (Vincent,  "Philippians  and  letter  to  St.  Victor,  written  about   189-98,  Bishop 

Philemon",  Cambridge,  1902,  167).  Polycrates  of  Ephesus  mentions  among  the  "great 

orks  rpferrert  to,  consuR  Intro.luctions^to  the  lights",  whom  the  Lord  will  Seek  On  the  "last  day", 

.„         ,„„„„„  ..,  .1.  "Philip,  one  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  who  is  buried  in 


iVlQOuROux.  Diet,  tie 

(i  /;,'''.,  s.  ■,  V.  /-■' I '..■       ■   /" £p!(re  d;  Van  Steekkiste, 

(,,,,.,,    /I,    r    I  ■•    r    -/i,  XI  (Bruges,  189G);  Allard, 

y.,,s' ,,/,,(..  ./,/i/ 1. /,..  r.iH-,  r"i>i  I ;  Prat,  La  Theologie  de  S.  Paul 
(Paiia,  litubt.  ^.b-i  ^Lj.;  Nu.s-L  atholic:  Oltramare,  Commen- 
taire  sur  les  EpUres  de  S.  Paul  aux  Colossiens,  aux  Ephlsienseli 
Philemon  (Paris,  1891);  ton  Soden,  Die  Briefe  an  die  Kolosser, 
Epkeser,  Philemonin  Hand-Commentar  zum  N.  T-.ed.  Holtzmann 
(Freiburg.  1893):  Shaw,  The  Pauline  Epislles  (Edinburgh, 
1904);  WouLE,  The  Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  to  Philemon 
(Cambridge,  1902). 

A.  Camerlynck. 
Philibert,  Saint.    See  Jumieges,  Abbey  of. 

Philip,  S.\iNT,  Apostle. — Like  the  brothers,  Peter 
and  Andrew,  Philip  was  a  native  of  Bethsaida  on 
Lake  Genesareth  (John,  i,  44).     He  also  was  among 


Hieropolis  with  his  two  daughters,  who  grew  old  as 
virgins",  and  a  third  daughter,  who  "led  a  life  in  the 
Holy  Ghost  and  rests  in  Ephesus."  On  the  other 
hand,  according  to  the  Dialogue  of  Caius,  directed 
against  a  Montanist  named  Proclus,  the  latter  de- 
clared that  "there  were  four  prophetesses, the  daugh- 
ters of  Philip,  at  Hieropolis  in  Asia,  where  their  and 
their  father's  grave  is  still  situated."  The  Acts  (xxi, 
8-9)  does  intleed  mention  four  prophetesses,  the 
daughters  of  the  deacon  and  "Evangelist"  Philip,  as 
then  living  in  Ciesarea  with  their  father,  and  Eusebius, 
who  gives  the  above-mentioned  excerpts  (Hist,  eecl., 
_  III,  xxxii),  refers  Proclus'  statement  to  these  latter, 
those  surrounding  the  Baptist  when  the  latter  first  The  statement  of  BLshop  Polycrates  carries  in  itself 
pointed  out  Jesus  as  the  Lamb  of  God.  On  the  day  more  authority,  but  it  is  extraordinary  that  three 
after  Peter's  call,  when  about  to  set  out  for  Galilee,  virgin  daughters  of  the  Apostle  Philip  (two  buried  in 
Jesus  met  Philip  and  called  him  to  the  Apostolate  with  Hieropolis)  should  be  mentioned,  and  that  the  deacon 
the  words,  "Follow  me".  Philip  obeyetl  the  call,  and  Philip  should  also  have  four  daughters,  said  to  have 
alit  tie  later  brought  Nathaniel  as  a  new  disciple  (John,  been  buried  in  Hieropolis.  Here  also  perhaps  we  must 
i,  43-45).  On  the  occasion  of  the  selection  and  sending  suppose  a  confusion  of  the  two  Philips  to  have  taken 
out  of  the  twelve,  Philip  is  included  among  the  Apos-  place,  although  it  is  difficult  to  decide  which  of  the 
ties  proper.  His  name  stands  in  the  fifth  place  in  the  two,  the  Apostle  or  the  deacon,  was  buried  in  Hiero- 
three  lists  (Matt.,  X,  2-4;  Mark,  iii,  14-19;  Luke,  vi,  polls.  Many  modern  historians  believe  that  it  was  the 
13-16)  after  the  two  pairs  of  brothers,  Peter  and  deacon;  it  is,  however,  possible  that  the  Apostle  was 
Andrew,  James  and  John.  The  Fourth  Gospel  records  buried  there  and  that  the  deacon  also  lived  and  worked 
three  episodes  concerning  Philip  which  occurred  dur-  there  and  was  there  buried  with  three  of  his  daughters, 
ing  the  epoch  of  the  public  teaching  of  the  Saviour:  and  that  the  latter  were  afterwards  erroneously  re- 
(1)  Before  the  miraculous  feeding  of  the  multitude,  garded  as  the  children  of  the  Apostle.  The  apocryphal 
Christ  turns  towards  Philip  with  the  question:  "ActsofPhihp,"  which  are,  however,  purely  legendary 
"Whence  shall  we  buy  bread,  that  these  may  eat?"  and  a  tissue  of  fables,  also  refer  Philip's  death  to  Hie- 
to  which  the  Apostle  answers:  "Two  hundred  penny-  ropolis.  The  remains  of  the  PhiUp  who  was  interred  in 
worth  of  bread  is  not  sufficient  for  them,  that  every  Hieropolis  were  later  translated  (as  those  of  the  Apos- 
one  may  take  a  little"  (vi,  5-7).  (2)  When  some  tie)  to  Constantinople  and  thence  to  the  church  of  the 
heathens  in  Jerusalem  came  to  Philip  and  exiiressed  Dodici  Apostoli  in  Rome.  The  feast  of  the  Apostle  is 
their  desire  to  see  Jesus,  Philip  reported  the  fact  to  celebrated  in  the  Roman  Church  on  1  May  (together 
Andrew  and  then  both  brought  the  news  to  the  with  that  of  James  the  Younger),  and  in  the  Greek 
Saviour  (xii,  21-23).     (3)  When  Philip,  after  Christ     Church  on  14  November. 

.4rta  .S.S.,  May.  I,  11-2;  BATiFFOj^in  Analecta  Bollandiana,  IX 
(1890).  204  sqq.';  Lipsirs,  Die  apokryphen  Aposlelgesrhichten  und 
Apostellegenden,  II,  II  (Brunswioli,  1884).  1  sqq.:  Bibl.  hagiogr. 
latina,  II,  991;  on  the  two  Philips  of.  Zahn  in  Forsehtingen  2ur 
Cesch.  des  neutestamentl.  Kanons.  VI  (firiangen,  1900).  1,58  sqq. 
J.    P.    KiRSCH. 


had  spoken  to  His  Apostles  of  knowing  and  seeing 
the  Father,  said  to  Him:  "Lord,  shew  us  the  Father, 
and  it  is  enough  for  us",  he  received  the  answer: 
"He  that  seeth  me,  seeth  the  Father  also"  (xiv,  8-9). 
These  three  episodes  furnish  a  consistent  character- 


Ill 


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